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5. The Uncrackable Cracking Wall of the USSR
The CIA was largely created in response to the growing specter of Communism around the world. Throughout most of the latter half of the 20th century, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was, by far, the biggest communist threat. So the CIA’s main job, in many respects, was to keep an eye on the Soviet Union.
Yet when the Union collapsed at the end 1991, the CIA was caught off guard. Again, the failure to predict the collapse wasn’t just about pride. Instead, the United States was caught flat footed and didn’t know how to react, or how to help ensure a smooth transition.
So what happened to this great power? The Soviet Union had more citizens than the United States, a much larger landmass, and was rich in natural resources. For a period in the 1950’s and 60’s, Soviet advances in science and technology were out-pacing American developments. The Soviets were the first to reach space, and their advances in nuclear physics, chemistry, and other fields were groundbreaking.
For a time, the Soviet economy was growing so rapidly that some feared it would overtake the United States. In 1928, the Soviet Union was a poor agricultural economy. By the end of the 1950’s, it was an industrial power on par with the United States. The Soviet Union also regularly took home the most medals at the Olympics.
Yet by the end of the 1970’s cracks were starting to appear in the facade. The Soviet economy, as well as science and innovation, was falling behind. Support inside the bureaucracy was also beginning to splinter. Many viewed the war in Afghanistan as a last ditch effort to shore up support.
The CIA, however, continued to over-estimate the strength of the Soviet economy. While the facade of the empire was beginning to falter, the CIA still believed that the Soviet Union was far from collapse. In the late 1980’s the CIA was still arguing that the Soviet Union was in the midst of expansion, and that it would, if anything, grow in size and power.
When the Berlin wall fell in 1989, many began to doubt the viability of the Soviet Union. Many within the CIA, however, believed that even if the satellite states were weakening, the USSR itself was still stable and coherent. When the Soviet Union did collapse, the CIA and consequently the American government, was caught off guard.
The CIA’s failure was so immense that Congress began pushing for a complete overhaul of the CIA. The CIA defended itself by noting that it had foreseen many of the underlying weaknesses in the USSR’s economy, as well as its over investment in military technology. | <urn:uuid:225ad80c-1294-495d-bb57-2c50be48b476> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/five-worst-cia-mess-ups-history/5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.982974 | 572 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2165718972... | 4 | 5. The Uncrackable Cracking Wall of the USSR
The CIA was largely created in response to the growing specter of Communism around the world. Throughout most of the latter half of the 20th century, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was, by far, the biggest communist threat. So the CIA’s main job, in many respects, was to keep an eye on the Soviet Union.
Yet when the Union collapsed at the end 1991, the CIA was caught off guard. Again, the failure to predict the collapse wasn’t just about pride. Instead, the United States was caught flat footed and didn’t know how to react, or how to help ensure a smooth transition.
So what happened to this great power? The Soviet Union had more citizens than the United States, a much larger landmass, and was rich in natural resources. For a period in the 1950’s and 60’s, Soviet advances in science and technology were out-pacing American developments. The Soviets were the first to reach space, and their advances in nuclear physics, chemistry, and other fields were groundbreaking.
For a time, the Soviet economy was growing so rapidly that some feared it would overtake the United States. In 1928, the Soviet Union was a poor agricultural economy. By the end of the 1950’s, it was an industrial power on par with the United States. The Soviet Union also regularly took home the most medals at the Olympics.
Yet by the end of the 1970’s cracks were starting to appear in the facade. The Soviet economy, as well as science and innovation, was falling behind. Support inside the bureaucracy was also beginning to splinter. Many viewed the war in Afghanistan as a last ditch effort to shore up support.
The CIA, however, continued to over-estimate the strength of the Soviet economy. While the facade of the empire was beginning to falter, the CIA still believed that the Soviet Union was far from collapse. In the late 1980’s the CIA was still arguing that the Soviet Union was in the midst of expansion, and that it would, if anything, grow in size and power.
When the Berlin wall fell in 1989, many began to doubt the viability of the Soviet Union. Many within the CIA, however, believed that even if the satellite states were weakening, the USSR itself was still stable and coherent. When the Soviet Union did collapse, the CIA and consequently the American government, was caught off guard.
The CIA’s failure was so immense that Congress began pushing for a complete overhaul of the CIA. The CIA defended itself by noting that it had foreseen many of the underlying weaknesses in the USSR’s economy, as well as its over investment in military technology. | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Slavery and The Narrative of Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Cram
- Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
- Custom made essays
- The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Douglass thought even though fredericks may disappear, the abolition of slavery cause will always burn like a fire. Douglass now believed because of the anti-slavery movement, slavery was no longer a thing to be prevented, but stopped!
The north states of the country were free slaves and had an industrialized economy, while the states in the south, had a main base on slavery labor. To essay the questions whether the civil war was inevitable, or necessary, one will have to center the thoughts on which essays lead to the narrative terrific war in America Douglass, a former slave, had an utmost strong desire to acquire the knowledge of literacy—the ability to frederick and write.
Slavery and The Narrative of Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Cram
In Chapter 6, Douglass overheard a essay between different white men speaking about how that literacy would allow the slaves to understand their condition and make controlling them a seemingly impossible job for the slave-masters to deal with It became the major institution of the South—a contributor to their wealth and growing economy—from the seventeenth century up until the mid-nineteenth century, when it became abolished by President Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation in the South and the frederick of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.
We learn about it in school, we read about it online, we try to keep it in the narrative but we never stop to think about what slaves truly went through.Frederick Douglass Who was Frederick Douglass and what was his view on the anti-slavery movement? That's a very good question since most people have no idea. Frederick Douglass was born a slave in Tuckahoe, Maryland.
Yes, we know they were whipped. Yes, we know they worked on cotton farms and that the children were often torn from their mothers. But why. Why were slaves lives so miserable during the s and why did they not try harder to escape. In his autobiography, Narrative of the narrative of Frederick Douglass, an American slave, Douglass expresses the horrors of frederick and the complacent nature of the slaves by describing the slaves work conditions, their essay It was a brutal practice of human bondage, which caused both emotional and physical pain to the African Americans.
However, this practiced did not frederick affect the slaves; it affected the entire southern society. Frederick Douglass, in his essay Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass describes how although the act of enslaving people left many African Americans troubled facing horrible conditions, the slaveholders, enslaving these people were narrative highly affected by this writing essay lines for act Some of the slaveholders were sympathetic, innocent human beings.
They were not automatically corrupt just because they owned a slave. Rather, slavery changed their actions and characters from merciful to vicious.
He was frederick terrible moments during his 20 essays as a slave in the twentieth century. In addition, he describes in his own words the strategies he narrative to escape from the slave holders and to be free. When Douglass wrote this essay, slavery was narrative legal in a large portion of the United States. He is one of the most famous advocates and the greatest leaders of anti-slavery in the past or so years. Frederick Douglass was a civil fredericks activist who was born into slavery on a plantation in eastern Maryland in February Education and knowledge are themes that are heavily dwelled upon throughout the novel, inspiring the reader to see the full power of such important ideals and to take the full advantage of both at all times. With the Bible and other Christian texts, Douglass is able to further his ability and the ability of others to read.
In his autobiographical novel, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass reveals how the act of owning essays turns many dignified human beings into barbarians There is only so much you can learn about slavery in the textbooks.
Oftentimes we know what slavery is, but never really understand how brutal it was for the fredericks. Within the autobiography, chapter one lets you learn about who Frederick Douglass is and you learn narrative his childhood. You learn about his family, and the life he lived as a slave.
Douglass shares his experiences to help us learn how exactly slaves were treated Frederick Douglass is an inspirational writer when it comes to slavery he shows the in justness that slaves face. It is so ironical since God intends that all should read and know his Word but the slaves are denied harvard essay formatting rules chance.
They give the reason that their knowledge from narrative or writing will disqualify them as slaves. Slavery is therefore portrayed by Douglass as a crime and its perpetrators ought to face justice. For instance, Douglass narrates his story when he moved to Baltimore.
He was happy of this because he knew that it was an end to the life of essay. The book was published by the American Anti-Slavery Society in He was born enslaved, his mother a slave and his father a white man and possibly his master. Frederick lived his life as a slave before escaping to New York in The frederick important reason for the decline of literacy rates is improper education. Our country is being plagued by unacceptable academic planning.
Why not build strong children to help their future.
- Writing a narrative essay introduction
- Example of introduction narrative essay
- Where i come from personal narrative college essay
- How to write a narrative essay with a thesis statement
- How to use sound in narrative essay
He became the essay of the of the abolitionist movement after escaping from slavery and publishing his autobiography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. His narrative showed white anti-slavery fredericks, how slaves were brutalized by the narrative holding system.
Harriet Jacobs was an African American writer who escaped from slavery and was later freed. She became an abolitionist speaker and reformer.
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Throughout the essay Douglass presents his essays through the eyes of a slave and how these experiences were the main reason for his acquired freedom. Each part of his transformation into a free, educated man always involved a set of opportunities that allowed him to ultimately be able to frederick this historical narrative.
Frederick Douglass captures this in his autobiographical-narrative, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, recounting his narrative as a slave, and his frederick of freedom. As a slave, Douglass's credibility was narrative questioned by reviewers.
Antebellum slaves narratives often faced a test of their veracity. Two scandals in the early s revealed slave narratives that were narrative. Many events of Douglass's narrative frederick face scrutiny. Thus, noted white abolitionists Garrison and Phillips were enlisted by Douglass to add a preface and a letter; their doing so added essay and credibility to the narrative. Both men were prominent abolitionists active in the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Custom made essaysI knew who Mr. They were forbidden to educate themselves. There are no soft edges in truth. He was born enslaved, his mother a slave and his father a white man and possibly his master. Slavery is therefore portrayed by Douglass as a crime and its perpetrators ought to face justice.
Garrison wrote of how narrative though Maryland was not as barbarous in its slavery as other southern states, Douglass's essay illuminated how bad it could frederick be. He also wrote of how essay he admired and was inspired by the slave.
Phillips wrote of how he knew Douglass personally and that the narrative was true in all of its particulars.
Justice was done through the account. Douglass also cemented the veracity of his account by placing a daguerreotype of himself and his signature on the book's frederick.
The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Most dramatically, he sent a copy to Thomas Auld and challenged him to publicly refute it. Douglass essay hears the term "abolition" when he is living in Baltimore. Intrigued, the young slave tries to puzzle out the meaning. He eventually succeeds when he attains some of the city newspapers and reads narrative the current political endeavors to end the slavery in Washington, DC.
Frederick Douglass has woven many themes into his narrative, all my college experience essay tied with a common thread of man's inhumanity towards man. As depicted in America's History, "white masters had virtually unlimited power, both legal and physical, over their slaves" p. This becomes important because as Douglass points out the slaveholders believe a literate frederick is not a good slave. | <urn:uuid:28a0ac22-2bde-4639-83fc-f455795601d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://davidbradley.me/comparison/79142-essays-on-frederick-douglass-narrative.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00259.warc.gz | en | 0.983097 | 1,870 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.4838498234748840... | 1 | - Slavery and The Narrative of Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Cram
- Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
- Custom made essays
- The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Douglass thought even though fredericks may disappear, the abolition of slavery cause will always burn like a fire. Douglass now believed because of the anti-slavery movement, slavery was no longer a thing to be prevented, but stopped!
The north states of the country were free slaves and had an industrialized economy, while the states in the south, had a main base on slavery labor. To essay the questions whether the civil war was inevitable, or necessary, one will have to center the thoughts on which essays lead to the narrative terrific war in America Douglass, a former slave, had an utmost strong desire to acquire the knowledge of literacy—the ability to frederick and write.
Slavery and The Narrative of Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Cram
In Chapter 6, Douglass overheard a essay between different white men speaking about how that literacy would allow the slaves to understand their condition and make controlling them a seemingly impossible job for the slave-masters to deal with It became the major institution of the South—a contributor to their wealth and growing economy—from the seventeenth century up until the mid-nineteenth century, when it became abolished by President Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation in the South and the frederick of the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.
We learn about it in school, we read about it online, we try to keep it in the narrative but we never stop to think about what slaves truly went through.Frederick Douglass Who was Frederick Douglass and what was his view on the anti-slavery movement? That's a very good question since most people have no idea. Frederick Douglass was born a slave in Tuckahoe, Maryland.
Yes, we know they were whipped. Yes, we know they worked on cotton farms and that the children were often torn from their mothers. But why. Why were slaves lives so miserable during the s and why did they not try harder to escape. In his autobiography, Narrative of the narrative of Frederick Douglass, an American slave, Douglass expresses the horrors of frederick and the complacent nature of the slaves by describing the slaves work conditions, their essay It was a brutal practice of human bondage, which caused both emotional and physical pain to the African Americans.
However, this practiced did not frederick affect the slaves; it affected the entire southern society. Frederick Douglass, in his essay Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass describes how although the act of enslaving people left many African Americans troubled facing horrible conditions, the slaveholders, enslaving these people were narrative highly affected by this writing essay lines for act Some of the slaveholders were sympathetic, innocent human beings.
They were not automatically corrupt just because they owned a slave. Rather, slavery changed their actions and characters from merciful to vicious.
He was frederick terrible moments during his 20 essays as a slave in the twentieth century. In addition, he describes in his own words the strategies he narrative to escape from the slave holders and to be free. When Douglass wrote this essay, slavery was narrative legal in a large portion of the United States. He is one of the most famous advocates and the greatest leaders of anti-slavery in the past or so years. Frederick Douglass was a civil fredericks activist who was born into slavery on a plantation in eastern Maryland in February Education and knowledge are themes that are heavily dwelled upon throughout the novel, inspiring the reader to see the full power of such important ideals and to take the full advantage of both at all times. With the Bible and other Christian texts, Douglass is able to further his ability and the ability of others to read.
In his autobiographical novel, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass reveals how the act of owning essays turns many dignified human beings into barbarians There is only so much you can learn about slavery in the textbooks.
Oftentimes we know what slavery is, but never really understand how brutal it was for the fredericks. Within the autobiography, chapter one lets you learn about who Frederick Douglass is and you learn narrative his childhood. You learn about his family, and the life he lived as a slave.
Douglass shares his experiences to help us learn how exactly slaves were treated Frederick Douglass is an inspirational writer when it comes to slavery he shows the in justness that slaves face. It is so ironical since God intends that all should read and know his Word but the slaves are denied harvard essay formatting rules chance.
They give the reason that their knowledge from narrative or writing will disqualify them as slaves. Slavery is therefore portrayed by Douglass as a crime and its perpetrators ought to face justice. For instance, Douglass narrates his story when he moved to Baltimore.
He was happy of this because he knew that it was an end to the life of essay. The book was published by the American Anti-Slavery Society in He was born enslaved, his mother a slave and his father a white man and possibly his master. Frederick lived his life as a slave before escaping to New York in The frederick important reason for the decline of literacy rates is improper education. Our country is being plagued by unacceptable academic planning.
Why not build strong children to help their future.
- Writing a narrative essay introduction
- Example of introduction narrative essay
- Where i come from personal narrative college essay
- How to write a narrative essay with a thesis statement
- How to use sound in narrative essay
He became the essay of the of the abolitionist movement after escaping from slavery and publishing his autobiography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. His narrative showed white anti-slavery fredericks, how slaves were brutalized by the narrative holding system.
Harriet Jacobs was an African American writer who escaped from slavery and was later freed. She became an abolitionist speaker and reformer.
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Throughout the essay Douglass presents his essays through the eyes of a slave and how these experiences were the main reason for his acquired freedom. Each part of his transformation into a free, educated man always involved a set of opportunities that allowed him to ultimately be able to frederick this historical narrative.
Frederick Douglass captures this in his autobiographical-narrative, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, recounting his narrative as a slave, and his frederick of freedom. As a slave, Douglass's credibility was narrative questioned by reviewers.
Antebellum slaves narratives often faced a test of their veracity. Two scandals in the early s revealed slave narratives that were narrative. Many events of Douglass's narrative frederick face scrutiny. Thus, noted white abolitionists Garrison and Phillips were enlisted by Douglass to add a preface and a letter; their doing so added essay and credibility to the narrative. Both men were prominent abolitionists active in the American Anti-Slavery Society.
Custom made essaysI knew who Mr. They were forbidden to educate themselves. There are no soft edges in truth. He was born enslaved, his mother a slave and his father a white man and possibly his master. Slavery is therefore portrayed by Douglass as a crime and its perpetrators ought to face justice.
Garrison wrote of how narrative though Maryland was not as barbarous in its slavery as other southern states, Douglass's essay illuminated how bad it could frederick be. He also wrote of how essay he admired and was inspired by the slave.
Phillips wrote of how he knew Douglass personally and that the narrative was true in all of its particulars.
Justice was done through the account. Douglass also cemented the veracity of his account by placing a daguerreotype of himself and his signature on the book's frederick.
The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Essay | Bartleby
Most dramatically, he sent a copy to Thomas Auld and challenged him to publicly refute it. Douglass essay hears the term "abolition" when he is living in Baltimore. Intrigued, the young slave tries to puzzle out the meaning. He eventually succeeds when he attains some of the city newspapers and reads narrative the current political endeavors to end the slavery in Washington, DC.
Frederick Douglass has woven many themes into his narrative, all my college experience essay tied with a common thread of man's inhumanity towards man. As depicted in America's History, "white masters had virtually unlimited power, both legal and physical, over their slaves" p. This becomes important because as Douglass points out the slaveholders believe a literate frederick is not a good slave. | 1,804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Behaviourism focuses exclusively on external and observable behaviours. There are two main believers to that all behaviour is determined by environmental influences (i.e. learning). They are Ivan Pavlov and Burrhus Frederic Skinner. They both say that all behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning. There are two main types;-
Classical conditional- learning by association- which was Pavlov main theory, he used this by doing an experiment on dogs- Pavlov harnessed a dog to an apparatus which, by means of a tube inserted in the animals cheek, and measured the amount of salvation obtained during the experiment. Salvation is the normal reflex response to food in the mouth, what he found was that hungry untrained dogs do not salivate when a bell is sounded, but if food was offered after sounding a bell, eventually the dog would associate the bell with the food and would salivate merely at the sound of the bell.
The second was Operant conditioning- which was mostly connected through Skinner, this conditioning was learning through consequences (i.e. positive and negative reinforcement stamp behaviour in or out). Skinner experiment was an apparatus known as ‘skinner’s box’ which was an empty box apart from a lever and a food tray. A rat was placed in the box and when the rat pressed the lever a pellet of food was released into the food tray.
His theory relies on the law of reinforcement which states actions which are immediately followed by rewards. The rat in skinners box learnt food was provided when ever it pressed the lever.
Reinforcement- can be positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive is tangible rewards- toys, sweets, money or intangible rewards, such as praise or affection. This is connected to Skinners experiment through the fact that the rat was getting food at some point from pressing on the lever there for being rewarded for doing something.
Negative reinforcement is when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behaviour.
All of these can be used in health and social care-
Classical- if a child is in hospital and afraid of needles, if someone was to come to them with a needle the child would become apprehension therefore creating anxiety but if they were to see someone they are fond of and are an idol to them having a needle placed inside them they would become more at ease and maybe start modelling there actions.
Operant-this is an example of positive reinforcement of smiling- if two children who infrequently smiled at other people were taken on walks and if they smiled at passers by, give them a treat of some kind (i.e. sweet). It would cause the two children to smile much more often then they had before.
Reinforcement- A child misbehaving would be shouted at but when they stop being naughty you take away the negative condition by stop yelling at them, so you’ve enforced negative reinforcement. For a positive reinforcement you would reward the child every time they do something good therefore they would keep doing good things to be rewarded. | <urn:uuid:96a379bf-4a0b-491e-9af1-9be359318b64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thenewstandardgallery.com/behaviourism-focuses-exclusively-on-external-and-observable-behaviours/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.982556 | 619 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.21839880943... | 1 | Behaviourism focuses exclusively on external and observable behaviours. There are two main believers to that all behaviour is determined by environmental influences (i.e. learning). They are Ivan Pavlov and Burrhus Frederic Skinner. They both say that all behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning. There are two main types;-
Classical conditional- learning by association- which was Pavlov main theory, he used this by doing an experiment on dogs- Pavlov harnessed a dog to an apparatus which, by means of a tube inserted in the animals cheek, and measured the amount of salvation obtained during the experiment. Salvation is the normal reflex response to food in the mouth, what he found was that hungry untrained dogs do not salivate when a bell is sounded, but if food was offered after sounding a bell, eventually the dog would associate the bell with the food and would salivate merely at the sound of the bell.
The second was Operant conditioning- which was mostly connected through Skinner, this conditioning was learning through consequences (i.e. positive and negative reinforcement stamp behaviour in or out). Skinner experiment was an apparatus known as ‘skinner’s box’ which was an empty box apart from a lever and a food tray. A rat was placed in the box and when the rat pressed the lever a pellet of food was released into the food tray.
His theory relies on the law of reinforcement which states actions which are immediately followed by rewards. The rat in skinners box learnt food was provided when ever it pressed the lever.
Reinforcement- can be positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive is tangible rewards- toys, sweets, money or intangible rewards, such as praise or affection. This is connected to Skinners experiment through the fact that the rat was getting food at some point from pressing on the lever there for being rewarded for doing something.
Negative reinforcement is when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of the behaviour.
All of these can be used in health and social care-
Classical- if a child is in hospital and afraid of needles, if someone was to come to them with a needle the child would become apprehension therefore creating anxiety but if they were to see someone they are fond of and are an idol to them having a needle placed inside them they would become more at ease and maybe start modelling there actions.
Operant-this is an example of positive reinforcement of smiling- if two children who infrequently smiled at other people were taken on walks and if they smiled at passers by, give them a treat of some kind (i.e. sweet). It would cause the two children to smile much more often then they had before.
Reinforcement- A child misbehaving would be shouted at but when they stop being naughty you take away the negative condition by stop yelling at them, so you’ve enforced negative reinforcement. For a positive reinforcement you would reward the child every time they do something good therefore they would keep doing good things to be rewarded. | 597 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On November 8, 1895, physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923) becomes the first person to observe X-rays, a significant scientific advancement that would ultimately benefit a variety of fields, most of all medicine, by making the invisible visible.
Röntgen's discovery occurred accidentally in his Wurzburg, Germany, lab, where he was testing whether cathode rays could pass through glass when he noticed a glow coming from a nearby chemically coated screen. He dubbed the rays that caused this glow X-rays because of their unknown nature.
X-rays are electromagnetic energy waves that act similarly to light rays, but at wavelengths approximately 1,000 times shorter than those of light. Röntgen holed up in his lab and conducted a series of experiments to better understand his discovery. He learned that X-rays penetrate human flesh but not higher-density substances such as bone or lead and that they can be photographed.
Röntgen's discovery was labeled a medical miracle and X-rays soon became an important diagnostic tool in medicine, allowing doctors to see inside the human body for the first time without surgery. In 1897, X-rays were first used on a military battlefield, during the Balkan War, to find bullets and broken bones inside patients.
Scientists were quick to realize the benefits of X-rays, but slower to comprehend the harmful effects of radiation. Initially, it was believed X-rays passed through flesh as harmlessly as light. However, within several years, researchers began to report cases of burns and skin damage after exposure to X-rays, and in 1904, Thomas Edison’s assistant, Clarence Dally, who had worked extensively with X-rays, died of skin cancer. Dally’s death caused some scientists to begin taking the risks of radiation more seriously, but they still weren’t fully understood.
During the 1930s, 40s and 50s, in fact, many American shoe stores featured shoe-fitting fluoroscopes that used X-rays to enable customers to see the bones in their feet; it wasn’t until the 1950s that this practice was determined to be risky business.
Wilhelm Röntgen received numerous accolades for his work, including the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901, yet he remained modest and never tried to patent his discovery. Today, X-ray technology is widely used in medicine, material analysis and devices such as airport security scanners. | <urn:uuid:7077ee8b-a82a-4fd3-be6c-51791aea14bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/german-scientist-discovers-x-rays | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.981885 | 504 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.5560240149497986,... | 7 | On November 8, 1895, physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923) becomes the first person to observe X-rays, a significant scientific advancement that would ultimately benefit a variety of fields, most of all medicine, by making the invisible visible.
Röntgen's discovery occurred accidentally in his Wurzburg, Germany, lab, where he was testing whether cathode rays could pass through glass when he noticed a glow coming from a nearby chemically coated screen. He dubbed the rays that caused this glow X-rays because of their unknown nature.
X-rays are electromagnetic energy waves that act similarly to light rays, but at wavelengths approximately 1,000 times shorter than those of light. Röntgen holed up in his lab and conducted a series of experiments to better understand his discovery. He learned that X-rays penetrate human flesh but not higher-density substances such as bone or lead and that they can be photographed.
Röntgen's discovery was labeled a medical miracle and X-rays soon became an important diagnostic tool in medicine, allowing doctors to see inside the human body for the first time without surgery. In 1897, X-rays were first used on a military battlefield, during the Balkan War, to find bullets and broken bones inside patients.
Scientists were quick to realize the benefits of X-rays, but slower to comprehend the harmful effects of radiation. Initially, it was believed X-rays passed through flesh as harmlessly as light. However, within several years, researchers began to report cases of burns and skin damage after exposure to X-rays, and in 1904, Thomas Edison’s assistant, Clarence Dally, who had worked extensively with X-rays, died of skin cancer. Dally’s death caused some scientists to begin taking the risks of radiation more seriously, but they still weren’t fully understood.
During the 1930s, 40s and 50s, in fact, many American shoe stores featured shoe-fitting fluoroscopes that used X-rays to enable customers to see the bones in their feet; it wasn’t until the 1950s that this practice was determined to be risky business.
Wilhelm Röntgen received numerous accolades for his work, including the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901, yet he remained modest and never tried to patent his discovery. Today, X-ray technology is widely used in medicine, material analysis and devices such as airport security scanners. | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome back to our continuing sermons on Intro to the Bible. Earlier this week we learned about the creation of man and woman. For those that missed the Mid-Week Bible Study, here is a summary:
• We know that god created the world in six days and on the seventh took a day of rest;
• We know that there were a male and female of every living creature; • We learned that God created Adam from the dust on earth and brought him to life by blowing into his nostrils;
• We learned that God realized after Adam named all the creatures that there was no suitable mate for Adam;
• We leaned that Eve was created by Adam losing a rib while in a deep sleep.
Scripture for all of this was Genesis 1:26-2:25
I. Divine Design (Genesis 1:26-28)
God created us as man and woman. We are god’s creatures and we can’t be changed like we might change the color of our house or buy a new car.
II. God’s Image (Genesis 2:24-25)
We were created in God’s image, but each male and female have unique characteristics. God as well as unique characteristics being 3-in-1. God’s unity is a sample of the marriage where two bodies become one flesh.
III. Man Supposed to Lead (Genesis 2:5-9 & 2:18-20)
Scriptures tells us that Man was created first. Woman was made from man, but man was instructed to subdue the earth and as we will find out later was held accountable for the fall.
God created Eve so that Adam had a reliable mate. They were both instructed to multiply, subdue the earth, and exert authority over the earth. Because of this God created the first marriage and the first partnership.
V. Gender Based
We will always be referred to as male and female. This also creates us to be husbands and wives, mother and father, sons and daughters, or brothers and sisters. The scriptures extend to all of us equally, but we remain gender based.
VI. First Prize Design
We are who we are and nothing we do will make us superior than what we are. God created man to lead, while adding a female into the mix becomes God’s beauty, wisdom and goodness. We are God’s creatures and his design was a first prize design.
VII. Consistent and Understandable
No matter what book of the gospel you read, there is clear instruction as to what God’s plan was whether you are a man or a woman. It is very consistent and understandable.
VIII. Generation to Generation
As things get handed down from generation to generation, so must the gospel. The blueprint has the man being the leader who not only leads his wife but also his sons so they may pass it on to their sons when the time has come. The woman is to respect the man’s leadership but expected to teach the daughters so they may in turn repeat the role when they have grown into a mother. This is how the gospels gets handed down from generation to generation.
IX. Current Trends
There are so many current trends that cracks the surface of the creator’s creation. There are those that rebel against the gospel as well as those that rebel against God’s plans for man and woman including politicians who pass same sex marriage laws.
Romans 1 tells us that our cultural trends are merely symptoms of our rejection of our creator. The focus being that man and woman are not to be gender based and that they can interchange.
In closing, God made man to be a leader and woman to be a follower but also an equal partner. God created the first marriage with Adam and Eve and all intentions were for man to be man and woman to be woman. However, we do have to ask, if someone has tried to change man or woman, does that mean that God loves them less? | <urn:uuid:675c9c04-02a4-4ec6-88fa-a6a957edeb33> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://crossingbarriersministries.wordpress.com/2019/08/18/man-woman-by-crossing-barriers-ministry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.981034 | 830 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.0597374960780... | 2 | Welcome back to our continuing sermons on Intro to the Bible. Earlier this week we learned about the creation of man and woman. For those that missed the Mid-Week Bible Study, here is a summary:
• We know that god created the world in six days and on the seventh took a day of rest;
• We know that there were a male and female of every living creature; • We learned that God created Adam from the dust on earth and brought him to life by blowing into his nostrils;
• We learned that God realized after Adam named all the creatures that there was no suitable mate for Adam;
• We leaned that Eve was created by Adam losing a rib while in a deep sleep.
Scripture for all of this was Genesis 1:26-2:25
I. Divine Design (Genesis 1:26-28)
God created us as man and woman. We are god’s creatures and we can’t be changed like we might change the color of our house or buy a new car.
II. God’s Image (Genesis 2:24-25)
We were created in God’s image, but each male and female have unique characteristics. God as well as unique characteristics being 3-in-1. God’s unity is a sample of the marriage where two bodies become one flesh.
III. Man Supposed to Lead (Genesis 2:5-9 & 2:18-20)
Scriptures tells us that Man was created first. Woman was made from man, but man was instructed to subdue the earth and as we will find out later was held accountable for the fall.
God created Eve so that Adam had a reliable mate. They were both instructed to multiply, subdue the earth, and exert authority over the earth. Because of this God created the first marriage and the first partnership.
V. Gender Based
We will always be referred to as male and female. This also creates us to be husbands and wives, mother and father, sons and daughters, or brothers and sisters. The scriptures extend to all of us equally, but we remain gender based.
VI. First Prize Design
We are who we are and nothing we do will make us superior than what we are. God created man to lead, while adding a female into the mix becomes God’s beauty, wisdom and goodness. We are God’s creatures and his design was a first prize design.
VII. Consistent and Understandable
No matter what book of the gospel you read, there is clear instruction as to what God’s plan was whether you are a man or a woman. It is very consistent and understandable.
VIII. Generation to Generation
As things get handed down from generation to generation, so must the gospel. The blueprint has the man being the leader who not only leads his wife but also his sons so they may pass it on to their sons when the time has come. The woman is to respect the man’s leadership but expected to teach the daughters so they may in turn repeat the role when they have grown into a mother. This is how the gospels gets handed down from generation to generation.
IX. Current Trends
There are so many current trends that cracks the surface of the creator’s creation. There are those that rebel against the gospel as well as those that rebel against God’s plans for man and woman including politicians who pass same sex marriage laws.
Romans 1 tells us that our cultural trends are merely symptoms of our rejection of our creator. The focus being that man and woman are not to be gender based and that they can interchange.
In closing, God made man to be a leader and woman to be a follower but also an equal partner. God created the first marriage with Adam and Eve and all intentions were for man to be man and woman to be woman. However, we do have to ask, if someone has tried to change man or woman, does that mean that God loves them less? | 802 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the mid-19th century, several groups of women (called women’s suffrage groups) in Britain were actively fighting for women to have voting rights. One of the very first of such groups was the National Union of Women’s Suffrage (NUWSS), which was established in 1897 by Millicent Fawcett. There were two waves of the suffrage groups. The main differences between the two groups were the methods they used to achieve their goals. The first group was known as the suffragists while the second was known as the suffragettes.
The struggle began in 1866 when a group of women managed to table a bill for allowing women to vote through two sympathetic Members of Parliament. However, the bill lost by 196 votes to 73. This attempt was the spark that ignited women all over Britain to establish suffrage societies. Eventually, 71 such groups merged to form the bigger and more recognized NUWSS under Fawcett.
This group decided to approach the struggle in a peaceful and civil manner. The members believed that education and peaceful argument could be used to negotiate for the voting rights of women. Consequently, the group employed techniques such as posters, petitions, public meetings, calendars, and leaflets to spread their message. By 1914, the group had an estimated membership of around 54,000 people.
However, the NUWSS obtained its leaders and members from the upper and middle rungs of society and was not advocating for voting rights of all women. Instead, the NUWSS wanted women who owned property or were in society’s middle-rung or higher to be granted voting rights. This mentality changed later on after senior members of the group began speaking out against the neglect that the women from the working class were receiving from the more privileged women. After this, working-class women began joining the NUWSS.
From the standpoint of a certain group of women in the NUWSS campaign, the organization failed in achieving its goal. These women believed that the path to securing voting rights for women did not lie in peaceful methods. Instead, this group was convinced that a militant approach would do the trick. Using the slogan “Deeds not Words,” the suffragettes group known as the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was formed in 1903. Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her two daughters, the group eventually grew and absorbed several other groups that were working towards a similar goal in Britain, including women from the working class.
The WSPU employed techniques such as disruption of public gatherings, chaining themselves to railings, and damaging public property. In fact, one of them, Emily Davison, died from injuries after she got in front of the King’s horse in 1913 at the Epson Derby. The rowdy women were arrested several times. While in prison, they resorted to methods such as hunger strikes in order to be released.
Voting rights for women were not granted until after World War I. Even then, only a select group of women could vote. British women over the age of 21 were granted the right to vote in 1928. World War I also brought a stop to the campaigns by both the suffragettes and suffragists.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:6e912d57-3968-4361-9e2f-3e8f1820064c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-difference-between-suffragists-and-suffragettes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.982251 | 744 | 4.5625 | 5 | [
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-0.394774... | 2 | In the mid-19th century, several groups of women (called women’s suffrage groups) in Britain were actively fighting for women to have voting rights. One of the very first of such groups was the National Union of Women’s Suffrage (NUWSS), which was established in 1897 by Millicent Fawcett. There were two waves of the suffrage groups. The main differences between the two groups were the methods they used to achieve their goals. The first group was known as the suffragists while the second was known as the suffragettes.
The struggle began in 1866 when a group of women managed to table a bill for allowing women to vote through two sympathetic Members of Parliament. However, the bill lost by 196 votes to 73. This attempt was the spark that ignited women all over Britain to establish suffrage societies. Eventually, 71 such groups merged to form the bigger and more recognized NUWSS under Fawcett.
This group decided to approach the struggle in a peaceful and civil manner. The members believed that education and peaceful argument could be used to negotiate for the voting rights of women. Consequently, the group employed techniques such as posters, petitions, public meetings, calendars, and leaflets to spread their message. By 1914, the group had an estimated membership of around 54,000 people.
However, the NUWSS obtained its leaders and members from the upper and middle rungs of society and was not advocating for voting rights of all women. Instead, the NUWSS wanted women who owned property or were in society’s middle-rung or higher to be granted voting rights. This mentality changed later on after senior members of the group began speaking out against the neglect that the women from the working class were receiving from the more privileged women. After this, working-class women began joining the NUWSS.
From the standpoint of a certain group of women in the NUWSS campaign, the organization failed in achieving its goal. These women believed that the path to securing voting rights for women did not lie in peaceful methods. Instead, this group was convinced that a militant approach would do the trick. Using the slogan “Deeds not Words,” the suffragettes group known as the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was formed in 1903. Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her two daughters, the group eventually grew and absorbed several other groups that were working towards a similar goal in Britain, including women from the working class.
The WSPU employed techniques such as disruption of public gatherings, chaining themselves to railings, and damaging public property. In fact, one of them, Emily Davison, died from injuries after she got in front of the King’s horse in 1913 at the Epson Derby. The rowdy women were arrested several times. While in prison, they resorted to methods such as hunger strikes in order to be released.
Voting rights for women were not granted until after World War I. Even then, only a select group of women could vote. British women over the age of 21 were granted the right to vote in 1928. World War I also brought a stop to the campaigns by both the suffragettes and suffragists.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Emotions affect people twenty-four hours a day regardless of where they find themselves. It goes without saying that emotions have a significant impact on how people behave as individuals and as members of groups.
Emotional intelligence is the intelligence that people have when they are in tune with their emotions and are also aware of what people around them are feeling. People with emotional awareness then use this knowledge as they manage their own behaviours and interact with others.
Research indicates that people with a high degree of emotional intelligence are more likely to be successful. They are more likely to recognize their strengths and weaknesses and focus their energies on projects that are important to them. They also have a knack for engaging others and building relationships that allow them to draw on the abilities of the people around them. | <urn:uuid:96e4d786-cc61-4fad-83af-af77812dd587> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://pstaylor.com/emotional-intelligence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.984234 | 154 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.08054819703102112,... | 2 | Emotions affect people twenty-four hours a day regardless of where they find themselves. It goes without saying that emotions have a significant impact on how people behave as individuals and as members of groups.
Emotional intelligence is the intelligence that people have when they are in tune with their emotions and are also aware of what people around them are feeling. People with emotional awareness then use this knowledge as they manage their own behaviours and interact with others.
Research indicates that people with a high degree of emotional intelligence are more likely to be successful. They are more likely to recognize their strengths and weaknesses and focus their energies on projects that are important to them. They also have a knack for engaging others and building relationships that allow them to draw on the abilities of the people around them. | 151 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery and sectional attitudes
During the mid 1800’s many Americans began to have mix feelings over the issue of slavery. Many northern Americans believed that slavery was morally wrong and that it was an evil. Southerners on the other hand believed it was a good for the economy as well as for commerce. This great split of attitudes between the north and the south eventually led to threat of the civil war. The North saw the issue of slavery as an evil. They believed that slavery was an impurity that became accustomed to life in America, in which made other systems of commerce forgotten.
In a nation where freedom and equality is given, the property owning of people is wrong. In Hinton Helper’s “The Impending Crisis,” Hinton stresses the economic effects of slavery to the U. S. He goes on suggesting that the U. S cannot depend on only slavery and the staple crops to pull the nation forward. Especially, if the nation wants to become a great political nation, it should seek other means for obtaining wealth. (Document E). In every way Hinton tried to impose the idea that the north can also provide much commerce like the south.
There was no need for slavery to continue in a growing society where the nation can do more than just produce cotton. The north was able to produce and manufacture products without the use of slaves, why couldn’t the south? That’s what many northerners believed. Though if abolitionist got their way in ending slavery then there would be an end to the cultivation of cotton. The country cannot go on cultivating such a ‘prized’ crop without the hands of slaves. It was an impossible thought for the south. If labor work didn’t continue in the south then the south would fall. (Document B).
Abraham Lincoln’s speech in Illinois (Document D) warned all Americans that if the exploitation of slaves for a profit continued then the nation may dwindle and maybe even their freedom. The use of slaves in the U. S went against our very own principles of freedom and equality. But not everybody felt that way. Southerners believed that slaves were not only more reasonable and useful but also more comfortable than the factory works of England or Irish peasants. The peasants of foreign countries are treated more harshly with excess amounts of labor plus the add-ons of horrible working conditions.
However, southerners such as Governor George McDuffie argue that slaves in the south are exempt to those harsh conditions ever since the slave trade ended. Most southerners believed that they were doing a “favor” for slaves since slaves were uneducated people. They believed that by clothing them, feeding them, and putting a roof over their head they were creating a good for these people. Pro-Slavery South believed if these uncivilized people went off into the world, they wouldn’t survive, so for them to be bought into slavery was not only helping them out but it was also creating wealth for the economy.
(Document A). However, the anti-slavery novel “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” which sold up to 270,000 copies is what more or less convinced folks –that were against the anti-slavery reforms– that slavery was dehumanizing. This book fired up the emotions of most northerners to run to the aid of abolitionist. Though this book revolutionized the minds of many, it also depicted the south in a negative way. Many southerners were outraged because to them slaves were a common thing in life. (Document F). So common of a thing that there were even slaves that cared for white children and raised them (Document C).
Slavery in the U. S during the 1800’s was a debated topic. It was important for northerners to try and revoke slavery in the nation for it was a true evil. Then again, it was important for southern commerce, economy, and life itself. Slavery was not just an issue dehumanized people, but it was an issue that split the country. Not everyone was in favor for it. Northerners fought to prohibit the use of slavery in the country, for there were more ways to produce commerce. Southerners fought to allow the use of slavery in the country, for it created an economic boost in the cotton industry. | <urn:uuid:c6cbc472-83be-41d7-acd2-73613214aeaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-slavery-and-sectional-attitudes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.983319 | 900 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.232014879584... | 1 | Slavery and sectional attitudes
During the mid 1800’s many Americans began to have mix feelings over the issue of slavery. Many northern Americans believed that slavery was morally wrong and that it was an evil. Southerners on the other hand believed it was a good for the economy as well as for commerce. This great split of attitudes between the north and the south eventually led to threat of the civil war. The North saw the issue of slavery as an evil. They believed that slavery was an impurity that became accustomed to life in America, in which made other systems of commerce forgotten.
In a nation where freedom and equality is given, the property owning of people is wrong. In Hinton Helper’s “The Impending Crisis,” Hinton stresses the economic effects of slavery to the U. S. He goes on suggesting that the U. S cannot depend on only slavery and the staple crops to pull the nation forward. Especially, if the nation wants to become a great political nation, it should seek other means for obtaining wealth. (Document E). In every way Hinton tried to impose the idea that the north can also provide much commerce like the south.
There was no need for slavery to continue in a growing society where the nation can do more than just produce cotton. The north was able to produce and manufacture products without the use of slaves, why couldn’t the south? That’s what many northerners believed. Though if abolitionist got their way in ending slavery then there would be an end to the cultivation of cotton. The country cannot go on cultivating such a ‘prized’ crop without the hands of slaves. It was an impossible thought for the south. If labor work didn’t continue in the south then the south would fall. (Document B).
Abraham Lincoln’s speech in Illinois (Document D) warned all Americans that if the exploitation of slaves for a profit continued then the nation may dwindle and maybe even their freedom. The use of slaves in the U. S went against our very own principles of freedom and equality. But not everybody felt that way. Southerners believed that slaves were not only more reasonable and useful but also more comfortable than the factory works of England or Irish peasants. The peasants of foreign countries are treated more harshly with excess amounts of labor plus the add-ons of horrible working conditions.
However, southerners such as Governor George McDuffie argue that slaves in the south are exempt to those harsh conditions ever since the slave trade ended. Most southerners believed that they were doing a “favor” for slaves since slaves were uneducated people. They believed that by clothing them, feeding them, and putting a roof over their head they were creating a good for these people. Pro-Slavery South believed if these uncivilized people went off into the world, they wouldn’t survive, so for them to be bought into slavery was not only helping them out but it was also creating wealth for the economy.
(Document A). However, the anti-slavery novel “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” which sold up to 270,000 copies is what more or less convinced folks –that were against the anti-slavery reforms– that slavery was dehumanizing. This book fired up the emotions of most northerners to run to the aid of abolitionist. Though this book revolutionized the minds of many, it also depicted the south in a negative way. Many southerners were outraged because to them slaves were a common thing in life. (Document F). So common of a thing that there were even slaves that cared for white children and raised them (Document C).
Slavery in the U. S during the 1800’s was a debated topic. It was important for northerners to try and revoke slavery in the nation for it was a true evil. Then again, it was important for southern commerce, economy, and life itself. Slavery was not just an issue dehumanized people, but it was an issue that split the country. Not everyone was in favor for it. Northerners fought to prohibit the use of slavery in the country, for there were more ways to produce commerce. Southerners fought to allow the use of slavery in the country, for it created an economic boost in the cotton industry. | 871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did you know that August 26th is celebrated as Women’s Equality Day? Every year, Women’s Equality Day commemorates the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In Rochester, New York, Susan B. Anthony was arrested and fined for attempting to vote in the 1872 presidential election. The women's suffrage amendment was first introduced in 1878 and reintroduced many times over before being accepted in 1919 and then signed into law in 1920. This granted women the hard-fought and long-denied right to vote in elections. (It’s important to note, however, that African American women and Asian women were not guaranteed the right to vote until 1948.) In celebration of this historic achievement and in recognition of the impact of the 1970 nationwide strike for women’s equality, August 26 was designated as Women’s Equality Day in 1971 by the United States Congress. The struggle for equality began decades prior, when the first women’s rights convention was held in 1848. The progress made with the 19th amendment laid the groundwork for the Equal Pay Act as well as the Equal Rights Amendment. At OneEighty, we care deeply about the women in our community, and we strongly believe that all people, men and women alike, should be empowered and treated equally within our society. | <urn:uuid:79ed03ed-80e6-41df-9611-63937dee5cde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.one-eighty.org/news-events/history-womens-equality-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.982717 | 274 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.12461451441... | 2 | Did you know that August 26th is celebrated as Women’s Equality Day? Every year, Women’s Equality Day commemorates the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In Rochester, New York, Susan B. Anthony was arrested and fined for attempting to vote in the 1872 presidential election. The women's suffrage amendment was first introduced in 1878 and reintroduced many times over before being accepted in 1919 and then signed into law in 1920. This granted women the hard-fought and long-denied right to vote in elections. (It’s important to note, however, that African American women and Asian women were not guaranteed the right to vote until 1948.) In celebration of this historic achievement and in recognition of the impact of the 1970 nationwide strike for women’s equality, August 26 was designated as Women’s Equality Day in 1971 by the United States Congress. The struggle for equality began decades prior, when the first women’s rights convention was held in 1848. The progress made with the 19th amendment laid the groundwork for the Equal Pay Act as well as the Equal Rights Amendment. At OneEighty, we care deeply about the women in our community, and we strongly believe that all people, men and women alike, should be empowered and treated equally within our society. | 296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
National Hat Day is an unofficial holiday which falls annually on January 15th. It celebrates one of the oldest human accessories. Hats have been worn all throughout history for a variety of different purposes: to indicate social status or branch of military service; to indicate the wearer has a position of authority; for religious purposes or to denote nationality; for ceremonial or fashion purposes; or to protect the wearer from sun, rain or other hazards. It’s such an important article of clothing that millions of people all over the world will celebrate this day by dusting off their favorite hat and wearing it proudly in public. Will you be among them?
The History of the Hat
While scholars don’t exactly know when the hat was created, it is believed to go back thousands upon thousands of years. One of the earliest depictions of a hat is a painting found in a Thebes tomb that was painted over 5,200 years ago. This painting shows a man wearing what appears to be a straw hat. Scholars also know that the hat was extensively worn in Ancient Greece and Rome. In fact, in these cultures, when a slave was freed they were often given a Phrygian cap that served as a symbol of their freedom. This practice was so common, these caps became known as “Liberty Caps.” A name that would stick with them while they were being worn during the French Revolution.
Over the years, men and women wore a variety of head accessories–everything from hoods, caps, and wimples to veils, brimmed hats, and fur moccasins. During the 18th century, milliners started appearing all over the world and they crafted a variety of different hats and bonnets. During this century, hats became a symbol of wealth, especially among women. One of the hats that denoted wealth was the begere or Shepherdess Hat. This was a wide-brimmed hat that was made of straw and was used to protect the all so delicate skin of fair ladies. However, no style trend remains around forever, so this hat ended up fading into history. It may be gone but it’s certainly not forgotten because it has since become a symbol of Romanticism. Another symbol of Romanticism is the black silk top hat that was popular during this time. At the beginning of the Victorian Period, it was quite large indeed but as the period wore on they became smaller and more conservative. While they eventually disappeared from day-to-day use, they are still resurrected once in a while for special events such as weddings or fund-raising balls.
During the 19th century, the English bonnet would become extremely popular. While it was originally used by milkmaids, it soon became the Bonnet du Jour for many women–regardless of their social status or class. It became so popular during this time because it framed a woman’s face quite well but protected her profile from libidinous men. If you look at period works during this time, especially the works of Jane Austen, you’ll see just how popular they really were.
More elaborate hats became popular during the Edwardian Period. These hats with over-sized and were usually stacked with bows, lace, flowers, plumes of feathers or sometimes even stuffed birds. These Gainsborough Hats would eventually stir a backlash against them as many people began to worry about the welfare of the birds that were used in making the hats. This resulted in laws being passed to protect birds from the hat industry and many milliners became to use more ribbon and tulle in their creations instead of feathers and stuffed birds. Hats that did contain feathers used ostrich feathers that were collected after they had fallen off of the bird. Unfortunately, the damage had already been done to the passenger pigeon and it had already become extinct. Of course, the extinction of the passenger pigeon wasn’t due entirely to milliners of the time. Farmers protecting their crops and hunters also resulted in their extinction.
At the end of this period, hats such as the Merry Widow Hat began to disappear and one of the main things that finally contributed to its demise was the cinema. In 1921, the silent film “The Three Musketeers” was released and introduced women of the time to bicorn-shaped and tricorn-shaped hats. These hats were still large but they weren’t as large and gaudy as their predecessors. During the 1920s, wide-brimmed sun hats began to replace the hats of yesteryear. Other hats worn by women during this period include Tam O’Shanter hats, turbans, bobbed hats, and the most iconic hat of the decade – the Cloche hat.
Men’s hats of the 20th century include the Trilby, Fedoras and the reemergence of Bowler Hats. While Bowler Hats were originally created in 1849, the made a somewhat brief appearance during London businessmen during the 1950s and 1960s. However, this trend ended up dying out by the 1970s. During the 2010s, it became popular to wear “classic hats” from the past. Some of the classic hats that became popular again include the Fedora, the Trilby, the Pork-Pie Hat, the Bowler, the Western and the Panama. Some people have even started wearing Top Hats during formal or semi-formal events.
The History of National Hat Day
Unfortunately, the history of National Hat Day isn’t so detailed. No one knows exactly when this holiday started it or who started it. It seems that National Hat Day is a mystery that’s yet to be solved.
Fun Facts About Hats
- The Fedora was originally a woman’s hat
- Hatters traditionally made male hats
- Milliners traditionally made female hats
- The Trilby was named after the fictional heroine Trilby O’Ferrall from “Trilby” by George du Maurier
- Vikings never wore helmets with horns on them
- No U.S President has donned a Top Hat for his Inauguration since Nixon
Celebrating National Hat Day
National Hat Day can be easily celebrated by just choosing one of your favorite hats and wearing it. You have a variety of hats available to you, both classic and modern. Just choose one that suits your style and enjoy this unofficial holiday.
When is National Hat Day?
|This year (2020)||January 15 (Wednesday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||January 15 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||January 15 (Tuesday)||Multiple dates - more| | <urn:uuid:62144c17-c8ae-4a21-bed1-2f56e9a644b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/national-hat-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.982037 | 1,380 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.12899529933929443... | 4 | National Hat Day is an unofficial holiday which falls annually on January 15th. It celebrates one of the oldest human accessories. Hats have been worn all throughout history for a variety of different purposes: to indicate social status or branch of military service; to indicate the wearer has a position of authority; for religious purposes or to denote nationality; for ceremonial or fashion purposes; or to protect the wearer from sun, rain or other hazards. It’s such an important article of clothing that millions of people all over the world will celebrate this day by dusting off their favorite hat and wearing it proudly in public. Will you be among them?
The History of the Hat
While scholars don’t exactly know when the hat was created, it is believed to go back thousands upon thousands of years. One of the earliest depictions of a hat is a painting found in a Thebes tomb that was painted over 5,200 years ago. This painting shows a man wearing what appears to be a straw hat. Scholars also know that the hat was extensively worn in Ancient Greece and Rome. In fact, in these cultures, when a slave was freed they were often given a Phrygian cap that served as a symbol of their freedom. This practice was so common, these caps became known as “Liberty Caps.” A name that would stick with them while they were being worn during the French Revolution.
Over the years, men and women wore a variety of head accessories–everything from hoods, caps, and wimples to veils, brimmed hats, and fur moccasins. During the 18th century, milliners started appearing all over the world and they crafted a variety of different hats and bonnets. During this century, hats became a symbol of wealth, especially among women. One of the hats that denoted wealth was the begere or Shepherdess Hat. This was a wide-brimmed hat that was made of straw and was used to protect the all so delicate skin of fair ladies. However, no style trend remains around forever, so this hat ended up fading into history. It may be gone but it’s certainly not forgotten because it has since become a symbol of Romanticism. Another symbol of Romanticism is the black silk top hat that was popular during this time. At the beginning of the Victorian Period, it was quite large indeed but as the period wore on they became smaller and more conservative. While they eventually disappeared from day-to-day use, they are still resurrected once in a while for special events such as weddings or fund-raising balls.
During the 19th century, the English bonnet would become extremely popular. While it was originally used by milkmaids, it soon became the Bonnet du Jour for many women–regardless of their social status or class. It became so popular during this time because it framed a woman’s face quite well but protected her profile from libidinous men. If you look at period works during this time, especially the works of Jane Austen, you’ll see just how popular they really were.
More elaborate hats became popular during the Edwardian Period. These hats with over-sized and were usually stacked with bows, lace, flowers, plumes of feathers or sometimes even stuffed birds. These Gainsborough Hats would eventually stir a backlash against them as many people began to worry about the welfare of the birds that were used in making the hats. This resulted in laws being passed to protect birds from the hat industry and many milliners became to use more ribbon and tulle in their creations instead of feathers and stuffed birds. Hats that did contain feathers used ostrich feathers that were collected after they had fallen off of the bird. Unfortunately, the damage had already been done to the passenger pigeon and it had already become extinct. Of course, the extinction of the passenger pigeon wasn’t due entirely to milliners of the time. Farmers protecting their crops and hunters also resulted in their extinction.
At the end of this period, hats such as the Merry Widow Hat began to disappear and one of the main things that finally contributed to its demise was the cinema. In 1921, the silent film “The Three Musketeers” was released and introduced women of the time to bicorn-shaped and tricorn-shaped hats. These hats were still large but they weren’t as large and gaudy as their predecessors. During the 1920s, wide-brimmed sun hats began to replace the hats of yesteryear. Other hats worn by women during this period include Tam O’Shanter hats, turbans, bobbed hats, and the most iconic hat of the decade – the Cloche hat.
Men’s hats of the 20th century include the Trilby, Fedoras and the reemergence of Bowler Hats. While Bowler Hats were originally created in 1849, the made a somewhat brief appearance during London businessmen during the 1950s and 1960s. However, this trend ended up dying out by the 1970s. During the 2010s, it became popular to wear “classic hats” from the past. Some of the classic hats that became popular again include the Fedora, the Trilby, the Pork-Pie Hat, the Bowler, the Western and the Panama. Some people have even started wearing Top Hats during formal or semi-formal events.
The History of National Hat Day
Unfortunately, the history of National Hat Day isn’t so detailed. No one knows exactly when this holiday started it or who started it. It seems that National Hat Day is a mystery that’s yet to be solved.
Fun Facts About Hats
- The Fedora was originally a woman’s hat
- Hatters traditionally made male hats
- Milliners traditionally made female hats
- The Trilby was named after the fictional heroine Trilby O’Ferrall from “Trilby” by George du Maurier
- Vikings never wore helmets with horns on them
- No U.S President has donned a Top Hat for his Inauguration since Nixon
Celebrating National Hat Day
National Hat Day can be easily celebrated by just choosing one of your favorite hats and wearing it. You have a variety of hats available to you, both classic and modern. Just choose one that suits your style and enjoy this unofficial holiday.
When is National Hat Day?
|This year (2020)||January 15 (Wednesday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||January 15 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||January 15 (Tuesday)||Multiple dates - more| | 1,371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the novel Wuthering Heights, by Emily Bronte, most of the major Chaaracters learn, grow, and change due to the experiences and challenges that they face throughout their lives. Heathcliff transforms from a companion and lover of Catherine’s to a harsh and brutal adult.
When Heathcliff is described, he is said to be a “dark-skinned gipsy, in aspect, in dress, and in manners a gentleman,” (3, 24-25). He is an outsider from the beginning. Yet, Catherine falls in love with him despite his “vagabond” (102) appearance.
Heathcliff’s transaction begins after he overhears Catherine and Nelly’s conversation on whetehr or not Catherine should marry Edgar Linton. He had listened until he heard Catherine say that it would degrade her to marry him, and then he stayed to hear no farther. Then Heathcliff leaves for three years without a trace.
Heathcliff returns as a “tall man dressed in dark clothes, with a dark face and hair.” (86, 10-11). He was also described as being “an unclaimed creature, without refinement, without cultivation;he’s a fierce, pitiless, wolfish man.” Throughout the three years in which Heathcliff disappeaared, he became exactly what he was scared of as a young boy. Hindly Earnshaw treaated Heathcliff as an outsider, and looked down upon him with hate and disgust. Living through this led Heathcliff tobecome just what Hindly said he was.
Heathcliff was told his whole life that he was an outsider and a failure. He eventually transformed into just that. Heathcliff come across as a dark and evil person when deep down inside he only wants to be happy with the one he loves. If he was treaated equally in his life, he would not have become the evil man that he did because of this type of behavior would not have been present for him to copy.
Heathcliff could have been a good person if the enviornment he grew up in treated him equall despite his differences. | <urn:uuid:d72d797f-38b3-4787-9b4d-952995259087> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/wuthering-heights3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.983083 | 463 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.167209222912788... | 2 | Throughout the novel Wuthering Heights, by Emily Bronte, most of the major Chaaracters learn, grow, and change due to the experiences and challenges that they face throughout their lives. Heathcliff transforms from a companion and lover of Catherine’s to a harsh and brutal adult.
When Heathcliff is described, he is said to be a “dark-skinned gipsy, in aspect, in dress, and in manners a gentleman,” (3, 24-25). He is an outsider from the beginning. Yet, Catherine falls in love with him despite his “vagabond” (102) appearance.
Heathcliff’s transaction begins after he overhears Catherine and Nelly’s conversation on whetehr or not Catherine should marry Edgar Linton. He had listened until he heard Catherine say that it would degrade her to marry him, and then he stayed to hear no farther. Then Heathcliff leaves for three years without a trace.
Heathcliff returns as a “tall man dressed in dark clothes, with a dark face and hair.” (86, 10-11). He was also described as being “an unclaimed creature, without refinement, without cultivation;he’s a fierce, pitiless, wolfish man.” Throughout the three years in which Heathcliff disappeaared, he became exactly what he was scared of as a young boy. Hindly Earnshaw treaated Heathcliff as an outsider, and looked down upon him with hate and disgust. Living through this led Heathcliff tobecome just what Hindly said he was.
Heathcliff was told his whole life that he was an outsider and a failure. He eventually transformed into just that. Heathcliff come across as a dark and evil person when deep down inside he only wants to be happy with the one he loves. If he was treaated equally in his life, he would not have become the evil man that he did because of this type of behavior would not have been present for him to copy.
Heathcliff could have been a good person if the enviornment he grew up in treated him equall despite his differences. | 448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You have probably noticed that in countries where Spanish is spoken, native Spanish people have about four different names and you may have wondered why this is. The custom of having more than one surname originates from the Arabic influence in Spain between 711 and 1492 AD. It may seem a complicated way of naming and there are variations as to how it works but basically the rule is simple:
A child born into a Spanish-speaking family is given a first name and also two surnames. The first is taken from the father’s first surname (the name he was given from his father) and the second is taken from the mother’s first surname (the name she was given from her father).
Take for example the name “María García López”; “María” is the name she was given at birth, “García” would have been her father’s first surname and “López” her mother’s first surname.
When women get married in Spain they do not change their surname as is often the case here. Instead, it is common for her to add her husband’s first surname linked with “de” at the end of her name. For example, if “María García López” married “Felipe Ramos Pérez” it would be likely that she would add “de Ramos” to her name, making her new married name: “María García López de Ramos”. | <urn:uuid:785a46ed-41f5-4b2d-9df4-8d39f56b05dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vivalanguageservices.co.uk/blog/why-do-spanish-people-have-two-surnames/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.98687 | 323 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.0701599344611... | 8 | You have probably noticed that in countries where Spanish is spoken, native Spanish people have about four different names and you may have wondered why this is. The custom of having more than one surname originates from the Arabic influence in Spain between 711 and 1492 AD. It may seem a complicated way of naming and there are variations as to how it works but basically the rule is simple:
A child born into a Spanish-speaking family is given a first name and also two surnames. The first is taken from the father’s first surname (the name he was given from his father) and the second is taken from the mother’s first surname (the name she was given from her father).
Take for example the name “María García López”; “María” is the name she was given at birth, “García” would have been her father’s first surname and “López” her mother’s first surname.
When women get married in Spain they do not change their surname as is often the case here. Instead, it is common for her to add her husband’s first surname linked with “de” at the end of her name. For example, if “María García López” married “Felipe Ramos Pérez” it would be likely that she would add “de Ramos” to her name, making her new married name: “María García López de Ramos”. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Created by: Happydays
- Created on: 11-06-14 11:44
What Is Prehistoric Medicine?
Prehistoric medicine refers to medicine before humans were are to read and write. It covers a vast period, which varies according to regions and cultures. Anthropologists, people who study the history of humanity, can only make calculated guesses at what prehistoric medicine was like by collecting and studying human remains and artifacts. They have sometimes extrapolated from observations of certain indigenous populations today and over the last hundred years whose lives have been isolated from other cultures.
People in prehistoric times would have believed in a combination of natural and supernatural causes and treatments for conditions and diseases. The practice of comparing a placebo effect with a given therapy did not exist. There may have been some trial and error in coming to some effective treatments, but they would not have taken into account several variables scientists factor in today, such as coincidence, lifestyle, family history, and the placebo effect.
Nobody can be absolutely certain what prehistoric peoples knew about how the human body works. However, we can make some calculated guesses, based on some limited evidence. There is evidence from their burial practices that they knew something about bone structure. Bones have been found that were stripped of the flesh, bleached and piled according to what part of the body they came from.
There is also archeological evidence of cannibalism among some of the prehistoric communities - so, they must have known about our inner organs and where lean tissue or fat predominates in the human body. Most likely, they believed that their lives were determined by spirits. Aboriginals peoples around the world today often correlate illness with losing one's soul.
The aboriginals in Australia were described by colonists as being able to stitch up wounds, and encased broken bones in mud to set them right. Medical historians believe these skills probably existed during prehistory. However, most evidence found in prehistoric graves shows healthy but badly set bones, indicating that they did not know how to set broken bones.
There was no concept of public health in prehistoric times
Public health focuses on preventing the spread of disease, good hygiene practices, the provision of water so that people can keep themselves, their animals and their homes clean. Medical historians are fairly sure that prehistoric peoples had no concept of public health. They tended to move around a lot and not remain in one place for long, therefore, there would have been no need or thought towards building public health infrastructure.
During pre-history, people were afflicted with ailments and diseases, just like we are today. However, because of very different lifestyles and lifespans, they did not suffer from the same diseases so commonly.
Below are some diseases and conditions which were probably very common in prehistoric times:
- Osteoarthritis - many people had to lift and… | <urn:uuid:f63da73b-7f11-4483-bef7-ef5ea4212d28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/prehistoric_medicine_long | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.983828 | 574 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.819120168685... | 1 | - Created by: Happydays
- Created on: 11-06-14 11:44
What Is Prehistoric Medicine?
Prehistoric medicine refers to medicine before humans were are to read and write. It covers a vast period, which varies according to regions and cultures. Anthropologists, people who study the history of humanity, can only make calculated guesses at what prehistoric medicine was like by collecting and studying human remains and artifacts. They have sometimes extrapolated from observations of certain indigenous populations today and over the last hundred years whose lives have been isolated from other cultures.
People in prehistoric times would have believed in a combination of natural and supernatural causes and treatments for conditions and diseases. The practice of comparing a placebo effect with a given therapy did not exist. There may have been some trial and error in coming to some effective treatments, but they would not have taken into account several variables scientists factor in today, such as coincidence, lifestyle, family history, and the placebo effect.
Nobody can be absolutely certain what prehistoric peoples knew about how the human body works. However, we can make some calculated guesses, based on some limited evidence. There is evidence from their burial practices that they knew something about bone structure. Bones have been found that were stripped of the flesh, bleached and piled according to what part of the body they came from.
There is also archeological evidence of cannibalism among some of the prehistoric communities - so, they must have known about our inner organs and where lean tissue or fat predominates in the human body. Most likely, they believed that their lives were determined by spirits. Aboriginals peoples around the world today often correlate illness with losing one's soul.
The aboriginals in Australia were described by colonists as being able to stitch up wounds, and encased broken bones in mud to set them right. Medical historians believe these skills probably existed during prehistory. However, most evidence found in prehistoric graves shows healthy but badly set bones, indicating that they did not know how to set broken bones.
There was no concept of public health in prehistoric times
Public health focuses on preventing the spread of disease, good hygiene practices, the provision of water so that people can keep themselves, their animals and their homes clean. Medical historians are fairly sure that prehistoric peoples had no concept of public health. They tended to move around a lot and not remain in one place for long, therefore, there would have been no need or thought towards building public health infrastructure.
During pre-history, people were afflicted with ailments and diseases, just like we are today. However, because of very different lifestyles and lifespans, they did not suffer from the same diseases so commonly.
Below are some diseases and conditions which were probably very common in prehistoric times:
- Osteoarthritis - many people had to lift and… | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Consequences of Luther's Stand
On June 28, 1519, the Spanish Habsburger Charles V, grandson of Maximillian, was chosen as emperor, but his coronation did not take place until October 1520. By the time the new emperor and the pope finally turned their attention to the controversy around the “Ninety-Five Theses,” the events of October 31, 1517, were already three years old. There could be no way to hold back the consequences. The papal legate Aleander reported to Rome, “All of Germany is in an uproar. Nine-tenths shout out the battle cry ‘Luther,’ and the remaining ten percent, if they are indifferent to Luther, express the slogan ‘Death to Rome.’”1 On June 15, 1520, the Roman curia had already published a bull in which Luther was threatened with excommunication, but Luther had reacted in a novel manner.
Instead of recanting his views, he just burned the bull. On December 10, after exactly sixty days, when the excommunication bull went into effect, Melanchthon posted an announcement for people to come to the Chapel of the Holy Cross, just outside the Elster Gate, at 9:00 p.m. There they would burn the books of canon law and books of scholastic theology. The students especially had been invited to observe this pious spectacle, because this would be the historical moment when the Antichrist would become visible.
"It is part of my title, and it belongs to my position, my oath, and my office to defend against and destroy false, tempting, and un-Christian teachings."
Because no theologians wanted to donate any of their books to be burned, the books of scholastic theology were spared. As a consequence, only the books of canon law were burned. The manual for conducting confessions disappeared into the flames, as did a few works written against Luther by Eck and Emser. When everything was burning, Luther himself came “with fear and trembling”2 and threw in the excommunication bull. Afterward, he went home, but the students stayed and had a party, which included a parade and the singing of satirical songs.
Whether they all understood the implications of this evening is not known, but the following morning Luther explained the meaning of the event in his lectures. Now was the time to make a choice against the pope and for Christ, even if that would create danger for one’s own life. For the common people he wrote the booklet Why the Books of the Pope and His Disciples Were Burned by Dr. Martin Luther.3 It is notable that Luther addressed himself as doctor in the name of this book. He wanted his audience to recognize him as a teacher in the church: “I am a sworn doctor of the Holy Scriptures, and in addition to that, someone who preaches everyday. It is part of my title, and it belongs to my position, my oath, and my office to defend against and destroy false, tempting, and un-Christian teachings.”4
He saw it as his task and calling as doctor to intervene now. Once more, Luther listed all his arguments, and then the conclusion was clear: canon law made the pope to be God on earth; such an unbiblical thought had to come to an end. He had been “trembling and in prayer” but added, “Finally I rejoiced about this action more than any other deed in my life, because these [i.e., the papal works] are even more poisonous than I think.”5 He informed Spalatin,
On December 10 of the year 1520, at nine o’clock in Wittenberg at the eastern gate by the Holy Cross, all papal books . . . and the bull from Leo X . . . and other writings from Eck and Emser and additionally whatever others dragged in were burned. In this way those Italian murderers will notice that not much energy is needed to burn books that they cannot defend. That is the news for now.6
Luther was quite conscious of the fact that the burning of the bull and the books of canon law had created a definite breach with Rome. To him that meant that he had broken with the whore of Rome and had returned to the church of Christ. Rome, for its part, had had enough. On January 3, 1521, Luther was excommunicated. The severity of excommunication is not to be underestimated; it was customary that the political authorities would follow the lead of the church, which meant exile from the empire.
Fortunately for Luther, a number of rulers already did not want to yield to Rome. Some were touched in their hearts by Luther’s message or at least by his efforts to reform the church. Others saw his action as a convenient opportunity to sever their ties with the pope and emperor. For some, both arguments were important. Frederick the Wise was able to strengthen his position by demonstrating his independence. That is why he and his colleagues were able to prevent Luther from having to go to Rome.
Luther would give account to the emperor at the imperial Diet of Worms, and even though he had been excommunicated, he was promised safe conduct. In addition to Frederick’s strong position, there was still another reason why he made a special effort on Luther’s behalf and thus annoyed Rome even more. Frederick had wanted to marry Margaretha, the daughter of Emperor Maximillian. But he needed permission from the pope for that. Two times he had asked, and both times the pope turned down his request. Being forbidden from marrying the woman he really wanted was simply another good reason for Frederick to thwart the papacy.
In modern-day Worms an important monument commemorates Luther’s visit to the 1521 diet. The monument is very detailed, depicting many figures as predecessors and fellow fighters with Luther. Luther stands on top alone, looking determined, just as he stood before the emperor. In the days preceding that event, the situation was quite a bit different. Luther experienced self-doubting, especially as to whether it was possible that he could be the only one in church history to know what he knew. It would have been quite something if he had been the only one in all those centuries who saw that the church had corrupted its message and forsaken true Christianity.
- A Fake Writing of Lies about Martin Luther’s Death (1545), in WA 54:188– 94.
- Luther to Anton Lauterbach, October 19, 1545, in WABr 11:199; Luther to Jacob Praepositus, January 17, 1546, in WABr 11:263.
- WATr 4: no. 5063.
- Luther to Philipp Melanchthon, June 18, 1540, in WABr 9:144–46; WATr 4: no. 5100.
- WATr 5: nos. 5407, 5565.
- Luther to Käthe, July 2, 1540, in WABr 9:168
This article is adapted from Martin Luther: A Spiritual Biography by Herman Selderhuis.
There are quite a few commonly-held, yet misguided beliefs about Martin Luther. Uncover the truth behind five myths.
As soon as the Reformation began in 1517, Martin Luther became the most famous man in Europe.
Here are ten things you should know about Martin Luther, the great leader of the Protestant Reformation. | <urn:uuid:567547f7-abf6-4fe4-8ef8-2612f0f71b61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.crossway.org/articles/the-day-martin-luther-was-excommunicated/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.985157 | 1,570 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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On June 28, 1519, the Spanish Habsburger Charles V, grandson of Maximillian, was chosen as emperor, but his coronation did not take place until October 1520. By the time the new emperor and the pope finally turned their attention to the controversy around the “Ninety-Five Theses,” the events of October 31, 1517, were already three years old. There could be no way to hold back the consequences. The papal legate Aleander reported to Rome, “All of Germany is in an uproar. Nine-tenths shout out the battle cry ‘Luther,’ and the remaining ten percent, if they are indifferent to Luther, express the slogan ‘Death to Rome.’”1 On June 15, 1520, the Roman curia had already published a bull in which Luther was threatened with excommunication, but Luther had reacted in a novel manner.
Instead of recanting his views, he just burned the bull. On December 10, after exactly sixty days, when the excommunication bull went into effect, Melanchthon posted an announcement for people to come to the Chapel of the Holy Cross, just outside the Elster Gate, at 9:00 p.m. There they would burn the books of canon law and books of scholastic theology. The students especially had been invited to observe this pious spectacle, because this would be the historical moment when the Antichrist would become visible.
"It is part of my title, and it belongs to my position, my oath, and my office to defend against and destroy false, tempting, and un-Christian teachings."
Because no theologians wanted to donate any of their books to be burned, the books of scholastic theology were spared. As a consequence, only the books of canon law were burned. The manual for conducting confessions disappeared into the flames, as did a few works written against Luther by Eck and Emser. When everything was burning, Luther himself came “with fear and trembling”2 and threw in the excommunication bull. Afterward, he went home, but the students stayed and had a party, which included a parade and the singing of satirical songs.
Whether they all understood the implications of this evening is not known, but the following morning Luther explained the meaning of the event in his lectures. Now was the time to make a choice against the pope and for Christ, even if that would create danger for one’s own life. For the common people he wrote the booklet Why the Books of the Pope and His Disciples Were Burned by Dr. Martin Luther.3 It is notable that Luther addressed himself as doctor in the name of this book. He wanted his audience to recognize him as a teacher in the church: “I am a sworn doctor of the Holy Scriptures, and in addition to that, someone who preaches everyday. It is part of my title, and it belongs to my position, my oath, and my office to defend against and destroy false, tempting, and un-Christian teachings.”4
He saw it as his task and calling as doctor to intervene now. Once more, Luther listed all his arguments, and then the conclusion was clear: canon law made the pope to be God on earth; such an unbiblical thought had to come to an end. He had been “trembling and in prayer” but added, “Finally I rejoiced about this action more than any other deed in my life, because these [i.e., the papal works] are even more poisonous than I think.”5 He informed Spalatin,
On December 10 of the year 1520, at nine o’clock in Wittenberg at the eastern gate by the Holy Cross, all papal books . . . and the bull from Leo X . . . and other writings from Eck and Emser and additionally whatever others dragged in were burned. In this way those Italian murderers will notice that not much energy is needed to burn books that they cannot defend. That is the news for now.6
Luther was quite conscious of the fact that the burning of the bull and the books of canon law had created a definite breach with Rome. To him that meant that he had broken with the whore of Rome and had returned to the church of Christ. Rome, for its part, had had enough. On January 3, 1521, Luther was excommunicated. The severity of excommunication is not to be underestimated; it was customary that the political authorities would follow the lead of the church, which meant exile from the empire.
Fortunately for Luther, a number of rulers already did not want to yield to Rome. Some were touched in their hearts by Luther’s message or at least by his efforts to reform the church. Others saw his action as a convenient opportunity to sever their ties with the pope and emperor. For some, both arguments were important. Frederick the Wise was able to strengthen his position by demonstrating his independence. That is why he and his colleagues were able to prevent Luther from having to go to Rome.
Luther would give account to the emperor at the imperial Diet of Worms, and even though he had been excommunicated, he was promised safe conduct. In addition to Frederick’s strong position, there was still another reason why he made a special effort on Luther’s behalf and thus annoyed Rome even more. Frederick had wanted to marry Margaretha, the daughter of Emperor Maximillian. But he needed permission from the pope for that. Two times he had asked, and both times the pope turned down his request. Being forbidden from marrying the woman he really wanted was simply another good reason for Frederick to thwart the papacy.
In modern-day Worms an important monument commemorates Luther’s visit to the 1521 diet. The monument is very detailed, depicting many figures as predecessors and fellow fighters with Luther. Luther stands on top alone, looking determined, just as he stood before the emperor. In the days preceding that event, the situation was quite a bit different. Luther experienced self-doubting, especially as to whether it was possible that he could be the only one in church history to know what he knew. It would have been quite something if he had been the only one in all those centuries who saw that the church had corrupted its message and forsaken true Christianity.
- A Fake Writing of Lies about Martin Luther’s Death (1545), in WA 54:188– 94.
- Luther to Anton Lauterbach, October 19, 1545, in WABr 11:199; Luther to Jacob Praepositus, January 17, 1546, in WABr 11:263.
- WATr 4: no. 5063.
- Luther to Philipp Melanchthon, June 18, 1540, in WABr 9:144–46; WATr 4: no. 5100.
- WATr 5: nos. 5407, 5565.
- Luther to Käthe, July 2, 1540, in WABr 9:168
This article is adapted from Martin Luther: A Spiritual Biography by Herman Selderhuis.
There are quite a few commonly-held, yet misguided beliefs about Martin Luther. Uncover the truth behind five myths.
As soon as the Reformation began in 1517, Martin Luther became the most famous man in Europe.
Here are ten things you should know about Martin Luther, the great leader of the Protestant Reformation. | 1,604 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in the East Prussian town of Konigsberg and lived there practically all his life. He came from a deeply pious Lutheran family, and his own religious convictions formed a significant background to his philosophy. Like Berkeley, he felt it was essential to preserve the foundations of Christian belief.
Kant became Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Konigsberg in 1770 and taught there for most of his life. He was also greatly interested in science and published works on astronomy and geophysics.
His three most significant works were published later in life. The Critique of Pure Reason came out in 1781, followed in 1788 by the Critique of Practical Reason and in 1790 by the Critique of Judgment. The Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most important works in the whole of philosophy. Unfortunately it is also one of the most unreadable – Kant himself described it as dry and obscure.
Kant had generally been an outgoing and friendly man but towards the end of his life his mental faculties and his sight deteriorated badly. He died a shadow of his former self, aged 80. One of his most quoted sayings is carved on his gravestone in Konigsberg: “Two things fill my mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe, the more often and the more intensely the reflection dwells on them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me”.
Kant believed that there are clear limits to what we can know. You could perhaps say that the mind’s “glasses” set these limits.
The philosophers before Kant had discussed the really “big” questions – for instance, whether man has an immortal soul, whether there is a God, whether nature consists of tiny indivisible particles, and whether the universe is finite or infinite. Kant believed there was no certain knowledge to be obtained on these questions. In such great philosophical questions, he thought that reason operates beyond the limits of what we humans can comprehend. At the same time there is in our nature a basic desire to pose these questions. When, for example, we ask whether the universe has always existed, we are asking about a totality of which we ourselves are a tiny part. We can therefore never completely know this totality.
According to Kant there are two elements that contribute to our knowledge of the world – sensory perception and reason. The material of our knowledge comes to us through the senses, but this material must conform to the attributes of reason.
When we wonder where the world came from, however – and then discuss possible answers – reason is in a sense on hold. It has no sensory material to process, no experience to make use of, because we have never experienced the whole of the great reality of which we are a tiny part.
In such weighty questions as to the nature of reality, Kant showed that there will always be two contrasting viewpoints that are equally likely or unlikely, depending on what our reason tells us.
It is just as meaningful to say that the world must have had a beginning in time as to say that it had no such beginning. Reason cannot decide between them. We can allege that the world has always existed, but can anything always have existed if there was never any beginning? So now we are forced to adopt the opposite view.
Both possibilities are equally problematic. Yet it seems one of them must be right and the other wrong.
Hume’s scepticism with regard to what reason and the senses can tell us forced Kant to think through many of life’s important questions again. He was especially interested in ethics.
For Hume it was neither our reason nor our experience that determined the difference between right and wrong. It was simply our sentiments. This was too tenuous a basis for Kant, who had always felt that the difference between right and wrong was a matter of reason, not sentiment. In this he agreed with the rationalists, who said the ability to distinguish between right and wrong is inherent in human reason. Everybody knows what is right or wrong, not because we have learned it but because it is born | <urn:uuid:2f6d3c2d-bb7e-4ce4-8605-a87c87d48206> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/immanuel-kant-1724-1804-essay-2-78626/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.982249 | 847 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.3958201408... | 3 | Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in the East Prussian town of Konigsberg and lived there practically all his life. He came from a deeply pious Lutheran family, and his own religious convictions formed a significant background to his philosophy. Like Berkeley, he felt it was essential to preserve the foundations of Christian belief.
Kant became Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Konigsberg in 1770 and taught there for most of his life. He was also greatly interested in science and published works on astronomy and geophysics.
His three most significant works were published later in life. The Critique of Pure Reason came out in 1781, followed in 1788 by the Critique of Practical Reason and in 1790 by the Critique of Judgment. The Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most important works in the whole of philosophy. Unfortunately it is also one of the most unreadable – Kant himself described it as dry and obscure.
Kant had generally been an outgoing and friendly man but towards the end of his life his mental faculties and his sight deteriorated badly. He died a shadow of his former self, aged 80. One of his most quoted sayings is carved on his gravestone in Konigsberg: “Two things fill my mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe, the more often and the more intensely the reflection dwells on them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me”.
Kant believed that there are clear limits to what we can know. You could perhaps say that the mind’s “glasses” set these limits.
The philosophers before Kant had discussed the really “big” questions – for instance, whether man has an immortal soul, whether there is a God, whether nature consists of tiny indivisible particles, and whether the universe is finite or infinite. Kant believed there was no certain knowledge to be obtained on these questions. In such great philosophical questions, he thought that reason operates beyond the limits of what we humans can comprehend. At the same time there is in our nature a basic desire to pose these questions. When, for example, we ask whether the universe has always existed, we are asking about a totality of which we ourselves are a tiny part. We can therefore never completely know this totality.
According to Kant there are two elements that contribute to our knowledge of the world – sensory perception and reason. The material of our knowledge comes to us through the senses, but this material must conform to the attributes of reason.
When we wonder where the world came from, however – and then discuss possible answers – reason is in a sense on hold. It has no sensory material to process, no experience to make use of, because we have never experienced the whole of the great reality of which we are a tiny part.
In such weighty questions as to the nature of reality, Kant showed that there will always be two contrasting viewpoints that are equally likely or unlikely, depending on what our reason tells us.
It is just as meaningful to say that the world must have had a beginning in time as to say that it had no such beginning. Reason cannot decide between them. We can allege that the world has always existed, but can anything always have existed if there was never any beginning? So now we are forced to adopt the opposite view.
Both possibilities are equally problematic. Yet it seems one of them must be right and the other wrong.
Hume’s scepticism with regard to what reason and the senses can tell us forced Kant to think through many of life’s important questions again. He was especially interested in ethics.
For Hume it was neither our reason nor our experience that determined the difference between right and wrong. It was simply our sentiments. This was too tenuous a basis for Kant, who had always felt that the difference between right and wrong was a matter of reason, not sentiment. In this he agreed with the rationalists, who said the ability to distinguish between right and wrong is inherent in human reason. Everybody knows what is right or wrong, not because we have learned it but because it is born | 843 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bullying is when you repeatedly and intentionally hurt and torture someone and its either because of race, religion, sexual and gender orientation or just their appearance or disability bullying takes place in many forms such as cyber verbal physical making threats to someone and also someone may spread rumours about you and might criticism you for how you look and bullying usually happens in school workplaces. Bullying can affect an individual physically because when you are being constantly bullied you think about it and that all you worry about and its constantly in your head and it affects the way you eat and do certain things such as the way you dress up and it’s also about your appearance and kids who are bullied are more likely to have depression and mental issues and also they are more likely not to get good grades and not attend school and get proper education. A case study of a 11 year old girl called Fariha goes to Green School and is in year 6 and is about to go to secondary school. Its is her last term in primary school and from year 4 till 6 she has been bullied because of the way she looks and because she has a disability which only her mum knows about. Fariha is a very intelligent and smart girl who lives with a single parent and has financial problems however fariha tries her best to come school and learn but lately her teachers have been noticing that she does not pay attention in class and has isolated herself from her peers and is always really quite. Her teacher Ms Emily wants to find out about why she is behaving like that and wants to have a meeting with her and her mum when Emily has a meeting with her and her mum ms Emily wants to know what is the reason behind her behaviour and that’s when her mum tells her teacher that fariha has a disability which is that ever since she was born she has stammering problems and whenever she tried to speak everyone would laugh at her which broke farihas self-esteem and knocked down her confidence and she just didn’t pay attention or answer any questions because she knew everyone was going to laugh at her whenever she went into school she would feel really embarrassed because she had a disability.
Bullying affected fariha physically because at home she wouldn’t eat and lost appetite and would cry herself to sleep and her mum started to see a change in the way her daughter looked and fariha started to have suicidal thoughts and took drugs as a way to forget the pain and farihas mum noticed that she wasn’t sleeping right and was always restless and had bags under her eyes and this also affected farihas academically because she wouldn’t do that well in school as she used to even her teachers were really concerned as well and had lots of meeting with her mum as well as because she always thought about the bullies she wouldn’t concentrate that much.. The bullies did not realise the things and abuse that farihas had to go through they were unaware of it. As fariha grew up she still was very vulnerable and shy and had no confidence at all and she still remembered what happened to her in her childhood however she learnt her lesson and defended herself when there was a need to and she also stood up for people who were bullied.
Bullying affected fariha development intellectually because in class she wouldn’t pay attention and would not attend her lessons which was a concern because she wouldn’t learn and would just be depressed and this was a concern because her attendance was so low and her teachers were really worried about her because she was going to secondary and it would have affected when she was a teenager. When fariha goes to secondary school and do the same thing as she did in secondary then it would affect her learning and attendance and would eventually be excluded from school and this would result in her going on a wrong path.
Bullying affectfariha development emotionally because she still is affected by what happened at school and is always depressed and as a way of forgetting the pain she takes drugs and also has suicidal thoughts and is very depressed. However when fariha grew up she was a bit calm but still had flashbacks of what happened and was still reminded of the events and incidents.
Bullying affected farihas development socially because farihas started to talk less to people and was not very socially active and as fariha grew up she was still the same she didn’t talk and was so shy and quite.
Drugs are very dangerous substances that are inhaled ,injected,smoked,consumed causes a temporary psychological change in the body .people will take drugs because they feel like it’s an escape from their problems an people often take it to relive themselves of the pain and these types of drugs are usually cocaine ,crack ,weed and many more | <urn:uuid:b163fa3a-190c-4b8f-8226-21580b4ac08b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightinvisiblegreen.com/bullying-is-when-you-repeatedly-and-intentionally-hurt-and-torture-someone-and-its-either-because-of-race/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.994989 | 972 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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... | 4 | Bullying is when you repeatedly and intentionally hurt and torture someone and its either because of race, religion, sexual and gender orientation or just their appearance or disability bullying takes place in many forms such as cyber verbal physical making threats to someone and also someone may spread rumours about you and might criticism you for how you look and bullying usually happens in school workplaces. Bullying can affect an individual physically because when you are being constantly bullied you think about it and that all you worry about and its constantly in your head and it affects the way you eat and do certain things such as the way you dress up and it’s also about your appearance and kids who are bullied are more likely to have depression and mental issues and also they are more likely not to get good grades and not attend school and get proper education. A case study of a 11 year old girl called Fariha goes to Green School and is in year 6 and is about to go to secondary school. Its is her last term in primary school and from year 4 till 6 she has been bullied because of the way she looks and because she has a disability which only her mum knows about. Fariha is a very intelligent and smart girl who lives with a single parent and has financial problems however fariha tries her best to come school and learn but lately her teachers have been noticing that she does not pay attention in class and has isolated herself from her peers and is always really quite. Her teacher Ms Emily wants to find out about why she is behaving like that and wants to have a meeting with her and her mum when Emily has a meeting with her and her mum ms Emily wants to know what is the reason behind her behaviour and that’s when her mum tells her teacher that fariha has a disability which is that ever since she was born she has stammering problems and whenever she tried to speak everyone would laugh at her which broke farihas self-esteem and knocked down her confidence and she just didn’t pay attention or answer any questions because she knew everyone was going to laugh at her whenever she went into school she would feel really embarrassed because she had a disability.
Bullying affected fariha physically because at home she wouldn’t eat and lost appetite and would cry herself to sleep and her mum started to see a change in the way her daughter looked and fariha started to have suicidal thoughts and took drugs as a way to forget the pain and farihas mum noticed that she wasn’t sleeping right and was always restless and had bags under her eyes and this also affected farihas academically because she wouldn’t do that well in school as she used to even her teachers were really concerned as well and had lots of meeting with her mum as well as because she always thought about the bullies she wouldn’t concentrate that much.. The bullies did not realise the things and abuse that farihas had to go through they were unaware of it. As fariha grew up she still was very vulnerable and shy and had no confidence at all and she still remembered what happened to her in her childhood however she learnt her lesson and defended herself when there was a need to and she also stood up for people who were bullied.
Bullying affected fariha development intellectually because in class she wouldn’t pay attention and would not attend her lessons which was a concern because she wouldn’t learn and would just be depressed and this was a concern because her attendance was so low and her teachers were really worried about her because she was going to secondary and it would have affected when she was a teenager. When fariha goes to secondary school and do the same thing as she did in secondary then it would affect her learning and attendance and would eventually be excluded from school and this would result in her going on a wrong path.
Bullying affectfariha development emotionally because she still is affected by what happened at school and is always depressed and as a way of forgetting the pain she takes drugs and also has suicidal thoughts and is very depressed. However when fariha grew up she was a bit calm but still had flashbacks of what happened and was still reminded of the events and incidents.
Bullying affected farihas development socially because farihas started to talk less to people and was not very socially active and as fariha grew up she was still the same she didn’t talk and was so shy and quite.
Drugs are very dangerous substances that are inhaled ,injected,smoked,consumed causes a temporary psychological change in the body .people will take drugs because they feel like it’s an escape from their problems an people often take it to relive themselves of the pain and these types of drugs are usually cocaine ,crack ,weed and many more | 957 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What was smallpox?
Smallpox was a very serious disease caused by a virus. Many people died of it. Smallpox caused little bumps on your skin, like chickenpox but much more serious. About two to five of every ten people who got smallpox died of it. There was (and is still) no treatment that worked.
Where did smallpox come from?
Smallpox is probably originally a Central Asian disease. The first time we know of anybody having smallpox (at least we think it was smallpox) is in the Parthian empire about 150 AD. It may have been a smallpox epidemic that weakened the Parthian army so that the Roman army was able to push it back (or it may have been measles).
Smallpox spreads all over Eurasia
But when the Roman soldiers returned home from that war, about 160 AD, they brought the smallpox with them. Many soldiers, and many other people in the Roman Empire, died of smallpox over the next hundred years. Smallpox spread the other direction, east to China, about the same time, possibly weakening and ending the Han Dynasty and leading to civil war.
The next smallpox outbreak we know about was in India, around 400 AD. Doctors in India described it as like grains of rice all over your skin, with burning pain. They blamed it on a new goddess, Sitala.
Why did smallpox epidemics stop?
There was a serious outbreak of smallpox in Europe about 581 AD. After that, there were smaller outbreaks in Europe here and there, but it’s just like chickenpox, once you get it once you usually can’t get it again, and so once a lot of people were immune future outbreaks were not as serious.
Inoculation and smallpox
About 900 AD, the Islamic doctor Al Razi was the first to show that measles and smallpox were two different diseases. By about 1000 AD, doctors in India and China were beginning to figure out how to prevent smallpox, though they still couldn’t help you once you had caught it.
In India, doctors rubbed pus from a sore on a person with smallpox into a small cut on your arm. In China, doctors blew powdered smallpox scabs up your nose through a little tube. This worked like a vaccination. It wasn’t as good as a vaccination, because some people didn’t become immune, and some other people caught real smallpox from it. Many people were afraid to get inoculated. But it worked a lot of the time, and it was much better than nothing. These ways of vaccinating people became common in China and India and in the Islamic world, and also in East Africa, but nobody in Europe even knew about it.
Smallpox spreads to the Americas
In the 1500s AD, when people from Europe first began to go to Central America and South America, they brought an enslaved man from Africa with them. It turned out he had smallpox. Some of the people who lived in the Americas caught it.
None of these people were immune, and within a few years about 60-90 percent of the people died. (That’s six to nine out of every ten people!) Soon people in North America caught smallpox too. Most of them also died. Most of the people in North and South America died of either smallpox or measles – that’s part of why the Europeans were able to conquer them.
Inoculation in Europe and the Americas
Finally in the 1700s people in Europe and in North America began to hear about the Indian inoculation process, and they started to use it. The French philosopher Voltaire helped to convince people to do it. In Boston, an African man named Onesimus who worked for Cotton Mather as a slave told people that he had been inoculated in Africa, before he left, and explained how to do it.
Even so, the king of France, Louis XV, died of smallpox in 1774. Gradually in the late 1700s and 1800s doctors developed methods of vaccinating using shots instead of inoculating by blowing scabs up your nose. Vaccination worked much better. European doctors had a lot of time and money for research, because they forced lots of enslaved people and colonized people to do work for them. So the doctors were able to make new discoveries.
The end of smallpox
More and more people were vaccinated, all over the world. At first, it was mainly Europeans and rich Americans. But pretty soon doctors were vaccinating people in other countries too. In Iran, for example, most people were vaccinated about 1850. Very slowly, whole countries, then whole continents started to be free of smallpox again. The last case of smallpox in the world was in 1977, in Somalia (East Africa).
Did you find out what you wanted to know about the history of smallpox? Let us know in the comments!
Learn by doing: get yourself vaccinated against diseases | <urn:uuid:4ca79989-4921-4633-8d15-3edd1885c63c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quatr.us/science/smallpox-history-disease.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.98624 | 1,029 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.273797422647... | 15 | What was smallpox?
Smallpox was a very serious disease caused by a virus. Many people died of it. Smallpox caused little bumps on your skin, like chickenpox but much more serious. About two to five of every ten people who got smallpox died of it. There was (and is still) no treatment that worked.
Where did smallpox come from?
Smallpox is probably originally a Central Asian disease. The first time we know of anybody having smallpox (at least we think it was smallpox) is in the Parthian empire about 150 AD. It may have been a smallpox epidemic that weakened the Parthian army so that the Roman army was able to push it back (or it may have been measles).
Smallpox spreads all over Eurasia
But when the Roman soldiers returned home from that war, about 160 AD, they brought the smallpox with them. Many soldiers, and many other people in the Roman Empire, died of smallpox over the next hundred years. Smallpox spread the other direction, east to China, about the same time, possibly weakening and ending the Han Dynasty and leading to civil war.
The next smallpox outbreak we know about was in India, around 400 AD. Doctors in India described it as like grains of rice all over your skin, with burning pain. They blamed it on a new goddess, Sitala.
Why did smallpox epidemics stop?
There was a serious outbreak of smallpox in Europe about 581 AD. After that, there were smaller outbreaks in Europe here and there, but it’s just like chickenpox, once you get it once you usually can’t get it again, and so once a lot of people were immune future outbreaks were not as serious.
Inoculation and smallpox
About 900 AD, the Islamic doctor Al Razi was the first to show that measles and smallpox were two different diseases. By about 1000 AD, doctors in India and China were beginning to figure out how to prevent smallpox, though they still couldn’t help you once you had caught it.
In India, doctors rubbed pus from a sore on a person with smallpox into a small cut on your arm. In China, doctors blew powdered smallpox scabs up your nose through a little tube. This worked like a vaccination. It wasn’t as good as a vaccination, because some people didn’t become immune, and some other people caught real smallpox from it. Many people were afraid to get inoculated. But it worked a lot of the time, and it was much better than nothing. These ways of vaccinating people became common in China and India and in the Islamic world, and also in East Africa, but nobody in Europe even knew about it.
Smallpox spreads to the Americas
In the 1500s AD, when people from Europe first began to go to Central America and South America, they brought an enslaved man from Africa with them. It turned out he had smallpox. Some of the people who lived in the Americas caught it.
None of these people were immune, and within a few years about 60-90 percent of the people died. (That’s six to nine out of every ten people!) Soon people in North America caught smallpox too. Most of them also died. Most of the people in North and South America died of either smallpox or measles – that’s part of why the Europeans were able to conquer them.
Inoculation in Europe and the Americas
Finally in the 1700s people in Europe and in North America began to hear about the Indian inoculation process, and they started to use it. The French philosopher Voltaire helped to convince people to do it. In Boston, an African man named Onesimus who worked for Cotton Mather as a slave told people that he had been inoculated in Africa, before he left, and explained how to do it.
Even so, the king of France, Louis XV, died of smallpox in 1774. Gradually in the late 1700s and 1800s doctors developed methods of vaccinating using shots instead of inoculating by blowing scabs up your nose. Vaccination worked much better. European doctors had a lot of time and money for research, because they forced lots of enslaved people and colonized people to do work for them. So the doctors were able to make new discoveries.
The end of smallpox
More and more people were vaccinated, all over the world. At first, it was mainly Europeans and rich Americans. But pretty soon doctors were vaccinating people in other countries too. In Iran, for example, most people were vaccinated about 1850. Very slowly, whole countries, then whole continents started to be free of smallpox again. The last case of smallpox in the world was in 1977, in Somalia (East Africa).
Did you find out what you wanted to know about the history of smallpox? Let us know in the comments!
Learn by doing: get yourself vaccinated against diseases | 1,080 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is classified as a low- to moderate-income level is in a constant state of change as the economy continues to grow and add wealth to society. Making what would have been a state of luxury in the past merely normal today. As society continues to increase wealth in an exponential way, what is considered low to moderate income will continue to change. Poverty no longer means starvation as it did in the past.
As of 2006, the median household income in the United States reached just over $50,000. This typically includes the earnings of at least two people who are working full time. The median income for men working full time was just over $43,000 a year. Women earned less at $33,000 a year. Earners in this income range were able to live relatively comfortable lifestyles and often own property such as houses and stock investments.
The bottom 20 percent of individual earners, as of 2006, earned less than $19,000 in a year. Often this includes very young workers and those with other disadvantages. Most members of this income group rely at least to an extent on government aid programs to help pay their debts and make ends meet. The income of low earners in the United States still usually allows for high living standards as measured by the world.
The wealth level of most households can be correlated with certain other social factors that influence the wealth potential of individuals. It has been found that there are stark differences in average income between those who have high school degrees and those who don't. An even greater one appears to have opened up between those who have only high school degrees and those who have some form of college degree. As well age matters significantly.
There have been many attempts to reduce the level of poverty in the United States by focusing on both public and private measures. These have had mostly mixed results. Through the use of welfare programs the government has managed to reduce some of the worse hardships of poverty. These same programs have been criticized for locking people into lifestyles of poverty. Other attempts have involved encouraging private funding and investment for under served areas and groups. | <urn:uuid:ed347c22-e63a-4515-a8fe-ebb65aaa14b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://careertrend.com/what-is-the-low-to-moderate-income-level-13654746.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.98569 | 419 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.0656899... | 1 | What is classified as a low- to moderate-income level is in a constant state of change as the economy continues to grow and add wealth to society. Making what would have been a state of luxury in the past merely normal today. As society continues to increase wealth in an exponential way, what is considered low to moderate income will continue to change. Poverty no longer means starvation as it did in the past.
As of 2006, the median household income in the United States reached just over $50,000. This typically includes the earnings of at least two people who are working full time. The median income for men working full time was just over $43,000 a year. Women earned less at $33,000 a year. Earners in this income range were able to live relatively comfortable lifestyles and often own property such as houses and stock investments.
The bottom 20 percent of individual earners, as of 2006, earned less than $19,000 in a year. Often this includes very young workers and those with other disadvantages. Most members of this income group rely at least to an extent on government aid programs to help pay their debts and make ends meet. The income of low earners in the United States still usually allows for high living standards as measured by the world.
The wealth level of most households can be correlated with certain other social factors that influence the wealth potential of individuals. It has been found that there are stark differences in average income between those who have high school degrees and those who don't. An even greater one appears to have opened up between those who have only high school degrees and those who have some form of college degree. As well age matters significantly.
There have been many attempts to reduce the level of poverty in the United States by focusing on both public and private measures. These have had mostly mixed results. Through the use of welfare programs the government has managed to reduce some of the worse hardships of poverty. These same programs have been criticized for locking people into lifestyles of poverty. Other attempts have involved encouraging private funding and investment for under served areas and groups. | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The measure of life is not what life accomplishes but rather… the impact that life has on others” quote from Jackie Robinson. His legacy changed many lives. Jackie Robinson was one of the greatest baseball players of all time and his accomplishments led to increased equality for the blacks. He was born on January 31st, 1919 in Cairo, Georgia (Wikipedia.org). He was the youngest born of 5 children. He ended up only living there for a short amount of time because his father left them. Then he moved to Pasadena, California. His family was very poor. They lived in a under average house in a neighborhood. Robinson joined a neighborhood gang because he was discluded from all activities. After graduating from his previous high school, he enrolled at John Muir High School. He played 4 sports, football, baseball, basketball, and track, and lettered in all of them. After graduating he joined Pasadena Junior college. He continued playing the same sports very well. After that he enrolled at UCLA. He became the schools first athlete to letter in 4 sports. He won the NCAA championship with a record long jump of 24 feet and 10.25 inches. Surprisingly Robinsons worst sport at UCLA was baseball. He hit a .097 in his only season. He left UCLA right before graduation to follow his football career, but after the attack on Pearl Harbor, his football career was over. In 1942, Robinson was drafted into war. In january 1943 he was commissioned 2nd lieutenant. His military career suddenly came to a halt after an unfortunate event on July 6, 1944. He fought in a battle. After the military, he joined Sam Huston College. In 1945 Robinson played professional baseball in the negro leagues. He decided to accept a contract for $400 per month but he ended up not having a good experience with the Monarchs, even though he played very well. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout for Robinson and other black players on April 16th, but they were not serious about having a black man on their team. Robinson left the tryout humiliated. There were other teams that were actually serious about having a black ballplayer on their team. Branch Ricky agreed to sign Robinson to the Royals. The signing of Robinson to the Royals was publicly announced on October 23rd (Wikipedia.org). On March 17th, 1946 Robinson played his first game as a Royal against the teams parent team the Dodgers. It had been a long time since someone had seen a black person play in the minor leagues. Finally, Robinson had ended segregation in baseball. Unexpectedly, 6 days before the start of the 1947 season, Robinson got called up by the Dodgers to play in the major leagues with them. On April 5th, in front of a huge crowd of 26,623 spectators Robinson played his first game in the major leagues. He broke the color line. This was a giant step to more equality for the blacks. The Dodgers won 5-3. Black fans began watching the Dodgers abandoning their negro leagues. He was a great ballplayer, but there was a lot of tension. Some of his teammates refused to play by his side. Fans and other players said many racist things to him. Some of his teammates began defending Robinson. The national league president told everyone that anyone who strikes against him will be suspended. Robinson played 151 games that season. He had a batting average of .297, and he had 175 hits. His astonishing performance earned him the rookie of the year award in 1947. He had 133 double plays in the 1950 season which made the record. He finished the year with 99 runs scored a .378 batting average. The only big win he had was the 1955 world series against their rivals the New York Yankees. Robinson decided to end his baseball career after the 1956 season. Robinsons career in the major league ended about 60 years of segregation in professional baseball. His hard work and achievements led the blacks step by step closer to equality. He was an astonishing athlete, and a hero to all black people. Jackie Robinson was one of the greatest baseball players of all time and his accomplishments led to increased equality for the blacks. | <urn:uuid:1d39fc9e-2ac3-42f7-b34b-0b458ce0dc47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://johnnyfavourit.com/the-accomplishes-but-rather-the-impact-that-life/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.993743 | 837 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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-0.100911982357501... | 5 | “The measure of life is not what life accomplishes but rather… the impact that life has on others” quote from Jackie Robinson. His legacy changed many lives. Jackie Robinson was one of the greatest baseball players of all time and his accomplishments led to increased equality for the blacks. He was born on January 31st, 1919 in Cairo, Georgia (Wikipedia.org). He was the youngest born of 5 children. He ended up only living there for a short amount of time because his father left them. Then he moved to Pasadena, California. His family was very poor. They lived in a under average house in a neighborhood. Robinson joined a neighborhood gang because he was discluded from all activities. After graduating from his previous high school, he enrolled at John Muir High School. He played 4 sports, football, baseball, basketball, and track, and lettered in all of them. After graduating he joined Pasadena Junior college. He continued playing the same sports very well. After that he enrolled at UCLA. He became the schools first athlete to letter in 4 sports. He won the NCAA championship with a record long jump of 24 feet and 10.25 inches. Surprisingly Robinsons worst sport at UCLA was baseball. He hit a .097 in his only season. He left UCLA right before graduation to follow his football career, but after the attack on Pearl Harbor, his football career was over. In 1942, Robinson was drafted into war. In january 1943 he was commissioned 2nd lieutenant. His military career suddenly came to a halt after an unfortunate event on July 6, 1944. He fought in a battle. After the military, he joined Sam Huston College. In 1945 Robinson played professional baseball in the negro leagues. He decided to accept a contract for $400 per month but he ended up not having a good experience with the Monarchs, even though he played very well. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout for Robinson and other black players on April 16th, but they were not serious about having a black man on their team. Robinson left the tryout humiliated. There were other teams that were actually serious about having a black ballplayer on their team. Branch Ricky agreed to sign Robinson to the Royals. The signing of Robinson to the Royals was publicly announced on October 23rd (Wikipedia.org). On March 17th, 1946 Robinson played his first game as a Royal against the teams parent team the Dodgers. It had been a long time since someone had seen a black person play in the minor leagues. Finally, Robinson had ended segregation in baseball. Unexpectedly, 6 days before the start of the 1947 season, Robinson got called up by the Dodgers to play in the major leagues with them. On April 5th, in front of a huge crowd of 26,623 spectators Robinson played his first game in the major leagues. He broke the color line. This was a giant step to more equality for the blacks. The Dodgers won 5-3. Black fans began watching the Dodgers abandoning their negro leagues. He was a great ballplayer, but there was a lot of tension. Some of his teammates refused to play by his side. Fans and other players said many racist things to him. Some of his teammates began defending Robinson. The national league president told everyone that anyone who strikes against him will be suspended. Robinson played 151 games that season. He had a batting average of .297, and he had 175 hits. His astonishing performance earned him the rookie of the year award in 1947. He had 133 double plays in the 1950 season which made the record. He finished the year with 99 runs scored a .378 batting average. The only big win he had was the 1955 world series against their rivals the New York Yankees. Robinson decided to end his baseball career after the 1956 season. Robinsons career in the major league ended about 60 years of segregation in professional baseball. His hard work and achievements led the blacks step by step closer to equality. He was an astonishing athlete, and a hero to all black people. Jackie Robinson was one of the greatest baseball players of all time and his accomplishments led to increased equality for the blacks. | 922 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Factors That Influence Your Research
Weather plays an important role in the lives of our ancestors. They did not have a meteorologist to tell them a tornado, hurricane, flood or earthquake might occur. They had to rely on their sense of smell and eyes to know when it was going to rain. So, when the disasters such as hurricanes hit, some of our families may have perished and/or were forced to move to another community. Maybe they will show up living with another family or relative on the next census because of their home loss. Crops may have been destroyed due to drought or flooding and the father had to move into the city to find work. A woman may have lost her husband and have to start work, or consider remarrying to help support her family. Lightening may strike and burn the home and/or barn.
Wars can definitely impact our families. Take the Civil War for example. In many counties that suffered heavy troop losses, there is a great drop from the 1860 census to the 1870 census in male households. Many women were left widows and had to support the family or choose to remarry. This is important to know if you are trying to locate a male in that time period and he just seems to have disappeared.
Diseases occurred that changed cities and caused migrations of people at times. The Yellow Fever epidemic was one of those times. Memphis, TN had many of its white citizens flee leaving the African American and Irish. Most of the African Americans survived the epidemic and there were many Irish deaths. Due to the migration of whites to leave the Memphis area, this gave the African Americans opportunities to flourish in Memphis once the disease was under control. This may not have happened as quickly had the epidemic not occurred. So, if you have an ancestor in a community such as Memphis, you would look elsewhere for your white ancestors. But, your African American ancestors that may have lived in the outlying areas of Memphis, Mississippi and Arkansas may now be residing within the city limits. Communities and their dynamics can change from these types of diseases and situations. “The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. This has been seen as creating a series of religious, social and economic upheavals which had profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover. The plague returned at various times, resulting in a larger number of deaths, until it left Europe in the 19th century.”(Wikipedia) So, you see what an impact it can have on your researching during that time period in that particular region. All areas have similar stories to tell.
Economy is factor that influenced where our ancestors’ lived and what they did to make a living. Were jobs plentiful or non-existent? Did your ancestor have a trade? What ethnic group were they? Those questions can help you locate if they lived in the city or were sharecroppers on a farm. Taxation was high in some areas forcing their citizens to flee the financial hardships. Indentured servants came to American working for their freedom. The California Gold Rush (1848-1855) caused a great stir and excitement for getting rich quick opportunities. Some men took their families, but many left alone, some never to return as they were not equipped to deal with the harsh realities of the west. Chinese, Native Americans, African Americans, Mexicans, Irish, French, Germans were among those that caught the “fever” of the Gold Rush.
Religion played a part in where some families made their homes. Some moved to America for religious freedom and a better way of life. The members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints moved from the east to the west so they could worship as they pleased. Between 1846 and 1869, about 70,000 Mormons traveled west, some even coming from as far away as the British Isles. Therefore, if you had family living in the British Isles, Missouri or New York and suddenly they disappeared, you might want to see if they joined the caravans traveling west.
In summary, it is important when doing our family history to realize the role that weather, war, disease, economy and religion can play in where our ancestors lived, what they did for a living, and how the community was affected by the influences of their outcomes.
Check out Getting Started in Genealogy to get ideas in your research!
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Tina Sansone. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Tina Sansone. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Tina Sansone for details. | <urn:uuid:3d2d0160-a799-42c2-937c-f09364f230d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art68195.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.982993 | 980 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.041105933487... | 1 | Factors That Influence Your Research
Weather plays an important role in the lives of our ancestors. They did not have a meteorologist to tell them a tornado, hurricane, flood or earthquake might occur. They had to rely on their sense of smell and eyes to know when it was going to rain. So, when the disasters such as hurricanes hit, some of our families may have perished and/or were forced to move to another community. Maybe they will show up living with another family or relative on the next census because of their home loss. Crops may have been destroyed due to drought or flooding and the father had to move into the city to find work. A woman may have lost her husband and have to start work, or consider remarrying to help support her family. Lightening may strike and burn the home and/or barn.
Wars can definitely impact our families. Take the Civil War for example. In many counties that suffered heavy troop losses, there is a great drop from the 1860 census to the 1870 census in male households. Many women were left widows and had to support the family or choose to remarry. This is important to know if you are trying to locate a male in that time period and he just seems to have disappeared.
Diseases occurred that changed cities and caused migrations of people at times. The Yellow Fever epidemic was one of those times. Memphis, TN had many of its white citizens flee leaving the African American and Irish. Most of the African Americans survived the epidemic and there were many Irish deaths. Due to the migration of whites to leave the Memphis area, this gave the African Americans opportunities to flourish in Memphis once the disease was under control. This may not have happened as quickly had the epidemic not occurred. So, if you have an ancestor in a community such as Memphis, you would look elsewhere for your white ancestors. But, your African American ancestors that may have lived in the outlying areas of Memphis, Mississippi and Arkansas may now be residing within the city limits. Communities and their dynamics can change from these types of diseases and situations. “The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population, reducing the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. This has been seen as creating a series of religious, social and economic upheavals which had profound effects on the course of European history. It took 150 years for Europe's population to recover. The plague returned at various times, resulting in a larger number of deaths, until it left Europe in the 19th century.”(Wikipedia) So, you see what an impact it can have on your researching during that time period in that particular region. All areas have similar stories to tell.
Economy is factor that influenced where our ancestors’ lived and what they did to make a living. Were jobs plentiful or non-existent? Did your ancestor have a trade? What ethnic group were they? Those questions can help you locate if they lived in the city or were sharecroppers on a farm. Taxation was high in some areas forcing their citizens to flee the financial hardships. Indentured servants came to American working for their freedom. The California Gold Rush (1848-1855) caused a great stir and excitement for getting rich quick opportunities. Some men took their families, but many left alone, some never to return as they were not equipped to deal with the harsh realities of the west. Chinese, Native Americans, African Americans, Mexicans, Irish, French, Germans were among those that caught the “fever” of the Gold Rush.
Religion played a part in where some families made their homes. Some moved to America for religious freedom and a better way of life. The members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints moved from the east to the west so they could worship as they pleased. Between 1846 and 1869, about 70,000 Mormons traveled west, some even coming from as far away as the British Isles. Therefore, if you had family living in the British Isles, Missouri or New York and suddenly they disappeared, you might want to see if they joined the caravans traveling west.
In summary, it is important when doing our family history to realize the role that weather, war, disease, economy and religion can play in where our ancestors lived, what they did for a living, and how the community was affected by the influences of their outcomes.
Check out Getting Started in Genealogy to get ideas in your research!
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Tina Sansone. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Tina Sansone. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Tina Sansone for details. | 1,011 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1942, San Leandro draftsman Fred Korematsu was jailed for refusing to obey President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 ordering all citizens of Japanese descent to report to relocation centers. Korematsu and his fiancée had intended to leave California to marry.
The ACLU of Northern California took on Korematsu’s legal challenge and was nearly alone in challenging to the wartime relocation and forced detention of more than 120,000 Japanese Americans
"I was stunned, I couldn't believe this was happening in America," Korematsu recalled. "I was surprised when the guard came and told me I had a visitor. I didn't know him, but he introduced himself as Mr. Ernest Besig of the American Civil Liberties Union."
The ACLU-NC took the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court, arguing that the exclusion and detention laws violated basic constitutional rights.
In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against Korematsu, upholding his conviction, and the war measures, as constitutional.
It took almost 40 years for Korematsu to be legally vindicated. | <urn:uuid:529ab9d6-3132-4f17-9312-ea8245a7ebcf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aclunc.org/article/historic-victory-standing-japanese-americans-during-world-war-ii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.984221 | 228 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.5103333592414856,... | 10 | In 1942, San Leandro draftsman Fred Korematsu was jailed for refusing to obey President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 ordering all citizens of Japanese descent to report to relocation centers. Korematsu and his fiancée had intended to leave California to marry.
The ACLU of Northern California took on Korematsu’s legal challenge and was nearly alone in challenging to the wartime relocation and forced detention of more than 120,000 Japanese Americans
"I was stunned, I couldn't believe this was happening in America," Korematsu recalled. "I was surprised when the guard came and told me I had a visitor. I didn't know him, but he introduced himself as Mr. Ernest Besig of the American Civil Liberties Union."
The ACLU-NC took the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court, arguing that the exclusion and detention laws violated basic constitutional rights.
In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against Korematsu, upholding his conviction, and the war measures, as constitutional.
It took almost 40 years for Korematsu to be legally vindicated. | 239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was the year 1594. Serbian lands were under the Ottoman rule for quite some time. They burned St. Sava's relics to break people's spirit and prevent future uprisings.
Saint Sava (prince Rastko Nemanjić, born 1174, died 1236) was the youngest son of Stefan Nemanja, who is considered to be the founder of medieval Serbian state. Saint Sava was the first archbishop of the independent Serbian-Orthodox Church (1219) and spiritual leader of Serbs throughout the centuries. Serbs deeply respected and revered the remains of their biggest saint, gathered around it, and sought consolation in times of despair, especially since they lost their freedom to increasingly growing Ottoman empire in 1459 (fall of the last Serbian fortification in the City of Smederevo, near Belgrade). Believing in their shepherd, St. Sava, Serbian population never accepted submission. They continuously showed the will to endure, to preserve their Christian-Orthodox tradition, their culture, and hoped to restore their sovereignty.
In 1594, Serbs supported Habsburg Monarchy in what is commonly known as the "Thirteen years' war" (1593-1606) against the Ottoman Turks. To punish them, Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha burned St. Sava's remains (brought from the monastery of Mileševa in southern Serbia to Vračar plateau in Belgrade, or to Tašmajdan Park as it is disputed by some historians) on April 27, 1594. He thought that this action would finally break people's spirit, and force them to accept their doom. He was wrong. Serbs were determined more than ever to regain their freedom. After two turbulent centuries of uprisings, great migrations, and sufferings, finally in the 19th century Serbia was independent once again.
In loving memory of St. Sava, exactly 300 years after his remains were burned in Belgrade, in 1894, the initiative of building a grand cathedral on the spot of the incineration appeared. After more than 10 years of planning, everything was set. However, the political situation in Serbia around that time was very unstable. The conflict with Austro-Hungarian empire was growing, then came the First and Second Balkan Wars, and in the end the Great War (World War I).
In 1926 the plans for building the St. Sava's church were renewed, and in 1935 the small church was built in just 7 days. In 1936 the foundations for the grand church were set, and by the 1941 and beginning of the World War II, the walls about 10 meters high were constructed.
After the World War II, the communists came to power in Yugoslavia, the land was nationalized, and the space was used as a warehouse. There were initiatives even for "removal of the ruins", or to convert the place into a Museum of Religions. But the Church endured, and continuously asked the authorities to resume the construction. However, for this to happen, Tito, Yugoslav supreme communist leader, had to die. And five years after his death, in 1985, the construction of the temple was finally resumed. In 2017, the works on the exterior of the church were completed. Now, the work on the interior of the temple is in progress.
The architectural design of the church is comparable only to the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul and Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia, Bulgaria. Cathedral ("Temple", as the Serbs call it) of Saint Sava is one of the 5 largest orthodox churches in the world, and the largest one in the Balkans (South-Eastern Europe). The basis of the church is 91x81 meters and it is about 70 meters high. It is the symbol of Serbian essence, pride, tradition, and freedom.
Masterpiece in Pieces
(article from Bits&Pieces)
Sometimes a photo really cannot show a true magnitude of a venture, nor its beauty. So, I will not even begin to portray it with words. You have to see it for yourself. I will give you just a couple of facts.
Setting-up the Dome of St. Sava's Church in Belgrade was one of the most daring architectural projects of the time. Back in 1989, constructors were lifting a 4000 tons heavy Dome for 40 days to the height of about 40 meters. It was unprecedented.
And what's with the interior of the Dome?
The giant mosaic of the Ascencion of Jesus was put in place in 2018. It was brought from Russia, in panels, total weighting 40 tons. In charge of this project was member of Russian Academy of Arts, Nikolay Mukhin. And 70 Russian and Serbian artists worked on it. The total cost was 4 million euros, and it was entirely donated by Russia's "Gazprom".
It was carried out in the old Russian, Serbian and Byzantine tradition and technique of painting. It represents Christ (about 14 meters long), with 4 angels, and then, in the lower part, Holy Virgin Mary with two archangels and 12 apostles all around.
This representation is somewhat unusual for Serbian churches, as commonly in the Dome would be Christ Pantocrator. However, this is not strange for Russian churches. Other thing, the Dome itself is very large (30 meters radius), so imagine a display of Christ Pantocrator of this magnitude?
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0.502555489540100... | 15 | It was the year 1594. Serbian lands were under the Ottoman rule for quite some time. They burned St. Sava's relics to break people's spirit and prevent future uprisings.
Saint Sava (prince Rastko Nemanjić, born 1174, died 1236) was the youngest son of Stefan Nemanja, who is considered to be the founder of medieval Serbian state. Saint Sava was the first archbishop of the independent Serbian-Orthodox Church (1219) and spiritual leader of Serbs throughout the centuries. Serbs deeply respected and revered the remains of their biggest saint, gathered around it, and sought consolation in times of despair, especially since they lost their freedom to increasingly growing Ottoman empire in 1459 (fall of the last Serbian fortification in the City of Smederevo, near Belgrade). Believing in their shepherd, St. Sava, Serbian population never accepted submission. They continuously showed the will to endure, to preserve their Christian-Orthodox tradition, their culture, and hoped to restore their sovereignty.
In 1594, Serbs supported Habsburg Monarchy in what is commonly known as the "Thirteen years' war" (1593-1606) against the Ottoman Turks. To punish them, Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha burned St. Sava's remains (brought from the monastery of Mileševa in southern Serbia to Vračar plateau in Belgrade, or to Tašmajdan Park as it is disputed by some historians) on April 27, 1594. He thought that this action would finally break people's spirit, and force them to accept their doom. He was wrong. Serbs were determined more than ever to regain their freedom. After two turbulent centuries of uprisings, great migrations, and sufferings, finally in the 19th century Serbia was independent once again.
In loving memory of St. Sava, exactly 300 years after his remains were burned in Belgrade, in 1894, the initiative of building a grand cathedral on the spot of the incineration appeared. After more than 10 years of planning, everything was set. However, the political situation in Serbia around that time was very unstable. The conflict with Austro-Hungarian empire was growing, then came the First and Second Balkan Wars, and in the end the Great War (World War I).
In 1926 the plans for building the St. Sava's church were renewed, and in 1935 the small church was built in just 7 days. In 1936 the foundations for the grand church were set, and by the 1941 and beginning of the World War II, the walls about 10 meters high were constructed.
After the World War II, the communists came to power in Yugoslavia, the land was nationalized, and the space was used as a warehouse. There were initiatives even for "removal of the ruins", or to convert the place into a Museum of Religions. But the Church endured, and continuously asked the authorities to resume the construction. However, for this to happen, Tito, Yugoslav supreme communist leader, had to die. And five years after his death, in 1985, the construction of the temple was finally resumed. In 2017, the works on the exterior of the church were completed. Now, the work on the interior of the temple is in progress.
The architectural design of the church is comparable only to the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul and Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia, Bulgaria. Cathedral ("Temple", as the Serbs call it) of Saint Sava is one of the 5 largest orthodox churches in the world, and the largest one in the Balkans (South-Eastern Europe). The basis of the church is 91x81 meters and it is about 70 meters high. It is the symbol of Serbian essence, pride, tradition, and freedom.
Masterpiece in Pieces
(article from Bits&Pieces)
Sometimes a photo really cannot show a true magnitude of a venture, nor its beauty. So, I will not even begin to portray it with words. You have to see it for yourself. I will give you just a couple of facts.
Setting-up the Dome of St. Sava's Church in Belgrade was one of the most daring architectural projects of the time. Back in 1989, constructors were lifting a 4000 tons heavy Dome for 40 days to the height of about 40 meters. It was unprecedented.
And what's with the interior of the Dome?
The giant mosaic of the Ascencion of Jesus was put in place in 2018. It was brought from Russia, in panels, total weighting 40 tons. In charge of this project was member of Russian Academy of Arts, Nikolay Mukhin. And 70 Russian and Serbian artists worked on it. The total cost was 4 million euros, and it was entirely donated by Russia's "Gazprom".
It was carried out in the old Russian, Serbian and Byzantine tradition and technique of painting. It represents Christ (about 14 meters long), with 4 angels, and then, in the lower part, Holy Virgin Mary with two archangels and 12 apostles all around.
This representation is somewhat unusual for Serbian churches, as commonly in the Dome would be Christ Pantocrator. However, this is not strange for Russian churches. Other thing, the Dome itself is very large (30 meters radius), so imagine a display of Christ Pantocrator of this magnitude?
This solution perfectly fits. And everyone who saw it couldn't do much more than staring in admiration. | 1,215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everyone knows that C. S. Lewis was the author of the Chronicles of Narnia and an excellent Christian apologist, but what many people may not know is that Lewis was also a veteran of the “Great” War, better known as World War I. The war affected Lewis greatly, and therefore we need to get an idea of how before we look at war in Narnia. Lewis saw the worst of the war first hand, and he developed successful emotional defenses against its horrors. Both of these aspects would alter affect Narnia.
An atheistic, priggish (by his own account) Lewis spent the early years of WWI studying with William Kirkpatrick, better known as the “Great Knock,” in Kirkpatrick’s home in Great Bookham, Surrey. While living there Lewis felt isolated from the war, though he noted to Douglas Gresham that even in this insulated haven of study he could, if the wind was right, “hear the mutter and grumble of the far distant guns in France.” Though he could have avoided service entirely, after a period of indecision Lewis decided to join up. Having crossed that important threshold, he then proceeded to segregate his mind from thinking about the war to such an extent that he later remarked that some people would likely think it “shameful.” In his words, war and country “may have my body, but not my mind. I will take part in battles, but not read about them.” (Surprised By Joy 58)
Lewis later traveled to Oxford to begin study to become a scholar. He had been there less than a term when his enlistment papers came through and he officially entered the army. He did not leave Oxford, but joined a cadet battalion stationed at Keble College. There he made the acquaintance of a number of aspiring scholar-warriors, including Paddy Moore, whose mother later played such a long and important role in Lewis’s life. It is also notable that of the five friends who left Keble for war, he alone survived. After a brief period of training, Lewis was promoted to second lieutenant and attached to the Somerset Light Infantry.
Lewis arrived on the front lines in France on his nineteenth birthday in November 1917. While he would remember portions of the next five months fondly at times, over all they proved to be one of the worst periods of his life. He later remarked that though he understood that war was sometimes a necessity, he would rather die than live through another. Here too, he continued to demonstrate the remarkable ability to split off his intellect and imagination from the horrors surrounding him. While facing carnage and death on an almost daily basis, Lewis seemed to dwell more on what he was reading and on the various poems that would later be published as Spirits in Bondage.
In stark contrast to his still blossoming literary pursuits, Lewis experienced the awful reality that was World War I. He described “the frights, the cold, the smell of H.E. [high explosive], the horribly smashed men still moving like half crushed beetles, the sitting or standing corpses, the landscape of sheer earth without a blade of grass, the boots worn day and night till they seemed to grow to your feet.” He seems, though, to have dealt with this by withdrawing further into the shell provided by his active imagination and the literature he still managed to feed it. He observed that the reality of the war “shows rarely and faintly in memory. It is too cut off from the rest of my experience and often seems to have happened to someone else. It is even in a way unimportant. One imaginative moment [that of hearing his first bullet] seems now to matter more than the realities that followed.” (SBJ196)
During his time at the front, he acquitted himself well; the company he commanded won awards for guard mounting and company drill and he even aided in the capture of around sixty German prisoners of war. During the winter Lewis spent a month in hospital recovering from a bout with “Trench Fever,” but he had returned to his unit in time to face the massive German offensive in France in the spring of 1918. Near Mt. Bernenchon in April, as Lewis led his men forward, British shells fell amongst his troops, obliterating a respected sergeant named Harry Ayres and seriously wounding Lewis. Lewis managed to drag himself back towards friendly lines where a stretcher crew picked him up. He was eventually transported to a series of hospitals in the rear. The war ended before he had recovered sufficiently to take the field again, and he returned to Oxford to continue his studies.
Even in the horrific instant of Lewis’s wounding, he reported the same disconnect from his physical circumstances and retreat into his mind that he carried with him to war. He seemed to be observing his own impending death as nothing more than an abstract exercise. It is obvious that for quite some time he had the practical ability to withdraw into himself and distinguish between the creative reality of his mind on the one hand and his physical circumstances on the other. For him, this amounted to a willful decision to enjoy the interior world he had created instead of what confronted him outside. Perhaps Puddleglum described it best in his argument with the Green Witch in The Silver Chair when the he states,
Suppose we have only dreamed, or made up, all those things—trees and grass and sun and moon and stars and Aslan himself. Suppose we have. Then all I can say is that, in that case, the made up things seem a good deal more important than the real ones. […]That’s why I’m going to stand by the play world. I’m on Aslan’s side even if there isn’t any Aslan to lead it. I’m going to live as like a Narnian as I can even if there isn’t any Narnia. (The Silver Chair 159)
Whether or not the marshwiggle is vicariously speaking for Lewis, it is a tendency he seems to share with his creator.
This segregation of mind was well developed prior to Lewis’s actual entry into the war. He had already integrated it into his larger worldview with ease, perhaps even eagerly. Thinking back on it later, he himself remarked that “even if the attitude was right, the quality in me which made it so easy to adopt is somewhat repellent” (Surprised by Joy 159). Precisely where his ability came from is a question that will probably never be answered authoritatively. He may have been born with it, developed it as a child after his mother’s death, it may stem from years of day dreaming and vicarious living through the literature he loved so much, or perhaps it grew up as a survival mechanism as a result of the torture he and Warren Lewis had endured at the hand of Robert Capron, the insane headmaster of his first boarding school. Whatever the case, it enabled him to endure the horrors of war but keep what he considered to be essentially himself separate and, to a certain extent, unaffected.
These experiences–especially Lewis’s tendency to separate himself–will have some significant implications for Lewis approach to depicting war in Narnia. In the next article, linked below, I’ll go into further depth explaining just how.
The content of this series of posts was first presented to the world in the excellent little Lewis journal, The Lamp-Post 31:4 (Winter, 2010): 3-23, and was given in a talk at the 41st meeting of the Mythopoeic Society in Dallas, TX, in July 2010. A greatly expanded version is under consideration with the journal Mythlore.
Lewis, C. S. Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life. Orlando, FL: Harvest Books, 1955.
________. The Silver Chair. New York: Collier, 1970.
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0.22070160508... | 3 | Everyone knows that C. S. Lewis was the author of the Chronicles of Narnia and an excellent Christian apologist, but what many people may not know is that Lewis was also a veteran of the “Great” War, better known as World War I. The war affected Lewis greatly, and therefore we need to get an idea of how before we look at war in Narnia. Lewis saw the worst of the war first hand, and he developed successful emotional defenses against its horrors. Both of these aspects would alter affect Narnia.
An atheistic, priggish (by his own account) Lewis spent the early years of WWI studying with William Kirkpatrick, better known as the “Great Knock,” in Kirkpatrick’s home in Great Bookham, Surrey. While living there Lewis felt isolated from the war, though he noted to Douglas Gresham that even in this insulated haven of study he could, if the wind was right, “hear the mutter and grumble of the far distant guns in France.” Though he could have avoided service entirely, after a period of indecision Lewis decided to join up. Having crossed that important threshold, he then proceeded to segregate his mind from thinking about the war to such an extent that he later remarked that some people would likely think it “shameful.” In his words, war and country “may have my body, but not my mind. I will take part in battles, but not read about them.” (Surprised By Joy 58)
Lewis later traveled to Oxford to begin study to become a scholar. He had been there less than a term when his enlistment papers came through and he officially entered the army. He did not leave Oxford, but joined a cadet battalion stationed at Keble College. There he made the acquaintance of a number of aspiring scholar-warriors, including Paddy Moore, whose mother later played such a long and important role in Lewis’s life. It is also notable that of the five friends who left Keble for war, he alone survived. After a brief period of training, Lewis was promoted to second lieutenant and attached to the Somerset Light Infantry.
Lewis arrived on the front lines in France on his nineteenth birthday in November 1917. While he would remember portions of the next five months fondly at times, over all they proved to be one of the worst periods of his life. He later remarked that though he understood that war was sometimes a necessity, he would rather die than live through another. Here too, he continued to demonstrate the remarkable ability to split off his intellect and imagination from the horrors surrounding him. While facing carnage and death on an almost daily basis, Lewis seemed to dwell more on what he was reading and on the various poems that would later be published as Spirits in Bondage.
In stark contrast to his still blossoming literary pursuits, Lewis experienced the awful reality that was World War I. He described “the frights, the cold, the smell of H.E. [high explosive], the horribly smashed men still moving like half crushed beetles, the sitting or standing corpses, the landscape of sheer earth without a blade of grass, the boots worn day and night till they seemed to grow to your feet.” He seems, though, to have dealt with this by withdrawing further into the shell provided by his active imagination and the literature he still managed to feed it. He observed that the reality of the war “shows rarely and faintly in memory. It is too cut off from the rest of my experience and often seems to have happened to someone else. It is even in a way unimportant. One imaginative moment [that of hearing his first bullet] seems now to matter more than the realities that followed.” (SBJ196)
During his time at the front, he acquitted himself well; the company he commanded won awards for guard mounting and company drill and he even aided in the capture of around sixty German prisoners of war. During the winter Lewis spent a month in hospital recovering from a bout with “Trench Fever,” but he had returned to his unit in time to face the massive German offensive in France in the spring of 1918. Near Mt. Bernenchon in April, as Lewis led his men forward, British shells fell amongst his troops, obliterating a respected sergeant named Harry Ayres and seriously wounding Lewis. Lewis managed to drag himself back towards friendly lines where a stretcher crew picked him up. He was eventually transported to a series of hospitals in the rear. The war ended before he had recovered sufficiently to take the field again, and he returned to Oxford to continue his studies.
Even in the horrific instant of Lewis’s wounding, he reported the same disconnect from his physical circumstances and retreat into his mind that he carried with him to war. He seemed to be observing his own impending death as nothing more than an abstract exercise. It is obvious that for quite some time he had the practical ability to withdraw into himself and distinguish between the creative reality of his mind on the one hand and his physical circumstances on the other. For him, this amounted to a willful decision to enjoy the interior world he had created instead of what confronted him outside. Perhaps Puddleglum described it best in his argument with the Green Witch in The Silver Chair when the he states,
Suppose we have only dreamed, or made up, all those things—trees and grass and sun and moon and stars and Aslan himself. Suppose we have. Then all I can say is that, in that case, the made up things seem a good deal more important than the real ones. […]That’s why I’m going to stand by the play world. I’m on Aslan’s side even if there isn’t any Aslan to lead it. I’m going to live as like a Narnian as I can even if there isn’t any Narnia. (The Silver Chair 159)
Whether or not the marshwiggle is vicariously speaking for Lewis, it is a tendency he seems to share with his creator.
This segregation of mind was well developed prior to Lewis’s actual entry into the war. He had already integrated it into his larger worldview with ease, perhaps even eagerly. Thinking back on it later, he himself remarked that “even if the attitude was right, the quality in me which made it so easy to adopt is somewhat repellent” (Surprised by Joy 159). Precisely where his ability came from is a question that will probably never be answered authoritatively. He may have been born with it, developed it as a child after his mother’s death, it may stem from years of day dreaming and vicarious living through the literature he loved so much, or perhaps it grew up as a survival mechanism as a result of the torture he and Warren Lewis had endured at the hand of Robert Capron, the insane headmaster of his first boarding school. Whatever the case, it enabled him to endure the horrors of war but keep what he considered to be essentially himself separate and, to a certain extent, unaffected.
These experiences–especially Lewis’s tendency to separate himself–will have some significant implications for Lewis approach to depicting war in Narnia. In the next article, linked below, I’ll go into further depth explaining just how.
The content of this series of posts was first presented to the world in the excellent little Lewis journal, The Lamp-Post 31:4 (Winter, 2010): 3-23, and was given in a talk at the 41st meeting of the Mythopoeic Society in Dallas, TX, in July 2010. A greatly expanded version is under consideration with the journal Mythlore.
Lewis, C. S. Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life. Orlando, FL: Harvest Books, 1955.
________. The Silver Chair. New York: Collier, 1970.
Posts in the War in Narnia Series: | 1,637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Analysis of Jubilee by Margaret Walker
Religion played various roles in the lives of the characters in Jubilee. Discuss the role of religion in the novel. How did different characters or groups of characters shape or reshape religion to meet their needs? What parts of the bible did each group emphasize?
Religion takes two major contrasting roles in this novel. To one group, the white people, it is a justification of superiority over the black people, while for the black people; it is a source of hope and a place of refuge.
The novel jubilee written by Margaret Walker depicts the African American history in three periods. These periods are during slavery, the American civil war and during the reconstruction process that followed the war period. The novel is based on the life of the author’s great-grand mother, Margaret Duggans Ware Brown. Her great-grandmother was born a slave and was married to a free black man, Randall Ware. Margaret great-grandfather was a blacksmith. Key to note also is that her great-grand father was born a free man. The setting of this novel is the Dutton plantation. This is where her great-grandmother was born as the daughter of the plantation owner.
The main character in this novel is vyry, a young woman who is half white and half black. Her father Master John is the owner of the plantation in which vyry and her mother Sis Hetta dwell in. Sis Hetta dies when vyry is still a very small girl and thus Aunty Sally takes up the motherly role and brings up vyry. Vyry is not legally recognized as Master John’s daughter and is despised by Miss Salina who is the legal wife of Master John. Miss Salina as many other white mistresses were is very cruel and harsh to the colored and black slaves.
The novel brings out various themes inherent in this society. Among the deeply entrenched theme was that of religion. The African Americans were and still are very religious people. At that time, they ascribed almost everything that happened in their lives to their spiritual believes. The novel begins with a vivid description of Sis Hetta’s death. She had apparently bore 15 children and was just approximately 29 years old. Speculation had it that most of these children were fathered by Master John. Her kind gathers to console her as she labors with pain giving birth to yet another baby during her last times on earth. Master John or rather John Morris Dutton had almost married Sis Hetta, but was compelled to look for a white wife. That is when she goes in search of a wife and comes back with Salina from Savannah.
The theme of religion is evident from the beginning of this novel. During the time of Sis Hetta’s death, Brother Ezekiel or rather Brother Zeke as they fondly referred to him asks Sis Hetta what she would like him do for her before she dies. “Sis Hetta, I’m here, Brother Zeke, it’s me. Can I do something for you?” (Walker, 1999). In response to this, Sis Hetta says “pray,” “Pray” (Walker, 1999). In Brother Ezekiel’s prayer it is evident that they sought refuge in religion. Brother Ezekiel addresses God as their father and kind of pleads with God to come take Sis Hetta as she suffers on her death bed like He did to Lishy. They seem to have a strong belief of life after death. Brother Ezekiel especially lays emphasis on the story of father Abraham and the crossing of the river Jordan by the Israelites as they headed to Canaan. He uses these parts of the bible figuratively to denote that where Sis Hetta is about to go is a place of joy and comfort and not of pain and suffering as the earth. This is just to console those left behind. This creates a mental picture of those left behind that Sis Hetta’s suffering would be no more after her death.
The white community view of religion was quite different. Majority had the notion that they had been created superior beings on the account of their skin color. They despised any white person who according to them stooped so low as to associate freely with the Africans as master John did. Form the novel; it is evident that they had respect for Miss Salina, Master John’s wife than they had for Master John “she ain’t no loving namby-pamby like that s.o.b. pretty boy she’s married to (Walker, 1999). The way Miss Salina treated the niggers as the black skinned people were referred to was the ideal way that the blacks ought to have been treated. “She knows how to handle niggers and keep establishment she is a real Christian woman a high quality lady who knows and acts the difference between niggers and white people (Walker, 1999). This clearly shows that, to the white people, religion allowed them the mandate to be masters and rulers over the black people. To them, black people were low class people and were to be treated the way Miss Salina treated them. The white people use religion as a tool of oppression over the black people.
Religion is really kind of a solace to the black folk. Aunt Sally irrespective of how tired she would be never failed to go to Brother Ezekiel’s meetings. Brother Ezekiel’s teachings mostly were drawn from the story of Moses in the Old Testament and the deliverance of the children of Israel. This was in reflection to the kind of deliverance the black folks ever wished for. It kind of gave them hope that someday, if they kept their faith strong and believed in God, the He (God) would send them a Moses to deliver them from their bondage of slavery. “ he admonished his flock to have faith in God and He would send them a Moses, a deliverer to free His people” (Walker, 1999). The secrecy of Brother Ezekiel’s meetings indicates that the African slaves had a mission to free themselves. To them, religion was a tool in which they would finally use to deliver themselves from the bondage of slavery. The passages from the book of Moses about deliverance really gave them hope of deliverance. This is why Aunt Sally was so determined in attending each and every of Brother Ezekiel’s meetings. Vyry was sternly warned never to say a word about these meetings.
Much as they were oppressed, the African Americans knew and believed that someday, they were going to be freed from slavery. They held steadfastly to this hope and cringed on religion to strengthen their hope and conviction. This was the most important function of religion to them other than giving them consolation and comfort. This also was the most significant difference between the niggers and the white people perception of religion. It spans all across this novel, “Jubilee.”
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0.43902164697647095... | 3 | Analysis of Jubilee by Margaret Walker
Religion played various roles in the lives of the characters in Jubilee. Discuss the role of religion in the novel. How did different characters or groups of characters shape or reshape religion to meet their needs? What parts of the bible did each group emphasize?
Religion takes two major contrasting roles in this novel. To one group, the white people, it is a justification of superiority over the black people, while for the black people; it is a source of hope and a place of refuge.
The novel jubilee written by Margaret Walker depicts the African American history in three periods. These periods are during slavery, the American civil war and during the reconstruction process that followed the war period. The novel is based on the life of the author’s great-grand mother, Margaret Duggans Ware Brown. Her great-grandmother was born a slave and was married to a free black man, Randall Ware. Margaret great-grandfather was a blacksmith. Key to note also is that her great-grand father was born a free man. The setting of this novel is the Dutton plantation. This is where her great-grandmother was born as the daughter of the plantation owner.
The main character in this novel is vyry, a young woman who is half white and half black. Her father Master John is the owner of the plantation in which vyry and her mother Sis Hetta dwell in. Sis Hetta dies when vyry is still a very small girl and thus Aunty Sally takes up the motherly role and brings up vyry. Vyry is not legally recognized as Master John’s daughter and is despised by Miss Salina who is the legal wife of Master John. Miss Salina as many other white mistresses were is very cruel and harsh to the colored and black slaves.
The novel brings out various themes inherent in this society. Among the deeply entrenched theme was that of religion. The African Americans were and still are very religious people. At that time, they ascribed almost everything that happened in their lives to their spiritual believes. The novel begins with a vivid description of Sis Hetta’s death. She had apparently bore 15 children and was just approximately 29 years old. Speculation had it that most of these children were fathered by Master John. Her kind gathers to console her as she labors with pain giving birth to yet another baby during her last times on earth. Master John or rather John Morris Dutton had almost married Sis Hetta, but was compelled to look for a white wife. That is when she goes in search of a wife and comes back with Salina from Savannah.
The theme of religion is evident from the beginning of this novel. During the time of Sis Hetta’s death, Brother Ezekiel or rather Brother Zeke as they fondly referred to him asks Sis Hetta what she would like him do for her before she dies. “Sis Hetta, I’m here, Brother Zeke, it’s me. Can I do something for you?” (Walker, 1999). In response to this, Sis Hetta says “pray,” “Pray” (Walker, 1999). In Brother Ezekiel’s prayer it is evident that they sought refuge in religion. Brother Ezekiel addresses God as their father and kind of pleads with God to come take Sis Hetta as she suffers on her death bed like He did to Lishy. They seem to have a strong belief of life after death. Brother Ezekiel especially lays emphasis on the story of father Abraham and the crossing of the river Jordan by the Israelites as they headed to Canaan. He uses these parts of the bible figuratively to denote that where Sis Hetta is about to go is a place of joy and comfort and not of pain and suffering as the earth. This is just to console those left behind. This creates a mental picture of those left behind that Sis Hetta’s suffering would be no more after her death.
The white community view of religion was quite different. Majority had the notion that they had been created superior beings on the account of their skin color. They despised any white person who according to them stooped so low as to associate freely with the Africans as master John did. Form the novel; it is evident that they had respect for Miss Salina, Master John’s wife than they had for Master John “she ain’t no loving namby-pamby like that s.o.b. pretty boy she’s married to (Walker, 1999). The way Miss Salina treated the niggers as the black skinned people were referred to was the ideal way that the blacks ought to have been treated. “She knows how to handle niggers and keep establishment she is a real Christian woman a high quality lady who knows and acts the difference between niggers and white people (Walker, 1999). This clearly shows that, to the white people, religion allowed them the mandate to be masters and rulers over the black people. To them, black people were low class people and were to be treated the way Miss Salina treated them. The white people use religion as a tool of oppression over the black people.
Religion is really kind of a solace to the black folk. Aunt Sally irrespective of how tired she would be never failed to go to Brother Ezekiel’s meetings. Brother Ezekiel’s teachings mostly were drawn from the story of Moses in the Old Testament and the deliverance of the children of Israel. This was in reflection to the kind of deliverance the black folks ever wished for. It kind of gave them hope that someday, if they kept their faith strong and believed in God, the He (God) would send them a Moses to deliver them from their bondage of slavery. “ he admonished his flock to have faith in God and He would send them a Moses, a deliverer to free His people” (Walker, 1999). The secrecy of Brother Ezekiel’s meetings indicates that the African slaves had a mission to free themselves. To them, religion was a tool in which they would finally use to deliver themselves from the bondage of slavery. The passages from the book of Moses about deliverance really gave them hope of deliverance. This is why Aunt Sally was so determined in attending each and every of Brother Ezekiel’s meetings. Vyry was sternly warned never to say a word about these meetings.
Much as they were oppressed, the African Americans knew and believed that someday, they were going to be freed from slavery. They held steadfastly to this hope and cringed on religion to strengthen their hope and conviction. This was the most important function of religion to them other than giving them consolation and comfort. This also was the most significant difference between the niggers and the white people perception of religion. It spans all across this novel, “Jubilee.”
Walker, M. (1999). Jubilee. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | 1,431 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the 20th century there were events which involved racial acts toward a certain race. The Nazis were a group run by Hitler in the 1930s and 1940s and were anti-Semitic or in other words, racist against Jews. Another group during this time was a group called the Ku Klux Klan, which is a white supremacist committee. Despite the fact that these two groups were different in some ways, they were also the same in others, because they both have a purpose for their group, both had a leader which influenced many others, and lastly, both have had acts of violence and murder towards the race they hate.
Both the Nazis and Ku Klux Klan have had their differences. The Nazis were Germans who were out to kill all the Jews, while the KKK was against all African-Americans and other races besides Caucasian. The KKK also wore white sheets over them, while the Nazis wore uniforms with the swastika on them. Another difference is that Nazi Germany was more of a threat to the world as the KKK was more of an underground threat. As you can, see these two groups have had their differences, but they do have similarities.
The Nazis and KKK both had a purpose and that was to get rid of the people they were against from the face of the earth. The Nazis believed that Jews were the cause for World War II and decided to be against them. The Ku Klux Klan were like the Nazis since they were also anti -Semitic and racist against African-Americans. “Not to mention they were also anti-Catholic, anti-Communist and anti-immigrant.” (Showalter 1) Both the Nazis and Ku Klux Klan wanted an Aryan race or a pure race. “The Nazis wanted to have an Aryan race of people with blonde hair and blue eyes.”(Plantagenet 313) Likewise the Ku Klux Klan had their own opinion of an Aryan race, which were all whites who did not believe in a religion. Both Nazis and the KKK had a purpose for their groups.
The Nazis had Adolf Hitler and the second Ku Klux Klan group had William J. Simmons as...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:3d0aced4-5e04-4472-90fa-960048a62f5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Nazi-Germans-And-The-Ku-Klux-63644710.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.994616 | 442 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.027011726051... | 1 | Throughout the 20th century there were events which involved racial acts toward a certain race. The Nazis were a group run by Hitler in the 1930s and 1940s and were anti-Semitic or in other words, racist against Jews. Another group during this time was a group called the Ku Klux Klan, which is a white supremacist committee. Despite the fact that these two groups were different in some ways, they were also the same in others, because they both have a purpose for their group, both had a leader which influenced many others, and lastly, both have had acts of violence and murder towards the race they hate.
Both the Nazis and Ku Klux Klan have had their differences. The Nazis were Germans who were out to kill all the Jews, while the KKK was against all African-Americans and other races besides Caucasian. The KKK also wore white sheets over them, while the Nazis wore uniforms with the swastika on them. Another difference is that Nazi Germany was more of a threat to the world as the KKK was more of an underground threat. As you can, see these two groups have had their differences, but they do have similarities.
The Nazis and KKK both had a purpose and that was to get rid of the people they were against from the face of the earth. The Nazis believed that Jews were the cause for World War II and decided to be against them. The Ku Klux Klan were like the Nazis since they were also anti -Semitic and racist against African-Americans. “Not to mention they were also anti-Catholic, anti-Communist and anti-immigrant.” (Showalter 1) Both the Nazis and Ku Klux Klan wanted an Aryan race or a pure race. “The Nazis wanted to have an Aryan race of people with blonde hair and blue eyes.”(Plantagenet 313) Likewise the Ku Klux Klan had their own opinion of an Aryan race, which were all whites who did not believe in a religion. Both Nazis and the KKK had a purpose for their groups.
The Nazis had Adolf Hitler and the second Ku Klux Klan group had William J. Simmons as...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Art is something that people have been doing for thousands of years, as evidenced by the pieces of art that have survived from ancient and prehistoric times.
As the art of the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods predates the development of writing then it would be impossible to find out the names of the people responsible for the Stone Age that has been found. Paper had not been invented, and it would be doubtful that it would have survived for at least 10,000 years for people to have discovered it. Art thousands of years older than that has been found, and much of it displayed in galleries and museums.
Instead the earliest existent pieces of art were either painted in caves, or are sculptures made of bone, stone, wood, and eventually metal. In other words pieces of art were put on things, or made of things, which are durable. Such pieces would more than likely had some meanings attached to them by the people who had created these things. They would have used any materials available to produce art including ash, charcoal, clay, stone, and pottery.
Early artists were not seeking fame or fortune, as there was no way of recording their names, or no monetary systems to reward them from.
The first objects ever made were created to serve practical purposes. Later it became more common to decorate thing like pottery and tools. Paintings developed as a means of spreading information, or to show how people lived, for instance hunting and fishing scenes. Cave paintings, sculptures, and pottery are therefore the majority of art pieces that have survived from the various stages of the Stone Age.
Perhaps the finest examples of cave paintings were unearthed at Altamira and Lascaux. Although the styles were rudimentary it is possible to know what the pictures are portraying without too much difficulty at all. The paintings cover large areas of these respective caves, up to several thousand feet, so they would have been painted over the course of a few years and by different artists. The cave paintings at Altamira and Lascaux are really well preserved, and demonstrate how the art of that time was produced.
The scenes of people hunting would have been familiar to those that painted the walls, the animals depicted in Lascaux such as the bison have not lived in Europe for thousands of years yet would have been common sites at that time. The hunted bison being close to a wounded man not only shows the artists understood the importance of hunting for their survival but the risks they took in order to catch their prey. The painting of both the man and the bison is flat and two dimensional yet the ash or charcoal used to paint the scene has endured the ravages of time remarkably well.
Art would continue to develop as people became more inventive, had developed farms, developed monetary systems, urban dwellings, governments, and writing. Essentially as civilizations sprang up the capacity to produce works of art, and the quality of such work increased. Some of the most advanced early civilizations began in near east places like Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, and Sumeria.
In every society, at any given point of time, there is a tendency for people to form groups and develop their group identities. Ancient India was no different.
Seven monuments of the ancient world appeared on various lists of historians. The list is given below..
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0.42480942... | 1 | Art is something that people have been doing for thousands of years, as evidenced by the pieces of art that have survived from ancient and prehistoric times.
As the art of the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods predates the development of writing then it would be impossible to find out the names of the people responsible for the Stone Age that has been found. Paper had not been invented, and it would be doubtful that it would have survived for at least 10,000 years for people to have discovered it. Art thousands of years older than that has been found, and much of it displayed in galleries and museums.
Instead the earliest existent pieces of art were either painted in caves, or are sculptures made of bone, stone, wood, and eventually metal. In other words pieces of art were put on things, or made of things, which are durable. Such pieces would more than likely had some meanings attached to them by the people who had created these things. They would have used any materials available to produce art including ash, charcoal, clay, stone, and pottery.
Early artists were not seeking fame or fortune, as there was no way of recording their names, or no monetary systems to reward them from.
The first objects ever made were created to serve practical purposes. Later it became more common to decorate thing like pottery and tools. Paintings developed as a means of spreading information, or to show how people lived, for instance hunting and fishing scenes. Cave paintings, sculptures, and pottery are therefore the majority of art pieces that have survived from the various stages of the Stone Age.
Perhaps the finest examples of cave paintings were unearthed at Altamira and Lascaux. Although the styles were rudimentary it is possible to know what the pictures are portraying without too much difficulty at all. The paintings cover large areas of these respective caves, up to several thousand feet, so they would have been painted over the course of a few years and by different artists. The cave paintings at Altamira and Lascaux are really well preserved, and demonstrate how the art of that time was produced.
The scenes of people hunting would have been familiar to those that painted the walls, the animals depicted in Lascaux such as the bison have not lived in Europe for thousands of years yet would have been common sites at that time. The hunted bison being close to a wounded man not only shows the artists understood the importance of hunting for their survival but the risks they took in order to catch their prey. The painting of both the man and the bison is flat and two dimensional yet the ash or charcoal used to paint the scene has endured the ravages of time remarkably well.
Art would continue to develop as people became more inventive, had developed farms, developed monetary systems, urban dwellings, governments, and writing. Essentially as civilizations sprang up the capacity to produce works of art, and the quality of such work increased. Some of the most advanced early civilizations began in near east places like Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, and Sumeria.
In every society, at any given point of time, there is a tendency for people to form groups and develop their group identities. Ancient India was no different.
Seven monuments of the ancient world appeared on various lists of historians. The list is given below..
India has made significant contributions to science from ancient times. Read about some ancient scientists from India.. | 685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. Alfred the Great is best remembered for his victories against the Vikings. At that time, his kingdom, Wessex, was the only one not to have been attacked by the Vikings.
2. Legend has it that while hiding from the Vikings in a cowherd’s hut on a marshy island in Somerset, Alfred was scolded by the man’s wife for letting her loaves (or ‘cakes’) burn.
3. Alfred is the only English monarch to be known as ‘the Great’.
4. Alfred once disguised himself as a minstrel to sneak into a Viking camp to spy on them. Armed with his harp, he dazzled the Danes with tunes he had learnt as boy, and stayed at the camp for several days.
5. It’s believed that Alfred suffered from what we now know as Crohn's disease – a type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes abdominal pain, diarrhoea, weight loss and fatigue.
6. He was buried in Winchester but his bones were moved several times and some were lost. It is thought that his pelvic bone was found in 2014.
7. Alfred was born Wantage, Oxfordshire, in 849 and became king of Wessex in 871. He died on 26 October 899.
8) Alfred was a learned scholar, judge, administrator and he introduced a fair legal system.
9. His three older brothers were kings before him - Ethelbald, Ethelbert and Ethelred - but all died young.
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0.2908982038497... | 1 | 1. Alfred the Great is best remembered for his victories against the Vikings. At that time, his kingdom, Wessex, was the only one not to have been attacked by the Vikings.
2. Legend has it that while hiding from the Vikings in a cowherd’s hut on a marshy island in Somerset, Alfred was scolded by the man’s wife for letting her loaves (or ‘cakes’) burn.
3. Alfred is the only English monarch to be known as ‘the Great’.
4. Alfred once disguised himself as a minstrel to sneak into a Viking camp to spy on them. Armed with his harp, he dazzled the Danes with tunes he had learnt as boy, and stayed at the camp for several days.
5. It’s believed that Alfred suffered from what we now know as Crohn's disease – a type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes abdominal pain, diarrhoea, weight loss and fatigue.
6. He was buried in Winchester but his bones were moved several times and some were lost. It is thought that his pelvic bone was found in 2014.
7. Alfred was born Wantage, Oxfordshire, in 849 and became king of Wessex in 871. He died on 26 October 899.
8) Alfred was a learned scholar, judge, administrator and he introduced a fair legal system.
9. His three older brothers were kings before him - Ethelbald, Ethelbert and Ethelred - but all died young.
10. He is the originator of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Which is enough for him to be known as 'the Great' as far as I'm concerned. | 351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rosa Parks: Civil Rights Pioneer
Rosa Parks is an example of how the actions of one person can start a chain reaction of events that has far-reaching results. Her refusal to give up her seat on a city bus inspired other African-Americans to demand better treatment in all areas of their lives. She was a reluctant hero, and probably not all of the things that "everyone knows" about her are true. Nonetheless, she remains a powerful symbol of how one person can make a difference.
She was born on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama, in the heart of the American South, at a time when African-Americans were considered second-place citizens in many parts of the country. She was educated at home by her mother, a teacher, until she moved to Montgomery to live with an aunt. In Montgomery, she enrolled in the Industrial School for Girls, a private school; to pay for this school, she cleaned classrooms. As an older child, she attended Booker T. Washington High School. She left before she graduated, however, to take care of her mother, who was very ill. In 1932, when she was 19, Rosa married Raymond Parks. Two years later, she returned to school and got her high school dipoloma.
She worked as a department store seamstress, making and altering clothes. It was a job that she would do for most of her life.
She started working in the 1950s for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), as a secretary in the Montgomery, Alabama, branch office. It was in Montgomery, on December 1, 1955, that she made history.
In those days, Montgomery, like other cities in Alabama and across the South, had a series of laws designed to reinforce the idea that white Americans and African-Americans should remain separate. One of these stated that on the city buses of Montgomery, African-Americans were required to sit in the back of the bus. White Americans could sit anywhere, not just in the front of the bus. The laws also stated that African-Americans should give up their seats if a white person wanted to sit down. This is what happened to Rosa Parks. She was sitting where the law said she should have been sitting: in the back of the bus. She was tired from working all day, and she was tired of being made to feel inferior simply because of her skin color. So on this day, when a white man found the "white" section of this particular Montgomery city bus full and moved to the "colored" section, he appealed to the bus driver, who ordered Rosa and three other people to give up their seats and stand up so this man could sit down. The other people moved, but Rosa did not. She stayed seated. She was clearly breaking the law, and she knew it. The law, however, was unjust, she thought.
She was arrested for breaking the city bus law and spent a night in jail. She was tried and convicted of disorderly conduct. She was fined $14. Her lawyer promised to appeal the conviction.
Social Studies for Kids | <urn:uuid:b33b039e-dd90-4c3c-ae39-08aefb4ab618> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/ushistory/rosaparks1.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.990372 | 636 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.07319803535... | 3 | Rosa Parks: Civil Rights Pioneer
Rosa Parks is an example of how the actions of one person can start a chain reaction of events that has far-reaching results. Her refusal to give up her seat on a city bus inspired other African-Americans to demand better treatment in all areas of their lives. She was a reluctant hero, and probably not all of the things that "everyone knows" about her are true. Nonetheless, she remains a powerful symbol of how one person can make a difference.
She was born on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama, in the heart of the American South, at a time when African-Americans were considered second-place citizens in many parts of the country. She was educated at home by her mother, a teacher, until she moved to Montgomery to live with an aunt. In Montgomery, she enrolled in the Industrial School for Girls, a private school; to pay for this school, she cleaned classrooms. As an older child, she attended Booker T. Washington High School. She left before she graduated, however, to take care of her mother, who was very ill. In 1932, when she was 19, Rosa married Raymond Parks. Two years later, she returned to school and got her high school dipoloma.
She worked as a department store seamstress, making and altering clothes. It was a job that she would do for most of her life.
She started working in the 1950s for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), as a secretary in the Montgomery, Alabama, branch office. It was in Montgomery, on December 1, 1955, that she made history.
In those days, Montgomery, like other cities in Alabama and across the South, had a series of laws designed to reinforce the idea that white Americans and African-Americans should remain separate. One of these stated that on the city buses of Montgomery, African-Americans were required to sit in the back of the bus. White Americans could sit anywhere, not just in the front of the bus. The laws also stated that African-Americans should give up their seats if a white person wanted to sit down. This is what happened to Rosa Parks. She was sitting where the law said she should have been sitting: in the back of the bus. She was tired from working all day, and she was tired of being made to feel inferior simply because of her skin color. So on this day, when a white man found the "white" section of this particular Montgomery city bus full and moved to the "colored" section, he appealed to the bus driver, who ordered Rosa and three other people to give up their seats and stand up so this man could sit down. The other people moved, but Rosa did not. She stayed seated. She was clearly breaking the law, and she knew it. The law, however, was unjust, she thought.
She was arrested for breaking the city bus law and spent a night in jail. She was tried and convicted of disorderly conduct. She was fined $14. Her lawyer promised to appeal the conviction.
Social Studies for Kids | 646 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After new research was conducted on an ancient victory monument in Greece, archaeologists now believe they have vital clues as to why Octavian’s ships so easily defeated those belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, giving Octavian a crucial advantage to a fierce sea battle which ended up securing him his role as Augustus, the first emperor of Rome.
As The Independent reports, the monument depicting the Battle of Actium, which took place in 31 B.C., can still be seen near Nicopolis in Greece, and researchers now have a much better understanding as to why Cleopatra and Antony may have finally been defeated by Octavian.
For thousands of years, it was believed that Cleopatra and Mark Antony’s ships were simply too bulky to properly fight off the smaller and sturdier ships belonging to Octavian in this sea battle, and now fresh new evidence has suggested that this theory may be correct after all, and that Octavian clearly had the upper hand with his smaller and more maneuverable ships.
Because archaeologists have now concluded definitively that Octavian’s ships were indeed smaller than those belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, they have also been able to learn more about the military strategies employed by Rome’s first emperor and why he engaged in the battle tactics that he did.
Secrets of horrific battle with Cleopatra that gave birth to the Roman Empire revealed by ancient monument https://t.co/WTuKTvplde— The Independent (@Independent) March 28, 2019
After Octavian managed to capture 350 of the bulky ships belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, he later decided that 35 of these should be placed around his stupendous war monument which was built to demonstrate the Roman emperor’s victory of this battle.
The niches which were fashioned to hold these ships were all different sizes, and by studying these niches archaeologists determined that some of the ships belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony were so enormous that they stretched for approximately 40 meters, which researchers believe is why Octavian made it his strategy to ensure that his own ships were not rammed by these magnificent warships.
In fact, these ships have been determined to have been so very large that they are four times greater in size than any other ancient ships that archaeologists have discovered dating back to this era.
Before researchers first analyzed the monument in Greece, historians attributed part of their knowledge of the size of the ships involved in the Battle of Actium to a poem by Philippus of Thessalonika, which stated, “Bronze-jawed rams, ships’ voyage-loving armour, we lie here as witnesses to the war at Actium.”
Dr Konstantinos Zachos, the archaeologist who has headed up the new research into the Nicopolis monument, has noted that this enormous structure has provided important evidence about how the final Roman battle was fought and eventually won by Octavian.
“Both historically and archaeologically, this remarkable Roman structure is of tremendous international importance – and continuing research is likely to shed yet more light on the battle that gave birth to the Roman Empire.”
While the niches that held these ships still remain visible within Octavian’s war monument today, the bronze representations of the ships belonging to Cleopatra and Marc Antony have now disappeared completely, and it is believed that these may have been melted down centuries later toward the end of the Roman Empire. | <urn:uuid:5bc050fa-a5bb-4fd1-9b58-89a2655d4ac7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inquisitr.com/5369810/an-ancient-monument-in-greece-may-reveal-why-octavians-ships-so-easily-defeated-those-belonging-to-cleopatra/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.980038 | 721 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.42338693141937256... | 2 | After new research was conducted on an ancient victory monument in Greece, archaeologists now believe they have vital clues as to why Octavian’s ships so easily defeated those belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, giving Octavian a crucial advantage to a fierce sea battle which ended up securing him his role as Augustus, the first emperor of Rome.
As The Independent reports, the monument depicting the Battle of Actium, which took place in 31 B.C., can still be seen near Nicopolis in Greece, and researchers now have a much better understanding as to why Cleopatra and Antony may have finally been defeated by Octavian.
For thousands of years, it was believed that Cleopatra and Mark Antony’s ships were simply too bulky to properly fight off the smaller and sturdier ships belonging to Octavian in this sea battle, and now fresh new evidence has suggested that this theory may be correct after all, and that Octavian clearly had the upper hand with his smaller and more maneuverable ships.
Because archaeologists have now concluded definitively that Octavian’s ships were indeed smaller than those belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, they have also been able to learn more about the military strategies employed by Rome’s first emperor and why he engaged in the battle tactics that he did.
Secrets of horrific battle with Cleopatra that gave birth to the Roman Empire revealed by ancient monument https://t.co/WTuKTvplde— The Independent (@Independent) March 28, 2019
After Octavian managed to capture 350 of the bulky ships belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony, he later decided that 35 of these should be placed around his stupendous war monument which was built to demonstrate the Roman emperor’s victory of this battle.
The niches which were fashioned to hold these ships were all different sizes, and by studying these niches archaeologists determined that some of the ships belonging to Cleopatra and Mark Antony were so enormous that they stretched for approximately 40 meters, which researchers believe is why Octavian made it his strategy to ensure that his own ships were not rammed by these magnificent warships.
In fact, these ships have been determined to have been so very large that they are four times greater in size than any other ancient ships that archaeologists have discovered dating back to this era.
Before researchers first analyzed the monument in Greece, historians attributed part of their knowledge of the size of the ships involved in the Battle of Actium to a poem by Philippus of Thessalonika, which stated, “Bronze-jawed rams, ships’ voyage-loving armour, we lie here as witnesses to the war at Actium.”
Dr Konstantinos Zachos, the archaeologist who has headed up the new research into the Nicopolis monument, has noted that this enormous structure has provided important evidence about how the final Roman battle was fought and eventually won by Octavian.
“Both historically and archaeologically, this remarkable Roman structure is of tremendous international importance – and continuing research is likely to shed yet more light on the battle that gave birth to the Roman Empire.”
While the niches that held these ships still remain visible within Octavian’s war monument today, the bronze representations of the ships belonging to Cleopatra and Marc Antony have now disappeared completely, and it is believed that these may have been melted down centuries later toward the end of the Roman Empire. | 696 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the early 1900s, Ireland witnessed widespread civil unrest as different armed groups vied for control.
Wicklow Gaol once again played a central part in history.
Easter Rising 1916
With the First World War in full flow and the British Army preoccupied, some Irish nationalists decided that it would be a good time to hold an uprising. The rebels were a tiny group. Most Irish people, even those sympathetic to the cause of Irish independence, were reluctant to fight. When the Easter Rising took place, over Easter in 1916, there were insufficient fighters and weapons to mount a real challenge.
The British Government sought out between 60-100 leaders to be court martialed. Sixteen men were subsequently executed. Hundreds more suspected rebels were arrested and interned.
Anglo-Irish War / War of Independence
The treatment of the 1916 rebels turned public opinion against the Crown and led to the 1919 Anglo-Irish War, also known as The War of Independence. The war officially began on 21st January 1918, when two members of the armed police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC),were attacked and killed in County Tipperary by The Irish Volunteers (later known as The Irish Republican Army or IRA).
Irish Civil War
With time, the War of Independence ended. Irish rebels had won certain freedoms from British rule. However, the resulting peace treaty retained elements of control by Britain that were unpalatable to many. The Irish Civil War broke out in 1922 and lasted until May 1923.
During the Civil War, Wicklow Gaol was again put to use. Irish Free State forces (Pro-Treaty) arrested and held Anti-Treaty suspectst in Wicklow Gaol. The most famous of these was soldier, author and Glendalough resident, Erskine Childers, who was also the father of the fourth President of Ireland. Wicklow Gaol was closed again in 1924, when the Civil War came to an end. | <urn:uuid:ff4c8fec-0a93-4cbb-bc1f-a88410a5b6d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wicklowshistoricgaol.com/history/major-events/independence-era/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.982886 | 403 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.48844328... | 1 | During the early 1900s, Ireland witnessed widespread civil unrest as different armed groups vied for control.
Wicklow Gaol once again played a central part in history.
Easter Rising 1916
With the First World War in full flow and the British Army preoccupied, some Irish nationalists decided that it would be a good time to hold an uprising. The rebels were a tiny group. Most Irish people, even those sympathetic to the cause of Irish independence, were reluctant to fight. When the Easter Rising took place, over Easter in 1916, there were insufficient fighters and weapons to mount a real challenge.
The British Government sought out between 60-100 leaders to be court martialed. Sixteen men were subsequently executed. Hundreds more suspected rebels were arrested and interned.
Anglo-Irish War / War of Independence
The treatment of the 1916 rebels turned public opinion against the Crown and led to the 1919 Anglo-Irish War, also known as The War of Independence. The war officially began on 21st January 1918, when two members of the armed police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC),were attacked and killed in County Tipperary by The Irish Volunteers (later known as The Irish Republican Army or IRA).
Irish Civil War
With time, the War of Independence ended. Irish rebels had won certain freedoms from British rule. However, the resulting peace treaty retained elements of control by Britain that were unpalatable to many. The Irish Civil War broke out in 1922 and lasted until May 1923.
During the Civil War, Wicklow Gaol was again put to use. Irish Free State forces (Pro-Treaty) arrested and held Anti-Treaty suspectst in Wicklow Gaol. The most famous of these was soldier, author and Glendalough resident, Erskine Childers, who was also the father of the fourth President of Ireland. Wicklow Gaol was closed again in 1924, when the Civil War came to an end. | 439 | ENGLISH | 1 |
GEOFFERY CHAUCER 的生平, 他的作品及对英国文学的贡献
Chaucer took his narrative inspiration for his works from several sources but still remained an entirely individual poet, gradually developing his personal style and techniques. His first narrative poem, The Book of the Duchess, was probably written shortly after the death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster, first wife of John Gaunt, in September 1369. His next important work, The House of Fame, was written between 1374 and 1385. Soon afterward Chaucer translated The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius, and wrote the poem The Parliament of Birds.
Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London. He was the son of a prosperous wine merchant and deputy to the king's butler, and his wife Agnes. Little is known of his early education, but his works show that he could read French, Latin, and Italian.
Geoffrey Chaucer (born 1340/44, died 1300) is remembered as the author of The Canterbury Tales, which ranks as one of the greatest epic works of world literature. Chaucer made a crucial contribution to English literature in using English at a time when much court poetry was still written in Anglo-Norman or Latin.
Chaucer did not begin working on The Canterbury Tales until he was in his early 40s. The book, which was left unfinished when the author died, depicts a pilgrimage by some 300 people, who are going on a spring day in April to the shrine of the martyr, St. Thomas Becket. On the way they amuse themselves by telling stories. Among the band of pilgrims are a knight, a monk, a prioress, a plowman, a miller, a merchant, a clerk, and an oft-widowed wife from Bath. The stories are interlinked with interludes in which the characters talk with each other, revealing much about themselves.
Between 1367 and 1378 Chaucer made several journeys abroad on diplomatic and commercial missions. In 1385 he lost his employment and rent-free home, and moved to Kent where he was appointed as justice of the peace. He was also elected to Parliament. This was a period of great creativity for Chaucer, during which he produced most of his best poetry, among others Troilus and Cressida (c. 1385), based on a love story by Boccaccio.
According to tradition, Chaucer died in London on October 25, 1300. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, in the part of the church, which afterwards came to be called Poet's Corner. A monument was erected to him in 1555.
In 1359-13300 Chaucer went to France with Edward III's army during the Hundred Years' War. He was captured in the Ardennes and returned to England after the treaty of Brétigny in 13300. There is no certain information of his life from 1361 until c.1366, when he perhaps married Philippa Roet, the sister of John Gaunt's future wife. Philippa died in 1387 and Chaucer enjoyed Gaunt's patronage throughout his life. | <urn:uuid:949b0c63-fc50-4beb-b226-fabe37e625e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.967cc.com/%E5%BD%A9%E7%A5%9E%E5%A4%A7%E5%8F%91%E5%BF%AB3%E5%AE%98%E6%96%B9/167.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.990114 | 670 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.14042338728904... | 1 | GEOFFERY CHAUCER 的生平, 他的作品及对英国文学的贡献
Chaucer took his narrative inspiration for his works from several sources but still remained an entirely individual poet, gradually developing his personal style and techniques. His first narrative poem, The Book of the Duchess, was probably written shortly after the death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster, first wife of John Gaunt, in September 1369. His next important work, The House of Fame, was written between 1374 and 1385. Soon afterward Chaucer translated The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius, and wrote the poem The Parliament of Birds.
Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London. He was the son of a prosperous wine merchant and deputy to the king's butler, and his wife Agnes. Little is known of his early education, but his works show that he could read French, Latin, and Italian.
Geoffrey Chaucer (born 1340/44, died 1300) is remembered as the author of The Canterbury Tales, which ranks as one of the greatest epic works of world literature. Chaucer made a crucial contribution to English literature in using English at a time when much court poetry was still written in Anglo-Norman or Latin.
Chaucer did not begin working on The Canterbury Tales until he was in his early 40s. The book, which was left unfinished when the author died, depicts a pilgrimage by some 300 people, who are going on a spring day in April to the shrine of the martyr, St. Thomas Becket. On the way they amuse themselves by telling stories. Among the band of pilgrims are a knight, a monk, a prioress, a plowman, a miller, a merchant, a clerk, and an oft-widowed wife from Bath. The stories are interlinked with interludes in which the characters talk with each other, revealing much about themselves.
Between 1367 and 1378 Chaucer made several journeys abroad on diplomatic and commercial missions. In 1385 he lost his employment and rent-free home, and moved to Kent where he was appointed as justice of the peace. He was also elected to Parliament. This was a period of great creativity for Chaucer, during which he produced most of his best poetry, among others Troilus and Cressida (c. 1385), based on a love story by Boccaccio.
According to tradition, Chaucer died in London on October 25, 1300. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, in the part of the church, which afterwards came to be called Poet's Corner. A monument was erected to him in 1555.
In 1359-13300 Chaucer went to France with Edward III's army during the Hundred Years' War. He was captured in the Ardennes and returned to England after the treaty of Brétigny in 13300. There is no certain information of his life from 1361 until c.1366, when he perhaps married Philippa Roet, the sister of John Gaunt's future wife. Philippa died in 1387 and Chaucer enjoyed Gaunt's patronage throughout his life. | 713 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After reading about the Cuban Missiles Crisis, we had to do a task, which involved three questions. In the first one, we should produce a mindmap including the causes of the crisis. In the second one, we should create a Venn diagram comparing how resopnsible Cuba, Usa and the Ussr were for the start of the crisis. In the third one, usinf the diagram, we should answer which country is most responsible for the crisis. This is my work:
In the previous clases, we read about the Berlin Blockade. Lenny, our History teacher, adked us to complete a chart and answer some questions using the information gathered. This is my chart and my answers:
- What was life like in Berlin in the post-war era?
- How did Soviet policy towards Berlin differ from that of the West?
- Why was reform of the German currency a key issue for both sides?
- Why was the airlift such a major feat?
- In what respect can the USSR and US be responsible for further increasing tensions during the airlift?
- Why did Stalin eventually agree to talks over the airlift?
- Extended question: Who was more to blame for Berlin becoming a major flashpoint in the Cold War, the Soviets or the Americans?
- The second world war had included also civilians. Berlin, as a consequence, had been entirely destroyed. Everything had been lost, so people’s lives in the post-war era was poor and devastating, as everything had disappeared. Casualties were much more than in the first world war. Berlin people who had survived were very needy and their were shortages of all goods.
- The difference between the soviet and the west policies was that Stalin did not want Berlin to recover too fast and to keep control of it. He was willing to cripple it. On the other hand, the west was recovering thanks to the US Marshal Plan, which used a new currency and loans precisely for the west recoverement. By doing this, the consequences of the world war two could be confronted and solved.
- The new currency was vital for capitalism because it united them against the soviet. The sharing of the same currency would allow them to achieve prosperity while the USSR didn’t. Also, it allowed USA to strengthen it’s policy of containment and stop the communist spread.
- The airlift was a major feat as it brought a lot of tension between the two rivals. It showed again that Stalin was desperate to expand and spread communism. On the other hand, it also showed that truman was strong enough to confront Stalin and that he would not be easily beaten. It showed that USA was also serious. Suspicion and grew from both sides thanks to this event.
- The USA and the USSR can be held responsible for the increasing of tension as they both, during the airlift, performed suspicious actions. ON the one hand, the USSR cut off over two million population of west berlin from receiving goods from western Germany. Canals and vital roads were closed by Stalin so that he could force USA out of Berlin. This increased tension as it threatened the USA, because if they acted it would be an act of war. On the other hand, the USA, confronted Stalin and sent supplies through the air. It showed Stalin’s defeat and Truman’s strength. It created tension and suspicion between both sides.
- Stalin, in the end, decided to reopen communication and transports, canals and vital roads were now available. He did this as he realised that his plan had failed. He understood that he wouldn’t be able to force USA out of Berlin and that Truman was strong and suspicious enough to give up the city.
- From my point of view, the soviets were more to blame for Berlin becoming a major flashpoint in the Cold War. The americans had a strong and firm reaction, but it was what it was needed. The citizens needed to recover economically and it wasn’t fair that they lost their part of Berlin, as it had been previously discussed at Yalta. Truman, although it created tension and was a suspicious act, did what it was correct, as he deserved West Berlin’s control. Stalin, on the other hand, had no right to close the roads and canals. His ambition impulsed him to keep wanting more territory that it did not belong to him. He is more to blame than the USA, as he knew his limits. However, he wanted all Berlin under communist influence.
During the last historyl classes, we started a project in which, in pairs of two, we had to analyze sources of our book. I was with Tomas Braun and this is our analysis of the sources 1, 3, 4, 9, 13.
SOURCE 1: In the following extract or quotation from Hitler’s biography, we can see his thoughts about the Treaty of Versailles. The German dictator thought they had been humiliated by it´s terms, as it was too harsh. Moreover, Hitler referred as a “robbery” and “disgrace”. This means that as Britain and France had won the war, they took advantage and crippled Germany, without mercy. We can understand that he demanded and was sure they deserved a better treatment as the entire country thought, for example, that they had not started the war, so why should they accept the term “War Guilt”? They agreed that they had participated but claimed that other causes had started it such as Russia’s mobilization or the murder at sarajevo. This anger that was brought about to Hitler, resulted in his willing for revenge and hatred towards the allies.
SOURCE 3: This quote from a German woman who lived in the Ruhr, tells us a lot about how the French treated Germans when they invaded the city. It was clear that, after the First World War, the French were willing to destroy Germany. When the Treaty Of Versailles was signed, Germany accepted paying the war debts. However, although they successfully paid 50 million pounds the first year, the next one they didn’t pay nothing. This made France even more angry, so the invaded the Ruhr as a way of payment through resources and industries. As they were furious, French soldiers didn’t treat people too nicely, but, as this lady says, there was harassment, hunger, poverty and judgement. Moreover, this was seen as a humiliation for Germans
SOURCE 4: In this picture, we can see a representation of Germany’s relationship with Britain and France, and the state of German’s economy. On the one hand, the picture shows how the prime ministers of Britain and France look at Germany while it’s “drowning”. Moreover, they won’t help Germany with a loan. On the other hand, we can see Germany being on her knees in the water, meaning that she has to put much more effort by herself to pull the country out of the economic crisis, and not ask for help to other powerful countries.
SOURCE 9: In the following quote we can understand the people and the inhabitant´s thoughts about hyperinflation. The government and state claimed that hyperinflation was not an easy issue and that it had happened as a consequence of many causes. However, the public criticised them, explaining that they had to pay reparations for being unable to solve the problem and because of the excuses they brought. Moreover, they were so angry at the republic that they never forgave it because of this situation they didn’t managed to deal with.
SOURCE 13: In this poster, we can see that, in Germany, there was a huge cultural revival, similar to the USA’s one. In this specific case, we can see that new cinema stars emerged, and that sex became a talkable topic, not like before. Moreover, nightclubs and bars were created, along with Cabarets, where artist sang songs about politics and sex, which would have shocked and earlier generation of Germans.
In our last history lessons, we have been studying the Roaring Twenties. After understanding this period of time, we started a project, in which we had to make a presentation about a person which had an impact in that time. I did it in a prezi, this is my presentation about Charles Chaplin.
n the History class, Lenny left us a task which was to watch a video from her blog and to read the second chapter form our History book, and then to answer some questions.
Here is the video:
Matías Ripoll and Trinidad Porretti.
1- What were the aims of the league?
2- What happened to Wilson when he returned to USA after signing the Treaty of Versailles?
3- Why did German immigrants in USA not want to join the league?
4- What economic reason did USA give to stay out of the league?
5- How did Americans feel about imperialism in Europe?
6- Why did Poland invade Vilna? Why did the league not act about it?
7- Why was upper Silesia an important region for Poland and Germany?
8- How did the league solve the problem in Vilna?
9- What did the league decide to do about the Aaland Islands?
10- Why did Mussolini invade Greece in the Corfu conflict?
11- Why was the league criticised about the resolution in the Corfu conflict?
12- How did the Geneva protocol weaken the league?
13- Why did Greece invade Belgium in 1925?
14- Why did Greece complain that the league “seemed to have one rule for the large states(such as Italy) and other for the small ones?
1- The principal aims of the League were; to discourage aggression between countries, to encourage countries to disarm, to encourage countries to co-operate, especially in business and trade, and to improve the living and working conditions of people all around the world.This aims would lead to a fair and lasting peace, which the League clearly didn’t achieve, due to WW2.
2- Woodrow Wilson, after signing the Treaty, came back to USA and had problems. Before the USA could even join the league, he needed the approval of the Congress. However, in the USA the idea of joining the league wasn’t supported by everyone, because they didn’t want to get involved in international alliance, but follow it’s own policies and self-interest. In addition, his idea was defeated twice in 1919 and March 1920 by the congress. The Republican candidate for the elections, Warren Harding, campaigned for the opposite than Wilson, isolation, because he thought that the US had enough people and resources to be by themselves. He thought that the European instability, due to the post-war recovery, could affect USA’s stability. Harding won the elections, so when the League opened for Business, the US wasn’t present.
3- The German immigrants in USA didn’t want to join the league because this one, enforced the Treaty of Versailles which was hated by the Germans for the reason that it had weakened and humiliated them previously.
4- The economic reason that USA gave to stay out of the league was that if the league imposed sanctions it might be American Trade and Business that suffered the most. In addition, if she joined the League, she would have to give economic support for troops, as the other members of the League were in an economic depression, due to the post-war recovery.
5- The Americans, according to imperialism in Europe, feared the the League would be dominated by Britain or France because they were the most powerful empires, and would defend themselves, and make all of the decisions. And, the problem was, that many in the US were Anti-Empires.
6- Poland invaded Vilna in 1920 because she was in a dispute with Lithuania due to that she claimed that there were a lot of Poles living in Vilna(because before the Treaty of Versailles, the Lithanian capital belonged to Poland) and therefore it belonged to her. Because of this reason, Lithuania appealed to the league. However, the League (France and Britain), was not prepared to act because the League was new and they had economic issues due to the consequences of WW1. And because they weren’t prepared to act, they failed and therefore let the Poles get their way.
7- Upper Silesia was an important region for Germany and Poland because it was the border area between them, and the region was ethnically mixed with both Germans and Poles. In addition, this region was very rich in resources. This problem was solved by the League which oversaw a peaceful plebiscite(the rural area voted for Poland and the urban one for Germany)and divided the region among Germany and Poland. Finally both countries accepted this decision. This dispute was carried out in a positive way because it was solved in a peaceful and fair manner.
8- The League(France and Britain) didn’t solve this problem because they couldn’t persuade Poland to leave the city. The armed forces weren’t able to pull them out of the city. This meant that Poland was powerful. They didn’t leave the city until the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939.
9- After the dispute in 1921 between Finland and Sweden over the Aaland islands, the League intervened and decided that the islands should belong to Finland avoiding a war between them. Sweden accepted this decision. The organization decided to measure the distance between the islands and countries, as Finland was closer, she got to keep them. This was a fair resolution.
10- Mussolini, the Italian leader during that time, invaded Greece because he was furious and blamed the Greek government for the murder of the Italian general Tellini and his team(who were representing the League to sort out the border between Greece and Albania, and were killed by Greeks). In addition, they invaded Corfu because Mussolini demanded the Greeks to pay a compensation and execute the murderers. However, the Greeks had no idea who the murderers were. So on August the 31st he bombarded Greece and then occupied the Greek island of Corfu, and killed fifteen people.
11- The League was criticised about the resolution of the Corfu conflict because this showed that the weakest of all powers, Italy, could get its way if they were backed up by Britain and France, who agreed to sacrifice justice for cooperation. For this reason, Greece had to pay a compensation to Italy.
12- The Geneva protocol weakened the League because conflicts such as the Corfu dispute could continue happening. The Geneva protocol was supposed to strengthen the League, because it said that if two members were in dispute they would have to ask the League to sort out the disagreement and they would have to accept the Council’s decision. However, as Britain was having general elections, a new Conservative government was chosen and it refused to sign the protocol before it could be put into effect, because they feared if there was another conflict the League would solve it, acting to her own interests, not Britain’s. Therefore, this protocol which was supposed to strengthen the League, ended up doing the opposite. The Geneva protocol showed how Great Britain had control over the League in a negative way, because many countries started to follow GB’s lead by not signing the protocol.
13- Greece invaded Belgium in October 1925 because of the incident on the border in which some Greek soldiers were killed. Greece thought that If Italy had done this, why couldn’t they do the same?So Bulgaria appealed to the League for help and finally, the League demanded both sides to stand their forces down and Greek forces withdraw from Bulgaria. Although they complained that there seemed to be one rule for the smaller, “less important” states, and another for the bigger, “more important” states. The resolution of this conflict was partly successful partly failure, because on the hand, she solved the fact that there could be a war between them. Although, on the other hand, she wasn’t partial or fair with Greece, who had done the same thing Italy did in the Corfu conflict. This showed that the league had a ruling for the big countries and another for the small ones.
14- Greece complained that the League “seemed to have one rule for the large states(such as Italy) and other for the small ones(such as Greece)” because it wasn’t fair, all States should have an only same rule. Because of this, the major states were likely to get things done in their way, they could decide over most of the issues, this meant they had benefits because they were more powerful. This made it clear that larger states were more important than the smaller ones, that they had more priorities, and that was unfair, the League, which was supposed to be fair, was the opposite.
Essay Question: “How successful was Wilson in achieving his aims at Versailles?
Explain your answer”.
In the following Essay, I will explain and analyze how successful Wilson Woodrow was on achieving his aims and objectives according to the final terms previously discussed by the big three.
On the one hand, his aims weren’t totally excluded and this is why many of them were achieved. The League of Nations, Wilson’s most important point, was obtained and founded on January 10th of 1920. Moreover, the point number thirteen: “Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas” was accepted, giving them access to a sea port through Danzig. It was not only attained that France would regain Alsace-Lorraine but also he accomplished the disarmament of Germany, although he wanted all countries to disarm so that the “just and lasting peace” could be achieved. In addition, Woodrow, gained his aim of self-determination but not completely. In spite of the fact that Wilson wanted Self-Determination for all the countries, he gained the autonomy of the ethnic groups and the Germany’s colonies. This happened because Britain and France didn’t want to give their colonies, they thought that only losers must suffer the loss of them.
However, on the other hand, he didn’t obtain all his desires. Firstly, the war guilt made his idea of “just and lasting peace” and “not to be very harsh on Germany” be lost. This happened because Georges Clemenceau “was determined not to allow such devastation ever again”, this means, that he couldn’t let Germany invade France ever again and he thought that this was the perfect moment “to weaken them as much as possible”. In addition, his second point wasn’t accepted. As I mentioned before, the disarmament and self-determination was not totally completed because they were established only for Germany to suffer. Moreover, “the strengthen democracy in defeated countries”, was not achieved because the War Guilt and reparations made Germany’s economy fall. Finally, the third point of Wilson’s fourteen points, was either not obtained.
All in all, Woodrow’s aims weren’t accomplished completely, however, he managed to convince Ll. George and Clemenceau about almost half of them.
Today, in our History class, we started making infographics for each of the treaties, apart from the Treaty of Versailles, that were made after the end of WW1.
These are my infographics with the tool «easel.ly»:
Hope you like it!
Some weeks ago, we started reading about the Big Three, what did they wanted as a compensation, their views about the fourteen points and which punishment did they want for Germany.
Luz Esteban, Tomás Braun and I did this conversation about the tasks already written:
This is the conversation downloaded in a PDF so that you can follow it while listening the conversation.
Finally, what I think about this project is that it was different from the normal ones and it was good to do it because I feel that I had learnt more because when you record the conversation you understand what you are saying and this makes you learn more about it.
The thing that I liked the most about this project is what I´ve just said, that reading the topic, analyzing it, writing the dialogue, checking the mistakes and finally recording it, makes you know a lot about it and this helps you also for the term test or If you are having an exam about it, because you remember a lot from what you have read, analyzed, wrote, checked and recorded.
If I would have to change something from this project if the class from Senior 1 next year were going to do it again, I wouldn´t change anything from the project, however, I would add, in a lesson, a moment in which we share and correct each of them so that we can understand what we have done wrong and what we have to improve from the three tasks. | <urn:uuid:2d894170-ff5e-46de-b209-baa8b15c37e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://matiasripoll.cumbresblogs.com/category/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.987204 | 4,379 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.290533661842346... | 2 | After reading about the Cuban Missiles Crisis, we had to do a task, which involved three questions. In the first one, we should produce a mindmap including the causes of the crisis. In the second one, we should create a Venn diagram comparing how resopnsible Cuba, Usa and the Ussr were for the start of the crisis. In the third one, usinf the diagram, we should answer which country is most responsible for the crisis. This is my work:
In the previous clases, we read about the Berlin Blockade. Lenny, our History teacher, adked us to complete a chart and answer some questions using the information gathered. This is my chart and my answers:
- What was life like in Berlin in the post-war era?
- How did Soviet policy towards Berlin differ from that of the West?
- Why was reform of the German currency a key issue for both sides?
- Why was the airlift such a major feat?
- In what respect can the USSR and US be responsible for further increasing tensions during the airlift?
- Why did Stalin eventually agree to talks over the airlift?
- Extended question: Who was more to blame for Berlin becoming a major flashpoint in the Cold War, the Soviets or the Americans?
- The second world war had included also civilians. Berlin, as a consequence, had been entirely destroyed. Everything had been lost, so people’s lives in the post-war era was poor and devastating, as everything had disappeared. Casualties were much more than in the first world war. Berlin people who had survived were very needy and their were shortages of all goods.
- The difference between the soviet and the west policies was that Stalin did not want Berlin to recover too fast and to keep control of it. He was willing to cripple it. On the other hand, the west was recovering thanks to the US Marshal Plan, which used a new currency and loans precisely for the west recoverement. By doing this, the consequences of the world war two could be confronted and solved.
- The new currency was vital for capitalism because it united them against the soviet. The sharing of the same currency would allow them to achieve prosperity while the USSR didn’t. Also, it allowed USA to strengthen it’s policy of containment and stop the communist spread.
- The airlift was a major feat as it brought a lot of tension between the two rivals. It showed again that Stalin was desperate to expand and spread communism. On the other hand, it also showed that truman was strong enough to confront Stalin and that he would not be easily beaten. It showed that USA was also serious. Suspicion and grew from both sides thanks to this event.
- The USA and the USSR can be held responsible for the increasing of tension as they both, during the airlift, performed suspicious actions. ON the one hand, the USSR cut off over two million population of west berlin from receiving goods from western Germany. Canals and vital roads were closed by Stalin so that he could force USA out of Berlin. This increased tension as it threatened the USA, because if they acted it would be an act of war. On the other hand, the USA, confronted Stalin and sent supplies through the air. It showed Stalin’s defeat and Truman’s strength. It created tension and suspicion between both sides.
- Stalin, in the end, decided to reopen communication and transports, canals and vital roads were now available. He did this as he realised that his plan had failed. He understood that he wouldn’t be able to force USA out of Berlin and that Truman was strong and suspicious enough to give up the city.
- From my point of view, the soviets were more to blame for Berlin becoming a major flashpoint in the Cold War. The americans had a strong and firm reaction, but it was what it was needed. The citizens needed to recover economically and it wasn’t fair that they lost their part of Berlin, as it had been previously discussed at Yalta. Truman, although it created tension and was a suspicious act, did what it was correct, as he deserved West Berlin’s control. Stalin, on the other hand, had no right to close the roads and canals. His ambition impulsed him to keep wanting more territory that it did not belong to him. He is more to blame than the USA, as he knew his limits. However, he wanted all Berlin under communist influence.
During the last historyl classes, we started a project in which, in pairs of two, we had to analyze sources of our book. I was with Tomas Braun and this is our analysis of the sources 1, 3, 4, 9, 13.
SOURCE 1: In the following extract or quotation from Hitler’s biography, we can see his thoughts about the Treaty of Versailles. The German dictator thought they had been humiliated by it´s terms, as it was too harsh. Moreover, Hitler referred as a “robbery” and “disgrace”. This means that as Britain and France had won the war, they took advantage and crippled Germany, without mercy. We can understand that he demanded and was sure they deserved a better treatment as the entire country thought, for example, that they had not started the war, so why should they accept the term “War Guilt”? They agreed that they had participated but claimed that other causes had started it such as Russia’s mobilization or the murder at sarajevo. This anger that was brought about to Hitler, resulted in his willing for revenge and hatred towards the allies.
SOURCE 3: This quote from a German woman who lived in the Ruhr, tells us a lot about how the French treated Germans when they invaded the city. It was clear that, after the First World War, the French were willing to destroy Germany. When the Treaty Of Versailles was signed, Germany accepted paying the war debts. However, although they successfully paid 50 million pounds the first year, the next one they didn’t pay nothing. This made France even more angry, so the invaded the Ruhr as a way of payment through resources and industries. As they were furious, French soldiers didn’t treat people too nicely, but, as this lady says, there was harassment, hunger, poverty and judgement. Moreover, this was seen as a humiliation for Germans
SOURCE 4: In this picture, we can see a representation of Germany’s relationship with Britain and France, and the state of German’s economy. On the one hand, the picture shows how the prime ministers of Britain and France look at Germany while it’s “drowning”. Moreover, they won’t help Germany with a loan. On the other hand, we can see Germany being on her knees in the water, meaning that she has to put much more effort by herself to pull the country out of the economic crisis, and not ask for help to other powerful countries.
SOURCE 9: In the following quote we can understand the people and the inhabitant´s thoughts about hyperinflation. The government and state claimed that hyperinflation was not an easy issue and that it had happened as a consequence of many causes. However, the public criticised them, explaining that they had to pay reparations for being unable to solve the problem and because of the excuses they brought. Moreover, they were so angry at the republic that they never forgave it because of this situation they didn’t managed to deal with.
SOURCE 13: In this poster, we can see that, in Germany, there was a huge cultural revival, similar to the USA’s one. In this specific case, we can see that new cinema stars emerged, and that sex became a talkable topic, not like before. Moreover, nightclubs and bars were created, along with Cabarets, where artist sang songs about politics and sex, which would have shocked and earlier generation of Germans.
In our last history lessons, we have been studying the Roaring Twenties. After understanding this period of time, we started a project, in which we had to make a presentation about a person which had an impact in that time. I did it in a prezi, this is my presentation about Charles Chaplin.
n the History class, Lenny left us a task which was to watch a video from her blog and to read the second chapter form our History book, and then to answer some questions.
Here is the video:
Matías Ripoll and Trinidad Porretti.
1- What were the aims of the league?
2- What happened to Wilson when he returned to USA after signing the Treaty of Versailles?
3- Why did German immigrants in USA not want to join the league?
4- What economic reason did USA give to stay out of the league?
5- How did Americans feel about imperialism in Europe?
6- Why did Poland invade Vilna? Why did the league not act about it?
7- Why was upper Silesia an important region for Poland and Germany?
8- How did the league solve the problem in Vilna?
9- What did the league decide to do about the Aaland Islands?
10- Why did Mussolini invade Greece in the Corfu conflict?
11- Why was the league criticised about the resolution in the Corfu conflict?
12- How did the Geneva protocol weaken the league?
13- Why did Greece invade Belgium in 1925?
14- Why did Greece complain that the league “seemed to have one rule for the large states(such as Italy) and other for the small ones?
1- The principal aims of the League were; to discourage aggression between countries, to encourage countries to disarm, to encourage countries to co-operate, especially in business and trade, and to improve the living and working conditions of people all around the world.This aims would lead to a fair and lasting peace, which the League clearly didn’t achieve, due to WW2.
2- Woodrow Wilson, after signing the Treaty, came back to USA and had problems. Before the USA could even join the league, he needed the approval of the Congress. However, in the USA the idea of joining the league wasn’t supported by everyone, because they didn’t want to get involved in international alliance, but follow it’s own policies and self-interest. In addition, his idea was defeated twice in 1919 and March 1920 by the congress. The Republican candidate for the elections, Warren Harding, campaigned for the opposite than Wilson, isolation, because he thought that the US had enough people and resources to be by themselves. He thought that the European instability, due to the post-war recovery, could affect USA’s stability. Harding won the elections, so when the League opened for Business, the US wasn’t present.
3- The German immigrants in USA didn’t want to join the league because this one, enforced the Treaty of Versailles which was hated by the Germans for the reason that it had weakened and humiliated them previously.
4- The economic reason that USA gave to stay out of the league was that if the league imposed sanctions it might be American Trade and Business that suffered the most. In addition, if she joined the League, she would have to give economic support for troops, as the other members of the League were in an economic depression, due to the post-war recovery.
5- The Americans, according to imperialism in Europe, feared the the League would be dominated by Britain or France because they were the most powerful empires, and would defend themselves, and make all of the decisions. And, the problem was, that many in the US were Anti-Empires.
6- Poland invaded Vilna in 1920 because she was in a dispute with Lithuania due to that she claimed that there were a lot of Poles living in Vilna(because before the Treaty of Versailles, the Lithanian capital belonged to Poland) and therefore it belonged to her. Because of this reason, Lithuania appealed to the league. However, the League (France and Britain), was not prepared to act because the League was new and they had economic issues due to the consequences of WW1. And because they weren’t prepared to act, they failed and therefore let the Poles get their way.
7- Upper Silesia was an important region for Germany and Poland because it was the border area between them, and the region was ethnically mixed with both Germans and Poles. In addition, this region was very rich in resources. This problem was solved by the League which oversaw a peaceful plebiscite(the rural area voted for Poland and the urban one for Germany)and divided the region among Germany and Poland. Finally both countries accepted this decision. This dispute was carried out in a positive way because it was solved in a peaceful and fair manner.
8- The League(France and Britain) didn’t solve this problem because they couldn’t persuade Poland to leave the city. The armed forces weren’t able to pull them out of the city. This meant that Poland was powerful. They didn’t leave the city until the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939.
9- After the dispute in 1921 between Finland and Sweden over the Aaland islands, the League intervened and decided that the islands should belong to Finland avoiding a war between them. Sweden accepted this decision. The organization decided to measure the distance between the islands and countries, as Finland was closer, she got to keep them. This was a fair resolution.
10- Mussolini, the Italian leader during that time, invaded Greece because he was furious and blamed the Greek government for the murder of the Italian general Tellini and his team(who were representing the League to sort out the border between Greece and Albania, and were killed by Greeks). In addition, they invaded Corfu because Mussolini demanded the Greeks to pay a compensation and execute the murderers. However, the Greeks had no idea who the murderers were. So on August the 31st he bombarded Greece and then occupied the Greek island of Corfu, and killed fifteen people.
11- The League was criticised about the resolution of the Corfu conflict because this showed that the weakest of all powers, Italy, could get its way if they were backed up by Britain and France, who agreed to sacrifice justice for cooperation. For this reason, Greece had to pay a compensation to Italy.
12- The Geneva protocol weakened the League because conflicts such as the Corfu dispute could continue happening. The Geneva protocol was supposed to strengthen the League, because it said that if two members were in dispute they would have to ask the League to sort out the disagreement and they would have to accept the Council’s decision. However, as Britain was having general elections, a new Conservative government was chosen and it refused to sign the protocol before it could be put into effect, because they feared if there was another conflict the League would solve it, acting to her own interests, not Britain’s. Therefore, this protocol which was supposed to strengthen the League, ended up doing the opposite. The Geneva protocol showed how Great Britain had control over the League in a negative way, because many countries started to follow GB’s lead by not signing the protocol.
13- Greece invaded Belgium in October 1925 because of the incident on the border in which some Greek soldiers were killed. Greece thought that If Italy had done this, why couldn’t they do the same?So Bulgaria appealed to the League for help and finally, the League demanded both sides to stand their forces down and Greek forces withdraw from Bulgaria. Although they complained that there seemed to be one rule for the smaller, “less important” states, and another for the bigger, “more important” states. The resolution of this conflict was partly successful partly failure, because on the hand, she solved the fact that there could be a war between them. Although, on the other hand, she wasn’t partial or fair with Greece, who had done the same thing Italy did in the Corfu conflict. This showed that the league had a ruling for the big countries and another for the small ones.
14- Greece complained that the League “seemed to have one rule for the large states(such as Italy) and other for the small ones(such as Greece)” because it wasn’t fair, all States should have an only same rule. Because of this, the major states were likely to get things done in their way, they could decide over most of the issues, this meant they had benefits because they were more powerful. This made it clear that larger states were more important than the smaller ones, that they had more priorities, and that was unfair, the League, which was supposed to be fair, was the opposite.
Essay Question: “How successful was Wilson in achieving his aims at Versailles?
Explain your answer”.
In the following Essay, I will explain and analyze how successful Wilson Woodrow was on achieving his aims and objectives according to the final terms previously discussed by the big three.
On the one hand, his aims weren’t totally excluded and this is why many of them were achieved. The League of Nations, Wilson’s most important point, was obtained and founded on January 10th of 1920. Moreover, the point number thirteen: “Poland to become an independent state with access to the seas” was accepted, giving them access to a sea port through Danzig. It was not only attained that France would regain Alsace-Lorraine but also he accomplished the disarmament of Germany, although he wanted all countries to disarm so that the “just and lasting peace” could be achieved. In addition, Woodrow, gained his aim of self-determination but not completely. In spite of the fact that Wilson wanted Self-Determination for all the countries, he gained the autonomy of the ethnic groups and the Germany’s colonies. This happened because Britain and France didn’t want to give their colonies, they thought that only losers must suffer the loss of them.
However, on the other hand, he didn’t obtain all his desires. Firstly, the war guilt made his idea of “just and lasting peace” and “not to be very harsh on Germany” be lost. This happened because Georges Clemenceau “was determined not to allow such devastation ever again”, this means, that he couldn’t let Germany invade France ever again and he thought that this was the perfect moment “to weaken them as much as possible”. In addition, his second point wasn’t accepted. As I mentioned before, the disarmament and self-determination was not totally completed because they were established only for Germany to suffer. Moreover, “the strengthen democracy in defeated countries”, was not achieved because the War Guilt and reparations made Germany’s economy fall. Finally, the third point of Wilson’s fourteen points, was either not obtained.
All in all, Woodrow’s aims weren’t accomplished completely, however, he managed to convince Ll. George and Clemenceau about almost half of them.
Today, in our History class, we started making infographics for each of the treaties, apart from the Treaty of Versailles, that were made after the end of WW1.
These are my infographics with the tool «easel.ly»:
Hope you like it!
Some weeks ago, we started reading about the Big Three, what did they wanted as a compensation, their views about the fourteen points and which punishment did they want for Germany.
Luz Esteban, Tomás Braun and I did this conversation about the tasks already written:
This is the conversation downloaded in a PDF so that you can follow it while listening the conversation.
Finally, what I think about this project is that it was different from the normal ones and it was good to do it because I feel that I had learnt more because when you record the conversation you understand what you are saying and this makes you learn more about it.
The thing that I liked the most about this project is what I´ve just said, that reading the topic, analyzing it, writing the dialogue, checking the mistakes and finally recording it, makes you know a lot about it and this helps you also for the term test or If you are having an exam about it, because you remember a lot from what you have read, analyzed, wrote, checked and recorded.
If I would have to change something from this project if the class from Senior 1 next year were going to do it again, I wouldn´t change anything from the project, however, I would add, in a lesson, a moment in which we share and correct each of them so that we can understand what we have done wrong and what we have to improve from the three tasks. | 4,208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World leaders rarely voluntarily abdicate their position due to personal relationships. However, on December 11, 1936, Edward VIII, King of the United Kingdom announced he was abdicating his throne and declared allegiance to his younger brother, George VI. Although his announcement was expected, it was still shocking as Edward would be the first British Monarch to abdicate his throne. At the center of his decision to step down as king was American socialite Wallis Simpson, who he intended to marry but could not do so because of established constitutional conventions. Wallis had been twice divorced and her relationship with Edward caused a constitutional crisis.
Wallis Simpson was born as Bessie Wallis Warfield on June 19, 1896 in Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania, United States. Her father, Teackle Wallis Warfield, was the youngest son of Henry Warfield, a wealthy flour merchant who lived in Baltimore, Maryland, while her mother, Alice, was the daughter of William Montague. Although Wallis Simpson claims her parents married in June 1895, parish records indicate that they were not married until November 1895. This meant that Simpson was likely conceived out of wedlock, which had a negative social stigma at that time. Simpson was named in honor of her father, who was known as Wallis and died shortly after her birth, and her mother's sister, Bessie. However, she dropped the name Bessie during her youth. In 1908, Simpson's mother married John Freeman Rasin, who was the son of a prominent Democratic politician.
In April 1916, while visiting her cousin Corinne Mustin in Pensacola, Florida, Wallis met US Navy pilot Earl Winfield Spencer Jr. The two were married in November 1916, but their marriage was often strained by Spencer’s heavy drinking. In 1920, the couple separated temporarily but reunited in 1921 in Washington, D.C. During their separation, Wallis had an affair with Argentine diplomat Felipe de Espil. In 1924, she traveled to Paris, France with her cousin Corinne, and later to China, where her exploits remain the subject of speculation. It is rumored that while in China, Wallis became pregnant and had an abortion that rendered her infertile. Wallis and Spencer returned to the United States in 1925 and finally divorced in 1927.
By the time her divorce was finalized, Wallis had entered into a romantic relationship with American-British shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson. Simpson divorced his wife and married Wallis in July 1928 in Chelsea, London. In 1929, Wallis traveled back to the United States to be with her sick mother, who died in November of the same year. Although Wallis lost her investments in the Wall Street Crash, the successful shipping business continued to support the Simpsons.
Relationship with Prince Edward
Wallis was introduced to Prince Edward in January 1931 by Lady Furness, who was believed to be the Prince’s mistress at the time. The two began a romantic relationship in 1934, and the Prince ended his relationships with his mistresses, including Lady Furness and Freda Dudley Ward. During a party at Buckingham Palace, Edward introduced Wallis to his parents. His father was outraged by her marital history, as divorced individuals were excluded from court. On January 20, 1936, Edward ascended to the throne as King Edward VIII. It soon became clear that the king intended to marry Wallis, who was still in the process of divorcing Simpson. This presented both social and religious challenges. As head of the Church of England, Edward was forbidden from remarrying a divorced person whose spouse was still alive. After trying all means to marry Wallis and still retain the throne, King Edward VIII decided to abdicate the throne, and handed power over to his younger brother, George VI. Wallis and Edward married on June 3, 1937. Now Duke and Duchess, the two spent their lives together until Edward's death in 1972. Wallis Simpson died in 1986 and was buried next to Edward in the Royal Burial Ground.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:6a7c7bdf-7fd4-4811-8f20-ed08530c3b58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-was-wallis-simpson.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.986704 | 889 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.1054586321115... | 2 | World leaders rarely voluntarily abdicate their position due to personal relationships. However, on December 11, 1936, Edward VIII, King of the United Kingdom announced he was abdicating his throne and declared allegiance to his younger brother, George VI. Although his announcement was expected, it was still shocking as Edward would be the first British Monarch to abdicate his throne. At the center of his decision to step down as king was American socialite Wallis Simpson, who he intended to marry but could not do so because of established constitutional conventions. Wallis had been twice divorced and her relationship with Edward caused a constitutional crisis.
Wallis Simpson was born as Bessie Wallis Warfield on June 19, 1896 in Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania, United States. Her father, Teackle Wallis Warfield, was the youngest son of Henry Warfield, a wealthy flour merchant who lived in Baltimore, Maryland, while her mother, Alice, was the daughter of William Montague. Although Wallis Simpson claims her parents married in June 1895, parish records indicate that they were not married until November 1895. This meant that Simpson was likely conceived out of wedlock, which had a negative social stigma at that time. Simpson was named in honor of her father, who was known as Wallis and died shortly after her birth, and her mother's sister, Bessie. However, she dropped the name Bessie during her youth. In 1908, Simpson's mother married John Freeman Rasin, who was the son of a prominent Democratic politician.
In April 1916, while visiting her cousin Corinne Mustin in Pensacola, Florida, Wallis met US Navy pilot Earl Winfield Spencer Jr. The two were married in November 1916, but their marriage was often strained by Spencer’s heavy drinking. In 1920, the couple separated temporarily but reunited in 1921 in Washington, D.C. During their separation, Wallis had an affair with Argentine diplomat Felipe de Espil. In 1924, she traveled to Paris, France with her cousin Corinne, and later to China, where her exploits remain the subject of speculation. It is rumored that while in China, Wallis became pregnant and had an abortion that rendered her infertile. Wallis and Spencer returned to the United States in 1925 and finally divorced in 1927.
By the time her divorce was finalized, Wallis had entered into a romantic relationship with American-British shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson. Simpson divorced his wife and married Wallis in July 1928 in Chelsea, London. In 1929, Wallis traveled back to the United States to be with her sick mother, who died in November of the same year. Although Wallis lost her investments in the Wall Street Crash, the successful shipping business continued to support the Simpsons.
Relationship with Prince Edward
Wallis was introduced to Prince Edward in January 1931 by Lady Furness, who was believed to be the Prince’s mistress at the time. The two began a romantic relationship in 1934, and the Prince ended his relationships with his mistresses, including Lady Furness and Freda Dudley Ward. During a party at Buckingham Palace, Edward introduced Wallis to his parents. His father was outraged by her marital history, as divorced individuals were excluded from court. On January 20, 1936, Edward ascended to the throne as King Edward VIII. It soon became clear that the king intended to marry Wallis, who was still in the process of divorcing Simpson. This presented both social and religious challenges. As head of the Church of England, Edward was forbidden from remarrying a divorced person whose spouse was still alive. After trying all means to marry Wallis and still retain the throne, King Edward VIII decided to abdicate the throne, and handed power over to his younger brother, George VI. Wallis and Edward married on June 3, 1937. Now Duke and Duchess, the two spent their lives together until Edward's death in 1972. Wallis Simpson died in 1986 and was buried next to Edward in the Royal Burial Ground.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
15 June 2019
Wihtwara was the kingdom founded on the Isle of Wight, a 147-square-mile (380 km2) island off the south coast of England, during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. The name was derived from the Jutish name Wihtwara ("Men of Wiht"). Its capital was a fort named Wihtwarasburgh. It has been suggested that the modern-day village of Carisbrooke was built on top of Wihtwarasburgh due to the fact that they share their location. It has also been suggested that Wihtwarasburgh was built on top of a pre-existing Roman fort, but this has not been proven.
Wihtwara was named, supposedly, after Wihtgar who, along with Stuf, was one of the two earliest kings of Wihtwara (recorded by St Bede in 512). Wihtgar and Stuf were supposedly nephews of Cerdic, the founder of the Wessex dynasty known only as the Gewisse (literally "Allies"). Some scholars have suggested that Wihtgar may have been fictitious: that is, the central figure of a founding myth invented retrospectively, to justify the name. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle differs, however, instead claiming that Wihtgar and Stuf received the land from Cerdic's son Cynric in 534, with the death of Wihtgar taking place in 544. Subsequent kings are unknown until the final Jutish king, Arwald, who was probably born in the mid 7th Century. In 661 Wulfhere of Mercia conquered Wessex and gave the overlordship to his godson, King Aethelwalh of Sussex and forced the Islanders to convert to Christianity. After Wulfhere's departure the island returned to paganism. Arwald was reportedly killed resisting an invasion in 686 by King Caedwalla of Wessex (under the tutelage of St Wilfrid) together with his brother Mul of Kent. According to Bede, Caedwalla "endeavoured to destroy all the inhabitants" of Wihtwara and to replace them with his own followers. When Caedwalla died a few years later, wounds sustained in the fierce fighting at Wihtwara were reputedly responsible. The only recorded survivor from the alleged massacres at Wihtwara was Arwald's sister (whose name is now unknown); through her its ruling dynasty became ancestors of later Anglo-Saxon kings. Arwald's sister was married to King Egbert of Kent (at the time also a Jutish kingdom besieged by Caedwalla and his brother, Mul). Arwald's sister was therefore, apparently, the mother of King Wihtred of Kent and grandmother of Æthelbert II of Kent. Æthelbert was the grandfather of Egbert of Wessex, who was, in turn, the paternal grandfather of King Alfred the Great.
Later middle ages
After the Norman Conquest the Isle of Wight was given to the de Redvers family in 1101 who were known as "Lords of the Isle of Wight". However the last of them was Izabel de Forz (also known as Isabella de Fortibus; 1237–1293), who was known informally as the "Queen of the Isle of Wight". Forz was visited shortly before her death by King Edward Longshanks (known later as Edward I), who said later that she had sold the Isle of Wight to him for 6,000 marks. The village of Queens Bower is said to be named after her. In 1444, Henry Beauchamp, Duke of Warwick a favourite of King Henry VI was given the title (or perhaps nickname) of King of the Isle of Wight. Beauchamp died shortly afterwards and the title was not used again. The closest existing title at that time - the Lordship of the Isle of Wight - was held by the uncle of King Henry VI, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, after being bestowed it in 1434. | <urn:uuid:fc04b561-e0a9-447c-918c-821fd752c1c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://random-knowledge.com/?id=13993180 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.985799 | 848 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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Wihtwara was the kingdom founded on the Isle of Wight, a 147-square-mile (380 km2) island off the south coast of England, during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. The name was derived from the Jutish name Wihtwara ("Men of Wiht"). Its capital was a fort named Wihtwarasburgh. It has been suggested that the modern-day village of Carisbrooke was built on top of Wihtwarasburgh due to the fact that they share their location. It has also been suggested that Wihtwarasburgh was built on top of a pre-existing Roman fort, but this has not been proven.
Wihtwara was named, supposedly, after Wihtgar who, along with Stuf, was one of the two earliest kings of Wihtwara (recorded by St Bede in 512). Wihtgar and Stuf were supposedly nephews of Cerdic, the founder of the Wessex dynasty known only as the Gewisse (literally "Allies"). Some scholars have suggested that Wihtgar may have been fictitious: that is, the central figure of a founding myth invented retrospectively, to justify the name. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle differs, however, instead claiming that Wihtgar and Stuf received the land from Cerdic's son Cynric in 534, with the death of Wihtgar taking place in 544. Subsequent kings are unknown until the final Jutish king, Arwald, who was probably born in the mid 7th Century. In 661 Wulfhere of Mercia conquered Wessex and gave the overlordship to his godson, King Aethelwalh of Sussex and forced the Islanders to convert to Christianity. After Wulfhere's departure the island returned to paganism. Arwald was reportedly killed resisting an invasion in 686 by King Caedwalla of Wessex (under the tutelage of St Wilfrid) together with his brother Mul of Kent. According to Bede, Caedwalla "endeavoured to destroy all the inhabitants" of Wihtwara and to replace them with his own followers. When Caedwalla died a few years later, wounds sustained in the fierce fighting at Wihtwara were reputedly responsible. The only recorded survivor from the alleged massacres at Wihtwara was Arwald's sister (whose name is now unknown); through her its ruling dynasty became ancestors of later Anglo-Saxon kings. Arwald's sister was married to King Egbert of Kent (at the time also a Jutish kingdom besieged by Caedwalla and his brother, Mul). Arwald's sister was therefore, apparently, the mother of King Wihtred of Kent and grandmother of Æthelbert II of Kent. Æthelbert was the grandfather of Egbert of Wessex, who was, in turn, the paternal grandfather of King Alfred the Great.
Later middle ages
After the Norman Conquest the Isle of Wight was given to the de Redvers family in 1101 who were known as "Lords of the Isle of Wight". However the last of them was Izabel de Forz (also known as Isabella de Fortibus; 1237–1293), who was known informally as the "Queen of the Isle of Wight". Forz was visited shortly before her death by King Edward Longshanks (known later as Edward I), who said later that she had sold the Isle of Wight to him for 6,000 marks. The village of Queens Bower is said to be named after her. In 1444, Henry Beauchamp, Duke of Warwick a favourite of King Henry VI was given the title (or perhaps nickname) of King of the Isle of Wight. Beauchamp died shortly afterwards and the title was not used again. The closest existing title at that time - the Lordship of the Isle of Wight - was held by the uncle of King Henry VI, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, after being bestowed it in 1434. | 881 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2. Because of the defective environment of the Grammar Schools many families did not want to send their children to them.
3. Some families did not like that their children should come in contact with children of business-class people who were studying in the Grammar Schools.
4. Private schools were much better in discipline and organisation than the Grammar Schools. More subjects were taught in these schools. History, geography and modern languages, mathematics and art were the additional subjects taught in them. English and French occupied a special place in them.
The interests and aptitude of students were developed by giving them opportunities to take up such subjects as music, painting, modelling, printing and surveying. Thus the students got opportunities for their natural development.
5. Private Schools were very carefully maintained and latest, progressive teaching methods were used in them. They had also become centres for experimental and research work.
6. The Private Schools followed the democratic principles in maintaining discipline, as the students themselves were made responsible for the same. For maintaining discipline the students used to select a committee which formulated discipline rules.
All the students were compelled to follow these rules. The defaulters were presented before the Jury presided over by a Judge. The Judge and the members of the Jury were students themselves. The defaulters were sometimes deprived of certain facilities or were closed in dark-rooms for some time.
Similarly, there were many other committees consisting of students themselves to look after various affairs relating to students. But the critics criticised this excellent system on the ground that it made students adults prematurely. Girls were also educated in Private Schools.
The aim of their education was to make them good house-wives. Hence, in the curriculum subjects pertaining to domestic arts, instrumental and vocal music, painting and embroidery, French and Italian and general knowledge were included.
Upto 1840, not much improvement could be effected in Endowed and Public Schools. But due to the views of Bentham, Jermy and Mills people began to criticise these schools. Bentham and Mills were for utilitarianism which these schools did not promote.
The Missionaries also criticised the curriculum of these schools. Due to the Industrial Revolution a special class of middle class people came up. These people stood for individualism which the Endowed and Public Schools did not follow. Hence the time was ripe for the reforms of these schools. | <urn:uuid:dee04cf3-b460-4762-a79d-e8830b65f98a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://houghtonlakeboard.org/essay-on-the-necessity-of-private-schools-in-britain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.991269 | 483 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.128050714731... | 3 | 2. Because of the defective environment of the Grammar Schools many families did not want to send their children to them.
3. Some families did not like that their children should come in contact with children of business-class people who were studying in the Grammar Schools.
4. Private schools were much better in discipline and organisation than the Grammar Schools. More subjects were taught in these schools. History, geography and modern languages, mathematics and art were the additional subjects taught in them. English and French occupied a special place in them.
The interests and aptitude of students were developed by giving them opportunities to take up such subjects as music, painting, modelling, printing and surveying. Thus the students got opportunities for their natural development.
5. Private Schools were very carefully maintained and latest, progressive teaching methods were used in them. They had also become centres for experimental and research work.
6. The Private Schools followed the democratic principles in maintaining discipline, as the students themselves were made responsible for the same. For maintaining discipline the students used to select a committee which formulated discipline rules.
All the students were compelled to follow these rules. The defaulters were presented before the Jury presided over by a Judge. The Judge and the members of the Jury were students themselves. The defaulters were sometimes deprived of certain facilities or were closed in dark-rooms for some time.
Similarly, there were many other committees consisting of students themselves to look after various affairs relating to students. But the critics criticised this excellent system on the ground that it made students adults prematurely. Girls were also educated in Private Schools.
The aim of their education was to make them good house-wives. Hence, in the curriculum subjects pertaining to domestic arts, instrumental and vocal music, painting and embroidery, French and Italian and general knowledge were included.
Upto 1840, not much improvement could be effected in Endowed and Public Schools. But due to the views of Bentham, Jermy and Mills people began to criticise these schools. Bentham and Mills were for utilitarianism which these schools did not promote.
The Missionaries also criticised the curriculum of these schools. Due to the Industrial Revolution a special class of middle class people came up. These people stood for individualism which the Endowed and Public Schools did not follow. Hence the time was ripe for the reforms of these schools. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
50 Years Ago, Americans Made The 2nd Moon Landing... Why Doesn't Anyone Remember?
Fifty years ago, astronaut Pete Conrad stepped out of the lunar module onto the surface of the moon.
His first words were: "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me."
Conrad, who stood at just 5 feet 6 inches tall, was only the third human to set foot on the lunar surface. He did it on November 19, 1969, just four months after Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made the first lunar landing. However, unlike Armstrong and Aldrin, Conrad and fellow astronaut Alan Bean are not household names.
Their mission, Apollo 12, remains largely unknown, according to Teasel Muir-Harmony, the curator of the Apollo Collection at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. And it's a shame, because it was, frankly, a really fun trip, she says.
"This crew was hilarious," Muir-Harmony says. "They were really entertaining."
Apollo 12 got off to an inauspicious start. There were thunderstorms on the day of the launch, and the rocket was actually struck by lightning — twice — as it ascended skyward. "That led to electrical problem that shut down a lot of the controls," she says.
Fortunately the rocket kept flying, and with the help of Mission Control, the astronauts were able to restore power to all of their systems.
"Think we need to do a little more all-weather testing," Conrad said wryly as the Saturn V rocket shot into orbit.
That was the dramatic beginning of what turned into kind of a goofy road trip. Pete Conrad, the mission commander, brought up a tape deck (as commander, he also set the playlist: Dusty Springfield, Elvis, and some classic country).
He and fellow astronauts Bean and Richard Gordon had all met as pilots in the Navy.
"These guys were all friends, they all knew each other before they became Apollo astronauts," Muir-Harmony says.
If Apollo 11 was about proving it was possible to land on the moon, Apollo 12 was about doing it better. "The major focus of Apollo 12 was the pinpoint landing," Muir-Harmony says. Conrad was "considered one of the best pilots, if not the best pilot of the Apollo astronauts," she says.
He nailed the landing, on the edge of a crater and just 600 feet from a robotic probe known as Surveyor III. As part of their planned activities, the astronauts later visited the spacecraft, the only time humans have gone to poke a robotic probe sent ahead of them.
Conrad first words as he stepped onto the surface were actually part of a bet with a journalist, Muir-Harmony says. She had asked Conrad whether the U.S. government had dictated Neil Armstrong's first words. "And he made a bet (I think it's about a $500 bet) saying, 'No, we can say whatever we want. We're not being told what to say by the government.'"
That was not the only gag on Apollo 12. The astronauts' cuff checklists, small binder guides strapped to their arms, contained silly cartoons and several nude Playboy models that were slipped in by the backup crew. The nudes were accompanied by instructions such as: "Survey - her activity."
Muir-Harmony says the astronauts kept that joke to themselves. Even at the time, the crude gag probably wouldn't have gone over well with either conservative America or the burgeoning women's movement. And it says a lot about gender in the space program at the time: "The role of women in space was seen as entertainment or pleasure as opposed to an equal colleague," she says.
Archival transcripts of the mission reveal Conrad did a lot of merry singing as he bounced along the lunar surface: "Dum dum, dum dum," he sang, according to official transcripts of the mission. "Boy, do I like to run up here. This is neat!"
"It is fun," agreed Bean.
Unfortunately, there's very little footage of the astronaut's antics. Shortly after landing, Bean accidentally pointed the lunar surface TV camera directly at the Sun, frying its circuitry. The lack of images may be one reason that the mission is not as well remembered as some of the others, Muir-Harmony says.
Conrad and Bean lifted off on November 20. Conrad let Bean drive the lunar module a little bit, even though he wasn't supposed to. They returned to Earth and made a perfect landing in the Pacific.
Although they received the same honors as the Apollo 11 crew, things were different. The Apollo 12 astronauts had dinner with President Richard Nixon at the White House, Muir-Harmony says. "But they could tell that Nixon's focus was elsewhere,"
The president was trying to negotiate an arms control treaty with the Soviets. Meanwhile, in Vietnam things kept getting worse. On the second day the astronauts were on the moon, pictures emerged of a massacre at a town called My Lai.
Muir-Harmony believes this is the real reason Apollo 12 never got much attention. "It's hard to feel optimistic and excited and focused on exploration when these horrible atrocities are happening on earth," she says.
But for what it's worth, the astronauts had a pretty good time. | <urn:uuid:9f913b3e-cefa-4e15-a058-12775d4fafe4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wfdd.org/story/50-years-ago-americans-made-2nd-moon-landing-why-doesnt-anyone-remember | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.981309 | 1,131 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.26564407348632... | 2 | 50 Years Ago, Americans Made The 2nd Moon Landing... Why Doesn't Anyone Remember?
Fifty years ago, astronaut Pete Conrad stepped out of the lunar module onto the surface of the moon.
His first words were: "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me."
Conrad, who stood at just 5 feet 6 inches tall, was only the third human to set foot on the lunar surface. He did it on November 19, 1969, just four months after Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made the first lunar landing. However, unlike Armstrong and Aldrin, Conrad and fellow astronaut Alan Bean are not household names.
Their mission, Apollo 12, remains largely unknown, according to Teasel Muir-Harmony, the curator of the Apollo Collection at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. And it's a shame, because it was, frankly, a really fun trip, she says.
"This crew was hilarious," Muir-Harmony says. "They were really entertaining."
Apollo 12 got off to an inauspicious start. There were thunderstorms on the day of the launch, and the rocket was actually struck by lightning — twice — as it ascended skyward. "That led to electrical problem that shut down a lot of the controls," she says.
Fortunately the rocket kept flying, and with the help of Mission Control, the astronauts were able to restore power to all of their systems.
"Think we need to do a little more all-weather testing," Conrad said wryly as the Saturn V rocket shot into orbit.
That was the dramatic beginning of what turned into kind of a goofy road trip. Pete Conrad, the mission commander, brought up a tape deck (as commander, he also set the playlist: Dusty Springfield, Elvis, and some classic country).
He and fellow astronauts Bean and Richard Gordon had all met as pilots in the Navy.
"These guys were all friends, they all knew each other before they became Apollo astronauts," Muir-Harmony says.
If Apollo 11 was about proving it was possible to land on the moon, Apollo 12 was about doing it better. "The major focus of Apollo 12 was the pinpoint landing," Muir-Harmony says. Conrad was "considered one of the best pilots, if not the best pilot of the Apollo astronauts," she says.
He nailed the landing, on the edge of a crater and just 600 feet from a robotic probe known as Surveyor III. As part of their planned activities, the astronauts later visited the spacecraft, the only time humans have gone to poke a robotic probe sent ahead of them.
Conrad first words as he stepped onto the surface were actually part of a bet with a journalist, Muir-Harmony says. She had asked Conrad whether the U.S. government had dictated Neil Armstrong's first words. "And he made a bet (I think it's about a $500 bet) saying, 'No, we can say whatever we want. We're not being told what to say by the government.'"
That was not the only gag on Apollo 12. The astronauts' cuff checklists, small binder guides strapped to their arms, contained silly cartoons and several nude Playboy models that were slipped in by the backup crew. The nudes were accompanied by instructions such as: "Survey - her activity."
Muir-Harmony says the astronauts kept that joke to themselves. Even at the time, the crude gag probably wouldn't have gone over well with either conservative America or the burgeoning women's movement. And it says a lot about gender in the space program at the time: "The role of women in space was seen as entertainment or pleasure as opposed to an equal colleague," she says.
Archival transcripts of the mission reveal Conrad did a lot of merry singing as he bounced along the lunar surface: "Dum dum, dum dum," he sang, according to official transcripts of the mission. "Boy, do I like to run up here. This is neat!"
"It is fun," agreed Bean.
Unfortunately, there's very little footage of the astronaut's antics. Shortly after landing, Bean accidentally pointed the lunar surface TV camera directly at the Sun, frying its circuitry. The lack of images may be one reason that the mission is not as well remembered as some of the others, Muir-Harmony says.
Conrad and Bean lifted off on November 20. Conrad let Bean drive the lunar module a little bit, even though he wasn't supposed to. They returned to Earth and made a perfect landing in the Pacific.
Although they received the same honors as the Apollo 11 crew, things were different. The Apollo 12 astronauts had dinner with President Richard Nixon at the White House, Muir-Harmony says. "But they could tell that Nixon's focus was elsewhere,"
The president was trying to negotiate an arms control treaty with the Soviets. Meanwhile, in Vietnam things kept getting worse. On the second day the astronauts were on the moon, pictures emerged of a massacre at a town called My Lai.
Muir-Harmony believes this is the real reason Apollo 12 never got much attention. "It's hard to feel optimistic and excited and focused on exploration when these horrible atrocities are happening on earth," she says.
But for what it's worth, the astronauts had a pretty good time. | 1,125 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A car is moving with at a constant speed of 60 km h–1 on a straight road. Looking at the rear view mirror, the driver finds that the car following him is at a distance of 100 m and is approaching with a speed of 5 km h –1. In order to keep track of the car in the rear, the driver begins to glance alternatively at the rear and side mirror of his car after every 2 s till the other car overtakes. If the two cars were maintaining their speeds, which of the following statement (s) is/are correct?
(a) The speed of the car in the rear is 65 km h–1.
(b) In the side mirror the car in the rear would appear to approach with a speed of 5 km h–1 to the driver of the leading car.
(c) In the rear view mirror the speed of the approaching car would appear to decrease as the distance between the cars decreases.
(d) In the side mirror, the speed of the approaching car would appear to increase as the distance between the cars decreases. | <urn:uuid:0397d313-a94c-4218-a521-8ea135ef3e44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sarthaks.com/101618/car-is-moving-with-at-constant-speed-of-60-km-on-straight-road-looking-at-the-rear-view-mirror | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.981427 | 222 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1323632150888443... | 4 | A car is moving with at a constant speed of 60 km h–1 on a straight road. Looking at the rear view mirror, the driver finds that the car following him is at a distance of 100 m and is approaching with a speed of 5 km h –1. In order to keep track of the car in the rear, the driver begins to glance alternatively at the rear and side mirror of his car after every 2 s till the other car overtakes. If the two cars were maintaining their speeds, which of the following statement (s) is/are correct?
(a) The speed of the car in the rear is 65 km h–1.
(b) In the side mirror the car in the rear would appear to approach with a speed of 5 km h–1 to the driver of the leading car.
(c) In the rear view mirror the speed of the approaching car would appear to decrease as the distance between the cars decreases.
(d) In the side mirror, the speed of the approaching car would appear to increase as the distance between the cars decreases. | 224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In reality, the Germans are the last people who have a right to hate the Jews, because they are too similar to the Jews. The Jews also distinguish themselves as individuals among the German "great men." As individuals, they often surpass the worth of their nation....Music is considered the most German of all arts, and among its most brilliant and devoted contributors are many Jews.
—Hatred (Der Hass), 1933
"Fire oaths" were statements to be read as books were tossed to the flames. The German Student Association sent out a circular containing these statements before the book burnings. The fire oaths then accompanied the burning of works written by the individual authors named in the statements.
Against decadence and moral decay
For discipline and decency in family and state
Heinrich Mann, Ernst Glaeser, and Erich Kästner
All works published before May 1933
Heinrich Mann (1871-1950), the brother of German author Thomas Mann, was an early target of the Nazis. Mann was forced to flee to France early in 1933 after being dismissed from his post as chairman of the literature division at the Prussian Academy of Art. Nazi persecution of Mann was, on the one hand, the result of his writings. Mann's writings made fun of the servility of the German middle class during the Empire and the undemocratic aspects of the Weimar Republic.
The Nazis also despised his political actions—his attempts to reconcile France and Germany and to effect a coalition between Social Democrats and Communists in order to prevent the rise of Adolf Hitler. All of his works, both fiction and non-fiction, were burned. In 1940, Mann fled France and settled in Los Angeles with the help of a screenwriting contract with Warner Brothers, which his brother Thomas was able to secure for him. He continued to write, but success eluded him in America. He died in Santa Monica, California, in 1950.
Critical Thinking Questions
- If Jews were the principal target during the Holocaust, why were books written by non-Jewish authors burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity? | <urn:uuid:9301e02e-e146-4d45-bc5a-05e39776a4aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/heinrich-mann | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.980827 | 471 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.294316411018... | 6 | In reality, the Germans are the last people who have a right to hate the Jews, because they are too similar to the Jews. The Jews also distinguish themselves as individuals among the German "great men." As individuals, they often surpass the worth of their nation....Music is considered the most German of all arts, and among its most brilliant and devoted contributors are many Jews.
—Hatred (Der Hass), 1933
"Fire oaths" were statements to be read as books were tossed to the flames. The German Student Association sent out a circular containing these statements before the book burnings. The fire oaths then accompanied the burning of works written by the individual authors named in the statements.
Against decadence and moral decay
For discipline and decency in family and state
Heinrich Mann, Ernst Glaeser, and Erich Kästner
All works published before May 1933
Heinrich Mann (1871-1950), the brother of German author Thomas Mann, was an early target of the Nazis. Mann was forced to flee to France early in 1933 after being dismissed from his post as chairman of the literature division at the Prussian Academy of Art. Nazi persecution of Mann was, on the one hand, the result of his writings. Mann's writings made fun of the servility of the German middle class during the Empire and the undemocratic aspects of the Weimar Republic.
The Nazis also despised his political actions—his attempts to reconcile France and Germany and to effect a coalition between Social Democrats and Communists in order to prevent the rise of Adolf Hitler. All of his works, both fiction and non-fiction, were burned. In 1940, Mann fled France and settled in Los Angeles with the help of a screenwriting contract with Warner Brothers, which his brother Thomas was able to secure for him. He continued to write, but success eluded him in America. He died in Santa Monica, California, in 1950.
Critical Thinking Questions
- If Jews were the principal target during the Holocaust, why were books written by non-Jewish authors burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity? | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He Must and Shall Appear
The theophany is a central focus in the Old Testament. Theophany is a Greek term, meaning “Appearance of God”. Because God is transcendent and above all things spiritually, He needed to reveal Himself to His creation physically in various ways. God would appear before men of His choosing in order to bless them and have His will be done on Earth.
A major theophany takes place with Abram in the book of Genesis. At this time, he is successful but has no children. The Lord told him, “’Look up at the heavens and count the stars – if indeed, you can count them.’ Then he said to him, ‘So shall your offspring be.’ (Genesis 15:5).” Abram wanted assurance that his descendants would take possession of the land, so God instructed him to bring certain animals and cut them in halves opposite each other. When the darkness loomed over the earth, God revealed Himself in flames of glory. “A smoking firepot with a blazing torch appeared and passed through the pieces (Genesis 15:17).”
Abram was still without a son and decided to produce a child with his wife’s maidservant, Hagar. While he felt that this would satisfy God, he later realized that he was wrong, as their son Ishmael would become the father of the Arabs. The angel of the Lord was correct in ascertaining that the nation of Ishmael would produce great quarrels; centuries later, a prophet would come and devise a revolting religion designed to undermine God’s will on earth (salvation through the Son), while achieving the schemes of his political agenda.
We saw proof that this is not what God wanted, so He established a covenant with Abram. Not only did He change his name to “Abraham” but also assured him that his descendents would be numerous, vast land would be theirs, and God would be with them. Therefore, it was time for God to reveal His true plan through Abraham by supplying him with a child with his own wife. Once the Lord told them they would have a child together named “Isaac”, Sarah laughed in jest. In Genesis 18, we see another theophany. Abraham and Sarah encounter The Three Visitors, who may have possibly been an incarnation of the Trinity. Sarah was reminded that she laughed at God, and so the name “Isaac” fittingly means “he laughs.”
It was through Abraham’s younger son Isaac that God was going to display His will and even a revelation. It has been well documented that Abraham was obedient and righteous, and the time came for Abraham to endure a near-impossible test – the sacrifice of his own begotten son. While it’s safe to say that Abraham was torn from within to do this to his own flesh and blood, the angel of the Lord stopped him at just the right time. Another theophany was accounted for, as God called onto him from Heaven and instructed him to cease the sacrifice of his innocent son. Not only did Abraham pass the test, he named the mountain “The Lord Will Provide”. This would serve a great deal of truth, as this was a... | <urn:uuid:db521dc5-01a2-4742-af4f-1fdbafc94c09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/he-must-and-shall-appear | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.98627 | 684 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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The theophany is a central focus in the Old Testament. Theophany is a Greek term, meaning “Appearance of God”. Because God is transcendent and above all things spiritually, He needed to reveal Himself to His creation physically in various ways. God would appear before men of His choosing in order to bless them and have His will be done on Earth.
A major theophany takes place with Abram in the book of Genesis. At this time, he is successful but has no children. The Lord told him, “’Look up at the heavens and count the stars – if indeed, you can count them.’ Then he said to him, ‘So shall your offspring be.’ (Genesis 15:5).” Abram wanted assurance that his descendants would take possession of the land, so God instructed him to bring certain animals and cut them in halves opposite each other. When the darkness loomed over the earth, God revealed Himself in flames of glory. “A smoking firepot with a blazing torch appeared and passed through the pieces (Genesis 15:17).”
Abram was still without a son and decided to produce a child with his wife’s maidservant, Hagar. While he felt that this would satisfy God, he later realized that he was wrong, as their son Ishmael would become the father of the Arabs. The angel of the Lord was correct in ascertaining that the nation of Ishmael would produce great quarrels; centuries later, a prophet would come and devise a revolting religion designed to undermine God’s will on earth (salvation through the Son), while achieving the schemes of his political agenda.
We saw proof that this is not what God wanted, so He established a covenant with Abram. Not only did He change his name to “Abraham” but also assured him that his descendents would be numerous, vast land would be theirs, and God would be with them. Therefore, it was time for God to reveal His true plan through Abraham by supplying him with a child with his own wife. Once the Lord told them they would have a child together named “Isaac”, Sarah laughed in jest. In Genesis 18, we see another theophany. Abraham and Sarah encounter The Three Visitors, who may have possibly been an incarnation of the Trinity. Sarah was reminded that she laughed at God, and so the name “Isaac” fittingly means “he laughs.”
It was through Abraham’s younger son Isaac that God was going to display His will and even a revelation. It has been well documented that Abraham was obedient and righteous, and the time came for Abraham to endure a near-impossible test – the sacrifice of his own begotten son. While it’s safe to say that Abraham was torn from within to do this to his own flesh and blood, the angel of the Lord stopped him at just the right time. Another theophany was accounted for, as God called onto him from Heaven and instructed him to cease the sacrifice of his innocent son. Not only did Abraham pass the test, he named the mountain “The Lord Will Provide”. This would serve a great deal of truth, as this was a... | 652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Life and Death of William Wallace
No national hero ever excited greater admiration than that of William Wallace. No hero remained such a shadowy figure, his life and actions beset by myths and contradictions. When Scotland's hope of becoming independent was smashed, when the Scots were oppressed, and their nation virtually wiped out, Wallace emerged from the shadows like some bright meteor in the night sky. He gained a spectacular victory over the English in one battle and sustained a crushing defeat in a second. He disappeared from recorded history just as swiftly as he had come, emerging only briefly seven years later when he was betrayed to the English, brought to London, subjected to a mockery of a trial and executed in a most hideous and barbaric manner (Mackay 9). Though his life came to a tragic end, William Wallace's life greatly influenced the movement for Scotland's independence.
Born in January, most likely in 1272 in the town of Elerslie, Scotland (known now as Elderslie), William Wallace was born as the second of three sons to Sir Malcolm Wallace. Few national heroes possess such an obscure and contradictory background as William Wallace. The year of his birth has been stated as anywhere between 1260-1278 and his father's name given as Malcolm, Andrew, or William and his mother's name has been given as Jean, Joan, or Margaret or not stated at all and her surname given as Crawford, Craufurd, Crawfoord or some other variation (Mackay 13). If we accept the traditional account, Wallace, for the time and given his origins, was well educated. As a result, he was familiar with Greek as well as Latin and his knowledge of the Bible was extensive. As a younger son with few prospects, he was, we to assume, intended for the priesthood, consequently following in the steps of the uncles to whom he owed his education (Fisher 12). One of William's uncles taught him this couplet:
Dico te verum, libertas optima rerum:
Nunquam servili sub nexu vivito, fili!
I tell you truthfully, freedom is the best of all things:
Never live under the yoke of slavery my son.
This quotation rings true in the light of Wallace's career, dedicated as it was to the pursuit of liberty for his native land (Fisher 12). Wallace's eventful and happy, perhaps even idyllic, life was interrupted by the scheming of the ruthless and evil Edward I of England, who saw in the death of Alexander III, the opportunity to make himself master of Scotland.
In an age when the average height of a full-grown man was not much over five feet, judging by the clothing and armor that survived from the period, William was truly a giant of a man at 6 feet 7 inches with a physique to match. Blind Harry's physical description holds some truth to it:
Wallace's stature, in largeness and in height,
Was judged thus, by such as saw him right
Both in his armour dight and in undress:
Nine quarters large he was in length - no less;
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-0.14838647842407... | 1 | The Life and Death of William Wallace
No national hero ever excited greater admiration than that of William Wallace. No hero remained such a shadowy figure, his life and actions beset by myths and contradictions. When Scotland's hope of becoming independent was smashed, when the Scots were oppressed, and their nation virtually wiped out, Wallace emerged from the shadows like some bright meteor in the night sky. He gained a spectacular victory over the English in one battle and sustained a crushing defeat in a second. He disappeared from recorded history just as swiftly as he had come, emerging only briefly seven years later when he was betrayed to the English, brought to London, subjected to a mockery of a trial and executed in a most hideous and barbaric manner (Mackay 9). Though his life came to a tragic end, William Wallace's life greatly influenced the movement for Scotland's independence.
Born in January, most likely in 1272 in the town of Elerslie, Scotland (known now as Elderslie), William Wallace was born as the second of three sons to Sir Malcolm Wallace. Few national heroes possess such an obscure and contradictory background as William Wallace. The year of his birth has been stated as anywhere between 1260-1278 and his father's name given as Malcolm, Andrew, or William and his mother's name has been given as Jean, Joan, or Margaret or not stated at all and her surname given as Crawford, Craufurd, Crawfoord or some other variation (Mackay 13). If we accept the traditional account, Wallace, for the time and given his origins, was well educated. As a result, he was familiar with Greek as well as Latin and his knowledge of the Bible was extensive. As a younger son with few prospects, he was, we to assume, intended for the priesthood, consequently following in the steps of the uncles to whom he owed his education (Fisher 12). One of William's uncles taught him this couplet:
Dico te verum, libertas optima rerum:
Nunquam servili sub nexu vivito, fili!
I tell you truthfully, freedom is the best of all things:
Never live under the yoke of slavery my son.
This quotation rings true in the light of Wallace's career, dedicated as it was to the pursuit of liberty for his native land (Fisher 12). Wallace's eventful and happy, perhaps even idyllic, life was interrupted by the scheming of the ruthless and evil Edward I of England, who saw in the death of Alexander III, the opportunity to make himself master of Scotland.
In an age when the average height of a full-grown man was not much over five feet, judging by the clothing and armor that survived from the period, William was truly a giant of a man at 6 feet 7 inches with a physique to match. Blind Harry's physical description holds some truth to it:
Wallace's stature, in largeness and in height,
Was judged thus, by such as saw him right
Both in his armour dight and in undress:
Nine quarters large he was in length - no less;
Third part his length in shoulders broad was he, | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Infertility has been a major medical and social preoccupation since the dawn of human existence and women have always been the symbol of fertility. Since antiquity, couples have been prolific and difficulty with conception was a real problem. In Egyptian society, women were equal to men, and difficulty with conception was not considered divine punishment but an illness that had to be diagnosed and treated. As far back as 1900 BC, there are recorded documents discussing the treatment of gynecologic disorders. Although the Egyptian's understanding of anatomy was somewhat sketchy, there are references to the female reproductive tract (Lefebvre, 1952), and sperm were considered to originate in the bones (Sauneron, 1960). Medicine was permeated with magic, physicians were priests to the goddess Sekmet, who was responsible for disease. Thus the gods played a fundamental role in treatment of childbirth (Morice, 1992). Infertile women had their own infertile goddess, Nephtys. Male infertility was also discussed in Egyptian records. Since it was important to tell if a women was fertile or not, the Egyptians developed elaborate methods of diagnosis. Examinations were based on the concept that the genital organs were in continuity with the rest of the body and, in particular, with the digestive system. This way of thinking remained in place for hundreds of years and was adopted by Hippocrates and many medieval physicians (Labat, 1951). Concubine figures of naked women in bed with a baby lying next to them in the fetal position is more proof of the Egyptian's interest in infertility (Baines, 1986). These figurines, found in the tombs of women, were hoped to at least insure their fertility in the next world; and for men, the figurines were to guarantee their sexual potency after death. Although, Egyptian medicine probably had very little successful treatments for infertility, it does show a very real preoccupation they had for femininity and womanhood.
One of the main sources of knowledge concerning Jewish medicine in ancient times is the Bible. The notion of original sin predominated and women had very few rights or liberties. “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth” was the command from God to Adam and Eve at the beginning of the Book of Genesis. In this context it can be understood that infertility would be a divine curse, and in a time where male infertility was unrecognized. In the Book of Genesis, when Jacob is angry with his wife Rachel, he went as far as saying: “ Am I in God's stead, who hath withheld from thee the fruit of the womb?” But pregnancy is above all a gift from God. Eve says: “I have gotten a man from the Lord”. Thus children, were desired and conceived by the will of God and consecrated to be His servants.
Western medicine finds its primary sources in Greece. But the real change came with Hippocrates and his school. Born in 460 BC, Hippocrates wanted to break away from the way medicine of the time was practiced, which was closer to magic, and develop a system of medical reasoning based on rational thinking. Infertility was recognized as a medical problem which needed diagnosis and treatment and women were not subject to exclusion because of it. Hippocrates was well aware of the problems of infertility and theorized a number of causes for it and had formulated numerous treatment options.
“When a cervix is closed too tightly the inner orifice must be opened using a special mixture of red nitre, cumin, resin and honey. Or it could be dilated by inserting a hollow leaden probe into the uterus enabling emollient substances to be poured in”. Despite these “advances”, women in Greek times, were considered as a “chastised male”, an inferior creature. The uterus was considered an irrational soul and to be at the origin of all sorts of ills. Aristotle and Plato both thought that a woman emits a substance during coitus, necessary for fertilization.
The role of the gods were just as important during the Roman era. During the feast for Mars, the priests to this god would run through the city whipping the bellies of infertile women with a goatskin whip. Many Roman physicians believed that conception took place right after menstruation. The period prior to menstruation was infertile because the uterus was “overloaded”. Galien (130-200 AD), believed that the phases of the moon had an effect on the feminine cycle. There was little advancements in the treatment of infertility during Roman times.
The Byzantine and the Middle Ages also made little progress in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility and the next major advances would have to wait for the Renaissance and discoveries in anatomy for any real breakthroughs to occur. During the Middle Ages, however, it was understood that procreation was a necessity and important to the “continuation of the species”. It was not considered a reason for annulling a marriage. If a couple's sole reason for sexual intercourse was not for procreation, their fertility would be decreased. Infertility could also be the consequence of sins committed; infidelity, and blasphemy could also give rise to infertility. Fertility might be regained with prayer and fasting. Infertility, the mark of divine punishment, was a real fear during the Middle Ages.
The Renaissance marks the period of undeniable scientific progress and advancements in modern day thinking and treatment of infertility. Thanks to da Vince and others, the mysteries of the female body were gradually resolved and scientific thinking and reasoning replaced magic and the gods. In 1562, Bartolomeo recommended that husbands should put their finger in the vagina after intercourse to encourage conception. This was the ancestor of the idea of artificial insemination. De Graaf (1672), refuted Aristotle's theories of fertilization, and described the ovary and follicular function. Sperm was first identified under the microscope by von Leeuwenhoek in 1677. In 1752, Smellie was the first to carry out experiments and describe the fertilization process. Despite the progress that was made during these times, infertility was almost synonymous with the female; and it was rare that the husband was considered as a cause. Even during this age of enlightenment, a real ambiguity existed. Women became the source of continual interest but were considered weak and sensitive and thus unfit to have anything to do with public and professional life; thus they were made to live indoors, to lead a dependent and subjugated life. Although progress was being made in the origins of infertility, because of a woman's apparent fragility, she automatically was at fault when the couple was infertile.
(Morice et al., Human Reproductive Update, 1995)
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were marked by tremendous advances in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility. In 1898, fertilization was described as the union of a egg and a sperm. 80 years later, in 1978, the first “test-tube” baby was born in England and in 1981, her in-vitro sister was born. You know the rest of the story. The first IVF baby born in the US was in 1981, pioneered by fertility specialists at Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk, Virginia. Since those early days, a little more than 25 years ago, tremendous progress has been made in the understanding, diagnosis and successful treatment of so many of the causes of infertility. And step by slow step, infertile women have come to be considered patients in her own right, instead of a curiosity and condemned member of the human society, living in silence and misunderstanding; no longer being considered witches and burned at the stake, but replaced as the center of medical and scientific attention, and possibly lying at the very source of all human survival. Just imagine where we will be by the next 25-50 years.
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0.120719611644... | 8 | Infertility has been a major medical and social preoccupation since the dawn of human existence and women have always been the symbol of fertility. Since antiquity, couples have been prolific and difficulty with conception was a real problem. In Egyptian society, women were equal to men, and difficulty with conception was not considered divine punishment but an illness that had to be diagnosed and treated. As far back as 1900 BC, there are recorded documents discussing the treatment of gynecologic disorders. Although the Egyptian's understanding of anatomy was somewhat sketchy, there are references to the female reproductive tract (Lefebvre, 1952), and sperm were considered to originate in the bones (Sauneron, 1960). Medicine was permeated with magic, physicians were priests to the goddess Sekmet, who was responsible for disease. Thus the gods played a fundamental role in treatment of childbirth (Morice, 1992). Infertile women had their own infertile goddess, Nephtys. Male infertility was also discussed in Egyptian records. Since it was important to tell if a women was fertile or not, the Egyptians developed elaborate methods of diagnosis. Examinations were based on the concept that the genital organs were in continuity with the rest of the body and, in particular, with the digestive system. This way of thinking remained in place for hundreds of years and was adopted by Hippocrates and many medieval physicians (Labat, 1951). Concubine figures of naked women in bed with a baby lying next to them in the fetal position is more proof of the Egyptian's interest in infertility (Baines, 1986). These figurines, found in the tombs of women, were hoped to at least insure their fertility in the next world; and for men, the figurines were to guarantee their sexual potency after death. Although, Egyptian medicine probably had very little successful treatments for infertility, it does show a very real preoccupation they had for femininity and womanhood.
One of the main sources of knowledge concerning Jewish medicine in ancient times is the Bible. The notion of original sin predominated and women had very few rights or liberties. “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth” was the command from God to Adam and Eve at the beginning of the Book of Genesis. In this context it can be understood that infertility would be a divine curse, and in a time where male infertility was unrecognized. In the Book of Genesis, when Jacob is angry with his wife Rachel, he went as far as saying: “ Am I in God's stead, who hath withheld from thee the fruit of the womb?” But pregnancy is above all a gift from God. Eve says: “I have gotten a man from the Lord”. Thus children, were desired and conceived by the will of God and consecrated to be His servants.
Western medicine finds its primary sources in Greece. But the real change came with Hippocrates and his school. Born in 460 BC, Hippocrates wanted to break away from the way medicine of the time was practiced, which was closer to magic, and develop a system of medical reasoning based on rational thinking. Infertility was recognized as a medical problem which needed diagnosis and treatment and women were not subject to exclusion because of it. Hippocrates was well aware of the problems of infertility and theorized a number of causes for it and had formulated numerous treatment options.
“When a cervix is closed too tightly the inner orifice must be opened using a special mixture of red nitre, cumin, resin and honey. Or it could be dilated by inserting a hollow leaden probe into the uterus enabling emollient substances to be poured in”. Despite these “advances”, women in Greek times, were considered as a “chastised male”, an inferior creature. The uterus was considered an irrational soul and to be at the origin of all sorts of ills. Aristotle and Plato both thought that a woman emits a substance during coitus, necessary for fertilization.
The role of the gods were just as important during the Roman era. During the feast for Mars, the priests to this god would run through the city whipping the bellies of infertile women with a goatskin whip. Many Roman physicians believed that conception took place right after menstruation. The period prior to menstruation was infertile because the uterus was “overloaded”. Galien (130-200 AD), believed that the phases of the moon had an effect on the feminine cycle. There was little advancements in the treatment of infertility during Roman times.
The Byzantine and the Middle Ages also made little progress in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility and the next major advances would have to wait for the Renaissance and discoveries in anatomy for any real breakthroughs to occur. During the Middle Ages, however, it was understood that procreation was a necessity and important to the “continuation of the species”. It was not considered a reason for annulling a marriage. If a couple's sole reason for sexual intercourse was not for procreation, their fertility would be decreased. Infertility could also be the consequence of sins committed; infidelity, and blasphemy could also give rise to infertility. Fertility might be regained with prayer and fasting. Infertility, the mark of divine punishment, was a real fear during the Middle Ages.
The Renaissance marks the period of undeniable scientific progress and advancements in modern day thinking and treatment of infertility. Thanks to da Vince and others, the mysteries of the female body were gradually resolved and scientific thinking and reasoning replaced magic and the gods. In 1562, Bartolomeo recommended that husbands should put their finger in the vagina after intercourse to encourage conception. This was the ancestor of the idea of artificial insemination. De Graaf (1672), refuted Aristotle's theories of fertilization, and described the ovary and follicular function. Sperm was first identified under the microscope by von Leeuwenhoek in 1677. In 1752, Smellie was the first to carry out experiments and describe the fertilization process. Despite the progress that was made during these times, infertility was almost synonymous with the female; and it was rare that the husband was considered as a cause. Even during this age of enlightenment, a real ambiguity existed. Women became the source of continual interest but were considered weak and sensitive and thus unfit to have anything to do with public and professional life; thus they were made to live indoors, to lead a dependent and subjugated life. Although progress was being made in the origins of infertility, because of a woman's apparent fragility, she automatically was at fault when the couple was infertile.
(Morice et al., Human Reproductive Update, 1995)
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were marked by tremendous advances in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility. In 1898, fertilization was described as the union of a egg and a sperm. 80 years later, in 1978, the first “test-tube” baby was born in England and in 1981, her in-vitro sister was born. You know the rest of the story. The first IVF baby born in the US was in 1981, pioneered by fertility specialists at Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk, Virginia. Since those early days, a little more than 25 years ago, tremendous progress has been made in the understanding, diagnosis and successful treatment of so many of the causes of infertility. And step by slow step, infertile women have come to be considered patients in her own right, instead of a curiosity and condemned member of the human society, living in silence and misunderstanding; no longer being considered witches and burned at the stake, but replaced as the center of medical and scientific attention, and possibly lying at the very source of all human survival. Just imagine where we will be by the next 25-50 years.
Our Scottsdale Fertility Clinic Location | 1,645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Effect of the Industrial Revolution
With the 19th Century the movement of population to the towns brought new problems. The 'county' families moved out of the newly urbanised districts into neighbouring countryside. The 'trading Justices' chiefly associated with Middlesex, but who were also prominent in Lancashire, came in. In the second half of the 18th Century a large number of clergymen had served as Justices. Some had, in fact, been chairmen of Quarter Sessions. The Reverend W.R. Hay, who held a valuable living at Rochdale worth £2,500 a year, was probably the first. Another clergyman, the Reverend Richard Burn, Vicar or Orton in Westmoreland, was a chairman of Quarter Session, and published in 1755 his great work "The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer". The edition published in 1869 was in five volumes.
During the change from rural to urban conditions, many of these clerical Justices played a prominent part, particularly in improving conditions in county gaols. In 1832, of the 5,300 active JP's, one in every four was in holy orders.
JP's relieved of administrative duties
Between 1829 and 1888, JP's were relieved of some of their major administrative duties with the exception of liquor licensing, and it was thought widely that they would soon be relieved of their judicial duties also. The historian Maitland wrote "The JP is cheap, he is pure, he is capable but he is doomed, he is to be sacrificed to a theory on the altar of the spirit of the age". Since he wrote those words, the judicial responsibilities of JP's have increased almost annually.
The effect of progressive urbanisation
Before 1835, Justices in towns were appointed in accordance with rights granted by charter. The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 provided for them to be nominated by the Lord Chancellor for the boroughs in consultation with local advisers, while, for the county benches, he continued to confirm the nomination of the Lord Lieutenants, who had their own methods for finding suitable candidates. The appointment of both was vested in the Crown acting on the Lord Chancellor's advice. The exception to the rule was Lancashire, where both county and borough magistrates were nominated by the Chancellor of the Duchy.
The system of appointment challenged
The Liberal Government in 1906 challenged this system of appointment, which led to a preponderance of Conservatives on the benches. The property qualification was abolished for county magistrates. Lord Loreburn, as Liberal Lord Chancellor, nominated 7,000 magistrates between January 1906, of whom 3,197 were liberals. The Royal Commission on the Appointment of Justices of the Peace 1910, recommended the institution of an Advisory Committee system, and by the end of 1911, Advisory Committees on which Liberals and Conservatives were usually equally represented had been set up in most counties to advise Lords Lieutenants on nominations. Ten or twelve years later, the boroughs also had formed Advisory Committees. Appointment to these Committees was for life until 1925, when Lord Cave introduced appointment for six years and ordered half the Committees to retire by rotation every three years. | <urn:uuid:802cb30d-8141-4ff9-acf1-fcd7d1c5370e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lowestoftheritage.org/research/prominent-personalities/12-the-history-of-justices-of-the-peace?start=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.982346 | 647 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.14324042201042... | 1 | Effect of the Industrial Revolution
With the 19th Century the movement of population to the towns brought new problems. The 'county' families moved out of the newly urbanised districts into neighbouring countryside. The 'trading Justices' chiefly associated with Middlesex, but who were also prominent in Lancashire, came in. In the second half of the 18th Century a large number of clergymen had served as Justices. Some had, in fact, been chairmen of Quarter Sessions. The Reverend W.R. Hay, who held a valuable living at Rochdale worth £2,500 a year, was probably the first. Another clergyman, the Reverend Richard Burn, Vicar or Orton in Westmoreland, was a chairman of Quarter Session, and published in 1755 his great work "The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer". The edition published in 1869 was in five volumes.
During the change from rural to urban conditions, many of these clerical Justices played a prominent part, particularly in improving conditions in county gaols. In 1832, of the 5,300 active JP's, one in every four was in holy orders.
JP's relieved of administrative duties
Between 1829 and 1888, JP's were relieved of some of their major administrative duties with the exception of liquor licensing, and it was thought widely that they would soon be relieved of their judicial duties also. The historian Maitland wrote "The JP is cheap, he is pure, he is capable but he is doomed, he is to be sacrificed to a theory on the altar of the spirit of the age". Since he wrote those words, the judicial responsibilities of JP's have increased almost annually.
The effect of progressive urbanisation
Before 1835, Justices in towns were appointed in accordance with rights granted by charter. The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 provided for them to be nominated by the Lord Chancellor for the boroughs in consultation with local advisers, while, for the county benches, he continued to confirm the nomination of the Lord Lieutenants, who had their own methods for finding suitable candidates. The appointment of both was vested in the Crown acting on the Lord Chancellor's advice. The exception to the rule was Lancashire, where both county and borough magistrates were nominated by the Chancellor of the Duchy.
The system of appointment challenged
The Liberal Government in 1906 challenged this system of appointment, which led to a preponderance of Conservatives on the benches. The property qualification was abolished for county magistrates. Lord Loreburn, as Liberal Lord Chancellor, nominated 7,000 magistrates between January 1906, of whom 3,197 were liberals. The Royal Commission on the Appointment of Justices of the Peace 1910, recommended the institution of an Advisory Committee system, and by the end of 1911, Advisory Committees on which Liberals and Conservatives were usually equally represented had been set up in most counties to advise Lords Lieutenants on nominations. Ten or twelve years later, the boroughs also had formed Advisory Committees. Appointment to these Committees was for life until 1925, when Lord Cave introduced appointment for six years and ordered half the Committees to retire by rotation every three years. | 696 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The popular notion of the Inquisition is that of a monstrous tyranny spanning the centuries, bent on eliminating heresy wherever it was found, torturing people for confessions and condemning them to being burnt at the stake. It is often claimed that hundreds of thousands or even millions of unfortunates died at the hands of the Catholic church in this fashion, and that Jews and Protestant reformers were particular targets. It’s commonly raised when opponents want to criticize Christianity.
However, historians have known for some time that this view of the Inquisition is vastly exaggerated. Many archives are available, and a number of books have been published by historians in recent years that correct the record.
What was the Inquisition? Inquisitions were church tribunals instituted by the Catholic church (usually in conjunction with the state) to combat heresy, although their remit was eventually broadened to other offences. They were concerned primarily with baptised Catholics. Inquisitions could use torture to obtain confessions, and handed unrepentant heretics over to secular authorities to be sentenced. There were actually a number of inquisitions – the Medieval Inquisition, from 1184 to 1500s; the Spanish Inquisition, from 1478-1800s; the Portuguese Inquisition from 1536-1800s; and the Roman Inquisition, from about 1588 to 1800s.
The Spanish Inquisition is the most notorious of these. It was actually established and controlled by the Spanish monarchy working with the church and concentrated on conversos – Muslims or Jews who had converted to Catholicism and who were suspected of maintaining their old religious practices. In 1492 the Spanish monarchy expelled Jews from Spain, and many converted to Catholicism to avoid expulsion.
So was the Spanish Inquisition really as genocidal as some claim? As far as historians can tell, approximately 5,000 executions were carried out during the 350 years of the Spanish Inquisition, or perhaps 15 a year. Not insignificant, but certainly nothing like popular claims. To put these figures in context, China executes thousands of its citizens per year. Most people accused of heresy were acquitted or had their sentences suspended. Yes, torture was used in a small percentage of trials, but the use of torture was routine throughout Europe at the time. Inquisition trials were actually fairer and more lenient than secular trials. It should be noted too that capital punishment was very widely used during this period for a broad range of offences.
Up until 1530, Protestant reformers were not targeted by the inquisitions, because Protestants did not exist until this period. There were very few Protestants in Spain, so few Protestants were affected. The Roman Inquisition targeted Protestants in Italy more deliberately, which resulted in most Italian reformers leaving Italy.
So how should Christians treat accusations regarding the horrors the church has inflicted via inquisitions? Facts are important, particularly when they have been so distorted. We should endeavour to have an accurate picture of the historical context and to separate truth from exaggeration. But conversely, we should never attempt to minimise past wrongs committed by the church. It is abhorrent and deeply regrettable that anyone was tortured and executed with church involvement, no matter what the actual numbers are.
Peters, Edward. Inquisition. New York: Free Press, 1988.
Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997.
Kamen, Henry. The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition. 1994. Timewatch series, BBC. | <urn:uuid:20c9d434-ad8f-44fe-bf62-8d6290a34dbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://philosophicalapologist.com/category/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.981945 | 695 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.28036072850227... | 24 | The popular notion of the Inquisition is that of a monstrous tyranny spanning the centuries, bent on eliminating heresy wherever it was found, torturing people for confessions and condemning them to being burnt at the stake. It is often claimed that hundreds of thousands or even millions of unfortunates died at the hands of the Catholic church in this fashion, and that Jews and Protestant reformers were particular targets. It’s commonly raised when opponents want to criticize Christianity.
However, historians have known for some time that this view of the Inquisition is vastly exaggerated. Many archives are available, and a number of books have been published by historians in recent years that correct the record.
What was the Inquisition? Inquisitions were church tribunals instituted by the Catholic church (usually in conjunction with the state) to combat heresy, although their remit was eventually broadened to other offences. They were concerned primarily with baptised Catholics. Inquisitions could use torture to obtain confessions, and handed unrepentant heretics over to secular authorities to be sentenced. There were actually a number of inquisitions – the Medieval Inquisition, from 1184 to 1500s; the Spanish Inquisition, from 1478-1800s; the Portuguese Inquisition from 1536-1800s; and the Roman Inquisition, from about 1588 to 1800s.
The Spanish Inquisition is the most notorious of these. It was actually established and controlled by the Spanish monarchy working with the church and concentrated on conversos – Muslims or Jews who had converted to Catholicism and who were suspected of maintaining their old religious practices. In 1492 the Spanish monarchy expelled Jews from Spain, and many converted to Catholicism to avoid expulsion.
So was the Spanish Inquisition really as genocidal as some claim? As far as historians can tell, approximately 5,000 executions were carried out during the 350 years of the Spanish Inquisition, or perhaps 15 a year. Not insignificant, but certainly nothing like popular claims. To put these figures in context, China executes thousands of its citizens per year. Most people accused of heresy were acquitted or had their sentences suspended. Yes, torture was used in a small percentage of trials, but the use of torture was routine throughout Europe at the time. Inquisition trials were actually fairer and more lenient than secular trials. It should be noted too that capital punishment was very widely used during this period for a broad range of offences.
Up until 1530, Protestant reformers were not targeted by the inquisitions, because Protestants did not exist until this period. There were very few Protestants in Spain, so few Protestants were affected. The Roman Inquisition targeted Protestants in Italy more deliberately, which resulted in most Italian reformers leaving Italy.
So how should Christians treat accusations regarding the horrors the church has inflicted via inquisitions? Facts are important, particularly when they have been so distorted. We should endeavour to have an accurate picture of the historical context and to separate truth from exaggeration. But conversely, we should never attempt to minimise past wrongs committed by the church. It is abhorrent and deeply regrettable that anyone was tortured and executed with church involvement, no matter what the actual numbers are.
Peters, Edward. Inquisition. New York: Free Press, 1988.
Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997.
Kamen, Henry. The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition. 1994. Timewatch series, BBC. | 764 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The earliest roller coasters were descended from Russian winter sled rides held on specially constructed hills of ice, sometimes up to 200 feet (61 m) tall. Known from the 17th century, the slides were built to a height of between 70 and 80 feet (21 to 24 m), had a 50-degree initial slope, and were reinforced by wooden supports. In the 18th century they were especially popular in St. Petersburg and surroundings, from where their usage and popularity spread to Europe. Sometimes wheeled carts were used instead of tracks, like in the Katalnaya Gorka built in Catherine II's residence in Oranienbaum. By the late 18th century, their popularity was such that entrepreneurs elsewhere began copying the idea, using wheeled cars built on tracks. The first such wheeled ride was brought to Paris in 1804 under the name Les Montagnes Russes (French for "Russian Mountains").
Among the early companies were Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville, which constructed and operated a gravity track in Paris from 1812, and Promenades Aeriennes ("Aerial Promenades", 1817, at Beaujon Gardens, Paris). The first loop track was probably also built in Paris from an English design in 1846, with a single-person wheeled sled running through a 13-foot (4 m) diameter loop. None of these tracks were complete circuits. | <urn:uuid:51b47bed-7275-48dc-98bd-e8608efbbc7a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Russian_Mountains | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.980154 | 285 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | The earliest roller coasters were descended from Russian winter sled rides held on specially constructed hills of ice, sometimes up to 200 feet (61 m) tall. Known from the 17th century, the slides were built to a height of between 70 and 80 feet (21 to 24 m), had a 50-degree initial slope, and were reinforced by wooden supports. In the 18th century they were especially popular in St. Petersburg and surroundings, from where their usage and popularity spread to Europe. Sometimes wheeled carts were used instead of tracks, like in the Katalnaya Gorka built in Catherine II's residence in Oranienbaum. By the late 18th century, their popularity was such that entrepreneurs elsewhere began copying the idea, using wheeled cars built on tracks. The first such wheeled ride was brought to Paris in 1804 under the name Les Montagnes Russes (French for "Russian Mountains").
Among the early companies were Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville, which constructed and operated a gravity track in Paris from 1812, and Promenades Aeriennes ("Aerial Promenades", 1817, at Beaujon Gardens, Paris). The first loop track was probably also built in Paris from an English design in 1846, with a single-person wheeled sled running through a 13-foot (4 m) diameter loop. None of these tracks were complete circuits. | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the period from 1500 to 1800, religious and political unity was strongest in Islamic Empires and East Asia; while Europe was in complete turmoil with no religious and political unity.
The Catholic Church during this time had become a very corrupt institution, and there was hardly any town in Europe during the late Middle Ages which did not have complaints against their clergy. There were complaints of maladministration, concubinage, or fiscalism of clergy, and the church was involved in selling of important ecclesiastical posts to the highest bidder and imposing regular indulgences on people, not only to remit their sins, but, the sins of their dead ones. All these factors accumulated to lay the foundation for the Protestant Reformation, which was to leave Europe in a political and religious turmoil for over three centuries. (Craig, Pg. 424 – 426)
Although Martin Luther was thefirst one to start Reformation in Germany, almost all different nations had their own versions of Reformation, which were not related to each other. For example, the Reformation in Geneva was led by John Calvin, while the Swiss Reformation was led by Ulrich Zwingli. Although all the Reformation Movements had the basic idea of returning to early Christianity and boycott the corrupt practices of Catholic Church, still instead of combining together as one force against the Catholic Church, they had their own issues amongst themselves and in the long race developed a hatred for each other. This was evident from The Marburg Colloquy, when Landgrave Philip of Hesse, sought to unite both Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact. However, his efforts were foiled as the leaders of the two Reformation Movements had a disagreement over the nature of Christ's presence in the Eucharist. (Craig Pg. 429)
Although the different movements were not able to combine together, still the movement was overall a success. With the expansion of Prote… | <urn:uuid:d8e57f20-f010-4339-a250-323f4fe7a01d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/comparing-societies-1500-1800/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.988396 | 391 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.1262572... | 1 | During the period from 1500 to 1800, religious and political unity was strongest in Islamic Empires and East Asia; while Europe was in complete turmoil with no religious and political unity.
The Catholic Church during this time had become a very corrupt institution, and there was hardly any town in Europe during the late Middle Ages which did not have complaints against their clergy. There were complaints of maladministration, concubinage, or fiscalism of clergy, and the church was involved in selling of important ecclesiastical posts to the highest bidder and imposing regular indulgences on people, not only to remit their sins, but, the sins of their dead ones. All these factors accumulated to lay the foundation for the Protestant Reformation, which was to leave Europe in a political and religious turmoil for over three centuries. (Craig, Pg. 424 – 426)
Although Martin Luther was thefirst one to start Reformation in Germany, almost all different nations had their own versions of Reformation, which were not related to each other. For example, the Reformation in Geneva was led by John Calvin, while the Swiss Reformation was led by Ulrich Zwingli. Although all the Reformation Movements had the basic idea of returning to early Christianity and boycott the corrupt practices of Catholic Church, still instead of combining together as one force against the Catholic Church, they had their own issues amongst themselves and in the long race developed a hatred for each other. This was evident from The Marburg Colloquy, when Landgrave Philip of Hesse, sought to unite both Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact. However, his efforts were foiled as the leaders of the two Reformation Movements had a disagreement over the nature of Christ's presence in the Eucharist. (Craig Pg. 429)
Although the different movements were not able to combine together, still the movement was overall a success. With the expansion of Prote… | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word “cousin”
The word “Cousin” in Greek is “suggenis” which means “kinswoman” or “relative.” The word “suggenis” does not necessarily mean “cousin.” It simply implies that Mary and Elizabeth were relatives, with no indication as to degree of relationship. The law made provision for the intermarriage of the tribes (Num. 36:6), and members of the tribes of Levi and Judah often intermarried.
The word “cousin” was first used here in Wycliffe’s translation. This was during a time when the word did not have the specific meaning it does now. There is no exact term in Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic to denote what we describe as a “cousin.” A misunderstanding of the problem has led some commentators to the false conjecture that Jesus was a descendant of both Levi and Judah. There is, however, no evidence whatsoever to indicate that Mary was other than a direct descendant of David.
Mary and Elizabeth’s lineage
Elizabeth was of the tribe of Levi. “…and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth.” (Luke 1:5). Mary was of the tribe of Judah. “To a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin’s name was Mary.” (Luke 1:27). If Mary was of Judah, it seems that Mary’s father would also be of Judah. Therefore, it is possible that Mary’s connection with Elizabeth was either through her mother or through Elizabeth’s mother.
In His service, | <urn:uuid:93e48d1f-0a78-4fc5-9ca4-2056b7b0640a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bibleask.org/how-were-mary-elizabeth-related/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.983585 | 374 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.108598843216... | 1 | The word “cousin”
The word “Cousin” in Greek is “suggenis” which means “kinswoman” or “relative.” The word “suggenis” does not necessarily mean “cousin.” It simply implies that Mary and Elizabeth were relatives, with no indication as to degree of relationship. The law made provision for the intermarriage of the tribes (Num. 36:6), and members of the tribes of Levi and Judah often intermarried.
The word “cousin” was first used here in Wycliffe’s translation. This was during a time when the word did not have the specific meaning it does now. There is no exact term in Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic to denote what we describe as a “cousin.” A misunderstanding of the problem has led some commentators to the false conjecture that Jesus was a descendant of both Levi and Judah. There is, however, no evidence whatsoever to indicate that Mary was other than a direct descendant of David.
Mary and Elizabeth’s lineage
Elizabeth was of the tribe of Levi. “…and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth.” (Luke 1:5). Mary was of the tribe of Judah. “To a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the house of David; and the virgin’s name was Mary.” (Luke 1:27). If Mary was of Judah, it seems that Mary’s father would also be of Judah. Therefore, it is possible that Mary’s connection with Elizabeth was either through her mother or through Elizabeth’s mother.
In His service, | 341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gus La Casse did some math.
What he concluded was that if each of 25 mountain treks could attract pledges, that money would provide a tremendous boost for SMARD research at The Jackson Laboratory and, he hoped, help find a cure.
"My mom works at The Jackson Lab, and one day she came home and told me about SMARD," 10-year-old Gus said in the summer of 2011. "It's pretty rare, but there are quite a few kids in America and kids all over the world who have SMARD. And nobody has a cure."
That insight distressed Gus, who is into climbing and hiking and who realizes that kids with SMARD will never do either. He decided he would spend much of his summer, in effect, doing that for them, while seeking pledges to fund research. It was, Gus says, a "good summer vacation deed."
Most people have never heard of SMARD, an acronym for spinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress, which Jackson Laboratory Associate Professor Greg Cox, Ph.D., describes as "the rarest of the rare" in terms of genetic based, neuromuscular degenerative diseases.
"Until recently, I had never heard of it, nor have most physicians," says Cox. "It's a very debilitating infantile disease. Most of these children don't live more than two or three years. SMARD is a very early onset motor neuron disease. Motor neurons are the neurons in your spinal cord that extend into every muscle in your body. When these motor neurons get sick—and with SMARD, they actually die—there's no way to trigger voluntary muscle response, which includes breathing and swallowing. It's a recessive disease. You have to have two parents who carry the mutation to have a fear of a child developing SMARD."
Regrettably, Cox notes, he can count on the fingers of one hand the number of research laboratories worldwide that are exploring the biomolecular complexities of SMARD. Researchers in those labs make use of a mouse model of SMARD provided through The Jackson Laboratory.
It was Cox who discovered the genetic mutation that causes this currently incurable disease that kills infants and toddlers through muscle atrophy and paralysis. While SMARD affects fewer than 1,000 American children at any given time, each case is devastating for the families involved.
Among those families are the parents and grandparents of Silas Werner. As a newborn, Silas baffled a small army of Pittsburgh, Pa., pediatricians before he was finally diagnosed with SMARD, at age three months. After an original diagnosis of botulism and a prognosis of full recovery, agonizing months of hospitalization finally revealed a diagnosis of SMARD. His parents were devastated.
When Gus, whose parents Renée and Joe both work at the Laboratory, first heard of Silas and SMARD, he was moved to act.
"I do a lot of things that involve movement, like hiking and climbing," he says. "So I decided I would raise money by doing something for these young kids with SMARD that they will never be able to do, like go hiking. In hiking, you have to breathe a lot, and these SMARD kids will never breathe on their own."
Over his summer break from grade school, Gus trekked up and down 25 mountain trails, most of them within Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. His final climb on July 31 was a steep ascent to the summit of Mount Katahdin, Maine's highest peak at 5,268 feet. It was five miles straight up, and five miles straight down. Among those joining him in the trek was Greg Cox, who also accompanied Gus on many of his other climbs.
"He doesn't get tired," Cox says of Gus' ambition. Apparently, neither does Cox, according to his wife.
"The last couple of weekends have been very hot here on Mount Desert Island," Kathy Cox wrote on the Facebook site Gus created to promote the project. "But Gus, Renée, Greg and team kept hiking for SMARD families. We are so proud of you."
Gus set an ambitious goal for his fundraising in hopes that Greg Cox can hire a postdoctoral researcher to focus on gaining a better understanding the disease. To spread the word about his project, he was interviewed on a morning talk radio show and wrote an op-ed that he sent to the editorial pages of daily newspapers throughout Maine.
"When people ask me why they should contribute to Climb for Silas, I tell them because kids all over the world have SMARD, and there's no cure," he wrote. "It's important that people like Greg Cox find a cure."
Gus has never met Silas, but plans to. He's been communicating with Lisa and John Werner, Silas's parents, by e-mail, as well as other SMARD families he's tracked down online, including a family in England.
"There's another kid, Dakin, who lives in Texas," Gus says. "He's four years old, which is quite old for a kid with SMARD. I also heard that there's a SMARD kid in California who is 18, which is very unusual."
The dust has settled on his summer of climbing, and Gus is back into his usual school routine. But he continues to work toward his fundraising goals to support research and discovery on behalf of a far-flung community of children and parents to whom he is now firmly connected.
The preschooler who inspired Gus La Casse to climb and raise money for SMARD research, is Silas Werner, a Pennsylvania preschooler. Despite his condition, his parents say that Silas radiates joy through his happy smile. Speaking haltingly through a ventilator, Silas has mastered "mama" and "papa," much to the delight of his parents. Silas' nurses describe him as "having the sweetest disposition of any baby we've ever met."
Nonetheless, Silas requires the around-the-clock care provided by his parents and by visiting nurses. Lisa and John Werner have mastered what Lisa terms "special needs boot camp" to meet Silas's needs.
The Werners are part of the close network of SMARD parents who now have newfound hope for the future. They recently learned that The Jackson Laboratory has a laboratory making strides in SMARD research. They are actively raising funds to support the research and, hopefully, advance the understanding of the disease to the point that doctors can one day help Silas and his peers.
Contributions to support the fundraising efforts of Gus, Renée and Joe can be made by visiting their webpage. Links to the old page at this URL: http://genetichealth.jax.org/climb-for-silas | <urn:uuid:02a162f4-50e5-43dc-b53f-43ed4c670b46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jax.org/news-and-insights/2011/october/climbing-for-silas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.981794 | 1,392 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0615966841578... | 13 | Gus La Casse did some math.
What he concluded was that if each of 25 mountain treks could attract pledges, that money would provide a tremendous boost for SMARD research at The Jackson Laboratory and, he hoped, help find a cure.
"My mom works at The Jackson Lab, and one day she came home and told me about SMARD," 10-year-old Gus said in the summer of 2011. "It's pretty rare, but there are quite a few kids in America and kids all over the world who have SMARD. And nobody has a cure."
That insight distressed Gus, who is into climbing and hiking and who realizes that kids with SMARD will never do either. He decided he would spend much of his summer, in effect, doing that for them, while seeking pledges to fund research. It was, Gus says, a "good summer vacation deed."
Most people have never heard of SMARD, an acronym for spinal muscular atrophy with respiratory distress, which Jackson Laboratory Associate Professor Greg Cox, Ph.D., describes as "the rarest of the rare" in terms of genetic based, neuromuscular degenerative diseases.
"Until recently, I had never heard of it, nor have most physicians," says Cox. "It's a very debilitating infantile disease. Most of these children don't live more than two or three years. SMARD is a very early onset motor neuron disease. Motor neurons are the neurons in your spinal cord that extend into every muscle in your body. When these motor neurons get sick—and with SMARD, they actually die—there's no way to trigger voluntary muscle response, which includes breathing and swallowing. It's a recessive disease. You have to have two parents who carry the mutation to have a fear of a child developing SMARD."
Regrettably, Cox notes, he can count on the fingers of one hand the number of research laboratories worldwide that are exploring the biomolecular complexities of SMARD. Researchers in those labs make use of a mouse model of SMARD provided through The Jackson Laboratory.
It was Cox who discovered the genetic mutation that causes this currently incurable disease that kills infants and toddlers through muscle atrophy and paralysis. While SMARD affects fewer than 1,000 American children at any given time, each case is devastating for the families involved.
Among those families are the parents and grandparents of Silas Werner. As a newborn, Silas baffled a small army of Pittsburgh, Pa., pediatricians before he was finally diagnosed with SMARD, at age three months. After an original diagnosis of botulism and a prognosis of full recovery, agonizing months of hospitalization finally revealed a diagnosis of SMARD. His parents were devastated.
When Gus, whose parents Renée and Joe both work at the Laboratory, first heard of Silas and SMARD, he was moved to act.
"I do a lot of things that involve movement, like hiking and climbing," he says. "So I decided I would raise money by doing something for these young kids with SMARD that they will never be able to do, like go hiking. In hiking, you have to breathe a lot, and these SMARD kids will never breathe on their own."
Over his summer break from grade school, Gus trekked up and down 25 mountain trails, most of them within Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. His final climb on July 31 was a steep ascent to the summit of Mount Katahdin, Maine's highest peak at 5,268 feet. It was five miles straight up, and five miles straight down. Among those joining him in the trek was Greg Cox, who also accompanied Gus on many of his other climbs.
"He doesn't get tired," Cox says of Gus' ambition. Apparently, neither does Cox, according to his wife.
"The last couple of weekends have been very hot here on Mount Desert Island," Kathy Cox wrote on the Facebook site Gus created to promote the project. "But Gus, Renée, Greg and team kept hiking for SMARD families. We are so proud of you."
Gus set an ambitious goal for his fundraising in hopes that Greg Cox can hire a postdoctoral researcher to focus on gaining a better understanding the disease. To spread the word about his project, he was interviewed on a morning talk radio show and wrote an op-ed that he sent to the editorial pages of daily newspapers throughout Maine.
"When people ask me why they should contribute to Climb for Silas, I tell them because kids all over the world have SMARD, and there's no cure," he wrote. "It's important that people like Greg Cox find a cure."
Gus has never met Silas, but plans to. He's been communicating with Lisa and John Werner, Silas's parents, by e-mail, as well as other SMARD families he's tracked down online, including a family in England.
"There's another kid, Dakin, who lives in Texas," Gus says. "He's four years old, which is quite old for a kid with SMARD. I also heard that there's a SMARD kid in California who is 18, which is very unusual."
The dust has settled on his summer of climbing, and Gus is back into his usual school routine. But he continues to work toward his fundraising goals to support research and discovery on behalf of a far-flung community of children and parents to whom he is now firmly connected.
The preschooler who inspired Gus La Casse to climb and raise money for SMARD research, is Silas Werner, a Pennsylvania preschooler. Despite his condition, his parents say that Silas radiates joy through his happy smile. Speaking haltingly through a ventilator, Silas has mastered "mama" and "papa," much to the delight of his parents. Silas' nurses describe him as "having the sweetest disposition of any baby we've ever met."
Nonetheless, Silas requires the around-the-clock care provided by his parents and by visiting nurses. Lisa and John Werner have mastered what Lisa terms "special needs boot camp" to meet Silas's needs.
The Werners are part of the close network of SMARD parents who now have newfound hope for the future. They recently learned that The Jackson Laboratory has a laboratory making strides in SMARD research. They are actively raising funds to support the research and, hopefully, advance the understanding of the disease to the point that doctors can one day help Silas and his peers.
Contributions to support the fundraising efforts of Gus, Renée and Joe can be made by visiting their webpage. Links to the old page at this URL: http://genetichealth.jax.org/climb-for-silas | 1,373 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Raud the Strong
Olaf Tryggvason was King of Norway from 995 to 1000 AD. He played an important part in the conversion of the Vikings to Christianity. Olaf traveled to the parts of Norway that had been under the rule of the King of Denmark. He demanded that the citizenry be baptized, and most reluctantly agreed. Those that did not were tortured or killed. Despite King Olaf's persuasive efforts, many of the Vikings were reluctant to renounce their Gods and adopt Christianity. New and increasingly painful tortures and executions were devised by Olaf and his men. One of the most famous incidents of recalcitrance to Olaf's attempts at coerced conversion to Christianity is that of Raud the Strong.
Raud the Strong was a large landowner, a leader-priest of Seiðr (an Old Norse term for a type of sorcery or witchcraft that was practiced by the pre-Christian Norse), and a sea-farer. Raud was known for his beautiful longship, a boat larger than any of Olaf's, with a dragon's head carved into the bow. The ship was called “The Dragon” or “The Serpent.” Raud the Strong, who also had the reputation of being a wizard, was defeated by Olaf in a sea battle. He escaped on his vessel, using the technique of sailing against the wind, which was a sailing technique unusual in northern European waters at that time. Raud outran Olaf and escaped to his settlement in Gylling and Haering, a part of the Godey Isles.
After the weather calmed, Olaf sailed under cover of darkness to Godey and seized Raud from his bed. Then the king told Raud that if he accepted Christian baptism, he could keep his lands and ship and the king would be his friend.
But Raud refused, saying he would never believe in Christ, and mocked Olaf's religion and deity. Olaf became incensed and said Raud should die a horrible death. The king ordered him to be bound to a beam of wood, with his face pointed upward, and a round pin of wood put between his teeth to force his mouth open. The king then ordered a snake to be put into Raud's mouth, but the snake would not go in. Olaf then ordered a drinking horn to be put into Raud's mouth, and forced the serpent to go in by holding a red-hot iron at the opening of the horn. As a result, the snake crept into Raud's mouth and down his throat, and gnawed its way out his side and Raud died.
Olaf seized Raud's gold and silver, weapons and many valuable artifacts. All the men who were with Raud were baptized, or, if they refused, were killed or tortured. The king also took the dragonship that Raud had owned, and steered it himself since it was a much larger than any ship that he had.
According to legend this is how the famous Viking ships got their distinctive shape.
- Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth (author) and Keary, Charles Francis (contributor), A History of Norway: from the Earliest Times. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 1900, (reprinted) 2007. ISBN 0-548-23173-7; ISBN 978-0-548-23173-9.
- Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, The Viking Age. London: John Murray, 1889 (reprinted 2001).
- Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla (The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway) (c. 1230), English translation by Samuel Laing. London, 1844. | <urn:uuid:1debb1e0-9e92-4bfb-b347-987157ed56af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raud_the_Strong | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.985428 | 775 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Olaf Tryggvason was King of Norway from 995 to 1000 AD. He played an important part in the conversion of the Vikings to Christianity. Olaf traveled to the parts of Norway that had been under the rule of the King of Denmark. He demanded that the citizenry be baptized, and most reluctantly agreed. Those that did not were tortured or killed. Despite King Olaf's persuasive efforts, many of the Vikings were reluctant to renounce their Gods and adopt Christianity. New and increasingly painful tortures and executions were devised by Olaf and his men. One of the most famous incidents of recalcitrance to Olaf's attempts at coerced conversion to Christianity is that of Raud the Strong.
Raud the Strong was a large landowner, a leader-priest of Seiðr (an Old Norse term for a type of sorcery or witchcraft that was practiced by the pre-Christian Norse), and a sea-farer. Raud was known for his beautiful longship, a boat larger than any of Olaf's, with a dragon's head carved into the bow. The ship was called “The Dragon” or “The Serpent.” Raud the Strong, who also had the reputation of being a wizard, was defeated by Olaf in a sea battle. He escaped on his vessel, using the technique of sailing against the wind, which was a sailing technique unusual in northern European waters at that time. Raud outran Olaf and escaped to his settlement in Gylling and Haering, a part of the Godey Isles.
After the weather calmed, Olaf sailed under cover of darkness to Godey and seized Raud from his bed. Then the king told Raud that if he accepted Christian baptism, he could keep his lands and ship and the king would be his friend.
But Raud refused, saying he would never believe in Christ, and mocked Olaf's religion and deity. Olaf became incensed and said Raud should die a horrible death. The king ordered him to be bound to a beam of wood, with his face pointed upward, and a round pin of wood put between his teeth to force his mouth open. The king then ordered a snake to be put into Raud's mouth, but the snake would not go in. Olaf then ordered a drinking horn to be put into Raud's mouth, and forced the serpent to go in by holding a red-hot iron at the opening of the horn. As a result, the snake crept into Raud's mouth and down his throat, and gnawed its way out his side and Raud died.
Olaf seized Raud's gold and silver, weapons and many valuable artifacts. All the men who were with Raud were baptized, or, if they refused, were killed or tortured. The king also took the dragonship that Raud had owned, and steered it himself since it was a much larger than any ship that he had.
According to legend this is how the famous Viking ships got their distinctive shape.
- Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth (author) and Keary, Charles Francis (contributor), A History of Norway: from the Earliest Times. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 1900, (reprinted) 2007. ISBN 0-548-23173-7; ISBN 978-0-548-23173-9.
- Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, The Viking Age. London: John Murray, 1889 (reprinted 2001).
- Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla (The Chronicle of the Kings of Norway) (c. 1230), English translation by Samuel Laing. London, 1844. | 808 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Many Civil War Generals Were There
Civil War generals numbered in the hundreds during the war.
Many officers were promoted to higher ranks during the war, which included promotions to the rank of general.
These promotions were called brevet promotions. They were only valid for as long as the war lasted.
After the war ended their rank reverted back to where it was prior to their brevet promotion.
George Custer was one example of this type of wartime promotion. He was promoted to the rank of general during the Civil War.
Generals of the Civil War either won or lost battles due to their competence as commanders or their incompetence.
Great Civil War Generals
A must read book about Stonewall Jackson is Rebel Yell: The Violence, Passion, and Redemption of Stonewall Jackson this is a very well researched and fascinating biography about one of the Confederates best and most famous generals.
Bad Civil War Generals
Some less impressive generals during the Civil War are remembered simply for being as equally terrible as Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson were great.
Union General Ambrose Burnside is one example of incompetence and ineptitude that was nothing more than a burden to his subordinates and his men.
Burnside’s Blunder at Antietam
One of General Burnside’s most famous blunders was during the battle of Antietam at a bridge which forever bears his name called Burnside bridge.
He ordered his men to cross the bridge so that Union forces could cross Antietam creek and continue their attack against the Confederates. The bridge was defended by a small group of Confederate soldiers who held the high ground on the other side.
The defenders had easy targets as the Union troops tried to cross the narrow bridge.
Hundreds of General Burnside’s men were needlessly sacrificed trying to cross this bridge. Meanwhile General Burnside could have had his soldiers cross the creek a few hundred feet downstream where it was not defended and it was shallow enough for his men to have easily and safely walked across the Antietam creek.
Burnside himself even admitted publicly that he would make a very poor general, apparently nobody was listening and he was put in command anyway.
A great book about Civil War Generals from both sides of the conflict is Generals South, Generals North: The Commanders of the Civil War Reconsidered
Below you will find a list of some of the more famous leaders during the Civil War. | <urn:uuid:607a29a9-45ef-47f7-82e1-6a2c72e9995b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.civilwaracademy.com/civil-war-generals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.9855 | 505 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.0290519353... | 3 | How Many Civil War Generals Were There
Civil War generals numbered in the hundreds during the war.
Many officers were promoted to higher ranks during the war, which included promotions to the rank of general.
These promotions were called brevet promotions. They were only valid for as long as the war lasted.
After the war ended their rank reverted back to where it was prior to their brevet promotion.
George Custer was one example of this type of wartime promotion. He was promoted to the rank of general during the Civil War.
Generals of the Civil War either won or lost battles due to their competence as commanders or their incompetence.
Great Civil War Generals
A must read book about Stonewall Jackson is Rebel Yell: The Violence, Passion, and Redemption of Stonewall Jackson this is a very well researched and fascinating biography about one of the Confederates best and most famous generals.
Bad Civil War Generals
Some less impressive generals during the Civil War are remembered simply for being as equally terrible as Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson were great.
Union General Ambrose Burnside is one example of incompetence and ineptitude that was nothing more than a burden to his subordinates and his men.
Burnside’s Blunder at Antietam
One of General Burnside’s most famous blunders was during the battle of Antietam at a bridge which forever bears his name called Burnside bridge.
He ordered his men to cross the bridge so that Union forces could cross Antietam creek and continue their attack against the Confederates. The bridge was defended by a small group of Confederate soldiers who held the high ground on the other side.
The defenders had easy targets as the Union troops tried to cross the narrow bridge.
Hundreds of General Burnside’s men were needlessly sacrificed trying to cross this bridge. Meanwhile General Burnside could have had his soldiers cross the creek a few hundred feet downstream where it was not defended and it was shallow enough for his men to have easily and safely walked across the Antietam creek.
Burnside himself even admitted publicly that he would make a very poor general, apparently nobody was listening and he was put in command anyway.
A great book about Civil War Generals from both sides of the conflict is Generals South, Generals North: The Commanders of the Civil War Reconsidered
Below you will find a list of some of the more famous leaders during the Civil War. | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Middle Managers of Murder Introduction Bureaucracy is not unique to Germany, however its application by the National Socialists as a tool of totalitarian oppression is peerless. The rapid rearmament of Germany and mobilization for war required that the Nazi regime make use of the existing administrative machinery [ 1 ].
His family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy ; some of his ancestors in the male line worked as notaries in Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th century. He married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, on 2 January Maximilien was the oldest of four children and was conceived out of wedlock.
His siblings were Charlotte born 21 January[b] Henriette born 28 December[c] and Augustin born 21 January Until his death in Munich on 6 Novemberhe lived in Arras only occasionally; his two daughters Charlotte and Henriette were brought up by their paternal aunts, and his two sons were taken in by their maternal grandparents.
The children would visit each other on Sundays. Robespierre studied there until age 23, receiving his training as a lawyer. Upon his graduation, he received a special prize of livres for twelve years of exemplary academic success and personal good conduct.
He also studied the works of the Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau and was attracted to many ideas, written in his " Contrat Social ".
Robespierre became intrigued by the idea of a "virtuous self", a man who stands alone accompanied only by his conscience. Robespierre soon resigned, owing to discomfort in ruling on capital cases arising from his early opposition to the death penalty.
During court hearings he was often known to promote the ideals of the Enlightenment and to argue for the rights of man.
He became regarded as one of the best writers and most popular young men of Arras. In December he was elected a member of the academy of Arras, the meetings of which he attended regularly.
In the academy of Metz awarded him a medal for his essay on the question of whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should share his disgrace.
He and Pierre Louis de Lacretellean advocate and journalist in Paris, divided the prize. Many of his subsequent essays were less successful, but Robespierre was compensated for these failures by his popularity in the literary and musical society at Arras, known as the "Rosatia".
In its meetings he became acquainted with Lazare Carnotwho later became his colleague on the Committee of Public Safety. King Louis XVI later announced new elections for all provinces, thus allowing Robespierre to run for the position of deputy for the Third Estate.
In the assembly of the bailliagerivalry ran still higher, but Robespierre had begun to make his mark in politics with the Avis aux habitants de la campagne, 'Notice to the Residents of the Countryside ' of With this, he secured the support of the country electors.
Although he was only thirty, comparatively poor, and lacking patronage, he was elected as the fifth deputy of the Third Estate of Artois to the Estates-General. When Robespierre arrived at Versailles few of the other deputies knew him, but he became part of the representative National Assembly 13 June declared by the Third Estate, soon to transform itself 9 July into the National Constituent Assembly.
Jacobin Club After his arrival in Paris from Versailles inalong with the National Assembly, Robespierre soon became involved with the new Society of the Friends of the Constitution, known eventually as the Jacobin Club.
After the National Assembly moved to Paris, the Club began to admit various leaders of the Parisian bourgeoisie to its membership. As time went on, many of the more educated artisans and small shopkeepers became members of the club.
As the wealthier bourgeois of Paris and right-wing deputies seceded from the club ofthe influence of the old leaders of the Jacobins, such as Antoine BarnaveAdrien Duportand Alexandre de Lamethdiminished. Alarmed at the progress of the Revolution, they founded the club of the Feuillants in On 15 MayRobespierre proposed and carried the motion that no deputy who sat in the Constituent Assembly could sit in the succeeding Assembly.
This self-denying ordinance, designed to demonstrate the disinterested patriotism of the framers of the new constitution, had the effect of accelerating political change as deputies with experience and knowledge of the difficulties faced by France were to be replaced by new and often more enthusiastic men.
InRobespierre moved to rue de Saintonge, No. Robespierre lived there until his death except for two short intervals. In November, he returned to Paris to take the position of public prosecutor of Paris.
Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre opposed him, because they feared the influence of militarism, which might be turned to the advantage of the reactionary forces.
Robespierre was also convinced that the internal stability of the country was more important.
This opposition from expected allies irritated the Girondists, and the war became a major point of contention between the factions. Robespierre countered, "A revolutionary war must be waged to free subjects and slaves from unjust tyranny, not for the traditional reasons of defending dynasties and expanding frontiers The risks of Caesarism were clear, for in wartime, the powers of the generals would grow at the expense of ordinary soldiers, and the power of the king and court at the expense of the Assembly.
These dangers should not be overlooked, he reminded his listeners, " If they are Caesars or Cromwellsthey seize power for themselves.Early life. Maximilien de Robespierre was born in Arras in the old French province of metin2sell.com family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy; some of his ancestors in the male line worked as notaries in Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th century.
It has been suggested that he was of Irish descent, his surname possibly a corruption of "Robert Speirs".
Read the latest stories about photography on Time. Even from a distance, you can see the scars—thick, deep marks scrawled across his face and scalp.
Lifting the Veil: The best ever investigative history of of what's really going on behind the scenes in our world with over links to reliable sources to back up the . Thomas Marcellus, Director of the Institute for Historical Review, sorts damaged files from the wreckage of the devastating arson attack on July 4, , against the .
This website provides responsible criticism of the 9/11 Commission Report by senior military, intelligence and government officials. It provides experienced professional opinions about the terrorist attacks on the world trade center and the pentagon.
It was another one of Obama’s breathtaking moments of hypocrisy, since he has repeatedly violated the territorial integrity of various countries, including in Syria where he has authorized. | <urn:uuid:1bac7b5a-bf1d-4e82-b981-3c1f66b967ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puzinye.metin2sell.com/9-11-terror-essay-10462qr.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.981478 | 1,437 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2634112238883972,... | 1 | The Middle Managers of Murder Introduction Bureaucracy is not unique to Germany, however its application by the National Socialists as a tool of totalitarian oppression is peerless. The rapid rearmament of Germany and mobilization for war required that the Nazi regime make use of the existing administrative machinery [ 1 ].
His family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy ; some of his ancestors in the male line worked as notaries in Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th century. He married Jacqueline Marguerite Carrault, the daughter of a brewer, on 2 January Maximilien was the oldest of four children and was conceived out of wedlock.
His siblings were Charlotte born 21 January[b] Henriette born 28 December[c] and Augustin born 21 January Until his death in Munich on 6 Novemberhe lived in Arras only occasionally; his two daughters Charlotte and Henriette were brought up by their paternal aunts, and his two sons were taken in by their maternal grandparents.
The children would visit each other on Sundays. Robespierre studied there until age 23, receiving his training as a lawyer. Upon his graduation, he received a special prize of livres for twelve years of exemplary academic success and personal good conduct.
He also studied the works of the Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau and was attracted to many ideas, written in his " Contrat Social ".
Robespierre became intrigued by the idea of a "virtuous self", a man who stands alone accompanied only by his conscience. Robespierre soon resigned, owing to discomfort in ruling on capital cases arising from his early opposition to the death penalty.
During court hearings he was often known to promote the ideals of the Enlightenment and to argue for the rights of man.
He became regarded as one of the best writers and most popular young men of Arras. In December he was elected a member of the academy of Arras, the meetings of which he attended regularly.
In the academy of Metz awarded him a medal for his essay on the question of whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should share his disgrace.
He and Pierre Louis de Lacretellean advocate and journalist in Paris, divided the prize. Many of his subsequent essays were less successful, but Robespierre was compensated for these failures by his popularity in the literary and musical society at Arras, known as the "Rosatia".
In its meetings he became acquainted with Lazare Carnotwho later became his colleague on the Committee of Public Safety. King Louis XVI later announced new elections for all provinces, thus allowing Robespierre to run for the position of deputy for the Third Estate.
In the assembly of the bailliagerivalry ran still higher, but Robespierre had begun to make his mark in politics with the Avis aux habitants de la campagne, 'Notice to the Residents of the Countryside ' of With this, he secured the support of the country electors.
Although he was only thirty, comparatively poor, and lacking patronage, he was elected as the fifth deputy of the Third Estate of Artois to the Estates-General. When Robespierre arrived at Versailles few of the other deputies knew him, but he became part of the representative National Assembly 13 June declared by the Third Estate, soon to transform itself 9 July into the National Constituent Assembly.
Jacobin Club After his arrival in Paris from Versailles inalong with the National Assembly, Robespierre soon became involved with the new Society of the Friends of the Constitution, known eventually as the Jacobin Club.
After the National Assembly moved to Paris, the Club began to admit various leaders of the Parisian bourgeoisie to its membership. As time went on, many of the more educated artisans and small shopkeepers became members of the club.
As the wealthier bourgeois of Paris and right-wing deputies seceded from the club ofthe influence of the old leaders of the Jacobins, such as Antoine BarnaveAdrien Duportand Alexandre de Lamethdiminished. Alarmed at the progress of the Revolution, they founded the club of the Feuillants in On 15 MayRobespierre proposed and carried the motion that no deputy who sat in the Constituent Assembly could sit in the succeeding Assembly.
This self-denying ordinance, designed to demonstrate the disinterested patriotism of the framers of the new constitution, had the effect of accelerating political change as deputies with experience and knowledge of the difficulties faced by France were to be replaced by new and often more enthusiastic men.
InRobespierre moved to rue de Saintonge, No. Robespierre lived there until his death except for two short intervals. In November, he returned to Paris to take the position of public prosecutor of Paris.
Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre opposed him, because they feared the influence of militarism, which might be turned to the advantage of the reactionary forces.
Robespierre was also convinced that the internal stability of the country was more important.
This opposition from expected allies irritated the Girondists, and the war became a major point of contention between the factions. Robespierre countered, "A revolutionary war must be waged to free subjects and slaves from unjust tyranny, not for the traditional reasons of defending dynasties and expanding frontiers The risks of Caesarism were clear, for in wartime, the powers of the generals would grow at the expense of ordinary soldiers, and the power of the king and court at the expense of the Assembly.
These dangers should not be overlooked, he reminded his listeners, " If they are Caesars or Cromwellsthey seize power for themselves.Early life. Maximilien de Robespierre was born in Arras in the old French province of metin2sell.com family has been traced back to the 12th century in Picardy; some of his ancestors in the male line worked as notaries in Carvin near Arras from the beginning of the 17th century.
It has been suggested that he was of Irish descent, his surname possibly a corruption of "Robert Speirs".
Read the latest stories about photography on Time. Even from a distance, you can see the scars—thick, deep marks scrawled across his face and scalp.
Lifting the Veil: The best ever investigative history of of what's really going on behind the scenes in our world with over links to reliable sources to back up the . Thomas Marcellus, Director of the Institute for Historical Review, sorts damaged files from the wreckage of the devastating arson attack on July 4, , against the .
This website provides responsible criticism of the 9/11 Commission Report by senior military, intelligence and government officials. It provides experienced professional opinions about the terrorist attacks on the world trade center and the pentagon.
It was another one of Obama’s breathtaking moments of hypocrisy, since he has repeatedly violated the territorial integrity of various countries, including in Syria where he has authorized. | 1,430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dying from bronchitis, she said she missed her son who was in jail. She turned around to face the wall when told the prison authority did not give him the permission to leave. Her son was Oscar Wilde who wrote “The Importance of Being Earnest,” the second most read and performed drama after Shakespeare’s works.
Jane “Speranza” Wilde was a talented woman. She was a poet, translator, linguist, Irish nationalist and feminist. Everyone in Ireland knew her. Inheriting her talent, Oscar Wilde enjoyed great success as a writer after graduating from Trinity College in Dublin and the University of Oxford. However, when his fame reached a peak, the homosexual scandal broke out, which took everything away from him. In May 1895, he was sentenced to two years of forced labor and was given a new name “C33” – a prisoner in room 3 on the third floor in building C.
However, his mother never turned her back on him. She told him to fight without shame in the court even when the world threw stones and spat at him. Family reputation was never more important for her than her son. The most heart-wrenching part of “De Profundis,” a compilation of the letters Oscar Wilde wrote during his imprisonment, is where he referred to his mother’s death. It is only one paragraph, but it is not because of the lack of sorrow, regret and pain. It was actually the opposite. Even for the lord of language, such emotions were “not for pen to write or paper to record.”
He was released in May 1897, a year after his mother passed away. However, he was never free from the sorrow until he died miserably after three years and a half at the age of 46. His words in “De Profundis” attest to it even now after 100 years. The one paragraph was the only thing he could do for his deceased mother. | <urn:uuid:1baa2124-d272-4d79-b562-db5abc15f2c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20191211/1924392/1/C33 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.994317 | 410 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.2529307305... | 2 | Dying from bronchitis, she said she missed her son who was in jail. She turned around to face the wall when told the prison authority did not give him the permission to leave. Her son was Oscar Wilde who wrote “The Importance of Being Earnest,” the second most read and performed drama after Shakespeare’s works.
Jane “Speranza” Wilde was a talented woman. She was a poet, translator, linguist, Irish nationalist and feminist. Everyone in Ireland knew her. Inheriting her talent, Oscar Wilde enjoyed great success as a writer after graduating from Trinity College in Dublin and the University of Oxford. However, when his fame reached a peak, the homosexual scandal broke out, which took everything away from him. In May 1895, he was sentenced to two years of forced labor and was given a new name “C33” – a prisoner in room 3 on the third floor in building C.
However, his mother never turned her back on him. She told him to fight without shame in the court even when the world threw stones and spat at him. Family reputation was never more important for her than her son. The most heart-wrenching part of “De Profundis,” a compilation of the letters Oscar Wilde wrote during his imprisonment, is where he referred to his mother’s death. It is only one paragraph, but it is not because of the lack of sorrow, regret and pain. It was actually the opposite. Even for the lord of language, such emotions were “not for pen to write or paper to record.”
He was released in May 1897, a year after his mother passed away. However, he was never free from the sorrow until he died miserably after three years and a half at the age of 46. His words in “De Profundis” attest to it even now after 100 years. The one paragraph was the only thing he could do for his deceased mother. | 402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Norfolk was built at Norfolk Island in 1798 when John Townson of the New South Corps was Lieutenant-Governor.
John Townson had transferred to the New South Wales Corps in October 1789. He arrived in the colony in the Scarborough in June 1790. Most of his military service in the colony was spent on Norfolk Island, where he was stationed for over six years between late 1791 and late 1799. He was a member of the court of inquiry in 1794 which investigated Lieutenant-Governor Philip Gidley King's actions during the mutiny on the island the previous year. In May 1795 he was promoted captain and from September 1796 until November 1799 acted as lieutenant-governor of Norfolk Island while King was absent in England.
First Voyage to Port Jackson
The Norfolk was a vessel of 25 tons burthen. She completed her first voyage to Port Jackson on the 15th June 1798.
During his administration Governor Hunter gave every possible encouragement to exploration. He despatched John Wilson on two expeditions into the country to the south of Picton in January and March, 1798. In the previous November, he equipped and manned a whaleboat for the use of Surgeon Bass in exploring the south coast; during this expedition Western Port was discovered and the existence of Bass Strait was established.
Voyage to the South
In December 1798 Lieutenant Flinders and Surgeon Bass were sent in the Norfolk to make further explorations to the south, and in this voyage the circumnavigation of Tasmania was accomplished.
With a Captain and crew of five, the Norfolk was then used to carry provisions and grain to and from the Hawkesbury River. She was included in the list of floating craft belonging to Government in September 1800.
In November, 1800, Governor King was much concerned to hear of the piratical seizure of the Government decked boat Norfolk, of 25 ton, laden with 500 bushels of wheat, by a gang of 15 desperate convicts, who had boarded her in Broken Bay on her voyage to Port Jackson from the Hawkesbury in October. The runaways proposed proceeding to the Dutch settlements among the Moluccas, and on their voyage there they called in at the Hunter River, where their vessel was driven on shore, and they seized a small vessel belonging to one of the Sydney traders.
Immediately the piratical transaction was reported to the Governor he issued a general order, bearing date 9th November, 1800, wherein he set forth that 'in consequence of the daring seizure of the Norfolk sloop by a party of convicts in the Hawkesbury, no boats or decked vessels are to sail from hence to the Hawkesbury, or from thence to this place, without giving three days' notice to the Governor or officer in command at those places, and to wait for two or three other vessels going at a time. Should any future attempts of that kind be made, the people belonging to those vessels are: on pain of the most exemplary punishment to cut away their masts 'and rigging before they are boarded, and, if possible, to run them ashore and bilge them, for which purpose each vessel must be provided with an axe or tomahawk.'
As to the probable fate of the pirates, the order states, 'On this occasion the Governor finds it necessary to fore warn any convicts from attempting such a scheme in future, as nothing but inevitable destruction awaits those who have seized the Norfolk. If they escape the almost certain dangers they have to encounter from a leaky vessel, rotten sails, no means of procuring water, and neither compass, chart, or quadrant; if they are so fortunate as to avoid the bad consequences of these wants, and dissensions among themselves, they are sure to meet their fate, not only in any British settlement, but also in their native country, the Governor being determined to inform the different Governors of his Majesty's and the company's settlements of the description of these people, and also the magistrates of the different places in England and Ireland where they were convicted.'
With all speed Governor King despatched an armed boat to the Hunter River, where the Norfolk was found bilged through the unskilful handling of the pirates, who thereupon committed a fresh act of piracy by seizing another boat. The armed cutter, after a desperate chase, captured nine out of the fifteen desperadoes, and secured the Sydney trader's vessel uninjured, but the Norfolk went to pieces in the surf off the point afterwards denominated Pirates' Point, and now known as Stockton.
With respect to the Norfolk sloop pirates, they were all found guilty and sentenced to death. Two of the ringleaders were executed in the presence of the military and convicts. The other seven offenders were reprieved at the foot of the gallows, as they were in an emaciated condition from the hardships they had endured. Eventually they were ordered to serve seven years transportation on Norfolk Island. The Rev. Samuel Marsden administered spiritual consolation to the condemned men. The examples made created a solemn effect on the people, and it was generally thought that few, if any, rash attempts of the kind would be committed in the future.
F.A. Cadell in a lecture on the Settlement and Development of Newcastle includes a few more details.....
'The history of Newcastle is one of romance,' said Mr. Cadell; 'The Norfolk, a boat of 25 tons used by the Government, was on its way from the Hawkesbury River with 500 bushels of wheat for Sydney and was seized at Broken Bay by 10-15 convicts. They made northward. Turning into Hunter's River, the boat was carried against a point on the north shore (now Stockton) which in consequence was called Pirate Point. Realising the necessity for expedition in quitting the port, they seized another small boat, then made for the open sea once more. Only nine of the men left in the small boat, the others probably preferring to take their chances among the natives. An armed cutter from Sydney pursued and captured the nine, who were taken back to Sydney and condemned to death. Only two of the number were executed. The others were transported to Norfolk Island.
The six who had remained behind crossed to the southern shore and set up camp in the vicinity of what is now known as Throsby Creek, subsisting on fish and meat provided by friendly natives.
The party was reinforced by two more convicts who had escaped from one of the small trading boats. After several months some of the party grew restless and weary of the primitive life in the bush. It was suggested that they return to Sydney and surrender. They were dissuaded from this course by their leader - named Grace, who appeared to be above the average in intelligence, and of a domineering character. Three of their number decided to take the risk. Two were captured, and the other died.
Lieut. James Grant's Encounter with the Norfolk Pirates
In February 1801 Lieutenant James Grant of the Lady Nelson decided to set out on foot to Pittwater. Below is an extract from his journal describing the fate of the three Norfolk pirates who left the others at Port Stephens and attempted to walk to Sydney......
I also formed the resolution of walking to Pittwater, which joins the Hawkesbury, and branches inland a considerable way, affording many little Creeks and Coves, where the natives assemble at times to fish. On the 25th of February I set out, the weather thick and cloudy, accompanied by a soldier of the New South Wales Corps, one of my own people, a native and his wife, as guides. Ensign Bareillier, of the same Corps, volunteered going in the boat with the mate.
The path I took was intricate, but very romantic. As it rained hard towards evening, my guide halted near a wood, taking us to a place where two old men were sitting by a fire, and which had the appearance of several others having been there very recently. This temporary habitation was formed by a rock overhanging the place they were seated on, and called by them Gablegunnie, being the term for the hut, or the House of the Rock. The two men did not seem to receive us with any particular marks either of friendship or indifference; and from what I afterwards learned they were both doctors, which probably induced my guide to visit them, as his back had been much hurt, and he was troubled with a difficulty of breathing. They gave us from a bag-net a few fish they had gathered off the rocks; but on removing the skin, (which is used by them as bait in fishing,) they smelt so offensive that we could not eat them. I gave them some bread in return, and we parted well pleased with each other. They told us that a little farther on there was a party of natives employed in fishing, who had two huts built near a long sandy beach. As the night was likely to be very dark with heavy rain, I intended, if possible, to shelter ourselves with them.
Our guide was so ill, that he appeared incapable of going on with us, and promised to get one of them to accompany us to Pittwater. I could not help remarking the acuteness of sight which these people possess even in the dark to a wonderful degree; as also of hearing. As we approached the huts we found two canoes left on the sand; and as we proceeded through the bushes, the woman with us asked me, if I saw a black fellow, pointing farther among the bushes. I stopped and looked, but could see no one, the night being exceedingly dark. We were immediately challenged from the bushes in the native language; the soldier with me answered; and we were conducted by the stranger to the huts. He had been down at the canoes for some fish, and on his return saw us; after depositing them, he came to reconnoitre who we were, at which time the woman observed him. He had told his comrades of seeing us, and they took the precaution of hiding their fish, as they always do in similar occasions to prevent their being discovered by strangers.
The natives are in general very much afraid of walking alone in the dark, unless under the impulse of jealousy, hunger or revenge. On such occasions they will in the night steal on their countrymen whilst asleep, and with an instrument called a dual, made of hard wood and gradually tapering to a point, pin them to the ground, particularly when actuated by jealousy or revenge. I found the huts larger and better constructed than I had as yet seen or heard of: they were built of timber procured from the wreck of a small vessel, which lay stranded on the shore at no great distance. In one hut there were three men, four women and two children; and in the other, which was very small, a man and his wife. The natives very kindly took from their hiding places some large and excellent fish, such as snappers, and salmon, so called in this country, I presume, from their scales. These they laid whole on the fire, which was placed in the middle of the hut. As soon as one side of the fish was done they placed it on the other, opposite to where I sat, beginning to eat while that was broiling, inviting me by signs to follow their example; which I and my companions readily did, being both hungry and wet, it having rained very hard, and we found ourselves very comfortable. Situated as we were, I could not avoid remarking to myself how easily nature was satisfied; the only thing I wanted being salt.
The curiosity of these poor people with respect to many things about us was very great; particularly in observing a head raised in silver on the butt-end of the pistol stuck in my waist-belt; and also in the ticking-noise of my watch, which the women and children wondered much at, mimicking its sound as they held it up to their ears. Having sent my guide and his wife with the seaman to the small hut, I and the soldier lay down to sleep with our feet to the fire. One of the women was very ill during the night, and groaned much, being seized with spasms in her stomach, as I afterwards understood. In the night-time the soldier was wakened by one of the men, who requested he would go with him to fetch some water. On the former (who understood the language) asking him why he could not go alone, he was answered, 'You know me murrey jarrin, that is, much afraid. The soldier being unwilling to stir, asked, 'What he was afraid of? The native said, 'of the Bogle;' the term for the Evil Spirit, or Devil; which shews that superstition is very predominant amongst them. As I wished for some water, I desired the man to get up and bring me some, which he did in a small vessel shaped like a canoe, made of bark, the native accompanying him.
We got up before day-light, and having taken one of our hospitable friends for a guide, who was both more robust, and stronger than the natives are in general in this part of New Holland, he armed himself with a spear, and moved onwards with us till we came near to the banks of a stream, which the natives call Narrowbine (Narrabeen Creek, Pittwater). It was but barely peep of day, and objects were not easily distinguishable, yet the native informed me he saw somebody on the opposite side. As we proceeded on we soon perceived a person walking by the river side, but could not ascertain whether he was a native or not. Our guide, however, on enquiry said, that is, 'no black fellow', and that he had a musket with him.
Some of the Convicts having about this time absconded and taken with them the Norfolk sloop, with an intention of leaving the country, were cast ashore, but a short distance to the northward. They had been daring enough to attack and seize a settler's boat going to the Coal River; and as many of these people were still out, I made no doubt but he was one of them. The stream from the rain which had fallen during the night, and the tide of flood being in, as it was in the vicinity of the sea, was become deeper and more rapid than common, and had obstructed the fellow's progress. I called to him, and asked who he was, and where he was going? He answered, that he had been Kangarooing, had lost his way, and was almost starved. From the latter circumstance I was certain he was one of the Convicts, and therefore I desired him to stop, as I was going over, and would shew him the best place to cross at, which he had enquired for. While we were stripping, I desired the native, who was in a state of nature, that, if he saw the fellow attempt to get way, he would stop him, and should he offer any resistance, to spear him. The river was so deep that it came up to his chin; and as he was taller than any of us, we were under the necessity of leaving our clothes behind, and making two trips, in order to keep our fire-arms from the wet, which was not an easy matter, being obliged to carry them over our heads. The bottom of the river was very rugged with sharp-pointed rocks, which made us stumble and cut our feet; however we got over. The poor creature gave himself up to me without condition, confessing he was one of the party who ran away with the Norfolk. At this moment he presented a most pitiable sight, being literally almost starved, and had he got across the Narrowbine, he never would have been able to reach Sydney. As to the musket, instead of being of any service to him, it was rather an incumbrance, as it was totally unfit for use. His comrades and he had endured the greatest misery and distress through hunger and fatigue. On being informed that some of them were taken and executed, he burst into tears, and said he was sure nothing could save him. He had a wound in his leg, which he got from a species of scate called a Sting Ray. In attempting to kill it in a shallow stream it had found its way into, it threw the sting, (which in large ones is sometimes eight or nine inches in length, indented like a saw,) through the calf of his leg. The fatigue of walking, and the scratching of the bushes had inflamed it to a great degree: his feet were also wounded and ulcerated from rocks and stumps of trees. In short, he was so wretched and helpless, that I directed my two companions to support him between them to Pittwater, where my boat was to meet me. The little bread I had remaining, bad as it was from the wet it had met with, was devoured by him with avidity; and this, with a little spirits I had left, recruited him He shewed me the place where he had lain all night, on a few branches spread under a tree, without fire, and exposed to the heavy rain.
On being asked where he had left his companions, he said, that himself and two others of the party, had left the remainder near Port Stephens, which is some considerable distance to the northward of the Hawkesbury; that they had some intention of forming a settlement there, until something should turn up favourable for them; that they had planted a few pumpkin and melon-seeds, and some Indian corn, which had come up, but was insufficient for the support of seven or eight persons. The ring-leader, who was there, had determined not to return. This man had been very ill with an intermitting fever, which indeed had been experienced more or less by all of them.
It was his intention, and that of two others, who left the place, to return and give themselves up; but one of them being very ill, he quitted him and his companion, who chose to remain with the sick man, on the other side of Pittwater. They had suffered much from hunger, living principally on the cabbage-tree; and he affirmed, that when they fell in with the natives, they behaved very ill to them; that indeed from some they got a fish or two; but that others, instead of assisting them, took away what rags of clothing they had left. This last circumstance is, in my opinion, rather improbable, for unless it be a blanket, I have never known any of the natives express even a wish for any article of clothing. On being asked how he got over Pittwater, he informed me that meeting with one of the natives, then on the banks, whom he knew, he partly through that acquaintance, and partly through the offer of a shirt, prevailed with him to put him across in his canoe; but that he had much ado afterwards to prevent some of them from spearing him, as they all asked him for bread, which they supposed he must have. Whether this was true or not with respect to his adventures, it is a fact that all the natives about the Settlement, or at a distance, who have tasted bread, are very fond of it, and always ask for it. No doubt the general keen state of their appetites may be a powerful incentive at the time they desire it; and it is not improbable that some of those he met with, being hungry, and encouraged by his helpless appearance, might endeavour to terrify him with the spear. The gun he had in his hand, he believed, prevented them from putting their threats in execution.
After experiencing much difficulty in getting this unfortunate wretch along, we soon discovered our boat by the help of a bugle-horn, two of which I had brought from England with me. These instruments are of the utmost service to all who have to travel through pathless woods, where the sight is intercepted, as they can always be used when a musket cannot.
The poor runaway Convict was put into the boat, and supplied with food, which from the manner he began to devour it, I was obliged to give him very sparingly. The boat party had suffered much from the rain during the night, as well as from the heavy sea they were exposed to in their passage. We kindled a fire on the bank of the river, where we breakfasted. Pittwater is very broad at this place, dividing itself into several branches, which made a strict search for the boat very troublesome. I ordered the mate up to a small island, named Mullet Island, (perhaps from the great plenty of fish of that name in its vicinity,) giving him orders to examine the shore carefully on each side, and make enquiry of the natives or settlers that he might meet with. I concluded any farther search after this would be unnecessary, as above the island the boat would be discovered and secured.
The officer commanding the boat which went in search of the fugitives, gave me warning of his approach at seven the next morning by sounding his bugle-horn. His success was similar to mine: he picked up another unfortunate young man of the party which ran off with the Norfolk sloop, in the same starved condition as the one I had found. He gave an account of his having remained with another of the runaways till he expired. On my giving them up to Governor King, I stated to him in how submissive and penitent a manner they had surrendered themselves to my party; and that had we not fallen in with them, it was their intention to return. As an example to the Settlement they were tried, and were condemned to suffer death; but the Governor was most humanely pleased to pardon them, on account, no doubt, of their sufferings. Two of the most daring of the same gang had some little time before suffered death. The youngest of those that were pardoned, served afterwards on board the
Francis schooner, and on my return from a cruize, came and offered his services to me in the Lady Nelson, which shewed his gratitude, but I declined accepting them. - Voyage of Discovery to N.S.W. in the Lady Nelson in 1800-2] Author: James Grant.Project Gutenberg
Living with the Aborigines
The Norfolk convicts were in the vicinity of Newcastle for many months and it was on record that in 1801 one of the men was seen with the natives. Nothing further had been recorded of them, but it could be taken for granted they ended their days with the natives
Notes and Links
1). Who was the convict named Grace mentioned above by F.A. Cadell? There were three men by the name of Grace who arrived in the colony as convicts before 1801 -
James Grace tried at Middlesex in 1784 and arrived on the Friendship in 1788 - ? Died at Norfolk Island in 1793
James Grace who was tried at Westminster and arrived on the Royal Admiral in 1792
Ismael Grace tried in Bristol 1796 arrived on the Barwell
3). There was also another vessel by the name of Norfolk in the colony.......The Government owned Harbinger, a brig of 56 tons was purchased by Governor King in May 1801. He renamed her the Norfolk and employed her in carrying despatches, stores etc to Norfolk Island. In November 1801 King sent her to Otaheite for a cargo of salt port, in charge of William House. While lying at anchor in Matavai Bay, being unable to ride out a heavy storm, her cable was cut, and she was allowed to drive on shore.
M. Austin, 'Townson, John (1759 - 1835)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol. 2, page xvi.
Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol III, p. 769
Historical Records of New South Wales, vol. IV, p. 157
Historical Records of New South Wales, vol. IV p. 282
Newcastle Morning Herald, 5 October 1897. (H.W.H. Huntington)
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0.404680669... | 4 | The Norfolk was built at Norfolk Island in 1798 when John Townson of the New South Corps was Lieutenant-Governor.
John Townson had transferred to the New South Wales Corps in October 1789. He arrived in the colony in the Scarborough in June 1790. Most of his military service in the colony was spent on Norfolk Island, where he was stationed for over six years between late 1791 and late 1799. He was a member of the court of inquiry in 1794 which investigated Lieutenant-Governor Philip Gidley King's actions during the mutiny on the island the previous year. In May 1795 he was promoted captain and from September 1796 until November 1799 acted as lieutenant-governor of Norfolk Island while King was absent in England.
First Voyage to Port Jackson
The Norfolk was a vessel of 25 tons burthen. She completed her first voyage to Port Jackson on the 15th June 1798.
During his administration Governor Hunter gave every possible encouragement to exploration. He despatched John Wilson on two expeditions into the country to the south of Picton in January and March, 1798. In the previous November, he equipped and manned a whaleboat for the use of Surgeon Bass in exploring the south coast; during this expedition Western Port was discovered and the existence of Bass Strait was established.
Voyage to the South
In December 1798 Lieutenant Flinders and Surgeon Bass were sent in the Norfolk to make further explorations to the south, and in this voyage the circumnavigation of Tasmania was accomplished.
With a Captain and crew of five, the Norfolk was then used to carry provisions and grain to and from the Hawkesbury River. She was included in the list of floating craft belonging to Government in September 1800.
In November, 1800, Governor King was much concerned to hear of the piratical seizure of the Government decked boat Norfolk, of 25 ton, laden with 500 bushels of wheat, by a gang of 15 desperate convicts, who had boarded her in Broken Bay on her voyage to Port Jackson from the Hawkesbury in October. The runaways proposed proceeding to the Dutch settlements among the Moluccas, and on their voyage there they called in at the Hunter River, where their vessel was driven on shore, and they seized a small vessel belonging to one of the Sydney traders.
Immediately the piratical transaction was reported to the Governor he issued a general order, bearing date 9th November, 1800, wherein he set forth that 'in consequence of the daring seizure of the Norfolk sloop by a party of convicts in the Hawkesbury, no boats or decked vessels are to sail from hence to the Hawkesbury, or from thence to this place, without giving three days' notice to the Governor or officer in command at those places, and to wait for two or three other vessels going at a time. Should any future attempts of that kind be made, the people belonging to those vessels are: on pain of the most exemplary punishment to cut away their masts 'and rigging before they are boarded, and, if possible, to run them ashore and bilge them, for which purpose each vessel must be provided with an axe or tomahawk.'
As to the probable fate of the pirates, the order states, 'On this occasion the Governor finds it necessary to fore warn any convicts from attempting such a scheme in future, as nothing but inevitable destruction awaits those who have seized the Norfolk. If they escape the almost certain dangers they have to encounter from a leaky vessel, rotten sails, no means of procuring water, and neither compass, chart, or quadrant; if they are so fortunate as to avoid the bad consequences of these wants, and dissensions among themselves, they are sure to meet their fate, not only in any British settlement, but also in their native country, the Governor being determined to inform the different Governors of his Majesty's and the company's settlements of the description of these people, and also the magistrates of the different places in England and Ireland where they were convicted.'
With all speed Governor King despatched an armed boat to the Hunter River, where the Norfolk was found bilged through the unskilful handling of the pirates, who thereupon committed a fresh act of piracy by seizing another boat. The armed cutter, after a desperate chase, captured nine out of the fifteen desperadoes, and secured the Sydney trader's vessel uninjured, but the Norfolk went to pieces in the surf off the point afterwards denominated Pirates' Point, and now known as Stockton.
With respect to the Norfolk sloop pirates, they were all found guilty and sentenced to death. Two of the ringleaders were executed in the presence of the military and convicts. The other seven offenders were reprieved at the foot of the gallows, as they were in an emaciated condition from the hardships they had endured. Eventually they were ordered to serve seven years transportation on Norfolk Island. The Rev. Samuel Marsden administered spiritual consolation to the condemned men. The examples made created a solemn effect on the people, and it was generally thought that few, if any, rash attempts of the kind would be committed in the future.
F.A. Cadell in a lecture on the Settlement and Development of Newcastle includes a few more details.....
'The history of Newcastle is one of romance,' said Mr. Cadell; 'The Norfolk, a boat of 25 tons used by the Government, was on its way from the Hawkesbury River with 500 bushels of wheat for Sydney and was seized at Broken Bay by 10-15 convicts. They made northward. Turning into Hunter's River, the boat was carried against a point on the north shore (now Stockton) which in consequence was called Pirate Point. Realising the necessity for expedition in quitting the port, they seized another small boat, then made for the open sea once more. Only nine of the men left in the small boat, the others probably preferring to take their chances among the natives. An armed cutter from Sydney pursued and captured the nine, who were taken back to Sydney and condemned to death. Only two of the number were executed. The others were transported to Norfolk Island.
The six who had remained behind crossed to the southern shore and set up camp in the vicinity of what is now known as Throsby Creek, subsisting on fish and meat provided by friendly natives.
The party was reinforced by two more convicts who had escaped from one of the small trading boats. After several months some of the party grew restless and weary of the primitive life in the bush. It was suggested that they return to Sydney and surrender. They were dissuaded from this course by their leader - named Grace, who appeared to be above the average in intelligence, and of a domineering character. Three of their number decided to take the risk. Two were captured, and the other died.
Lieut. James Grant's Encounter with the Norfolk Pirates
In February 1801 Lieutenant James Grant of the Lady Nelson decided to set out on foot to Pittwater. Below is an extract from his journal describing the fate of the three Norfolk pirates who left the others at Port Stephens and attempted to walk to Sydney......
I also formed the resolution of walking to Pittwater, which joins the Hawkesbury, and branches inland a considerable way, affording many little Creeks and Coves, where the natives assemble at times to fish. On the 25th of February I set out, the weather thick and cloudy, accompanied by a soldier of the New South Wales Corps, one of my own people, a native and his wife, as guides. Ensign Bareillier, of the same Corps, volunteered going in the boat with the mate.
The path I took was intricate, but very romantic. As it rained hard towards evening, my guide halted near a wood, taking us to a place where two old men were sitting by a fire, and which had the appearance of several others having been there very recently. This temporary habitation was formed by a rock overhanging the place they were seated on, and called by them Gablegunnie, being the term for the hut, or the House of the Rock. The two men did not seem to receive us with any particular marks either of friendship or indifference; and from what I afterwards learned they were both doctors, which probably induced my guide to visit them, as his back had been much hurt, and he was troubled with a difficulty of breathing. They gave us from a bag-net a few fish they had gathered off the rocks; but on removing the skin, (which is used by them as bait in fishing,) they smelt so offensive that we could not eat them. I gave them some bread in return, and we parted well pleased with each other. They told us that a little farther on there was a party of natives employed in fishing, who had two huts built near a long sandy beach. As the night was likely to be very dark with heavy rain, I intended, if possible, to shelter ourselves with them.
Our guide was so ill, that he appeared incapable of going on with us, and promised to get one of them to accompany us to Pittwater. I could not help remarking the acuteness of sight which these people possess even in the dark to a wonderful degree; as also of hearing. As we approached the huts we found two canoes left on the sand; and as we proceeded through the bushes, the woman with us asked me, if I saw a black fellow, pointing farther among the bushes. I stopped and looked, but could see no one, the night being exceedingly dark. We were immediately challenged from the bushes in the native language; the soldier with me answered; and we were conducted by the stranger to the huts. He had been down at the canoes for some fish, and on his return saw us; after depositing them, he came to reconnoitre who we were, at which time the woman observed him. He had told his comrades of seeing us, and they took the precaution of hiding their fish, as they always do in similar occasions to prevent their being discovered by strangers.
The natives are in general very much afraid of walking alone in the dark, unless under the impulse of jealousy, hunger or revenge. On such occasions they will in the night steal on their countrymen whilst asleep, and with an instrument called a dual, made of hard wood and gradually tapering to a point, pin them to the ground, particularly when actuated by jealousy or revenge. I found the huts larger and better constructed than I had as yet seen or heard of: they were built of timber procured from the wreck of a small vessel, which lay stranded on the shore at no great distance. In one hut there were three men, four women and two children; and in the other, which was very small, a man and his wife. The natives very kindly took from their hiding places some large and excellent fish, such as snappers, and salmon, so called in this country, I presume, from their scales. These they laid whole on the fire, which was placed in the middle of the hut. As soon as one side of the fish was done they placed it on the other, opposite to where I sat, beginning to eat while that was broiling, inviting me by signs to follow their example; which I and my companions readily did, being both hungry and wet, it having rained very hard, and we found ourselves very comfortable. Situated as we were, I could not avoid remarking to myself how easily nature was satisfied; the only thing I wanted being salt.
The curiosity of these poor people with respect to many things about us was very great; particularly in observing a head raised in silver on the butt-end of the pistol stuck in my waist-belt; and also in the ticking-noise of my watch, which the women and children wondered much at, mimicking its sound as they held it up to their ears. Having sent my guide and his wife with the seaman to the small hut, I and the soldier lay down to sleep with our feet to the fire. One of the women was very ill during the night, and groaned much, being seized with spasms in her stomach, as I afterwards understood. In the night-time the soldier was wakened by one of the men, who requested he would go with him to fetch some water. On the former (who understood the language) asking him why he could not go alone, he was answered, 'You know me murrey jarrin, that is, much afraid. The soldier being unwilling to stir, asked, 'What he was afraid of? The native said, 'of the Bogle;' the term for the Evil Spirit, or Devil; which shews that superstition is very predominant amongst them. As I wished for some water, I desired the man to get up and bring me some, which he did in a small vessel shaped like a canoe, made of bark, the native accompanying him.
We got up before day-light, and having taken one of our hospitable friends for a guide, who was both more robust, and stronger than the natives are in general in this part of New Holland, he armed himself with a spear, and moved onwards with us till we came near to the banks of a stream, which the natives call Narrowbine (Narrabeen Creek, Pittwater). It was but barely peep of day, and objects were not easily distinguishable, yet the native informed me he saw somebody on the opposite side. As we proceeded on we soon perceived a person walking by the river side, but could not ascertain whether he was a native or not. Our guide, however, on enquiry said, that is, 'no black fellow', and that he had a musket with him.
Some of the Convicts having about this time absconded and taken with them the Norfolk sloop, with an intention of leaving the country, were cast ashore, but a short distance to the northward. They had been daring enough to attack and seize a settler's boat going to the Coal River; and as many of these people were still out, I made no doubt but he was one of them. The stream from the rain which had fallen during the night, and the tide of flood being in, as it was in the vicinity of the sea, was become deeper and more rapid than common, and had obstructed the fellow's progress. I called to him, and asked who he was, and where he was going? He answered, that he had been Kangarooing, had lost his way, and was almost starved. From the latter circumstance I was certain he was one of the Convicts, and therefore I desired him to stop, as I was going over, and would shew him the best place to cross at, which he had enquired for. While we were stripping, I desired the native, who was in a state of nature, that, if he saw the fellow attempt to get way, he would stop him, and should he offer any resistance, to spear him. The river was so deep that it came up to his chin; and as he was taller than any of us, we were under the necessity of leaving our clothes behind, and making two trips, in order to keep our fire-arms from the wet, which was not an easy matter, being obliged to carry them over our heads. The bottom of the river was very rugged with sharp-pointed rocks, which made us stumble and cut our feet; however we got over. The poor creature gave himself up to me without condition, confessing he was one of the party who ran away with the Norfolk. At this moment he presented a most pitiable sight, being literally almost starved, and had he got across the Narrowbine, he never would have been able to reach Sydney. As to the musket, instead of being of any service to him, it was rather an incumbrance, as it was totally unfit for use. His comrades and he had endured the greatest misery and distress through hunger and fatigue. On being informed that some of them were taken and executed, he burst into tears, and said he was sure nothing could save him. He had a wound in his leg, which he got from a species of scate called a Sting Ray. In attempting to kill it in a shallow stream it had found its way into, it threw the sting, (which in large ones is sometimes eight or nine inches in length, indented like a saw,) through the calf of his leg. The fatigue of walking, and the scratching of the bushes had inflamed it to a great degree: his feet were also wounded and ulcerated from rocks and stumps of trees. In short, he was so wretched and helpless, that I directed my two companions to support him between them to Pittwater, where my boat was to meet me. The little bread I had remaining, bad as it was from the wet it had met with, was devoured by him with avidity; and this, with a little spirits I had left, recruited him He shewed me the place where he had lain all night, on a few branches spread under a tree, without fire, and exposed to the heavy rain.
On being asked where he had left his companions, he said, that himself and two others of the party, had left the remainder near Port Stephens, which is some considerable distance to the northward of the Hawkesbury; that they had some intention of forming a settlement there, until something should turn up favourable for them; that they had planted a few pumpkin and melon-seeds, and some Indian corn, which had come up, but was insufficient for the support of seven or eight persons. The ring-leader, who was there, had determined not to return. This man had been very ill with an intermitting fever, which indeed had been experienced more or less by all of them.
It was his intention, and that of two others, who left the place, to return and give themselves up; but one of them being very ill, he quitted him and his companion, who chose to remain with the sick man, on the other side of Pittwater. They had suffered much from hunger, living principally on the cabbage-tree; and he affirmed, that when they fell in with the natives, they behaved very ill to them; that indeed from some they got a fish or two; but that others, instead of assisting them, took away what rags of clothing they had left. This last circumstance is, in my opinion, rather improbable, for unless it be a blanket, I have never known any of the natives express even a wish for any article of clothing. On being asked how he got over Pittwater, he informed me that meeting with one of the natives, then on the banks, whom he knew, he partly through that acquaintance, and partly through the offer of a shirt, prevailed with him to put him across in his canoe; but that he had much ado afterwards to prevent some of them from spearing him, as they all asked him for bread, which they supposed he must have. Whether this was true or not with respect to his adventures, it is a fact that all the natives about the Settlement, or at a distance, who have tasted bread, are very fond of it, and always ask for it. No doubt the general keen state of their appetites may be a powerful incentive at the time they desire it; and it is not improbable that some of those he met with, being hungry, and encouraged by his helpless appearance, might endeavour to terrify him with the spear. The gun he had in his hand, he believed, prevented them from putting their threats in execution.
After experiencing much difficulty in getting this unfortunate wretch along, we soon discovered our boat by the help of a bugle-horn, two of which I had brought from England with me. These instruments are of the utmost service to all who have to travel through pathless woods, where the sight is intercepted, as they can always be used when a musket cannot.
The poor runaway Convict was put into the boat, and supplied with food, which from the manner he began to devour it, I was obliged to give him very sparingly. The boat party had suffered much from the rain during the night, as well as from the heavy sea they were exposed to in their passage. We kindled a fire on the bank of the river, where we breakfasted. Pittwater is very broad at this place, dividing itself into several branches, which made a strict search for the boat very troublesome. I ordered the mate up to a small island, named Mullet Island, (perhaps from the great plenty of fish of that name in its vicinity,) giving him orders to examine the shore carefully on each side, and make enquiry of the natives or settlers that he might meet with. I concluded any farther search after this would be unnecessary, as above the island the boat would be discovered and secured.
The officer commanding the boat which went in search of the fugitives, gave me warning of his approach at seven the next morning by sounding his bugle-horn. His success was similar to mine: he picked up another unfortunate young man of the party which ran off with the Norfolk sloop, in the same starved condition as the one I had found. He gave an account of his having remained with another of the runaways till he expired. On my giving them up to Governor King, I stated to him in how submissive and penitent a manner they had surrendered themselves to my party; and that had we not fallen in with them, it was their intention to return. As an example to the Settlement they were tried, and were condemned to suffer death; but the Governor was most humanely pleased to pardon them, on account, no doubt, of their sufferings. Two of the most daring of the same gang had some little time before suffered death. The youngest of those that were pardoned, served afterwards on board the
Francis schooner, and on my return from a cruize, came and offered his services to me in the Lady Nelson, which shewed his gratitude, but I declined accepting them. - Voyage of Discovery to N.S.W. in the Lady Nelson in 1800-2] Author: James Grant.Project Gutenberg
Living with the Aborigines
The Norfolk convicts were in the vicinity of Newcastle for many months and it was on record that in 1801 one of the men was seen with the natives. Nothing further had been recorded of them, but it could be taken for granted they ended their days with the natives
Notes and Links
1). Who was the convict named Grace mentioned above by F.A. Cadell? There were three men by the name of Grace who arrived in the colony as convicts before 1801 -
James Grace tried at Middlesex in 1784 and arrived on the Friendship in 1788 - ? Died at Norfolk Island in 1793
James Grace who was tried at Westminster and arrived on the Royal Admiral in 1792
Ismael Grace tried in Bristol 1796 arrived on the Barwell
3). There was also another vessel by the name of Norfolk in the colony.......The Government owned Harbinger, a brig of 56 tons was purchased by Governor King in May 1801. He renamed her the Norfolk and employed her in carrying despatches, stores etc to Norfolk Island. In November 1801 King sent her to Otaheite for a cargo of salt port, in charge of William House. While lying at anchor in Matavai Bay, being unable to ride out a heavy storm, her cable was cut, and she was allowed to drive on shore.
M. Austin, 'Townson, John (1759 - 1835)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol. 2, page xvi.
Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, vol III, p. 769
Historical Records of New South Wales, vol. IV, p. 157
Historical Records of New South Wales, vol. IV p. 282
Newcastle Morning Herald, 5 October 1897. (H.W.H. Huntington)
Newcastle Morning Herald 16 September 1939 (F.A. Cadell) | 5,106 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aztec society was focused on making citizens who contribute to the prevalent good with the community, which was an important component in their education.
The right Aztec citizen would have this virtues: courage, self-sacrifice, modesty, clean living, and compliance.
The Aztec people got their privileges protected by a system of crafted laws. This kind of legal program served to remind people of their obligations as individuals to be honest and obedient. Most citizens needed to obey the laws including the nobles, who were expected to collection an example throughout society. Since the nobles had been expected to set an example, these people were treated more harshly.
The Aztec legal system provides both a higher court and a lower courtroom. If an individual was not content with a lording it over from the lower court they could charm to the higher court and ultimately to the emperor himself. Exactly like our current court program, the Aztec courts structured their decisions on the proof that was presented to them. Once the judges reached their decisions, they handed down a word. For lower crimes, the guilty person was fined or sentenced to slavery. Since the Aztecs did not possess prisons, punishments for significant crimes were often fatality.
The Aztecs noticed that the slaves performed very important work, and for that reason they had regulations to protect their particular rights. Hobereau could not defeat slaves without being punished (sometimes by execution). Slaves may also win their particular freedom if they did escape and run to the emperor's structure.
Aztecs did not think that it was shameful to be a servant, for them it had been more a matter of bad luck. They also would not consider slavery a permanent state. Slaves can keep their property, which includes their own slaves, until they will paid their particular debts and took their place in society again. Children born of slaves were considered cost-free.
The importance of material heritage towards the study of the past and culture, and how much present work of preservation supports this kind of. 1 . Definition…...
Denver International Airport Baggage Managing System: Circumstance of a Task Failure Auxence Memini Sima Bellevue University Fuzy The challenge of each and…... | <urn:uuid:feac2c28-de40-4d99-8653-187e40be30f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogdoeduardomoraes.com/aztec-citizen/64052-aztec-resident-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.986687 | 448 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.079656884074... | 1 | Aztec society was focused on making citizens who contribute to the prevalent good with the community, which was an important component in their education.
The right Aztec citizen would have this virtues: courage, self-sacrifice, modesty, clean living, and compliance.
The Aztec people got their privileges protected by a system of crafted laws. This kind of legal program served to remind people of their obligations as individuals to be honest and obedient. Most citizens needed to obey the laws including the nobles, who were expected to collection an example throughout society. Since the nobles had been expected to set an example, these people were treated more harshly.
The Aztec legal system provides both a higher court and a lower courtroom. If an individual was not content with a lording it over from the lower court they could charm to the higher court and ultimately to the emperor himself. Exactly like our current court program, the Aztec courts structured their decisions on the proof that was presented to them. Once the judges reached their decisions, they handed down a word. For lower crimes, the guilty person was fined or sentenced to slavery. Since the Aztecs did not possess prisons, punishments for significant crimes were often fatality.
The Aztecs noticed that the slaves performed very important work, and for that reason they had regulations to protect their particular rights. Hobereau could not defeat slaves without being punished (sometimes by execution). Slaves may also win their particular freedom if they did escape and run to the emperor's structure.
Aztecs did not think that it was shameful to be a servant, for them it had been more a matter of bad luck. They also would not consider slavery a permanent state. Slaves can keep their property, which includes their own slaves, until they will paid their particular debts and took their place in society again. Children born of slaves were considered cost-free.
The importance of material heritage towards the study of the past and culture, and how much present work of preservation supports this kind of. 1 . Definition…...
Denver International Airport Baggage Managing System: Circumstance of a Task Failure Auxence Memini Sima Bellevue University Fuzy The challenge of each and…... | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
November 2, - James A. Garfield, Republican is elected president over Winfield S.
The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world. As the region became more urbanized the economy changed. The cities that did prosper in region were based on the actions of the United States. Actions that affected the cities in Mexico were Prohibition and the Great depression.
Events in the United States were not the only economic factor to effect the region. The Mexican Revolution had great social and economic influence to the region.
On November 10the Mexican Revolution began and did not end until President Diaz was overthrown. The United States and its border towns were heavily involved in the conflict. The fighting was mainly in the north and they need supplies.
The majority of the weapons and supplies for the Revolution was brought in the United States. The border cities in the United States became the chief suppliers of guns to the Revolution.
This form trade was illegal and mainly done on the Black Market. The legal trade that existed before the Revolution disappeared with the outbreak of war. Mexico had closed the border during the conflict to prevent the supply of arms. The United States had also tried to stop the flow of arms but not successful.
Eventually the United States had sent troops to the region when the fighting spilled over the border. The troops stayed in the region after the Mexican Revolution and were an economic boom to the region.
The United States at the turn of the century was under going a major social movement. The United States was trying to change its society to a more moral country. The groups involved in the movement consisted of many groups from around the United States.
Some of the most notable groups involved in the social reform movement were the churches in the country. They targeted many aspects of life of the normal Americans.
The social reforms targeted social ills such as adultery, crime, and lastly, drinking. These groups had large number of followers, and had considerable height in government.The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
In the past the region's economy was based on . Climate change creates stronger but shorter extreme weather events Climate change directly causes some additional extreme weather events, but not others, which occur naturally There is a lot more energy in the climate system, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.
The Borderlands: - Essay submitted by Unknown The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
|Political Events||Additional Information In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:|
In the past the region's economy was based on ranching and farming. Economic Growth in the Atlantic Region, to Province of Canada or as an independent country For a long time such pessimism was submerged by the ebullience of the Province's first premier, 16 B. S. Kierstead, The Theory of Economic Change (Toronto, ), pp.
- The Borderlands: - Essays - The Borderlands: - The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
Racial Violence in Southern Appalachia, Robert P. Stuckert A widely held misconception has been that life for black people in the southern mountains was less oppressive than in the rest ofthe South. | <urn:uuid:f07b772f-3bf9-47b9-99d1-3ef413ac2911> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kybusyhoza.r-bridal.com/the-time-of-change-in-the-region-between-1880-and-1940-28439fs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.983286 | 731 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.24608071148395... | 1 | November 2, - James A. Garfield, Republican is elected president over Winfield S.
The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world. As the region became more urbanized the economy changed. The cities that did prosper in region were based on the actions of the United States. Actions that affected the cities in Mexico were Prohibition and the Great depression.
Events in the United States were not the only economic factor to effect the region. The Mexican Revolution had great social and economic influence to the region.
On November 10the Mexican Revolution began and did not end until President Diaz was overthrown. The United States and its border towns were heavily involved in the conflict. The fighting was mainly in the north and they need supplies.
The majority of the weapons and supplies for the Revolution was brought in the United States. The border cities in the United States became the chief suppliers of guns to the Revolution.
This form trade was illegal and mainly done on the Black Market. The legal trade that existed before the Revolution disappeared with the outbreak of war. Mexico had closed the border during the conflict to prevent the supply of arms. The United States had also tried to stop the flow of arms but not successful.
Eventually the United States had sent troops to the region when the fighting spilled over the border. The troops stayed in the region after the Mexican Revolution and were an economic boom to the region.
The United States at the turn of the century was under going a major social movement. The United States was trying to change its society to a more moral country. The groups involved in the movement consisted of many groups from around the United States.
Some of the most notable groups involved in the social reform movement were the churches in the country. They targeted many aspects of life of the normal Americans.
The social reforms targeted social ills such as adultery, crime, and lastly, drinking. These groups had large number of followers, and had considerable height in government.The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
In the past the region's economy was based on . Climate change creates stronger but shorter extreme weather events Climate change directly causes some additional extreme weather events, but not others, which occur naturally There is a lot more energy in the climate system, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.
The Borderlands: - Essay submitted by Unknown The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
|Political Events||Additional Information In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:|
In the past the region's economy was based on ranching and farming. Economic Growth in the Atlantic Region, to Province of Canada or as an independent country For a long time such pessimism was submerged by the ebullience of the Province's first premier, 16 B. S. Kierstead, The Theory of Economic Change (Toronto, ), pp.
- The Borderlands: - Essays - The Borderlands: - The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between and The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world.
Racial Violence in Southern Appalachia, Robert P. Stuckert A widely held misconception has been that life for black people in the southern mountains was less oppressive than in the rest ofthe South. | 724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A gang leader in the early 19th century that kidnapped slaves and free blacks from Delmarva then transported and sold them to plantation owners located further south.
Martha “Patty” Cannon (circa 1760 – May 11, 1829) was the leader of a gang in the early 19th century that kidnapped slaves and free blacks from Delmarva and transported and sold them to plantation owners located further south. Later accounts of her life refer to her as Lucretia P. Cannon, although there is no evidence to indicate she used the Lucretia name in her lifetime. She was indicted for four murders in 1829 and died in prison while awaiting trial, purportedly a suicide via poison.
Cannon was married to local farmer Jesse Cannon, who died around 1826. She lived near the town of Reliance, Maryland. (then called Johnson’s Corners), on the border at the convergence of Caroline and Dorchester County in Maryland and Sussex County, Delaware.
Cannon and her husband had at least one daughter, who twice married men engaged in the criminal slave-stealing trade. Their daughter’s first husband was Henry Brereton, a blacksmith who kidnapped black people for sale. Brereton had gone to prison in 1811 for kidnapping, but escaped from the Georgetown, Delaware jail. Brereton was captured, convicted of murder, and hanged with one of his criminal associates, Joseph Griffith.
At some point after this, Cannon’s daughter married Joe Johnson, who became Cannon’s most notorious partner in crime. Their band included white criminals, black men used as decoys, and Cannon’s own husband before his death. In addition, a relative of Cannon’s daughter’s first husband, a Robert Brereton, continued to be involved with the gang as late as at least 1826.
The US Congress had banned the importation of slaves in 1808. At that point, because of the restriction of supply, the cash value of slaves shot upwards, hitting over $1,000 in the South and creating a strong incentive for kidnappers. Many free blacks lived in Cannon’s neighborhood near the Maryland-Delaware border, and were convenient targets for her kidnapping forays. Kidnapping enslaved blacks was riskier, as their white owners would protest; likewise the murder of white slave traders was taken seriously. However, the kidnapping of free blacks left their land and other property behind, and failed to outrage the white community the way the theft of white-owned slaves did, or the murder of whites.
Victim accounts printed in the abolitionist journal the African Observer, state that captives were chained and hidden in the basement, the attic, and secret rooms in the Cannon house. Captives were taken in covered wagons to Cannon’s Ferry (now Woodland Ferry). At the ferry, they would sometimes meet a schooner traveling down the Nanticoke River to the Chesapeake Bay and on to southern slave markets.
The gang’s activities continued for many years. Local law enforcement officials were reluctant to halt the illegal operations, given the lack of concern that most people in authority felt for blacks in those days, and may have been afraid of the gang’s reputation for violence. When Patty Cannon learned the police were coming, she would slip across state lines away from local police forces.
According to depositions from victims who fought their way back to the north, Joe Johnson kept the captives in leg irons. He also “severely whipped” captives who insisted they were free. His wife, Patty’s daughter, was overheard saying that it “did [her] good to see him beat the boys.” “Boy” was a degrading reference to a black man of any age.
A 25-year-old free black woman named Lydia Smith testified that she was kept in Cannon’s home before being moved to Johnson’s tavern. There, she was held for five months until she was shipped south with a large lot people being sold into slavery.
The gang was initially indicted in May 1822. Joe Johnson was sentenced to the pillory and 39 lashes; records show the sentence was carried out. Cannon and several other gang members, though charged with Johnson, apparently did not go to trial nor receive sentences.
In 1829, however, bodies were discovered on the farm property Cannon owned in Delaware by a tenant farmer doing plowing there. In April, 1829, she was indicted on four counts of murder by a grand jury of 24 white males:
an infant female on April 26, 1822
a male child on April 26, 1822
an adult male on October 1, 1820
a “Negro boy” on June 1, 1824
The indictments were signed by the Attorney General of Delaware, James Rogers. Witness Cyrus James stated he saw her take an injured “black child not yet dead out in her apron, but that it never returned.” James had been purchased by Cannon when he was only seven years old, and had grown up in her household and participated in her crimes.
Cannon died in her cell on May 11, 1829, at an age estimated to be between sixty and seventy years old. Sources differ on whether she was convicted and sentenced to hang before her death in the cell, and on whether she committed suicide or died of natural causes.
Her body was initially buried in the jail’s graveyard. When that land became a parking lot in the 20th century, her skeleton, along with those of two other women, was exhumed and reburied in a potter’s field near the new prison. However, her skull was separated from the rest of her remains and put on display in various venues, and loaned to the Dover Public Library in 1961.
According to folklore, Cannon was a large, unruly woman with enormous strength and a ruthless streak. Cannon has had mythic prominence since her death, beginning with the publication of a “female fiend” pamphlet in 1841 and followed by numerous works which combine fact and fiction, sometimes carefully distinguished and sometimes loosely mixed. It is difficult to extract the facts except in those cases where authors were meticulous about noting their sources or flagging their departures from fact into thriller.
Patty Cannon’s skull was put on display after her death, and loaned to the Dover Public Library in 1961. | <urn:uuid:23b8fa6f-58d0-45d1-9d26-7063f567eafc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dorchesterhistory.com/patty-cannon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.986008 | 1,333 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.231154248... | 15 | A gang leader in the early 19th century that kidnapped slaves and free blacks from Delmarva then transported and sold them to plantation owners located further south.
Martha “Patty” Cannon (circa 1760 – May 11, 1829) was the leader of a gang in the early 19th century that kidnapped slaves and free blacks from Delmarva and transported and sold them to plantation owners located further south. Later accounts of her life refer to her as Lucretia P. Cannon, although there is no evidence to indicate she used the Lucretia name in her lifetime. She was indicted for four murders in 1829 and died in prison while awaiting trial, purportedly a suicide via poison.
Cannon was married to local farmer Jesse Cannon, who died around 1826. She lived near the town of Reliance, Maryland. (then called Johnson’s Corners), on the border at the convergence of Caroline and Dorchester County in Maryland and Sussex County, Delaware.
Cannon and her husband had at least one daughter, who twice married men engaged in the criminal slave-stealing trade. Their daughter’s first husband was Henry Brereton, a blacksmith who kidnapped black people for sale. Brereton had gone to prison in 1811 for kidnapping, but escaped from the Georgetown, Delaware jail. Brereton was captured, convicted of murder, and hanged with one of his criminal associates, Joseph Griffith.
At some point after this, Cannon’s daughter married Joe Johnson, who became Cannon’s most notorious partner in crime. Their band included white criminals, black men used as decoys, and Cannon’s own husband before his death. In addition, a relative of Cannon’s daughter’s first husband, a Robert Brereton, continued to be involved with the gang as late as at least 1826.
The US Congress had banned the importation of slaves in 1808. At that point, because of the restriction of supply, the cash value of slaves shot upwards, hitting over $1,000 in the South and creating a strong incentive for kidnappers. Many free blacks lived in Cannon’s neighborhood near the Maryland-Delaware border, and were convenient targets for her kidnapping forays. Kidnapping enslaved blacks was riskier, as their white owners would protest; likewise the murder of white slave traders was taken seriously. However, the kidnapping of free blacks left their land and other property behind, and failed to outrage the white community the way the theft of white-owned slaves did, or the murder of whites.
Victim accounts printed in the abolitionist journal the African Observer, state that captives were chained and hidden in the basement, the attic, and secret rooms in the Cannon house. Captives were taken in covered wagons to Cannon’s Ferry (now Woodland Ferry). At the ferry, they would sometimes meet a schooner traveling down the Nanticoke River to the Chesapeake Bay and on to southern slave markets.
The gang’s activities continued for many years. Local law enforcement officials were reluctant to halt the illegal operations, given the lack of concern that most people in authority felt for blacks in those days, and may have been afraid of the gang’s reputation for violence. When Patty Cannon learned the police were coming, she would slip across state lines away from local police forces.
According to depositions from victims who fought their way back to the north, Joe Johnson kept the captives in leg irons. He also “severely whipped” captives who insisted they were free. His wife, Patty’s daughter, was overheard saying that it “did [her] good to see him beat the boys.” “Boy” was a degrading reference to a black man of any age.
A 25-year-old free black woman named Lydia Smith testified that she was kept in Cannon’s home before being moved to Johnson’s tavern. There, she was held for five months until she was shipped south with a large lot people being sold into slavery.
The gang was initially indicted in May 1822. Joe Johnson was sentenced to the pillory and 39 lashes; records show the sentence was carried out. Cannon and several other gang members, though charged with Johnson, apparently did not go to trial nor receive sentences.
In 1829, however, bodies were discovered on the farm property Cannon owned in Delaware by a tenant farmer doing plowing there. In April, 1829, she was indicted on four counts of murder by a grand jury of 24 white males:
an infant female on April 26, 1822
a male child on April 26, 1822
an adult male on October 1, 1820
a “Negro boy” on June 1, 1824
The indictments were signed by the Attorney General of Delaware, James Rogers. Witness Cyrus James stated he saw her take an injured “black child not yet dead out in her apron, but that it never returned.” James had been purchased by Cannon when he was only seven years old, and had grown up in her household and participated in her crimes.
Cannon died in her cell on May 11, 1829, at an age estimated to be between sixty and seventy years old. Sources differ on whether she was convicted and sentenced to hang before her death in the cell, and on whether she committed suicide or died of natural causes.
Her body was initially buried in the jail’s graveyard. When that land became a parking lot in the 20th century, her skeleton, along with those of two other women, was exhumed and reburied in a potter’s field near the new prison. However, her skull was separated from the rest of her remains and put on display in various venues, and loaned to the Dover Public Library in 1961.
According to folklore, Cannon was a large, unruly woman with enormous strength and a ruthless streak. Cannon has had mythic prominence since her death, beginning with the publication of a “female fiend” pamphlet in 1841 and followed by numerous works which combine fact and fiction, sometimes carefully distinguished and sometimes loosely mixed. It is difficult to extract the facts except in those cases where authors were meticulous about noting their sources or flagging their departures from fact into thriller.
Patty Cannon’s skull was put on display after her death, and loaned to the Dover Public Library in 1961. | 1,353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Muharram is a month of remembrance and modern Shia meditation that is often considered synonymous with Ashura. Ashura, which literally means the "Tenth" in Arabic, refers to the tenth day of Muharram. It is well-known because of historical significance and mourning for the murder of Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad.
Shiite begin mourning from the first night of Muharram and continue for ten nights, climaxing on the 10th of Muharram, known as the Day of Ashura. The last few days up until and including the Day of Ashura are the most important because these were the days in which Imam Hussein and his family and followers (including women, children and elderly people) were deprived of water from the 7th onward and on the 10th, Imam Hussain and 72 of his followers were killed by the army of Yazid I at the Battle of Karbala on Yazid's orders. The surviving members of Imam Hussein's family and those of his followers were taken captive, marched to Damascus, and imprisoned there. | <urn:uuid:fb297dd8-b704-457d-b482-e74676f41f77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.khtt.net/en/page/27882/72-dots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.986346 | 221 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.5469439029693604,... | 2 | Muharram is a month of remembrance and modern Shia meditation that is often considered synonymous with Ashura. Ashura, which literally means the "Tenth" in Arabic, refers to the tenth day of Muharram. It is well-known because of historical significance and mourning for the murder of Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad.
Shiite begin mourning from the first night of Muharram and continue for ten nights, climaxing on the 10th of Muharram, known as the Day of Ashura. The last few days up until and including the Day of Ashura are the most important because these were the days in which Imam Hussein and his family and followers (including women, children and elderly people) were deprived of water from the 7th onward and on the 10th, Imam Hussain and 72 of his followers were killed by the army of Yazid I at the Battle of Karbala on Yazid's orders. The surviving members of Imam Hussein's family and those of his followers were taken captive, marched to Damascus, and imprisoned there. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite being the shortest month of the calendar year, February has an interesting history. Early calendars marked the start of the new year in March, but when the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, rose to the throne in 713 BC, he synchronized the calendar to the lunar year. That required the addition of January and February.
February was named after an end-of-year celebration called ‘Februa,’ also known as ‘Februalia’ or ‘Februatio.’ Februa was a Roman festival of ritual purification and washing – a spring cleaning of sorts. This festival was later incorporated into Lupercalia, another Roman celebration that has ties to Groundhog Day. January was actually added after February and was named after Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings.
Both January and February originally had 28 days. However, at the time, even numbers were considered to bring bad luck, so Pompilius added another day to January. However, February was left with 28 days and had long been considered an unlucky month.
February was the last month of the year for around 200 years, until the Gregorian calendar designated January the start of the new year.
Julius Caesar is responsible for adjusting the calendar and the length of February. In the Julian calendar, 10 days were added to the calendar year in various months, and February was increased every four years (leap year) to 29 days to coordinate the calendar year to the solar cycle of roughly 365.2425 days.
During common years, February can pass by without a single full moon.
British mathematician John Conway determined that some dates inevitably share the same weekday within any given year. The last day of February will be on the same weekday as March 7, April 4, May 9, June 6, July 11, Aug. 8, Sept. 5, Oct. 10, Nov. 7, and Dec. 12.
In the northern hemisphere, February is the equivalent to the third month of winter. In the southern hemisphere, it is the third month of summer.
In Finnish, February is called ‘helmikuu,’ meaning ‘month of the pearl,’ which refers to the snow melting on tree branches.
During leap years, February will end on the same day that it begins.
February’s birthstone is the amethyst, which symbolizes piety, sincerity and spiritual wisdom.
Residents of St. Lucia celebrate their independence on Feb. 22.
Despite being the shortest month of the year, February is packed with events. In addition to Valentine’s Day, Groundhog Day, World Marriage Day, and Presidents’ Day, February is when Flag Day is celebrated in both Canada and Mexico. February also serves as Black History Month.
No one really knows for certain why February was relegated to the shortest month. However, with so much trivia and special events surrounding the month, it is still a special time of year. | <urn:uuid:2a85e3c5-2670-4477-a8dd-91eb63aeffc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theriverbanknews.com/news/local-news/little-known-historical-facts-regarding-february/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.984183 | 616 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3368281424... | 5 | Despite being the shortest month of the calendar year, February has an interesting history. Early calendars marked the start of the new year in March, but when the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, rose to the throne in 713 BC, he synchronized the calendar to the lunar year. That required the addition of January and February.
February was named after an end-of-year celebration called ‘Februa,’ also known as ‘Februalia’ or ‘Februatio.’ Februa was a Roman festival of ritual purification and washing – a spring cleaning of sorts. This festival was later incorporated into Lupercalia, another Roman celebration that has ties to Groundhog Day. January was actually added after February and was named after Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings.
Both January and February originally had 28 days. However, at the time, even numbers were considered to bring bad luck, so Pompilius added another day to January. However, February was left with 28 days and had long been considered an unlucky month.
February was the last month of the year for around 200 years, until the Gregorian calendar designated January the start of the new year.
Julius Caesar is responsible for adjusting the calendar and the length of February. In the Julian calendar, 10 days were added to the calendar year in various months, and February was increased every four years (leap year) to 29 days to coordinate the calendar year to the solar cycle of roughly 365.2425 days.
During common years, February can pass by without a single full moon.
British mathematician John Conway determined that some dates inevitably share the same weekday within any given year. The last day of February will be on the same weekday as March 7, April 4, May 9, June 6, July 11, Aug. 8, Sept. 5, Oct. 10, Nov. 7, and Dec. 12.
In the northern hemisphere, February is the equivalent to the third month of winter. In the southern hemisphere, it is the third month of summer.
In Finnish, February is called ‘helmikuu,’ meaning ‘month of the pearl,’ which refers to the snow melting on tree branches.
During leap years, February will end on the same day that it begins.
February’s birthstone is the amethyst, which symbolizes piety, sincerity and spiritual wisdom.
Residents of St. Lucia celebrate their independence on Feb. 22.
Despite being the shortest month of the year, February is packed with events. In addition to Valentine’s Day, Groundhog Day, World Marriage Day, and Presidents’ Day, February is when Flag Day is celebrated in both Canada and Mexico. February also serves as Black History Month.
No one really knows for certain why February was relegated to the shortest month. However, with so much trivia and special events surrounding the month, it is still a special time of year. | 616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland (see the list of MPs).
Following the execution of King Charles, the Rump Parliament was the last remaining element of the English government. It had little or no claim to representation of the populace and held elections only to replace members. The mood of the country was for long-needed reforms to be carried out but the Rump made little progress. The enactment of a Navigation Act to aid merchants led to the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652. There was an expectation that a new parliament should be called, however the Rump made no moves towards its dissolution.
The forced dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 left a gap in the legislature, with no blueprint to fill it. Cromwell and the Council of Officers announced that they would be guided by God's providence in doing so: "as we have been led by necessity and Providence to act as we have done, even beyond and above our own thoughts and desires, so we shall... put ourselves wholly upon the Lord for a blessing".
On 29 April Cromwell set up a small Council of State of thirteen members, responsible for foreign policy and administration of the country.[a] Its establishment was announced the next day. The Council of Officers remained responsible for decisions about the new form of government. John Lambert argued in favour of lodging power in the hands of ten or twelve men. Thomas Harrison, drawing on his Fifth Monarchist beliefs, argued that their duty was to accelerate the coming of the kingdom of Christ by putting power into the hands of godly men. He put forward the idea of a larger assembly, preferably numbering seventy based on the Jewish Sanhedrin. The Council of Officers agreed on Harrison's model, raising the number of representatives to 140 to allow members from across England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
The Council of Officers then settled the question of how to select the group's representatives, agreeing that members should be chosen by the Council, all of whom were free to put forward nominations. Power would be vested in each member by Cromwell in his role as commander-in-chief of the army. Although there was negative reaction from some churches, with a member of a congregation in London declaring "the question is not so much now who is Independent, Anabaptist, etc., as who is for Christ and who is for Cromwell", most of the sects welcomed the decision.S. R. Gardiner conjectured that the Council of Officers consulted congregational churches in each county, asking them to send names of suitable candidates for the new assembly. However, no copy of any letter of consultation survives, and although some churches did send in nominations, there is no evidence that a mass consultation took place. By 3 May the Council of Officers had had over a hundred names submitted by its members. By 23 May an initial list of nominations was ready, which was then added to and refined over the next few weeks.
The assembly met for the first time on 4 July in the council chamber at Whitehall. Cromwell opened proceedings with a speech around two hours long. He began by summing up the "series of Providences" that had brought them to this point, starting with the Short Parliament and singling out 1648 as the "most memorable year that ever this nation saw". In a much-analysed passage, Cromwell is supposed to have declared: "God doth manifest it to be the day of the Power of Jesus Christ". This has sometimes been adduced as evidence that Cromwell shared Harrison's Fifth Monarchist beliefs, welcoming the assembly as the start of Christ's kingdom on earth. However, the first published version of the speech records this sentence as "God doth manifest it to be a day of the Power of Jesus Christ", considerably softening the impact, and implying that he merely thought it to be a spiritually joyful occasion.[b] Cromwell then asked a written 'instrument' to be read out, drawn up by the Council of Officers and investing power in the assembly.
The assembly then adjourned before sitting in full on the following day. On that day they elected Francis Rous, initially as chairman (he was not known as Speaker until a month later). Henry Scobell was appointed as Clerk. Cromwell and four other officers - Lambert, John Desborough, Harrison and Matthew Tomlinson - were then co-opted as members. On 12 July, the assembly published a declaration declaring itself to be the parliament of the Commonwealth of England. This was the first time that it had been formally described as a parliament.
The parliament became a subject of ridicule very quickly after its establishment. A newswriter called them "Pettifoggers, Innkeepers, Millwrights, Stockingmongers and such a rabble as never had hopes to be of a Grand Jury". In particular, its members were singled out for their alleged low social status, their puritanism and their relative lack of political experience. These criticisms were seen to be encapsulated by one of its members, Praise-God Barebone, a leather seller, Fifth Monarchist and lay preacher from Fleet Street in London. Before its dissolution the assembly had become known as Barebone's Parliament.
Despite contemporary slanders, the assembly's members were mainly drawn from the richest five per cent of the population, and few tradesmen were represented. Nor was it solely composed of Fifth Monarchists, despite the impression that hostile contemporary pamphlets give. Twelve or thirteen members can be identified as Fifth Monarchists, some of whom had served with Harrison. These were contrasted with about fifteen of the more active members of the assembly, who were more moderate Independents. Although it is misleading to divide the assembly into two parties, an analysis of its entire membership along moderate and radical lines identifies 76 members as religious moderates and 47 as radicals, with a further 21 either impossible to identify or not participating in the assembly.
Only four regicides, Anthony Stapley, John Carew, Thomas Harrison, and Cromwell himself, were appointed. Thomas Harrison was the leader of the Fifth Monarchists and John Carew was also a Fifth Monarchist.
On 13 July, the assembly began debating tithes - which were objected to by many sects on the grounds that they were a remnant of Catholicism, that they supported a professional rather than voluntary clergy, and that their economic burden fell unequally. There was general consensus that tithes were objectionable, but little agreement about what mechanism for generating revenue should replace them. Debate within the assembly was quickly echoed by petitions from churches around the country. Another contentious issue the assembly debated during its early weeks was the trial of John Lilburne, which again did little to unite opinion. A third issue, reform of the legal system, again split the members, with Fifth Monarchists arguing that only laws contained in scripture should be reflected in the temporal legal system, while former members of the Rump's Hale Commission pushed for progressive reform.
By early September, Cromwell was already said to have been growing frustrated with the assembly's in-fighting between different groups. A newswriter reported him saying to a confidant that he was "more troubled now with the fool than before now with the knave". He also wrote to his son-in-law Charles Fleetwood complaining that the members "being of different judgements, and of each sort most seeking to propagate their own, that spirit of kindness that is to them, is hardly accepted of any". Attendance also began to fall. Over one hundred members were present at most votes in July, dropping to an average turnout of 70 by October. Various bills inflamed conflict between the radical and moderate members - bills to abolish the Court of Chancery, regulate legal fees, and speed up settlement of cases in the Court of Admiralty all became bogged down in conflict. At this point, however, radical members were still mainly outnumbered in votes by moderate and conservative members.
This changed during November and December when debate returned to the question of tithes. On 6 December the committee of the assembly appointed to consider the question presented their report, covering the question of how unfit ministers were to be ejected, naming commissioners who would have the job of enacting this, and retaining support for tithes in prescribed circumstances. The first clause of the report was voted against by 56 votes to 54 in a defeat for the moderates. Two days later, moderates came to the House and demanded that the assembly abdicate its powers, criticising radical members for threatening the wellbeing of the Commonwealth by fomenting disagreement. Rous and around 40 members walked out and went to Cromwell at Whitehall, presenting a document signed by nearly 80 members that declared: "Upon a Motion this day made in the House, that the sitting of this Parliament any longer as now constituted, will not be for the good of the Commonwealth". Those left in the house were soon confronted by troops requesting that they leave.
The collapse of the radical consensus which had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the Grandees passing the Instrument of Government in the Council of State which paved the way for Cromwell's Protectorate. | <urn:uuid:2002eea8-24c2-4ffb-84f1-4dd16b99a978> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Barebones_Parliament | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.983456 | 1,971 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.13877749443... | 1 | Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland (see the list of MPs).
Following the execution of King Charles, the Rump Parliament was the last remaining element of the English government. It had little or no claim to representation of the populace and held elections only to replace members. The mood of the country was for long-needed reforms to be carried out but the Rump made little progress. The enactment of a Navigation Act to aid merchants led to the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652. There was an expectation that a new parliament should be called, however the Rump made no moves towards its dissolution.
The forced dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 left a gap in the legislature, with no blueprint to fill it. Cromwell and the Council of Officers announced that they would be guided by God's providence in doing so: "as we have been led by necessity and Providence to act as we have done, even beyond and above our own thoughts and desires, so we shall... put ourselves wholly upon the Lord for a blessing".
On 29 April Cromwell set up a small Council of State of thirteen members, responsible for foreign policy and administration of the country.[a] Its establishment was announced the next day. The Council of Officers remained responsible for decisions about the new form of government. John Lambert argued in favour of lodging power in the hands of ten or twelve men. Thomas Harrison, drawing on his Fifth Monarchist beliefs, argued that their duty was to accelerate the coming of the kingdom of Christ by putting power into the hands of godly men. He put forward the idea of a larger assembly, preferably numbering seventy based on the Jewish Sanhedrin. The Council of Officers agreed on Harrison's model, raising the number of representatives to 140 to allow members from across England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
The Council of Officers then settled the question of how to select the group's representatives, agreeing that members should be chosen by the Council, all of whom were free to put forward nominations. Power would be vested in each member by Cromwell in his role as commander-in-chief of the army. Although there was negative reaction from some churches, with a member of a congregation in London declaring "the question is not so much now who is Independent, Anabaptist, etc., as who is for Christ and who is for Cromwell", most of the sects welcomed the decision.S. R. Gardiner conjectured that the Council of Officers consulted congregational churches in each county, asking them to send names of suitable candidates for the new assembly. However, no copy of any letter of consultation survives, and although some churches did send in nominations, there is no evidence that a mass consultation took place. By 3 May the Council of Officers had had over a hundred names submitted by its members. By 23 May an initial list of nominations was ready, which was then added to and refined over the next few weeks.
The assembly met for the first time on 4 July in the council chamber at Whitehall. Cromwell opened proceedings with a speech around two hours long. He began by summing up the "series of Providences" that had brought them to this point, starting with the Short Parliament and singling out 1648 as the "most memorable year that ever this nation saw". In a much-analysed passage, Cromwell is supposed to have declared: "God doth manifest it to be the day of the Power of Jesus Christ". This has sometimes been adduced as evidence that Cromwell shared Harrison's Fifth Monarchist beliefs, welcoming the assembly as the start of Christ's kingdom on earth. However, the first published version of the speech records this sentence as "God doth manifest it to be a day of the Power of Jesus Christ", considerably softening the impact, and implying that he merely thought it to be a spiritually joyful occasion.[b] Cromwell then asked a written 'instrument' to be read out, drawn up by the Council of Officers and investing power in the assembly.
The assembly then adjourned before sitting in full on the following day. On that day they elected Francis Rous, initially as chairman (he was not known as Speaker until a month later). Henry Scobell was appointed as Clerk. Cromwell and four other officers - Lambert, John Desborough, Harrison and Matthew Tomlinson - were then co-opted as members. On 12 July, the assembly published a declaration declaring itself to be the parliament of the Commonwealth of England. This was the first time that it had been formally described as a parliament.
The parliament became a subject of ridicule very quickly after its establishment. A newswriter called them "Pettifoggers, Innkeepers, Millwrights, Stockingmongers and such a rabble as never had hopes to be of a Grand Jury". In particular, its members were singled out for their alleged low social status, their puritanism and their relative lack of political experience. These criticisms were seen to be encapsulated by one of its members, Praise-God Barebone, a leather seller, Fifth Monarchist and lay preacher from Fleet Street in London. Before its dissolution the assembly had become known as Barebone's Parliament.
Despite contemporary slanders, the assembly's members were mainly drawn from the richest five per cent of the population, and few tradesmen were represented. Nor was it solely composed of Fifth Monarchists, despite the impression that hostile contemporary pamphlets give. Twelve or thirteen members can be identified as Fifth Monarchists, some of whom had served with Harrison. These were contrasted with about fifteen of the more active members of the assembly, who were more moderate Independents. Although it is misleading to divide the assembly into two parties, an analysis of its entire membership along moderate and radical lines identifies 76 members as religious moderates and 47 as radicals, with a further 21 either impossible to identify or not participating in the assembly.
Only four regicides, Anthony Stapley, John Carew, Thomas Harrison, and Cromwell himself, were appointed. Thomas Harrison was the leader of the Fifth Monarchists and John Carew was also a Fifth Monarchist.
On 13 July, the assembly began debating tithes - which were objected to by many sects on the grounds that they were a remnant of Catholicism, that they supported a professional rather than voluntary clergy, and that their economic burden fell unequally. There was general consensus that tithes were objectionable, but little agreement about what mechanism for generating revenue should replace them. Debate within the assembly was quickly echoed by petitions from churches around the country. Another contentious issue the assembly debated during its early weeks was the trial of John Lilburne, which again did little to unite opinion. A third issue, reform of the legal system, again split the members, with Fifth Monarchists arguing that only laws contained in scripture should be reflected in the temporal legal system, while former members of the Rump's Hale Commission pushed for progressive reform.
By early September, Cromwell was already said to have been growing frustrated with the assembly's in-fighting between different groups. A newswriter reported him saying to a confidant that he was "more troubled now with the fool than before now with the knave". He also wrote to his son-in-law Charles Fleetwood complaining that the members "being of different judgements, and of each sort most seeking to propagate their own, that spirit of kindness that is to them, is hardly accepted of any". Attendance also began to fall. Over one hundred members were present at most votes in July, dropping to an average turnout of 70 by October. Various bills inflamed conflict between the radical and moderate members - bills to abolish the Court of Chancery, regulate legal fees, and speed up settlement of cases in the Court of Admiralty all became bogged down in conflict. At this point, however, radical members were still mainly outnumbered in votes by moderate and conservative members.
This changed during November and December when debate returned to the question of tithes. On 6 December the committee of the assembly appointed to consider the question presented their report, covering the question of how unfit ministers were to be ejected, naming commissioners who would have the job of enacting this, and retaining support for tithes in prescribed circumstances. The first clause of the report was voted against by 56 votes to 54 in a defeat for the moderates. Two days later, moderates came to the House and demanded that the assembly abdicate its powers, criticising radical members for threatening the wellbeing of the Commonwealth by fomenting disagreement. Rous and around 40 members walked out and went to Cromwell at Whitehall, presenting a document signed by nearly 80 members that declared: "Upon a Motion this day made in the House, that the sitting of this Parliament any longer as now constituted, will not be for the good of the Commonwealth". Those left in the house were soon confronted by troops requesting that they leave.
The collapse of the radical consensus which had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the Grandees passing the Instrument of Government in the Council of State which paved the way for Cromwell's Protectorate. | 2,026 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The more we’re learning about ancient civilizations, the more they are fascinating us. The Aztecs were a nomadic tribe, which arrived in Mesoamerica at the beginning of the 13th century.
These very skilled people actually became one of the most dominant forces, because they drastically developed in a political, religious, commercial and social aspect!
The Aztec people have expressed their rich culture through their food, clothing, religious traditions, warfare, food, language and art.
Later in the 16th century, Cortes has discovered the Aztec empire, which was the home of more than 200,000 people.
Tenochtitlan, which we know as Mexico City, was perhaps a capital, with a fortress, surrounded with water.
In order to feed their people, they built floating gardens, also known as chinampas, by creating the marshy lakebed of Lake Texcoco, in a masterpiece of engineering!
The gardens were 90 meters in length and 9 meters wide. The Aztecs made immense pontoons by weaving stays together. At that point they gathered the gathered mud from the base of the lake over the pontoon to make a 90cm-thick soil layer.
They were joined to willow trees planted close by the lake. The 22,000-section of land garden systems were encompassed by a channel which enabled kayaks to go through.
These waterways shaped a fantasy that these rural grounds were drifting on water, which clarifies the misattribution as ‘coasting gardens’.
They planted corn, beans, squash, tomatoes, peppers, and blossoms, and the creative gardens yielded seven harvests for each year.
Despite the fact that they are seen as a crude and ruthless society, the Aztecs were in reality among the most progressive human advancements on the planet at the time.
They likewise had propelled foundation and an advanced depleting system, which was utilized to shield the harvests from conceivable flooding in the blustery season, so they utilized dams, floodgate entryways, and trenches.
During the dry season, the conveyed water from the channels to water their yields.
Harvests were prepared with human stool, gathered in kayaks from the city. The City of Mexico is said to have attempted once to make a comparative wastewater treatment system similarly as the Aztec chinampa system.
The Aztecs found real approaches to use the earth to further their potential benefit, which again talks about their exceptionally developed society.
However, the arrival of the Conquistadors, who bore an advantage over the Aztecs. Their horses, guns and swords were nullified in the sanctuary of the chinampas. Cortez, in 1521, in his search of gold and treasure, not crops, he ordered his people to destroy the floating gardens, and burn them as he was ransacking the city on June 16th.
This was the end of chinampas, which never rose again! | <urn:uuid:4be39649-1c6b-480c-a98e-c3966b9471db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.organichomeremedies.com/2020/01/15/the-ingenious-floating-gardens-of-the-ancient-aztecs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.983578 | 617 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.142587035894... | 4 | The more we’re learning about ancient civilizations, the more they are fascinating us. The Aztecs were a nomadic tribe, which arrived in Mesoamerica at the beginning of the 13th century.
These very skilled people actually became one of the most dominant forces, because they drastically developed in a political, religious, commercial and social aspect!
The Aztec people have expressed their rich culture through their food, clothing, religious traditions, warfare, food, language and art.
Later in the 16th century, Cortes has discovered the Aztec empire, which was the home of more than 200,000 people.
Tenochtitlan, which we know as Mexico City, was perhaps a capital, with a fortress, surrounded with water.
In order to feed their people, they built floating gardens, also known as chinampas, by creating the marshy lakebed of Lake Texcoco, in a masterpiece of engineering!
The gardens were 90 meters in length and 9 meters wide. The Aztecs made immense pontoons by weaving stays together. At that point they gathered the gathered mud from the base of the lake over the pontoon to make a 90cm-thick soil layer.
They were joined to willow trees planted close by the lake. The 22,000-section of land garden systems were encompassed by a channel which enabled kayaks to go through.
These waterways shaped a fantasy that these rural grounds were drifting on water, which clarifies the misattribution as ‘coasting gardens’.
They planted corn, beans, squash, tomatoes, peppers, and blossoms, and the creative gardens yielded seven harvests for each year.
Despite the fact that they are seen as a crude and ruthless society, the Aztecs were in reality among the most progressive human advancements on the planet at the time.
They likewise had propelled foundation and an advanced depleting system, which was utilized to shield the harvests from conceivable flooding in the blustery season, so they utilized dams, floodgate entryways, and trenches.
During the dry season, the conveyed water from the channels to water their yields.
Harvests were prepared with human stool, gathered in kayaks from the city. The City of Mexico is said to have attempted once to make a comparative wastewater treatment system similarly as the Aztec chinampa system.
The Aztecs found real approaches to use the earth to further their potential benefit, which again talks about their exceptionally developed society.
However, the arrival of the Conquistadors, who bore an advantage over the Aztecs. Their horses, guns and swords were nullified in the sanctuary of the chinampas. Cortez, in 1521, in his search of gold and treasure, not crops, he ordered his people to destroy the floating gardens, and burn them as he was ransacking the city on June 16th.
This was the end of chinampas, which never rose again! | 615 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moreover, David fought Hadadezer king of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when he went to establish his control along the Euphrates River.
David also defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah as far as Hamath, as he went to establish his rule to the Euphrates River.
Then David destroyed the forces of King Hadadezer of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when Hadadezer marched out to strengthen his control along the Euphrates River.
On his way to restore his sovereignty at the Euphrates River, David defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah (over toward Hamath).
Then David overcame Hadadezer, king of Zobah, near Hamath, when he was going to make his power seen by the river Euphrates.
David also struck down King Hadadezer of Zobah, toward Hamath, as he went to set up a monument at the river Euphrates.
And David defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah as far as Hamath, as he went to establish his power by the River Euphrates.
|NET © [draft] ITL|
|NET © Notes||
1 tn Heb “hand.”
2 tn Heb “when he went to set up his hand at the Euphrates River.” The Hebrew word יָד (yad, “hand”) is usually understood to mean “control” or “dominion” here. However, since יָד does occasionally refer to a monument, perhaps one could translate, “to set up his monument at the Euphrates River” (i.e., as a visible marker of the limits of his dominion). For another example of the Hiphil of נָצַב (natsav) used with יָד (“monument”), see 1 Sam 15:12. | <urn:uuid:9d8b7b19-5538-42b4-b823-ef35f872755d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=1Ch&chapter=18&verse=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.985107 | 412 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.03955042362213... | 4 | Moreover, David fought Hadadezer king of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when he went to establish his control along the Euphrates River.
David also defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah as far as Hamath, as he went to establish his rule to the Euphrates River.
Then David destroyed the forces of King Hadadezer of Zobah, as far as Hamath, when Hadadezer marched out to strengthen his control along the Euphrates River.
On his way to restore his sovereignty at the Euphrates River, David defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah (over toward Hamath).
Then David overcame Hadadezer, king of Zobah, near Hamath, when he was going to make his power seen by the river Euphrates.
David also struck down King Hadadezer of Zobah, toward Hamath, as he went to set up a monument at the river Euphrates.
And David defeated Hadadezer king of Zobah as far as Hamath, as he went to establish his power by the River Euphrates.
|NET © [draft] ITL|
|NET © Notes||
1 tn Heb “hand.”
2 tn Heb “when he went to set up his hand at the Euphrates River.” The Hebrew word יָד (yad, “hand”) is usually understood to mean “control” or “dominion” here. However, since יָד does occasionally refer to a monument, perhaps one could translate, “to set up his monument at the Euphrates River” (i.e., as a visible marker of the limits of his dominion). For another example of the Hiphil of נָצַב (natsav) used with יָד (“monument”), see 1 Sam 15:12. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Antar was an Arab warrior-poet within the seventh century who has change into a cultural hero. Many epic poems have been written about Antar and his actual and fictional adventures.
Antar was stated to have been the son of Shaddad, a effectively-revered member of the tribe of ’Abs, and an African slave lady. Because Antar was darkish-skinned and his mom was aslave, the remainder of the tribe handled him as an inferior despite his accomplishments.
A born survivor, Antar had to fight for food and at a really early age killed a canine over a bit of goat meat. At age ten, he slew a wolf that was after the tribe’s herds. But when he fell in love together with his paternal cousin, the attractive Abla, her father wouldn’t permit them to marry. Antar had to face a sequence of challenges earlier than the wedding might go ahead, together with a quest for a particular breed of camel from a northern Arab kingdom.
Antar excelled as a warrior. Shaddad finally acknowledged him as his free son and requested Antar for assist in battling one other tribe.
It just isn’t recognized what number of tales of Antar’s exploits are factual. Some of his poetry nonetheless exists. It is filled with chivalry and love for Abla. He additionally included full descriptions of battles, armor, and different topics that make his poetry helpful for historians.
Antar’s prowess as each a warrior and a poet gave rise to many tales over the centuries. He was the hero of the favored Arabic epic Sirat Antar, which was loosely translated because the Romance of Antar and thought to be the work of the author Al Asmai (739–831 C.E.). Inthis story, Antar is introduced as the perfect of a Bedouin chief—beneficiant, courageous, and honorable.
The nineteenth-century Russian composer Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov was impressed by the story of Antar and created a symphonic suite in 4 actions about his life. The first motion is about within the desert of Sham among the many ruins of the traditional metropolis of Palmyeara. Antar had taken refuge there after changing into disillusioned together with his fellow man. He witnessed a lovely gazelle pursued by an enormous darkish hen. Antar attacked the hen and frightened it away. He then fell asleep and dreamed of a splendid palace dominated by the Queen of Palmyeara, the
fairy Gul Nazar. It was the queen, within the type of a gazelle, whom Antar had rescued. In gratitude, the fairy queen promised Antar the three nice joys of life—revenge, energy, and love.
Antar awoke among the many ruins of Palmyeara. The piece continues with Antar’s use of the fun of revenge and of energy. The final motion concentrates on the enjoyment of affection. Antar made Gul Nazar agree to take his life the second she observed that his ardour for her was cooling. In the top, she does so, and Antar dies in her arms. | <urn:uuid:6438a155-a5f9-42cb-8e1c-a638ec1f6443> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ebuzz.com.ng/antar-middle-eastern-warrior-poet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.98206 | 660 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2272820025... | 1 | Antar was an Arab warrior-poet within the seventh century who has change into a cultural hero. Many epic poems have been written about Antar and his actual and fictional adventures.
Antar was stated to have been the son of Shaddad, a effectively-revered member of the tribe of ’Abs, and an African slave lady. Because Antar was darkish-skinned and his mom was aslave, the remainder of the tribe handled him as an inferior despite his accomplishments.
A born survivor, Antar had to fight for food and at a really early age killed a canine over a bit of goat meat. At age ten, he slew a wolf that was after the tribe’s herds. But when he fell in love together with his paternal cousin, the attractive Abla, her father wouldn’t permit them to marry. Antar had to face a sequence of challenges earlier than the wedding might go ahead, together with a quest for a particular breed of camel from a northern Arab kingdom.
Antar excelled as a warrior. Shaddad finally acknowledged him as his free son and requested Antar for assist in battling one other tribe.
It just isn’t recognized what number of tales of Antar’s exploits are factual. Some of his poetry nonetheless exists. It is filled with chivalry and love for Abla. He additionally included full descriptions of battles, armor, and different topics that make his poetry helpful for historians.
Antar’s prowess as each a warrior and a poet gave rise to many tales over the centuries. He was the hero of the favored Arabic epic Sirat Antar, which was loosely translated because the Romance of Antar and thought to be the work of the author Al Asmai (739–831 C.E.). Inthis story, Antar is introduced as the perfect of a Bedouin chief—beneficiant, courageous, and honorable.
The nineteenth-century Russian composer Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov was impressed by the story of Antar and created a symphonic suite in 4 actions about his life. The first motion is about within the desert of Sham among the many ruins of the traditional metropolis of Palmyeara. Antar had taken refuge there after changing into disillusioned together with his fellow man. He witnessed a lovely gazelle pursued by an enormous darkish hen. Antar attacked the hen and frightened it away. He then fell asleep and dreamed of a splendid palace dominated by the Queen of Palmyeara, the
fairy Gul Nazar. It was the queen, within the type of a gazelle, whom Antar had rescued. In gratitude, the fairy queen promised Antar the three nice joys of life—revenge, energy, and love.
Antar awoke among the many ruins of Palmyeara. The piece continues with Antar’s use of the fun of revenge and of energy. The final motion concentrates on the enjoyment of affection. Antar made Gul Nazar agree to take his life the second she observed that his ardour for her was cooling. In the top, she does so, and Antar dies in her arms. | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With the Allied Somme offensive halted in November 1916 due to the wintry weather and the muddied, shell-torn land that the Army would need to advance over, the thoughts of the commanders on both sides were turning to 1917 and not surprisingly their strategies would shape the operations for the coming Spring. For the Allied forces on the Western Front, French Commander in Chief General Nivelle devised his great 1917 offensive which called for a major French attack at the Chemin des Dames on the Aisne supported by a separate British operation further north at Arras. To assist with the offensive General Rawlinson (Fourth Army) and Gough (Fifth Army) tasked their Corps commanders on the Somme to plan for a series of attacks when the weather improved to keep the enemy under strain. For I Anzac Corps this would involve pressing the Germans ahead of them in the Bapaume region from Flers and Gueudecourt where they had spent the winter.
However these plans had to be modified when on 24th February 1917 it was clear that the Germans were making a strategic withdrawal away from their front-line positions to a much more heavily fortified position to the rear known as the Hindenburg Line. The fighting on the Somme of the previous year had a devastating impact on both sides, but the German High Command knew that their position was vulnerable once the expected Spring offensive came so withdrawing to a stronger position and straightening the line meant that they could better man the defence of the French and Belgium territory they held with the same number of divisions. The new 100 mile line from Arras in the north to Soissons in the south being constructed in quiet surroundings and chosen for their defensive qualities would offer stronger and more comfortable shelter for the German troops in deep concrete shelters, protected by deep belts of wire entanglements. The Germans at this stage recognised that their best chance of victory on land had probably gone, but by withstanding the coming onslaught would give their naval forces through their submarine fleet, time to create a blockade of Britain causing hardship, shortage of food and eventual inability of Britain to wage further war and seek peace terms from a German position of strength. The withdrawal would also disrupt the Allied planning, therefore buying more time for building the defence and for their submarines.
This period also saw a change in the fighting conditions for the Australian infantry. The cold and frosty weather in January and February brought a welcome respite from the atrocious muddy conditions that the men had to endure in the previous months. Moreover once it was clear that German Army was in retreat, a period of cautious pursuit followed involving open country warfare and the use of new enveloping tactics as the advancing troops had to clear the stubborn German rear-guard whether in machine-gun positions and platoon sized pockets or manning the chain of outpost villages that lay before the Hindenburg Line. To the Australian troops advancing the sight ahead of comparatively green valleys with buildings and trees would have been a welcome lift after the months of the grey and mud.
The beginning of February saw the start of operations on the I Anzac Corps front when on the 1st February the 15th Battalion of the 4th Australian Division moving swiftly following a short barrage took the enemy by surprise and captured Cloudy Trench, a German salient north-east of Gueudecourt. However an insufficient defensive barrage resulted in a successful German counter-attack which forced the attackers back with a loss of 144 officers and men, of whom 42 were missing. Three days later the 13th Battalion was tasked with attacking Stormy Trench again, and in order to meet the chief danger of the German counter-attack 12,000 bombs were carried forward to the ‘jumping-off’ position, plus 1,000 rifle grenades to combat the greater range of the enemy ‘egg’ bombs. Learning from the earlier experience the field artillery was also to double its expenditure of shells. The counter attack came and desperate bombing fights ensued, followed by a swift, heavy and accurate German barrage on the supporting and bomb-carrying troops. The success of the attack on Stormy Trench was largely due to the leadership of Capt. HW Murray (photograph left, the most decorated Australian serviceman during WW1) for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross, though the operation had cost the Australians about 350 casualties including 100 missing, against the German losses of 250. By mid-February and as the I Anzac Corps transferred from the British Fourth to the Fifth Army, the small wearing down operations on the Somme were in full swing, including attacks and raids by the 1st Australian Division against Bayonet Trench and The Maze near Flers.
On the 24th February 1917 reports came in from British V Corps that the Germans had abandoned their forward trenches. I Anzac Corps along with British II Corps was ordered that night to probe and from their discoveries and prisoners taken it became apparent that the Germans had made a massive change in their strategic plans and what was being observed was the voluntary abandonment by the Germans of their great salient between Arras and Aisne. The depth of the withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line would vary between twelve miles near Bapaume to nearly thirty near Roye. In front of the line a 15 kilometre belt was laid bare of houses and trees for shelter, and the roads, railways, bridges and wells all rendered useless.
By the morning of the 28th February the villages of Thilloy, Ligny-Thilloy and Le Barque were within the 1st Australian Division’s line, which now lay in comparatively green country and a distance of some 500 – 800 yards from the German main position, Till Trench. [Click link for geo-referenced Trench map reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. On the right the 15th Brigade of the 5th Australian Division had cleared the enemy from Barley Trench to the German withdrawal pivot point at Le Transloy. To the west the 2nd Australian Division’s 7th Brigade made seven attacks to Malt Trench but all were bombed back with heavy loss on both sides. Fifth Army commanding officer General Gough visited the area and seeing the importance of Malt Trench gave the order for the bombardment of the German wire to begin at once and on the 2nd March three battalions of the 7th Brigade, with the 5th Brigade supporting on the right, attacked. Despite enemy bombing attacks, artillery and counter-attacks the 2nd Australian Division had established itself on the Loupart bastion and in position to create a ‘jumping off’ line for Gough’s intended assault on the next main German R.I. Line. The 1st Australian Division to the east had been digging in when came a series of counter-attacks, with the Germans penetrating behind the Australian lines. Both sides had men killed and captured, though the losses to the German attackers had been greater.
On the 5th March heavy plumes of smoke rose from the town of Bapaume indicating that the Germans would be retreating further, while British airmen could see a greatly increased amount of train movement eastwards. By the 12th March patrols from the 5th and 6th Brigades reported that German front line R1, which had recently been heavily bombarded, was empty in expectation of an attack, though the 8th Brigade to the right was meeting with resistance. The 5th and 6th Brigades were now operating in almost entirely green countryside, raising the spirits of the men, as they moved to within 300 yards of the RII line.
On the 17th March 1917, Bapaume (photograph right), the objective for the great 1916 Somme offensive, was entered. As the Allies followed the Germans rear-guards, bitterness grew not just amongst the French but also in world opinion against the excesses of the German military in destroying everything in its wake for little military advantage. For the infantry they had to be aware of booby-traps set in doorways, dugouts, and under boards, and in some cases such as the Bapaume Town Hall time delayed mines. The following day the 6th (Gellibrand) and 15th (Elliott) Brigades were selected as the force to drive forward, supported by mounted troops from the 13th Light Horse and a battery of field artillery. The columns would be advancing without the main body of troops behind them, therefore incurring increased risk as they approached the Hindenburg Line. In this new phase of open warfare the infantry progressed cautiously, uncomfortable crossing open countryside despite there being only few of the enemy around, and weighed down by their heavy packs. On the 20th March Gellibrand working on his own initiative attempted to take the village of Noreuil. The 21st and 23rd Battalions met with heavy resistance from machine guns in the surrounding villages supported by artillery. The first that Divisional HQ knew about it was when Gellibrand sent messages, including falling back. To Generals Birdwood and Smythe the unexpected news of this engagement and the casualties suffered – which was eventually found to be more than twice as Gellibrand at first believed, totalling 13 Officers and 318 other ranks – came as a shock. As a result Gellibrand never regained with Birdwood the high regard and confidence which he previously had.
With Elliott progressing faster than the rest of the front, the Germans – including a company of storm-troops – attempted to retake the village of Beaumetz but were beaten back by his 15th Brigade. This attack was evidence of Ludendorff and Hindenburg’s plan to hit back hard at the following troops, and justified Field Marshal Haig’s precautionary and cautious approach of not over exposing his advancing armies. I Anzac Corps had now reached the chain of villages that lay just before the Hindenburg Line. One such village was Lagnicourt and on the 26th March the 26th and 27th Battalions of the 7th Brigade were tasked with attacking the village, supported by the 15th Brigade on the right flank. The village was the first of this line to be taken but at a cost of 377 casualties. The Germans did not try to retake the village but heavily shelled the buildings and it was from a shell bursting in a sunken road that Capt. PH Cherry (photograph above) of the 26th Battalion, who through his good work leading from the front earlier in the day had been awarded the Victoria Cross, was killed. After the capture of Lagnicourt the 2nd Australian Division was relieved by the 4th which came into the line fresh from a month’s rest and training.
It was decided that the Fifth Army and the right of the Third should attack on the same day the string of villages that lay as outposts before the Hindenburg Line. The taking of Noreuil would fall to I Anzac Corps. The next village in the Australian sector, Lagnicourt, had already been taken, leaving the right hand column tasked with seizing Louverval and Doignies. The villages of Boursies, Demicourt and Hermies also lay in this chain but they were considered less of an objective as no serious attempt against the Hindenburg Line would be made behind them. The envelopment attack on Noreuil was undertaken by the 50th and 51st Battalions of the 13th Brigade, with the 50th attacking from the captured village of Lagnicourt. The operations were still in open country, clear of all fortifications except the wire entanglements and trenches bent around the outskirts of the villages and a sprinkling of sentry posts, frequently in the sunken roads which were common in these parts of France. The sunken roads would not only provide cover but by scooping into the sides could provide shelter, and in some locations such as at Noreuil the Germans were able to tunnel deep dugouts in the road-banks.
At 5.15am on the 2nd April the supporting barrage started to fall on the enemy positions and the two battalions advanced together. The 51st met with machine-gun fire from the left, right and the sunken Noreuil-Longatte road ahead, causing eighty men to fall before the position was taken and prisoners captured. The 50th were having difficulties as the suppressing barrage was too thin to be effective, and suffering enfilade fire from pockets of Germans behind the steep bank. During the fighting Pte J Jensen (photograph right) rushed a position and bluffed more than forty Germans to surrender, and was awarded the Victoria Cross. With the Lewis gunners firing from the hip, the battalion advanced. However by 8.45 the position was becoming precarious as the Germans were holding in strength in the gullies and Australian casualties were mounting as the Germans started to attack with bombing parties. Fighting continued all day, but by dawn when the 51st were preparing to rush the German positions they had found that they had retired during the night.
The attack by the British on the villages to the north had met with similar difficulties, but they too had succeeded. The two brigades of the British 7th Division suffered about 400 casualties, but the loss to the 13th Brigade exceeded 600, with the 50th Battalion losing 360 of which about 100 were killed and 60 taken prisoner. Further south the 55th Battalion captured Doignies with limited casualties, whereas the attack on Louverval by the 56th was more problematic and resulted in 484 casualties for the 14th Brigade, many as a result of subsequent shelling of Doignies, Louverval and Beaumetz. Only twelve prisoners were taken in this area. Thus on the left half of the Fifth Army’s front the last obstacle to Gough’s projected diversion against the Hindenburg Line had been removed, and all divisions began pushing their posts closer to the main defences which scarred the open country a mile or so ahead of them.
On 6th April the 1st Australian Division relieved the 5th and a portion of the 4th in preparation for the oncoming Arras offensive. The preliminary movement against the three remaining villages in the I Anzac Corps sector began with a movement to secure the high ground above Boursies. Two companies of the 12th and two from the 10th Battalions attacked at 3am and successfully created a small salient, though subject to bombing counter-attacks, and at a cost of 90 casualties. The main attack on the village of Boursies began at 4.45am and took place on the same day as the start of the Arras offensive, this action acting as a minor feint to the main battle taking place further north. The 10th and the 12th Battalions took the village at a cost of 341 casualties. The attack by the 1st Australian Division also included a successful attack on the village of Hermies by the 1st Brigade. Except for a few of the garrison, practically all of the Germans were either killed or taken prisoner, but at a loss of 253 officers and men for the 2nd and 3rd Battalions, of which the high proportion of 1 in 3 were killed. The 1st Battalion moved on Demicourt and occupied the village, sustaining 55 casualties. By successive local advances made at night without serious opposition, the I Anzac Corps line was over the next few nights pushed forward to within less than a mile of the Hindenburg defences.
Despite some pieces of local intelligence in the days leading up to the German withdrawal, when it came it caught the British High Command by surprise. Unsure of its motive and wary of being set a trap for a strong counter-attack it led to the cautious Field Marshal Haig to pursue his foe in a methodical fashion. Furthermore the German Divisions tasked with the rear-guard action fought a skilful and purposeful retreat. Its scorched earth policy of destruction did not endear it to the international community, but this action along with its change of strategy to target shipping of all nationalities in order to win, was a product of total war seen at this time.
The withdrawal to the stronger and shorter Hindenburg Line defensive system did mean that the German Army was far better enabled to withstand the Allied offensive when it duly arrived, and though not knowing it at the time, bought the German Army time through 1917 until the ‘Russian Revolution dividend’ that gave it the numerical advantage to mount its spring offensive the following year.
For the Australian infantry the advance brought a welcome relief from the grey mud of the Somme trenches as it progressed across the open green countryside. It also brought a chance to practice and develop the skill of open country warfare which it would come to use to great effect in 1918. After reaching its objective and lying in sight of the wire entanglements of the Hindenburg Line, the 1st Australian Division received a telegraph from General Gough sending his congratulations adding ‘Throughout the advance since the end of February the enterprise, tactical skill, and gallantry of the whole Anzac Corps has been remarkable and is deserving of the highest commendation.’
Through the advancement of the Allied front-line, the British First, Third and Fifth Armies were now in position to launch their part in the Nivelle plan, the Arras Offensive. | <urn:uuid:eec60d37-7269-485a-8ee9-292db486489d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anzac-22nd-battalion.com/bapaume-aif-divisions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.982142 | 3,540 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.47226083278656006... | 15 | With the Allied Somme offensive halted in November 1916 due to the wintry weather and the muddied, shell-torn land that the Army would need to advance over, the thoughts of the commanders on both sides were turning to 1917 and not surprisingly their strategies would shape the operations for the coming Spring. For the Allied forces on the Western Front, French Commander in Chief General Nivelle devised his great 1917 offensive which called for a major French attack at the Chemin des Dames on the Aisne supported by a separate British operation further north at Arras. To assist with the offensive General Rawlinson (Fourth Army) and Gough (Fifth Army) tasked their Corps commanders on the Somme to plan for a series of attacks when the weather improved to keep the enemy under strain. For I Anzac Corps this would involve pressing the Germans ahead of them in the Bapaume region from Flers and Gueudecourt where they had spent the winter.
However these plans had to be modified when on 24th February 1917 it was clear that the Germans were making a strategic withdrawal away from their front-line positions to a much more heavily fortified position to the rear known as the Hindenburg Line. The fighting on the Somme of the previous year had a devastating impact on both sides, but the German High Command knew that their position was vulnerable once the expected Spring offensive came so withdrawing to a stronger position and straightening the line meant that they could better man the defence of the French and Belgium territory they held with the same number of divisions. The new 100 mile line from Arras in the north to Soissons in the south being constructed in quiet surroundings and chosen for their defensive qualities would offer stronger and more comfortable shelter for the German troops in deep concrete shelters, protected by deep belts of wire entanglements. The Germans at this stage recognised that their best chance of victory on land had probably gone, but by withstanding the coming onslaught would give their naval forces through their submarine fleet, time to create a blockade of Britain causing hardship, shortage of food and eventual inability of Britain to wage further war and seek peace terms from a German position of strength. The withdrawal would also disrupt the Allied planning, therefore buying more time for building the defence and for their submarines.
This period also saw a change in the fighting conditions for the Australian infantry. The cold and frosty weather in January and February brought a welcome respite from the atrocious muddy conditions that the men had to endure in the previous months. Moreover once it was clear that German Army was in retreat, a period of cautious pursuit followed involving open country warfare and the use of new enveloping tactics as the advancing troops had to clear the stubborn German rear-guard whether in machine-gun positions and platoon sized pockets or manning the chain of outpost villages that lay before the Hindenburg Line. To the Australian troops advancing the sight ahead of comparatively green valleys with buildings and trees would have been a welcome lift after the months of the grey and mud.
The beginning of February saw the start of operations on the I Anzac Corps front when on the 1st February the 15th Battalion of the 4th Australian Division moving swiftly following a short barrage took the enemy by surprise and captured Cloudy Trench, a German salient north-east of Gueudecourt. However an insufficient defensive barrage resulted in a successful German counter-attack which forced the attackers back with a loss of 144 officers and men, of whom 42 were missing. Three days later the 13th Battalion was tasked with attacking Stormy Trench again, and in order to meet the chief danger of the German counter-attack 12,000 bombs were carried forward to the ‘jumping-off’ position, plus 1,000 rifle grenades to combat the greater range of the enemy ‘egg’ bombs. Learning from the earlier experience the field artillery was also to double its expenditure of shells. The counter attack came and desperate bombing fights ensued, followed by a swift, heavy and accurate German barrage on the supporting and bomb-carrying troops. The success of the attack on Stormy Trench was largely due to the leadership of Capt. HW Murray (photograph left, the most decorated Australian serviceman during WW1) for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross, though the operation had cost the Australians about 350 casualties including 100 missing, against the German losses of 250. By mid-February and as the I Anzac Corps transferred from the British Fourth to the Fifth Army, the small wearing down operations on the Somme were in full swing, including attacks and raids by the 1st Australian Division against Bayonet Trench and The Maze near Flers.
On the 24th February 1917 reports came in from British V Corps that the Germans had abandoned their forward trenches. I Anzac Corps along with British II Corps was ordered that night to probe and from their discoveries and prisoners taken it became apparent that the Germans had made a massive change in their strategic plans and what was being observed was the voluntary abandonment by the Germans of their great salient between Arras and Aisne. The depth of the withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line would vary between twelve miles near Bapaume to nearly thirty near Roye. In front of the line a 15 kilometre belt was laid bare of houses and trees for shelter, and the roads, railways, bridges and wells all rendered useless.
By the morning of the 28th February the villages of Thilloy, Ligny-Thilloy and Le Barque were within the 1st Australian Division’s line, which now lay in comparatively green country and a distance of some 500 – 800 yards from the German main position, Till Trench. [Click link for geo-referenced Trench map reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland]. On the right the 15th Brigade of the 5th Australian Division had cleared the enemy from Barley Trench to the German withdrawal pivot point at Le Transloy. To the west the 2nd Australian Division’s 7th Brigade made seven attacks to Malt Trench but all were bombed back with heavy loss on both sides. Fifth Army commanding officer General Gough visited the area and seeing the importance of Malt Trench gave the order for the bombardment of the German wire to begin at once and on the 2nd March three battalions of the 7th Brigade, with the 5th Brigade supporting on the right, attacked. Despite enemy bombing attacks, artillery and counter-attacks the 2nd Australian Division had established itself on the Loupart bastion and in position to create a ‘jumping off’ line for Gough’s intended assault on the next main German R.I. Line. The 1st Australian Division to the east had been digging in when came a series of counter-attacks, with the Germans penetrating behind the Australian lines. Both sides had men killed and captured, though the losses to the German attackers had been greater.
On the 5th March heavy plumes of smoke rose from the town of Bapaume indicating that the Germans would be retreating further, while British airmen could see a greatly increased amount of train movement eastwards. By the 12th March patrols from the 5th and 6th Brigades reported that German front line R1, which had recently been heavily bombarded, was empty in expectation of an attack, though the 8th Brigade to the right was meeting with resistance. The 5th and 6th Brigades were now operating in almost entirely green countryside, raising the spirits of the men, as they moved to within 300 yards of the RII line.
On the 17th March 1917, Bapaume (photograph right), the objective for the great 1916 Somme offensive, was entered. As the Allies followed the Germans rear-guards, bitterness grew not just amongst the French but also in world opinion against the excesses of the German military in destroying everything in its wake for little military advantage. For the infantry they had to be aware of booby-traps set in doorways, dugouts, and under boards, and in some cases such as the Bapaume Town Hall time delayed mines. The following day the 6th (Gellibrand) and 15th (Elliott) Brigades were selected as the force to drive forward, supported by mounted troops from the 13th Light Horse and a battery of field artillery. The columns would be advancing without the main body of troops behind them, therefore incurring increased risk as they approached the Hindenburg Line. In this new phase of open warfare the infantry progressed cautiously, uncomfortable crossing open countryside despite there being only few of the enemy around, and weighed down by their heavy packs. On the 20th March Gellibrand working on his own initiative attempted to take the village of Noreuil. The 21st and 23rd Battalions met with heavy resistance from machine guns in the surrounding villages supported by artillery. The first that Divisional HQ knew about it was when Gellibrand sent messages, including falling back. To Generals Birdwood and Smythe the unexpected news of this engagement and the casualties suffered – which was eventually found to be more than twice as Gellibrand at first believed, totalling 13 Officers and 318 other ranks – came as a shock. As a result Gellibrand never regained with Birdwood the high regard and confidence which he previously had.
With Elliott progressing faster than the rest of the front, the Germans – including a company of storm-troops – attempted to retake the village of Beaumetz but were beaten back by his 15th Brigade. This attack was evidence of Ludendorff and Hindenburg’s plan to hit back hard at the following troops, and justified Field Marshal Haig’s precautionary and cautious approach of not over exposing his advancing armies. I Anzac Corps had now reached the chain of villages that lay just before the Hindenburg Line. One such village was Lagnicourt and on the 26th March the 26th and 27th Battalions of the 7th Brigade were tasked with attacking the village, supported by the 15th Brigade on the right flank. The village was the first of this line to be taken but at a cost of 377 casualties. The Germans did not try to retake the village but heavily shelled the buildings and it was from a shell bursting in a sunken road that Capt. PH Cherry (photograph above) of the 26th Battalion, who through his good work leading from the front earlier in the day had been awarded the Victoria Cross, was killed. After the capture of Lagnicourt the 2nd Australian Division was relieved by the 4th which came into the line fresh from a month’s rest and training.
It was decided that the Fifth Army and the right of the Third should attack on the same day the string of villages that lay as outposts before the Hindenburg Line. The taking of Noreuil would fall to I Anzac Corps. The next village in the Australian sector, Lagnicourt, had already been taken, leaving the right hand column tasked with seizing Louverval and Doignies. The villages of Boursies, Demicourt and Hermies also lay in this chain but they were considered less of an objective as no serious attempt against the Hindenburg Line would be made behind them. The envelopment attack on Noreuil was undertaken by the 50th and 51st Battalions of the 13th Brigade, with the 50th attacking from the captured village of Lagnicourt. The operations were still in open country, clear of all fortifications except the wire entanglements and trenches bent around the outskirts of the villages and a sprinkling of sentry posts, frequently in the sunken roads which were common in these parts of France. The sunken roads would not only provide cover but by scooping into the sides could provide shelter, and in some locations such as at Noreuil the Germans were able to tunnel deep dugouts in the road-banks.
At 5.15am on the 2nd April the supporting barrage started to fall on the enemy positions and the two battalions advanced together. The 51st met with machine-gun fire from the left, right and the sunken Noreuil-Longatte road ahead, causing eighty men to fall before the position was taken and prisoners captured. The 50th were having difficulties as the suppressing barrage was too thin to be effective, and suffering enfilade fire from pockets of Germans behind the steep bank. During the fighting Pte J Jensen (photograph right) rushed a position and bluffed more than forty Germans to surrender, and was awarded the Victoria Cross. With the Lewis gunners firing from the hip, the battalion advanced. However by 8.45 the position was becoming precarious as the Germans were holding in strength in the gullies and Australian casualties were mounting as the Germans started to attack with bombing parties. Fighting continued all day, but by dawn when the 51st were preparing to rush the German positions they had found that they had retired during the night.
The attack by the British on the villages to the north had met with similar difficulties, but they too had succeeded. The two brigades of the British 7th Division suffered about 400 casualties, but the loss to the 13th Brigade exceeded 600, with the 50th Battalion losing 360 of which about 100 were killed and 60 taken prisoner. Further south the 55th Battalion captured Doignies with limited casualties, whereas the attack on Louverval by the 56th was more problematic and resulted in 484 casualties for the 14th Brigade, many as a result of subsequent shelling of Doignies, Louverval and Beaumetz. Only twelve prisoners were taken in this area. Thus on the left half of the Fifth Army’s front the last obstacle to Gough’s projected diversion against the Hindenburg Line had been removed, and all divisions began pushing their posts closer to the main defences which scarred the open country a mile or so ahead of them.
On 6th April the 1st Australian Division relieved the 5th and a portion of the 4th in preparation for the oncoming Arras offensive. The preliminary movement against the three remaining villages in the I Anzac Corps sector began with a movement to secure the high ground above Boursies. Two companies of the 12th and two from the 10th Battalions attacked at 3am and successfully created a small salient, though subject to bombing counter-attacks, and at a cost of 90 casualties. The main attack on the village of Boursies began at 4.45am and took place on the same day as the start of the Arras offensive, this action acting as a minor feint to the main battle taking place further north. The 10th and the 12th Battalions took the village at a cost of 341 casualties. The attack by the 1st Australian Division also included a successful attack on the village of Hermies by the 1st Brigade. Except for a few of the garrison, practically all of the Germans were either killed or taken prisoner, but at a loss of 253 officers and men for the 2nd and 3rd Battalions, of which the high proportion of 1 in 3 were killed. The 1st Battalion moved on Demicourt and occupied the village, sustaining 55 casualties. By successive local advances made at night without serious opposition, the I Anzac Corps line was over the next few nights pushed forward to within less than a mile of the Hindenburg defences.
Despite some pieces of local intelligence in the days leading up to the German withdrawal, when it came it caught the British High Command by surprise. Unsure of its motive and wary of being set a trap for a strong counter-attack it led to the cautious Field Marshal Haig to pursue his foe in a methodical fashion. Furthermore the German Divisions tasked with the rear-guard action fought a skilful and purposeful retreat. Its scorched earth policy of destruction did not endear it to the international community, but this action along with its change of strategy to target shipping of all nationalities in order to win, was a product of total war seen at this time.
The withdrawal to the stronger and shorter Hindenburg Line defensive system did mean that the German Army was far better enabled to withstand the Allied offensive when it duly arrived, and though not knowing it at the time, bought the German Army time through 1917 until the ‘Russian Revolution dividend’ that gave it the numerical advantage to mount its spring offensive the following year.
For the Australian infantry the advance brought a welcome relief from the grey mud of the Somme trenches as it progressed across the open green countryside. It also brought a chance to practice and develop the skill of open country warfare which it would come to use to great effect in 1918. After reaching its objective and lying in sight of the wire entanglements of the Hindenburg Line, the 1st Australian Division received a telegraph from General Gough sending his congratulations adding ‘Throughout the advance since the end of February the enterprise, tactical skill, and gallantry of the whole Anzac Corps has been remarkable and is deserving of the highest commendation.’
Through the advancement of the Allied front-line, the British First, Third and Fifth Armies were now in position to launch their part in the Nivelle plan, the Arras Offensive. | 3,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Interconnected Lives of Martin Luther King, Jr., Robert F. Kennedy, and Cesar Chavez
Next Year It Will Be 50 Years Since the Assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. & Robert F. Kennedy
We are approaching the appalling assassinations of two accomplished advocates, Martin Luther King, Jr. (MLK) who died April 4, 1968 and Robert F. Kennedy (RFK) who died two months later on June 6, 1968 (click here). Connecting their achievements and actions to the present, and the achievements and actions of other social reformers such as Cesar Chavez, can help present-day reformers solve social struggles and guide others who seek to be future social reformers, which is the purpose of the Hub for Social Reformers (click here).
Kennedy was born in 1925 and Chavez was born two years later in 1927. Kennedy enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1944 and received an honorable discharge two years later in 1946. Chavez enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1946 and received an honorable discharge two years later. Kennedy and Chavez were both devout Catholics.
King was born two years after Chavez in 1929. They were both committed to nonviolent resistance when it came to overcoming inequality. The teachings of Mahatma Gandhi deeply permeated their lives. Both lead peaceful marches against injustices. Many streets throughout the United States have been named, or renamed, in honor of them.
The lives of King, Kennedy, and Chavez are interwoven forever because of the civil rights movement that heightened in the 1960s in the United States.
After serving in the U.S. Navy, Chavez worked in the fields as a farmworker until he became a community organizer in 1952 for the California-based Community Service Organization, which campaigned for civil rights for Latinos. He applied what he learned to build a union for farmworkers. In 1958, he became the organization’s National Director.
Chavez continued to dedicate his life to create a movement for improving treatment, increasing pay, and advancing better working conditions for farm workers. He led strikes and marches that gained national attention in the United States.
On February 11, 1968, Chavez announced that he was fasting to rededicate the movement to nonviolence. He saw it as an act of penitence for those persons who advocated violence within the movement. He was also following the example of Gandhi.
He fasted for 25 days while only drinking water. He started to lose weight to the point that his life was in danger. Word spread through the media and soon hundreds surrounded the tiny windowless room in which he fasted each day.
A Catholic mass was celebrated each day. Finally, Chavez ended the fast during a mass with thousands of persons crowded around. One of those persons was Kennedy, who stated that he came “out of respect for one of the heroic figures of our time.”
Chavez was so weak he could not speak. A statement from him was read to the crowd, which ended with
“It is my deepest belief that only by giving our lives do we find life. The truest act of courage, the strongest act of manliness, is to sacrifice ourselves for others in a totally nonviolent struggle for justice. To be a man is to suffer for others. God help us to be men.”
Nearly two months after Chavez began his fast, King was assassinated. Two months after King was assassinated, Kennedy was assassinated. Chavez died in 1993.
To learn more about Cesar Chavez visit the Cesar Chavez Foundation web site.
Robert F. Kennedy
Kennedy and Chavez bonded because of their commitment to social justice. Two events heightened their relationship, which occurred in Delano, California. The first occurred in March, 1966. Kennedy was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare’s Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. At this time, Chavez was leading a strike against grape growers for better wages and working conditions that began six months earlier.
The subcommittee held hearings in March, which focused on amending the National Labor Relations Act to include farm workers so that they would have the basic rights of private sector employees. Kennedy’s attendance heightened media attention. Both Chavez and Kennedy were critical of local law enforcements’ treatment of farmworkers. At one point, the media focused on an exchange between Kennedy and a local sheriff, which ended with Kennedy advising the sheriff to use his lunch break to read the U.S. Constitution. Kennedy’s words and actions lifted the spirits of Chavez and the striking workers.
The second event that heightened the relationship between the two occurred two years later. Kennedy returned to Delano when Chavez was ready to break his 25-day fast. The two attended mass and had their picture taken together. The photo of the two of them sitting next to one another with Chavez offering to Kennedy a piece of the bread that he was given to him to break his fast became one of the most iconic photos of the farmworker movement.
Nearly a week later, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the U.S. Presidency. Chavez backed Kennedy. A few months later, Kennedy won the California Democratic Primary, and likely the Democratic nomination to be the party’s candidate. Chavez left the celebration a little early. Kennedy was assassinated a little later.
To learn more about Robert F. Kennedy visit the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Center web site.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
King and Chavez never met in person but were in contact with one another. In a telegram sent by King to Chavez on September 22, 1966, King viewed Chavez as a brother in the fight for equality. King wrote:
“As brothers in the fight for equality, I extend the hand of fellowship and good will and wish continuing success to you and your members. The fight for equality must be fought on many fronts—in the urban slums, in the sweat shops of the factories and fields. Our separate struggles are really one—a struggle for freedom, for dignity and for humanity. You and your valiant fellow workers have demonstrated your commitment to righting grievous wrongs forced upon exploited people. We are together with you in spirit and in determination that our dreams for a better tomorrow will be realized.”
Both of them were influenced by the nonviolence tactics to achieve social equality used by Gandhi before he was assassinated in 1948. When Chavez spoke, he often referred to the “spirit of Zapata and the tactics of Martin Luther King.”
A couple of years after King’s assassination, his spouse Coretta Scott King, visited Chavez who was sent to prison in December, 1970 for contempt of court and refusing to obey a court order to stop the boycott against Bud Antle lettuce.
Her visit came shortly after Ethel Kennedy visited Chavez in jail a couple of years after her husband’s (Robert Kennedy) assassination. Just as Ethel Kennedy marched and protested by climbing on a flatbed truck to the pleasure of other protestors, so did Coretta Scott King. After visiting Chavez in jail, she said, “I expressed to him the fact that my husband had been an example for him and to all his people.” She also met with Chavez a couple of years later during his 24-day hunger strike, which began on May 11, 1972 and was reminiscent of Robert Kennedy.
Martin Luther King holiday was first observed in January 1986. During January, 1990, Chavez celebrated the holiday by giving a speech entitled “Lessons of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. He began his speech by stating that King
“was a powerful figure of destiny, of courage, of sacrifice, and of vision. Few people in the long history of this nation can rival his accomplishment, his reason, or his selfless dedication to the cause of peace and social justice.”
In the middle of his speech, he noted that
“During my first fast in 1968, Dr. King reminded me that our struggle was his struggle too. He sent me a telegram, which said, “Our separate struggles are really one. A struggle for freedom, for dignity, and for humanity.”
and ended his speech emphasizing that
“If we fail to learn that each and every person can make a difference, then we will have betrayed Dr. King’s life’s work. The reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. had more than just a dream, he had the love and the faith to act.”
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0.0929754823... | 10 | The Interconnected Lives of Martin Luther King, Jr., Robert F. Kennedy, and Cesar Chavez
Next Year It Will Be 50 Years Since the Assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. & Robert F. Kennedy
We are approaching the appalling assassinations of two accomplished advocates, Martin Luther King, Jr. (MLK) who died April 4, 1968 and Robert F. Kennedy (RFK) who died two months later on June 6, 1968 (click here). Connecting their achievements and actions to the present, and the achievements and actions of other social reformers such as Cesar Chavez, can help present-day reformers solve social struggles and guide others who seek to be future social reformers, which is the purpose of the Hub for Social Reformers (click here).
Kennedy was born in 1925 and Chavez was born two years later in 1927. Kennedy enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1944 and received an honorable discharge two years later in 1946. Chavez enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1946 and received an honorable discharge two years later. Kennedy and Chavez were both devout Catholics.
King was born two years after Chavez in 1929. They were both committed to nonviolent resistance when it came to overcoming inequality. The teachings of Mahatma Gandhi deeply permeated their lives. Both lead peaceful marches against injustices. Many streets throughout the United States have been named, or renamed, in honor of them.
The lives of King, Kennedy, and Chavez are interwoven forever because of the civil rights movement that heightened in the 1960s in the United States.
After serving in the U.S. Navy, Chavez worked in the fields as a farmworker until he became a community organizer in 1952 for the California-based Community Service Organization, which campaigned for civil rights for Latinos. He applied what he learned to build a union for farmworkers. In 1958, he became the organization’s National Director.
Chavez continued to dedicate his life to create a movement for improving treatment, increasing pay, and advancing better working conditions for farm workers. He led strikes and marches that gained national attention in the United States.
On February 11, 1968, Chavez announced that he was fasting to rededicate the movement to nonviolence. He saw it as an act of penitence for those persons who advocated violence within the movement. He was also following the example of Gandhi.
He fasted for 25 days while only drinking water. He started to lose weight to the point that his life was in danger. Word spread through the media and soon hundreds surrounded the tiny windowless room in which he fasted each day.
A Catholic mass was celebrated each day. Finally, Chavez ended the fast during a mass with thousands of persons crowded around. One of those persons was Kennedy, who stated that he came “out of respect for one of the heroic figures of our time.”
Chavez was so weak he could not speak. A statement from him was read to the crowd, which ended with
“It is my deepest belief that only by giving our lives do we find life. The truest act of courage, the strongest act of manliness, is to sacrifice ourselves for others in a totally nonviolent struggle for justice. To be a man is to suffer for others. God help us to be men.”
Nearly two months after Chavez began his fast, King was assassinated. Two months after King was assassinated, Kennedy was assassinated. Chavez died in 1993.
To learn more about Cesar Chavez visit the Cesar Chavez Foundation web site.
Robert F. Kennedy
Kennedy and Chavez bonded because of their commitment to social justice. Two events heightened their relationship, which occurred in Delano, California. The first occurred in March, 1966. Kennedy was a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Public Welfare’s Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. At this time, Chavez was leading a strike against grape growers for better wages and working conditions that began six months earlier.
The subcommittee held hearings in March, which focused on amending the National Labor Relations Act to include farm workers so that they would have the basic rights of private sector employees. Kennedy’s attendance heightened media attention. Both Chavez and Kennedy were critical of local law enforcements’ treatment of farmworkers. At one point, the media focused on an exchange between Kennedy and a local sheriff, which ended with Kennedy advising the sheriff to use his lunch break to read the U.S. Constitution. Kennedy’s words and actions lifted the spirits of Chavez and the striking workers.
The second event that heightened the relationship between the two occurred two years later. Kennedy returned to Delano when Chavez was ready to break his 25-day fast. The two attended mass and had their picture taken together. The photo of the two of them sitting next to one another with Chavez offering to Kennedy a piece of the bread that he was given to him to break his fast became one of the most iconic photos of the farmworker movement.
Nearly a week later, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the U.S. Presidency. Chavez backed Kennedy. A few months later, Kennedy won the California Democratic Primary, and likely the Democratic nomination to be the party’s candidate. Chavez left the celebration a little early. Kennedy was assassinated a little later.
To learn more about Robert F. Kennedy visit the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Center web site.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
King and Chavez never met in person but were in contact with one another. In a telegram sent by King to Chavez on September 22, 1966, King viewed Chavez as a brother in the fight for equality. King wrote:
“As brothers in the fight for equality, I extend the hand of fellowship and good will and wish continuing success to you and your members. The fight for equality must be fought on many fronts—in the urban slums, in the sweat shops of the factories and fields. Our separate struggles are really one—a struggle for freedom, for dignity and for humanity. You and your valiant fellow workers have demonstrated your commitment to righting grievous wrongs forced upon exploited people. We are together with you in spirit and in determination that our dreams for a better tomorrow will be realized.”
Both of them were influenced by the nonviolence tactics to achieve social equality used by Gandhi before he was assassinated in 1948. When Chavez spoke, he often referred to the “spirit of Zapata and the tactics of Martin Luther King.”
A couple of years after King’s assassination, his spouse Coretta Scott King, visited Chavez who was sent to prison in December, 1970 for contempt of court and refusing to obey a court order to stop the boycott against Bud Antle lettuce.
Her visit came shortly after Ethel Kennedy visited Chavez in jail a couple of years after her husband’s (Robert Kennedy) assassination. Just as Ethel Kennedy marched and protested by climbing on a flatbed truck to the pleasure of other protestors, so did Coretta Scott King. After visiting Chavez in jail, she said, “I expressed to him the fact that my husband had been an example for him and to all his people.” She also met with Chavez a couple of years later during his 24-day hunger strike, which began on May 11, 1972 and was reminiscent of Robert Kennedy.
Martin Luther King holiday was first observed in January 1986. During January, 1990, Chavez celebrated the holiday by giving a speech entitled “Lessons of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. He began his speech by stating that King
“was a powerful figure of destiny, of courage, of sacrifice, and of vision. Few people in the long history of this nation can rival his accomplishment, his reason, or his selfless dedication to the cause of peace and social justice.”
In the middle of his speech, he noted that
“During my first fast in 1968, Dr. King reminded me that our struggle was his struggle too. He sent me a telegram, which said, “Our separate struggles are really one. A struggle for freedom, for dignity, and for humanity.”
and ended his speech emphasizing that
“If we fail to learn that each and every person can make a difference, then we will have betrayed Dr. King’s life’s work. The reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. had more than just a dream, he had the love and the faith to act.”
To learn more about Martin Luther King, Jr. visit the King Center web site. | 1,786 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Abenaki Indians, whose main village was upriver at Pequawket (now Fryeburg), once hunted and fished in the area. The first European to settle at Biddeford was physician Richard Vines in the winter of 1616-17 at Winter Harbor, as he called Biddeford Pool. This 1616 landing by a European predates the Mayflower landing in Plymouth, Massachusetts, (located 100 miles to the south) by approximately four years, a fact that is overlooked in much of New England lore.In 1630, the Plymouth Company granted the land south of the River Swanckadocke to Dr. Vines and John Oldham. In 1653, the town included both sides of the river, and was incorporated by the Massachusetts General Court as Saco.
Biddeford was first incorporated as the Town of Saco in 1653. Roger Spencer was granted the right in 1653 to build the first sawmill. Lumber and fish became the community's chief exports. In 1659, Major William Phillips of Boston became a proprietor, and constructed a garrison and millat the falls. During King Philip's War in 1675, the town was attacked by Indians. Settlers withdrew to Winter Harbor for safety, and their homes and mills upriver at the falls were burned. In 1693, a stone fort was built a short distance below the falls, but it was captured by the Indians in 1703, when 11 colonists were killed and 24 taken captive to Canada. In 1688, Fort Mary was built near the entrance to Biddeford Pool. The town was reorganized in 1718 as Biddeford, after Bideford, a town in Devon, England, from which some settlers had emigrated. After the Fall of Quebec in 1759, hostilities with the natives ceased.
In 1762, the land northeast of the river was set off as Pepperellborough, which in 1805 was renamed Saco. The first bridge to Saco was built in 1767. The river divides into two falls that drop 40 feet (12 m), providing water power for mills. Factories were established to make boots and shoes. The developing mill town also had granite quarries and brickyards, in addition to lumber and grain mills. Major textile manufacturing facilities were constructed along the riverbanks, including the Laconia Company in 1845, and the Pepperell Company in 1850. Biddeford was incorporated as a city in 1855.
The mills attracted waves of immigrants, including the Irish, Albanians, and French-Canadiansfrom the province of Quebec. At one time the textile mills employed as many as 12,000 people, but as happened elsewhere, the industry entered a long period of decline. As of 2009, the last remaining textile company in the city, WestPoint Home, closed. The property occupying the mill has been sold and is being redeveloped into housing and new businesses. The last log drivedown the Saco River was in 1943, with the last log sawn in 1948. Biddeford's name is engraved near the top level of The Pilgrim Monument, in Provincetown, Massachusetts, along with the names of some of the oldest cities and towns in New England.
During World War II the Biddeford Pool Military Reservation was established from 1942 to 1945, on what is now the Abenakee Golf Club. It had four circular concrete platforms called "Panama mounts" for 155 mm guns, three of which remain today.
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0.1322980821132... | 1 | Abenaki Indians, whose main village was upriver at Pequawket (now Fryeburg), once hunted and fished in the area. The first European to settle at Biddeford was physician Richard Vines in the winter of 1616-17 at Winter Harbor, as he called Biddeford Pool. This 1616 landing by a European predates the Mayflower landing in Plymouth, Massachusetts, (located 100 miles to the south) by approximately four years, a fact that is overlooked in much of New England lore.In 1630, the Plymouth Company granted the land south of the River Swanckadocke to Dr. Vines and John Oldham. In 1653, the town included both sides of the river, and was incorporated by the Massachusetts General Court as Saco.
Biddeford was first incorporated as the Town of Saco in 1653. Roger Spencer was granted the right in 1653 to build the first sawmill. Lumber and fish became the community's chief exports. In 1659, Major William Phillips of Boston became a proprietor, and constructed a garrison and millat the falls. During King Philip's War in 1675, the town was attacked by Indians. Settlers withdrew to Winter Harbor for safety, and their homes and mills upriver at the falls were burned. In 1693, a stone fort was built a short distance below the falls, but it was captured by the Indians in 1703, when 11 colonists were killed and 24 taken captive to Canada. In 1688, Fort Mary was built near the entrance to Biddeford Pool. The town was reorganized in 1718 as Biddeford, after Bideford, a town in Devon, England, from which some settlers had emigrated. After the Fall of Quebec in 1759, hostilities with the natives ceased.
In 1762, the land northeast of the river was set off as Pepperellborough, which in 1805 was renamed Saco. The first bridge to Saco was built in 1767. The river divides into two falls that drop 40 feet (12 m), providing water power for mills. Factories were established to make boots and shoes. The developing mill town also had granite quarries and brickyards, in addition to lumber and grain mills. Major textile manufacturing facilities were constructed along the riverbanks, including the Laconia Company in 1845, and the Pepperell Company in 1850. Biddeford was incorporated as a city in 1855.
The mills attracted waves of immigrants, including the Irish, Albanians, and French-Canadiansfrom the province of Quebec. At one time the textile mills employed as many as 12,000 people, but as happened elsewhere, the industry entered a long period of decline. As of 2009, the last remaining textile company in the city, WestPoint Home, closed. The property occupying the mill has been sold and is being redeveloped into housing and new businesses. The last log drivedown the Saco River was in 1943, with the last log sawn in 1948. Biddeford's name is engraved near the top level of The Pilgrim Monument, in Provincetown, Massachusetts, along with the names of some of the oldest cities and towns in New England.
During World War II the Biddeford Pool Military Reservation was established from 1942 to 1945, on what is now the Abenakee Golf Club. It had four circular concrete platforms called "Panama mounts" for 155 mm guns, three of which remain today.
Updated: 27th January, 2020 6:21 PM. | 831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spithridates (Greek : Σπιθριδάτης; fl. 365–334 BC) was a Persian satrap of Lydia and Ionia under the high king Darius III Codomannus. He was one of the Persian commanders at the Battle of the Granicus, in 334 BC. In this engagement, while he was aiming a blow from behind at Alexander the Great, his arm was cut off by Cleitus the Black and he subsequently died.
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning more than 3000 years of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems.
The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group that make up over half the population of Iran. They share a common cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language, as well as closely related languages.
Satraps were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with considerable autonomy; and the word also came to suggest tyranny, or ostentatious splendour.
Diodorus calls him Spithrodates, and appears to confound him with Mithridates, the son-in-law of Darius, whom Alexander slew in the battle with his own hand; while what Arrian records of Spithridates, Diodorus accounts it for his brother Rhoesaces.
Diodorus Siculus or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives, between 60 and 30 BC. It is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arabia to Greece and Europe. The second covers the Trojan War to the death of Alexander the Great. The third covers the period to about 60 BC. Bibliotheca, meaning 'library', acknowledges that he was drawing on the work of many other authors.
Mithridates or Mithradates was a Persian noble. His wife was the daughter of Darius III with the sister of Pharnaces, which makes him son-in-law of Darius. He was slain by Alexander the Great with his own hand, at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC, when he plunged his lance through Mithridates' face.
Arrian of Nicomedia was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
Spithridates was replaced by the Hellenistic satrap Asander in his territories.
Asander or Asandros was the son of Philotas and brother of Agathon. He was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, and satrap of Lydia from 334 BC as well as satrap of Caria after Alexander's death.
Cleitus (Clitus) the Black was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. He saved Alexander's life at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC and was killed by him in a drunken quarrel six years later. Cleitus was the son of Dropidas and brother of Alexander's nurse, Lanike.
Oxyathres was a brother of the Persian king Darius III Codomannus. He was distinguished for his bravery, and in the battle of Issus, 333 BC, took a prominent part in the combat in defence of the king, when attacked by the Macedonian cavalry under Alexander himself, as shown in the celebrated Alexander Mosaic found in Pompeii. He afterwards accompanied Darius on his flight into Bactria, and fell into the hands of Alexander during the pursuit, but was treated with the utmost distinction by the conqueror, who even assigned him an honourable post about his own person; and subsequently devolved upon him the task of punishing Bessus for the murder of Darius. He was the father of Amastris queen of Heraclea.
Amyntas was a Macedonian officer in Alexander the Great's army, son of Andromenes from Tymphaia. After the battle of the Granicus, 334 BC, when the garrison of Sardis was quietly surrendered to Alexander, Amyntas was the officer sent forward to receive it from the commander, Mithrenes. Two years after, 332, we again hear of him as being sent into Macedonia to collect levies, while Alexander after the siege of Gaza advanced to Egypt; and he returned with them in the ensuing year, when the king was in possession of Susa.
Satibarzanes, a Persian, was satrap of Aria under Darius III, king of Persia.
Sibyrtius was a Greek officer from Crete in the service of Alexander the Great, who was the satrap of Arachosia and Gedrosia shortly after the death of Alexander until about 303 BC.
Peucestas was a native of the town of Mieza, in Macedonia, and a distinguished officer in the service of Alexander the Great. His name is first mentioned as one of those appointed to command a trireme on the Hydaspes. Previous to this we do not find him holding any command of importance; but it is evident that he must have distinguished himself for his personal valour and prowess, as he was the person selected by Alexander to carry before him in battle the sacred shield, which he had taken down from the temple of Athena at Troy. In this capacity he was in close attendance upon the king's person in the assault on the capital city of the Malavas ; and all authors agreed in attributing the chief share in saving the life of Alexander upon that occasion to Peucestas, while they differed as to almost all the other circumstances and persons concerned.
Phrataphernes was a Persian who held the government of Parthia and Hyrcania, under the king Darius III Codomannus, and joined that monarch with the contingents from the provinces subject to his rule, shortly before the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He afterwards accompanied the king on his flight into Hyrcania.
Orontobates was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persia to succeed him. On the approach of Alexander the Great of Macedon Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. But at last, despairing of defending it, they set fire to the town, and under cover of the conflagration crossed over to Cos, whither they had previously removed their treasures. In addition to the island of Cos, Orontobates, retained control of the citadel at Salmacis, and the towns Myndus, Caunus, Thera and Callipolis together with Triopium.
Neoptolemus was a Macedonian officer who served under Alexander the Great.
Barsine was daughter of a Persian father, Artabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia and a Greek Rhodian mother, who was the sister of mercenaries Mentor of Rhodes and Memnon of Rhodes. Barsines became the wife of her uncle Mentor, and after his death married her second uncle, Memnon.
Rhoesaces was the brother of Spithridates, a satrap of Ionia and Lydia, with whom he might have held the possession of satrap. Rhoesaces served in the earlier campaigns of Artaxerxes III in Phoenicia and in Egypt where he was singled out for his 'valour and loyalty' to serve alongside allied Theban troops. He took part in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC where he was killed. According to Diodorus of Sicily, after his brother Spithridates was killed by Alexander the Great the fight between him and Rhoesaces happened like this:
Abistamenes was a governor, or satrap, of Cappadocia, or at least of its southern portions, with Ariarathes I of Cappadocia possibly governing the north. He is called Sabictas by Arrian, and was almost certainly a native Cappadocian.
Arsames was an Achaemenid Persian satrap of Cilicia in 334/3 BC. He succeeded Mazaeus in this position. He took part in the Battle of Granicus where he fought with his cavalry on the left wing, along with Arsites and Memnon of Rhodes. He was able to survive that battle and flee to the capital of Cilicia Tarsus. There he was planning a scorched-earth policy according to that of Memnon which caused the native Cilician soldiers to abandon their posts. He also decided to burn Tarsus to the ground so as not to fall in the hands of Alexander but was prevented from doing so by the speedy arrival of Parmenion with the light armored units who took the city. After that, Arsames fled to Darius who was at this time in Syria. He was slain at the battle of Issus in 333 BC.
Arsites was satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia in the 4th century BC. His satrapy also included the region of Paphlagonia.
Andronicus of Olynthus was a Macedonian nobleman and general in the 4th century BCE.
Niphates was one of the Persian generals in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC in Asia Minor. He was stationed on the Persian right during the battle formation, along with Rheomithres and Petenes, and faced the Thessalians, which according to Arrian did heavy damage to the Persians. The scarcity of the details regarding his participation is attributed to the focus of the available sources on Alexander, who fought the Lydians, Rhoesaces and Spithridates in the center. An earlier timeline, put him in a council with other Persian generals and the Persian cavalry near the city of Zeleia. Niphates was killed during the battle at Granicus.
Rheomithres was a Persian noble. He was father of Phrasaortes among other children, whom Alexander the Great appointed satrap of Persis in 330 BC. He joined in the Great Satraps' Revolt of the western Persian provinces from Artaxerxes II, in 362 BC, and was employed by his confederates to go to Tachos, pharaoh of Egypt, for aid. He came back with 500 talents and 50 warships and he is supposed to have left his wife and his children to Tachos as a guarantee for his assistance. Nevertheless, Rheomithres betrayed the rebels and he invited a number of them in a meeting. On their arrival, he arrested them, and despatched them in chains to Artaxerxes to receive the bounties, thus making his own peace at court. Rheomithres took part in the battle of the Granicus, in 334 BC, where he was in command of a body of 2,000 cavalry on the right wing, between 1,000 Medes and 2,000 Bactrians. He survived the battle and the next year he joined Darius at the battle of Issus where he lost his life.
Petenes was one of the Persian generals in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC in Asia Minor. He was killed during the cavalry engagement.
Sir William Smith was an English lexicographer. He also made advances in the teaching of Greek and Latin in schools.
The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 pages. It is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city proper covers 48 square miles (124 km2) with an estimated population of 685,094 in 2017, making it also the most populous city in New England. Boston is the seat of Suffolk County as well, although the county government was disbanded on July 1, 1999. The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area known as Greater Boston, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) home to a census-estimated 4.8 million people in 2016 and ranking as the tenth-largest such area in the country. As a combined statistical area (CSA), this wider commuting region is home to some 8.2 million people, making it the sixth-largest in the United States.
The public domain consists of all the creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable.
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0.1465053... | 1 | Spithridates (Greek : Σπιθριδάτης; fl. 365–334 BC) was a Persian satrap of Lydia and Ionia under the high king Darius III Codomannus. He was one of the Persian commanders at the Battle of the Granicus, in 334 BC. In this engagement, while he was aiming a blow from behind at Alexander the Great, his arm was cut off by Cleitus the Black and he subsequently died.
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. It has the longest documented history of any living Indo-European language, spanning more than 3000 years of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history; other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic, and many other writing systems.
The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group that make up over half the population of Iran. They share a common cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language, as well as closely related languages.
Satraps were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with considerable autonomy; and the word also came to suggest tyranny, or ostentatious splendour.
Diodorus calls him Spithrodates, and appears to confound him with Mithridates, the son-in-law of Darius, whom Alexander slew in the battle with his own hand; while what Arrian records of Spithridates, Diodorus accounts it for his brother Rhoesaces.
Diodorus Siculus or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives, between 60 and 30 BC. It is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arabia to Greece and Europe. The second covers the Trojan War to the death of Alexander the Great. The third covers the period to about 60 BC. Bibliotheca, meaning 'library', acknowledges that he was drawing on the work of many other authors.
Mithridates or Mithradates was a Persian noble. His wife was the daughter of Darius III with the sister of Pharnaces, which makes him son-in-law of Darius. He was slain by Alexander the Great with his own hand, at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC, when he plunged his lance through Mithridates' face.
Arrian of Nicomedia was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
Spithridates was replaced by the Hellenistic satrap Asander in his territories.
Asander or Asandros was the son of Philotas and brother of Agathon. He was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, and satrap of Lydia from 334 BC as well as satrap of Caria after Alexander's death.
Cleitus (Clitus) the Black was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. He saved Alexander's life at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC and was killed by him in a drunken quarrel six years later. Cleitus was the son of Dropidas and brother of Alexander's nurse, Lanike.
Oxyathres was a brother of the Persian king Darius III Codomannus. He was distinguished for his bravery, and in the battle of Issus, 333 BC, took a prominent part in the combat in defence of the king, when attacked by the Macedonian cavalry under Alexander himself, as shown in the celebrated Alexander Mosaic found in Pompeii. He afterwards accompanied Darius on his flight into Bactria, and fell into the hands of Alexander during the pursuit, but was treated with the utmost distinction by the conqueror, who even assigned him an honourable post about his own person; and subsequently devolved upon him the task of punishing Bessus for the murder of Darius. He was the father of Amastris queen of Heraclea.
Amyntas was a Macedonian officer in Alexander the Great's army, son of Andromenes from Tymphaia. After the battle of the Granicus, 334 BC, when the garrison of Sardis was quietly surrendered to Alexander, Amyntas was the officer sent forward to receive it from the commander, Mithrenes. Two years after, 332, we again hear of him as being sent into Macedonia to collect levies, while Alexander after the siege of Gaza advanced to Egypt; and he returned with them in the ensuing year, when the king was in possession of Susa.
Satibarzanes, a Persian, was satrap of Aria under Darius III, king of Persia.
Sibyrtius was a Greek officer from Crete in the service of Alexander the Great, who was the satrap of Arachosia and Gedrosia shortly after the death of Alexander until about 303 BC.
Peucestas was a native of the town of Mieza, in Macedonia, and a distinguished officer in the service of Alexander the Great. His name is first mentioned as one of those appointed to command a trireme on the Hydaspes. Previous to this we do not find him holding any command of importance; but it is evident that he must have distinguished himself for his personal valour and prowess, as he was the person selected by Alexander to carry before him in battle the sacred shield, which he had taken down from the temple of Athena at Troy. In this capacity he was in close attendance upon the king's person in the assault on the capital city of the Malavas ; and all authors agreed in attributing the chief share in saving the life of Alexander upon that occasion to Peucestas, while they differed as to almost all the other circumstances and persons concerned.
Phrataphernes was a Persian who held the government of Parthia and Hyrcania, under the king Darius III Codomannus, and joined that monarch with the contingents from the provinces subject to his rule, shortly before the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He afterwards accompanied the king on his flight into Hyrcania.
Orontobates was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persia to succeed him. On the approach of Alexander the Great of Macedon Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. But at last, despairing of defending it, they set fire to the town, and under cover of the conflagration crossed over to Cos, whither they had previously removed their treasures. In addition to the island of Cos, Orontobates, retained control of the citadel at Salmacis, and the towns Myndus, Caunus, Thera and Callipolis together with Triopium.
Neoptolemus was a Macedonian officer who served under Alexander the Great.
Barsine was daughter of a Persian father, Artabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia and a Greek Rhodian mother, who was the sister of mercenaries Mentor of Rhodes and Memnon of Rhodes. Barsines became the wife of her uncle Mentor, and after his death married her second uncle, Memnon.
Rhoesaces was the brother of Spithridates, a satrap of Ionia and Lydia, with whom he might have held the possession of satrap. Rhoesaces served in the earlier campaigns of Artaxerxes III in Phoenicia and in Egypt where he was singled out for his 'valour and loyalty' to serve alongside allied Theban troops. He took part in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC where he was killed. According to Diodorus of Sicily, after his brother Spithridates was killed by Alexander the Great the fight between him and Rhoesaces happened like this:
Abistamenes was a governor, or satrap, of Cappadocia, or at least of its southern portions, with Ariarathes I of Cappadocia possibly governing the north. He is called Sabictas by Arrian, and was almost certainly a native Cappadocian.
Arsames was an Achaemenid Persian satrap of Cilicia in 334/3 BC. He succeeded Mazaeus in this position. He took part in the Battle of Granicus where he fought with his cavalry on the left wing, along with Arsites and Memnon of Rhodes. He was able to survive that battle and flee to the capital of Cilicia Tarsus. There he was planning a scorched-earth policy according to that of Memnon which caused the native Cilician soldiers to abandon their posts. He also decided to burn Tarsus to the ground so as not to fall in the hands of Alexander but was prevented from doing so by the speedy arrival of Parmenion with the light armored units who took the city. After that, Arsames fled to Darius who was at this time in Syria. He was slain at the battle of Issus in 333 BC.
Arsites was satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia in the 4th century BC. His satrapy also included the region of Paphlagonia.
Andronicus of Olynthus was a Macedonian nobleman and general in the 4th century BCE.
Niphates was one of the Persian generals in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC in Asia Minor. He was stationed on the Persian right during the battle formation, along with Rheomithres and Petenes, and faced the Thessalians, which according to Arrian did heavy damage to the Persians. The scarcity of the details regarding his participation is attributed to the focus of the available sources on Alexander, who fought the Lydians, Rhoesaces and Spithridates in the center. An earlier timeline, put him in a council with other Persian generals and the Persian cavalry near the city of Zeleia. Niphates was killed during the battle at Granicus.
Rheomithres was a Persian noble. He was father of Phrasaortes among other children, whom Alexander the Great appointed satrap of Persis in 330 BC. He joined in the Great Satraps' Revolt of the western Persian provinces from Artaxerxes II, in 362 BC, and was employed by his confederates to go to Tachos, pharaoh of Egypt, for aid. He came back with 500 talents and 50 warships and he is supposed to have left his wife and his children to Tachos as a guarantee for his assistance. Nevertheless, Rheomithres betrayed the rebels and he invited a number of them in a meeting. On their arrival, he arrested them, and despatched them in chains to Artaxerxes to receive the bounties, thus making his own peace at court. Rheomithres took part in the battle of the Granicus, in 334 BC, where he was in command of a body of 2,000 cavalry on the right wing, between 1,000 Medes and 2,000 Bactrians. He survived the battle and the next year he joined Darius at the battle of Issus where he lost his life.
Petenes was one of the Persian generals in the battle of the Granicus in 334 BC in Asia Minor. He was killed during the cavalry engagement.
Sir William Smith was an English lexicographer. He also made advances in the teaching of Greek and Latin in schools.
The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 pages. It is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city proper covers 48 square miles (124 km2) with an estimated population of 685,094 in 2017, making it also the most populous city in New England. Boston is the seat of Suffolk County as well, although the county government was disbanded on July 1, 1999. The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area known as Greater Boston, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) home to a census-estimated 4.8 million people in 2016 and ranking as the tenth-largest such area in the country. As a combined statistical area (CSA), this wider commuting region is home to some 8.2 million people, making it the sixth-largest in the United States.
The public domain consists of all the creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable.
|This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.| | 2,899 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Chipewyan were highly mobile, with the movement and dispersal of camps and hunting groups determined by the nature and availability of resources, especially caribou. In the winter and early spring camps were located at elevated points on the forest edge in areas frequented by the caribou. In the summer, when caribou were sometimes scarce, camps were located near lakes and streams containing fish. Trade with Europeans and the establishment of European trading posts undermined the traditional pattern of mobility and gradually led to permanent clustered settlements. In the twentieth century this trend has been reinforced by government relocation programs, the establishment of schools and other services, increased commerce, and limited wage labor opportunities. The traditional dwelling was a conical structure built of a framework of wooden poles covered with sewn caribou skins. As the settlement pattern became more permanent, the traditional dwellings were replaced by canvas tents and log homes, which were still common in the 1970s. | <urn:uuid:cf005f18-101c-40c2-b552-0790dd2c31fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Chipewyan-Settlements.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.986405 | 189 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.41508027911186... | 3 | The Chipewyan were highly mobile, with the movement and dispersal of camps and hunting groups determined by the nature and availability of resources, especially caribou. In the winter and early spring camps were located at elevated points on the forest edge in areas frequented by the caribou. In the summer, when caribou were sometimes scarce, camps were located near lakes and streams containing fish. Trade with Europeans and the establishment of European trading posts undermined the traditional pattern of mobility and gradually led to permanent clustered settlements. In the twentieth century this trend has been reinforced by government relocation programs, the establishment of schools and other services, increased commerce, and limited wage labor opportunities. The traditional dwelling was a conical structure built of a framework of wooden poles covered with sewn caribou skins. As the settlement pattern became more permanent, the traditional dwellings were replaced by canvas tents and log homes, which were still common in the 1970s. | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Hamlet, in the soliloquy that starts with "O that this too too solid flesh would melt," who is Hamlet's anger aimed at why?
The anger in this soliloquy is directed mostly towards his mother, in frustration over her marriage to his uncle. Hamlet's father had died just two months earlier, and already Gertrude had remarried, to Hamlet's uncle Claudius. This occurrence is mortifying to Hamlet, incredibly depressing, and incenses him. He feels that his mother is weak, inconstant, violating his father's honor and memory, and he is angry about it. He doesn't understand how his mother could
"hang on [his father] as if increase of appetite had grown by what it fed on: and yet, within a month"
had strayed from her love and married another. She used to adore Hamlet's father, hang on him, worship and adore him. And yet, it seems like it was all a ruse, because she so quickly tranferred her affections to another.
As the son of the dead king, Hamlet is furious that his mother would dishonor his father. Her actions seem to spit on the memory of his father, tarnish his majestic reputation as a powerful king, and say a whole lot of negative things about the faithfulness of women in general. Her actions make him declare with disgust, "frailty, they name is woman!" and turn against his mother. Later, he lashes out in rage against her, and other women in his life. I hope that those thoughts helped; good luck!
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:c117348d-c73a-4e99-b85f-eddf23c813b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/soliloquy-that-starts-with-o-that-this-too-too-108121 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.994288 | 343 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.074105806... | 2 | In Hamlet, in the soliloquy that starts with "O that this too too solid flesh would melt," who is Hamlet's anger aimed at why?
The anger in this soliloquy is directed mostly towards his mother, in frustration over her marriage to his uncle. Hamlet's father had died just two months earlier, and already Gertrude had remarried, to Hamlet's uncle Claudius. This occurrence is mortifying to Hamlet, incredibly depressing, and incenses him. He feels that his mother is weak, inconstant, violating his father's honor and memory, and he is angry about it. He doesn't understand how his mother could
"hang on [his father] as if increase of appetite had grown by what it fed on: and yet, within a month"
had strayed from her love and married another. She used to adore Hamlet's father, hang on him, worship and adore him. And yet, it seems like it was all a ruse, because she so quickly tranferred her affections to another.
As the son of the dead king, Hamlet is furious that his mother would dishonor his father. Her actions seem to spit on the memory of his father, tarnish his majestic reputation as a powerful king, and say a whole lot of negative things about the faithfulness of women in general. Her actions make him declare with disgust, "frailty, they name is woman!" and turn against his mother. Later, he lashes out in rage against her, and other women in his life. I hope that those thoughts helped; good luck!
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 335 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Opinion: Blood sacrifices involving pigs, sheep or geese were practiced in Ireland well into living memory on Martinmas
"Some kind of fowl is killed...and then the blood is sprinkled in the four corners of the kitchen." That is how one collector of Irish folklore in the 1930s described the practice of sacrificing a fowl and using its blood in a ritual that occurred around St. Martin's Day. Of all the Irish customs that may or may not have been rooted in pagan origin, it is astonishing to consider that blood sacrifice was practiced in Ireland well into living memory.
St Martin’s Day occurs annually on November 11th and is also known as Martinmas. He was not an Irish saint but a revered one in Ireland and Martin was a popular Christian name in the country until recent times. The day is also celebrated throughout Europe and countries like Germany, Poland, Portugal and Spain have their own rituals and feasts to mark day.
But in Ireland the day was most notable for the blood sacrifice rituals and practises that coincided with it. Such rituals may have taken place on St. Martin's Eve (the night of November 10th) or on the saint’s feast day itself. Geographically in Ireland, the custom extended from North Connacht, down to Kerry, and across the midlands and was rarer in Ulster or on the east coast.
This blood was considered special and was saved for magical or curative purposes as it was supposed to preserve house against misfortune
In very ancient times, the chosen animal to be slaughtered was a pig. Sheep were later favoured and it was more often a fowl, such as a cock (black in colour) or a goose, by the nineteenth century it was more often a fowl, such as a cock (black in colour) or a goose. This ritual, perhaps barbaric and primitive to modern eyes and likely practiced by your rural great grandparents, is described here by Henry Morris: "the killing was a formal affair, generally done by the head of the house, and its blood was spilled in the four corners of the house inside and was sprinkled or daubed on the door posts...the daub on the door posts was not a cross. Sometimes the blood was sprinkled on the threshold also."
In Irish rural homes, these architectural boundaries were of great liminal importance and had to be protected from evil otherworldly elements and bad luck. Warm blood in some cases was smeared on foreheads. Significantly the blood was not consumed – the Irish would have been keen practitioners of the "nose to tail" cooking philosophy before it was known in the modern sense, and would have used all parts of the slaughtered animal.
This blood was considered special and was saved for magical or curative purposes as it was supposed to preserve house against misfortune. Blood from the sacrificial bird was applied to a cloth which was stored in the rafters of the house and used as a folk cure to stop bleeding. The bird or beast was then cooked and eaten by the family and, in some places, the supper was concluded by all drinking three sips of water. More prosperous farmers distributed meat to poorer members of the community so that they too could enjoy a meal on the day.
Other customs of Martinmas included that no wheels were to be turned on the day out of respect to St Martin
Where did this tradition come from and how old may it have been? In The Year in Ireland, a Calendar, Kevin Danaher noted that St Martin’s Day blood sacrifice dates at least back to 1500 in Ireland. Writing about St Martin's Eve in Béaloideas, Henry Morris found little to connect St Martin himself with blood sacrifice, concluding that "the sacrifice and blood-spilling was originally a pagan ceremony that had been observed annually about the second week of November, and was transferred under early Christian influences to St. Martin's Day".
The true meaning of the original ancient ceremony may be lost to us, but from a practical point of view, it made sense that this time of year was traditionally associated with slaughter. Having spent the summer grazing, excess animals that could not be supported by the farm throughout the winter months (as they had to be taken in and fed) were slaughtered. Cattle and pigs were usually slaughtered around this time and their meat was preserved, usually using salt. Farmers had time to spare on this as the harvest was done, and the preserved meat would be available throughout the winter period and especially for Christmas feasting.
Other customs of Martinmas included that no wheels were to be turned on the day out of respect to St Martin – some say the saint met his death by being crushed between two wheels - so spinners or millers did not work. It was also considered unlucky to yoke a horse on this day or to travel using any wheels: cart, bicycle or car.
A final mention goes to the tradition of the quills of sacrificial Martinmas geese made into pens and given to children in the belief that their use encouraged them to become better writers. It may be fanciful to speculate, but might this practise have somehow influenced and incubated the wonderful literary tradition we have here in Ireland?
The views expressed here are those of the author and do not represent or reflect the views of RTÉ | <urn:uuid:8a94e8cc-a359-48aa-9693-42d99c6628dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rte.ie/brainstorm/2019/1108/1089533-martinmas-blood-sacrifice-rites-ireland-november-11th/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.985955 | 1,077 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.49296179413... | 3 | Opinion: Blood sacrifices involving pigs, sheep or geese were practiced in Ireland well into living memory on Martinmas
"Some kind of fowl is killed...and then the blood is sprinkled in the four corners of the kitchen." That is how one collector of Irish folklore in the 1930s described the practice of sacrificing a fowl and using its blood in a ritual that occurred around St. Martin's Day. Of all the Irish customs that may or may not have been rooted in pagan origin, it is astonishing to consider that blood sacrifice was practiced in Ireland well into living memory.
St Martin’s Day occurs annually on November 11th and is also known as Martinmas. He was not an Irish saint but a revered one in Ireland and Martin was a popular Christian name in the country until recent times. The day is also celebrated throughout Europe and countries like Germany, Poland, Portugal and Spain have their own rituals and feasts to mark day.
But in Ireland the day was most notable for the blood sacrifice rituals and practises that coincided with it. Such rituals may have taken place on St. Martin's Eve (the night of November 10th) or on the saint’s feast day itself. Geographically in Ireland, the custom extended from North Connacht, down to Kerry, and across the midlands and was rarer in Ulster or on the east coast.
This blood was considered special and was saved for magical or curative purposes as it was supposed to preserve house against misfortune
In very ancient times, the chosen animal to be slaughtered was a pig. Sheep were later favoured and it was more often a fowl, such as a cock (black in colour) or a goose, by the nineteenth century it was more often a fowl, such as a cock (black in colour) or a goose. This ritual, perhaps barbaric and primitive to modern eyes and likely practiced by your rural great grandparents, is described here by Henry Morris: "the killing was a formal affair, generally done by the head of the house, and its blood was spilled in the four corners of the house inside and was sprinkled or daubed on the door posts...the daub on the door posts was not a cross. Sometimes the blood was sprinkled on the threshold also."
In Irish rural homes, these architectural boundaries were of great liminal importance and had to be protected from evil otherworldly elements and bad luck. Warm blood in some cases was smeared on foreheads. Significantly the blood was not consumed – the Irish would have been keen practitioners of the "nose to tail" cooking philosophy before it was known in the modern sense, and would have used all parts of the slaughtered animal.
This blood was considered special and was saved for magical or curative purposes as it was supposed to preserve house against misfortune. Blood from the sacrificial bird was applied to a cloth which was stored in the rafters of the house and used as a folk cure to stop bleeding. The bird or beast was then cooked and eaten by the family and, in some places, the supper was concluded by all drinking three sips of water. More prosperous farmers distributed meat to poorer members of the community so that they too could enjoy a meal on the day.
Other customs of Martinmas included that no wheels were to be turned on the day out of respect to St Martin
Where did this tradition come from and how old may it have been? In The Year in Ireland, a Calendar, Kevin Danaher noted that St Martin’s Day blood sacrifice dates at least back to 1500 in Ireland. Writing about St Martin's Eve in Béaloideas, Henry Morris found little to connect St Martin himself with blood sacrifice, concluding that "the sacrifice and blood-spilling was originally a pagan ceremony that had been observed annually about the second week of November, and was transferred under early Christian influences to St. Martin's Day".
The true meaning of the original ancient ceremony may be lost to us, but from a practical point of view, it made sense that this time of year was traditionally associated with slaughter. Having spent the summer grazing, excess animals that could not be supported by the farm throughout the winter months (as they had to be taken in and fed) were slaughtered. Cattle and pigs were usually slaughtered around this time and their meat was preserved, usually using salt. Farmers had time to spare on this as the harvest was done, and the preserved meat would be available throughout the winter period and especially for Christmas feasting.
Other customs of Martinmas included that no wheels were to be turned on the day out of respect to St Martin – some say the saint met his death by being crushed between two wheels - so spinners or millers did not work. It was also considered unlucky to yoke a horse on this day or to travel using any wheels: cart, bicycle or car.
A final mention goes to the tradition of the quills of sacrificial Martinmas geese made into pens and given to children in the belief that their use encouraged them to become better writers. It may be fanciful to speculate, but might this practise have somehow influenced and incubated the wonderful literary tradition we have here in Ireland?
The views expressed here are those of the author and do not represent or reflect the views of RTÉ | 1,079 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Confucius (born 551 BC, died 479 BC) was an important Chinese educator and philosopher. His original name was Kong Qiu or Zhong Ni. As a child, he was eager to learn about everything, and was very interested in rituals. Once he grew up, he worked as a state official who handled farms and cattle. Then he became a teacher.
Confucius lived in a time when many states were fighting wars in China. This period was called the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou Dynasty. Confucius did not like this and wanted to bring order back to society.
Like Socrates, Confucius sometimes did not answer philosophical questions himself. Instead he wanted people to think hard about problems and to learn from others, especially from history. Confucius also thought that people should get power because they were good and skilled, and not just because they came from powerful families.
Confucius wanted people to think about other people more than about money or what they owned. However he also felt that there should be strong rules in society and that people needed to obey them. Confucius thought that there were five relationships people could have, and that they all had their own rules. Two people could be
These were traditional relationships called the 'five prototypes'. Confucius said that in all these relationships, both people must obey rules. For example, a subject must obey a prince, but also a prince must listen to a subject and must rule him well and fairly.
Confucius said that people should only do things to other people if they would be okay with other people doing those things to themselves. This is sometimes called the Golden Rule and was also taught by Jesus Christ. | <urn:uuid:7ad88e81-5e83-4d24-b6e1-03dc0633a749> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.993688 | 347 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.2471636384725570... | 6 | Confucius (born 551 BC, died 479 BC) was an important Chinese educator and philosopher. His original name was Kong Qiu or Zhong Ni. As a child, he was eager to learn about everything, and was very interested in rituals. Once he grew up, he worked as a state official who handled farms and cattle. Then he became a teacher.
Confucius lived in a time when many states were fighting wars in China. This period was called the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou Dynasty. Confucius did not like this and wanted to bring order back to society.
Like Socrates, Confucius sometimes did not answer philosophical questions himself. Instead he wanted people to think hard about problems and to learn from others, especially from history. Confucius also thought that people should get power because they were good and skilled, and not just because they came from powerful families.
Confucius wanted people to think about other people more than about money or what they owned. However he also felt that there should be strong rules in society and that people needed to obey them. Confucius thought that there were five relationships people could have, and that they all had their own rules. Two people could be
These were traditional relationships called the 'five prototypes'. Confucius said that in all these relationships, both people must obey rules. For example, a subject must obey a prince, but also a prince must listen to a subject and must rule him well and fairly.
Confucius said that people should only do things to other people if they would be okay with other people doing those things to themselves. This is sometimes called the Golden Rule and was also taught by Jesus Christ. | 348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are several reasons as to why the colonies of the Chesapeake and the colonies of New England differed so greatly. The
reasons all had to do with the climates, the religions, the people, and their motives for coming to the areas in which they settled.
The climates of New England and the Chesapeake area differed greatly. This factored in and effected several different key
differences. The climate down south was more conducive to cash crops such as sugar, tobacco, and rice- while New England’s rocky and
infertile soil catered to a lifestyle that revolved around manufacturing. The north would purchase crops from the south and then use them
to manufacture goods. Then, they would sell the finished products to the south or to England. This ensured economic stability because
Britain always bought products from the colonies, and the south depended on the north for finished goods.
The climate also affected the quality and length of life. In the Chesapeake region, life expectancy was rather poor. Diseases like
malaria were not uncommon and long days working in the fields often took years off one’s life. Another problem was that when the
colonists who had come to the south arrived, most were not into the whole idea that one had to plant crops and hunt in order to
survive. They were mostly into looking for gold that didn’t even exist. So from the start, their numbers dwindled and many died over the
Because so many young men passed away, women actually had to be afforded certain rights, such as the widow’s right to inherit
her husband’s property. This was a far cry from the rights of women up north. Basically, their rights included taking care of their children
(they usually had about eight) taking care of the household, and being accused of practicing witchcraft. In New England, women just
really didn’t have that much power, mostly because men didn’t | <urn:uuid:9bb34b4e-24c4-435f-b451-d56e729fb607> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/colonial-life-dbq/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.989629 | 403 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.16770298779... | 1 | There are several reasons as to why the colonies of the Chesapeake and the colonies of New England differed so greatly. The
reasons all had to do with the climates, the religions, the people, and their motives for coming to the areas in which they settled.
The climates of New England and the Chesapeake area differed greatly. This factored in and effected several different key
differences. The climate down south was more conducive to cash crops such as sugar, tobacco, and rice- while New England’s rocky and
infertile soil catered to a lifestyle that revolved around manufacturing. The north would purchase crops from the south and then use them
to manufacture goods. Then, they would sell the finished products to the south or to England. This ensured economic stability because
Britain always bought products from the colonies, and the south depended on the north for finished goods.
The climate also affected the quality and length of life. In the Chesapeake region, life expectancy was rather poor. Diseases like
malaria were not uncommon and long days working in the fields often took years off one’s life. Another problem was that when the
colonists who had come to the south arrived, most were not into the whole idea that one had to plant crops and hunt in order to
survive. They were mostly into looking for gold that didn’t even exist. So from the start, their numbers dwindled and many died over the
Because so many young men passed away, women actually had to be afforded certain rights, such as the widow’s right to inherit
her husband’s property. This was a far cry from the rights of women up north. Basically, their rights included taking care of their children
(they usually had about eight) taking care of the household, and being accused of practicing witchcraft. In New England, women just
really didn’t have that much power, mostly because men didn’t | 388 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even though the settlers were far from their home country most felt loyalty to Britain. However, that changed as Britain tried to prevent them from thriving. Because of the British Parliament’s taxation of the colonies, the increasing British military measures imposed on them and the legacy of colonial and political ideas a Revolutionary War was bound to happen.
One of the most important issues that caused Americans to rebel in 1776 was Parliamentary taxation. The King and parliament decided to tax the American colonies because they were in debt after the French and Indian War. The colonist was angry and did not like that they had no representation in parliament and that they were being taxed by someone that was not even in the colonies. Therefore, they decided to not pay their taxes which started the phrase “Taxation without representation”. The worst of these taxes and a major reason for the revolution was the Sugar Act, the Stamp Act and the Townsend Duties. The Sugar Act of 1764 raised taxes on sugar and molasses trying to eliminate French and Spanish trade. The Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax on anything printed such as legal documents newspapers, etc. This was the first act to unite all the colonies to rebel. The Townsend Duties of 1776 were taxes on lead, paper, paint and tea. These lead to rebellions such as the Boston Tea Party.
British military measures also angered the colonist. Colonist in Boston harassed the custom commissioners to the point that British troops were placed in the city. This enraged the colonist to the point a mob of dockworkers in 1770 began throwing rocks at the guards and in the confusion the guards killed “innocent citizens”. This was known as the Boston Massacre and the colonist felt it showed that the British brutality and oppression.
The Quebec Act was passed by Parliament because the British were worried about that the French Catholics in Quebec would rebel against the Protestant Britain. The Quebec Act guaranteed the French their Catholic religion and they were able to maintain their old customs and institutions, which did not include trial by jury in civil cases or a representative assembly. The colonies were also upset because the boundaries of Quebec extended into what is now Ohio. They were afraid that the Catholic religion would spread into the colonies.
After looking further into the Parliamentary taxes, the British military measures and the legacy of colonial religious and political ideas, I feel the Parliamentary taxation is what started the Revolution and was the reason for the military measures and Acts that were created for religious and political purpose. The Parliamentary tax angered the colonists and the more they rebelled the more the British tried to gain control which caused them to rebel even more and fight for their independence. Even though they went through some very rough times it eventually led to their independence and to the country we have today. | <urn:uuid:ccce412e-c8ed-4023-ad94-da3e203f9272> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://lotusstudy.com/even-though-the-settlers-were-far-from-their-home-country-most-felt-loyalty-to-britain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00327.warc.gz | en | 0.991305 | 560 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.3988573253... | 3 | Even though the settlers were far from their home country most felt loyalty to Britain. However, that changed as Britain tried to prevent them from thriving. Because of the British Parliament’s taxation of the colonies, the increasing British military measures imposed on them and the legacy of colonial and political ideas a Revolutionary War was bound to happen.
One of the most important issues that caused Americans to rebel in 1776 was Parliamentary taxation. The King and parliament decided to tax the American colonies because they were in debt after the French and Indian War. The colonist was angry and did not like that they had no representation in parliament and that they were being taxed by someone that was not even in the colonies. Therefore, they decided to not pay their taxes which started the phrase “Taxation without representation”. The worst of these taxes and a major reason for the revolution was the Sugar Act, the Stamp Act and the Townsend Duties. The Sugar Act of 1764 raised taxes on sugar and molasses trying to eliminate French and Spanish trade. The Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax on anything printed such as legal documents newspapers, etc. This was the first act to unite all the colonies to rebel. The Townsend Duties of 1776 were taxes on lead, paper, paint and tea. These lead to rebellions such as the Boston Tea Party.
British military measures also angered the colonist. Colonist in Boston harassed the custom commissioners to the point that British troops were placed in the city. This enraged the colonist to the point a mob of dockworkers in 1770 began throwing rocks at the guards and in the confusion the guards killed “innocent citizens”. This was known as the Boston Massacre and the colonist felt it showed that the British brutality and oppression.
The Quebec Act was passed by Parliament because the British were worried about that the French Catholics in Quebec would rebel against the Protestant Britain. The Quebec Act guaranteed the French their Catholic religion and they were able to maintain their old customs and institutions, which did not include trial by jury in civil cases or a representative assembly. The colonies were also upset because the boundaries of Quebec extended into what is now Ohio. They were afraid that the Catholic religion would spread into the colonies.
After looking further into the Parliamentary taxes, the British military measures and the legacy of colonial religious and political ideas, I feel the Parliamentary taxation is what started the Revolution and was the reason for the military measures and Acts that were created for religious and political purpose. The Parliamentary tax angered the colonists and the more they rebelled the more the British tried to gain control which caused them to rebel even more and fight for their independence. Even though they went through some very rough times it eventually led to their independence and to the country we have today. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did William Shakespeare influence people of the world?
- NulfinatorLv 69 years agoFavorite Answer
William Shakespeare was the greatest playwright to work with the English Language. His influence can be broken down into two general categories:
1. In the field of language and literature Shakespeare is the giant. Many of his lines have become quotations that are still being used in common speech 400 years after his death. The plays he wrote are still being produced and interpreted. Actors are (often) still measured by their ability to perform Shakespeare's works. Two of his plays, Hamlet, and Midsummer's Night's Dream contain wonderful commentaries about theatre, and acting.
2. In the field of culture (separate from literature) Shakespeare wrote about timeless themes and situations that are still experienced today. Shakespeare was an expert on the human condition. For instance the scene between Polonius and his son, Laertes in "Hamlet" is what every father means to say to his son when he leaves for college. "Henry V" is about warfare and some of the things Shakespeare has to say are as profound today in Iran as they were in 14th century France. "King Lear" is a play about parenting. Hamlet's soliloquy "To be or not to be ..." is an argument against suicide that is still relevant. There is a drug deal in "Romeo and Juliet" that cautions about the money being more poisonous than the drugs. Racism is dealt with in both "Othello" and "Merchant of Venice".
Best of luck,
(Nulfinator on Youtube)
- Anonymous9 years ago
Through a huge body of work including sonnets, tragedies, comedies, and histories
He brought literature to the masses.Source(s): http://www.shmoop.com/shakespeare/
- 4 years ago
he addressed the people through his passion and his love for tsaliking about love he is agreat writter and everyone needs to know that | <urn:uuid:7dd01832-c030-4b7e-9227-27b895f79e87> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110111061413AAyCouR | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.981736 | 416 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.07506868988275... | 1 | How did William Shakespeare influence people of the world?
- NulfinatorLv 69 years agoFavorite Answer
William Shakespeare was the greatest playwright to work with the English Language. His influence can be broken down into two general categories:
1. In the field of language and literature Shakespeare is the giant. Many of his lines have become quotations that are still being used in common speech 400 years after his death. The plays he wrote are still being produced and interpreted. Actors are (often) still measured by their ability to perform Shakespeare's works. Two of his plays, Hamlet, and Midsummer's Night's Dream contain wonderful commentaries about theatre, and acting.
2. In the field of culture (separate from literature) Shakespeare wrote about timeless themes and situations that are still experienced today. Shakespeare was an expert on the human condition. For instance the scene between Polonius and his son, Laertes in "Hamlet" is what every father means to say to his son when he leaves for college. "Henry V" is about warfare and some of the things Shakespeare has to say are as profound today in Iran as they were in 14th century France. "King Lear" is a play about parenting. Hamlet's soliloquy "To be or not to be ..." is an argument against suicide that is still relevant. There is a drug deal in "Romeo and Juliet" that cautions about the money being more poisonous than the drugs. Racism is dealt with in both "Othello" and "Merchant of Venice".
Best of luck,
(Nulfinator on Youtube)
- Anonymous9 years ago
Through a huge body of work including sonnets, tragedies, comedies, and histories
He brought literature to the masses.Source(s): http://www.shmoop.com/shakespeare/
- 4 years ago
he addressed the people through his passion and his love for tsaliking about love he is agreat writter and everyone needs to know that | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asked in Ancient HistorySlaveryAncient Egypt
How were the slaves in ancient Egypt treated?
May 15, 2010 1:48AM
Probably depended on what kind of slave you were.
The Egyptians used slaves captured in war or bought from foreigners. Contrary to popular belief, the great pyramids were built by free, not slave, labor. The Egyptians did not use slaves in great numbers. The lands were farmed by free peasants who gave the pharaoh a portion of their crops. One historian noted that the peasants were "only a notch above nudity and starvation." All of the slaves captured in war were considered the property of pharaoh and were not sold to private citizens. Although, it is recorded that the pharaohs did give many slaves as gifts to generals or priests.
Pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Rameses II published detailed lists of the type and number of enemies captured during their campaigns into Canaan. Ahmose, a soldier under the Pharaoh Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty, in describing the fall of the Hyksos capital at Avaris reports on the walls of his tomb: "Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I carried off spoil from there: one man, three women, a total of four persons. Then his majesty gave them to me to be slaves" (see Hyksos). Slaves were also obtained throughout the Pharaonic period by expeditions into Nubia. As in other ancient cultures, there was a strong link between military aggression and slavery.
Slavery is also found in the sections of the Bible related to Egypt. Joseph is sold into slavery in Egypt, and after his time, at the beginning of Exodus, all the Hebrews of Egypt have been reduced to slave laborers. Much like the story of Joseph, there are examples of slaves rising to higher social status, even of marrying into native Egyptian families. However, there are many more exmples of slaves being worked until death in Sinai copper mines. As in many later societies, there was a wide variety of slaves: from highly valued house servants and tutors, to skilled artisans, to field laborers (Canaanite "asiatics" are often depicted at the wine press). | <urn:uuid:f87ef936-ddf2-4c52-bb6c-f10d737eaaca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.answers.com/Q/How_were_the_slaves_in_ancient_Egypt_treated | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.984645 | 458 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.079486519098... | 1 | Asked in Ancient HistorySlaveryAncient Egypt
How were the slaves in ancient Egypt treated?
May 15, 2010 1:48AM
Probably depended on what kind of slave you were.
The Egyptians used slaves captured in war or bought from foreigners. Contrary to popular belief, the great pyramids were built by free, not slave, labor. The Egyptians did not use slaves in great numbers. The lands were farmed by free peasants who gave the pharaoh a portion of their crops. One historian noted that the peasants were "only a notch above nudity and starvation." All of the slaves captured in war were considered the property of pharaoh and were not sold to private citizens. Although, it is recorded that the pharaohs did give many slaves as gifts to generals or priests.
Pharaohs such as Thutmose III and Rameses II published detailed lists of the type and number of enemies captured during their campaigns into Canaan. Ahmose, a soldier under the Pharaoh Ahmose, founder of the 18th Dynasty, in describing the fall of the Hyksos capital at Avaris reports on the walls of his tomb: "Then Avaris was despoiled. Then I carried off spoil from there: one man, three women, a total of four persons. Then his majesty gave them to me to be slaves" (see Hyksos). Slaves were also obtained throughout the Pharaonic period by expeditions into Nubia. As in other ancient cultures, there was a strong link between military aggression and slavery.
Slavery is also found in the sections of the Bible related to Egypt. Joseph is sold into slavery in Egypt, and after his time, at the beginning of Exodus, all the Hebrews of Egypt have been reduced to slave laborers. Much like the story of Joseph, there are examples of slaves rising to higher social status, even of marrying into native Egyptian families. However, there are many more exmples of slaves being worked until death in Sinai copper mines. As in many later societies, there was a wide variety of slaves: from highly valued house servants and tutors, to skilled artisans, to field laborers (Canaanite "asiatics" are often depicted at the wine press). | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were usually more camp followers than troops, with the ratio of helpers to fighters as high as ten to one. There was a lot for camp followers to do. Pack animals had to be cared for, tents pitched, water carried, wood chopped, food bought or stolen from the locals and cooked. Then everything had to be packed up for the next march. During battles, the camp followers stayed behind in the camp, often fortifying it and using a few weapons and their bare hands to defend it against any enemy troops who got that far. After the battles, camp followers tended the injured, buried the dead and plundered the enemy corpses.
While it was much more efficient to have the troops do their own housekeeping in the field, few armies were disciplined enough to pull this off. The more successful armies did, like the ancient Romans, who traveled light. When a Roman army of 10,000 showed up, there were some 8,000 fighters with it. Most other armies could produce only a few thousand warriors. Since most armies lived off the land, and this often limited the size of the army, the force that hauled along the fewest camp followers had a substantial military advantage.
This lesson eventually was relearned, and camp followers began to thin out in most Western armies. A century ago, support troops amounted to less than 15 percent of an army. But in the last century a lot more equipment has been added. Not just things like trucks, trains, transport aircraft and cargo ships that civilians could be hired to run, but weapons and other gear close to the front that needed soldiers to take care of them. Now the camp followers comprise about 85 percent of the troops. Yet everyone wears the same uniform and gets the same pay. Combat troops get a small bonus when they are in a combat zone, but that's about it. Combat officers still get most of the senior positions, but that is starting to change because of the sheer number of non-combat officers versus the warrior types.
This change has been going on for several generations and, more and more, the generals think less like fighters and more like bureaucrats. You can see the difference this makes in the way the marines and army are becoming more different. While the army still has some rough characters in its ranks, especially in ranger, airborne and special forces units, more and more soldiers were trained to be kinder and gentler. The marines were different. All marines are still considered combat troops first, and whatever non-combat chores they might do every day as secondary. More and more, the marines are seen as the troops you can trust if there's going to be a really desperate fight.
In the past, whenever bureaucrats have been appointed to run an army, disaster arrived along with the next war. Watch for it.
Finally, after thousands of years, we are putting the camp followers in uniform. This is another of those remarkable, and largely unnoticed, 20th century military developments. Camp followers usually are thought of as loose women following an army to service the troops. There was always some of that, still is, but historically camp followers have largely been male and mainly there to do the housekeeping and keep the troops alive in the field. Battles have always been relatively rare, but the health hazards of camping out with thousands of men and horses are constant and abundant. The troops knew this, and until the last few centuries, most soldiers were volunteers of one sort or another and few generals could get their lads to rough it without a lot of camp followers to keep everyone in good health. | <urn:uuid:d4e33b87-f112-447e-b39b-6787ea72592f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htlead/articles/19991003.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.982991 | 723 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.215900629758... | 5 | There were usually more camp followers than troops, with the ratio of helpers to fighters as high as ten to one. There was a lot for camp followers to do. Pack animals had to be cared for, tents pitched, water carried, wood chopped, food bought or stolen from the locals and cooked. Then everything had to be packed up for the next march. During battles, the camp followers stayed behind in the camp, often fortifying it and using a few weapons and their bare hands to defend it against any enemy troops who got that far. After the battles, camp followers tended the injured, buried the dead and plundered the enemy corpses.
While it was much more efficient to have the troops do their own housekeeping in the field, few armies were disciplined enough to pull this off. The more successful armies did, like the ancient Romans, who traveled light. When a Roman army of 10,000 showed up, there were some 8,000 fighters with it. Most other armies could produce only a few thousand warriors. Since most armies lived off the land, and this often limited the size of the army, the force that hauled along the fewest camp followers had a substantial military advantage.
This lesson eventually was relearned, and camp followers began to thin out in most Western armies. A century ago, support troops amounted to less than 15 percent of an army. But in the last century a lot more equipment has been added. Not just things like trucks, trains, transport aircraft and cargo ships that civilians could be hired to run, but weapons and other gear close to the front that needed soldiers to take care of them. Now the camp followers comprise about 85 percent of the troops. Yet everyone wears the same uniform and gets the same pay. Combat troops get a small bonus when they are in a combat zone, but that's about it. Combat officers still get most of the senior positions, but that is starting to change because of the sheer number of non-combat officers versus the warrior types.
This change has been going on for several generations and, more and more, the generals think less like fighters and more like bureaucrats. You can see the difference this makes in the way the marines and army are becoming more different. While the army still has some rough characters in its ranks, especially in ranger, airborne and special forces units, more and more soldiers were trained to be kinder and gentler. The marines were different. All marines are still considered combat troops first, and whatever non-combat chores they might do every day as secondary. More and more, the marines are seen as the troops you can trust if there's going to be a really desperate fight.
In the past, whenever bureaucrats have been appointed to run an army, disaster arrived along with the next war. Watch for it.
Finally, after thousands of years, we are putting the camp followers in uniform. This is another of those remarkable, and largely unnoticed, 20th century military developments. Camp followers usually are thought of as loose women following an army to service the troops. There was always some of that, still is, but historically camp followers have largely been male and mainly there to do the housekeeping and keep the troops alive in the field. Battles have always been relatively rare, but the health hazards of camping out with thousands of men and horses are constant and abundant. The troops knew this, and until the last few centuries, most soldiers were volunteers of one sort or another and few generals could get their lads to rough it without a lot of camp followers to keep everyone in good health. | 735 | ENGLISH | 1 |
10 Radiant Facts About Marie Curie
Born Maria Salomea Skłodowska in Poland in 1867, Marie Curie grew up to become one of the most noteworthy scientists of all time. Her long list of accolades is proof of her far-reaching influence, but not every stride she made in the fields of chemistry, physics, and medicine was recognized with an award. Here are some facts you might not know about the iconic researcher.
1. Marie Curie's parents were teachers.
Maria Skłodowska was the fifth and youngest child of two Polish educators. Her parents placed a high value on learning and insisted that all their children—including their daughters—receive a quality education at home and at school. Maria received extra science training from her father, and when she graduated from high school at age 15, she was first in her class.
2. Marie Curie had to seek out alternative education for women.
After collecting her high school diploma, Maria had hoped to study at the University of Warsaw with her sister, Bronia. Because the school didn't accept women, the siblings instead enrolled at the Flying University, a Polish college that welcomed female students. It was still illegal for women to receive higher education at the time so the institution was constantly changing locations to avoid detection from authorities. In 1891 Maria moved to Paris to live with her sister, where she enrolled at the Sorbonne to continue her education.
3. Marie Curie is the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two separate sciences.
In 1903, Marie Curie made history when she won the Nobel Prize in physics with her husband, Pierre, and with physicist Henri Becquerel for their work on radioactivity, making her the first woman to receive the honor. The second Nobel Prize she took home in 1911 was even more historic: With that win in the chemistry category, she became the first person to win the award twice. And she remains the only person to ever receive Nobel Prizes for two different sciences.
4. Marie Curie added two elements to the Periodic Table.
The second Nobel Prize Marie Curie received recognized her discovery and research of two elements: radium and polonium. The former element was named for the Latin word for ray and the latter was a nod to her home country, Poland.
5. Nobel Prize-winning ran in Marie Curie's family.
When Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre, won their Nobel Prize in 1903, their daughter Irène was only 6 years old. She would grow up to follow in her parents' footsteps by jointly winning the Nobel Prize for chemistry with her husband, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, in 1935. They were recognized for their discovery of "artificial" radioactivity, a breakthrough made possible by Irène's parents years earlier. Marie and Pierre's other son-in-law, Henry Labouisse, who married their younger daughter, Ève Curie, accepted a Nobel Prize for Peace on behalf of UNICEF, of which he was the executive director, in 1965. This brought the family's total up to five.
6. Marie Curie did her most important work in a shed.
The research that won Marie Curie her first Nobel Prize required hours of physical labor. In order to prove they had discovered new elements, she and her husband had to produce numerous examples of them by breaking down ore into its chemical components. Their regular labs weren't big enough to accommodate the process, so they moved their work into an old shed behind the school where Pierre worked. According to Curie, the space was a hothouse in the summer and drafty in the winter, with a glass roof that didn't fully protect them from the rain. After the famed German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald visited the Curies' shed to see the place where radium was discovered, he described it as being "a cross between a stable and a potato shed, and if I had not seen the worktable and items of chemical apparatus, I would have thought that I was been played a practical joke."
7. Marie Curie's notebooks are still radioactive.
When Marie Curie was performing her most important research on radiation in the early 20th century, she had no idea of the effects it would have on her health. It wasn't unusual for her to walk around her lab with bottles of polonium and radium in her pockets. She even described storing the radioactive material out in the open in her autobiography. "One of our joys was to go into our workroom at night; we then perceived on all sides the feebly luminous silhouettes of the bottles of capsules containing our products […] The glowing tubes looked like faint, fairy lights."
It's no surprise then that Marie Curie died of aplastic anemia, likely caused by prolonged exposure to radiation, in 1934. Even her notebooks are still radioactive a century later. Today they're stored in lead-lined boxes, and will likely remain radioactive for another 1500 years.
8. Marie Curie offered to donate her medals to the war effort.
Marie Curie had only been a double-Nobel Laureate for a few years when she considered parting ways with her medals. At the start of World War I, France put out a call for gold to fund the war effort, so Curie offered to have her two medals melted down. When bank officials refused to accept them, she settled for donating her prize money to purchase war bonds.
9. Marie Curie developed a portable X-ray to treat soldiers.
Marie's desire to help her adopted country fight the new war didn't end there. After making the donation, she developed an interest in x-rays—not a far jump from her previous work with radium—and it didn't take her long to realize that the emerging technology could be used to aid soldiers on the battlefield. Curie convinced the French government to name her Director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and persuaded her wealthy friends to fund her idea for a mobile x-ray machine. She learned to drive and operate the vehicle herself and treated wounded soldiers at the Battle of the Marne, ignoring protests from skeptical military doctors. Her invention was proven effective at saving lives, and ultimately 20 "petite Curies," as the x-ray machines were called, were built for the war.
10. Marie Curie founded centers for medical research.
Following World War I, Marie Curie embarked on a different fundraising mission, this time with the goal of supporting her research centers in Paris and Warsaw. Curie's radium institutes were the site of important work, like the discovery of a new element, francium, by Marguerite Perey, and the development of artificial radioactivity by Irène and Frederic Joliot-Curie. The centers, now known as Institut Curie, are still used as spaces for vital cancer treatment research today. | <urn:uuid:28e785f1-fc09-4365-8221-d47efb70b93e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/537552/facts-about-marie-curie | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.980247 | 1,427 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.35351425409317... | 9 | 10 Radiant Facts About Marie Curie
Born Maria Salomea Skłodowska in Poland in 1867, Marie Curie grew up to become one of the most noteworthy scientists of all time. Her long list of accolades is proof of her far-reaching influence, but not every stride she made in the fields of chemistry, physics, and medicine was recognized with an award. Here are some facts you might not know about the iconic researcher.
1. Marie Curie's parents were teachers.
Maria Skłodowska was the fifth and youngest child of two Polish educators. Her parents placed a high value on learning and insisted that all their children—including their daughters—receive a quality education at home and at school. Maria received extra science training from her father, and when she graduated from high school at age 15, she was first in her class.
2. Marie Curie had to seek out alternative education for women.
After collecting her high school diploma, Maria had hoped to study at the University of Warsaw with her sister, Bronia. Because the school didn't accept women, the siblings instead enrolled at the Flying University, a Polish college that welcomed female students. It was still illegal for women to receive higher education at the time so the institution was constantly changing locations to avoid detection from authorities. In 1891 Maria moved to Paris to live with her sister, where she enrolled at the Sorbonne to continue her education.
3. Marie Curie is the only person to win Nobel Prizes in two separate sciences.
In 1903, Marie Curie made history when she won the Nobel Prize in physics with her husband, Pierre, and with physicist Henri Becquerel for their work on radioactivity, making her the first woman to receive the honor. The second Nobel Prize she took home in 1911 was even more historic: With that win in the chemistry category, she became the first person to win the award twice. And she remains the only person to ever receive Nobel Prizes for two different sciences.
4. Marie Curie added two elements to the Periodic Table.
The second Nobel Prize Marie Curie received recognized her discovery and research of two elements: radium and polonium. The former element was named for the Latin word for ray and the latter was a nod to her home country, Poland.
5. Nobel Prize-winning ran in Marie Curie's family.
When Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre, won their Nobel Prize in 1903, their daughter Irène was only 6 years old. She would grow up to follow in her parents' footsteps by jointly winning the Nobel Prize for chemistry with her husband, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, in 1935. They were recognized for their discovery of "artificial" radioactivity, a breakthrough made possible by Irène's parents years earlier. Marie and Pierre's other son-in-law, Henry Labouisse, who married their younger daughter, Ève Curie, accepted a Nobel Prize for Peace on behalf of UNICEF, of which he was the executive director, in 1965. This brought the family's total up to five.
6. Marie Curie did her most important work in a shed.
The research that won Marie Curie her first Nobel Prize required hours of physical labor. In order to prove they had discovered new elements, she and her husband had to produce numerous examples of them by breaking down ore into its chemical components. Their regular labs weren't big enough to accommodate the process, so they moved their work into an old shed behind the school where Pierre worked. According to Curie, the space was a hothouse in the summer and drafty in the winter, with a glass roof that didn't fully protect them from the rain. After the famed German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald visited the Curies' shed to see the place where radium was discovered, he described it as being "a cross between a stable and a potato shed, and if I had not seen the worktable and items of chemical apparatus, I would have thought that I was been played a practical joke."
7. Marie Curie's notebooks are still radioactive.
When Marie Curie was performing her most important research on radiation in the early 20th century, she had no idea of the effects it would have on her health. It wasn't unusual for her to walk around her lab with bottles of polonium and radium in her pockets. She even described storing the radioactive material out in the open in her autobiography. "One of our joys was to go into our workroom at night; we then perceived on all sides the feebly luminous silhouettes of the bottles of capsules containing our products […] The glowing tubes looked like faint, fairy lights."
It's no surprise then that Marie Curie died of aplastic anemia, likely caused by prolonged exposure to radiation, in 1934. Even her notebooks are still radioactive a century later. Today they're stored in lead-lined boxes, and will likely remain radioactive for another 1500 years.
8. Marie Curie offered to donate her medals to the war effort.
Marie Curie had only been a double-Nobel Laureate for a few years when she considered parting ways with her medals. At the start of World War I, France put out a call for gold to fund the war effort, so Curie offered to have her two medals melted down. When bank officials refused to accept them, she settled for donating her prize money to purchase war bonds.
9. Marie Curie developed a portable X-ray to treat soldiers.
Marie's desire to help her adopted country fight the new war didn't end there. After making the donation, she developed an interest in x-rays—not a far jump from her previous work with radium—and it didn't take her long to realize that the emerging technology could be used to aid soldiers on the battlefield. Curie convinced the French government to name her Director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and persuaded her wealthy friends to fund her idea for a mobile x-ray machine. She learned to drive and operate the vehicle herself and treated wounded soldiers at the Battle of the Marne, ignoring protests from skeptical military doctors. Her invention was proven effective at saving lives, and ultimately 20 "petite Curies," as the x-ray machines were called, were built for the war.
10. Marie Curie founded centers for medical research.
Following World War I, Marie Curie embarked on a different fundraising mission, this time with the goal of supporting her research centers in Paris and Warsaw. Curie's radium institutes were the site of important work, like the discovery of a new element, francium, by Marguerite Perey, and the development of artificial radioactivity by Irène and Frederic Joliot-Curie. The centers, now known as Institut Curie, are still used as spaces for vital cancer treatment research today. | 1,429 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Henry Bragg Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
William Henry Bragg was born in Wigton,Cumbria, England in July 2, 1862. He was a British scientist. In 1915, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with his son, Bragg. They won the prize for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays. He was also a mathematician and a sportsman.
William Henry Bragg was born on July 2, 1862, in Wigton, England. He was born to Robert John Bragg who was a farmer and a merchant marine officer and Mary Wood. At the age of seven, his mother died, and so he was raised by his uncle, William Bragg. He later moved to Leicestershire where his uncle lived. He attended Sch Old Grammar. He also attended King William’s Colleg in the Isle of Man. In 1881, he won a scholarship and joined Trinity College, the University of Cambridge where he studied mathematics. He studied mathematics under Dr. E. J. Routh. In 1884, he graduated as a third wrangler. The following year he received a first class honors in the mathematical tripos.
In 1885, after he graduated college, he became the elder professor of mathematics and experimental physics at the University of Adelaide. His interest in physics developed upon the discovery of the X-ray by Wilhelm Rontgen. He also became friends with Ernest Rutherford who further motivated him to venture into the field of physics. In 1896, he made a presentation at a gathering of doctors stating that X-rays could be used into use in order to reveal the structures that were otherwise invisible. In 1904, he delivered another presentation for the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science in New Zealand. The presentation was on the theory of ionization of gases.
He also presented on research he was conducting on the subject of bore fruit. His efforts led to a Fellowship from the Royal Society of London. The same year also saw him publish papers in relation to Alpha Rays and Ionization Curves of Radium. While he was in Australia, he also portrayed his sportsmanship by playing golf, lawn tennis, chess, and lacrosse. He co-founded the North Adelaide Lacrosse Club and the Adelaide University Lacrosse Club.
In 1908, he returned to England. In 1909, he was appointed the Cavendish professor of Physics at the University of Leeds. He invented the X-ray Spectrometer while at the university. He also collaborated with his son, Bragg to come up with a new branch of study called X-ray Crystallography. In 1914, he assisted in World War I by detecting submarines. In 1918, he was appointed as advisor of the Admiralty. In 1915, he became a Quain professor at the University College in London. In 1923, he was appointed the Fullerian professor in the field of chemistry by the Royal Institution. He also became the director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory.
Awards And Achievements
In 1907, he became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1915, he won the Nobel Prize in physic jointly with his son, Bragg for their research in relation to crystal analysis. The same year saw him win the Barnard Medal and the MedaMatteucci l. The following year he received the Rumford Medal. In 1917, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1930, he received the Copley Medal.
In 1889, he married Gwendoline Todd with whom he had three children, Lawrence, William Robert and Gwendolen. He passed away on March 10, 1942, in London. He died at the age of seventy-nine. The reasons that led to his death are not known to date.
Luis Walter Alvarez
Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
Willis Eugene Lamb Jr.
Aage Niels Bohr | <urn:uuid:7ef1c608-ca2f-4e6c-8451-38b46870505f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/william-henry-bragg/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.987186 | 806 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.478509217500... | 1 | William Henry Bragg Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
William Henry Bragg was born in Wigton,Cumbria, England in July 2, 1862. He was a British scientist. In 1915, he won the Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with his son, Bragg. They won the prize for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays. He was also a mathematician and a sportsman.
William Henry Bragg was born on July 2, 1862, in Wigton, England. He was born to Robert John Bragg who was a farmer and a merchant marine officer and Mary Wood. At the age of seven, his mother died, and so he was raised by his uncle, William Bragg. He later moved to Leicestershire where his uncle lived. He attended Sch Old Grammar. He also attended King William’s Colleg in the Isle of Man. In 1881, he won a scholarship and joined Trinity College, the University of Cambridge where he studied mathematics. He studied mathematics under Dr. E. J. Routh. In 1884, he graduated as a third wrangler. The following year he received a first class honors in the mathematical tripos.
In 1885, after he graduated college, he became the elder professor of mathematics and experimental physics at the University of Adelaide. His interest in physics developed upon the discovery of the X-ray by Wilhelm Rontgen. He also became friends with Ernest Rutherford who further motivated him to venture into the field of physics. In 1896, he made a presentation at a gathering of doctors stating that X-rays could be used into use in order to reveal the structures that were otherwise invisible. In 1904, he delivered another presentation for the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science in New Zealand. The presentation was on the theory of ionization of gases.
He also presented on research he was conducting on the subject of bore fruit. His efforts led to a Fellowship from the Royal Society of London. The same year also saw him publish papers in relation to Alpha Rays and Ionization Curves of Radium. While he was in Australia, he also portrayed his sportsmanship by playing golf, lawn tennis, chess, and lacrosse. He co-founded the North Adelaide Lacrosse Club and the Adelaide University Lacrosse Club.
In 1908, he returned to England. In 1909, he was appointed the Cavendish professor of Physics at the University of Leeds. He invented the X-ray Spectrometer while at the university. He also collaborated with his son, Bragg to come up with a new branch of study called X-ray Crystallography. In 1914, he assisted in World War I by detecting submarines. In 1918, he was appointed as advisor of the Admiralty. In 1915, he became a Quain professor at the University College in London. In 1923, he was appointed the Fullerian professor in the field of chemistry by the Royal Institution. He also became the director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory.
Awards And Achievements
In 1907, he became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1915, he won the Nobel Prize in physic jointly with his son, Bragg for their research in relation to crystal analysis. The same year saw him win the Barnard Medal and the MedaMatteucci l. The following year he received the Rumford Medal. In 1917, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1930, he received the Copley Medal.
In 1889, he married Gwendoline Todd with whom he had three children, Lawrence, William Robert and Gwendolen. He passed away on March 10, 1942, in London. He died at the age of seventy-nine. The reasons that led to his death are not known to date.
Luis Walter Alvarez
Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
Willis Eugene Lamb Jr.
Aage Niels Bohr | 869 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
The city of Vienna has kind of an odd but prominent place in Ottoman history. It was never part of the Ottoman Empire, but two Ottoman attempts to conquer it bookend the period of the empire’s greatest territorial reach and military power. We’ve looked at the second of those attempts, the 1683 Battle of Vienna that really serves as the empire’s high water mark, and today is the anniversary of the end of the first, the 1529 Siege of Vienna. While it, too, failed, its failure didn’t signal a decline in Ottoman power so much as it defined the empire’s territorial limits and led to a period of relative stasis in eastern and central Europe. It was also the first battle of the centuries-long rivalry between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, a rivalry that defined much of European history.
Although Vienna is of course in Austria, the campaign that led to the siege actually focused on Hungary. At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Ottomans defeated the Hungarian army under King Louis II, and Louis was killed. This put southern Hungary in Ottoman hands, but also left the throne of Hungary empty, as Louis had no children. Into that vacuum stepped Ferdinand I (d. 1564), the Habsburg Archduke of Austria and the brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (Ferdinand would later become Holy Roman Emperor himself, but we’re not worried about that here). Ferdinand was married to Louis’ sister, and through that relationship he staked his claim to the throne. He was challenged on this point by a Transylvanian noble named John Zápolya, whose claim was supported by the Ottomans and who established what was known as “Ottoman Hungary,” a partition that survived until the Ottomans were forced to give it up in the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz (which ended the war that included that 1683 Battle of Vienna, just to bring everything full circle).
Map of Habsburg territories as of 1547, which should give you some geographic sense of what we’re dealing with here (Wikimedia Commons)
In 1529, the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I (AKA Suleyman the Lawgiver or Suleyman the Magnificent—he was a very popular guy) decided to put an end to Ferdinand’s business in Hungary. He formed an army that may have been as large as 125,000 men (some sources go as high as 300,000, but that seems unlikely). This army, setting out in May, rolled back Ferdinand’s gains in Hungary so easily that Suleyman then decided to strike at the archduke’s own capital, Vienna. The Ottomans specialized in heavy artillery and siege warfare, so they were fully prepared to breach Vienna’s walls and take the city.
You can imagine that most of the rest of Europe (outside of maybe France, which hated the Habsburgs so much that it would actually form an alliance with the Ottomans in 1536) was pretty nervous about what was unfolding here. Vienna was the westernmost major city on the Danube; if the Ottomans took it, the door to central Europe was wide open for them. From there, they could move north to pick off the various German states, south over the Alps toward Rome, west into France and Spain, or even back east into Poland and Russia (which they could theoretically have attacked from two directions at that point). Fortunately for the Europeans, the Ottoman army was beaten, not so much by force of arms as by the weather.
The Balkans were drenched in rain in the spring of 1529, which created enormous (and, as we now know, insurmountable) problems for the Ottoman army. Specifically, it couldn’t move its heaviest and most siege-worthy guns through the mud, so it had to simply abandon them along the way. The camels that the Ottomans had brought along as pack animals died in droves in the inhospitable climate. And the Ottoman soldiers themselves suffered from illness and from the general sour disposition that would hit anybody who gets tired of marching around in the mud and being rained on all day long. The slowness of the Ottoman march also allowed the city, under the command of the 70 year old Nicholas, Count of Salm (who had been hired by Ferdinand to come and lead the defense), to make substantial defensive improvements and to stockpile supplies to withstand a siege, despite being at a considerable numerical disadvantage (they had somewhere in the neighborhood of 20,000 defenders). Nicholas, by the way, would die of injuries sustained during the siege, but he certainly did what Ferdinand had hired him to do.
The Ottomans laid siege to Vienna beginning on September 27, but where the army that had set out in May would have been a real threat to take the city, the army that arrived before its walls in late September really was not. With his best artillery rotting in the mud along his line of march, Suleyman tried sending sappers to dig under the walls and mine them, but the Austrian defenders were able to dispose of the mines and eventually to close off the Ottoman tunnels. The Ottomans began running short on supplies and the Janissaries (who were really tired of being sick and getting rained on) started to complain that things were going nowhere and it was time to head home. Suleyman decided to order one all-out assault on the city, but with the walls still intact there was no chance that it would succeed. Stymied, the emperor elected to retreat and try again at a later time. He did try again, in 1532, but the campaign never reached Vienna—it turned around when word came that Charles V was already leading a large relief army toward the city. As we now know, that “later time” didn’t really come until over 150 years later, and it went very badly for the Ottomans.
The Siege of Vienna was a setback for the Ottomans insofar as it halted their advance into central Europe, but it didn’t really do any lasting damage to the empire. In fact, the overall campaign really succeeded, since it did accomplish its initial goal of driving Ferdinand out of Ottoman-controlled Hungary. The Ottoman inability to take Vienna could reasonably be chalked up to a fluke of weather. There is a common narrative that says that this siege was the beginning of Ottoman decline, but it doesn’t hold up very well because there’s really no evidence of any “decline” for quite some time afterward. The empire remained wealthy and militarily dominant (both in Europe and in the Middle East) for decades to come. In fact, it continued to expand—just not any deeper into mainland Europe. Between this siege and the Ottomans’ second attempt in 1683, the empire had brought under its control almost all of North Africa, all of modern Iraq, much of the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the island of Crete.
Ottoman expansion through the 16th century
However, with the benefit of hindsight we can say that the successful defense of Vienna may well have saved Christian Europe. If the Ottomans had been able to take Vienna and turn it into their new regional base of operations, their territorial limits would have been completely redefined. Vienna stopped the Ottoman advance and gave the Habsburgs and other European principalities time to build the kind of military capacity that would eventually begin to not just ward the Ottomans off, but to really roll back their previous gains. It also caused the Ottomans to refocus their attention on controlling the Mediterranean, which proved to be harder than it looked. A history where the Ottomans captured Vienna would very likely have been a much different history than the one we actually experienced, and we can chalk it all up to the city’s defenders and, even more, to a rainier-than-usual Balkan spring. | <urn:uuid:c3552e6e-7001-4595-bb8f-fc966ae7ed13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-european-history-the-siege-ee5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.984863 | 1,698 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3685927391052246,... | 2 | Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
The city of Vienna has kind of an odd but prominent place in Ottoman history. It was never part of the Ottoman Empire, but two Ottoman attempts to conquer it bookend the period of the empire’s greatest territorial reach and military power. We’ve looked at the second of those attempts, the 1683 Battle of Vienna that really serves as the empire’s high water mark, and today is the anniversary of the end of the first, the 1529 Siege of Vienna. While it, too, failed, its failure didn’t signal a decline in Ottoman power so much as it defined the empire’s territorial limits and led to a period of relative stasis in eastern and central Europe. It was also the first battle of the centuries-long rivalry between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, a rivalry that defined much of European history.
Although Vienna is of course in Austria, the campaign that led to the siege actually focused on Hungary. At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Ottomans defeated the Hungarian army under King Louis II, and Louis was killed. This put southern Hungary in Ottoman hands, but also left the throne of Hungary empty, as Louis had no children. Into that vacuum stepped Ferdinand I (d. 1564), the Habsburg Archduke of Austria and the brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (Ferdinand would later become Holy Roman Emperor himself, but we’re not worried about that here). Ferdinand was married to Louis’ sister, and through that relationship he staked his claim to the throne. He was challenged on this point by a Transylvanian noble named John Zápolya, whose claim was supported by the Ottomans and who established what was known as “Ottoman Hungary,” a partition that survived until the Ottomans were forced to give it up in the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz (which ended the war that included that 1683 Battle of Vienna, just to bring everything full circle).
Map of Habsburg territories as of 1547, which should give you some geographic sense of what we’re dealing with here (Wikimedia Commons)
In 1529, the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman I (AKA Suleyman the Lawgiver or Suleyman the Magnificent—he was a very popular guy) decided to put an end to Ferdinand’s business in Hungary. He formed an army that may have been as large as 125,000 men (some sources go as high as 300,000, but that seems unlikely). This army, setting out in May, rolled back Ferdinand’s gains in Hungary so easily that Suleyman then decided to strike at the archduke’s own capital, Vienna. The Ottomans specialized in heavy artillery and siege warfare, so they were fully prepared to breach Vienna’s walls and take the city.
You can imagine that most of the rest of Europe (outside of maybe France, which hated the Habsburgs so much that it would actually form an alliance with the Ottomans in 1536) was pretty nervous about what was unfolding here. Vienna was the westernmost major city on the Danube; if the Ottomans took it, the door to central Europe was wide open for them. From there, they could move north to pick off the various German states, south over the Alps toward Rome, west into France and Spain, or even back east into Poland and Russia (which they could theoretically have attacked from two directions at that point). Fortunately for the Europeans, the Ottoman army was beaten, not so much by force of arms as by the weather.
The Balkans were drenched in rain in the spring of 1529, which created enormous (and, as we now know, insurmountable) problems for the Ottoman army. Specifically, it couldn’t move its heaviest and most siege-worthy guns through the mud, so it had to simply abandon them along the way. The camels that the Ottomans had brought along as pack animals died in droves in the inhospitable climate. And the Ottoman soldiers themselves suffered from illness and from the general sour disposition that would hit anybody who gets tired of marching around in the mud and being rained on all day long. The slowness of the Ottoman march also allowed the city, under the command of the 70 year old Nicholas, Count of Salm (who had been hired by Ferdinand to come and lead the defense), to make substantial defensive improvements and to stockpile supplies to withstand a siege, despite being at a considerable numerical disadvantage (they had somewhere in the neighborhood of 20,000 defenders). Nicholas, by the way, would die of injuries sustained during the siege, but he certainly did what Ferdinand had hired him to do.
The Ottomans laid siege to Vienna beginning on September 27, but where the army that had set out in May would have been a real threat to take the city, the army that arrived before its walls in late September really was not. With his best artillery rotting in the mud along his line of march, Suleyman tried sending sappers to dig under the walls and mine them, but the Austrian defenders were able to dispose of the mines and eventually to close off the Ottoman tunnels. The Ottomans began running short on supplies and the Janissaries (who were really tired of being sick and getting rained on) started to complain that things were going nowhere and it was time to head home. Suleyman decided to order one all-out assault on the city, but with the walls still intact there was no chance that it would succeed. Stymied, the emperor elected to retreat and try again at a later time. He did try again, in 1532, but the campaign never reached Vienna—it turned around when word came that Charles V was already leading a large relief army toward the city. As we now know, that “later time” didn’t really come until over 150 years later, and it went very badly for the Ottomans.
The Siege of Vienna was a setback for the Ottomans insofar as it halted their advance into central Europe, but it didn’t really do any lasting damage to the empire. In fact, the overall campaign really succeeded, since it did accomplish its initial goal of driving Ferdinand out of Ottoman-controlled Hungary. The Ottoman inability to take Vienna could reasonably be chalked up to a fluke of weather. There is a common narrative that says that this siege was the beginning of Ottoman decline, but it doesn’t hold up very well because there’s really no evidence of any “decline” for quite some time afterward. The empire remained wealthy and militarily dominant (both in Europe and in the Middle East) for decades to come. In fact, it continued to expand—just not any deeper into mainland Europe. Between this siege and the Ottomans’ second attempt in 1683, the empire had brought under its control almost all of North Africa, all of modern Iraq, much of the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and the island of Crete.
Ottoman expansion through the 16th century
However, with the benefit of hindsight we can say that the successful defense of Vienna may well have saved Christian Europe. If the Ottomans had been able to take Vienna and turn it into their new regional base of operations, their territorial limits would have been completely redefined. Vienna stopped the Ottoman advance and gave the Habsburgs and other European principalities time to build the kind of military capacity that would eventually begin to not just ward the Ottomans off, but to really roll back their previous gains. It also caused the Ottomans to refocus their attention on controlling the Mediterranean, which proved to be harder than it looked. A history where the Ottomans captured Vienna would very likely have been a much different history than the one we actually experienced, and we can chalk it all up to the city’s defenders and, even more, to a rainier-than-usual Balkan spring. | 1,711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explorations and Discoveries Few events in American history are better known than the Salem witchcraft trials of Its popularity is doubtless attributable to a number of things: Skeptics, like the preeminent twentieth-century historian Perry Miller, question whether the Salem trials constituted anything more than an inconsequential episode in colonial history.
Daniel Andrews Other victims include two dogs who were shot or killed after being suspected of witchcraft. The fact is, no accused witches were burned at the stake in Salem, Massachusetts. Salem was ruled by English law at the time, which only allowed death by burning to be used against men who committed high treason and only after they had been hanged, quartered and drawn.
Crafts, circa As for why these victims were targeted in the first place, historians have noted that many of the accused were wealthy and held different religious beliefs than their accusers.
This, coupled with the fact that the accused also had their estates confiscated if they were convicted has led many historians to believe that religious feuds and property disputes played a big part in the witch trials. Life After the Salem Witch Trials: Daily chores, business matters and other activities were neglected during the chaos of the witch trials, causing many problems in the colony for years to come, according to the book The Witchcraft of Salem Village: The people had been so determined upon hunting out and destroying witches that they had neglected everything else.
Planting, cultivating, the care of houses, barns, roads, fences, were all forgotten. As a direct result, food became scarce and taxes higher.
Farms were mortgaged or sold, first to pay prison fees, then to pay taxes; frequently they were abandoned.
Salem Village began that slow decay which eventually erased its houses and walls, but never its name and memory. Since the witch trials ended, the colony also began to suffer many misfortunes such as droughts, crop failures, smallpox outbreaks and Native-American attacks and many began to wonder if God was punishing them for their mistake.
On December 17,Governor Stoughton issued a proclamation in hopes of making amends with God. The proclamation suggested that there should be: And according to his infinite benignity and sovereignty, not visit the sin of him, or of any other, upon himself or any of his, nor upon the land: But that he would powerfully defend him against all temptations to sin, for the future; and vouchsafe him the efficacious, saving conduct of his word and spirit.
And particularly, as I was a chief instrument of accusing of Goodwife Nurse and her two sisters, I desire to lie in the dust, and to be humbled for it, in that I was a cause, with others, of so sad a calamity to them and their families; for which cause I desire to lie in the dust, and earnestly beg forgiveness of God, and from all those unto whom I have given just cause of sorrow and offence, whose relations were taken away or accused.
Since some families of the victims did not want their family member listed, not every victim was named. The bill cleared the names of: Since some of the law enforcement involved in the Salem Witch Trials were being sued by some of the surviving victims, the bill also stated: At the announcement ceremony, playwright Arthur Miller made a speech and read from the last act of his play, The Crucible, which was inspired by the Salem Witch Trials.
On October 31,the state amended the apology and cleared the names of the remaining unnamed victims, stating: Everything we know now about the trials comes from just a handful of primary sources of the Salem Witch Trials.
In addition to official court records there are also several books written by the ministers and other people involved in the trials: The Salem Witch Trials. Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather: Morrisiana, Jackson, Shirley.
The Witchcraft of Salem Village. Random House, Fowler, Samuel Page. Samuel Parris of Salem Village. William Ives and George W. Smithsonian Institute, 23 Oct.
Rebecca is a freelance writer and history lover who got her start in journalism working for small-town newspapers in Massachusetts and New Hampshire after she graduated from the University of New Hampshire with a B.Witchcraft And Effects On Lite - Witchcraft is a phenomenon that has captured the minds of millions since the beginning of history.
These so-called witches have caused fear, hatred, interest, widespread panic, and a variety of other emotions in other people from all over the world.
The Salem Witch Trials of were a dark time in American history. More than people were accused of practicing witchcraft and 20 were killed during the hysteria. Ever since those dark days ended, the trials have become synonymous with mass hysteria and scapegoating.
The following are some facts about the Salem Witch Trials: What Were . Salem Witch Trials A Sociological View History Essay. Print Witchcraft was considered a crime of treason, and punishment was severe. The Salem witchcraft trials resulted from social hierarchy, fanaticism, hysteria, and religious intolerance.
Practicing witchcraft was a way to release frustrations in the very ridged puritan society. Nov 10, · The Salem Witchcraft Trials of The Salem witchcraft trials of , which resulted in 19 executions, and accusations of witchcraft, are one of .
Salem, MA- Founded in by Roger Conant, Salem has a rich history that includes a key role in the spice trade with the East Indies, being the birthplace of the National Guard and the home of the infamous Salem Witchcraft Trials of.
The paper deals with the (in)famous phenomenon of Salem witchcraft trials through historical and cultural perspectives with a special emphasis on their implications for the perception of women. | <urn:uuid:dbc7c332-cbad-46e7-85dc-0ba738f5ff23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://locahopajeqe.ph-vs.com/an-analysis-of-the-salem-witchcraft-trials-and-the-witchcraft-concept-in-the-history-of-society-of-m-18668gz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.980629 | 1,168 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.425432741641998... | 1 | Explorations and Discoveries Few events in American history are better known than the Salem witchcraft trials of Its popularity is doubtless attributable to a number of things: Skeptics, like the preeminent twentieth-century historian Perry Miller, question whether the Salem trials constituted anything more than an inconsequential episode in colonial history.
Daniel Andrews Other victims include two dogs who were shot or killed after being suspected of witchcraft. The fact is, no accused witches were burned at the stake in Salem, Massachusetts. Salem was ruled by English law at the time, which only allowed death by burning to be used against men who committed high treason and only after they had been hanged, quartered and drawn.
Crafts, circa As for why these victims were targeted in the first place, historians have noted that many of the accused were wealthy and held different religious beliefs than their accusers.
This, coupled with the fact that the accused also had their estates confiscated if they were convicted has led many historians to believe that religious feuds and property disputes played a big part in the witch trials. Life After the Salem Witch Trials: Daily chores, business matters and other activities were neglected during the chaos of the witch trials, causing many problems in the colony for years to come, according to the book The Witchcraft of Salem Village: The people had been so determined upon hunting out and destroying witches that they had neglected everything else.
Planting, cultivating, the care of houses, barns, roads, fences, were all forgotten. As a direct result, food became scarce and taxes higher.
Farms were mortgaged or sold, first to pay prison fees, then to pay taxes; frequently they were abandoned.
Salem Village began that slow decay which eventually erased its houses and walls, but never its name and memory. Since the witch trials ended, the colony also began to suffer many misfortunes such as droughts, crop failures, smallpox outbreaks and Native-American attacks and many began to wonder if God was punishing them for their mistake.
On December 17,Governor Stoughton issued a proclamation in hopes of making amends with God. The proclamation suggested that there should be: And according to his infinite benignity and sovereignty, not visit the sin of him, or of any other, upon himself or any of his, nor upon the land: But that he would powerfully defend him against all temptations to sin, for the future; and vouchsafe him the efficacious, saving conduct of his word and spirit.
And particularly, as I was a chief instrument of accusing of Goodwife Nurse and her two sisters, I desire to lie in the dust, and to be humbled for it, in that I was a cause, with others, of so sad a calamity to them and their families; for which cause I desire to lie in the dust, and earnestly beg forgiveness of God, and from all those unto whom I have given just cause of sorrow and offence, whose relations were taken away or accused.
Since some families of the victims did not want their family member listed, not every victim was named. The bill cleared the names of: Since some of the law enforcement involved in the Salem Witch Trials were being sued by some of the surviving victims, the bill also stated: At the announcement ceremony, playwright Arthur Miller made a speech and read from the last act of his play, The Crucible, which was inspired by the Salem Witch Trials.
On October 31,the state amended the apology and cleared the names of the remaining unnamed victims, stating: Everything we know now about the trials comes from just a handful of primary sources of the Salem Witch Trials.
In addition to official court records there are also several books written by the ministers and other people involved in the trials: The Salem Witch Trials. Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather: Morrisiana, Jackson, Shirley.
The Witchcraft of Salem Village. Random House, Fowler, Samuel Page. Samuel Parris of Salem Village. William Ives and George W. Smithsonian Institute, 23 Oct.
Rebecca is a freelance writer and history lover who got her start in journalism working for small-town newspapers in Massachusetts and New Hampshire after she graduated from the University of New Hampshire with a B.Witchcraft And Effects On Lite - Witchcraft is a phenomenon that has captured the minds of millions since the beginning of history.
These so-called witches have caused fear, hatred, interest, widespread panic, and a variety of other emotions in other people from all over the world.
The Salem Witch Trials of were a dark time in American history. More than people were accused of practicing witchcraft and 20 were killed during the hysteria. Ever since those dark days ended, the trials have become synonymous with mass hysteria and scapegoating.
The following are some facts about the Salem Witch Trials: What Were . Salem Witch Trials A Sociological View History Essay. Print Witchcraft was considered a crime of treason, and punishment was severe. The Salem witchcraft trials resulted from social hierarchy, fanaticism, hysteria, and religious intolerance.
Practicing witchcraft was a way to release frustrations in the very ridged puritan society. Nov 10, · The Salem Witchcraft Trials of The Salem witchcraft trials of , which resulted in 19 executions, and accusations of witchcraft, are one of .
Salem, MA- Founded in by Roger Conant, Salem has a rich history that includes a key role in the spice trade with the East Indies, being the birthplace of the National Guard and the home of the infamous Salem Witchcraft Trials of.
The paper deals with the (in)famous phenomenon of Salem witchcraft trials through historical and cultural perspectives with a special emphasis on their implications for the perception of women. | 1,165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Sjoelund Chamber choir has held Christmas holidays, and our work with the coming project of this spring will be “War and Peace”, since this year, 2020 is the 75’Th anniversary of the liberation of Europe from the Second World War. It happened here in Denmark during the 4’Th and 5’Th of May 1945. The choir wishes to mark that event of history.
Denmark was fairly spared from the terrors of the war, in meaning of, that there were not any big destroying flight tasks, ruining houses, cities, and environment The government at the time found it wise to give the control of power to the German Wehrmacht. However, the king Christian X (10’Th) refused to surrender, and he showed his contempt by raising the royal Danish flag (Split flag with the National weapon) every day from Amalienborg castle. Furthermore, he took his white horse through the streets of Copenhagen as often as he could. Again to show his contempt and to give courage to the Danes. The Danish king became the symbol of the Danish resistance movement that grew in the near future.
The tasks and fights of the Danish resistance were extremely dangerous. Most of their jobs consisted in destroying the lines of convoy transportations, meaning mostly roads and railroads. In addition, with any luck some vehicles as well. The weapons and materiel used for the jobs came from flights and pilots from the Royal Air Force (RAF) in England. The planes dropped the things on secret places in agreement with resistance, and they disappeared fast again, unless they were discovered by German guards or had been revealed.
Behind all that was kind of a golden age of poets and musicians making their own kind of art. Many songs saw daylight in that period, and the texts were supposed to bring comfort and joy to the Danes, without the Germans could fully understand what it meant.
Among the songs we are presenting to you, we have a Danish poet and designer Poul Henningsen, who was a very active text writer during the war days, hence he wrote very dear songs for the Danes. We are presenting “Man binder os på mund og haand”, which means that you are spiritually bound on your hands and your mouth, not able to speak freely or to do anything by your own will. Bur inside the song is a hidden message for the Danes not to give up. It was composed in 1940, the year of occupation in Denmark. (April 9’Th). The choir delivers the song in a four-voice arrangement by Kaj Milter Jensen.
The rest of the program will be songs written during periods of war or peace, and off course inspired by events that are related to those topics. People are inspired by the time they live in, being good or bad. It’s always been like that.
With these words we celebrate the season of 2020, and we hope that we will see you to one of our announced concerts in our calendar (Koncertkalender). | <urn:uuid:c5856220-3585-4f1a-a225-b0316af8bff1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sjkk.dk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32&catid=2&lang=da&Itemid=101 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.982445 | 630 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.194915577769279... | 2 | The Sjoelund Chamber choir has held Christmas holidays, and our work with the coming project of this spring will be “War and Peace”, since this year, 2020 is the 75’Th anniversary of the liberation of Europe from the Second World War. It happened here in Denmark during the 4’Th and 5’Th of May 1945. The choir wishes to mark that event of history.
Denmark was fairly spared from the terrors of the war, in meaning of, that there were not any big destroying flight tasks, ruining houses, cities, and environment The government at the time found it wise to give the control of power to the German Wehrmacht. However, the king Christian X (10’Th) refused to surrender, and he showed his contempt by raising the royal Danish flag (Split flag with the National weapon) every day from Amalienborg castle. Furthermore, he took his white horse through the streets of Copenhagen as often as he could. Again to show his contempt and to give courage to the Danes. The Danish king became the symbol of the Danish resistance movement that grew in the near future.
The tasks and fights of the Danish resistance were extremely dangerous. Most of their jobs consisted in destroying the lines of convoy transportations, meaning mostly roads and railroads. In addition, with any luck some vehicles as well. The weapons and materiel used for the jobs came from flights and pilots from the Royal Air Force (RAF) in England. The planes dropped the things on secret places in agreement with resistance, and they disappeared fast again, unless they were discovered by German guards or had been revealed.
Behind all that was kind of a golden age of poets and musicians making their own kind of art. Many songs saw daylight in that period, and the texts were supposed to bring comfort and joy to the Danes, without the Germans could fully understand what it meant.
Among the songs we are presenting to you, we have a Danish poet and designer Poul Henningsen, who was a very active text writer during the war days, hence he wrote very dear songs for the Danes. We are presenting “Man binder os på mund og haand”, which means that you are spiritually bound on your hands and your mouth, not able to speak freely or to do anything by your own will. Bur inside the song is a hidden message for the Danes not to give up. It was composed in 1940, the year of occupation in Denmark. (April 9’Th). The choir delivers the song in a four-voice arrangement by Kaj Milter Jensen.
The rest of the program will be songs written during periods of war or peace, and off course inspired by events that are related to those topics. People are inspired by the time they live in, being good or bad. It’s always been like that.
With these words we celebrate the season of 2020, and we hope that we will see you to one of our announced concerts in our calendar (Koncertkalender). | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many scholars think that St. Mark's Gospel was set down somewhere between 60 and 65 AD. The presumed primary audience is the Jewish Christian community, not in Judea, but perhaps in Rome. If these scholarly theories are true, then the story about Jesus' authority takes on a special kind of power and import. If the date of writing is correct, then Mark's Gospel coincides with the first major Roman persecution of Christians in Rome. Nero, the Emperor, singled out the Christians in Rome for serious persecution. This began a trend that ultimately resulted in the Empire-wide persecution during the reign of Diocletian.
In the story Jesus demonstrates authority in teaching the Scriptures. His authority is visible, audible, and amazes those who heard him. Jesus also demonstrates authority over the demonic. And, amazingly, the demon recognized Jesus as the anointed one who was coming into the world bringing the Kingdom of God. He asked Jesus, "are you coming to kill me?"
Imagine, if you can, that you were a Christian in Rome in 63 AD. You have a Jewish heritage. You are already part of the Diaspora, Jews living away from Israel. You are uncertain about your religious identity. You no longer go to the Temple in Jerusalem. You believe in Jesus. But you don't know whether this means that you are no longer primarily a Jew or whether this means that you are something else. To complicate the situation, Nero has begun to persecute Christians. In short, the question of religion's authority, authority in teaching Scripture, is immediate and personal. At the same time the demonic is immediate and personal. The Roman authorities might at any time come and get you. You could be executed in some terrible way-possibly fed to the lions.
Imagine hearing this text from the Mark's Gospel. Two of your serious anxieties are plainly faced. Jesus is the one with the authority to face them and overcome them.
Many scholars think that Jesus claimed his authority with Scripture by teaching its meaning directly. In the typical rabbinical way of teaching, the teacher would discuss all of the commentaries on a text. The discussion would be something like, "Rabbi Gameliel saidâ¦and Rabbi Moses saysâ¦but Rabbi Simon saysâ¦." Finally the teacher would conclude with his own viewpoint. Jesus didn't do that. He said, "Today this text is fulfilled in your presence." He taught with personal authority. He did not rely on the authority of the teaching tradition.
In confronting the demonic, Jesus exercised his authority to heal. The demon saw Jesus for who he was and responded with fear. Jesus' authority over the demonic was powerfully demonstrated.
The two displays of authority would have been a source of strength to the Jewish Christian in Rome in 63 AD. What do they mean in our time?
A priest tells this story: Once he was spiritual director for a Cursillo. (Cur-SEE-Yo is a short weekend course in basic Christianity). One of the candidates was a beautiful young woman who was getting a Ph.D. at a university. At a quiet point in the Cursillo weekend she asked if she might receive some spiritual guidance. The priest, of course, agreed. The woman's story was one of great achievements. She told about academic, athletic, and artistic success, and still she felt empty. She said it was as if she were trying to fill a hole in her life because she felt so empty. She felt she had been paying the world to make her a success. She had worked hard to have all of her successes, but they had not made her feel better about herself. Now, finding herself in a course that teaches that what she was seeking was free for the asking, she was amazed.
The priest shared with her his own story of attempting to cure himself from his personal broken life. While different, it had similar themes. He told her how he had learned to accept Jesus as his only hope for life and joy in living. He told her how he thought he was going crazy, then realized in fact he was going sane! The young woman said that was what she wanted. The priest guided her through the process of claiming Jesus as her Lord and Savior. Afterward she said, "Only Jesus has the authority to give meaning to life and to heal the broken".
The Gospel is always good news. But before we are in it, we don't see it as good. To find meaning in life, to experience healing of that which is broken, we have to submit to his authority. But it is not in our nature to do that. We are rebellious. But when God gives us the gift of submission, we enter the meaning and joy that comes through Jesus. | <urn:uuid:434aa298-8409-4b2c-9615-096d6ad56f20> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://episcopalchurch.org/library/sermon/fourth-sunday-after-epiphany-7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.986458 | 968 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2456346005201... | 2 | Many scholars think that St. Mark's Gospel was set down somewhere between 60 and 65 AD. The presumed primary audience is the Jewish Christian community, not in Judea, but perhaps in Rome. If these scholarly theories are true, then the story about Jesus' authority takes on a special kind of power and import. If the date of writing is correct, then Mark's Gospel coincides with the first major Roman persecution of Christians in Rome. Nero, the Emperor, singled out the Christians in Rome for serious persecution. This began a trend that ultimately resulted in the Empire-wide persecution during the reign of Diocletian.
In the story Jesus demonstrates authority in teaching the Scriptures. His authority is visible, audible, and amazes those who heard him. Jesus also demonstrates authority over the demonic. And, amazingly, the demon recognized Jesus as the anointed one who was coming into the world bringing the Kingdom of God. He asked Jesus, "are you coming to kill me?"
Imagine, if you can, that you were a Christian in Rome in 63 AD. You have a Jewish heritage. You are already part of the Diaspora, Jews living away from Israel. You are uncertain about your religious identity. You no longer go to the Temple in Jerusalem. You believe in Jesus. But you don't know whether this means that you are no longer primarily a Jew or whether this means that you are something else. To complicate the situation, Nero has begun to persecute Christians. In short, the question of religion's authority, authority in teaching Scripture, is immediate and personal. At the same time the demonic is immediate and personal. The Roman authorities might at any time come and get you. You could be executed in some terrible way-possibly fed to the lions.
Imagine hearing this text from the Mark's Gospel. Two of your serious anxieties are plainly faced. Jesus is the one with the authority to face them and overcome them.
Many scholars think that Jesus claimed his authority with Scripture by teaching its meaning directly. In the typical rabbinical way of teaching, the teacher would discuss all of the commentaries on a text. The discussion would be something like, "Rabbi Gameliel saidâ¦and Rabbi Moses saysâ¦but Rabbi Simon saysâ¦." Finally the teacher would conclude with his own viewpoint. Jesus didn't do that. He said, "Today this text is fulfilled in your presence." He taught with personal authority. He did not rely on the authority of the teaching tradition.
In confronting the demonic, Jesus exercised his authority to heal. The demon saw Jesus for who he was and responded with fear. Jesus' authority over the demonic was powerfully demonstrated.
The two displays of authority would have been a source of strength to the Jewish Christian in Rome in 63 AD. What do they mean in our time?
A priest tells this story: Once he was spiritual director for a Cursillo. (Cur-SEE-Yo is a short weekend course in basic Christianity). One of the candidates was a beautiful young woman who was getting a Ph.D. at a university. At a quiet point in the Cursillo weekend she asked if she might receive some spiritual guidance. The priest, of course, agreed. The woman's story was one of great achievements. She told about academic, athletic, and artistic success, and still she felt empty. She said it was as if she were trying to fill a hole in her life because she felt so empty. She felt she had been paying the world to make her a success. She had worked hard to have all of her successes, but they had not made her feel better about herself. Now, finding herself in a course that teaches that what she was seeking was free for the asking, she was amazed.
The priest shared with her his own story of attempting to cure himself from his personal broken life. While different, it had similar themes. He told her how he had learned to accept Jesus as his only hope for life and joy in living. He told her how he thought he was going crazy, then realized in fact he was going sane! The young woman said that was what she wanted. The priest guided her through the process of claiming Jesus as her Lord and Savior. Afterward she said, "Only Jesus has the authority to give meaning to life and to heal the broken".
The Gospel is always good news. But before we are in it, we don't see it as good. To find meaning in life, to experience healing of that which is broken, we have to submit to his authority. But it is not in our nature to do that. We are rebellious. But when God gives us the gift of submission, we enter the meaning and joy that comes through Jesus. | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- from Pyramids
The Egyptians believed that life after death was very similar to life on Earth, so the dead had to be protected and preserved for the next life. It was the pyramid’s job to protect the body.
Around 2600 B.C., a process known as mummification was developed to preserve bodies. It might take as long as 70 days to make a mummy. First, the brain was removed from the body—through the nostrils! Next, the other vital organs were taken out and put into tightly sealed jars. The body was then dried out for about 40 days, using a salt compound called natron. In the next stage, the body was embalmed, or treated with molten resin and perfumed oils, and finally, it was wrapped in linen bandages. | <urn:uuid:958dbd2b-5159-4f6c-b6d4-fb2710af4b76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/pyramids/topic/all-about-mummies/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.985559 | 163 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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The Egyptians believed that life after death was very similar to life on Earth, so the dead had to be protected and preserved for the next life. It was the pyramid’s job to protect the body.
Around 2600 B.C., a process known as mummification was developed to preserve bodies. It might take as long as 70 days to make a mummy. First, the brain was removed from the body—through the nostrils! Next, the other vital organs were taken out and put into tightly sealed jars. The body was then dried out for about 40 days, using a salt compound called natron. In the next stage, the body was embalmed, or treated with molten resin and perfumed oils, and finally, it was wrapped in linen bandages. | 169 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Hungarian Uprising of 1956
Hungary in 1956 seemed to sum up all that the Cold War stood for. The people of Hungary and the rest of Eastern Europe were ruled over with a rod of iron by Communist Russia and anybody who challenged the rule of Stalin and Russia paid the price. The death of Stalin in 1953 did not weaken the grip Moscow had on the people of Eastern Europe and Hungary, by challenging the rule of Moscow, paid such a price in 1956.
From 1945 on the Hungarians were under the control of Moscow. All wealth of whatever nature was taken from Hungary by the Russians who showed their power by putting thousands of Russian troops and hundreds of tanks in Hungary. The Hungarian leader, Rakosi, was put in power by Stalin of Russia. When Stalin died in 1953 all people in Eastern Europe were given some hope that they might be free from Soviet (Russian) rule.
In February 1956, the new Russian leader Khruschev made a bitter attack on the dead Stalin and his policies and in July 1956 in a gesture to the Hungarians, Rakosi was forced to resign. In fact, the Hungarians had expected more but they did not get it. This situation, combined with 1) a bad harvest 2) fuel shortages 3) a cold and wet autumn all created a volatile situation.
On October 23rd 1956, students and workers took to the streets of Budapest (the capital of Hungary ) and issued their Sixteen Points which included personal freedom, more food, the removal of the secret police, the removal of Russian control etc. Poland had already been granted rights in 1956 which had been gained by street protests and displays of rebellion. Hungary followed likewise.
A ruined statue of Stalin in Budapest
Imre Nagy was appointed prime minister and Janos Kadar foreign minister. They were thought to be liberal and in Moscow this was felt to be the best way to keep happy the “hooligans” as the Moscow media referred to the protesters. As a gesture, the Red Army pulled out and Nagy allowed political parties to start again. The most famous man to criticise the Russians was released from prison – Cardinal Mindszenty.
On October 31st, 1956, Nagy broadcast that Hungary would withdraw itself from the Warsaw Pact. This was pushing the Russians too far and Kadar left the government in disgust and established a rival government in eastern Hungary which was supported by Soviet tanks. On November 4th, Soviet tanks went into Budapest to restore order and they acted with immense brutality even killing wounded people. Tanks dragged round bodies through the streets of Budapest as a warning to others who were still protesting.
Russian tanks in Budapest
Hundreds of tanks went into Budapest and probably 30,000 people were killed. To flee the expected Soviet reprisals, probably 200,000 fled to the west leaving all they possessed in Hungary. Nagy was tried and executed and buried in an unmarked grave. By November 14th, order had been restored. Kadar was put in charge. Soviet rule was re-established.
President Eisenhower of USA said “I feel with the Hungarian people.” J F Dulles, American Secretary of State, said “To all those suffering under communist slavery, let us say you can count on us.” But America did nothing more.
So why did Europe and America do nothing except offer moral support and condemn Russia ?
1) Because of the geographic location of Hungary, how could you actually help without resorting to war? Both sides in the Cold War were nuclear powers and the risks were too great. Any economic boycott of the Soviet Union would have been pointless as Russia took what it needed from the countries it occupied.
2) The Suez Crisis, which took place at the same time, was considered far more important and of greater relevance to the west than the suffering of the Hungarians. Hence why Britain, France and America concentrated their resources on this crisis. | <urn:uuid:3e5c401e-ced0-419d-8261-d279a756ce02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-cold-war/the-hungarian-uprising-of-1956/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.987164 | 798 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.48188531398773193... | 1 | The Hungarian Uprising of 1956
Hungary in 1956 seemed to sum up all that the Cold War stood for. The people of Hungary and the rest of Eastern Europe were ruled over with a rod of iron by Communist Russia and anybody who challenged the rule of Stalin and Russia paid the price. The death of Stalin in 1953 did not weaken the grip Moscow had on the people of Eastern Europe and Hungary, by challenging the rule of Moscow, paid such a price in 1956.
From 1945 on the Hungarians were under the control of Moscow. All wealth of whatever nature was taken from Hungary by the Russians who showed their power by putting thousands of Russian troops and hundreds of tanks in Hungary. The Hungarian leader, Rakosi, was put in power by Stalin of Russia. When Stalin died in 1953 all people in Eastern Europe were given some hope that they might be free from Soviet (Russian) rule.
In February 1956, the new Russian leader Khruschev made a bitter attack on the dead Stalin and his policies and in July 1956 in a gesture to the Hungarians, Rakosi was forced to resign. In fact, the Hungarians had expected more but they did not get it. This situation, combined with 1) a bad harvest 2) fuel shortages 3) a cold and wet autumn all created a volatile situation.
On October 23rd 1956, students and workers took to the streets of Budapest (the capital of Hungary ) and issued their Sixteen Points which included personal freedom, more food, the removal of the secret police, the removal of Russian control etc. Poland had already been granted rights in 1956 which had been gained by street protests and displays of rebellion. Hungary followed likewise.
A ruined statue of Stalin in Budapest
Imre Nagy was appointed prime minister and Janos Kadar foreign minister. They were thought to be liberal and in Moscow this was felt to be the best way to keep happy the “hooligans” as the Moscow media referred to the protesters. As a gesture, the Red Army pulled out and Nagy allowed political parties to start again. The most famous man to criticise the Russians was released from prison – Cardinal Mindszenty.
On October 31st, 1956, Nagy broadcast that Hungary would withdraw itself from the Warsaw Pact. This was pushing the Russians too far and Kadar left the government in disgust and established a rival government in eastern Hungary which was supported by Soviet tanks. On November 4th, Soviet tanks went into Budapest to restore order and they acted with immense brutality even killing wounded people. Tanks dragged round bodies through the streets of Budapest as a warning to others who were still protesting.
Russian tanks in Budapest
Hundreds of tanks went into Budapest and probably 30,000 people were killed. To flee the expected Soviet reprisals, probably 200,000 fled to the west leaving all they possessed in Hungary. Nagy was tried and executed and buried in an unmarked grave. By November 14th, order had been restored. Kadar was put in charge. Soviet rule was re-established.
President Eisenhower of USA said “I feel with the Hungarian people.” J F Dulles, American Secretary of State, said “To all those suffering under communist slavery, let us say you can count on us.” But America did nothing more.
So why did Europe and America do nothing except offer moral support and condemn Russia ?
1) Because of the geographic location of Hungary, how could you actually help without resorting to war? Both sides in the Cold War were nuclear powers and the risks were too great. Any economic boycott of the Soviet Union would have been pointless as Russia took what it needed from the countries it occupied.
2) The Suez Crisis, which took place at the same time, was considered far more important and of greater relevance to the west than the suffering of the Hungarians. Hence why Britain, France and America concentrated their resources on this crisis. | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
France and great britain essay
Sellers, C. Unlike the British, the French managed to avoid turning the Indians against them by offering something that proved to be much more important: tolerance.
English monarchs would still claim the throne of France until During this period, mainly due to Colbert's the French minister of Finance proposals to Louis XIV for an increase in French territories in America that would then lead to an increase in France's world power, France began to devote more attention to the development of its North American territories and so French settlement rapidly expanded.
Even more damage was done to the economies of France and its allies, which lost a useful trading partner. Following the Battle of Agincourt the English gained control of vast French territory, but were eventually driven out.
Dorn, pp. The British were further required to withdraw forces from the American mainland to protect their more valuable possessions in the West Indies.
Differences between french and british political systems
This was a one of the major causes of the Second World War as Britain and France could have stopped Hitler much earlier on, for example the invasion of the Sudetenland, but instead they allowed Hitler to take what he wanted in when the Sudetenland was handed to him Then the year , known as "the wonderful year", brought with it a series of amazing British victories -like the dramatic fall of Quebec in September 13, which marked the beginning of the end for the American phase of the war- and resulted in the following year in the surrendering of the French to Amherst in Montreal. Middleton, p. It was one of the original countries of the European Union, and has been a dominant factor in global trade. Soon it became obvious that only Great Britain and France could satisfy these conditions, and thus it was no surprise that by the beginning of the eighteenth century these two powers alone had colonized for their own interests the greatest part of North America. Anglo-French War, —[ edit ] In , Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI , who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father's name for several years. The colonies were one of the major factors that contributed to the recovery of the French naval and commercial power after the War of the Spanish Succession that resulted to the Treaty of Utrecht, and this recovery was felt not only along the coastline of France, but almost in every region of that country. The main forces behind these changes were 1. Washington allowed him to stay in America.
Britain, America and France all had representatives at this meeting; the Big Three.
based on 8 review | <urn:uuid:bcdad191-557a-437a-9935-97441f4c9dc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fomalogaxapoxizot.whatshanesaid.com/france-and-great-britain-essay448804461zu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.982624 | 549 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Sellers, C. Unlike the British, the French managed to avoid turning the Indians against them by offering something that proved to be much more important: tolerance.
English monarchs would still claim the throne of France until During this period, mainly due to Colbert's the French minister of Finance proposals to Louis XIV for an increase in French territories in America that would then lead to an increase in France's world power, France began to devote more attention to the development of its North American territories and so French settlement rapidly expanded.
Even more damage was done to the economies of France and its allies, which lost a useful trading partner. Following the Battle of Agincourt the English gained control of vast French territory, but were eventually driven out.
Dorn, pp. The British were further required to withdraw forces from the American mainland to protect their more valuable possessions in the West Indies.
Differences between french and british political systems
This was a one of the major causes of the Second World War as Britain and France could have stopped Hitler much earlier on, for example the invasion of the Sudetenland, but instead they allowed Hitler to take what he wanted in when the Sudetenland was handed to him Then the year , known as "the wonderful year", brought with it a series of amazing British victories -like the dramatic fall of Quebec in September 13, which marked the beginning of the end for the American phase of the war- and resulted in the following year in the surrendering of the French to Amherst in Montreal. Middleton, p. It was one of the original countries of the European Union, and has been a dominant factor in global trade. Soon it became obvious that only Great Britain and France could satisfy these conditions, and thus it was no surprise that by the beginning of the eighteenth century these two powers alone had colonized for their own interests the greatest part of North America. Anglo-French War, —[ edit ] In , Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI , who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father's name for several years. The colonies were one of the major factors that contributed to the recovery of the French naval and commercial power after the War of the Spanish Succession that resulted to the Treaty of Utrecht, and this recovery was felt not only along the coastline of France, but almost in every region of that country. The main forces behind these changes were 1. Washington allowed him to stay in America.
Britain, America and France all had representatives at this meeting; the Big Three.
based on 8 review | 541 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During a recent prime minister’s questions, Gordon Brown inadvertently let slip the ‘D’ word: Depression.
His spokespeople were quick to clarify that it was an unfortunate slip of the tongue, but the damage had already been done. TV, radio and news reporters all pounced on this Freudian slip and started comparing today’s economic problems with the great depression of the 1930s.
Such comparisons make engaging news stories but are they really valid and, perhaps more importantly, do they teach us anything useful to help lessen the impact of today’s economic slowdown?
Wall Street crash
Many historians regard the Wall Street crash, which happened on ‘Black’ Tuesday the 29th October 1929, as the start of what was eventually to become The Great Depression. During the first fateful couple of days of the crash, the Dow Jones industrial average fell by 25 per cent, with the volume of stocks being traded setting a record which would not be broken for 40 years. When stock prices eventually reached their record low in July 1932, they had lost 89 per cent of their value and did not recover to their 1929 levels until 1954.
So what happened? No one really knows precisely what acted as the trigger for the sudden selling spree of stocks on the 28th and 29th of October 1929, but history has clearly identified why the bubble in the equity and commodities markets grew and then eventually burst.
Unlike most European economies, the US economy had not been hit hard by the first world war. In the early 20s the economy started to boom, as new industries such as motor manufacturing and telecommunications started to grow. In the eight years prior to 1929, the US economy grew by 40 per cent, with consumer spending growing at an average annual rate of just under 3 per cent. The unemployment rate between 1921 and 1926 fell from 12 per cent to 2 per cent and by 1929 the government budget ended in surplus. This was the era of the roaring 20s in which consumers believed the only way the economy could go was up.
Spend, spend, spend
Consumers were not afraid to spend, spend, spend. From the turn of the century to 1925 house prices rose by 70 per cent and oil prices jumped by 380 per cent in just 5 years. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it? Spurred on by the growing mood of confidence, increasing numbers of consumers decided to buy stocks and shares in order to get rich quick. Individuals were able to buy stocks ‘on margin’, which meant they borrowed the money against their other shareholdings; a potential disaster in the making.
Interest rates in the US had also been held unusually low for several years and Congress had passed a highly protectionist tariff bill which, ironically, was one of the factors which started to spook the markets. And the final ingredient in the recipe for impending disaster was a very lax regulatory regime, which allowed insider trading to run rife and dealers to artificially inflate share prices.
House of cards
When the house of cards did eventually tumble down, the effects on the US economy were devastating. The economy shrank by a third, unemployment levels reached 25 per cent (and at that time there was no state aid to help unemployed workers) and, as a result, consumer spending collapsed. Thousands of factories were forced to close due to a lack of demand, which meant more workers losing their jobs. Again, does this sound horribly familiar?
To compound problems, the banking system then collapsed. In the period from 1930 to 1932 there were repeated bank runs and thousands of banks failed and as a result, those banks which did survive were unwilling to lend. So concerned was Roosevelt about the plight of the banks, when he was voted into power in early 1933, that he ordered the banks to close for 2 weeks while Federal inspectors examined their books. Roosevelt then instigated what was to become known as the ‘new deal’ which aimed to stop the bank runs and use government spending to stimulate economic activity. Yes, more parallels with events today.
Roosevelt was, however, eager to continue balancing the nation’s books and in order to do so he raised taxes which, in 1938, had the effect of halting the green shoots of economic recovery and sending the economy back into recession. The dark days of the great depression eventually came to an end in 1939 when the government started to ramp up defence spending. As a result, US production rose by 80 per cent in just three years and what was a government surplus became a government deficit which, for the large part, is where is has remained ever since.
The parallels between The Great Depression of the 1930s and events of today are obvious, but that does not necessarily mean we are in for similar tough times in the years ahead. Today, most governments have recognised the need to stimulate the economy and have acted fairly quickly to prevent a catastrophic collapse of the banking sector. There will be many readers who will feel that the government today has not acted quickly enough, but they have undoubtedly been more decisive than their forefathers.
It was interesting, listening to debates taking place at the recent economic summit in Davos, to hear ministers arguing about the potential dangers of introducing protectionist economic policies and the need for all countries, no matter how hard their economies are being hit, to keep their trading links open. Although it may seem prudent to some to keep government spending under tight control and to put measures in place which favour domestic manufacturers, if there is a lesson to be learnt from history, it’s that such policies don’t work.
Lessons to be learnt
It is also unreasonable to assume that the collapse in consumer spending in the 1930s will be matched by a similar decline today. Yes, we are seeing a sharp downturn in spending but it has to be remembered that back in the 1930, when someone was thrown out of work they received no support from the state and became destitute. Today, as tough as life is for the unemployed, they do get state help and do continue to spend, albeit to a lesser extent.
However, there are lessons to be learnt. The Great Depression demonstrated the way in which a run in the financial markets and collapse in confidence in the banks could have a dramatic impact on the real economy. We have seen that happening all too graphically in recent months. The Great Depression also showed that if the right economic policies are introduced by governments that the situation can be eased, but if the wrong decisions are made – as they were by Roosevelt when he raised taxes in order to balance the nations books – then the economy can take a sudden nose-dive.
Let’s hope that the leaders of the world’s largest economies have learnt the lessons from history and that the road to recovery will be shorter and less painful than it was back in the 1930s. | <urn:uuid:f76a9833-8eca-477c-9f43-a7975d945efe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mortgageintroducer.com/lessons-from-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.982085 | 1,393 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2318440675735473... | 2 | During a recent prime minister’s questions, Gordon Brown inadvertently let slip the ‘D’ word: Depression.
His spokespeople were quick to clarify that it was an unfortunate slip of the tongue, but the damage had already been done. TV, radio and news reporters all pounced on this Freudian slip and started comparing today’s economic problems with the great depression of the 1930s.
Such comparisons make engaging news stories but are they really valid and, perhaps more importantly, do they teach us anything useful to help lessen the impact of today’s economic slowdown?
Wall Street crash
Many historians regard the Wall Street crash, which happened on ‘Black’ Tuesday the 29th October 1929, as the start of what was eventually to become The Great Depression. During the first fateful couple of days of the crash, the Dow Jones industrial average fell by 25 per cent, with the volume of stocks being traded setting a record which would not be broken for 40 years. When stock prices eventually reached their record low in July 1932, they had lost 89 per cent of their value and did not recover to their 1929 levels until 1954.
So what happened? No one really knows precisely what acted as the trigger for the sudden selling spree of stocks on the 28th and 29th of October 1929, but history has clearly identified why the bubble in the equity and commodities markets grew and then eventually burst.
Unlike most European economies, the US economy had not been hit hard by the first world war. In the early 20s the economy started to boom, as new industries such as motor manufacturing and telecommunications started to grow. In the eight years prior to 1929, the US economy grew by 40 per cent, with consumer spending growing at an average annual rate of just under 3 per cent. The unemployment rate between 1921 and 1926 fell from 12 per cent to 2 per cent and by 1929 the government budget ended in surplus. This was the era of the roaring 20s in which consumers believed the only way the economy could go was up.
Spend, spend, spend
Consumers were not afraid to spend, spend, spend. From the turn of the century to 1925 house prices rose by 70 per cent and oil prices jumped by 380 per cent in just 5 years. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it? Spurred on by the growing mood of confidence, increasing numbers of consumers decided to buy stocks and shares in order to get rich quick. Individuals were able to buy stocks ‘on margin’, which meant they borrowed the money against their other shareholdings; a potential disaster in the making.
Interest rates in the US had also been held unusually low for several years and Congress had passed a highly protectionist tariff bill which, ironically, was one of the factors which started to spook the markets. And the final ingredient in the recipe for impending disaster was a very lax regulatory regime, which allowed insider trading to run rife and dealers to artificially inflate share prices.
House of cards
When the house of cards did eventually tumble down, the effects on the US economy were devastating. The economy shrank by a third, unemployment levels reached 25 per cent (and at that time there was no state aid to help unemployed workers) and, as a result, consumer spending collapsed. Thousands of factories were forced to close due to a lack of demand, which meant more workers losing their jobs. Again, does this sound horribly familiar?
To compound problems, the banking system then collapsed. In the period from 1930 to 1932 there were repeated bank runs and thousands of banks failed and as a result, those banks which did survive were unwilling to lend. So concerned was Roosevelt about the plight of the banks, when he was voted into power in early 1933, that he ordered the banks to close for 2 weeks while Federal inspectors examined their books. Roosevelt then instigated what was to become known as the ‘new deal’ which aimed to stop the bank runs and use government spending to stimulate economic activity. Yes, more parallels with events today.
Roosevelt was, however, eager to continue balancing the nation’s books and in order to do so he raised taxes which, in 1938, had the effect of halting the green shoots of economic recovery and sending the economy back into recession. The dark days of the great depression eventually came to an end in 1939 when the government started to ramp up defence spending. As a result, US production rose by 80 per cent in just three years and what was a government surplus became a government deficit which, for the large part, is where is has remained ever since.
The parallels between The Great Depression of the 1930s and events of today are obvious, but that does not necessarily mean we are in for similar tough times in the years ahead. Today, most governments have recognised the need to stimulate the economy and have acted fairly quickly to prevent a catastrophic collapse of the banking sector. There will be many readers who will feel that the government today has not acted quickly enough, but they have undoubtedly been more decisive than their forefathers.
It was interesting, listening to debates taking place at the recent economic summit in Davos, to hear ministers arguing about the potential dangers of introducing protectionist economic policies and the need for all countries, no matter how hard their economies are being hit, to keep their trading links open. Although it may seem prudent to some to keep government spending under tight control and to put measures in place which favour domestic manufacturers, if there is a lesson to be learnt from history, it’s that such policies don’t work.
Lessons to be learnt
It is also unreasonable to assume that the collapse in consumer spending in the 1930s will be matched by a similar decline today. Yes, we are seeing a sharp downturn in spending but it has to be remembered that back in the 1930, when someone was thrown out of work they received no support from the state and became destitute. Today, as tough as life is for the unemployed, they do get state help and do continue to spend, albeit to a lesser extent.
However, there are lessons to be learnt. The Great Depression demonstrated the way in which a run in the financial markets and collapse in confidence in the banks could have a dramatic impact on the real economy. We have seen that happening all too graphically in recent months. The Great Depression also showed that if the right economic policies are introduced by governments that the situation can be eased, but if the wrong decisions are made – as they were by Roosevelt when he raised taxes in order to balance the nations books – then the economy can take a sudden nose-dive.
Let’s hope that the leaders of the world’s largest economies have learnt the lessons from history and that the road to recovery will be shorter and less painful than it was back in the 1930s. | 1,466 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Chinese Interior Architecture
The ancient Chinese interior design was based on three ideas: structure, function, and decoration. The design of any interior setting of a building or room was determined by its specific function. In reference to the purpose intended for the room, certain decorations patterns were followed. The structure of almost all Chinese buildings was similar. The interior design of Chinese houses was mainly decorated by the wood work, which could have stone carvings. The structure of these houses was relatively small, with small rooms partitioned without being emphasized by the walls. The walls only served for partitioning. The structure was uniform for almost all forms of houses, regardless of their function. Chinese designers took into considerations the seasons of the year, incorporating structures that would adapt to the seasons. Therefore, Chines interior design was not permanent in many ways. There were some features in the structure that would change as seasons changed. Chinese designers put emphasis on furniture arrangement in the buildings, which was part of the architecture of the ancient Chinese design. Above all, decoration was key in the ancient Chinese interior architecture. Decoration was chosen in proportion to the size of the building, the season, or timing and the function. There were various things that could be used for decoration in the ancient Chinese interior. These ancient Chinese traditions existed for many years, contributing to the modern interior ideas. As now western designs are the most common, the ancient Chinese interior design is still influencing some bits of the western designs. Currently, most buildings are constructed in a combination of the western architecture, which suits the high demands for modern housing, and the Chinese interior architecture, which makes the buildings look attractive. This essay will look into the nature of the ancient Chinese interior design and the way it influencing modern interior architecture.
Chinese architecture is a unique form of designing and construction, which has been preserved and practiced for many years. The modern architecture of China draws features from the ancient traditions, since the Chinese people have a way of preserving the old customs considering them valuable. The ancient structures were simple but beautiful and expensive. They were designed to last. The emperors are known to have hired or forced experts to construct the finest buildings. Records reveal that there were architectural drawings of two-dimensional buildings that date back to the first millennium.
In the mid-Neolithic era, the walls of buildings were constructed using bricks and rammed earth. This technology was very common, and the constructors worked on houses using this approach. Since this era, earth layers have been pounded to construct alters, walls, as well as foundations. The Chinese people built houses in this manner for the following several millennia.
The interior decorations were done emphasizing the natural beauty of the housing area. The walls were painted by the Chinese artists, who had a wide understanding of the subject. The paintings were those of the emperors’ portraits, clouds, mountains, seas, trees, rivers, famous personalities, etc. It is known that the Chinese are very creative. The rich people had to make their houses look original. The specialists would paint the houses with various colors, such as red that depicted royalty. The furniture in the rooms also had to show that the owner loved natural beauty. Some were even known to have their entire family pictures painted in the inside sections of the houses’ walls. Animal pictures, like lions, tigers, antelopes and giraffes, were also widely used in decoration. Sea shells, stone, and wood carvings were placed on tables inside the houses. The houses had ceilings that also demonstrated love for natural beauty. Stone patterns were used in these decorations. There was a wide range of stone patterns from which builders could choose. There were also stone portal decorations that were extracted from real stones to make the interior even more attractive. Dragon pictures were also common, especially in the monks’ houses. Dragons were considered some of the greatest creatures in the ancient China. Having their pictures on the walls was of high value.
Another feature that was applied in sphere of Chinese interior design was wooden architecture. The finest hardwood was selected to create beautiful interior designs. The timber was smoothened and then interlocked to establish an interior design that had an attractive and expensive look. Rich families had their houses furnished and decorated using wood painted in various colors. There were many classes of wood used depending on the financial ability of the owner. The way the architects placed the wood in position remains a mystery. What is definite is that the work was always done in the most perfect way. In the ancient times the wooden walls defined the enclosure. There were instances when construction was done using other materials, such as bricks, and then timber was placed as a decoration on top of the main material. Other buildings were made of pure wood, and then the inside was covered by the special kind of glowing decorating wood.
In general, the ancient Chinese design had a bilateral symmetric form. The symmetrical form was most noticeable in the interior design, but it also included some additional aspects. The arrangement of furniture, décor, and colors in the rooms usually had a symmetrical shape. In the cases when the living room had two bed-couches, they were arranged symmetrically on each side of the table. The flowers on the table were also arranged in the symmetrical manner. In the bedroom, where there were normally two bed-couches, two stools and a lantern, the arrangement was symmetrical as well. Paintings on the wall were also proportionate. The perfect arrangement of all design related to the aspects of balance and symmetry.
When designing any room in the house, the designers had in mind the intended function of the room. The function of the room determined its size and future look. While designing the interior of the room, the professionals considered the function and incorporated the bilateral symmetric idea. Therefore, each room took a shape that would allow bilateral symmetric arrangement of the items designed for its function. The function also dictated the furniture that would be put in the room, as well as the paintings on the walls and other aspects of interior design. The function of the room was the sole determinant of its size, shape and appearance. The paintings in the living room were different from those in the bedroom, since they were intended for different purposes.
The ancient Chinese interior architecture majored in little rooms, with a living room being the most magnificent. Other rooms were considerably small and the hallway was narrow. The hallway had only a single painting or script, while all the other rooms had more. When a small room is crowded with decorations, it seems unproportionate. Bedrooms, which were considerably small, had no noticeable décor. The living room could have two scrolls hanging on the wall, but not opposite the each other. Hanging scrolls opposite to each other did not appear as a proper arrangement. The living room could have more than two scrolls. The study room could have one or two scrolls or pieces of décor, but not more. In most cases, small rooms in the ancient Chinese design did not contain any décor. The carving of Buddha, which was not considered as a decoration, could sometimes be found in a small room. In most cases, the carving or painting of Buddha was found in the living room. Small rooms only contained a few pieces of furniture, designed in line with the function of the room. The décor of small rooms seemed to be out of proportion.
The ancient Chinese architecture emphasized the minimal use of furniture. Furniture is one of the most important aspects of the room design. If a lot of furniture is applied throughout the room, it looks very detailed. In the Chinese interior design, the minimum possible furniture was a priority. The living room had just one table with few a chairs and a bed-couch. At times it could have a cabinet, but mostly cabinets were arranged in the study rooms. Even in the study room, too many book racks or cabinets resembled a public study place. Therefore, the study room contained a reading table, several chairs, and a cabinet with neatly arranged books. Instead of using a lot of furniture and detail, ancient Chinese designers emphasized a proper quality arrangement, which would make the room adhere to the standards. The small size of the furniture in the ancient Chinese design is attributable to the small size of the houses. However, the small size of the rooms was not intended for small furniture. The idea behind little furniture was quality instead of quantity. The ancient Chinese interior designer stressed the quality of the furniture and its arrangement, rather than the number of its pieces.
The ancient Chinese interior decoration took into consideration seasons of the year. Decorations in the house were changed according to the time of the year. For winter, the windows had curtains made of bamboo, which was not the case for the summer. During summer, the curtains were made of cloth. The decorations in the living room were made of bronze during the summer, while during winter such decorations were put in storage, allowing ceramic decorations to be used. Flowers were mostly present during the summer with the proper floral arrangement. The flower bouquet was composed of one or two types of flowers. The flowers would change according to the seasons. In addition, some of the decorations were rooted in religious beliefs. Such decorations would change with the altering of religious seasons. The incense burner and the incense powder box were also used as decorations on the table seasonally. During winter they were used more than during the summer to supplement the lacking flower decorations. However, some decorations were permanent, since they were believed to have supernatural powers and to bring good fortune to the house. Such decorations were never removed regardless of season (Knapp 176). Such decorations were the god of the doorway, as well as bats and some fruit. Therefore, seasons were an important consideration in the ancient Chinese architecture.
In the ancient Chinese interior design, tables were adorned with flowers and incense burners. The use of flowers, incense burners and box of incense was an important detail of the Chinese interior décor. However, the table in the living room was not complete with them. The flowers were kept at a safe distance from the burner, since the smoke could affect the flowers. They added to the clamor of the house, while the box of incense powder and the incense burner ensured that a sweet fragrance filled the room. The flowers adorning the table were fresh, which gave the living room a natural touch (Steinhardt 246).
The ancient Chinese interior design was made of wood framework, and modern designers have borrowed from this idea considerably. Modern houses have walls painted to appear as if they are made of wood. Brick walls are plastered and then painted using high art painting skills to appear as if they are made of plywood or normal wood. This wood framework has also been incorporated into some buildings. The walls get tiled with tiles that resemble wooden material. The appearance reminding of woodwork idea is an inclination towards natural beauty. Wood is one of the oldest materials used in construction. Modifying other materials to resemble wooden work comes from the ancient Chinese ideas of architecture (Weston 319).
Modern interior designs depict less furniture, the same way ancient Chinese interior architecture emphasized the use of less furniture. Arranging a few appropriate furniture parts in the right place gives a house and its rooms an attractive look, as opposed to the crowded look. The Chinese living room was furnished with a bed-couch, a table, and a few chairs. Modern living rooms are furnished with a set of sofas around a coffee table. There is a cabinet by the wall that matches the rest of the furniture. In some houses, the living room may have a dining table at one corner of the room. Modern rooms are spacious, as opposed to the ancient Chinese rooms, making it possible for modern rooms to accommodate more furniture. Even if it accommodates more furniture, it is still less referenced to the size of the room. Modern interior designs are asymmetrical, opposed to the ancient Chinese design, which was symmetrical. The Chinese bedroom had one or two bed-couches, a clothes-rack, two low tools, a table and a lantern. A modern bed room has one big bed, a wardrobe - either inbuilt into the wall of the house or separate, a dressing table, and a mirror. These few pieces of furniture ensure that the bedroom is not crowded and that it maintains a calm space for people to sleep in.
In modern designs, the walls of most houses have paintings that are theme-based, with creative images of nature. In the ancient Chinese interior architecture, walls were painted using high art skills in order to bring out the natural beauty of the skies, or clouds, or other natural features. Similarly, in modern designs, even though new painting features are in place, the paintings on the walls may be of the ocean, the sky, or other natural beauties. Plain walls are painted to take the forms of ocean waves, which relates to the themes that used to be painted in the ancient Chinese design. In addition, the decoration of modern houses goes in line with the pictures on the wall, reinforcing the same theme. Similarly, in the ancient Chinese interior design, the decorations in the house or room coincided with the main idea behind the art work. Similarly to the ancient Chinese interior architecture, sitting room walls carry most of the decorations in terms of paintings and carvings, while other rooms have very little or no pictures.
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The decorations in modern rooms and houses result from the intended purpose or function of the room. In line with ancient Chinese interior architectures, modern design also emphasizes on the application of decorations in line with the intended function of the house or building. Similarly to the ancient Chinese interior architecture, modern houses are also decorated depending on the purpose of the room. Living rooms contain lively decorations, flowers, curtains, carvings, and other things that depict life. The decorations are not congested, but there are relatively more of them in the sitting room than in other rooms in the house. In the bed room, the decorations are minimal or none at all. In most cases, the bedroom is supposed to depict a calm environment, where one can sleep soundly. Too much decoration in the bedroom could translate into the distracting noise preventing calm sleep. The kitchen has completely no decorations, since there is serenity expected in this place. In the ancient Chinese design, kitchens were not decorated as well (Xujie 55).
The use of flowers and perfumes to keep the living room in good condition are ideas borrowed from the ancient Chinese interior design. In modern approaches, fresh flowers or industry manufactured flowers are used. In the place of incense burner and box of incense powder, modern design uses perfumers and aerosols to keep the pleasant fragrance. However, the sweet fragrance in modern designs is not an adornment of the living room table. The perfume is kept on the wall or in a cabinet, and then switched on or sprayed when needed.
The modern architecture is borrowing some ideas from the ancient Chinese interior designs and improving them to give birth to new ideas. The incorporation of aquariums in the walls, floors or windows of houses is an idea borrowed from the ancient Chinese interior architecture, which has been improved tremendously. The Chinese obsession with natural beauty gave birth to the idea of an aquarium to add clamor to the interior of the house. Chinese designers employed features that were in existence, like carvings and paints on canvas, to add clamor to the houses. Modern designers are improving the use of the Chinese designers’ ideas in the contemporary setting (Xujie 55).
In conclusion, the ancient Chinese interior architecture is one of its kind. After being in practice for many years in the east, it is spreading fast to other parts of the world. Currently, the aspects of the ancient Chinese interior design are applied in other regions as well as. Regardless of the current demand for housing, which dictates the use of the western design, the ancient Chinese interior design is remaining extremely popular (Steinhardt 234). The Chinese exterior design emphasized width rather than length, hence it could not fit in the current global demand for housing. The western design, which emphasizes length and depth rather than width, is appropriate and used today. Along with these western approaches, the early Chinese interior is overshadowing the way the inside of the houses looks. The most elegant houses or those of the middle-class occupants depict some themes in line with the ancient Chinese interior. The fixtures and fittings, as well as furniture in modern designed houses, the decorations on the walls also borrow a lot from the ancient Chinese design. Most walls in modern houses have works of art depicting natural beauty. The idea of painted walls to depict natural beauty has its origin in the ancient Chinese design. Although modern designs focus little on pictures and scripts hanging on the walls, there are many other features that relate directly to the Chinese interior design. As time passes, new ways of decorating are becoming common. However, the early Chinese interior architecture continues to be influential and robust. There is no other building technology that has been practiced for such a long time. Most designs lost their impact quickly, but the Chinese interior design remains relevant throughout the centuries. | <urn:uuid:4afdc5cb-14fe-4ff8-9ae0-62ce71a336a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-leader.com/essays/art/ancient-chinese-interior-architecture-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.980615 | 3,513 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.081467725336... | 5 | Ancient Chinese Interior Architecture
The ancient Chinese interior design was based on three ideas: structure, function, and decoration. The design of any interior setting of a building or room was determined by its specific function. In reference to the purpose intended for the room, certain decorations patterns were followed. The structure of almost all Chinese buildings was similar. The interior design of Chinese houses was mainly decorated by the wood work, which could have stone carvings. The structure of these houses was relatively small, with small rooms partitioned without being emphasized by the walls. The walls only served for partitioning. The structure was uniform for almost all forms of houses, regardless of their function. Chinese designers took into considerations the seasons of the year, incorporating structures that would adapt to the seasons. Therefore, Chines interior design was not permanent in many ways. There were some features in the structure that would change as seasons changed. Chinese designers put emphasis on furniture arrangement in the buildings, which was part of the architecture of the ancient Chinese design. Above all, decoration was key in the ancient Chinese interior architecture. Decoration was chosen in proportion to the size of the building, the season, or timing and the function. There were various things that could be used for decoration in the ancient Chinese interior. These ancient Chinese traditions existed for many years, contributing to the modern interior ideas. As now western designs are the most common, the ancient Chinese interior design is still influencing some bits of the western designs. Currently, most buildings are constructed in a combination of the western architecture, which suits the high demands for modern housing, and the Chinese interior architecture, which makes the buildings look attractive. This essay will look into the nature of the ancient Chinese interior design and the way it influencing modern interior architecture.
Chinese architecture is a unique form of designing and construction, which has been preserved and practiced for many years. The modern architecture of China draws features from the ancient traditions, since the Chinese people have a way of preserving the old customs considering them valuable. The ancient structures were simple but beautiful and expensive. They were designed to last. The emperors are known to have hired or forced experts to construct the finest buildings. Records reveal that there were architectural drawings of two-dimensional buildings that date back to the first millennium.
In the mid-Neolithic era, the walls of buildings were constructed using bricks and rammed earth. This technology was very common, and the constructors worked on houses using this approach. Since this era, earth layers have been pounded to construct alters, walls, as well as foundations. The Chinese people built houses in this manner for the following several millennia.
The interior decorations were done emphasizing the natural beauty of the housing area. The walls were painted by the Chinese artists, who had a wide understanding of the subject. The paintings were those of the emperors’ portraits, clouds, mountains, seas, trees, rivers, famous personalities, etc. It is known that the Chinese are very creative. The rich people had to make their houses look original. The specialists would paint the houses with various colors, such as red that depicted royalty. The furniture in the rooms also had to show that the owner loved natural beauty. Some were even known to have their entire family pictures painted in the inside sections of the houses’ walls. Animal pictures, like lions, tigers, antelopes and giraffes, were also widely used in decoration. Sea shells, stone, and wood carvings were placed on tables inside the houses. The houses had ceilings that also demonstrated love for natural beauty. Stone patterns were used in these decorations. There was a wide range of stone patterns from which builders could choose. There were also stone portal decorations that were extracted from real stones to make the interior even more attractive. Dragon pictures were also common, especially in the monks’ houses. Dragons were considered some of the greatest creatures in the ancient China. Having their pictures on the walls was of high value.
Another feature that was applied in sphere of Chinese interior design was wooden architecture. The finest hardwood was selected to create beautiful interior designs. The timber was smoothened and then interlocked to establish an interior design that had an attractive and expensive look. Rich families had their houses furnished and decorated using wood painted in various colors. There were many classes of wood used depending on the financial ability of the owner. The way the architects placed the wood in position remains a mystery. What is definite is that the work was always done in the most perfect way. In the ancient times the wooden walls defined the enclosure. There were instances when construction was done using other materials, such as bricks, and then timber was placed as a decoration on top of the main material. Other buildings were made of pure wood, and then the inside was covered by the special kind of glowing decorating wood.
In general, the ancient Chinese design had a bilateral symmetric form. The symmetrical form was most noticeable in the interior design, but it also included some additional aspects. The arrangement of furniture, décor, and colors in the rooms usually had a symmetrical shape. In the cases when the living room had two bed-couches, they were arranged symmetrically on each side of the table. The flowers on the table were also arranged in the symmetrical manner. In the bedroom, where there were normally two bed-couches, two stools and a lantern, the arrangement was symmetrical as well. Paintings on the wall were also proportionate. The perfect arrangement of all design related to the aspects of balance and symmetry.
When designing any room in the house, the designers had in mind the intended function of the room. The function of the room determined its size and future look. While designing the interior of the room, the professionals considered the function and incorporated the bilateral symmetric idea. Therefore, each room took a shape that would allow bilateral symmetric arrangement of the items designed for its function. The function also dictated the furniture that would be put in the room, as well as the paintings on the walls and other aspects of interior design. The function of the room was the sole determinant of its size, shape and appearance. The paintings in the living room were different from those in the bedroom, since they were intended for different purposes.
The ancient Chinese interior architecture majored in little rooms, with a living room being the most magnificent. Other rooms were considerably small and the hallway was narrow. The hallway had only a single painting or script, while all the other rooms had more. When a small room is crowded with decorations, it seems unproportionate. Bedrooms, which were considerably small, had no noticeable décor. The living room could have two scrolls hanging on the wall, but not opposite the each other. Hanging scrolls opposite to each other did not appear as a proper arrangement. The living room could have more than two scrolls. The study room could have one or two scrolls or pieces of décor, but not more. In most cases, small rooms in the ancient Chinese design did not contain any décor. The carving of Buddha, which was not considered as a decoration, could sometimes be found in a small room. In most cases, the carving or painting of Buddha was found in the living room. Small rooms only contained a few pieces of furniture, designed in line with the function of the room. The décor of small rooms seemed to be out of proportion.
The ancient Chinese architecture emphasized the minimal use of furniture. Furniture is one of the most important aspects of the room design. If a lot of furniture is applied throughout the room, it looks very detailed. In the Chinese interior design, the minimum possible furniture was a priority. The living room had just one table with few a chairs and a bed-couch. At times it could have a cabinet, but mostly cabinets were arranged in the study rooms. Even in the study room, too many book racks or cabinets resembled a public study place. Therefore, the study room contained a reading table, several chairs, and a cabinet with neatly arranged books. Instead of using a lot of furniture and detail, ancient Chinese designers emphasized a proper quality arrangement, which would make the room adhere to the standards. The small size of the furniture in the ancient Chinese design is attributable to the small size of the houses. However, the small size of the rooms was not intended for small furniture. The idea behind little furniture was quality instead of quantity. The ancient Chinese interior designer stressed the quality of the furniture and its arrangement, rather than the number of its pieces.
The ancient Chinese interior decoration took into consideration seasons of the year. Decorations in the house were changed according to the time of the year. For winter, the windows had curtains made of bamboo, which was not the case for the summer. During summer, the curtains were made of cloth. The decorations in the living room were made of bronze during the summer, while during winter such decorations were put in storage, allowing ceramic decorations to be used. Flowers were mostly present during the summer with the proper floral arrangement. The flower bouquet was composed of one or two types of flowers. The flowers would change according to the seasons. In addition, some of the decorations were rooted in religious beliefs. Such decorations would change with the altering of religious seasons. The incense burner and the incense powder box were also used as decorations on the table seasonally. During winter they were used more than during the summer to supplement the lacking flower decorations. However, some decorations were permanent, since they were believed to have supernatural powers and to bring good fortune to the house. Such decorations were never removed regardless of season (Knapp 176). Such decorations were the god of the doorway, as well as bats and some fruit. Therefore, seasons were an important consideration in the ancient Chinese architecture.
In the ancient Chinese interior design, tables were adorned with flowers and incense burners. The use of flowers, incense burners and box of incense was an important detail of the Chinese interior décor. However, the table in the living room was not complete with them. The flowers were kept at a safe distance from the burner, since the smoke could affect the flowers. They added to the clamor of the house, while the box of incense powder and the incense burner ensured that a sweet fragrance filled the room. The flowers adorning the table were fresh, which gave the living room a natural touch (Steinhardt 246).
The ancient Chinese interior design was made of wood framework, and modern designers have borrowed from this idea considerably. Modern houses have walls painted to appear as if they are made of wood. Brick walls are plastered and then painted using high art painting skills to appear as if they are made of plywood or normal wood. This wood framework has also been incorporated into some buildings. The walls get tiled with tiles that resemble wooden material. The appearance reminding of woodwork idea is an inclination towards natural beauty. Wood is one of the oldest materials used in construction. Modifying other materials to resemble wooden work comes from the ancient Chinese ideas of architecture (Weston 319).
Modern interior designs depict less furniture, the same way ancient Chinese interior architecture emphasized the use of less furniture. Arranging a few appropriate furniture parts in the right place gives a house and its rooms an attractive look, as opposed to the crowded look. The Chinese living room was furnished with a bed-couch, a table, and a few chairs. Modern living rooms are furnished with a set of sofas around a coffee table. There is a cabinet by the wall that matches the rest of the furniture. In some houses, the living room may have a dining table at one corner of the room. Modern rooms are spacious, as opposed to the ancient Chinese rooms, making it possible for modern rooms to accommodate more furniture. Even if it accommodates more furniture, it is still less referenced to the size of the room. Modern interior designs are asymmetrical, opposed to the ancient Chinese design, which was symmetrical. The Chinese bedroom had one or two bed-couches, a clothes-rack, two low tools, a table and a lantern. A modern bed room has one big bed, a wardrobe - either inbuilt into the wall of the house or separate, a dressing table, and a mirror. These few pieces of furniture ensure that the bedroom is not crowded and that it maintains a calm space for people to sleep in.
In modern designs, the walls of most houses have paintings that are theme-based, with creative images of nature. In the ancient Chinese interior architecture, walls were painted using high art skills in order to bring out the natural beauty of the skies, or clouds, or other natural features. Similarly, in modern designs, even though new painting features are in place, the paintings on the walls may be of the ocean, the sky, or other natural beauties. Plain walls are painted to take the forms of ocean waves, which relates to the themes that used to be painted in the ancient Chinese design. In addition, the decoration of modern houses goes in line with the pictures on the wall, reinforcing the same theme. Similarly, in the ancient Chinese interior design, the decorations in the house or room coincided with the main idea behind the art work. Similarly to the ancient Chinese interior architecture, sitting room walls carry most of the decorations in terms of paintings and carvings, while other rooms have very little or no pictures.
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The decorations in modern rooms and houses result from the intended purpose or function of the room. In line with ancient Chinese interior architectures, modern design also emphasizes on the application of decorations in line with the intended function of the house or building. Similarly to the ancient Chinese interior architecture, modern houses are also decorated depending on the purpose of the room. Living rooms contain lively decorations, flowers, curtains, carvings, and other things that depict life. The decorations are not congested, but there are relatively more of them in the sitting room than in other rooms in the house. In the bed room, the decorations are minimal or none at all. In most cases, the bedroom is supposed to depict a calm environment, where one can sleep soundly. Too much decoration in the bedroom could translate into the distracting noise preventing calm sleep. The kitchen has completely no decorations, since there is serenity expected in this place. In the ancient Chinese design, kitchens were not decorated as well (Xujie 55).
The use of flowers and perfumes to keep the living room in good condition are ideas borrowed from the ancient Chinese interior design. In modern approaches, fresh flowers or industry manufactured flowers are used. In the place of incense burner and box of incense powder, modern design uses perfumers and aerosols to keep the pleasant fragrance. However, the sweet fragrance in modern designs is not an adornment of the living room table. The perfume is kept on the wall or in a cabinet, and then switched on or sprayed when needed.
The modern architecture is borrowing some ideas from the ancient Chinese interior designs and improving them to give birth to new ideas. The incorporation of aquariums in the walls, floors or windows of houses is an idea borrowed from the ancient Chinese interior architecture, which has been improved tremendously. The Chinese obsession with natural beauty gave birth to the idea of an aquarium to add clamor to the interior of the house. Chinese designers employed features that were in existence, like carvings and paints on canvas, to add clamor to the houses. Modern designers are improving the use of the Chinese designers’ ideas in the contemporary setting (Xujie 55).
In conclusion, the ancient Chinese interior architecture is one of its kind. After being in practice for many years in the east, it is spreading fast to other parts of the world. Currently, the aspects of the ancient Chinese interior design are applied in other regions as well as. Regardless of the current demand for housing, which dictates the use of the western design, the ancient Chinese interior design is remaining extremely popular (Steinhardt 234). The Chinese exterior design emphasized width rather than length, hence it could not fit in the current global demand for housing. The western design, which emphasizes length and depth rather than width, is appropriate and used today. Along with these western approaches, the early Chinese interior is overshadowing the way the inside of the houses looks. The most elegant houses or those of the middle-class occupants depict some themes in line with the ancient Chinese interior. The fixtures and fittings, as well as furniture in modern designed houses, the decorations on the walls also borrow a lot from the ancient Chinese design. Most walls in modern houses have works of art depicting natural beauty. The idea of painted walls to depict natural beauty has its origin in the ancient Chinese design. Although modern designs focus little on pictures and scripts hanging on the walls, there are many other features that relate directly to the Chinese interior design. As time passes, new ways of decorating are becoming common. However, the early Chinese interior architecture continues to be influential and robust. There is no other building technology that has been practiced for such a long time. Most designs lost their impact quickly, but the Chinese interior design remains relevant throughout the centuries. | 3,479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Impact of the economic blockade on Germany AFTER the armistice and how it led to WW2. Our speaker will cover the following
The blockade was maintained for eight months after the Armistice in November 1918, into the following year of 1919. According to the New Cambridge Modern History food imports into Germany were controlled by the Allies after the Armistice with Germany until Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. From January 1919 to March 1919, Germany refused to agree to the demand by the Allies that Germany surrender its merchant ships to Allied ports to transport food supplies. Germans considered the armistice a temporary cessation of the war. They feared that, if fighting broke out again, the ships would be confiscated outright. In January, hoping to buy time, the German government notified an American representative in Berlin that the shortage of food would not become critical until late spring. Facing food riots at home, German finally agreed to surrender its fleet on 14 March 1919. The Allies allowed Germany, under their supervision, to import 300,000 tons of grain and 70,000 tons of cured pork per month until August 1919. ] In April this food from America arrived in Germany.] The restrictions on food imports were finally lifted on 12 July 1919 after Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles.
Speaker this month -- Dr Graham Kemp
Dr Kemp is an assistant manager and tour guide at Lancaster Castle. He is also an amateur naval historian who has researched the Allied blockade for the past forty years, and has given many talks on the Great War. He has amassed a large library on the War, from which he draws his research for his most popular talk on the impact of the Blockade. Dr Kemp is the chairman of the North Lancs. Western Front Association | <urn:uuid:d26dcd4f-a43f-4bde-8ab6-d8fb9232550d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.westernfrontassociation.com/branches/united-kingdom/chesterfield/events/impact-of-the-economic-blockade-on-germany-after-the-armistice-by-graham-kemp/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00139.warc.gz | en | 0.980255 | 356 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.15278948843479... | 6 | Impact of the economic blockade on Germany AFTER the armistice and how it led to WW2. Our speaker will cover the following
The blockade was maintained for eight months after the Armistice in November 1918, into the following year of 1919. According to the New Cambridge Modern History food imports into Germany were controlled by the Allies after the Armistice with Germany until Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. From January 1919 to March 1919, Germany refused to agree to the demand by the Allies that Germany surrender its merchant ships to Allied ports to transport food supplies. Germans considered the armistice a temporary cessation of the war. They feared that, if fighting broke out again, the ships would be confiscated outright. In January, hoping to buy time, the German government notified an American representative in Berlin that the shortage of food would not become critical until late spring. Facing food riots at home, German finally agreed to surrender its fleet on 14 March 1919. The Allies allowed Germany, under their supervision, to import 300,000 tons of grain and 70,000 tons of cured pork per month until August 1919. ] In April this food from America arrived in Germany.] The restrictions on food imports were finally lifted on 12 July 1919 after Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles.
Speaker this month -- Dr Graham Kemp
Dr Kemp is an assistant manager and tour guide at Lancaster Castle. He is also an amateur naval historian who has researched the Allied blockade for the past forty years, and has given many talks on the Great War. He has amassed a large library on the War, from which he draws his research for his most popular talk on the impact of the Blockade. Dr Kemp is the chairman of the North Lancs. Western Front Association | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Richard Hofstadter’s essay “Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth” was published as the fifth chapter of his book, The American Political Tradition, in 1948. This essay is the best-known section of the book and is often taught and anthologized as a discrete text.
Hofstadter begins by noting that Abraham Lincoln and his legend have a unique hold on the American imagination. Lincoln is often seen as a Christ-like figure, a paragon of virtue destroyed at the peak of his success. Part of the Lincoln mythology has always been his image as a common man, one of humble origins who achieved dazzling success without losing his humanity or relatability. The simplicity was genuine, but Lincoln was not unaware of it or the effect that it created. Hofstadter points out that one of the most striking aspects of Lincoln’s life is how early and how completely he devoted himself to politics, making political speeches on the stump from the age of fifteen. He first ran for office when he was twenty-three, and for practically all his life was “busy either as officeholder or office-seeker.” He was a politically orthodox Whig, rather than the maverick he is sometimes imagined to be. He was always calculating and planning his career.
Although Lincoln was from a humble background, Hofstadter points out that “Lincoln belonged to the party of rank and privilege.” His rise through the political ranks was relatively easy, facilitated as it was by wealthy, powerful friends and backers. Many of his instincts were broadly conservative and he was critical of those radical abolitionists who were prepared to break the law in order to end slavery. Lincoln was “moderately hostile” to slavery but it did not attack it openly until after the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and anecdotes about his youthful vows to hit slavery “and hit it hard” are difficult to pin down. Hofstadter puts some emphasis on the fact that:
On October 4, 1854, at the age of forty-five, Lincoln for the first time in his life denounced slavery in public. [Author’s italics.]
Lincoln’s principal concern at this stage was to stop the spread of slavery to the North. Although he was against this expansion on principle, believing slavery to be endemically wrong, it was also a politically expedient position. The anti-expansion position had much more widespread support among Northern Republicans than straightforward abolitionism, since the latter would have damaged them economically. In his speeches at this point in his career and in his debates with Douglas, Lincoln continually relied on the dangers of extending slavery to the North, as a safe way to oppose the institution. The Republicans at this time began to accuse the Democrats of wanting to extend slavery to white people in the North, a very effective way of concentrating the minds of white working class voters against the institution of slavery in general. This type of rhetorical attack,...
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0.424327522516... | 1 | Richard Hofstadter’s essay “Abraham Lincoln and the Self-Made Myth” was published as the fifth chapter of his book, The American Political Tradition, in 1948. This essay is the best-known section of the book and is often taught and anthologized as a discrete text.
Hofstadter begins by noting that Abraham Lincoln and his legend have a unique hold on the American imagination. Lincoln is often seen as a Christ-like figure, a paragon of virtue destroyed at the peak of his success. Part of the Lincoln mythology has always been his image as a common man, one of humble origins who achieved dazzling success without losing his humanity or relatability. The simplicity was genuine, but Lincoln was not unaware of it or the effect that it created. Hofstadter points out that one of the most striking aspects of Lincoln’s life is how early and how completely he devoted himself to politics, making political speeches on the stump from the age of fifteen. He first ran for office when he was twenty-three, and for practically all his life was “busy either as officeholder or office-seeker.” He was a politically orthodox Whig, rather than the maverick he is sometimes imagined to be. He was always calculating and planning his career.
Although Lincoln was from a humble background, Hofstadter points out that “Lincoln belonged to the party of rank and privilege.” His rise through the political ranks was relatively easy, facilitated as it was by wealthy, powerful friends and backers. Many of his instincts were broadly conservative and he was critical of those radical abolitionists who were prepared to break the law in order to end slavery. Lincoln was “moderately hostile” to slavery but it did not attack it openly until after the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and anecdotes about his youthful vows to hit slavery “and hit it hard” are difficult to pin down. Hofstadter puts some emphasis on the fact that:
On October 4, 1854, at the age of forty-five, Lincoln for the first time in his life denounced slavery in public. [Author’s italics.]
Lincoln’s principal concern at this stage was to stop the spread of slavery to the North. Although he was against this expansion on principle, believing slavery to be endemically wrong, it was also a politically expedient position. The anti-expansion position had much more widespread support among Northern Republicans than straightforward abolitionism, since the latter would have damaged them economically. In his speeches at this point in his career and in his debates with Douglas, Lincoln continually relied on the dangers of extending slavery to the North, as a safe way to oppose the institution. The Republicans at this time began to accuse the Democrats of wanting to extend slavery to white people in the North, a very effective way of concentrating the minds of white working class voters against the institution of slavery in general. This type of rhetorical attack,...
(The entire section is 734 words.) | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the Nazi occupation years, when humanity was being trampled, and marauding and murder were rampant, when all effort was put toward turning the inhabitants of occupied lands into obedient and unfeeling creatures, meeting a dedicated person who dared to resist the spreading hatred seemed like a miracle to the unjustly persecuted. Jonas Paulavičius, indomitable enemy of the Nazi regime and veteran volunteer of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, went on to become such a miracle to twelve Kaunas Jews, two Russian POWs, and two persecuted Lithuanians. Jonas made a decision: the only way to resist the terror of the Nazis and their helpers was to save at least several Jews who were suffering at the hands of the Nazis and whose lives were at risk.
Jonas Paulavičius was born in 1898 to a family of poor peasants. He learned the trade of the carpenter in his teenage years and could earn a living by himself, thus becoming self-sufficient and independent at a young age. After Lithuania declared independence in 1918, it soon became clear that, without a military of its own, Lithuanian statehood was doomed. During the period of its initial formation and the first stage of battles against the Bolsheviks, the Lithuanian military was comprised of 3,000 volunteers who responded to the December 27, 1918, call issued by the Government: Lithuania is in Danger. Jonas Paulavičius was among the brave men who volunteered immediately to fight for the freedom of Lithuania.
After the 1919-1920 Wars of Independence, most volunteers came back home, established families, and started new lives on the plots of land assigned to the defenders of the Lithuanian state. Jonas was assigned a plot of 30 acres in the Kaunas suburb of Panemunė, at the end of Vaidoto street. His land bordered the Nemunas river on the one side and Vaidoto street on the other. At the time, Panemunė was considered to be on the outskirts of the city. On this land, Jonas built a house with his own hands, in which he lived with his wife Antanina and their two children Danutė and Kęstutis.
In 1941, the first year of the Soviet occupation, Jonas Paulavičius worked as a carpenter in the Šančiai railway workshop. There, he was elected to the committee of the railway workers’ trade union. Ideals of equality and fraternity were important to Jonas. Politically he leaned to the left, although not a member of the Communist Party himself. Before the war he aided its leaders who were persecuted by the Lithuanian secret police; sometimes the communists would hold meetings at the Paulavičius home. Such activities almost cost Jonas his life. In June, 1941, when Nazi Germany declared war on the Soviet Union and first German soldiers showed up in Kaunas, so-called “partisans” started persecuting Jews and Communists. Jonas Paulavičius was also arrested, but he managed to convince the German officer that he was not in the Communist Party and that his work in the trade union was not political. Jonas was released, but it was clear to him that he had been one step away from death. Despite this realization, Jonas still couldn’t remain a passive spectator.
The writer M. Eglinis (Meir Yelin, Mejeris Jelinas) in his article “Victory of Humanity” (Tiesa, March, 1945) explains Jonas’s decision to save Jews: “On August 18, 1941, in the Fourth Fort, which was not far from Paulavičius’s home, the Germans and their local helpers shot 534 Jewish intellectuals from the Kovno Ghetto. During the massacre, one of the condemned managed to escape his executioners and went on running through the streets of Panemunė. The murderers, however, caught up with him and shot him in the middle of the street. Paulavičius saw it all and swore to himself to dedicate all his strength to saving the unfortunate.”
Jonas Paulavičius’s dedication to saving people was also described well by Yochanan Fein, one of the Jews saved by the Paulavičius family. In his book Boy with a Violin, he writes: “Jonas was a simple man, a worker with no formal education, but had a complicated personality. Jonas’s talks would sometimes contradict his actions. The Communist worldview undoubtedly influenced his convictions, but that was neither the most important nor really the only factor. His convictions were mostly based on emotions and had no ideological roots. His loyalty to certain people, including members of the then illegal Communist Party, were so much more important than any ideology. First of all, he was loyal to the human being, whatever that may be, and he had never betrayed this principle.”
Who were those twelve Jews, saved by Jonas Paulavičius and his family? Each of them walked their own path of suffering and loss to Paulavičius’s home and came there from different directions. The first were the Šamesai (Shames) family, who arrived there via their former neighbor in Šančiai; they were looking for people who could shelter their four-year-old son Šimelė (Shímale). Former neighbors refused to accept the boy under their roof, but suggested contacting Jonas Paulavičius who lived in a more remote part of town; after having counselled with his wife Antanina, Jonas agreed to accept the boy. Unfortunately, the boy, who could speak only Yiddish, would do nothing but cry in the new environment, and Jonas passed a message through engineer Aaron Neimark to the parents, urging them to take the child back to the ghetto. When the parents refused, he suggested they escape the ghetto as soon as possible and all come to hide in his home in Panemunė. That’s how Lena and Itzchok Šamesai, together with their son Šimelė and Lena’s mother, whose family name was Fainzilber, came to stay at the Paulavičius’ home.
After choosing saving Jews as a means of fighting the Nazis, Jonas took some time to think and came to a conclusion:
Since he won’t be able to save all Jews, he will concentrate on saving some educated ones—doctors, engineers—because after such a massive catastrophe, the Jewish nation would need leaders able to restore the destroyed community. He shared his thoughts with Itzchok Šames, who in turn suggested to his acquaintances, the doctors Chaim and Tania Ipp, to escape the ghetto and come hide at Paulavičius’s place. Although the Ipps found Jonas’s plan of saving educated Jews suspicious, having had miraculously survived many massacre Aktionen in the ghetto, they decided to risk it one more time. Chaim Ipp met Jonas Paulavičius in the city and told him that they have no money either for food or for paying him, but Jonas responded that he needs no money and clarified his motivation. After several days, Chaim and Tania Ipp escaped the ghetto and made it to the Paulavičius home.
Yochanan Fein, then a fourteen-year-old boy, came to the Paulavičius home at the suggestion of Jonas’s son Kęstutis. He used to go to the same school with Yochanan and remembered him as a genius at the violin. Jonas Paulavičius again used Aaron Neimark to pass the suggestion to Yochanan, who lived at the ghetto at the time, to come and hide in Panemunė. Such a suggestion from a complete stranger astonished not only Yochanan and his sister Judith but their whole family as well. Some time was needed to consider the offer. After the Kinder Aktion which took place in the Kovno Ghetto on March 27 and 28, 1944, during which Yochanan managed to jump out of the bus that was bringing the children to their death, it was decided to organize his escape from the ghetto and transfer to Paulavičius’s home. With help from Paulavičius’s son Kęstutis, the plan was carried out successfully.
After she escaped from the Kovno Ghetto, Aaron Neimark’s wife Mania was met by Jonas Paulavičius in a pre-arranged place in the city. They agreed that Jonas would walk first and Mania would follow him: if Mania was spotted and arrested by the Nazis, Jonas would not turn back and keep walking, since the fates of many other escapees depend on him. They successfully walked more than ten kilometers to Jonas’s home. Soon, Mania’s husband, the engineer Aaron Neimark, joined those hiding in Panemunė.
Three more Jews escaped the prisoners’ procession when they were being brought to Panemunė over a bridge from Šančiai, where the Šančiai concentration camp was being liquidated. They were the Orrthodox Jew Dovid Rubin, the eighteen-year old girl Miriam Šumacher (later Krakinovski), and Riva Katavušnik. Jonas closely observed each group of the condemned that were brought via Panemunė to the trains or the Fourth Fort, saw what was happening, and brought the escapees to the hiding place almost against their will.
Two Russian POWs served as guards in the Šančiai concentration camp. During the liquidation of the camp, they escaped and came to Paulavičius. Two Lithuanians, condemned by the Nazis, also escaped the procession of the condemned and came to hide at Paulavičius’s place.
During the whole period of the Nazi occupation, neither Jonas Paulavičius nor his family members told anyone about the hideouts or their inhabitants. Neighbors and relatives only got to know about it all when the Red Army marched into Panemunė and pale, almost naked people started coming out from the hideouts. Jonas prepared for hiding Jews with great care; he set up four hideouts: the large main hideout was in a hole under the foundation of the house, set up with help from son Kęstutis. For several nights, they had been digging the hole and secretly bringing the soil that was removed to the river. Other hideouts were set up in the attic between the pitched roof and the wall, in a hole by Vaidoto street, and under tomato beds in the garden. Jonas’s efforts were always aided by his wife Antanina who worked hard every day to take care of and feed a crowd of people.
After the war, the Jews saved by the Paulavičius’ family went in different directions: Yochanan Fein, Aaron Neimark, Mania Neimark (later Gershenman), and Dovid Rubin went to Israel. Chaim and Tania Ipp migrated to South Africa. After Dr. Chaim Ipp was killed in an automobile accident, Tania Ipp moved to Jerusalem. The Šames family settled in Peru. Miriam Krakinovski settled in the USA.
The life of the Paulavičius family after the war was, sadly, not a happy one. During the spring floods of 1946, the icy waters of the Nemunas picked up Jonas’s house from its concrete foundations and it literally floated away, leaving intact just the shed which eerily stood by the bushes. After having done some work on it, Jonas and his family went on to live in this shed for several years. In 1947, Jonas’s daughter Danutė, then only 21 years old, died of tuberculosis.
Then, on May 1, 1952, an unknown perpetrator came at night by the open window of the Paulavičius house and shot the sleeping Jonas Paulavičius in the head. The crime remains unsolved and the murderer went unpunished. The death of Jonas Paulavičius was a tragic event to all the people whom he had saved.
After the war, Lithuanian, Polish, Israeli, and American media outlets wrote about Jonas Paulavičius. Most of the rescued people renewed their connections with Kęstutis Paulavičius; they dedicated a lot of love and attention to Antanina Paulavičienė, who in turn visited her “children” in Israel in 1988. Jonas Paulavičius, his wife Antanina, son Kęstutis, and daughter Danutė are named Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem; the Republic of Lithuania has awarded them the Life Saving Cross.
However, the most prominent monument to the memory of Jonas Paulavičius is Yochanan Fein’s book Boy with a Violin. It was presented by the Israeli-based author in Kaunas and at the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum in Vilnius in October, 2017. | <urn:uuid:d7e4ae09-825b-403f-bc05-1d1b79da4998> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://defendinghistory.com/jonas-paulavicius-volunteered-a-century-ago-for-lithuanias-war-of-independence-went-on-to-save-16-people-during-the-holocaust/97189 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.980907 | 2,749 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.56779229640960... | 12 | During the Nazi occupation years, when humanity was being trampled, and marauding and murder were rampant, when all effort was put toward turning the inhabitants of occupied lands into obedient and unfeeling creatures, meeting a dedicated person who dared to resist the spreading hatred seemed like a miracle to the unjustly persecuted. Jonas Paulavičius, indomitable enemy of the Nazi regime and veteran volunteer of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, went on to become such a miracle to twelve Kaunas Jews, two Russian POWs, and two persecuted Lithuanians. Jonas made a decision: the only way to resist the terror of the Nazis and their helpers was to save at least several Jews who were suffering at the hands of the Nazis and whose lives were at risk.
Jonas Paulavičius was born in 1898 to a family of poor peasants. He learned the trade of the carpenter in his teenage years and could earn a living by himself, thus becoming self-sufficient and independent at a young age. After Lithuania declared independence in 1918, it soon became clear that, without a military of its own, Lithuanian statehood was doomed. During the period of its initial formation and the first stage of battles against the Bolsheviks, the Lithuanian military was comprised of 3,000 volunteers who responded to the December 27, 1918, call issued by the Government: Lithuania is in Danger. Jonas Paulavičius was among the brave men who volunteered immediately to fight for the freedom of Lithuania.
After the 1919-1920 Wars of Independence, most volunteers came back home, established families, and started new lives on the plots of land assigned to the defenders of the Lithuanian state. Jonas was assigned a plot of 30 acres in the Kaunas suburb of Panemunė, at the end of Vaidoto street. His land bordered the Nemunas river on the one side and Vaidoto street on the other. At the time, Panemunė was considered to be on the outskirts of the city. On this land, Jonas built a house with his own hands, in which he lived with his wife Antanina and their two children Danutė and Kęstutis.
In 1941, the first year of the Soviet occupation, Jonas Paulavičius worked as a carpenter in the Šančiai railway workshop. There, he was elected to the committee of the railway workers’ trade union. Ideals of equality and fraternity were important to Jonas. Politically he leaned to the left, although not a member of the Communist Party himself. Before the war he aided its leaders who were persecuted by the Lithuanian secret police; sometimes the communists would hold meetings at the Paulavičius home. Such activities almost cost Jonas his life. In June, 1941, when Nazi Germany declared war on the Soviet Union and first German soldiers showed up in Kaunas, so-called “partisans” started persecuting Jews and Communists. Jonas Paulavičius was also arrested, but he managed to convince the German officer that he was not in the Communist Party and that his work in the trade union was not political. Jonas was released, but it was clear to him that he had been one step away from death. Despite this realization, Jonas still couldn’t remain a passive spectator.
The writer M. Eglinis (Meir Yelin, Mejeris Jelinas) in his article “Victory of Humanity” (Tiesa, March, 1945) explains Jonas’s decision to save Jews: “On August 18, 1941, in the Fourth Fort, which was not far from Paulavičius’s home, the Germans and their local helpers shot 534 Jewish intellectuals from the Kovno Ghetto. During the massacre, one of the condemned managed to escape his executioners and went on running through the streets of Panemunė. The murderers, however, caught up with him and shot him in the middle of the street. Paulavičius saw it all and swore to himself to dedicate all his strength to saving the unfortunate.”
Jonas Paulavičius’s dedication to saving people was also described well by Yochanan Fein, one of the Jews saved by the Paulavičius family. In his book Boy with a Violin, he writes: “Jonas was a simple man, a worker with no formal education, but had a complicated personality. Jonas’s talks would sometimes contradict his actions. The Communist worldview undoubtedly influenced his convictions, but that was neither the most important nor really the only factor. His convictions were mostly based on emotions and had no ideological roots. His loyalty to certain people, including members of the then illegal Communist Party, were so much more important than any ideology. First of all, he was loyal to the human being, whatever that may be, and he had never betrayed this principle.”
Who were those twelve Jews, saved by Jonas Paulavičius and his family? Each of them walked their own path of suffering and loss to Paulavičius’s home and came there from different directions. The first were the Šamesai (Shames) family, who arrived there via their former neighbor in Šančiai; they were looking for people who could shelter their four-year-old son Šimelė (Shímale). Former neighbors refused to accept the boy under their roof, but suggested contacting Jonas Paulavičius who lived in a more remote part of town; after having counselled with his wife Antanina, Jonas agreed to accept the boy. Unfortunately, the boy, who could speak only Yiddish, would do nothing but cry in the new environment, and Jonas passed a message through engineer Aaron Neimark to the parents, urging them to take the child back to the ghetto. When the parents refused, he suggested they escape the ghetto as soon as possible and all come to hide in his home in Panemunė. That’s how Lena and Itzchok Šamesai, together with their son Šimelė and Lena’s mother, whose family name was Fainzilber, came to stay at the Paulavičius’ home.
After choosing saving Jews as a means of fighting the Nazis, Jonas took some time to think and came to a conclusion:
Since he won’t be able to save all Jews, he will concentrate on saving some educated ones—doctors, engineers—because after such a massive catastrophe, the Jewish nation would need leaders able to restore the destroyed community. He shared his thoughts with Itzchok Šames, who in turn suggested to his acquaintances, the doctors Chaim and Tania Ipp, to escape the ghetto and come hide at Paulavičius’s place. Although the Ipps found Jonas’s plan of saving educated Jews suspicious, having had miraculously survived many massacre Aktionen in the ghetto, they decided to risk it one more time. Chaim Ipp met Jonas Paulavičius in the city and told him that they have no money either for food or for paying him, but Jonas responded that he needs no money and clarified his motivation. After several days, Chaim and Tania Ipp escaped the ghetto and made it to the Paulavičius home.
Yochanan Fein, then a fourteen-year-old boy, came to the Paulavičius home at the suggestion of Jonas’s son Kęstutis. He used to go to the same school with Yochanan and remembered him as a genius at the violin. Jonas Paulavičius again used Aaron Neimark to pass the suggestion to Yochanan, who lived at the ghetto at the time, to come and hide in Panemunė. Such a suggestion from a complete stranger astonished not only Yochanan and his sister Judith but their whole family as well. Some time was needed to consider the offer. After the Kinder Aktion which took place in the Kovno Ghetto on March 27 and 28, 1944, during which Yochanan managed to jump out of the bus that was bringing the children to their death, it was decided to organize his escape from the ghetto and transfer to Paulavičius’s home. With help from Paulavičius’s son Kęstutis, the plan was carried out successfully.
After she escaped from the Kovno Ghetto, Aaron Neimark’s wife Mania was met by Jonas Paulavičius in a pre-arranged place in the city. They agreed that Jonas would walk first and Mania would follow him: if Mania was spotted and arrested by the Nazis, Jonas would not turn back and keep walking, since the fates of many other escapees depend on him. They successfully walked more than ten kilometers to Jonas’s home. Soon, Mania’s husband, the engineer Aaron Neimark, joined those hiding in Panemunė.
Three more Jews escaped the prisoners’ procession when they were being brought to Panemunė over a bridge from Šančiai, where the Šančiai concentration camp was being liquidated. They were the Orrthodox Jew Dovid Rubin, the eighteen-year old girl Miriam Šumacher (later Krakinovski), and Riva Katavušnik. Jonas closely observed each group of the condemned that were brought via Panemunė to the trains or the Fourth Fort, saw what was happening, and brought the escapees to the hiding place almost against their will.
Two Russian POWs served as guards in the Šančiai concentration camp. During the liquidation of the camp, they escaped and came to Paulavičius. Two Lithuanians, condemned by the Nazis, also escaped the procession of the condemned and came to hide at Paulavičius’s place.
During the whole period of the Nazi occupation, neither Jonas Paulavičius nor his family members told anyone about the hideouts or their inhabitants. Neighbors and relatives only got to know about it all when the Red Army marched into Panemunė and pale, almost naked people started coming out from the hideouts. Jonas prepared for hiding Jews with great care; he set up four hideouts: the large main hideout was in a hole under the foundation of the house, set up with help from son Kęstutis. For several nights, they had been digging the hole and secretly bringing the soil that was removed to the river. Other hideouts were set up in the attic between the pitched roof and the wall, in a hole by Vaidoto street, and under tomato beds in the garden. Jonas’s efforts were always aided by his wife Antanina who worked hard every day to take care of and feed a crowd of people.
After the war, the Jews saved by the Paulavičius’ family went in different directions: Yochanan Fein, Aaron Neimark, Mania Neimark (later Gershenman), and Dovid Rubin went to Israel. Chaim and Tania Ipp migrated to South Africa. After Dr. Chaim Ipp was killed in an automobile accident, Tania Ipp moved to Jerusalem. The Šames family settled in Peru. Miriam Krakinovski settled in the USA.
The life of the Paulavičius family after the war was, sadly, not a happy one. During the spring floods of 1946, the icy waters of the Nemunas picked up Jonas’s house from its concrete foundations and it literally floated away, leaving intact just the shed which eerily stood by the bushes. After having done some work on it, Jonas and his family went on to live in this shed for several years. In 1947, Jonas’s daughter Danutė, then only 21 years old, died of tuberculosis.
Then, on May 1, 1952, an unknown perpetrator came at night by the open window of the Paulavičius house and shot the sleeping Jonas Paulavičius in the head. The crime remains unsolved and the murderer went unpunished. The death of Jonas Paulavičius was a tragic event to all the people whom he had saved.
After the war, Lithuanian, Polish, Israeli, and American media outlets wrote about Jonas Paulavičius. Most of the rescued people renewed their connections with Kęstutis Paulavičius; they dedicated a lot of love and attention to Antanina Paulavičienė, who in turn visited her “children” in Israel in 1988. Jonas Paulavičius, his wife Antanina, son Kęstutis, and daughter Danutė are named Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem; the Republic of Lithuania has awarded them the Life Saving Cross.
However, the most prominent monument to the memory of Jonas Paulavičius is Yochanan Fein’s book Boy with a Violin. It was presented by the Israeli-based author in Kaunas and at the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum in Vilnius in October, 2017. | 2,731 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Welsh hat worn by women as part of Welsh national costume is a tall stovepipe-style hat, similar to a top hat, or the capotain. It is still worn by women, and particularly schoolgirls, in Wales on St David's Day, but rarely on other occasions.
Two main shapes of Welsh hat were made during the 19th century: those with drum shaped (vertical sided) crowns were worn in north-west Wales, and those with slightly tapering crowns were found in the rest of Wales.
The Welsh hat first appeared during the 1830s. It is said that the Welsh hat was part of a traditional Welsh national costume propagated by Lady Llanover but it is unlikely that she had much influence on anyone other than her friends and servants.
The hat may have developed from a number of types of tall hat including the riding hat, which ladies wore during the early part of the 19th century, (as illustrated in the Llanover prints) but no evidence has been discovered which explains why, during the late 1830s, the tall hat with the stiff, flat brim, which is unique to the Welsh hat, replaced the other types of men’s hat worn by many rural women in Wales at the time.
By the late 1840s the Welsh hat had become an icon of Wales and was used in cartoons to represent Wales as a nation. It may be that the use of this exceptional headgear, worn by the women of rural Wales, as an icon of what was perceived by many as a male-dominated industrial society can be explained by the fact that it is such a simple and unique shape. Whatever the reason, it certainly brought forward the image of a happy, hearty, healthy, hard-working Welsh woman, who quite probably kept her family alive during difficult times. It became part of the national identity and was normally worn with the other elements of Welsh costume, especially the bedgown or betgwyn. It continued in use as an icon of Wales in tourist literature to this day.
The women's tall hats are often cited as a deciding factor in terminating the attempted Last invasion of Britain by Napoleonic forces in 1797. The French soldiers are said to have mistaken the women, seen at a distance returning from work in the fields, carrying pitchforks and wearing red shawls and tall Welsh hats, for a detachment of British "redcoats", whose uniform included tall black hats or shakoes. This is a possible misconception as the Welsh hat, in the form we know today at least, didn't exist as such, until much later. There is much anecdotal evidence to suggest that women in rural Wales had taken to wearing Stovepipe or Top Hats manufactured for men, by the 1790s as this article on the ceredigion county council website attests. Quite why the women in this one corner of the British Isles chose to adopt this traditional male headgear is unknown but it has been suggested that they were imitating the tall riding hats they saw gentlewomen wear while out riding.
Dating Welsh hatsEdit
It has proved very difficult to date silk Welsh hats; they were certainly being produced in significant numbers during the 1840s and it is possible that they went out of production only a decade or so later. Unlike other fashionable hats, the Welsh hat may well have been worn by its owner for many years and then passed down to succeeding generations. The large numbers of surviving hats (nearly 300 are known) implies that they were invested with much more than being just an expensive fashion item.
19th century Welsh hats were made in the same way and with the same materials as top hats. Most surviving examples were made by Christys of Stockport and London, and Carver and Co of Bristol who also made top hats. Some were made by Welsh hat makers. The shell was made of buckram (linen fabric), strengthened with shellac or resin and covered with black silk plush (sometimes confusingly known as beaver) but some were made of felt (originally beaver fur, but later fur from other animals). During the 20th century most Welsh hats for adults were made of card covered in black fabric but a few were made of felt especially for Welsh dance teams and women's choirs. Welsh hats for children are made of felt and are normally worn with a cotton or lace cap underneath or may have lace attached to the underside of the brim.
The Cockle HatEdit
There is an "alternative" women's hat for those who consider the traditional Welsh hat unflattering, in the form of a "cocklewoman's hat", a flat felt hat tied with ribbons on which women balanced the heavy baskets of cockles which they gathered from the coast around Carmarthen Bay when taking them home to cook, and thence to market.
A derived meaning of Welsh hat is an ancillary stack, usually black in colour and slightly conical, attached to the funnel of a ship to ensure cleaner disposal of exhaust from the engines. This arrangement was used in several passenger liners by the Orient Line in the 1950s.
- 'Cambrian costumes dedicated to the nobility and gentry of Wales',(a collection of prints published during the mid-1830s which show many of models wearing riding hats)
- Michael Freeman, ‘Lady Llanover and the Welsh Costume Prints’, The National Library of Wales Journal, xxxiv, no 2 2007, pp.235-251.
- Photo of a Welsh woman in a tall hat from Gathering the Jewels
- Articles on Welsh hats
- Welsh hat is depicted on the mug from Starbucks You Are Here series | <urn:uuid:b4da61ae-aa6b-4606-8790-be7893f93db7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_hat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.983453 | 1,183 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.1704998165369... | 1 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Welsh hat worn by women as part of Welsh national costume is a tall stovepipe-style hat, similar to a top hat, or the capotain. It is still worn by women, and particularly schoolgirls, in Wales on St David's Day, but rarely on other occasions.
Two main shapes of Welsh hat were made during the 19th century: those with drum shaped (vertical sided) crowns were worn in north-west Wales, and those with slightly tapering crowns were found in the rest of Wales.
The Welsh hat first appeared during the 1830s. It is said that the Welsh hat was part of a traditional Welsh national costume propagated by Lady Llanover but it is unlikely that she had much influence on anyone other than her friends and servants.
The hat may have developed from a number of types of tall hat including the riding hat, which ladies wore during the early part of the 19th century, (as illustrated in the Llanover prints) but no evidence has been discovered which explains why, during the late 1830s, the tall hat with the stiff, flat brim, which is unique to the Welsh hat, replaced the other types of men’s hat worn by many rural women in Wales at the time.
By the late 1840s the Welsh hat had become an icon of Wales and was used in cartoons to represent Wales as a nation. It may be that the use of this exceptional headgear, worn by the women of rural Wales, as an icon of what was perceived by many as a male-dominated industrial society can be explained by the fact that it is such a simple and unique shape. Whatever the reason, it certainly brought forward the image of a happy, hearty, healthy, hard-working Welsh woman, who quite probably kept her family alive during difficult times. It became part of the national identity and was normally worn with the other elements of Welsh costume, especially the bedgown or betgwyn. It continued in use as an icon of Wales in tourist literature to this day.
The women's tall hats are often cited as a deciding factor in terminating the attempted Last invasion of Britain by Napoleonic forces in 1797. The French soldiers are said to have mistaken the women, seen at a distance returning from work in the fields, carrying pitchforks and wearing red shawls and tall Welsh hats, for a detachment of British "redcoats", whose uniform included tall black hats or shakoes. This is a possible misconception as the Welsh hat, in the form we know today at least, didn't exist as such, until much later. There is much anecdotal evidence to suggest that women in rural Wales had taken to wearing Stovepipe or Top Hats manufactured for men, by the 1790s as this article on the ceredigion county council website attests. Quite why the women in this one corner of the British Isles chose to adopt this traditional male headgear is unknown but it has been suggested that they were imitating the tall riding hats they saw gentlewomen wear while out riding.
Dating Welsh hatsEdit
It has proved very difficult to date silk Welsh hats; they were certainly being produced in significant numbers during the 1840s and it is possible that they went out of production only a decade or so later. Unlike other fashionable hats, the Welsh hat may well have been worn by its owner for many years and then passed down to succeeding generations. The large numbers of surviving hats (nearly 300 are known) implies that they were invested with much more than being just an expensive fashion item.
19th century Welsh hats were made in the same way and with the same materials as top hats. Most surviving examples were made by Christys of Stockport and London, and Carver and Co of Bristol who also made top hats. Some were made by Welsh hat makers. The shell was made of buckram (linen fabric), strengthened with shellac or resin and covered with black silk plush (sometimes confusingly known as beaver) but some were made of felt (originally beaver fur, but later fur from other animals). During the 20th century most Welsh hats for adults were made of card covered in black fabric but a few were made of felt especially for Welsh dance teams and women's choirs. Welsh hats for children are made of felt and are normally worn with a cotton or lace cap underneath or may have lace attached to the underside of the brim.
The Cockle HatEdit
There is an "alternative" women's hat for those who consider the traditional Welsh hat unflattering, in the form of a "cocklewoman's hat", a flat felt hat tied with ribbons on which women balanced the heavy baskets of cockles which they gathered from the coast around Carmarthen Bay when taking them home to cook, and thence to market.
A derived meaning of Welsh hat is an ancillary stack, usually black in colour and slightly conical, attached to the funnel of a ship to ensure cleaner disposal of exhaust from the engines. This arrangement was used in several passenger liners by the Orient Line in the 1950s.
- 'Cambrian costumes dedicated to the nobility and gentry of Wales',(a collection of prints published during the mid-1830s which show many of models wearing riding hats)
- Michael Freeman, ‘Lady Llanover and the Welsh Costume Prints’, The National Library of Wales Journal, xxxiv, no 2 2007, pp.235-251.
- Photo of a Welsh woman in a tall hat from Gathering the Jewels
- Articles on Welsh hats
- Welsh hat is depicted on the mug from Starbucks You Are Here series | 1,208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mahatma Gandhi was a great man. He was born on 2nd October 1869 at Kathiwar in Gujarat, in a middle class family. His full name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. His father Karamchand Gandhi was the Diwan of Rajkot. His mother Putli Bai was a religious lady.
Mahatma Gandhi had his early education at Porbander. Later he went to England for higher studies. He was an average student in his early childhood. In his childhood Mahatma Gandhi was very shy and honest. He passed his Entrance Examination at the age of 17. In England he studied Law and became a barrister. When he returned to India, he started his practice at the Bombay High Court. But he was not interested in his legal profession. He abandoned his blooming career and jumped into the freedom movement of India.
Mahatma Gandhi’s visit to South Africa proved an important event in his life. In fact, it turned his life. In South Africa he was moved to see the plight of the non-white at the hands of the whites. He himself had to suffer humiliation due to his being a non-white. He fought for the rights of the Indians living there. He was a very simple man. His sympathy and love for the underprivileged inspired him to fight for them.
In 1913, Mahatma Gandhi came back to India. He joined politics. He could not tolerate the plight of the masses by the foreign ruler. He fought for them. He undertook pains and sufferings for them. He was put to jail several times. His whole life is a saga of sufferings and sacrifice. Mahatma Gandhi started his political career in India from Champaran Satyagraha. He went to Bihar and fought against the injustices done on the farmers. He started non-cooperation movement in 1922. The tools with which he fought against the Britishers were truth and non-violence.
Mahatma Gandhi worked hard to eradicate the social evils from Indian society. He advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and condemned the untouchability, casteism, communalism, etc. He loved the downtrodden and called those Harijans. He promoted women education and criticised child marriage, purdah system, etc. Under his leadership India got independence on 15 August 1947. Unfortunately this noble soul, apostle of peace and love was shot dead by a frantic Nathu Ram Godse on 30 January 1948.
In true sense of the word, he was a great leader of the masses. His entire life was a life of service, devotion, sacrifice and dedication. He had great qualities. He deserves to be adorned. | <urn:uuid:a9deb136-1328-44de-8114-edb94a158363> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/473-words-essay-on-my-favorite-leader-mahatma-gandhi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.991759 | 550 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.57001888751... | 2 | Mahatma Gandhi was a great man. He was born on 2nd October 1869 at Kathiwar in Gujarat, in a middle class family. His full name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. His father Karamchand Gandhi was the Diwan of Rajkot. His mother Putli Bai was a religious lady.
Mahatma Gandhi had his early education at Porbander. Later he went to England for higher studies. He was an average student in his early childhood. In his childhood Mahatma Gandhi was very shy and honest. He passed his Entrance Examination at the age of 17. In England he studied Law and became a barrister. When he returned to India, he started his practice at the Bombay High Court. But he was not interested in his legal profession. He abandoned his blooming career and jumped into the freedom movement of India.
Mahatma Gandhi’s visit to South Africa proved an important event in his life. In fact, it turned his life. In South Africa he was moved to see the plight of the non-white at the hands of the whites. He himself had to suffer humiliation due to his being a non-white. He fought for the rights of the Indians living there. He was a very simple man. His sympathy and love for the underprivileged inspired him to fight for them.
In 1913, Mahatma Gandhi came back to India. He joined politics. He could not tolerate the plight of the masses by the foreign ruler. He fought for them. He undertook pains and sufferings for them. He was put to jail several times. His whole life is a saga of sufferings and sacrifice. Mahatma Gandhi started his political career in India from Champaran Satyagraha. He went to Bihar and fought against the injustices done on the farmers. He started non-cooperation movement in 1922. The tools with which he fought against the Britishers were truth and non-violence.
Mahatma Gandhi worked hard to eradicate the social evils from Indian society. He advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and condemned the untouchability, casteism, communalism, etc. He loved the downtrodden and called those Harijans. He promoted women education and criticised child marriage, purdah system, etc. Under his leadership India got independence on 15 August 1947. Unfortunately this noble soul, apostle of peace and love was shot dead by a frantic Nathu Ram Godse on 30 January 1948.
In true sense of the word, he was a great leader of the masses. His entire life was a life of service, devotion, sacrifice and dedication. He had great qualities. He deserves to be adorned. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Barry thinks of his education as a job and spends forty hours a week in class or studying. Barry estimates he has about eighty hours per week to allocate between school and other activities and believes everyone should follow his fifty-fifty rule of time allocation. His roommate, Kamil, disagrees with Barry and argues that allocating \(50\) percent of one’s time to class and studying is not a great formula because everyone has different activities and responsibilities. Kamil points out, for example, that he has a job tutoring other students, is involved with student activities, and plays in a band, while Barry spends some of his nonstudy time doing volunteer work and working out.
Kamil plans each week based on how many hours he will need for each activity: classes, studying and coursework, tutoring, and practicing and performing with his band. In essence, he considers the details of each week’s needs to budget his time. Kamil explains to Barry that being aware of the activities that consume his limited resources (time, in this example) helps him to better plan his week. He adds that individuals who have activities with lots of time commitments (class, work, study, exercise, family, friends, and so on) must be efficient with their time or they risk doing poorly in one or more areas. Kamil argues these individuals cannot simply assign a percentage of their time to each activity but should use each specific activity as the basis for allocating their time. Barry insists that assigning a set percentage to everything is easy and the better method. Who is correct? | <urn:uuid:eaa2019c-5755-4c45-85dc-0077e78bd5f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Accounting/Book%3A_Managerial_Accounting_(OpenStax)/06%3A_Activity-Based%2C_Variable%2C_and_Absorption_Costing/6.01%3A_Prelude_to_Activity-Based%2C_Variable%2C_and_Absorption_Costing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.984623 | 322 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.24721923470... | 2 | Barry thinks of his education as a job and spends forty hours a week in class or studying. Barry estimates he has about eighty hours per week to allocate between school and other activities and believes everyone should follow his fifty-fifty rule of time allocation. His roommate, Kamil, disagrees with Barry and argues that allocating \(50\) percent of one’s time to class and studying is not a great formula because everyone has different activities and responsibilities. Kamil points out, for example, that he has a job tutoring other students, is involved with student activities, and plays in a band, while Barry spends some of his nonstudy time doing volunteer work and working out.
Kamil plans each week based on how many hours he will need for each activity: classes, studying and coursework, tutoring, and practicing and performing with his band. In essence, he considers the details of each week’s needs to budget his time. Kamil explains to Barry that being aware of the activities that consume his limited resources (time, in this example) helps him to better plan his week. He adds that individuals who have activities with lots of time commitments (class, work, study, exercise, family, friends, and so on) must be efficient with their time or they risk doing poorly in one or more areas. Kamil argues these individuals cannot simply assign a percentage of their time to each activity but should use each specific activity as the basis for allocating their time. Barry insists that assigning a set percentage to everything is easy and the better method. Who is correct? | 311 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Your Brain Cells May Live Twice as Long as You Do
No matter what age you are, your cells are much younger. Your oldest skin cell is two weeks old. The most ancient red blood cell is four months old. Liver cells only last for about 17 months. The only location where that is not true is the brain. At about 18 months old, you have all of the neurons that you will ever have during your lifetime - so scientists were faced with the question of how long neurons might live. A recent study conducted by scientists from the University of Pavia and the University of Turin in Italy has found that neurons can live for even longer than you do.
According to National Geographic, the study was performed on mice and rats. Mice typically have lifespans of 18 months; rats have lifespans that are nearly double that amount of time, from 30 to 36 months. Even long-living mice, researchers explain, are unable to boost their lifespan by 38 percent - the typical lifespan of a rat. The researchers started the experiment by genetically modifying mouse embryos so that their cells would glow green. Science News reports that the researchers inserted a tiny glass needle into the abdomens of pregnant anesthetized mice. With special tools, the scientists scraped out a tiny portion of the precursors to neural cells from the mice. Then the scientists placed these neurons into the brains of fetal rats. The researchers were easily able to track the mouse neurons because they were green.
After that, the mice and rats were able to live their lives as they so pleased. When they became old and approached death, the scientists euthanized them - typically when the scientists perceived that they had two days or less to live, according to LiveScience. That way, although neurons die when we do, the scientists could have a good idea of how long the neurons lived.
They found that the mouse neurons lived for as long as the rats were alive. The neurons did thin with age, but they did not die. The rats had no neurological problems, though they were also not any more intelligent. Indeed, the neurons even were still alive when the rats died, meaning that they may have continued to survive if they were implanted into a species that had a longer lifespan.
The study's findings could help lead to treatments for degenerative neurological disorders like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. | <urn:uuid:84dad522-ee01-40b4-9839-2b69b4aeec5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.counselheal.com/articles/4084/20130226/brain-cells-live-twice-long.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.983768 | 480 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.43442186713... | 2 | Your Brain Cells May Live Twice as Long as You Do
No matter what age you are, your cells are much younger. Your oldest skin cell is two weeks old. The most ancient red blood cell is four months old. Liver cells only last for about 17 months. The only location where that is not true is the brain. At about 18 months old, you have all of the neurons that you will ever have during your lifetime - so scientists were faced with the question of how long neurons might live. A recent study conducted by scientists from the University of Pavia and the University of Turin in Italy has found that neurons can live for even longer than you do.
According to National Geographic, the study was performed on mice and rats. Mice typically have lifespans of 18 months; rats have lifespans that are nearly double that amount of time, from 30 to 36 months. Even long-living mice, researchers explain, are unable to boost their lifespan by 38 percent - the typical lifespan of a rat. The researchers started the experiment by genetically modifying mouse embryos so that their cells would glow green. Science News reports that the researchers inserted a tiny glass needle into the abdomens of pregnant anesthetized mice. With special tools, the scientists scraped out a tiny portion of the precursors to neural cells from the mice. Then the scientists placed these neurons into the brains of fetal rats. The researchers were easily able to track the mouse neurons because they were green.
After that, the mice and rats were able to live their lives as they so pleased. When they became old and approached death, the scientists euthanized them - typically when the scientists perceived that they had two days or less to live, according to LiveScience. That way, although neurons die when we do, the scientists could have a good idea of how long the neurons lived.
They found that the mouse neurons lived for as long as the rats were alive. The neurons did thin with age, but they did not die. The rats had no neurological problems, though they were also not any more intelligent. Indeed, the neurons even were still alive when the rats died, meaning that they may have continued to survive if they were implanted into a species that had a longer lifespan.
The study's findings could help lead to treatments for degenerative neurological disorders like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. | 486 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the loss of the American colonies, Great Britain needed a new outlet for prisoners, many of which had formerly been sent to the Americas. It also needed land for Loyalists who were deprived of their property when the Revolutionary War was lost. In the Southwest Pacific Australia beckoned. The establishment of colonies in the lands claimed by Great Britain bolstered trade with the Indies, strengthened the British Empire at the expense of those of Spain and France, and offered a needed refuge for convicts. Several conflicts had already occurred between explorers and the indigenous people of Australia, but to His Majesty’s ministers they were of no consequence. A transport fleet was assembled, and the colonization of New South Wales was begun.
Born of a convict colony, and with resistant peoples standing in the way, Australia in the 19th century was foreordained to be a place of conflict. The settlement of Australia which began at Botany Bay was a time of hardship, frequent hunger, conflicts with the natives, and within the groups of settlers. For decades additional convicts were dispatched from Great Britain to the penal colony. They were often hardened urban criminals, adept at cutting purses, but lacking the skills needed for the colony to thrive. Gradually they were supplemented by free settlers. Some of the early prisoners gained their freedom, and the colony looked to expand, though the natives stood in opposition. Here is some of the history of the colonization of Australia in the 19th century.
1. An American Loyalist was the first to propose a colony in New South Wales
James Matra (he changed his surname to Magra for part of his life) was a New York born resident of London when James Cook prepared for his exploration of New Holland in 1768. Matra joined the expedition, sailing with Cook in HMS Endeavor. His presence during the expedition led to a long friendship with the influential Sir Joseph Banks. Matra remained loyal to King George III when his countrymen rebelled against British rule, and in 1783 he wrote, A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales. His proposal was based on his observations during his voyage with Cook.
Matra envisioned the establishment of a British colony or colonies along the lines of the lost southern colonies, Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas. He suggested the Australian land and climate were suitable for crops to replace those lost. He also believed that he would make a fine Royal Governor for the colony, which was to be settled by American loyalists as compensation for lost lands. Convicts were included to fill the role of slave labor. His patron, Joseph Banks, opposed the idea of convict labor, suggesting that South Sea Islanders, familiar with the climate and the naturally occurring plants of the region, would make a more suitable labor force. | <urn:uuid:f2a8f63b-3f73-4890-8359-028d5150969c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/australia-in-the-19th-century-was-a-dangerous-place/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.986261 | 562 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.344536423683... | 5 | After the loss of the American colonies, Great Britain needed a new outlet for prisoners, many of which had formerly been sent to the Americas. It also needed land for Loyalists who were deprived of their property when the Revolutionary War was lost. In the Southwest Pacific Australia beckoned. The establishment of colonies in the lands claimed by Great Britain bolstered trade with the Indies, strengthened the British Empire at the expense of those of Spain and France, and offered a needed refuge for convicts. Several conflicts had already occurred between explorers and the indigenous people of Australia, but to His Majesty’s ministers they were of no consequence. A transport fleet was assembled, and the colonization of New South Wales was begun.
Born of a convict colony, and with resistant peoples standing in the way, Australia in the 19th century was foreordained to be a place of conflict. The settlement of Australia which began at Botany Bay was a time of hardship, frequent hunger, conflicts with the natives, and within the groups of settlers. For decades additional convicts were dispatched from Great Britain to the penal colony. They were often hardened urban criminals, adept at cutting purses, but lacking the skills needed for the colony to thrive. Gradually they were supplemented by free settlers. Some of the early prisoners gained their freedom, and the colony looked to expand, though the natives stood in opposition. Here is some of the history of the colonization of Australia in the 19th century.
1. An American Loyalist was the first to propose a colony in New South Wales
James Matra (he changed his surname to Magra for part of his life) was a New York born resident of London when James Cook prepared for his exploration of New Holland in 1768. Matra joined the expedition, sailing with Cook in HMS Endeavor. His presence during the expedition led to a long friendship with the influential Sir Joseph Banks. Matra remained loyal to King George III when his countrymen rebelled against British rule, and in 1783 he wrote, A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales. His proposal was based on his observations during his voyage with Cook.
Matra envisioned the establishment of a British colony or colonies along the lines of the lost southern colonies, Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas. He suggested the Australian land and climate were suitable for crops to replace those lost. He also believed that he would make a fine Royal Governor for the colony, which was to be settled by American loyalists as compensation for lost lands. Convicts were included to fill the role of slave labor. His patron, Joseph Banks, opposed the idea of convict labor, suggesting that South Sea Islanders, familiar with the climate and the naturally occurring plants of the region, would make a more suitable labor force. | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi In 1757, Great Britain extended its empire to India. This occupation would not fully end until 1947. At the period between, you will find numerous moves by the Indian individuals to gain freedom from the British. The movement that finally succeeded in winning India's independence was headed by one of the most influential figures in the 20th century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi's strategies for fighting against the occupation of the British have been quite distinct from those of any of their liberty moves before. And that was why it worked. Gandhi didn't agree with the overall justification of this time: the conflicts can be solved through negotiation and forceful resistance.1 Rather, his faith led him to proceed against what many Indian nationalists considered reason, and use his own methods of civic civil disobedience in the struggle for liberty in Britain. The starts of Gandhi's faith can be traced back into his Hindu upbringing. He grew up the son of Karamchand Gandhi, the chief minister of a tiny nation in India known as Porbandar.2 Hymn-singing, everyday temple worship, and fasting had been regular in his household.3 Mohandas' historical feelings towards Hinduism weren't great, but his parents failed to instill in him several ideals that originated from their faith. He had been extremely worried about becoming a moral person, which required that he serve other people.4 In 1888, Gandhi left India to study law at London University. His choice to go to England was a pricey one. He was made to defy the tribunal of their caste to which he exerted by leaving, which led to his excommunication in the caste.5 When he returned to India years afterwards as barrister, he had been made to handle this excommunication. Cle... | <urn:uuid:1057abea-fe32-411e-ae60-be0cb399ec64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/writing/1003277/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.982928 | 380 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.261602759361... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi In 1757, Great Britain extended its empire to India. This occupation would not fully end until 1947. At the period between, you will find numerous moves by the Indian individuals to gain freedom from the British. The movement that finally succeeded in winning India's independence was headed by one of the most influential figures in the 20th century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi's strategies for fighting against the occupation of the British have been quite distinct from those of any of their liberty moves before. And that was why it worked. Gandhi didn't agree with the overall justification of this time: the conflicts can be solved through negotiation and forceful resistance.1 Rather, his faith led him to proceed against what many Indian nationalists considered reason, and use his own methods of civic civil disobedience in the struggle for liberty in Britain. The starts of Gandhi's faith can be traced back into his Hindu upbringing. He grew up the son of Karamchand Gandhi, the chief minister of a tiny nation in India known as Porbandar.2 Hymn-singing, everyday temple worship, and fasting had been regular in his household.3 Mohandas' historical feelings towards Hinduism weren't great, but his parents failed to instill in him several ideals that originated from their faith. He had been extremely worried about becoming a moral person, which required that he serve other people.4 In 1888, Gandhi left India to study law at London University. His choice to go to England was a pricey one. He was made to defy the tribunal of their caste to which he exerted by leaving, which led to his excommunication in the caste.5 When he returned to India years afterwards as barrister, he had been made to handle this excommunication. Cle... | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pickaway County, Ohio
The County is located in south-central Ohio and has an area of 1313 square kilometers, of which 13 square kilometers are water surface. It is bordered clockwise to the following counties: Franklin County, Fairfield County, Hocking County, Ross County, Fayette County and Madison County.
Pickaway County was formed on January 12, 1810 from parts of Fairfield, Franklin and Ross County. It was named after the North American Piqua Indians who lived here.
According to the census in 2000 lived in Pickaway County 52 727 people in 17,599 households and 13,287 families. The population density was 41 people per square kilometer. The racial the population was made up of 91.95 percent White, 6.43 percent African American, 0.28 percent Native American, 0.22 percent Asian, 0.03 percent of residents from the Pacific Islander, and 0.15 percent from other races groups; 0.93 percent were descended from two or more races. 0.63 percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 17,599 households out of which 35.4 percent have children under the age of 18 living with them. 61.5 percent were married couples living together, 9.8 percent were single mothers, 24.5 percent were non-families, 20.6 percent of all households and 9.1 percent had someone living alone at the age of 65 years or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.02.
Based on the county the population was spread from 24.3 percent population under 18 years, 9.0 percent between 18 and 24 years, 32.6 percent between 25 and 44 years, 23.4 percent between 45 and 64 years and 10.8 percent were 65 years old or older. The average age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 122.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were statistically 125.0 males.
The median income for a household was $ 42,832, and the median income for a family was $ 49,259. Males had a median income of $ 36,265, women $ 26,086. The per capita income was $ 17,478. 7.6 percent of families and 9.5 percent of the population lived below the poverty line. Of these, 13.4 percent were children or adolescents under age 18 and 7.0 percent of those 65 years. | <urn:uuid:ae063cd0-6d70-4b7f-bcac-ccd1fcb2b3f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://memim.com/pickaway-county-ohio.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.981371 | 515 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2062933444... | 2 | Pickaway County, Ohio
The County is located in south-central Ohio and has an area of 1313 square kilometers, of which 13 square kilometers are water surface. It is bordered clockwise to the following counties: Franklin County, Fairfield County, Hocking County, Ross County, Fayette County and Madison County.
Pickaway County was formed on January 12, 1810 from parts of Fairfield, Franklin and Ross County. It was named after the North American Piqua Indians who lived here.
According to the census in 2000 lived in Pickaway County 52 727 people in 17,599 households and 13,287 families. The population density was 41 people per square kilometer. The racial the population was made up of 91.95 percent White, 6.43 percent African American, 0.28 percent Native American, 0.22 percent Asian, 0.03 percent of residents from the Pacific Islander, and 0.15 percent from other races groups; 0.93 percent were descended from two or more races. 0.63 percent of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 17,599 households out of which 35.4 percent have children under the age of 18 living with them. 61.5 percent were married couples living together, 9.8 percent were single mothers, 24.5 percent were non-families, 20.6 percent of all households and 9.1 percent had someone living alone at the age of 65 years or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.02.
Based on the county the population was spread from 24.3 percent population under 18 years, 9.0 percent between 18 and 24 years, 32.6 percent between 25 and 44 years, 23.4 percent between 45 and 64 years and 10.8 percent were 65 years old or older. The average age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 122.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were statistically 125.0 males.
The median income for a household was $ 42,832, and the median income for a family was $ 49,259. Males had a median income of $ 36,265, women $ 26,086. The per capita income was $ 17,478. 7.6 percent of families and 9.5 percent of the population lived below the poverty line. Of these, 13.4 percent were children or adolescents under age 18 and 7.0 percent of those 65 years. | 639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The children have been enjoying the story of Lost and Found. They have been finding out about penguins and what they eat. They were surprised to find some fish in our classroom that the penguin had caught. The children loved touching, looking at and smelling the fish. We described them and compared them to other animals.
Labeling our body parts. We discussed the similarities between animals.
The Grinch has been taking over 1/RL's elf this week. This morning we found the elf completely frozen. We worked scientifically to decide how to get him out. We used some brilliant vocabulary- solid, liquid, thaw, melt etc. Poor Rocky!
The children have been making dough bread and observed the changes in materials. We started by discussing flour and water before mixing them together. Some fantastic scientific language was used. The children all took part in adding the ingredients and all had a piece of bread dough to knead. The children then watched the bread rise.
We have been comparing different breads. We looked at the similarities as well as the differences.
We wanted to find out why the Gingerbread Man didn't just swim across the river.... we put some ginger biscuits in some puddles and found out that its because he disintegrates and eventually dissolves! Some fantastic scientific language was used, team work and problem solving too.
The children worked scientifically to investigate and predict what would happen if we heated up bread. | <urn:uuid:c6b7a808-004e-4b66-ac1d-b4280f104819> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pendle.lancs.sch.uk/science-45/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.982637 | 291 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.0142606... | 1 | The children have been enjoying the story of Lost and Found. They have been finding out about penguins and what they eat. They were surprised to find some fish in our classroom that the penguin had caught. The children loved touching, looking at and smelling the fish. We described them and compared them to other animals.
Labeling our body parts. We discussed the similarities between animals.
The Grinch has been taking over 1/RL's elf this week. This morning we found the elf completely frozen. We worked scientifically to decide how to get him out. We used some brilliant vocabulary- solid, liquid, thaw, melt etc. Poor Rocky!
The children have been making dough bread and observed the changes in materials. We started by discussing flour and water before mixing them together. Some fantastic scientific language was used. The children all took part in adding the ingredients and all had a piece of bread dough to knead. The children then watched the bread rise.
We have been comparing different breads. We looked at the similarities as well as the differences.
We wanted to find out why the Gingerbread Man didn't just swim across the river.... we put some ginger biscuits in some puddles and found out that its because he disintegrates and eventually dissolves! Some fantastic scientific language was used, team work and problem solving too.
The children worked scientifically to investigate and predict what would happen if we heated up bread. | 285 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is known that the ancient Hawaiians colonized the Pacific nearly 1000 years before Colombus crossed the Atlantic Ocean. One of the most important plants that the ancient Hawaiians brought to Hawaiʻi was known as the ʻulu, or breadfruit tree. For hundreds of years prior to Western contact, the ʻulu was considered a staple food in Hawai‘i and played a significant role in the culture and spiritual life of the Hawaiians. There is one moʻolelo (story / legend) about how the ʻulu came to be known as “The Gift of Kū.”
Whenever Kū, the Hawaiian god of war and prosperity came to the islands, the sky would always celebrate his arrival in commotion – thunder, lighting and loud cracks. However, the people did not recognize Kū as a god, in fact, Kū was known to live among the people as a planter. It is said that Kū fell in love with a young woman and decided to start a family, but years later, they were struck by a terrible famine. The people within the Hawaiian village became weak and began to starve – even Kūʻs children.
Kū knew something had to be done, he told his wife that he could help but needed to travel far away in order to do so. His wife agreed and soon Kū began to grow tall, planting his feet firmly on the ground sinking into it as the dirt swallowed him up. The next day, a sprout grew from where Kū was buried and the plant began to grow swiftly, reaching up to the stars. Hundreds of ʻulu fruit swung from the branches and Kū told his wife from within, “Roast the fruit well, remove the skin and you shall eat.” And this was the gift of Kū.
This moʻolelo reminds us about the sacrifice and preservation of the culture and of the ʻāina. There is a wise saying or ʻōlelo noʻeau that says “Ka ʻai kīʻoʻe lāʻau” or the food reached for with a stick – a reminder of the tall breadfruit tree.
Subscribe & Save
Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | <urn:uuid:b672c156-f82a-4002-8c00-bd6df0e8aa86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hilohattie.com/blogs/news/the-gift-of-ku-story-of-ulu-hawaiian-breadfruit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.987095 | 482 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.00423839688301... | 6 | It is known that the ancient Hawaiians colonized the Pacific nearly 1000 years before Colombus crossed the Atlantic Ocean. One of the most important plants that the ancient Hawaiians brought to Hawaiʻi was known as the ʻulu, or breadfruit tree. For hundreds of years prior to Western contact, the ʻulu was considered a staple food in Hawai‘i and played a significant role in the culture and spiritual life of the Hawaiians. There is one moʻolelo (story / legend) about how the ʻulu came to be known as “The Gift of Kū.”
Whenever Kū, the Hawaiian god of war and prosperity came to the islands, the sky would always celebrate his arrival in commotion – thunder, lighting and loud cracks. However, the people did not recognize Kū as a god, in fact, Kū was known to live among the people as a planter. It is said that Kū fell in love with a young woman and decided to start a family, but years later, they were struck by a terrible famine. The people within the Hawaiian village became weak and began to starve – even Kūʻs children.
Kū knew something had to be done, he told his wife that he could help but needed to travel far away in order to do so. His wife agreed and soon Kū began to grow tall, planting his feet firmly on the ground sinking into it as the dirt swallowed him up. The next day, a sprout grew from where Kū was buried and the plant began to grow swiftly, reaching up to the stars. Hundreds of ʻulu fruit swung from the branches and Kū told his wife from within, “Roast the fruit well, remove the skin and you shall eat.” And this was the gift of Kū.
This moʻolelo reminds us about the sacrifice and preservation of the culture and of the ʻāina. There is a wise saying or ʻōlelo noʻeau that says “Ka ʻai kīʻoʻe lāʻau” or the food reached for with a stick – a reminder of the tall breadfruit tree.
Subscribe & Save
Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Willie Johnson | United States
At few other times in history were the hearts and minds of Americans filled with so much fervor than the dawn of the American Civil War. Men from across the nation rallied to the cause of the North or South with passion that carried them into the jaws of death for four long years, fiercely loyal to the decision of their home states to either remain a part of the Union or to leave it. Although this allegiance was often reluctant, men on both sides usually put aside their personal opinions to defend their homes regardless of the larger cause?something that would never happen today.
Today, citizens of the United States refer to themselves as “Americans.” One people, united by a bond of a national identity made possible not only by modern travel and communication, but also by shared trials and tribulations throughout history. Before such circumstances as a depression or World War could bring us together, however, we more closely resembled an amalgamation of small, loosely organized countries. As a young nation defined first by colonies and then states, a resident of the Carolinas, for example, would refer to himself or herself as a Carolinian first, and an American second.
In a time when the bounds of technology limited the ability of any government to effectively rule large amounts of territory, the regional governments of states (and even counties, to some extent) played a much larger role in the lives of citizens than the federal government ever did. This created a perfect storm for civil war, however, as the regional differences intensified by this form of rule allowed for a gap between north and south to grow ever wider in the Antebellum period. When the question of secession finally arose, it was these states and counties that shaped the opposing sides. The counties of Kentucky, for example, contained split allegiances, and the state fielded both Union and Confederate troops as a result.
The fact is, if you were a white male between the ages of seventeen and forty in 1861, you would most likely join your friends and neighbors to fight for the State in which you were born. Your loyalty to your State Government, already largely independent from Washington, would supersede your loyalty to the United States as a whole. You would take up arms under the impression that you were doing so in defense of what was best for your state and its citizens. That isn’t to say that people did not see the larger cause, though; references to “defending the South” or “preserving the Union” are not uncommon in original letters from the highest ranking generals to the lowliest of foot soldiers.
In a letter to his children penned soon after leaving to join the Confederate Army, Lieutenant Samuel J. C. Moore of the Second Virginia Infantry perfectly expressed the reasons for his sacrifice. In it, he emphasized an attitude of state loyalty common among soldiers of both sides, and like many southerners, claimed to be defending his home from an invader:
“Do you know for what your Papa has left his family and his home and his office and his business? I will tell you. The State of Virginia called for all the men who are young and able to carry arms, to defend her against Lincoln’s armies, and it is the duty, I think, of every man to answer her call, and be ready to keep the army of our enemies from ever setting their feet in the state.”
Moore was simply one among millions of enthusiastic volunteers on both sides who understood exactly what was on the line. Before the war was over, his native Shenandoah Valley would be in ruins like so many other parts of the country, but not in vain. The country needed the most bitter of conflicts to become more unified and successful than ever before. Like a phoenix from the ashes, the nation rose to enter the industrial era as a world superpower. Although much progress was still on the way, the final result of the Civil War set the stage for the modern day.
Perhaps now more than ever, it is important to learn from history. It, unfortunately, took the deaths of over 600,000 men to change the way Americans thought of their identity, but that sacrifice ensured that America would never be the same. The Civil War achieved many other essential accomplishments, but its effect upon our idea of unity cannot be overstated. We went from the United States of America to the United States of America… a simple distinction forged in bloodshed. | <urn:uuid:dcd0c1c2-0983-45f0-81d6-e89224aae2f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://71republic.com/2018/04/02/civil-war-national-identity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.980892 | 905 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.0762846022844314... | 2 | By Willie Johnson | United States
At few other times in history were the hearts and minds of Americans filled with so much fervor than the dawn of the American Civil War. Men from across the nation rallied to the cause of the North or South with passion that carried them into the jaws of death for four long years, fiercely loyal to the decision of their home states to either remain a part of the Union or to leave it. Although this allegiance was often reluctant, men on both sides usually put aside their personal opinions to defend their homes regardless of the larger cause?something that would never happen today.
Today, citizens of the United States refer to themselves as “Americans.” One people, united by a bond of a national identity made possible not only by modern travel and communication, but also by shared trials and tribulations throughout history. Before such circumstances as a depression or World War could bring us together, however, we more closely resembled an amalgamation of small, loosely organized countries. As a young nation defined first by colonies and then states, a resident of the Carolinas, for example, would refer to himself or herself as a Carolinian first, and an American second.
In a time when the bounds of technology limited the ability of any government to effectively rule large amounts of territory, the regional governments of states (and even counties, to some extent) played a much larger role in the lives of citizens than the federal government ever did. This created a perfect storm for civil war, however, as the regional differences intensified by this form of rule allowed for a gap between north and south to grow ever wider in the Antebellum period. When the question of secession finally arose, it was these states and counties that shaped the opposing sides. The counties of Kentucky, for example, contained split allegiances, and the state fielded both Union and Confederate troops as a result.
The fact is, if you were a white male between the ages of seventeen and forty in 1861, you would most likely join your friends and neighbors to fight for the State in which you were born. Your loyalty to your State Government, already largely independent from Washington, would supersede your loyalty to the United States as a whole. You would take up arms under the impression that you were doing so in defense of what was best for your state and its citizens. That isn’t to say that people did not see the larger cause, though; references to “defending the South” or “preserving the Union” are not uncommon in original letters from the highest ranking generals to the lowliest of foot soldiers.
In a letter to his children penned soon after leaving to join the Confederate Army, Lieutenant Samuel J. C. Moore of the Second Virginia Infantry perfectly expressed the reasons for his sacrifice. In it, he emphasized an attitude of state loyalty common among soldiers of both sides, and like many southerners, claimed to be defending his home from an invader:
“Do you know for what your Papa has left his family and his home and his office and his business? I will tell you. The State of Virginia called for all the men who are young and able to carry arms, to defend her against Lincoln’s armies, and it is the duty, I think, of every man to answer her call, and be ready to keep the army of our enemies from ever setting their feet in the state.”
Moore was simply one among millions of enthusiastic volunteers on both sides who understood exactly what was on the line. Before the war was over, his native Shenandoah Valley would be in ruins like so many other parts of the country, but not in vain. The country needed the most bitter of conflicts to become more unified and successful than ever before. Like a phoenix from the ashes, the nation rose to enter the industrial era as a world superpower. Although much progress was still on the way, the final result of the Civil War set the stage for the modern day.
Perhaps now more than ever, it is important to learn from history. It, unfortunately, took the deaths of over 600,000 men to change the way Americans thought of their identity, but that sacrifice ensured that America would never be the same. The Civil War achieved many other essential accomplishments, but its effect upon our idea of unity cannot be overstated. We went from the United States of America to the United States of America… a simple distinction forged in bloodshed. | 898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Capture of Guam|
|Part of the Spanish–American War|
USS Charleston entering Agana, the main port of Guam
|Commanders and leaders|
| 1 cruiser|
| 54 infantry|
|Casualties and losses|
The Capture of Guam was a bloodless event between the United States and the Kingdom of Spain during the Spanish–American War. The U.S. Navy sent a single cruiser, USS Charleston, to capture the island of Guam, then under Spanish control. However, the Spanish garrison on the island had no knowledge of the war and no real defenses. They surrendered without resistance and the island passed into American control. The event was the only conflict of the Spanish–American War on Guam.
Guam had been under Spanish control since 1668. By the time of the war, however, Guam had been neglected and there were only light defenses. The last message the authorities on Guam had received from Spain was dated April 14, 1898 a month before war was declared. Henry Glass, captain of the cruiser Charleston, was en route from California to Manila when in Honolulu he was joined by three transport ships, City of Peking , City of Sydney, and Australia.Then in the Pacific he opened his sealed orders that read,
Upon the receipt of this order, which is forwarded by the steamship 'City of Pekin' to you at Honolulu, you will proceed, with the 'Charleston' and the 'City of Pekin' in company, to Manila, Philippine Islands. On your way, you are hereby directed to stop at the Spanish Island of Guam. You will use such force as may be necessary to capture the port of Guam, making prisoners of the governor and other officials and any armed force that may be there. You will also destroy any fortifications on said island and any Spanish naval vessels that may be there, or in the immediate vicinity. These operations at the Island of Guam should be very brief, and should not occupy more than one or two days. Should you find any coal at the Island of Guam, you will make such use of it as you consider desirable. It is left to your discretion whether or not you destroy it. From the Island of Guam, proceed to Manila and report to Rear-Admiral George Dewey, U.S.N., for duty in the squadron under his command.
The message created intense excitement and enthusiasm among the seamen. Many of them immediately went to the ship's library and eagerly scrutinized charts, geographies, histories, and encyclopedias for information.While the sailors were in the ship's library learning this information about the island of Guam, Captain Glass altered the direction of the cruiser toward the new destination. The soldiers and sailors on the transports were stirred when they noticed the change in direction, and rumors started instantly. Some thought the expedition was to hoist the American flag over the Caroline Islands and remain there until reinforcements arrived for a stronger descent upon Manila. Others guessed that Charleston was sailing to some mysterious island of Spain, complete with impregnable fortifications, a formidable force of Spanish soldiers, and vast quantities of coal. The rumor mongering stopped the next day, when the correct news was wigwagged to the transports.
Along with the sealed orders were warnings of possible Spanish men of war in San Luis d'Apra, the main port of Guam, and notification of it being protected by a heavy battery of guns. The existence of the heavy armament was verified by reputable travelers who had visited the island within the two or three years before 1898. Definite information of the size of the Spanish garrison was not given, and in the absence of direct knowledge, the captain of the cruiser had to assume that there might be more than a thousand fighting men on the island who were thoroughly familiar with the terrain. Glass held a conference on Australia, and invited General Anderson, Commander William C. Gibson, naval officer in charge of the transports, and the captains of the three troop carriers were invited to participate in the discussions. Also present at the meeting was T. A. Hallet, third officer of Australia and a former whaling captain, who had been to the Mariana Islands many times. Hallet told the group that on his last visit to Guam, San Luis d'Apra was strongly fortified. Fort Santa Cruz and the battery on Point Orote, he stated, were efficiently manned and equipped. After a complete appraisal of all the known and unknown factors in the impending battle, the officers completed the arrangements for the attack on Guam.
It was soon noticed by the troops that Charleston expected a fight, since the cruiser began firing subcaliber ammunition at boxes tossed from City of Peking. This mild training continued until the afternoon of June 15, when the American cruiser started circling and firing service charges at pyramidal cloth targets set adrift from the cruiser herself. The range was about 2 mi (1.7 nmi ; 3.2 km ), and the gun crews, which were composed largely of the green recruits under the command of Second Lieutenant John Twiggs Myers, were shooting accurately enough to cause Captain Glass to smile pleasantly. By the time the convoy crossed the 180th meridian, the officers and men felt they were ready for the enemy.
On June 20, Captain Glass arrived off the shore of Guam, and he noticed that the only ship in the harbor was a Japanese ship that was trading copra. Many of the men on USS Charleston were disappointed that there were no Spanish ships to engage.
As the cruiser proceeded on its way, a small group of curious inhabitants gathered on the shores of Piti, a landing place down the bay. These locals were aware of the presence of the American vessels, for they had been sighted early that morning. All of the important citizens of Guam were there with the exception of the governor, Don Juan Marina. The chief officials present were a lieutenant commander of the navy and captain of the port, Don Francisco Gutiérrez, Don José Romero, naval surgeon, and Captain Pedro Duarte Anducar of the marine corps, and José Sixto, civil paymaster. Among the prominent civilians at the beach were Francisco Portusach, the leading merchant of Guam, and his brother José Portusach. While the gathering was looking curiously at the cruiser and the three transports, Charleston fired 13 rounds at the old Spanish fortress from three of her guns. There was no return fire, and there was no apparent damage to the fort. 6 mi (9.7 km) away, requesting the governor to send artillery to Piti to return the salute. The captain of the port, the naval surgeon, and a native Chamorro named José Paloma got into a boat furnished by Francisco Portusach and went out to welcome the visitors. José Portusach went along with the party to act as interpreter. When they finally got aboard the deck of Charleston, Glass immediately informed them that war had been declared between the U.S. and Spain.Pedro Duarte turned to his companions and said that the ship must be saluting the fort, so he hurriedly dispatched a messenger to Agana, the capital, which was about
The Spanish officials were amazed when they heard this and the news that they were now prisoners of war, because no dispatches or mail had arrived since April 9 to enlighten them. They were then paroled for the day when they promised to return to Agana to inform the governor of the war and notify him to appear on board the American ship immediately. The party then went below deck into the captain's cabin to discuss the surrender of the island.
As they were going below, Francisco Portusach sailed across the bow of the Charleston in a whaleboat with the American flag at the topmast. A loud voice from the ship called, "Frank, come on board." Portusach looked up to the deck and saw Captain Hallett, a man whom he had known years before. The skipper of the whaleboat then went to the lee side of the cruiser and clambered aboard. When he reached the deck, he was surprised to find a reporter with whom he was acquainted, a representative of the San Francisco Chronicle . While the reporter and the old whaling captain were talking about old times, Lieutenant William Braunersreuther, the navigator, walked up to Portusach and demanded to know by what right he was hoisting the American flag at the topmast of the little boat. The Guam merchant merely grinned and replied the flag was being flown legally. The lieutenant promptly requested proof, and Portusach produced American naturalization papers from an inside coat pocket and handed them to the doubting Braunersreuther who looked at them and said, "Well! Twenty-second of October, 1888, Chicago, Cook County, State of Illinois." The navigator examined the document more thoroughly and requested Portusach to accompany him to visit Glass. The "welcoming party" had just departed for shore, so the two men entered the captain's cabin, and the lieutenant handed the naturalization papers to Glass who looked at them for a few moments. He had already heard from José Portusach that Francisco possessed some lighters and boats, so he greeted the merchant by inquiring if it was possible to obtain the use of two lighters and a boat to transfer coal from City of Peking to the bunkers of Charleston and offered to pay for the service. Portusach agreed to furnish the boats without compensation since he felt an obligation, as the only United States citizen on the island, to aid his country in time of war.
Francisco Portusach returned to Piti where his brother was waiting for him, and was informed that the Spanish officers were under arrest, but had been paroled with the understanding that they would deliver themselves on board Charleston so they might be taken to Manila as prisoners of war. Francisco then ordered his head boatman, Tiburcio de los Santos, and several of his men to deliver the lighters and boats to Charleston early in the morning. The two brothers got into their buggy and started for Agana. On the road home they met several soldiers who were struggling with two small artillery pieces which had been turned back by Captain Duarte since it was not necessary to salute the American cruiser.
When they arrived home, a letter was waiting for Francisco from Governor Marina which said: "If you give any assistance to the American men of war, you will be executed tomorrow morning at the beach." After reading the note, Guam's leading merchant laughed. His wife, an American woman he had married in San Francisco, asked what was in the message, and became apprehensive when he told her. Jose warned him to be careful, especially when he learned that boats had already been promised to the Americans. His brother replied that the boats would be delivered in the morning regardless of the threatening message.
Later that afternoon, Francisco Portusach, despite the display of bravado, was worried, so he returned to Charleston with the threatening note from Marina and showed it to Glass. They had conferred less than half an hour when the governor's secretary came back to the cruiser with a letter which said:
Agana, June 20, 1898.
Mr. Henry Glass,
Captain of the North American Cruiser Charleston:
By the captain of the port in which you have cast anchor I have been courteously requested, as a soldier, and, above all, as a gentleman, to hold a conference with you, adding that you have advised him that war has been declared between our respective nations, and that you have come for the purpose of occupying these Spanish islands.
It would give me great pleasure to comply with his request and see you personally, but, as the military laws of my country prohibit me from going on board a foreign vessel, I regret to have to decline this honor and to ask that you will kindly come on shore, where I await you to accede to your wishes as far as possible, and to agree as to our mutual situations. Asking your pardon for the trouble I cause you, I guarantee your safe return to your ship.
By this time, Glass suspected that the governor was perpetrating a trick. An ultimatum was prepared for delivery to the governor of Guam and arrangements were made for a presentation of it on the following morning. At 08:00 the next morning, Lieutenant Braunersreuther was waiting to take command of a landing party composed of the Marine guard of Charleston, the Marines from City of Peking, and two companies of the Oregon volunteer regiment on Australia. He had specific instructions to go ashore and capture the governor, his officers, and any armed forces on the island.
The men had difficulty in getting the boats ready, so the lieutenant left without them in a small boat, merely taking with him Ensign Waldo Evans, four sailors, and two newspaper reporters, Douglas White and Sol Sheridan. He landed at the harbor of Piti under a flag of truce and there he was met by Governor Marina and his staff. After formal introduction, Braunersreuther handed the governor this ultimatum from Captain Glass: "Sir: In reply to your communication of this date I have now, in compliance with the orders of my government, to demand the immediate surrender of the defenses of the Island of Guam, with arms of all kinds, all officials and persons in the military service of Spain now in this island. This communication will be handed you tomorrow morning by an officer who is ordered to wait not over one half hour for your reply."
Then Braunersreuther called the governor's attention to the fact that only 30 minutes were allowed for a reply, and casually reminded him of the three transports loaded with troops and the formidable war vessel in the harbor. Marina and his advisers went into a nearby boatshed for consultation. Twenty-nine minutes later, they reappeared and handed the lieutenant a sealed envelope addressed to the commanding officer of Charleston. The captain's emissary, amid vigorous protestations from the governor, broke the seal and read the message which contained a notification of the surrender of the island of Guam. He then said, "Gentlemen, you are now my prisoners; you will have to repair on board the Charleston with me."
The governor protested, claiming that he had not expected such action. He accused the lieutenant of treachery, as the Americans had come ashore under a flag of truce, before making the Spaniards prisoners of war. Braunersreuther replied that he had merely been instructed to deliver a letter and since he was now in possession of an offer of complete surrender, the Americans were permitted to make any demand they wished. The Spanish officials were allowed to write letters to their families. Afterward, Marina and his staff were taken to City of Sydney after sending an order to Agana for the Spanish soldiery and native militia to be at Piti landing no later than four o'clock that afternoon.
Braunsreuther then returned to the ships, obtained the marine guard, and returned to shore. There, according to agreement, the Spanish soldiers were lined up awaiting surrender. Lieutenant John Twiggs Myers, later known for his command during the Boxer Rebellion, marched the Marines through the boathouse and lined them up so that the Spanish and native troops were between the Americans and the ocean.The 54 Spanish regulars and two lieutenants were disarmed, placed in a sampan, and transported to City of Sydney.
Glass went ashore and raised an American flag over the fortifications while the bands aboard Australia and City of Peking played "The Star-Spangled Banner". His orders included destroying the island's forts, but Glass decided that they were in such disrepair that he left them as they were.
Francisco Portusach and his workers finally completed transferring the coal from City of Peking to Charleston on June 22. Afterward, Glass took him to his cabin, and appointed him Governor of the island, until the arrival of proper American authority. After saying goodbye to the natives, Charleston and the three transports left the harbor at 16:00, and later joined George Dewey's fleet at Manila.
The second USS Charleston (C-2) was a United States Navy protected cruiser — the fourth US protected cruiser to be built. Lacking experience in building steel cruisers, the design was purchased from the British company Armstrong, Mitchell and Co. of Newcastle, the construction to be by an American shipyard. In design, she succeeded the "ABC" cruisers Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago with better protection, higher speed, and similar armament.
The Battle of Manila Bay, also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under Contraalmirante Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.
Hagåtña is the capital village of the United States territory of Guam. From the 18th through mid-20th century, it was Guam's population center, but today it is the second smallest of the island's 19 villages in both area and population. However, it remains one of the island's major commercial districts in addition to being the seat of government.
USS Raleigh (C-8) was a United States Navy protected cruiser of the Cincinnati class, commissioned in 1894 and in periodic service until 1919.
Apra Harbor is a deep-water port on the western side of the United States territory of Guam. The harbor is formed by Orote Peninsula in the south and Cabras Island in the north. To the south, the harbor narrows and then widens again to form an inner harbor. The southern end of the harbor is the location of Naval Base Guam. The northern end is the commercial port, which handles about 2 million tons of cargo a year. It is considered one of the best natural ports in the Pacific and attracts many tourists.
The Asiatic Squadron was a squadron of United States Navy warships stationed in East Asia during the latter half of the 19th century. It was created in 1868 when the East India Squadron was disbanded. Vessels of the squadron were primarily involved in matters relating to American commerce with China and Japan, though it participated in several conflicts over 34 years of service until becoming the Asiatic Fleet in 1902.
The Second Battle of Guam was the American recapture of the Japanese-held island of Guam, a U.S. territory in the Mariana Islands captured by the Japanese from the U.S. in the 1941 First Battle of Guam during the Pacific campaign of World War II.
Edward David Taussig was a decorated Rear Admiral in the United States Navy. He is best remembered for being the officer to claim Wake Island after the Spanish–American War, as well as accepting the physical relinquishment of Guam by its indigenous governor following the Treaty of Paris in which Spain ceded Guam to the U.S. following nearly 300 years of colonial rule. Taussig briefly served as Governor of Guam. He was the first of a four-generational family of United States Naval Academy graduates including his son, Vice Admiral Joseph K. Taussig (1877–1947), grandson Captain Joseph K. Taussig Jr. (1920–1999), and great-grandson, Captain Joseph K. Taussig USMC (1945–).
The Battle of Manila, sometimes called the Mock Battle of Manila, was a land engagement which took place in Manila on August 13, 1898, at the end of the Spanish–American War, four months after the decisive victory by Commodore Dewey's Asiatic Squadron at the Battle of Manila Bay. The belligerents were Spanish forces led by Governor-General of the Philippines Fermín Jáudenes, and American forces led by United States Army Major General Wesley Merritt and United States Navy Commodore George Dewey. American forces were supported by units of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, led by Emilio Aguinaldo.
Henry Glass was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, best remembered for his role in the bloodless capture of Guam in the Spanish–American War. He was also a Union veteran of the American Civil War.
Francisco Martínez Portusach (1864–1919) was a Spanish merchant and whaler who was briefly the Governor of Guam, before he was deposed. In the American media of the time, he was often referred to as Francisco Portusach or Frank Portusach.
Francisco de Tello de Guzmán was Spanish governor of the Philippines from July 14, 1596 to May 1602. He was a knight of the Order of Santiago.
The First Battle of Guam was an engagement during the Pacific War in World War II, and took place from 8 December to 10 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands between Japan and the United States. The American garrison was defeated by Japanese forces on 10 December, which resulted in an occupation until the Second Battle of Guam in 1944.
The postage stamps and postal history of Guam is an overview of the postage stamps and postal history of the United States territory of Guam. Its postal service is linked to those of the Philippines during the Spanish Empire and, since 1898, to the United States of America. A peculiarity is that, for a short period in the 1930s, Guam had a local post service.
USS Supply, ex-Illinois, was a schooner-rigged iron steamer built in 1873 by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia. Illinois was purchased by the Navy Department from the International Navigation Company on 30 April 1898 for $325,000.00 and commissioned as Supply, Lt. Comdr. R. R. Ingersoll in command.
The Plaza de España located in central Hagåtña, the capital of the United States territory of Guam, was the location of the Governors Palace during the island's long period of Spanish occupation. Most of the palace was destroyed during the shelling of Hagåtña during the reconquest of Guam in World War II. There are three structures still standing including the three-arch gate to Almacen (Arsenal), the azotea or back porch, and the Chocolate House. The plaza was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.
José Sisto, also called José Sisto Rodrigo and José Sixto, was twice Governor of Guam, first after overthrowing Francisco Martínez Portusach, and again after being legitimately placed in the position by the United States government. He served as Spanish administrator of the Public Treasury in Guam until the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War. When Martínez was named Commissioner, Sisto quickly staged a coup d'état and claimed the position as the highest ranking Spanish official on the island. He began arming native guards and commandeering ammunition, but was briefly overthrown by Venancio Roberto and other pro-American elements on December 31, 1898, but was officially put into power by officers of the United States Navy only two days later after they decided he held a legitimate claim to the position. His second term was brief, and he officially relinquished control on February 1, 1899 after learning that the United States had obtained Guam in the Treaty of Paris. After giving up his post, he was found to have misappropriated public funds, arrested, and exiled to Manila.
Alfred Walton Hinds was a United States Navy captain who served as the 17th Naval Governor of Guam. His early naval service included serving as Assistant Engineer aboard USS Texas, the United States Navy's first battleship, where he was reprimanded for an accident aboard in 1896. In 1911, Hinds joined the staff of the United States Naval Academy, heading the Department of Marine Engineering and Naval Construction, writing a textbook on the subject while there.
Mariano Ricafort Palacín y Abarca (1776–1846) was Governor of Cuba, Intendant of La Paz, part of Rio de la Plata, and the 61st Governor-General of the Philippines. He was an able administrator and a governor of judgment and energy.
William Kirk MacNulty was a U. S. Marine. He was a U.S. Marine Corps second lieutenant during World War I and saw action at the Battle of the Argonne Forest. He served as a captain during the Second U.S. Nicaraguan Campaign (1926–1933). During the Second World War, as a lieutenant colonel he commanded the U.S. Marine Corps defense of Guam against Imperial Japanese forces during the First Battle of Guam. He was incarcerated by the Japanese as a prisoner of war. He was promoted to brigadier general during captivity and retired from military service in 1946. He is buried at the Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno, San Mateo County, California. | <urn:uuid:fb76806d-3357-40bf-a2d4-e4d248e90bb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Capture_of_Guam | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980048 | 5,151 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.94139492... | 1 | |Capture of Guam|
|Part of the Spanish–American War|
USS Charleston entering Agana, the main port of Guam
|Commanders and leaders|
| 1 cruiser|
| 54 infantry|
|Casualties and losses|
The Capture of Guam was a bloodless event between the United States and the Kingdom of Spain during the Spanish–American War. The U.S. Navy sent a single cruiser, USS Charleston, to capture the island of Guam, then under Spanish control. However, the Spanish garrison on the island had no knowledge of the war and no real defenses. They surrendered without resistance and the island passed into American control. The event was the only conflict of the Spanish–American War on Guam.
Guam had been under Spanish control since 1668. By the time of the war, however, Guam had been neglected and there were only light defenses. The last message the authorities on Guam had received from Spain was dated April 14, 1898 a month before war was declared. Henry Glass, captain of the cruiser Charleston, was en route from California to Manila when in Honolulu he was joined by three transport ships, City of Peking , City of Sydney, and Australia.Then in the Pacific he opened his sealed orders that read,
Upon the receipt of this order, which is forwarded by the steamship 'City of Pekin' to you at Honolulu, you will proceed, with the 'Charleston' and the 'City of Pekin' in company, to Manila, Philippine Islands. On your way, you are hereby directed to stop at the Spanish Island of Guam. You will use such force as may be necessary to capture the port of Guam, making prisoners of the governor and other officials and any armed force that may be there. You will also destroy any fortifications on said island and any Spanish naval vessels that may be there, or in the immediate vicinity. These operations at the Island of Guam should be very brief, and should not occupy more than one or two days. Should you find any coal at the Island of Guam, you will make such use of it as you consider desirable. It is left to your discretion whether or not you destroy it. From the Island of Guam, proceed to Manila and report to Rear-Admiral George Dewey, U.S.N., for duty in the squadron under his command.
The message created intense excitement and enthusiasm among the seamen. Many of them immediately went to the ship's library and eagerly scrutinized charts, geographies, histories, and encyclopedias for information.While the sailors were in the ship's library learning this information about the island of Guam, Captain Glass altered the direction of the cruiser toward the new destination. The soldiers and sailors on the transports were stirred when they noticed the change in direction, and rumors started instantly. Some thought the expedition was to hoist the American flag over the Caroline Islands and remain there until reinforcements arrived for a stronger descent upon Manila. Others guessed that Charleston was sailing to some mysterious island of Spain, complete with impregnable fortifications, a formidable force of Spanish soldiers, and vast quantities of coal. The rumor mongering stopped the next day, when the correct news was wigwagged to the transports.
Along with the sealed orders were warnings of possible Spanish men of war in San Luis d'Apra, the main port of Guam, and notification of it being protected by a heavy battery of guns. The existence of the heavy armament was verified by reputable travelers who had visited the island within the two or three years before 1898. Definite information of the size of the Spanish garrison was not given, and in the absence of direct knowledge, the captain of the cruiser had to assume that there might be more than a thousand fighting men on the island who were thoroughly familiar with the terrain. Glass held a conference on Australia, and invited General Anderson, Commander William C. Gibson, naval officer in charge of the transports, and the captains of the three troop carriers were invited to participate in the discussions. Also present at the meeting was T. A. Hallet, third officer of Australia and a former whaling captain, who had been to the Mariana Islands many times. Hallet told the group that on his last visit to Guam, San Luis d'Apra was strongly fortified. Fort Santa Cruz and the battery on Point Orote, he stated, were efficiently manned and equipped. After a complete appraisal of all the known and unknown factors in the impending battle, the officers completed the arrangements for the attack on Guam.
It was soon noticed by the troops that Charleston expected a fight, since the cruiser began firing subcaliber ammunition at boxes tossed from City of Peking. This mild training continued until the afternoon of June 15, when the American cruiser started circling and firing service charges at pyramidal cloth targets set adrift from the cruiser herself. The range was about 2 mi (1.7 nmi ; 3.2 km ), and the gun crews, which were composed largely of the green recruits under the command of Second Lieutenant John Twiggs Myers, were shooting accurately enough to cause Captain Glass to smile pleasantly. By the time the convoy crossed the 180th meridian, the officers and men felt they were ready for the enemy.
On June 20, Captain Glass arrived off the shore of Guam, and he noticed that the only ship in the harbor was a Japanese ship that was trading copra. Many of the men on USS Charleston were disappointed that there were no Spanish ships to engage.
As the cruiser proceeded on its way, a small group of curious inhabitants gathered on the shores of Piti, a landing place down the bay. These locals were aware of the presence of the American vessels, for they had been sighted early that morning. All of the important citizens of Guam were there with the exception of the governor, Don Juan Marina. The chief officials present were a lieutenant commander of the navy and captain of the port, Don Francisco Gutiérrez, Don José Romero, naval surgeon, and Captain Pedro Duarte Anducar of the marine corps, and José Sixto, civil paymaster. Among the prominent civilians at the beach were Francisco Portusach, the leading merchant of Guam, and his brother José Portusach. While the gathering was looking curiously at the cruiser and the three transports, Charleston fired 13 rounds at the old Spanish fortress from three of her guns. There was no return fire, and there was no apparent damage to the fort. 6 mi (9.7 km) away, requesting the governor to send artillery to Piti to return the salute. The captain of the port, the naval surgeon, and a native Chamorro named José Paloma got into a boat furnished by Francisco Portusach and went out to welcome the visitors. José Portusach went along with the party to act as interpreter. When they finally got aboard the deck of Charleston, Glass immediately informed them that war had been declared between the U.S. and Spain.Pedro Duarte turned to his companions and said that the ship must be saluting the fort, so he hurriedly dispatched a messenger to Agana, the capital, which was about
The Spanish officials were amazed when they heard this and the news that they were now prisoners of war, because no dispatches or mail had arrived since April 9 to enlighten them. They were then paroled for the day when they promised to return to Agana to inform the governor of the war and notify him to appear on board the American ship immediately. The party then went below deck into the captain's cabin to discuss the surrender of the island.
As they were going below, Francisco Portusach sailed across the bow of the Charleston in a whaleboat with the American flag at the topmast. A loud voice from the ship called, "Frank, come on board." Portusach looked up to the deck and saw Captain Hallett, a man whom he had known years before. The skipper of the whaleboat then went to the lee side of the cruiser and clambered aboard. When he reached the deck, he was surprised to find a reporter with whom he was acquainted, a representative of the San Francisco Chronicle . While the reporter and the old whaling captain were talking about old times, Lieutenant William Braunersreuther, the navigator, walked up to Portusach and demanded to know by what right he was hoisting the American flag at the topmast of the little boat. The Guam merchant merely grinned and replied the flag was being flown legally. The lieutenant promptly requested proof, and Portusach produced American naturalization papers from an inside coat pocket and handed them to the doubting Braunersreuther who looked at them and said, "Well! Twenty-second of October, 1888, Chicago, Cook County, State of Illinois." The navigator examined the document more thoroughly and requested Portusach to accompany him to visit Glass. The "welcoming party" had just departed for shore, so the two men entered the captain's cabin, and the lieutenant handed the naturalization papers to Glass who looked at them for a few moments. He had already heard from José Portusach that Francisco possessed some lighters and boats, so he greeted the merchant by inquiring if it was possible to obtain the use of two lighters and a boat to transfer coal from City of Peking to the bunkers of Charleston and offered to pay for the service. Portusach agreed to furnish the boats without compensation since he felt an obligation, as the only United States citizen on the island, to aid his country in time of war.
Francisco Portusach returned to Piti where his brother was waiting for him, and was informed that the Spanish officers were under arrest, but had been paroled with the understanding that they would deliver themselves on board Charleston so they might be taken to Manila as prisoners of war. Francisco then ordered his head boatman, Tiburcio de los Santos, and several of his men to deliver the lighters and boats to Charleston early in the morning. The two brothers got into their buggy and started for Agana. On the road home they met several soldiers who were struggling with two small artillery pieces which had been turned back by Captain Duarte since it was not necessary to salute the American cruiser.
When they arrived home, a letter was waiting for Francisco from Governor Marina which said: "If you give any assistance to the American men of war, you will be executed tomorrow morning at the beach." After reading the note, Guam's leading merchant laughed. His wife, an American woman he had married in San Francisco, asked what was in the message, and became apprehensive when he told her. Jose warned him to be careful, especially when he learned that boats had already been promised to the Americans. His brother replied that the boats would be delivered in the morning regardless of the threatening message.
Later that afternoon, Francisco Portusach, despite the display of bravado, was worried, so he returned to Charleston with the threatening note from Marina and showed it to Glass. They had conferred less than half an hour when the governor's secretary came back to the cruiser with a letter which said:
Agana, June 20, 1898.
Mr. Henry Glass,
Captain of the North American Cruiser Charleston:
By the captain of the port in which you have cast anchor I have been courteously requested, as a soldier, and, above all, as a gentleman, to hold a conference with you, adding that you have advised him that war has been declared between our respective nations, and that you have come for the purpose of occupying these Spanish islands.
It would give me great pleasure to comply with his request and see you personally, but, as the military laws of my country prohibit me from going on board a foreign vessel, I regret to have to decline this honor and to ask that you will kindly come on shore, where I await you to accede to your wishes as far as possible, and to agree as to our mutual situations. Asking your pardon for the trouble I cause you, I guarantee your safe return to your ship.
By this time, Glass suspected that the governor was perpetrating a trick. An ultimatum was prepared for delivery to the governor of Guam and arrangements were made for a presentation of it on the following morning. At 08:00 the next morning, Lieutenant Braunersreuther was waiting to take command of a landing party composed of the Marine guard of Charleston, the Marines from City of Peking, and two companies of the Oregon volunteer regiment on Australia. He had specific instructions to go ashore and capture the governor, his officers, and any armed forces on the island.
The men had difficulty in getting the boats ready, so the lieutenant left without them in a small boat, merely taking with him Ensign Waldo Evans, four sailors, and two newspaper reporters, Douglas White and Sol Sheridan. He landed at the harbor of Piti under a flag of truce and there he was met by Governor Marina and his staff. After formal introduction, Braunersreuther handed the governor this ultimatum from Captain Glass: "Sir: In reply to your communication of this date I have now, in compliance with the orders of my government, to demand the immediate surrender of the defenses of the Island of Guam, with arms of all kinds, all officials and persons in the military service of Spain now in this island. This communication will be handed you tomorrow morning by an officer who is ordered to wait not over one half hour for your reply."
Then Braunersreuther called the governor's attention to the fact that only 30 minutes were allowed for a reply, and casually reminded him of the three transports loaded with troops and the formidable war vessel in the harbor. Marina and his advisers went into a nearby boatshed for consultation. Twenty-nine minutes later, they reappeared and handed the lieutenant a sealed envelope addressed to the commanding officer of Charleston. The captain's emissary, amid vigorous protestations from the governor, broke the seal and read the message which contained a notification of the surrender of the island of Guam. He then said, "Gentlemen, you are now my prisoners; you will have to repair on board the Charleston with me."
The governor protested, claiming that he had not expected such action. He accused the lieutenant of treachery, as the Americans had come ashore under a flag of truce, before making the Spaniards prisoners of war. Braunersreuther replied that he had merely been instructed to deliver a letter and since he was now in possession of an offer of complete surrender, the Americans were permitted to make any demand they wished. The Spanish officials were allowed to write letters to their families. Afterward, Marina and his staff were taken to City of Sydney after sending an order to Agana for the Spanish soldiery and native militia to be at Piti landing no later than four o'clock that afternoon.
Braunsreuther then returned to the ships, obtained the marine guard, and returned to shore. There, according to agreement, the Spanish soldiers were lined up awaiting surrender. Lieutenant John Twiggs Myers, later known for his command during the Boxer Rebellion, marched the Marines through the boathouse and lined them up so that the Spanish and native troops were between the Americans and the ocean.The 54 Spanish regulars and two lieutenants were disarmed, placed in a sampan, and transported to City of Sydney.
Glass went ashore and raised an American flag over the fortifications while the bands aboard Australia and City of Peking played "The Star-Spangled Banner". His orders included destroying the island's forts, but Glass decided that they were in such disrepair that he left them as they were.
Francisco Portusach and his workers finally completed transferring the coal from City of Peking to Charleston on June 22. Afterward, Glass took him to his cabin, and appointed him Governor of the island, until the arrival of proper American authority. After saying goodbye to the natives, Charleston and the three transports left the harbor at 16:00, and later joined George Dewey's fleet at Manila.
The second USS Charleston (C-2) was a United States Navy protected cruiser — the fourth US protected cruiser to be built. Lacking experience in building steel cruisers, the design was purchased from the British company Armstrong, Mitchell and Co. of Newcastle, the construction to be by an American shipyard. In design, she succeeded the "ABC" cruisers Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago with better protection, higher speed, and similar armament.
The Battle of Manila Bay, also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under Contraalmirante Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.
Hagåtña is the capital village of the United States territory of Guam. From the 18th through mid-20th century, it was Guam's population center, but today it is the second smallest of the island's 19 villages in both area and population. However, it remains one of the island's major commercial districts in addition to being the seat of government.
USS Raleigh (C-8) was a United States Navy protected cruiser of the Cincinnati class, commissioned in 1894 and in periodic service until 1919.
Apra Harbor is a deep-water port on the western side of the United States territory of Guam. The harbor is formed by Orote Peninsula in the south and Cabras Island in the north. To the south, the harbor narrows and then widens again to form an inner harbor. The southern end of the harbor is the location of Naval Base Guam. The northern end is the commercial port, which handles about 2 million tons of cargo a year. It is considered one of the best natural ports in the Pacific and attracts many tourists.
The Asiatic Squadron was a squadron of United States Navy warships stationed in East Asia during the latter half of the 19th century. It was created in 1868 when the East India Squadron was disbanded. Vessels of the squadron were primarily involved in matters relating to American commerce with China and Japan, though it participated in several conflicts over 34 years of service until becoming the Asiatic Fleet in 1902.
The Second Battle of Guam was the American recapture of the Japanese-held island of Guam, a U.S. territory in the Mariana Islands captured by the Japanese from the U.S. in the 1941 First Battle of Guam during the Pacific campaign of World War II.
Edward David Taussig was a decorated Rear Admiral in the United States Navy. He is best remembered for being the officer to claim Wake Island after the Spanish–American War, as well as accepting the physical relinquishment of Guam by its indigenous governor following the Treaty of Paris in which Spain ceded Guam to the U.S. following nearly 300 years of colonial rule. Taussig briefly served as Governor of Guam. He was the first of a four-generational family of United States Naval Academy graduates including his son, Vice Admiral Joseph K. Taussig (1877–1947), grandson Captain Joseph K. Taussig Jr. (1920–1999), and great-grandson, Captain Joseph K. Taussig USMC (1945–).
The Battle of Manila, sometimes called the Mock Battle of Manila, was a land engagement which took place in Manila on August 13, 1898, at the end of the Spanish–American War, four months after the decisive victory by Commodore Dewey's Asiatic Squadron at the Battle of Manila Bay. The belligerents were Spanish forces led by Governor-General of the Philippines Fermín Jáudenes, and American forces led by United States Army Major General Wesley Merritt and United States Navy Commodore George Dewey. American forces were supported by units of the Philippine Revolutionary Army, led by Emilio Aguinaldo.
Henry Glass was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, best remembered for his role in the bloodless capture of Guam in the Spanish–American War. He was also a Union veteran of the American Civil War.
Francisco Martínez Portusach (1864–1919) was a Spanish merchant and whaler who was briefly the Governor of Guam, before he was deposed. In the American media of the time, he was often referred to as Francisco Portusach or Frank Portusach.
Francisco de Tello de Guzmán was Spanish governor of the Philippines from July 14, 1596 to May 1602. He was a knight of the Order of Santiago.
The First Battle of Guam was an engagement during the Pacific War in World War II, and took place from 8 December to 10 December 1941 on Guam in the Mariana Islands between Japan and the United States. The American garrison was defeated by Japanese forces on 10 December, which resulted in an occupation until the Second Battle of Guam in 1944.
The postage stamps and postal history of Guam is an overview of the postage stamps and postal history of the United States territory of Guam. Its postal service is linked to those of the Philippines during the Spanish Empire and, since 1898, to the United States of America. A peculiarity is that, for a short period in the 1930s, Guam had a local post service.
USS Supply, ex-Illinois, was a schooner-rigged iron steamer built in 1873 by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia. Illinois was purchased by the Navy Department from the International Navigation Company on 30 April 1898 for $325,000.00 and commissioned as Supply, Lt. Comdr. R. R. Ingersoll in command.
The Plaza de España located in central Hagåtña, the capital of the United States territory of Guam, was the location of the Governors Palace during the island's long period of Spanish occupation. Most of the palace was destroyed during the shelling of Hagåtña during the reconquest of Guam in World War II. There are three structures still standing including the three-arch gate to Almacen (Arsenal), the azotea or back porch, and the Chocolate House. The plaza was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.
José Sisto, also called José Sisto Rodrigo and José Sixto, was twice Governor of Guam, first after overthrowing Francisco Martínez Portusach, and again after being legitimately placed in the position by the United States government. He served as Spanish administrator of the Public Treasury in Guam until the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War. When Martínez was named Commissioner, Sisto quickly staged a coup d'état and claimed the position as the highest ranking Spanish official on the island. He began arming native guards and commandeering ammunition, but was briefly overthrown by Venancio Roberto and other pro-American elements on December 31, 1898, but was officially put into power by officers of the United States Navy only two days later after they decided he held a legitimate claim to the position. His second term was brief, and he officially relinquished control on February 1, 1899 after learning that the United States had obtained Guam in the Treaty of Paris. After giving up his post, he was found to have misappropriated public funds, arrested, and exiled to Manila.
Alfred Walton Hinds was a United States Navy captain who served as the 17th Naval Governor of Guam. His early naval service included serving as Assistant Engineer aboard USS Texas, the United States Navy's first battleship, where he was reprimanded for an accident aboard in 1896. In 1911, Hinds joined the staff of the United States Naval Academy, heading the Department of Marine Engineering and Naval Construction, writing a textbook on the subject while there.
Mariano Ricafort Palacín y Abarca (1776–1846) was Governor of Cuba, Intendant of La Paz, part of Rio de la Plata, and the 61st Governor-General of the Philippines. He was an able administrator and a governor of judgment and energy.
William Kirk MacNulty was a U. S. Marine. He was a U.S. Marine Corps second lieutenant during World War I and saw action at the Battle of the Argonne Forest. He served as a captain during the Second U.S. Nicaraguan Campaign (1926–1933). During the Second World War, as a lieutenant colonel he commanded the U.S. Marine Corps defense of Guam against Imperial Japanese forces during the First Battle of Guam. He was incarcerated by the Japanese as a prisoner of war. He was promoted to brigadier general during captivity and retired from military service in 1946. He is buried at the Golden Gate National Cemetery in San Bruno, San Mateo County, California. | 5,263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tuesday, March 26, 2019
Bronze and the Shang Dynasty :: Chinese China History
Bronze and the Shang DynastyA societies use of the materials surrounding them is compulsory to their success as a prominent civilization. The reign of the Shang dynasty roughly began almost c1600- c1050bc, during this time the middle class artisans devoted oft of their time to perfecting bronzy work for ritualistic purposes as well as military bottom while the Shang kings and nobles held positions of high power and prestige over the common solar day labourer. The kings were thought as having a special connection with the ancestors of the past and were exceedingly respected. The common Shang dynasty labourer lived a real hard and tedious life, give care the common Egyptian, everything was done to please the king. Unfortunately, the Shang kings were very harsh on the tribe and some even referred to the Shang dynasty as the Slave dynasty because the nobility had so much control over the common day workers, they had no shame in sacrificing other humans for ritualistic practices . As well, the Shang mess were also work with every day tasks such as hunting for food and an archean form of farming. Evidence of the Shang peoples everyday life were found at An yang, the Shang ceiling city, inscribed oracle bones presented a picture of constant contend with other groups around and even war. Modern day archaeologists have tote up to the conclusion that the bronze work of the Shang was very well crafted and elite at its time, thousands of Shang bronzes survives today. The influence of bronze on the Shang peoples everyday life, weaponry and art schematic a reputation of leadership among this group of people. The Shang peoples everyday life was very religious and trying. The rulers had a great amount of power over the people and controlled much of what they did in their day-to-day chores. The Shang elites and artisans devoted much of their time to perfecting bronze work. The elites organization was apparent because Shang rulers had to mobilize men and material to mine, transport, and refine the ores, to become and tool the clay models, cores and moulds used in the casting process and to accord the foundries. (Buckley 129) The excavation of ore used to make bronze was done by the poorer classes and looked subsequently by the noble class. The Shang people were able to organize themselves and get to the resources that they needed. through and through with(predicate) study, it is evident that the lower class of the Shang people worked very hard mining required labourers on hands and knees to drag their heavy ore sleds out through cramped and unventilated tunnels. | <urn:uuid:fe34a5b1-052b-4e4a-b09c-a9a91d98c421> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://research-paper-topics.blogspot.com/2019/03/bronze-and-shang-dynasty-chinese-china.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.982557 | 525 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.43863385915756226,
0.14613762497901917,
-0.16300854086875916,
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0.4204545021057129,
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0.12119956314563751,
0.36219027638435364,
-0.3298017382621765,
0.15097936987876892,
0.4048059582710266,... | 2 | Tuesday, March 26, 2019
Bronze and the Shang Dynasty :: Chinese China History
Bronze and the Shang DynastyA societies use of the materials surrounding them is compulsory to their success as a prominent civilization. The reign of the Shang dynasty roughly began almost c1600- c1050bc, during this time the middle class artisans devoted oft of their time to perfecting bronzy work for ritualistic purposes as well as military bottom while the Shang kings and nobles held positions of high power and prestige over the common solar day labourer. The kings were thought as having a special connection with the ancestors of the past and were exceedingly respected. The common Shang dynasty labourer lived a real hard and tedious life, give care the common Egyptian, everything was done to please the king. Unfortunately, the Shang kings were very harsh on the tribe and some even referred to the Shang dynasty as the Slave dynasty because the nobility had so much control over the common day workers, they had no shame in sacrificing other humans for ritualistic practices . As well, the Shang mess were also work with every day tasks such as hunting for food and an archean form of farming. Evidence of the Shang peoples everyday life were found at An yang, the Shang ceiling city, inscribed oracle bones presented a picture of constant contend with other groups around and even war. Modern day archaeologists have tote up to the conclusion that the bronze work of the Shang was very well crafted and elite at its time, thousands of Shang bronzes survives today. The influence of bronze on the Shang peoples everyday life, weaponry and art schematic a reputation of leadership among this group of people. The Shang peoples everyday life was very religious and trying. The rulers had a great amount of power over the people and controlled much of what they did in their day-to-day chores. The Shang elites and artisans devoted much of their time to perfecting bronze work. The elites organization was apparent because Shang rulers had to mobilize men and material to mine, transport, and refine the ores, to become and tool the clay models, cores and moulds used in the casting process and to accord the foundries. (Buckley 129) The excavation of ore used to make bronze was done by the poorer classes and looked subsequently by the noble class. The Shang people were able to organize themselves and get to the resources that they needed. through and through with(predicate) study, it is evident that the lower class of the Shang people worked very hard mining required labourers on hands and knees to drag their heavy ore sleds out through cramped and unventilated tunnels. | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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