Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
The notion that the value of any good or service depends on how much labour it uses up. First suggested by ADAM SMITH, it took a central place in the philosophy of KARL MARX. Some neoclassical economists disagreed with this theory, arguing that the price of something was independent of how much labor went into producing it and was instead determined solely by supply and demand A flexible labour market is one in which it is easy and inexpensive for firms to vary the amount of labor they use, including by changing the hours worked by each employee and by changing the number of employees. This often means minimal regulation of the employment (no minimum wage, say) and weak (or no) trade unions. Such flexibility is characterized by its opponents as giving firms all the power, allowing them to fire employees at a moment’s notice and leaving working feeling insecure. Opponents of labour market flexibility claim that labour laws that make workers feel more secure encourage employees to invest in acquiring skills that enable them to do their current job better but that could not be taken with them to another firm if they were let go. Supporters claim that it improves economic efficiency by leaving it to market forces to decide the terms of employment. Broadly speaking, the evidence is that greater flexibility is associated with lower rates of unemployment and higher GDP per head.	<urn:uuid:07268aa0-d5ed-40ac-be8b-c362a6360065>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.iibmindialms.com/library/human-resources-management/compensation-management/labour-theory-value/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00131.warc.gz	en	0.981915	269	3.484375	3	[ -0.27928462624549866, 0.27501559257507324, -0.3070383071899414, 0.18488356471061707, 0.23475711047649384, 0.050184622406959534, 0.34503263235092163, 0.41332584619522095, 0.16724033653736115, 0.06586010009050369, 0.24965912103652954, 0.18949878215789795, -0.2272767722606659, 0.0177575517445...	3	The notion that the value of any good or service depends on how much labour it uses up. First suggested by ADAM SMITH, it took a central place in the philosophy of KARL MARX. Some neoclassical economists disagreed with this theory, arguing that the price of something was independent of how much labor went into producing it and was instead determined solely by supply and demand A flexible labour market is one in which it is easy and inexpensive for firms to vary the amount of labor they use, including by changing the hours worked by each employee and by changing the number of employees. This often means minimal regulation of the employment (no minimum wage, say) and weak (or no) trade unions. Such flexibility is characterized by its opponents as giving firms all the power, allowing them to fire employees at a moment’s notice and leaving working feeling insecure. Opponents of labour market flexibility claim that labour laws that make workers feel more secure encourage employees to invest in acquiring skills that enable them to do their current job better but that could not be taken with them to another firm if they were let go. Supporters claim that it improves economic efficiency by leaving it to market forces to decide the terms of employment. Broadly speaking, the evidence is that greater flexibility is associated with lower rates of unemployment and higher GDP per head.	266	ENGLISH	1
In the tenth century Siena was located at the centre of an important commercial road that led to Rome. Thanks to the Via Francigena, which intersects the city, Siena became a main center for business: artisans and money changers banks were concentrated along the route. It’s no coincidence that in 1472, the world’s first bank was born: Monte dei Paschi di Siena. The earliest banks were roadside stands where money changers awaited the arrival of pilgrims. The word banca (bank) comes from the tables where money was counted and exchanged. Another word that was coined here is bankrupe (bancarotta) which means broken bench, meaning that the banker’s money had run out. Today the streets of Banchi di Sotto and Banchi di Sopra along the pilgrims’ route remind us of stories like these.	<urn:uuid:c7496a39-a5e3-4a9a-9923-40cdcce5e5c1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://viafrancigena.visittuscany.com/en/ideas/from-lucca-to-siena-stops-and-legends-along-the-via-francigena/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00121.warc.gz	en	0.981328	189	3.296875	3	[ 0.14861564338207245, -0.2945508360862732, 0.12927870452404022, -0.23422013223171234, -0.3787963092327118, -0.13577966392040253, 0.20017237961292267, 0.3327654004096985, 0.0024434044025838375, 0.26824262738227844, -0.13132399320602417, -0.47271260619163513, -0.25575047731399536, 0.496609717...	6	In the tenth century Siena was located at the centre of an important commercial road that led to Rome. Thanks to the Via Francigena, which intersects the city, Siena became a main center for business: artisans and money changers banks were concentrated along the route. It’s no coincidence that in 1472, the world’s first bank was born: Monte dei Paschi di Siena. The earliest banks were roadside stands where money changers awaited the arrival of pilgrims. The word banca (bank) comes from the tables where money was counted and exchanged. Another word that was coined here is bankrupe (bancarotta) which means broken bench, meaning that the banker’s money had run out. Today the streets of Banchi di Sotto and Banchi di Sopra along the pilgrims’ route remind us of stories like these.	180	ENGLISH	1
It came into use in the thirties of the last century, and expressed a certain disappointment over the result of political reform. The bill which gave more men the right to vote did not give them higher wages. The conditions of labor were deplorable before the Reform Bill was passed and they continued to be so for some time afterwards. A merely political change, therefore, was not all that was wanted, and it was necessary to carry democracy into a social sphere in order to improve the condition of the poorer classes. The term "Socialism", therefore, was chosen to describe a play of forces that would act in this way on society itself, and was an excellent term for describing this right and just tendency. The name was quickly adopted by those with whose practical plans most of us do not agree; but its original idea was democracy carried into business, and at present that is the dominant tendency of all successful parties.	<urn:uuid:206d162e-3142-4613-930b-73371ad56c13>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/za/book/social-justice-without-socialism/id511049089	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00046.warc.gz	en	0.988052	183	3.375	3	[ -0.5471881031990051, 0.06426646560430527, -0.09489304572343826, -0.4340261220932007, 0.08002421259880066, 0.17155204713344574, -0.24685297906398773, 0.24919912219047546, -0.3772086501121521, 0.29582899808883667, 0.2525431513786316, 0.30673372745513916, 0.08252547681331635, -0.0055320244282...	2	It came into use in the thirties of the last century, and expressed a certain disappointment over the result of political reform. The bill which gave more men the right to vote did not give them higher wages. The conditions of labor were deplorable before the Reform Bill was passed and they continued to be so for some time afterwards. A merely political change, therefore, was not all that was wanted, and it was necessary to carry democracy into a social sphere in order to improve the condition of the poorer classes. The term "Socialism", therefore, was chosen to describe a play of forces that would act in this way on society itself, and was an excellent term for describing this right and just tendency. The name was quickly adopted by those with whose practical plans most of us do not agree; but its original idea was democracy carried into business, and at present that is the dominant tendency of all successful parties.	184	ENGLISH	1
When Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein, in 1818, she subtitled it ‘The Modern Prometheus’ a literary allusion to the Greek and Roman Prometheus myths. According to the Greek version of the myth, told by the Greek Aeschylus in his play ‘Prometheus Bound’, Prometheus was a Titan and was the friend and benefactor of all humanity. He stole fire from the heavens as a gift for the human race. This incurred the wrath of the Greek king of the gods, Zeus, who chained Prometheus to a rock, for eternity, where an eagle would come to peck out his liver, which would then re-grow within his body overnight. Humankind was also separated from the heavens as an additional punishment. Heracles eventually releases him from this ‘eternal’ torment. However, according to the Roman version of the story, told in Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses’, Prometheus was the creator of humans, modelling the first humans out of clay and water, in the same way that Christians believe that God created man (Genesis 2:7-8). The punishment for this was the creation of the first women, Pandora. According to legend she was given a box and told not to open it. Unfortunately her curiosity got the better of her and she opened it letting all of the bad things in the world, trapped inside the box, out. However one thing was left in the box; hope. These legends link to Frankenstein, and give rise to the subtitle ‘The Modern Prometheus’ due to the fact that Prometheus assisted mankind, but his kindness came at a price: he is punished for his actions, and humans are alienated from the heavens. Similarly, trying to defeat death and defeat human limitations, Frankenstein creates a human like creature but alienates himself from his creation when he sees that it will never fit in with the rest of humanity. In addition to this Frankenstein is punished for his actions, by his family being killed, in the same way that Prometheus is punished for his kindness. Likewise both Frankenstein and Prometheus attempt to play God. They are also both are punished for their actions, but eventually find relief from the punishments; Prometheus is freed while Frankenstein dies. There is also the link with Pandora, in that Frankenstein only succeeds in bringing evil into the world. The two stories also share many of their main themes. For instance both of them have the theme of heroism, with Frankenstein being the “hero” of mankind in the fight against death, while Prometheus is the “hero” because he provides mankind with fire, an essential source of light and heat. Another theme that they share is that of punishment, with the “hero” being the one who is punished. Prometheus has to endure eternal torment, while Frankenstein watches as his family and friends are murdered around him. The Romantics produced many stories, poems and plays on the Prometheus archetype. For instance Mary Shelley’s husband, Percy Shelley wrote a poem ‘Prometheus Unbound’ in 1820, possibly as a response to Frankenstein. In addition to this Lord Byron wrote a poem ‘Prometheus’; is it a coincidence that both of these people were present when Frankenstein embedded itself in Mary Shelley’s mind? Prometheus was a hero for the Romantics as they had very idealistic views. They, the Romantics, were great supporters of the fight against the higher powers; whether the higher power is God or some sort of nobility. Prometheus, by fighting against the gods of the Greeks and Romans, was seen as a leader and an inspiration in the fight against the superior. The story also has strong links with the history of the time. The French Revolution (1789-1799) had not long passed and Europe was in a state of upheaval. The French Revolution showed a challenge of power, as did the Prometheus story. It also shows a change of power from the God appointed King, to the people. In the same way Frankenstein takes the power of life from God, into his own hands. He also thought that his experiments would bring purity and hope to all humankind, as the French thought they would be able to do by rebelling. Many of the descriptions of the French revolution link into the story of Frankenstein. For instance, according to Edmund Burke, the French Revolution was ‘a political monster’ which was born only to devour its creator. This is very similar to Frankenstein with the monster being born, eventually to destroy its creator (Frankenstein). As well as the French Revolution there was an upheaval in science at that time. Chemistry had been isolated from the other sciences in 1802 by Humphrey Davy in his ‘A Discourse, Introductory To A Course Of Lectures On Chemistry’, which also bears many links with Frankenstein, in which he states “Science has done much for man, but it is capable of doing still more”, an idea which is echoed in the book. Frankenstein is very interested in the potential of science and believes that he can take science where it hasn’t been before; he thinks he can stop death. Victor also knows the great things that science has already done and the things that were dreamed of by the ancient scientists. He wants to make some of these dreams realities. Humphrey Davy also says, “Science has enabled man to be master”, a theme found in both Frankenstein and Prometheus. Frankenstein plays God when he becomes the creator of life, while Prometheus becomes the master when he steals the fire from the heavens, which was reserved only for the gods, and gives it to humans.	<urn:uuid:b4ef9f0b-2918-40b4-bc92-789c6cb3b5d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/mary-shelley-30/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00413.warc.gz	en	0.983859	1,157	3.796875	4	[ 0.1023041158914566, 0.36088716983795166, 0.25107166171073914, -0.037862420082092285, -0.3558170199394226, -0.46711716055870056, 0.0478501096367836, 0.33452361822128296, 0.16509145498275757, 0.058668412268161774, -0.2591332495212555, -0.011651970446109772, 0.1649438440799713, 0.180786579847...	4	When Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein, in 1818, she subtitled it ‘The Modern Prometheus’ a literary allusion to the Greek and Roman Prometheus myths. According to the Greek version of the myth, told by the Greek Aeschylus in his play ‘Prometheus Bound’, Prometheus was a Titan and was the friend and benefactor of all humanity. He stole fire from the heavens as a gift for the human race. This incurred the wrath of the Greek king of the gods, Zeus, who chained Prometheus to a rock, for eternity, where an eagle would come to peck out his liver, which would then re-grow within his body overnight. Humankind was also separated from the heavens as an additional punishment. Heracles eventually releases him from this ‘eternal’ torment. However, according to the Roman version of the story, told in Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses’, Prometheus was the creator of humans, modelling the first humans out of clay and water, in the same way that Christians believe that God created man (Genesis 2:7-8). The punishment for this was the creation of the first women, Pandora. According to legend she was given a box and told not to open it. Unfortunately her curiosity got the better of her and she opened it letting all of the bad things in the world, trapped inside the box, out. However one thing was left in the box; hope. These legends link to Frankenstein, and give rise to the subtitle ‘The Modern Prometheus’ due to the fact that Prometheus assisted mankind, but his kindness came at a price: he is punished for his actions, and humans are alienated from the heavens. Similarly, trying to defeat death and defeat human limitations, Frankenstein creates a human like creature but alienates himself from his creation when he sees that it will never fit in with the rest of humanity. In addition to this Frankenstein is punished for his actions, by his family being killed, in the same way that Prometheus is punished for his kindness. Likewise both Frankenstein and Prometheus attempt to play God. They are also both are punished for their actions, but eventually find relief from the punishments; Prometheus is freed while Frankenstein dies. There is also the link with Pandora, in that Frankenstein only succeeds in bringing evil into the world. The two stories also share many of their main themes. For instance both of them have the theme of heroism, with Frankenstein being the “hero” of mankind in the fight against death, while Prometheus is the “hero” because he provides mankind with fire, an essential source of light and heat. Another theme that they share is that of punishment, with the “hero” being the one who is punished. Prometheus has to endure eternal torment, while Frankenstein watches as his family and friends are murdered around him. The Romantics produced many stories, poems and plays on the Prometheus archetype. For instance Mary Shelley’s husband, Percy Shelley wrote a poem ‘Prometheus Unbound’ in 1820, possibly as a response to Frankenstein. In addition to this Lord Byron wrote a poem ‘Prometheus’; is it a coincidence that both of these people were present when Frankenstein embedded itself in Mary Shelley’s mind? Prometheus was a hero for the Romantics as they had very idealistic views. They, the Romantics, were great supporters of the fight against the higher powers; whether the higher power is God or some sort of nobility. Prometheus, by fighting against the gods of the Greeks and Romans, was seen as a leader and an inspiration in the fight against the superior. The story also has strong links with the history of the time. The French Revolution (1789-1799) had not long passed and Europe was in a state of upheaval. The French Revolution showed a challenge of power, as did the Prometheus story. It also shows a change of power from the God appointed King, to the people. In the same way Frankenstein takes the power of life from God, into his own hands. He also thought that his experiments would bring purity and hope to all humankind, as the French thought they would be able to do by rebelling. Many of the descriptions of the French revolution link into the story of Frankenstein. For instance, according to Edmund Burke, the French Revolution was ‘a political monster’ which was born only to devour its creator. This is very similar to Frankenstein with the monster being born, eventually to destroy its creator (Frankenstein). As well as the French Revolution there was an upheaval in science at that time. Chemistry had been isolated from the other sciences in 1802 by Humphrey Davy in his ‘A Discourse, Introductory To A Course Of Lectures On Chemistry’, which also bears many links with Frankenstein, in which he states “Science has done much for man, but it is capable of doing still more”, an idea which is echoed in the book. Frankenstein is very interested in the potential of science and believes that he can take science where it hasn’t been before; he thinks he can stop death. Victor also knows the great things that science has already done and the things that were dreamed of by the ancient scientists. He wants to make some of these dreams realities. Humphrey Davy also says, “Science has enabled man to be master”, a theme found in both Frankenstein and Prometheus. Frankenstein plays God when he becomes the creator of life, while Prometheus becomes the master when he steals the fire from the heavens, which was reserved only for the gods, and gives it to humans.	1,142	ENGLISH	1
The Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC) organized all knowlwdge of his time into a coherent whole which served as the basis for much of the science and philosophy of Hellenistic and Roman times and even affected medieval science and philosophy. Aristotle was born in the small Greek town of Stagiros (later Stagira) in the northern Greek district of Chalcidice. His father, Nicomachus, was a physician who had important social connections, and Aristotle’s interest in science was surely spurred by his father’s works, although Aristotle does not display a particular keen interest in medicine as such. The events of his early life are not clear, but it is possible that his father served at the Macedonian court as physician to Amyntas II and that Aristotle spent part of his youth there. At the age of 17 Aristotle joined Plato’s circle at the Academy in Athens. There he remained for 20 years, and although his respect and admiration for Plato was always great, differences developed which ultimately caused a breach. On Plato’s death in 348/347 BC Aristotle left for Assos in Mysia (in Asia Minor), where he and Xenocrates joined a small circle of Platonists who had already settled there under Hermias, the ruler of Atarneus. Aristotle married Pythias the niece of Hermias, and in a fine hymn expressed his shock of dismay over Hermias’s death at the hands of the Persians some time thereafter. After 3 years in Assos with Theophrastus and Xenocrates, Aristotle went to Mytilene for 2 years. Later, Theophrastus and Aristotle made their way to the court of Philip of Macedon, where Aristotle became tutor to Alexander, who later gained immortality by becoming master of the whole Persian Empire. Scant information remain regarding the specific contents of Alexander’s education at the hands of buycbdproducts but it would be interesting to know what political advice Aristotle imparted to the young Alexander. The only indication of such advice is found in the fragment of a letter in which the philosopher tells Alexander that he ought to be the leader of the Greeks but the master of the barbarians (foreigners). Aristotle returned to Athens in 335/334. Under the protection of Antipater, Aristotle’s representative in Athens, he established a philosophical school of his own in the gymnasium Lyceum, located near a shrine of Apollo Lyceus. The school derived its name, Peripatetic, from the colonnaded walk (paripatos). Members took meals in common, and certain formailities were established which members had to observe. The lectures were divided into morning and afternoon sessions, the more difficult ones given in the morning and the easier and more popular ones in the afternoon. Aristotle himself led the school until the death of Alexander in 323, at which time he felt it expedient to leave Athens, fearing for his safety because of his close association with the Macedonians. He went to Chalcis, where he died the following year of a gastric ailment. His will, preserved in the writings of Diogenes Laertius, provided for his daughter, Pythias, and his son, Nichomacus, as well as for his slaves. Aristotle produced a large number of writings, but relatively few have survived. Because of the great weight of his authority it was inevitable that several spurious treatises should find their way into the corpus of his work. His earliest writings, consisting for the most part of dialogues, were produced under the influence of Plato and the Academy. Most of these are lost, although the title are known from the writings of Diogenes Laertius and from one of several Lives to come down from antiquity. They include his Rhetoric, Eudemus (On the Soul), Protrepticus, On Philosophy, Alexander, On Monarchy, Politicus, Sophistes, Menexenus, Symposium, On Justice, On the Poets, Nerinthus, Eroticus, On Wealth, On Prayer, On Good Birth, On Pleasure, and On Education. These were exoteric works written for the public, and they deal with popular philosophical themes. The Dialogues of Plato were undoubtedly the inspiration for some of them, although the divergence in thought between Plato and his pupil—which was to become apparent later—reveals itself to a certain extent in these works too.	<urn:uuid:bee9a22d-56ab-4254-a6aa-01e6c7473c65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.biographyinstitute.com/2012/12/page/4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00347.warc.gz	en	0.982054	926	3.828125	4	[ 0.26412680745124817, 0.42941465973854065, 0.27053505182266235, -0.29488497972488403, -0.4934050440788269, -0.390374094247818, 0.49207067489624023, 0.6202982664108276, -0.11512672901153564, -0.1841765195131302, -0.26331639289855957, -0.3483737111091614, 0.2563003599643707, 0.306781858205795...	3	The Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC) organized all knowlwdge of his time into a coherent whole which served as the basis for much of the science and philosophy of Hellenistic and Roman times and even affected medieval science and philosophy. Aristotle was born in the small Greek town of Stagiros (later Stagira) in the northern Greek district of Chalcidice. His father, Nicomachus, was a physician who had important social connections, and Aristotle’s interest in science was surely spurred by his father’s works, although Aristotle does not display a particular keen interest in medicine as such. The events of his early life are not clear, but it is possible that his father served at the Macedonian court as physician to Amyntas II and that Aristotle spent part of his youth there. At the age of 17 Aristotle joined Plato’s circle at the Academy in Athens. There he remained for 20 years, and although his respect and admiration for Plato was always great, differences developed which ultimately caused a breach. On Plato’s death in 348/347 BC Aristotle left for Assos in Mysia (in Asia Minor), where he and Xenocrates joined a small circle of Platonists who had already settled there under Hermias, the ruler of Atarneus. Aristotle married Pythias the niece of Hermias, and in a fine hymn expressed his shock of dismay over Hermias’s death at the hands of the Persians some time thereafter. After 3 years in Assos with Theophrastus and Xenocrates, Aristotle went to Mytilene for 2 years. Later, Theophrastus and Aristotle made their way to the court of Philip of Macedon, where Aristotle became tutor to Alexander, who later gained immortality by becoming master of the whole Persian Empire. Scant information remain regarding the specific contents of Alexander’s education at the hands of buycbdproducts but it would be interesting to know what political advice Aristotle imparted to the young Alexander. The only indication of such advice is found in the fragment of a letter in which the philosopher tells Alexander that he ought to be the leader of the Greeks but the master of the barbarians (foreigners). Aristotle returned to Athens in 335/334. Under the protection of Antipater, Aristotle’s representative in Athens, he established a philosophical school of his own in the gymnasium Lyceum, located near a shrine of Apollo Lyceus. The school derived its name, Peripatetic, from the colonnaded walk (paripatos). Members took meals in common, and certain formailities were established which members had to observe. The lectures were divided into morning and afternoon sessions, the more difficult ones given in the morning and the easier and more popular ones in the afternoon. Aristotle himself led the school until the death of Alexander in 323, at which time he felt it expedient to leave Athens, fearing for his safety because of his close association with the Macedonians. He went to Chalcis, where he died the following year of a gastric ailment. His will, preserved in the writings of Diogenes Laertius, provided for his daughter, Pythias, and his son, Nichomacus, as well as for his slaves. Aristotle produced a large number of writings, but relatively few have survived. Because of the great weight of his authority it was inevitable that several spurious treatises should find their way into the corpus of his work. His earliest writings, consisting for the most part of dialogues, were produced under the influence of Plato and the Academy. Most of these are lost, although the title are known from the writings of Diogenes Laertius and from one of several Lives to come down from antiquity. They include his Rhetoric, Eudemus (On the Soul), Protrepticus, On Philosophy, Alexander, On Monarchy, Politicus, Sophistes, Menexenus, Symposium, On Justice, On the Poets, Nerinthus, Eroticus, On Wealth, On Prayer, On Good Birth, On Pleasure, and On Education. These were exoteric works written for the public, and they deal with popular philosophical themes. The Dialogues of Plato were undoubtedly the inspiration for some of them, although the divergence in thought between Plato and his pupil—which was to become apparent later—reveals itself to a certain extent in these works too.	930	ENGLISH	1
Listen to music with your children Music has a way of transforming us to a place that can bring back memories of childhood, it can help us determine where we were when historical events have taken place, and it can mold our moods. Music can send positive and negative messages to us and our children. As adults, we are able to distinguish the difference between entertainment and the need to emulate a message that is being conveyed in a lyric. Music has always had influence because it is a powerful tool that can represent a generation, a revolution, and a true representation of how a group of people feel. Listen to music with your children, talk about what the song is saying and what it means to them, it may not make any sense to you what the lyrics mean; but this is a great opportunity for dialogue, especially with teens. Share some of your favorite recordings and tell them what you remember about the music and why you liked it. If there were artists that you liked as a kid and your parents couldn’t stand, let your kids know this too. Take it to another level and research music listened to in other countries and other periods in time. Discover what people were trying to express, make others feel, or have an influence on how the world was viewed at that time. Something as powerful as music can influence how people dress, speak, and it can even alter how people view the world. But as parents we have to be actively mindful of what our children are listening to, talk with them about it, and make them know that having a musical preference can be a part of who they are becoming. Many times music has and will have a creative way of displaying the signs of the times but attempt to be the bigger influence by connecting with your children through the music you both enjoy. Tysha K. Pittman is a school counselor with Florida State University Schools.	<urn:uuid:fd3f30c2-72a6-4903-92ab-78beff3b3791>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/family/2015/06/23/listen-talk-children-music/29183525/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00137.warc.gz	en	0.982168	383	3.34375	3	[ 0.1346437931060791, -0.2967487573623657, 0.48442649841308594, -0.6515510082244873, -0.30461573600769043, 0.4859786629676819, 0.19472816586494446, -0.0006260171066969633, -0.2028825283050537, -0.1449127346277237, 0.35500583052635193, 0.4014461934566498, 0.23679900169372559, 0.15386557579040...	1	Listen to music with your children Music has a way of transforming us to a place that can bring back memories of childhood, it can help us determine where we were when historical events have taken place, and it can mold our moods. Music can send positive and negative messages to us and our children. As adults, we are able to distinguish the difference between entertainment and the need to emulate a message that is being conveyed in a lyric. Music has always had influence because it is a powerful tool that can represent a generation, a revolution, and a true representation of how a group of people feel. Listen to music with your children, talk about what the song is saying and what it means to them, it may not make any sense to you what the lyrics mean; but this is a great opportunity for dialogue, especially with teens. Share some of your favorite recordings and tell them what you remember about the music and why you liked it. If there were artists that you liked as a kid and your parents couldn’t stand, let your kids know this too. Take it to another level and research music listened to in other countries and other periods in time. Discover what people were trying to express, make others feel, or have an influence on how the world was viewed at that time. Something as powerful as music can influence how people dress, speak, and it can even alter how people view the world. But as parents we have to be actively mindful of what our children are listening to, talk with them about it, and make them know that having a musical preference can be a part of who they are becoming. Many times music has and will have a creative way of displaying the signs of the times but attempt to be the bigger influence by connecting with your children through the music you both enjoy. Tysha K. Pittman is a school counselor with Florida State University Schools.	375	ENGLISH	1
By definition chaplains are noncombatants, yet in the Pacific Theater alone, more than 20 chaplains were killed in action while ministering to the spiritual and physical needs of the troops. One of the most notable examples of sustained heroism among chaplains was that of Robert Preston Taylor. During the campaign to hold the Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines, Taylor spent many days in the battle area, searching out and caring for the physically wounded and disheartened, sometimes behind enemy lines. By his example, he brought hope and religious faith to those who had lost both and created a new faith among some who had none. These were hallmarks of his ministry throughout the war. He was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry in action. During the death march that followed the surrender of Bataan, Taylor suffered many beatings and calculated torture for his attempts to alleviate the suffering of other POWs. At Cabanatuan, the largest of the POW compounds, the inspirational Taylor soon became the best known and respected of the officers. He volunteered for duty in the worst of all areas, the hospital, where the average life of a patient was 19 days. Many men could have been saved if the Japanese had provided a minimum of medication, of which they had ample supplies. Taylor devised a plan for getting medical supplies from Philippine guerrillas and smuggling them into camp–an offense punishable by death. The plan was carried out largely by a corporal who was assigned work at railroad yards near the camp. The supplies could be obtained by Clara Phillips, an American woman who had contacts with the guerrillas. As medication began to filter into the camp, the death rate among patients declined drastically. Eventually the smuggling operation was exposed. Phillips was sentenced to life imprisonment and several participants were executed. Taylor was threatened with immediate death by the brutal camp commandant, Captain Suzuki, then confined in a “heat box”–a four-by-five-foot cage placed in the blazing sun–where he was expected to die. With barely enough food and water to keep him alive in the pest-infested cage, Taylor survived the box for nine weeks. His example encouraged others in the boxes to not give up. Near death, Taylor was moved to the hospital to die. Against all odds, he survived. A new and more humane commandant replaced Suzuki. Conditions began to improve, in part due to Taylor’s influence over the new man. In October 1944, the Japanese ordered all American officers at Cabanatuan to be shipped to Japan. The Americans now were within 200 miles of Manila. Defeat stared Japan in the face. Some 1,600 officers were moved to Manila, where they were held nearly two months while the enemy assembled a convoy to take them and others to Japan. Early in December, the hottest and driest month in the Philippines, the men were marched to the docks. The 1,619 from Cabanatuan were assigned to Oryoku Maru, which once had been a luxury liner. The men were forced into the ship’s three sweltering, unventilated holds. About two square feet of space was available for each man. There were no sanitary facilities. The first night, 30 men died in just one of the holds. After an attack on the convoy by US bombers whose crews did not know there were Americans aboard, only Oryoku Maru survived and it was anchored in Subic Bay. The next morning it was bombed and left sinking. Taylor was severely wounded but continued to help others out of the doomed vessel. As those who could swim neared the shore, Japanese troops opened fire on them, killing many. Jammed into a succession of equally crowded, unsanitary hulks, and with the barest minimum of food and water, the officers from Cabanatuan finally reached Japan on Jan. 30 in freezing weather for which they were not clothed. Only 400 of the original 1,619 survived the horrible experience in the “hell ships,” as they became known. Throughout the long months at Cabanatuan and the terrible voyage to Japan, Taylor never ceased to encourage hope among the POWs and to enlighten their spiritual lives. When Taylor regained some strength as his wounds healed, he was assigned to work in the coal mines at Fukuoka. Soon formations of B-29s began to fill the skies of Japan. For that country, the war clearly was lost. The POWs were moved to Manchuria until the war ended. Only two chaplains who were aboard the hell ships survived. After the war, Taylor remained in the Air Force. He was assigned to wing and command chaplain posts at several US bases and ultimately was named Air Force chief of chaplains with the rank of major general. On his retirement in 1966, he returned to his native Texas to continue a life of service. Throughout his years that were marked by the horrors of war and by great personal suffering, he never lost the faith that sustained him and that he engendered in those whose lives he touched. He and the many chaplains who have devoted their lives to the service of others are a part of the Air Force tradition of valor. Published January 1998. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.	<urn:uuid:f2cef644-4ef1-4272-896d-95a6e7f051c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.airforcemag.com/article/valor-heroic-noncombatants/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00200.warc.gz	en	0.987341	1,096	3.578125	4	[ -0.36511021852493286, 0.3429718613624573, -0.111845463514328, -0.2924625873565674, 0.003657455090433359, -0.04462985694408417, 0.1561455875635147, 0.3987973630428314, -0.18297871947288513, 0.0021116817370057106, 0.3038269579410553, -0.027273939922451973, 0.18673257529735565, 0.666957378387...	9	By definition chaplains are noncombatants, yet in the Pacific Theater alone, more than 20 chaplains were killed in action while ministering to the spiritual and physical needs of the troops. One of the most notable examples of sustained heroism among chaplains was that of Robert Preston Taylor. During the campaign to hold the Bataan Peninsula in the Philippines, Taylor spent many days in the battle area, searching out and caring for the physically wounded and disheartened, sometimes behind enemy lines. By his example, he brought hope and religious faith to those who had lost both and created a new faith among some who had none. These were hallmarks of his ministry throughout the war. He was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry in action. During the death march that followed the surrender of Bataan, Taylor suffered many beatings and calculated torture for his attempts to alleviate the suffering of other POWs. At Cabanatuan, the largest of the POW compounds, the inspirational Taylor soon became the best known and respected of the officers. He volunteered for duty in the worst of all areas, the hospital, where the average life of a patient was 19 days. Many men could have been saved if the Japanese had provided a minimum of medication, of which they had ample supplies. Taylor devised a plan for getting medical supplies from Philippine guerrillas and smuggling them into camp–an offense punishable by death. The plan was carried out largely by a corporal who was assigned work at railroad yards near the camp. The supplies could be obtained by Clara Phillips, an American woman who had contacts with the guerrillas. As medication began to filter into the camp, the death rate among patients declined drastically. Eventually the smuggling operation was exposed. Phillips was sentenced to life imprisonment and several participants were executed. Taylor was threatened with immediate death by the brutal camp commandant, Captain Suzuki, then confined in a “heat box”–a four-by-five-foot cage placed in the blazing sun–where he was expected to die. With barely enough food and water to keep him alive in the pest-infested cage, Taylor survived the box for nine weeks. His example encouraged others in the boxes to not give up. Near death, Taylor was moved to the hospital to die. Against all odds, he survived. A new and more humane commandant replaced Suzuki. Conditions began to improve, in part due to Taylor’s influence over the new man. In October 1944, the Japanese ordered all American officers at Cabanatuan to be shipped to Japan. The Americans now were within 200 miles of Manila. Defeat stared Japan in the face. Some 1,600 officers were moved to Manila, where they were held nearly two months while the enemy assembled a convoy to take them and others to Japan. Early in December, the hottest and driest month in the Philippines, the men were marched to the docks. The 1,619 from Cabanatuan were assigned to Oryoku Maru, which once had been a luxury liner. The men were forced into the ship’s three sweltering, unventilated holds. About two square feet of space was available for each man. There were no sanitary facilities. The first night, 30 men died in just one of the holds. After an attack on the convoy by US bombers whose crews did not know there were Americans aboard, only Oryoku Maru survived and it was anchored in Subic Bay. The next morning it was bombed and left sinking. Taylor was severely wounded but continued to help others out of the doomed vessel. As those who could swim neared the shore, Japanese troops opened fire on them, killing many. Jammed into a succession of equally crowded, unsanitary hulks, and with the barest minimum of food and water, the officers from Cabanatuan finally reached Japan on Jan. 30 in freezing weather for which they were not clothed. Only 400 of the original 1,619 survived the horrible experience in the “hell ships,” as they became known. Throughout the long months at Cabanatuan and the terrible voyage to Japan, Taylor never ceased to encourage hope among the POWs and to enlighten their spiritual lives. When Taylor regained some strength as his wounds healed, he was assigned to work in the coal mines at Fukuoka. Soon formations of B-29s began to fill the skies of Japan. For that country, the war clearly was lost. The POWs were moved to Manchuria until the war ended. Only two chaplains who were aboard the hell ships survived. After the war, Taylor remained in the Air Force. He was assigned to wing and command chaplain posts at several US bases and ultimately was named Air Force chief of chaplains with the rank of major general. On his retirement in 1966, he returned to his native Texas to continue a life of service. Throughout his years that were marked by the horrors of war and by great personal suffering, he never lost the faith that sustained him and that he engendered in those whose lives he touched. He and the many chaplains who have devoted their lives to the service of others are a part of the Air Force tradition of valor. Published January 1998. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy.	1,105	ENGLISH	1
Nina Simone Biography Nina Simone was a complicated woman. Extraordinarily talented musically, she played a wide variety of styles, and although well-known and critically acclaimed, she only had one song reach the top 20 chart in the United States throughout her whole career. However, it was the combination of her powerful, passionate music along with her strong views and activist nature which made Nina Simone an exceptional artist and campaigner for civil rights. Born Eunice Kathleen Waymon on 21 February 1933, Nina Simone was raised in the town of Tryon, North Carolina, and of the eight children born to her parents, she was the sixth. Although her family was incredibly poor, aged only three, Nina’s musical talents started to shine especially when it came to playing the piano. This talent was soon noticed and it wasn’t long before she was playing piano at her church and aged only 12 she was given the honour of playing a recital. It was not the music she played at this recital that would influence her future, but rather an event that occurred there that brought home to her what it was really like to be an African American in 1940’s USA. During the recital, Nina’s parents, who had sat in the front row to watch Nina play, were compelled to give up their seats to a white couple. However, Nina would have none of it and refused to perform until her parents were once again seated in the front row. From that point forward, Nina decided that she would dedicate her life and career to civil rights. With the help of her parents, who although being very poor did what they could, and of various donations and funds that came her way thanks to the help of her music teacher, Nina Simone was able to attend Allen High School for Girls, which was located in Asheville, North Carolina. After graduating from high school in 1950 Nina sent in an application to the Curtis Institute of Music hoping for an audition. Her family had already moved to Philadelphia in anticipation of her acceptance into the program but her application was unceremoniously and without reason denied. Although the school denied it, Nina strongly believed that it was her skin colour that kept her from being accepted into the music program. Nina did not take the news of her rejection lying down and decided to continue growing her skills at the piano through taking private lessons with one of the professors from the Curtis Institute. Getting private lessons from a prestigious teacher was expensive, so Nina took on singing jobs at local clubs and bars to pay for them. In 1954, she took on the name that she would be known by for the rest of her life – Nina Simone. The use of a stage name was important for her as her parents, who were devout Methodists, would not be supportive of the types of song their daughter would be singing as they would be considered immoral by the church. The stage name Nina Simone was intended to allow her to work on the music that was important to her without any interference from her family. The name Nina Simone was created from two separate ideas. Nina, Spanish for ‘little girl’, was a nickname her boyfriend had given her, while Simone was the name of a French actress Nina was fond of. Throughout the 50s her time playing in different bars and clubs began to pay off as she developed a small but strong fan base. In 1958, Nina met and married Don Ross, but she instantly regretted the decision. It was during this time that she also wrote what would become her only top 20 song in the United States, “I Loves You, Porgy.” Between this and her album “Little Girl Blue”, Nina Simone began to attract attention, although she would not benefit financially from the released versions of this early music as she had sold the rights outright for only $3000. It has been estimated that Nina lost more than a million dollars in royalties because of that decision. Nina’s popularity continued to grow throughout the late 50s and early 60s and she was able to get a recording contract with Colpix Records which included an agreement for Nina to create the music that she desired and in return for the record company recording it, she agreed to work exclusively with Colpix. In 1961, Nina married for the second time, this time to a police detective in New York called Andrew Stroud. The relationship produced a daughter called Lisa, but it was a psychologically and physically abusive one. Nevertheless, Stroud also became Nina Simone’s manager. Nina’s musical capabilities always drew from her passion and her background as a female African American artist. However, it was sometimes this heritage shining through in her music that caused the occasional backlash. Nina’s music took on a decidedly political tone after four little African American girls were killed in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in 1963. The hate-filled attack stirred deep passions within Nina as she wrote the song “Mississippi Goddam.” Such a passionately anti-racist piece of music, it was boycotted in a number of southern states. The thing that set Nina Simone apart from some of her contemporaries like Martin Luther King, Jr. is that she was a bigger proponent for violence and swift decisive action as the method of change in American society. She gravitated more towards Malcolm X and the black nationalist groups than to groups led by Dr King who believed that peace could achieve the goals of the civil rights movement and ensure equality for African-Americans through the legislative process as opposed to through militant tactics. Working tirelessly in the civil rights movement, Nina Simone produced multiple pieces of music to help inspire and guide as well as speaking and conducting activist work directly. Nina Simone had a troubled relationship with the U.S. government, and left the country in 1970, initially staying in Barbados waiting for more work to come her way. The problem was though, that she had left behind her wedding ring, which Stroud interpreted as Nina wanting a divorce and as her manager he controlled her income. After waiting for work that didn’t come, Nina travelled to Europe and in the 1980’s she spent some time in London where she played a number of times at Ronnie Scott’s Jazz Club, recording a live album there in 1984. Three years later, Chanel used the original recording of My Baby Just Cares for Me for an ad for their No5 perfume brand. The song was re-released and went straight to number 4 in the NME charts and off the back of this Nina enjoyed a short but rewarding popular revival. Upon her eventual return to the United States, she found that she was wanted for tax evasion and so in order to avoid prosecution, she went back to Barbados where she stayed for quite a while, having an affair while there with the then Prime Minister Errol Barrow. Never to live again in the United States again she was first persuaded to go to Liberia before she found herself back in Europe ultimately settling in France. In the late 1980s, Nina was diagnosed with bipolar disorder and then throughout the 90s, she battled breast cancer. She released her autobiography “I Put a Spell on You” in 1992. She died at home in France on 21 April 2003. Although Nina Simone has been considered by some as a figure of controversy, some things about her cannot be denied; that she was a woman gifted in music, passionate in spirit, and with a soul filled with music. Nina Simone’s work continues to inspire countless individuals to combine their passion with their music.	<urn:uuid:e7cbee17-2eeb-4796-990a-f34c297349cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.5minutebiographies.com/nina-simone/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00285.warc.gz	en	0.990383	1,543	3.59375	4	[ 0.3554651141166687, -0.21515199542045593, 0.3641853332519531, -0.4815635681152344, 0.008851347491145134, 0.48206979036331177, 0.019635261967778206, -0.313951313495636, 0.18714335560798645, -0.30669674277305603, 0.34892627596855164, 0.2025756537914276, 0.5214684009552002, 0.0733812004327774...	1	Nina Simone Biography Nina Simone was a complicated woman. Extraordinarily talented musically, she played a wide variety of styles, and although well-known and critically acclaimed, she only had one song reach the top 20 chart in the United States throughout her whole career. However, it was the combination of her powerful, passionate music along with her strong views and activist nature which made Nina Simone an exceptional artist and campaigner for civil rights. Born Eunice Kathleen Waymon on 21 February 1933, Nina Simone was raised in the town of Tryon, North Carolina, and of the eight children born to her parents, she was the sixth. Although her family was incredibly poor, aged only three, Nina’s musical talents started to shine especially when it came to playing the piano. This talent was soon noticed and it wasn’t long before she was playing piano at her church and aged only 12 she was given the honour of playing a recital. It was not the music she played at this recital that would influence her future, but rather an event that occurred there that brought home to her what it was really like to be an African American in 1940’s USA. During the recital, Nina’s parents, who had sat in the front row to watch Nina play, were compelled to give up their seats to a white couple. However, Nina would have none of it and refused to perform until her parents were once again seated in the front row. From that point forward, Nina decided that she would dedicate her life and career to civil rights. With the help of her parents, who although being very poor did what they could, and of various donations and funds that came her way thanks to the help of her music teacher, Nina Simone was able to attend Allen High School for Girls, which was located in Asheville, North Carolina. After graduating from high school in 1950 Nina sent in an application to the Curtis Institute of Music hoping for an audition. Her family had already moved to Philadelphia in anticipation of her acceptance into the program but her application was unceremoniously and without reason denied. Although the school denied it, Nina strongly believed that it was her skin colour that kept her from being accepted into the music program. Nina did not take the news of her rejection lying down and decided to continue growing her skills at the piano through taking private lessons with one of the professors from the Curtis Institute. Getting private lessons from a prestigious teacher was expensive, so Nina took on singing jobs at local clubs and bars to pay for them. In 1954, she took on the name that she would be known by for the rest of her life – Nina Simone. The use of a stage name was important for her as her parents, who were devout Methodists, would not be supportive of the types of song their daughter would be singing as they would be considered immoral by the church. The stage name Nina Simone was intended to allow her to work on the music that was important to her without any interference from her family. The name Nina Simone was created from two separate ideas. Nina, Spanish for ‘little girl’, was a nickname her boyfriend had given her, while Simone was the name of a French actress Nina was fond of. Throughout the 50s her time playing in different bars and clubs began to pay off as she developed a small but strong fan base. In 1958, Nina met and married Don Ross, but she instantly regretted the decision. It was during this time that she also wrote what would become her only top 20 song in the United States, “I Loves You, Porgy.” Between this and her album “Little Girl Blue”, Nina Simone began to attract attention, although she would not benefit financially from the released versions of this early music as she had sold the rights outright for only $3000. It has been estimated that Nina lost more than a million dollars in royalties because of that decision. Nina’s popularity continued to grow throughout the late 50s and early 60s and she was able to get a recording contract with Colpix Records which included an agreement for Nina to create the music that she desired and in return for the record company recording it, she agreed to work exclusively with Colpix. In 1961, Nina married for the second time, this time to a police detective in New York called Andrew Stroud. The relationship produced a daughter called Lisa, but it was a psychologically and physically abusive one. Nevertheless, Stroud also became Nina Simone’s manager. Nina’s musical capabilities always drew from her passion and her background as a female African American artist. However, it was sometimes this heritage shining through in her music that caused the occasional backlash. Nina’s music took on a decidedly political tone after four little African American girls were killed in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in 1963. The hate-filled attack stirred deep passions within Nina as she wrote the song “Mississippi Goddam.” Such a passionately anti-racist piece of music, it was boycotted in a number of southern states. The thing that set Nina Simone apart from some of her contemporaries like Martin Luther King, Jr. is that she was a bigger proponent for violence and swift decisive action as the method of change in American society. She gravitated more towards Malcolm X and the black nationalist groups than to groups led by Dr King who believed that peace could achieve the goals of the civil rights movement and ensure equality for African-Americans through the legislative process as opposed to through militant tactics. Working tirelessly in the civil rights movement, Nina Simone produced multiple pieces of music to help inspire and guide as well as speaking and conducting activist work directly. Nina Simone had a troubled relationship with the U.S. government, and left the country in 1970, initially staying in Barbados waiting for more work to come her way. The problem was though, that she had left behind her wedding ring, which Stroud interpreted as Nina wanting a divorce and as her manager he controlled her income. After waiting for work that didn’t come, Nina travelled to Europe and in the 1980’s she spent some time in London where she played a number of times at Ronnie Scott’s Jazz Club, recording a live album there in 1984. Three years later, Chanel used the original recording of My Baby Just Cares for Me for an ad for their No5 perfume brand. The song was re-released and went straight to number 4 in the NME charts and off the back of this Nina enjoyed a short but rewarding popular revival. Upon her eventual return to the United States, she found that she was wanted for tax evasion and so in order to avoid prosecution, she went back to Barbados where she stayed for quite a while, having an affair while there with the then Prime Minister Errol Barrow. Never to live again in the United States again she was first persuaded to go to Liberia before she found herself back in Europe ultimately settling in France. In the late 1980s, Nina was diagnosed with bipolar disorder and then throughout the 90s, she battled breast cancer. She released her autobiography “I Put a Spell on You” in 1992. She died at home in France on 21 April 2003. Although Nina Simone has been considered by some as a figure of controversy, some things about her cannot be denied; that she was a woman gifted in music, passionate in spirit, and with a soul filled with music. Nina Simone’s work continues to inspire countless individuals to combine their passion with their music.	1,563	ENGLISH	1
The flute is one of the oldest of all instruments. The first who had emerged not simply as a musical, and their strident sounds were used to frighten enemies and evil spirits (yes, you read that right), or raise the alarm. The flutes were also associated with hunting and used as decoys, to imitate the cry of an animal. The first flute came in many sizes, soprano, alto, tenor and bass, The first European flutes had a terminal mouth, like the current recorders; modern flute with a mouthpiece side is called "transverse" because it is bound to parellel lips. We know that the flute was already used in China three thousand years ago, but its origin is perhaps even more distant. The instrument known to the ancient Greeks, reappeared in Europe nine hundred years ago, in the form of military fife. In France, during the second half of the seventeenth century, a family of instrument makers , the Hotteterre, perfected many wind instruments, including the transverse flute. The new model consisted of three parts or "segments". The flutist could adjust the instrument by sliding the headrest up or down. The finger holes were made more accessible by bringing them closer and further from the hole was fitted with a "key". In Europe during the eighteenth century, fashion was a very melodious music and pleasing to the ear, with an accompanying light. The composer discovered the flute, redesigned and enhanced, perfectly met these requirements. Often these were composers and performers themselves, as members of high society wanted to learn to play this instrument, many of whom were also teachers. The sound of the flute cross was more powerful than the recorder, and therefore more appropriate to the orchestras of the time, more important. Today, the pitch is the same worldwide, but in the early eighteenth century, it ranged from one place to another, and even an orchestra to another. The flute players could not change the tone of their instrument, endowed as it does the flute of a fourth segment, removable and variable length. By extending the instrument, it lowered the tone, by shortening it, we shrugged. These interchangeable segments were called "body parts". But the flute still exhibited the defects that the manufacturers were determined to eliminate. Some notes, for example, were false because the hole was too far away for the fingers can reach it easily. We added new keys to try to remedy this unsatisfactory situation. In the late eighteenth century, the instrument would find its final form through the flutist Theobald Boehm . With some modifications, the Boehm flute is the most commonly used today. Last update : 16/03/2009 18:17 Category : Files - Instruments-Woods Page read 23072 times	<urn:uuid:1a9f24ab-cd60-4d29-ad34-2ac307a011ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://musique-harmonie.fr/articles.php?lng=en&pg=49&mnuid=2834&tconfig=0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00430.warc.gz	en	0.981081	587	3.828125	4	[ 0.03327106684446335, -0.02340141497552395, 0.46682417392730713, -0.5023853778839111, -0.49048471450805664, 0.04529688507318497, 0.25097933411598206, -0.05161936953663826, 0.36799678206443787, -0.1000681221485138, -0.052168361842632294, -0.217133030295372, 0.1795845776796341, 0.358463644981...	1	The flute is one of the oldest of all instruments. The first who had emerged not simply as a musical, and their strident sounds were used to frighten enemies and evil spirits (yes, you read that right), or raise the alarm. The flutes were also associated with hunting and used as decoys, to imitate the cry of an animal. The first flute came in many sizes, soprano, alto, tenor and bass, The first European flutes had a terminal mouth, like the current recorders; modern flute with a mouthpiece side is called "transverse" because it is bound to parellel lips. We know that the flute was already used in China three thousand years ago, but its origin is perhaps even more distant. The instrument known to the ancient Greeks, reappeared in Europe nine hundred years ago, in the form of military fife. In France, during the second half of the seventeenth century, a family of instrument makers , the Hotteterre, perfected many wind instruments, including the transverse flute. The new model consisted of three parts or "segments". The flutist could adjust the instrument by sliding the headrest up or down. The finger holes were made more accessible by bringing them closer and further from the hole was fitted with a "key". In Europe during the eighteenth century, fashion was a very melodious music and pleasing to the ear, with an accompanying light. The composer discovered the flute, redesigned and enhanced, perfectly met these requirements. Often these were composers and performers themselves, as members of high society wanted to learn to play this instrument, many of whom were also teachers. The sound of the flute cross was more powerful than the recorder, and therefore more appropriate to the orchestras of the time, more important. Today, the pitch is the same worldwide, but in the early eighteenth century, it ranged from one place to another, and even an orchestra to another. The flute players could not change the tone of their instrument, endowed as it does the flute of a fourth segment, removable and variable length. By extending the instrument, it lowered the tone, by shortening it, we shrugged. These interchangeable segments were called "body parts". But the flute still exhibited the defects that the manufacturers were determined to eliminate. Some notes, for example, were false because the hole was too far away for the fingers can reach it easily. We added new keys to try to remedy this unsatisfactory situation. In the late eighteenth century, the instrument would find its final form through the flutist Theobald Boehm . With some modifications, the Boehm flute is the most commonly used today. Last update : 16/03/2009 18:17 Category : Files - Instruments-Woods Page read 23072 times	579	ENGLISH	1
German printmaker, painter and draughtsman Hendrik Goltzius was born in 1558 in what was then known as the North Rhine-Westphalia. He was one in a long line of artists; his father, grandfather and great-grandfather were all also artists. Goltzius was one of the outstanding figures of the Dutch artworld in the 15th and 16th centuries; known for his sophisticated Mannerist engraving techniques within the early Baroque period, although he did start to produce paintings in the Middle Ages. He received international acclamation for his work, with esteemed patrons such as the notorious art lover Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II. Goltzius produced graphic art using innovative media such as chalk, metal point and brush and ink. He stood out from his peers by creating large, monochromatic pieces that featured extensive detail. He turning more towards painting from 1600, for two possible reasons. Firstly, it was asserted that his eyesight was failing and he could no longer create highly detailed works. Secondly, that a visit from Rubens in 1612 had inspired Goltzius to change into a more classical style. His masterpiece was the Danaë, which can now be found in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Hendrik Goltzius died aged 58, in Haarlem.	<urn:uuid:2b29ed72-cbfa-4a0f-83a2-0afbffc18cc0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/hendrik-goltzius/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00349.warc.gz	en	0.991375	277	3.5	4	[ 0.47080081701278687, 0.4365136921405792, 0.2617191672325134, 0.005458124913275242, 0.020585855469107628, -0.0027855648659169674, 0.20557273924350739, 0.3070819675922394, -0.43281665444374084, -0.04749424755573273, -0.2786515951156616, -0.6021131873130798, -0.4699547588825226, 0.71526497602...	11	German printmaker, painter and draughtsman Hendrik Goltzius was born in 1558 in what was then known as the North Rhine-Westphalia. He was one in a long line of artists; his father, grandfather and great-grandfather were all also artists. Goltzius was one of the outstanding figures of the Dutch artworld in the 15th and 16th centuries; known for his sophisticated Mannerist engraving techniques within the early Baroque period, although he did start to produce paintings in the Middle Ages. He received international acclamation for his work, with esteemed patrons such as the notorious art lover Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II. Goltzius produced graphic art using innovative media such as chalk, metal point and brush and ink. He stood out from his peers by creating large, monochromatic pieces that featured extensive detail. He turning more towards painting from 1600, for two possible reasons. Firstly, it was asserted that his eyesight was failing and he could no longer create highly detailed works. Secondly, that a visit from Rubens in 1612 had inspired Goltzius to change into a more classical style. His masterpiece was the Danaë, which can now be found in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Hendrik Goltzius died aged 58, in Haarlem.	287	ENGLISH	1
The Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins worked tirelessly to help children The Rev. Daniel Jenkins changed the lives of countless children and helped shape 20th-century music. Born into slavery in Barnwell in 1862, Jenkins became a minister. One December day in 1891, he met four African-American orphans huddled together for warmth. On the spot, he resolved to make a home for orphans, eventually persuading the Charleston City Council to let him use an abandoned warehouse. Jenkins recruited musicians to teach the orphans, and the band performed around the country to raise money for the orphanage. The band was a training ground for many musicians, and was immortalized in Dubose Heyward's novel "Porgy," which became the opera "Porgy and Bess." The Jenkins Orphanage Band toured with "Porgy and Bess," and is credited with helping to create the dance known as the Charleston. By the mid-1930s, five bands and two vocal ensembles were affiliated with the orphanage. Jenkins died in 1937, but his work lives on in the Jenkins Institute, which serves children and families in Charleston.	<urn:uuid:8f7fd04a-5de7-4b17-88b0-e1f6826a2906>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/life/2015/02/25/daniel-j-jenkins-black-history-month/24030261/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00501.warc.gz	en	0.985856	241	3.6875	4	[ -0.30989864468574524, 0.07407643646001816, 0.4065774083137512, -0.11576782166957855, -0.6223345398902893, 0.21889136731624603, -0.1369255781173706, -0.16599884629249573, -0.4437064826488495, -0.2736157178878784, 0.36133405566215515, 0.38506585359573364, 0.4379388988018036, -0.0500824227929...	3	The Rev. Daniel J. Jenkins worked tirelessly to help children The Rev. Daniel Jenkins changed the lives of countless children and helped shape 20th-century music. Born into slavery in Barnwell in 1862, Jenkins became a minister. One December day in 1891, he met four African-American orphans huddled together for warmth. On the spot, he resolved to make a home for orphans, eventually persuading the Charleston City Council to let him use an abandoned warehouse. Jenkins recruited musicians to teach the orphans, and the band performed around the country to raise money for the orphanage. The band was a training ground for many musicians, and was immortalized in Dubose Heyward's novel "Porgy," which became the opera "Porgy and Bess." The Jenkins Orphanage Band toured with "Porgy and Bess," and is credited with helping to create the dance known as the Charleston. By the mid-1930s, five bands and two vocal ensembles were affiliated with the orphanage. Jenkins died in 1937, but his work lives on in the Jenkins Institute, which serves children and families in Charleston.	249	ENGLISH	1
Langston Hughes reached his prime in writing during the time of the Harlem Renaissance. This was a unique time period in American History in which many African American writers, artists, actors, and celebrities of various kinds emerged. It was a time in which, for the first time in History, African American people were able to reveal their true talent and intellect. The only problem was that African American artists, poets, novelists, and playwrights were only acknowledged within the community of African American people, and as it was very clear that separate was not equal, Langston Hughes, along with a great many other up and comings of his time, wanted their work to be esteemed by the world, not only their own community. Langston Hughes writes this poem in response to what he felt, having his own literary genius be kept segregated from that of his white counterparts. He wanted true equality to reign so that his works of literature might be recognized among all writers of his time, not just those in Harlem. This poem, which can be read in full here, simply, yet profoundly reveals his feelings. The poem’s biblical reference is used to draw his readers to his point of view. Langston Hughes knew his ancestors waited many years and never did experience true equality, and he wondered whether or not he ever would. Even as highly esteemed a poet as he was in Harlem, it did not make up for the fact that much of the rest of his society would not acknowledge his work simply because of the color of his skin. Years later, Martin Luther King Jr. made his speech, “I have a Dream,” which was likely inspired by this very poem. Hughes wrote this poem in 1951, and Martin Luther King Jr. gave his speech in 1963, just four short years prior to Hughes’ death. Harlem (A Dream Deferred) Analysis Hughes begins his poem with a question. “What happens to a dream deferred?” The word, deferred, in this context means that it is put off or delayed indefinitely. This seems a simple question at first, but once in context, has significant connotations. His initial question would have been, to his audience, an obvious biblical reference. Proverbs 13:12 States, Hope deferred makes the heart sick, but a desire fulfilled is a tree of life. By starting his poem with this reference, the author immediately gains the support of professing Christians in his community, namely because they believed they could answer his question, at least in part. They could answer what happens when hope is deferred. They could answer that, according to the book of Proverbs, when one hopes or dreams for something, and it is deferred, it makes the heart sick. On the contrary, when a dream is fulfilled, it brings life and vitality. Hughes is aware of the answers provided in this specific Proverb, but this poem gives more depth of insight into his specific dream and the result of his not having seen it fulfilled. The question about raisins and the sun gives the readers vivid imagery of what he feels is happening to him as he has not yet seen his dream fulfilled. This second question of Harlem (A Dream Deferred), relating to festering like a sore, paints a grotesque picture for the readers, one which can help them to strongly identify with the disgust Hughes feels. At the time he wrote this poem, the slaves had been free nearly ninety years, and yet were still not treated as equals. This is his dream deferred. He compares his disappointment to a sore which festers and oozes, thoroughly giving his readers an understanding of the depths of his disgust. His next question about how it smells suggests two possible endings for this dream deferred. The first, being that like a piece of meat left to rot, it would just continue to get worse and worse the longer their hope for equality was denied. The second option is that it would simply crust over. People would become used to living in a separate society and become comfortable living their own lives in their own separate communities. In the next verse, the speaker offers his own view. It becomes clear that he does not believe this dream will “sugar over” and somehow become tolerable, perhaps even sweet. Rather, he gives his own suggestion that, Maybe it just sagslike a heavy load. This suggests that he feels the heavy weight of the many years his he and his ancestors would wait for others to see them as equal. Hughes felt the heavy burden of this weight upon his shoulders. It had already been nearly ninety years since the African American people were freed and given rights as human beings. Yet, as they lived in separate communities, they were not treated as equals, and Hughes likened this to the feeling of going through life carrying a very heavy load. The last line of this poem is written in italics, which causes the reader to pay extra close attention to the emphasis put on this final question. He asks, Or does it explode? With this final question, Hughes implies that one can only carry a heavy load for so long. He suggests that a festering sore…rotting meat, can only be tolerated for so long. He implies with this line that something is about to happen. It is clear that Hughes believes that the African American people cannot tolerate the way they have been treated in society for much longer. He clearly reveals that after years of tolerating mistreatment, he certainly feels like giving way to anger, or exploding. And who wouldn’t? Although his life story reveals that he did not explode, but rather expressed not only his dissatisfaction with society, but his intellect and literary genius in such a way as to prove wrong the discrimination that oppressed him and to pave the way for many others to follow in the pursuit of civil rights for African Americans.	<urn:uuid:cbd4d822-6cae-4af6-8769-556a3f01d860>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://poemanalysis.com/langston-hughes/harlem-a-dream-deferred	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00314.warc.gz	en	0.99118	1,196	3.953125	4	[ -0.5613264441490173, 0.4675346910953522, 0.22104312479496002, 0.5043047666549683, -0.3575374484062195, 0.19951987266540527, 0.4323478937149048, -0.19884365797042847, -0.11227292567491531, 0.010773567482829094, 0.05534890666604042, 0.21094447374343872, -0.1762160062789917, 0.106546401977539...	5	Langston Hughes reached his prime in writing during the time of the Harlem Renaissance. This was a unique time period in American History in which many African American writers, artists, actors, and celebrities of various kinds emerged. It was a time in which, for the first time in History, African American people were able to reveal their true talent and intellect. The only problem was that African American artists, poets, novelists, and playwrights were only acknowledged within the community of African American people, and as it was very clear that separate was not equal, Langston Hughes, along with a great many other up and comings of his time, wanted their work to be esteemed by the world, not only their own community. Langston Hughes writes this poem in response to what he felt, having his own literary genius be kept segregated from that of his white counterparts. He wanted true equality to reign so that his works of literature might be recognized among all writers of his time, not just those in Harlem. This poem, which can be read in full here, simply, yet profoundly reveals his feelings. The poem’s biblical reference is used to draw his readers to his point of view. Langston Hughes knew his ancestors waited many years and never did experience true equality, and he wondered whether or not he ever would. Even as highly esteemed a poet as he was in Harlem, it did not make up for the fact that much of the rest of his society would not acknowledge his work simply because of the color of his skin. Years later, Martin Luther King Jr. made his speech, “I have a Dream,” which was likely inspired by this very poem. Hughes wrote this poem in 1951, and Martin Luther King Jr. gave his speech in 1963, just four short years prior to Hughes’ death. Harlem (A Dream Deferred) Analysis Hughes begins his poem with a question. “What happens to a dream deferred?” The word, deferred, in this context means that it is put off or delayed indefinitely. This seems a simple question at first, but once in context, has significant connotations. His initial question would have been, to his audience, an obvious biblical reference. Proverbs 13:12 States, Hope deferred makes the heart sick, but a desire fulfilled is a tree of life. By starting his poem with this reference, the author immediately gains the support of professing Christians in his community, namely because they believed they could answer his question, at least in part. They could answer what happens when hope is deferred. They could answer that, according to the book of Proverbs, when one hopes or dreams for something, and it is deferred, it makes the heart sick. On the contrary, when a dream is fulfilled, it brings life and vitality. Hughes is aware of the answers provided in this specific Proverb, but this poem gives more depth of insight into his specific dream and the result of his not having seen it fulfilled. The question about raisins and the sun gives the readers vivid imagery of what he feels is happening to him as he has not yet seen his dream fulfilled. This second question of Harlem (A Dream Deferred), relating to festering like a sore, paints a grotesque picture for the readers, one which can help them to strongly identify with the disgust Hughes feels. At the time he wrote this poem, the slaves had been free nearly ninety years, and yet were still not treated as equals. This is his dream deferred. He compares his disappointment to a sore which festers and oozes, thoroughly giving his readers an understanding of the depths of his disgust. His next question about how it smells suggests two possible endings for this dream deferred. The first, being that like a piece of meat left to rot, it would just continue to get worse and worse the longer their hope for equality was denied. The second option is that it would simply crust over. People would become used to living in a separate society and become comfortable living their own lives in their own separate communities. In the next verse, the speaker offers his own view. It becomes clear that he does not believe this dream will “sugar over” and somehow become tolerable, perhaps even sweet. Rather, he gives his own suggestion that, Maybe it just sagslike a heavy load. This suggests that he feels the heavy weight of the many years his he and his ancestors would wait for others to see them as equal. Hughes felt the heavy burden of this weight upon his shoulders. It had already been nearly ninety years since the African American people were freed and given rights as human beings. Yet, as they lived in separate communities, they were not treated as equals, and Hughes likened this to the feeling of going through life carrying a very heavy load. The last line of this poem is written in italics, which causes the reader to pay extra close attention to the emphasis put on this final question. He asks, Or does it explode? With this final question, Hughes implies that one can only carry a heavy load for so long. He suggests that a festering sore…rotting meat, can only be tolerated for so long. He implies with this line that something is about to happen. It is clear that Hughes believes that the African American people cannot tolerate the way they have been treated in society for much longer. He clearly reveals that after years of tolerating mistreatment, he certainly feels like giving way to anger, or exploding. And who wouldn’t? Although his life story reveals that he did not explode, but rather expressed not only his dissatisfaction with society, but his intellect and literary genius in such a way as to prove wrong the discrimination that oppressed him and to pave the way for many others to follow in the pursuit of civil rights for African Americans.	1,174	ENGLISH	1
Decorum refers to the appropriateness of actions, which should be in accordance with the characters being portrayed and this essay will discuss the importance of this concept in A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo & Juliet. Given that these two were written as plays, and were penned with the vision of having the characters being played out on stage and portrayed as real characters, decorum is a relevant concept for actors to understand to deliver the roles as real and relatable. And to this end, decorum means certain values or things that are shown on the stage be appropriate, and in line with the level of audience. Decorum in the Shakespearean times was important, as people of that time abided by the formalities and regarded propriety highly, and it is order to study the norms and the traditions of that time that studying decorum in Shakespeare’s plays is important. Plays and literature such as the Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo and Juliet are in fact windows in time to understand society as it existed at the time. The play midsummer night’s dream is based of magic, love, philosophy and fantasy having various characters such as fairies. The theme is complex due to its imaginative attributes and to pay a tribute to its complexity, the portrayal of the characters should also be the same. Thus, when this play was acted it did not meet the level that it should it have met. Instead of engaging viewers in the play, the spirit of the play was done away with by displaying it as dull act having no immense meaning.	<urn:uuid:20b10d9d-cd32-4f81-a40a-3d9566a16943>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.customessaylive.com/essay-importance-decorum-shakespearean-play/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00176.warc.gz	en	0.982302	321	3.65625	4	[ 0.152555450797081, 0.009569835849106312, 0.6615883111953735, 0.1043744757771492, -0.03873716667294502, 0.22481010854244232, 0.21727684140205383, 0.3795929551124573, 0.08173287659883499, -0.1425231695175171, -0.4054378867149353, -0.3008418381214142, -0.24679693579673767, 0.323668897151947, ...	10	Decorum refers to the appropriateness of actions, which should be in accordance with the characters being portrayed and this essay will discuss the importance of this concept in A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo & Juliet. Given that these two were written as plays, and were penned with the vision of having the characters being played out on stage and portrayed as real characters, decorum is a relevant concept for actors to understand to deliver the roles as real and relatable. And to this end, decorum means certain values or things that are shown on the stage be appropriate, and in line with the level of audience. Decorum in the Shakespearean times was important, as people of that time abided by the formalities and regarded propriety highly, and it is order to study the norms and the traditions of that time that studying decorum in Shakespeare’s plays is important. Plays and literature such as the Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo and Juliet are in fact windows in time to understand society as it existed at the time. The play midsummer night’s dream is based of magic, love, philosophy and fantasy having various characters such as fairies. The theme is complex due to its imaginative attributes and to pay a tribute to its complexity, the portrayal of the characters should also be the same. Thus, when this play was acted it did not meet the level that it should it have met. Instead of engaging viewers in the play, the spirit of the play was done away with by displaying it as dull act having no immense meaning.	308	ENGLISH	1
The Nagasaki Confucius Shrine is said to be the only Confucian Shrine constructed by Chinese residents outside of China. During the Qing Dynasty, the government supported the establishment of this shrine and designated it as a location to worship and learn for the Chinese community located in Nagasaki. The shrine was first built in 1893 and housed a Confucian sanctuary as well as a primary school. Although the buildings suffered severe damages caused by the atomic bomb, it was later restored and opened to the public in 1967. Towards the rear of the shrine is a building which houses photographs and treasure directly on loan from the Museum of Chinese History as well as the Palace Museum in China. Outside the shrine, visitors can see 72 statues which represent the 72 followers of Confucius. Various celebrations are hosted at this shrine, like the Confucius festival, which includes many Chinese show performances for visitors to experience each year.	<urn:uuid:c5e59654-fde4-46e3-a28f-97d06899eed3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alljapantours.com/japan-attraction/shrines/kyushu/nagasaki-confucius-shrine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00012.warc.gz	en	0.98268	181	3.484375	3	[ 0.2839112877845764, 0.4224436581134796, 0.21720942854881287, -0.14831198751926422, 0.19870513677597046, 0.2505417466163635, 0.011404108256101608, -0.040859512984752655, -0.3777739703655243, -0.08783315867185593, 0.377977579832077, -0.23141081631183624, 0.26650458574295044, 0.64854407310485...	6	The Nagasaki Confucius Shrine is said to be the only Confucian Shrine constructed by Chinese residents outside of China. During the Qing Dynasty, the government supported the establishment of this shrine and designated it as a location to worship and learn for the Chinese community located in Nagasaki. The shrine was first built in 1893 and housed a Confucian sanctuary as well as a primary school. Although the buildings suffered severe damages caused by the atomic bomb, it was later restored and opened to the public in 1967. Towards the rear of the shrine is a building which houses photographs and treasure directly on loan from the Museum of Chinese History as well as the Palace Museum in China. Outside the shrine, visitors can see 72 statues which represent the 72 followers of Confucius. Various celebrations are hosted at this shrine, like the Confucius festival, which includes many Chinese show performances for visitors to experience each year.	193	ENGLISH	1
On November 8, 1960, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, then 43 years old, became the youngest person to be elected president of the United States. He served for only 1,037 days. But in that short time, he changed the way Americans viewed themselves and the world. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917. He was the second of nine children in a wealthy Irish-American family. His father, Joseph P. Kennedy, expected his children to excel at school and sports. After graduating from college, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy. During World War II, he commanded a small patrol boat in the South Pacific. His job was to search for enemy ships. One night, a Japanese warship rammed his boat. Kennedy was seriously injured. But he swam through dangerous waters to lead his men to safety. For his bravery, Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal. After the war, Kennedy entered politics in Massachusetts. In 1946, he won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. He then made a successful run for the Senate. Within eight years of becoming a U.S. senator, he became president. President Kennedy took office on January 20, 1961. He often said he wanted “He Kept the Peace” inscribed on his tombstone. In his inaugural address, he asked America’s enemies to “begin anew the quest for peace.” That wish was put to the test early in his administration. Since the end of World War II, Americans had feared the growing military strength of the Soviet Union. The country had a communist government, which limited people’s freedoms. (In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into 15 countries, including Russia.) The U.S. and the Soviet Union were locked in a war of words known as the Cold War. Both nations wanted to be the biggest political, economic, and military power in the world. The stakes were high. Both countries had dangerous nuclear weapons. In 1961, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev ordered a wall to be built in Berlin, Germany. It was meant to keep people in Soviet-controlled East Berlin from traveling to democratic West Berlin. At first, Kennedy did not challenge the building of the Berlin Wall. But in 1963, he visited West Berlin. There, Kennedy pledged his opposition to communism and his support for the city’s residents. “I am a Berliner,” he said in German to a crowd of 120,000 people. Communism was also making inroads just 90 miles from Florida, on the island of Cuba. In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution that overthrew Cuba’s government. Many Cubans fled their homeland. They feared Castro’s communist policies. The U.S. saw Cuba as a national security threat. In 1961, Kennedy approved an operation to overthrow Castro. U.S.-trained anti-Castro Cubans mounted an assault on Cuba. But it went terribly wrong. U.S. aid for the operation failed to arrive. Castro’s forces crushed the invasion force at the Bay of Pigs. Tensions escalated in 1962. The Soviets placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The weapons could have reached the U.S. mainland. President Kennedy was determined to avoid a nuclear war. For 13 days, he worked to find a solution to the crisis. Kennedy ordered U.S. ships to form a ring around Cuba. The ships blockaded the island from receiving outside aid and weapons. The blockade, along with negotiations, convinced the Soviets to remove the missiles. Eventually, the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed a treaty banning nuclear-weapons testing. President John F. Kennedy speaks on the telephone in the Oval Office of the White House on August 23, 1962. NATIONAL ARCHIVE/GETTY IMAGES Not all of President Kennedy’s time was consumed with foreign affairs. At home, he inspired change and dedicatio President Kennedy encouraged space exploration. He vowed that an American would stand on the moon before the end of the 1960s. He pushed for equality for all Americans by asking Congress to pass a civil rights bill. “This nation, for all its boasts, will not be fully free until all its citizens are free,” he said in a televised speech. Kennedy also promoted understanding around the world. He established the Peace Corps on March 1, 1961. Since its founding, more than 225,000 volunteers have helped poor communities in 141 countries. Kennedy was looking to the future when he visited Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. He hoped to build support for his reelection campaign. Cheering crowds lined the streets, hoping to see the president and his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy. Sitting in an open car, the Kennedys smiled and waved. Suddenly, shots rang out. The president slumped over. He was rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. About an hour later, the police arrested Lee Harvey Oswald. In the years since Kennedy’s assassination, some critics have said that he cannot be called one of the country’s greatest presidents. Their reason is that he did not accomplish enough during his three years in office. But to many, President John F. Kennedy is a hero. Kennedy challenged a nation. “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country,” he said during his inauguration speech. His words and deeds inspired Americans to become involved in public service. That, his daughter, Caroline Kennedy, wrote in TIME, is one of her father’s greatest legacies.	<urn:uuid:a69a2bef-5483-4a96-8618-d556e828e186>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/john-kennedy-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00443.warc.gz	en	0.98133	1,168	3.859375	4	[ -0.3772050738334656, 0.243385910987854, 0.3607849180698395, -0.18251866102218628, 0.08118530362844467, 0.628583550453186, 0.08539227396249771, -0.05659095197916031, -0.3736770749092102, -0.08427365124225616, 0.23892498016357422, 0.6334617137908936, 0.22876755893230438, 0.400720477104187, ...	4	On November 8, 1960, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, then 43 years old, became the youngest person to be elected president of the United States. He served for only 1,037 days. But in that short time, he changed the way Americans viewed themselves and the world. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917. He was the second of nine children in a wealthy Irish-American family. His father, Joseph P. Kennedy, expected his children to excel at school and sports. After graduating from college, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy. During World War II, he commanded a small patrol boat in the South Pacific. His job was to search for enemy ships. One night, a Japanese warship rammed his boat. Kennedy was seriously injured. But he swam through dangerous waters to lead his men to safety. For his bravery, Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal. After the war, Kennedy entered politics in Massachusetts. In 1946, he won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. He then made a successful run for the Senate. Within eight years of becoming a U.S. senator, he became president. President Kennedy took office on January 20, 1961. He often said he wanted “He Kept the Peace” inscribed on his tombstone. In his inaugural address, he asked America’s enemies to “begin anew the quest for peace.” That wish was put to the test early in his administration. Since the end of World War II, Americans had feared the growing military strength of the Soviet Union. The country had a communist government, which limited people’s freedoms. (In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into 15 countries, including Russia.) The U.S. and the Soviet Union were locked in a war of words known as the Cold War. Both nations wanted to be the biggest political, economic, and military power in the world. The stakes were high. Both countries had dangerous nuclear weapons. In 1961, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev ordered a wall to be built in Berlin, Germany. It was meant to keep people in Soviet-controlled East Berlin from traveling to democratic West Berlin. At first, Kennedy did not challenge the building of the Berlin Wall. But in 1963, he visited West Berlin. There, Kennedy pledged his opposition to communism and his support for the city’s residents. “I am a Berliner,” he said in German to a crowd of 120,000 people. Communism was also making inroads just 90 miles from Florida, on the island of Cuba. In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution that overthrew Cuba’s government. Many Cubans fled their homeland. They feared Castro’s communist policies. The U.S. saw Cuba as a national security threat. In 1961, Kennedy approved an operation to overthrow Castro. U.S.-trained anti-Castro Cubans mounted an assault on Cuba. But it went terribly wrong. U.S. aid for the operation failed to arrive. Castro’s forces crushed the invasion force at the Bay of Pigs. Tensions escalated in 1962. The Soviets placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The weapons could have reached the U.S. mainland. President Kennedy was determined to avoid a nuclear war. For 13 days, he worked to find a solution to the crisis. Kennedy ordered U.S. ships to form a ring around Cuba. The ships blockaded the island from receiving outside aid and weapons. The blockade, along with negotiations, convinced the Soviets to remove the missiles. Eventually, the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed a treaty banning nuclear-weapons testing. President John F. Kennedy speaks on the telephone in the Oval Office of the White House on August 23, 1962. NATIONAL ARCHIVE/GETTY IMAGES Not all of President Kennedy’s time was consumed with foreign affairs. At home, he inspired change and dedicatio President Kennedy encouraged space exploration. He vowed that an American would stand on the moon before the end of the 1960s. He pushed for equality for all Americans by asking Congress to pass a civil rights bill. “This nation, for all its boasts, will not be fully free until all its citizens are free,” he said in a televised speech. Kennedy also promoted understanding around the world. He established the Peace Corps on March 1, 1961. Since its founding, more than 225,000 volunteers have helped poor communities in 141 countries. Kennedy was looking to the future when he visited Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. He hoped to build support for his reelection campaign. Cheering crowds lined the streets, hoping to see the president and his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy. Sitting in an open car, the Kennedys smiled and waved. Suddenly, shots rang out. The president slumped over. He was rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where he was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. About an hour later, the police arrested Lee Harvey Oswald. In the years since Kennedy’s assassination, some critics have said that he cannot be called one of the country’s greatest presidents. Their reason is that he did not accomplish enough during his three years in office. But to many, President John F. Kennedy is a hero. Kennedy challenged a nation. “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country,” he said during his inauguration speech. His words and deeds inspired Americans to become involved in public service. That, his daughter, Caroline Kennedy, wrote in TIME, is one of her father’s greatest legacies.	1,203	ENGLISH	1
Simon Kirby and Hannah Cornish are watching evolution take place within the confines of their laboratory. But they are studying neither bodies nor genes; their interest lies in languages, and how they change over time. Regardless of school lessons and textbooks, most of the features of the languages we speak are learned by listening to the words of native speakers. Their sentences convey their thoughts, but they also hint at the structure of the language they are spoken in. That allows people who are learning a new language to infer something about its structure by listening to the way its sentences are put together. In the past, computer models have shown that behaviours like these, which are passed on through repeated cycles of observation and learning, eventually evolve to become easier to learn. But these simplified models are fairly removed from realistic learning. In his book on language evolution, Derek Bickerton described these models as a "case of looking for your car-keys where the street-lamps are." The big question is whether real languages have also evolved in this way? What's really needed are experiments that test the adaptations that languages pick up over time, using the brains of living people rather than the software of computers. And that's exactly what Kirby and Cornish have done. Together with Kenny Smith at Northumbria University, they have provided the first experimental evidence that as languages are passed on, they evolve structures that make them easier to transmit effectively. The team tracked the progress of artificial languages as they passed down a chain of volunteers. They found that in just ten iterations, the made-up tongues had become more structured and easier to learn. What's more, these adaptive features arose without specific plans or designs on the part of the speakers. The appearance of design without the guiding will of any designer is another trait that offers compelling parallels to biological evolution. The trio asked a group of 80 volunteers to learn an "alien language", that described different visuals. The visuals were 27 combinations of shapes (square, circle or triangle) that had a specific colour (red, black or blue) and moved in a specific way (horizontal, bouncing or spiralling). Each of these was attached to a randomly made-up word of 2-4 syllables. After training, the volunteers were shown all the images and asked to say what word the aliens would give to describe each one, with the catch that they had only been trained on about half of the pairs. The first volunteer's responses were used to train and test the second, their answers were used on the third and so on. This was done for four separate chains using different starting words. In each one, the languages had clearly become easier to learn by the 10^th round, with the later learners making fewer and fewer mistakes than those before them. A couple of the languages were even transmitted perfectly by the end; people came up with exactly the same set of 27 words as their predecessors, even though they hadn't seen half of the word-image pairs before. The languages also became much more structured over time. At the start, every image had its own unique word that could only be learned by rote, as nothing in the words themselves gave any clue to the meanings they conveyed. But by the end, single words were reused to express more than one meaning and the total number of words had plummeted to a mere handful from the original count of 27. At first glance, you might think that this shedding of words explains why the later participants made fewer mistake. But if the languages simplified in a random way, the volunteers still shouldn't have been able to achieve perfect scores. For example, if the same word means a black, bouncing circle and a red, spiralling square, you couldn't draw any general conclusions about its use, and you'd be back to learning by rote again. Clearly, that wasn't possible for the volunteers, who were only trained on half of the word-image pairs. The key to the perfect scores was the fact that the languages became simpler in systematic ways. For example, by the 4^th round in one of the chains, the word tuge came to mean any horizontally moving object, regardless of shape or colour. By the 6^th round, poi meant any bouncing object and at the end, the spiralling objects had three different words depending on their shape. It was precisely this structure that allowed people could deduce the words for objects they had never seen before with exacting precision. A nice first result, but the ambiguity of the end products is a problem. Languages are tools for communication and no matter how easy one is to learn, it would be useless if it couldn't put across different ideas clearly. In short, languages need to be expressive. But with one small tweak to their experiment, Kirby and Cornish showed that languages can do this while still evolving to be learnable and structured. This time round, they filtered the pairs between rounds so that if multiple images were represented by the same word, all but one of them was removed. This meant that at every stage, each word could only have a single 'meaning' and with this change, the languages remained relatively wordy till the end. However, they still became easier to learn, with volunteers making fewer mistakes later on (although there were no perfect scores). And they became increasingly structured but in a very different way. This time, the structure lay in the way the words were put together. By the 6^th round in every single chain, each word was made up of three parts that referred to the object's shape, colour and movement. For example, in one chain, words that described blue shapes started with n, those for black shapes started with l and those for red shapes began with r. Likewise, words that ended in ki described horizontal movement, those ending in plo were for bouncing shapes and those ending in pilu meant spiralling. So for example, a red, bouncing circle might be rehoplo, while a blue, spiralling square would be nepilu. Kirby and Cornish claim that the results of both experiments are relevant to the way that real languages work. In their first test, the artificial dialects became more structured as words took on a methodical collection of meanings. The same thing happens in real life. For example, the majority of nouns refer to multiple objects, while only proper nouns refer to individual things. All cats, for example, are known as cats, regardless of their shape, colour or movement. In the second experiment, they became structured by ascribing specific meaning to components that can then be combined. Natural languages are rife with these hierarchies, at both the levels of words and sentences. In the experiment, they emerged spontaneously, but only because Kirby and Cornish deliberately removed multiple meanings between each round. That's certainly an artificial step, but they argue that it reflects the pressures that real-world languages face - to be both expressive and easy to transmit. In both cases, it was vitally important that from the volunteers' perspective, they were doing the same task. They weren't told that they were working from the outputs of other people who had gone before them, nor did they guess what was going on. They weren't trying to improve on the language in any way; their goal was to reproduce it as accurately as they could and many of them didn't even being realise that they were tested on images that they hadn't seen during the training. As in the world of genes and species, "cultural transmission can lead to the appearance of design without a designer". Update: Jonah Lehrer at the Frontal Cortex chips in. Reference: PNAS 10.1073/pnas.0707835105 Images: courtesy of PNAS; photo by me.	<urn:uuid:480516f6-d5f0-4f67-8c31-8a0c781a3340>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/language-evolution-witnessed-in-lab-experiments	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00168.warc.gz	en	0.981853	1,585	3.90625	4	[ -0.5730381608009338, 0.012115883640944958, -0.009189561009407043, 0.11742296814918518, -0.20732763409614563, 0.18064908683300018, -0.17626211047172546, 0.07674001157283783, -0.10060516744852066, -0.07056122273206711, 0.2974866032600403, -0.2294171154499054, 0.21917909383773804, 0.052152290...	6	Simon Kirby and Hannah Cornish are watching evolution take place within the confines of their laboratory. But they are studying neither bodies nor genes; their interest lies in languages, and how they change over time. Regardless of school lessons and textbooks, most of the features of the languages we speak are learned by listening to the words of native speakers. Their sentences convey their thoughts, but they also hint at the structure of the language they are spoken in. That allows people who are learning a new language to infer something about its structure by listening to the way its sentences are put together. In the past, computer models have shown that behaviours like these, which are passed on through repeated cycles of observation and learning, eventually evolve to become easier to learn. But these simplified models are fairly removed from realistic learning. In his book on language evolution, Derek Bickerton described these models as a "case of looking for your car-keys where the street-lamps are." The big question is whether real languages have also evolved in this way? What's really needed are experiments that test the adaptations that languages pick up over time, using the brains of living people rather than the software of computers. And that's exactly what Kirby and Cornish have done. Together with Kenny Smith at Northumbria University, they have provided the first experimental evidence that as languages are passed on, they evolve structures that make them easier to transmit effectively. The team tracked the progress of artificial languages as they passed down a chain of volunteers. They found that in just ten iterations, the made-up tongues had become more structured and easier to learn. What's more, these adaptive features arose without specific plans or designs on the part of the speakers. The appearance of design without the guiding will of any designer is another trait that offers compelling parallels to biological evolution. The trio asked a group of 80 volunteers to learn an "alien language", that described different visuals. The visuals were 27 combinations of shapes (square, circle or triangle) that had a specific colour (red, black or blue) and moved in a specific way (horizontal, bouncing or spiralling). Each of these was attached to a randomly made-up word of 2-4 syllables. After training, the volunteers were shown all the images and asked to say what word the aliens would give to describe each one, with the catch that they had only been trained on about half of the pairs. The first volunteer's responses were used to train and test the second, their answers were used on the third and so on. This was done for four separate chains using different starting words. In each one, the languages had clearly become easier to learn by the 10^th round, with the later learners making fewer and fewer mistakes than those before them. A couple of the languages were even transmitted perfectly by the end; people came up with exactly the same set of 27 words as their predecessors, even though they hadn't seen half of the word-image pairs before. The languages also became much more structured over time. At the start, every image had its own unique word that could only be learned by rote, as nothing in the words themselves gave any clue to the meanings they conveyed. But by the end, single words were reused to express more than one meaning and the total number of words had plummeted to a mere handful from the original count of 27. At first glance, you might think that this shedding of words explains why the later participants made fewer mistake. But if the languages simplified in a random way, the volunteers still shouldn't have been able to achieve perfect scores. For example, if the same word means a black, bouncing circle and a red, spiralling square, you couldn't draw any general conclusions about its use, and you'd be back to learning by rote again. Clearly, that wasn't possible for the volunteers, who were only trained on half of the word-image pairs. The key to the perfect scores was the fact that the languages became simpler in systematic ways. For example, by the 4^th round in one of the chains, the word tuge came to mean any horizontally moving object, regardless of shape or colour. By the 6^th round, poi meant any bouncing object and at the end, the spiralling objects had three different words depending on their shape. It was precisely this structure that allowed people could deduce the words for objects they had never seen before with exacting precision. A nice first result, but the ambiguity of the end products is a problem. Languages are tools for communication and no matter how easy one is to learn, it would be useless if it couldn't put across different ideas clearly. In short, languages need to be expressive. But with one small tweak to their experiment, Kirby and Cornish showed that languages can do this while still evolving to be learnable and structured. This time round, they filtered the pairs between rounds so that if multiple images were represented by the same word, all but one of them was removed. This meant that at every stage, each word could only have a single 'meaning' and with this change, the languages remained relatively wordy till the end. However, they still became easier to learn, with volunteers making fewer mistakes later on (although there were no perfect scores). And they became increasingly structured but in a very different way. This time, the structure lay in the way the words were put together. By the 6^th round in every single chain, each word was made up of three parts that referred to the object's shape, colour and movement. For example, in one chain, words that described blue shapes started with n, those for black shapes started with l and those for red shapes began with r. Likewise, words that ended in ki described horizontal movement, those ending in plo were for bouncing shapes and those ending in pilu meant spiralling. So for example, a red, bouncing circle might be rehoplo, while a blue, spiralling square would be nepilu. Kirby and Cornish claim that the results of both experiments are relevant to the way that real languages work. In their first test, the artificial dialects became more structured as words took on a methodical collection of meanings. The same thing happens in real life. For example, the majority of nouns refer to multiple objects, while only proper nouns refer to individual things. All cats, for example, are known as cats, regardless of their shape, colour or movement. In the second experiment, they became structured by ascribing specific meaning to components that can then be combined. Natural languages are rife with these hierarchies, at both the levels of words and sentences. In the experiment, they emerged spontaneously, but only because Kirby and Cornish deliberately removed multiple meanings between each round. That's certainly an artificial step, but they argue that it reflects the pressures that real-world languages face - to be both expressive and easy to transmit. In both cases, it was vitally important that from the volunteers' perspective, they were doing the same task. They weren't told that they were working from the outputs of other people who had gone before them, nor did they guess what was going on. They weren't trying to improve on the language in any way; their goal was to reproduce it as accurately as they could and many of them didn't even being realise that they were tested on images that they hadn't seen during the training. As in the world of genes and species, "cultural transmission can lead to the appearance of design without a designer". Update: Jonah Lehrer at the Frontal Cortex chips in. Reference: PNAS 10.1073/pnas.0707835105 Images: courtesy of PNAS; photo by me.	1,582	ENGLISH	1
A mysterious underground chamber has been discovered under the palace of Roman Emperor Nero, a secret that had been kept for almost 2,000 years. The chamber, which was found by archaeologists who were working on restorations of the Domus Aurea palace late last year, also contains walls that are adorned with real and mythical creatures, such as a "silent and solitary sphinx," according to a translated statement discussing the find. "The discovery of this room is part of the scientific research strategy that the Park carries out every day together with the safety and restoration interventions," Alfonsina Russo, director of the Archaeological Park of the Colosseum, explained in the statement. "In the dark for almost 20 centuries, the Sala della Sfinge [Sphinx room] – as we have called it – tells us about the atmosphere of the years of the principality of Nero." The Sphinx Room was uncovered by accident as the archaeologists continued to restore the palace, which was built after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. Known as "the Golden House" or Domus Aurea, the spacious building had 300 rooms built on more than 300 acres. The statement also notes that the drawings of the creatures, which include centaurs, birds, sea creatures and a warrior fighting a panther, were done in red with evidence of gilding. Known as Rome's most notorious emperor, Nero committed suicide in 68 A.D. after he had learned that he had been condemned to death as a public enemy. Nero lived extravagantly and it was shown in his dwellings, including his first palace, the Domus Transitoria, Russo told The Associated Press last year. "Nero wanted an atmosphere that expressed his ideology, that of an absolute ruler, an absolute monarch," Russo said of the Domus Tranisitoria, which was criticized by Nero's contemporaries for its opulence, with inlaid marble, frescoed walls and ceilings, and trimmings of gold and precious gems. Following his death, Romans obliterated the Domus Aurea, as it was considered too extravagant and other structures, such as the Colosseum, were built over it. The Associated Press contributed to this report.	<urn:uuid:612f1bcf-67c2-4854-8a30-6541556b3bf6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.foxnews.com/science/mysterious-underground-chamber-palace-emperor-nero	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00174.warc.gz	en	0.985185	468	3.328125	3	[ -0.3854171633720398, 0.2540346086025238, 0.6376045942306519, 0.48842766880989075, -0.06695187091827393, -0.14779289066791534, -0.0801161527633667, -0.06363426148891449, 0.10994835942983627, -0.06974436342716217, 0.07853396981954575, -0.5465232729911804, -0.14922718703746796, 0.670852005481...	1	A mysterious underground chamber has been discovered under the palace of Roman Emperor Nero, a secret that had been kept for almost 2,000 years. The chamber, which was found by archaeologists who were working on restorations of the Domus Aurea palace late last year, also contains walls that are adorned with real and mythical creatures, such as a "silent and solitary sphinx," according to a translated statement discussing the find. "The discovery of this room is part of the scientific research strategy that the Park carries out every day together with the safety and restoration interventions," Alfonsina Russo, director of the Archaeological Park of the Colosseum, explained in the statement. "In the dark for almost 20 centuries, the Sala della Sfinge [Sphinx room] – as we have called it – tells us about the atmosphere of the years of the principality of Nero." The Sphinx Room was uncovered by accident as the archaeologists continued to restore the palace, which was built after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D. Known as "the Golden House" or Domus Aurea, the spacious building had 300 rooms built on more than 300 acres. The statement also notes that the drawings of the creatures, which include centaurs, birds, sea creatures and a warrior fighting a panther, were done in red with evidence of gilding. Known as Rome's most notorious emperor, Nero committed suicide in 68 A.D. after he had learned that he had been condemned to death as a public enemy. Nero lived extravagantly and it was shown in his dwellings, including his first palace, the Domus Transitoria, Russo told The Associated Press last year. "Nero wanted an atmosphere that expressed his ideology, that of an absolute ruler, an absolute monarch," Russo said of the Domus Tranisitoria, which was criticized by Nero's contemporaries for its opulence, with inlaid marble, frescoed walls and ceilings, and trimmings of gold and precious gems. Following his death, Romans obliterated the Domus Aurea, as it was considered too extravagant and other structures, such as the Colosseum, were built over it. The Associated Press contributed to this report.	467	ENGLISH	1
Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany The Prussian State OCTOBER 28th, 1851 THE political movement of the middle class or bourgeoisie, in Germany, may be dated from 1840. It had been preceded by symptoms showing that the moneyed and industrial class of that country was ripening into a state which would no longer allow it to continue apathetic and passive under the pressure of a half-feudal, half-bureaucratic Monarchism. The smaller princes of Germany, partly to insure to themselves a greater independence against the supremacy of Austria and Prussia, or against the influence of the nobility of their own States, partly in order to consolidate into a whole the disconnected provinces united under their rule by the Congress of Vienna, one after the other granted constitutions of a more or less liberal character. They could do so without any danger to themselves; for if the Diet of the Confederation, this mere puppet of Austria and Prussia, was to encroach upon their independence as sovereigns, they knew that in resisting its dictates they would be backed by public opinion and the Chambers; and if, on the contrary, these Chambers grew too strong, they could readily command the power of the Diet to break down all opposition. The Bavarian, Wurtemberg, Baden or Hanoverian Constitutional institutions could not, under such circumstances, give rise to any serious struggle for political power, and, therefore, the great bulk of the German middle class kept very generally aloof from the petty squabbles raised in the Legislatures of the small States, well knowing that without a fundamental change in the policy and constitution of the two great powers of Germany, no secondary efforts and victories would be of any avail. But, at the same time, a race of Liberal lawyers, professional oppositionists, sprung up in these small assemblies: the Rottecks, the Welckers, the Roemers, the Jordans, the Stuves, the Eisenmanns, those great "popular men" (Volksmänner) who, after a more or less noisy, but always unsuccessful, opposition of twenty years, were carried to the summit of power by the revolutionary springtide of 1848, and who, after having there shown their utter impotency and insignificance, were hurled down again in a moment. These first specimen upon German soil of the trader in politics and opposition, by their speeches and writings made familiar to the German ear the language of Constitutionalism, and by their very existence foreboded the approach of a time when the middle class would seize upon and restore to their proper meaning political phrases which these talkative attorneys and professors were in the habit of using without knowing much about the sense originally attached to them. German literature, too, labored under the influence of the political excitement into which all Europe had been thrown by the events of 1830. A crude Constitutionalism or a still cruder Republicanism, were preached by almost all writers of the time. It became more and more the habit, particularly of the inferior sorts of literati, to make up for the want of cleverness in their productions, by political allusions which were sure to attract attention. Poetry, novels, reviews, the drama, every literary production teemed with what was called "tendency," that is with more or less timid exhibitions of an anti-govermental spirit. In order to complete the confusion of ideas reigning after 1830 in Germany, with these elements of political opposition there were mixed up ill-digested university-recollections of German philosophy, and misunderstood gleanings from French Socialism, particularly Saint-Simonism; and the clique of writers who expatiated upon this heterogeneous conglomerate of ideas, presumptuously called themselves "Young Germany," or "the Modern School." They have since repented their youthful sins, but not improved their style of writing. Lastly, German philosophy, that most complicated, but at the same time most sure thermometer of the development of the German mind, had declared for the middle class, when Hegel in his "Philosophy of Law" pronounced Constitutional Monarchy to be the final and most perfect form of government. In other words, he proclaimed the approaching advent of the middle classes of the country to political power. His school, after his death, did not stop here. While the more advanced section of his followers, on one hand, subjected every religious belief to the ordeal of a rigorous criticism, and shook to its foundation the ancient fabric of Christianity, they at the same time brought forward bolder political principles than hitherto it had been the fate of German ears to hear expounded, and attempted to restore to glory the memory of the heroes of the first French Revolution. The abstruse philosophical language in which these ideas were clothed, if it obscured the mind of both the writer and the reader, equally blinded the eyes of the censor, and thus it was that the "young Hegelian" writers enjoyed a liberty of the Press unknown in every other branch of literature. Thus it was evident that public opinion was undergoing a great change in Germany. By degrees the vast majority of those classes whose education or position in life enabled them, under an Absolute Monarchy, to gain some political information, and to form anything like an independent political opinion, united into one mighty phalanx of opposition against the existing system. And in passing judgment upon the slowness of political development in Germany no one ought to omit taking into account the difficulty of obtaining correct information upon any subject in a country where all sources of information were under the control of the Government, where from the Ragged School and the Sunday School to the Newspaper and University nothing was said, taught, printed, or published but what had previously obtained its approbation. Look at Vienna, for instance. The people of Vienna, in industry and manufactures, second to none perhaps in Germany; in spirit, courage, and revolutionary energy, proving themselves far superior to all, were yet more ignorant as to their real interests, and committed more blunders during the Revolution than any others, and this was due in a very great measure to the almost absolute ignorance with regard to the very commonest political subjects in which Metternich's Government had succeeded in keeping them. It needs no further explanation why, under such a system, political information was an almost exclusive monopoly of such classes of society as could afford to pay for its being smuggled into the country, and more particularly of those whose interests were most seriously attacked by the existing state of things, namely, the manufacturing and commercial classes. They, therefore, were the first to unite in a mass against the continuance of a more or less disguised Absolutism, and from their passing into the ranks of the opposition must be dated the beginning of the real revolutionary movement in Germany. The oppositional pronunciamento of the German bourgeoisie may be dated from 1840, from the death of the late King of Prussia, the last surviving founder of the Holy Alliance of 1815. The new King was known to be no supporter of the predominantly bureaucratic and military monarchy of his father. What the French middle class had expected from the advent of Louis XVI., the German bourgeoisie hoped, in some measure, from Frederick William IV. of Prussia. It was agreed upon all hands that the old system was exploded, worn-out, and must be given up; and what had been borne in silence under the old King now was loudly proclaimed to be intolerable. But if Louis XVI., "Louis le Desire," had been a plain, unpretending simpleton, half conscious of his own nullity, without any fixed opinions, ruled principally by the habits contracted during his education, "Frederick William le Desire" was something quite different. While he certainly surpassed his French original in weakness of character, he was neither without pretensions nor without opinions. He had made himself acquainted, in an amateur sort of way, with the rudiments of most sciences, and thought himself, therefore, learned enough to consider final his judgment upon every subject. He made sure he was a first-rate orator, and there was certainly no commercial traveller in Berlin who could beat him either in prolixity of pretended wit, or in fluency of elocution. And, above all, he had his opinions. He hated and despised the bureaucratic element of the Prussian Monarchy, but only because all his sympathies were with the feudal element. Himself one of the founders of, and chief contributors to, the Berlin Political Weekly Paper, the so-called Historical School (a school living upon the ideas of Bonald, De Maistre, and other writers of the first generation of French Legitimists), he aimed at a restoration, as complete as possible, of the predominant social position of the nobility. The King, first nobleman of his realm, surrounded in the first instance by a splendid court of mighty vassals, princes, dukes, and counts; in the second instance, by a numerous and wealthy lower nobility; ruling according to his discretion over his loyal burgesses and peasants, and thus being himself the chief of a complete hierarchy of social ranks or castes, each of which was to enjoy its particular privileges, and to be separated from the others by the almost insurmountable barrier of birth, or of a fixed, inalterable social position; the whole of these castes, or "estates of the realm" balancing each other at the same time so nicely in power and influence that a complete independence of action should remain to the King—-such was the beau ideal which Frederick William IV. undertook to realize, and which he is again trying to realize at the present moment. It took some time before the Prussian bourgeoisie, not very well versed in theoretical questions, found out the real purport of their King's tendency. But what they very soon found out was the fact that he was bent upon things quite the reverse of what they wanted. Hardly did the new King find his "gift of the gab" unfettered by his father's death than he set about proclaiming his intentions in speeches without number; and every speech, every act of his, went far to estrange from him the sympathies of the middle class. He would not have cared much for that, if it had not been for some stern and startling realities which interrupted his poetic dreams. Alas, that romanticism is not very quick at accounts, and that feudalism ever since Don Quixote, reckons without its host! Frederick William IV. partook too much of that contempt of ready cash which ever has been the noblest inheritance of the sons of the Crusaders. He found at his accession a costly, although parsimoniously arranged system of government, and a moderately filled State Treasury. In two years every trace of a surplus was spent in court festivals, royal progresses, largesses, subventions to needy, seedy, and greedy noblemen, etc., and the regular taxes were no longer sufficient for the exigencies of either Court or Government. And thus His Majesty found himself very soon placed between a glaring deficit on one side, and a law of 1820 on the other, by which any new loan, or any increase of the then existing taxation was made illegal without the assent of "the future Representation of the People." This representation did not exist; the new King was less inclined than even his father to create it; and if he had been, he knew that public opinion had wonderfully changed since his accession. Indeed, the middle classes, who had partly expected that the new King would at once grant a Constitution, proclaim the Liberty of the Press, Trial by Jury, etc., etc.—in short, himself take the lead of that peaceful revolution which they wanted in order to obtain political supremacy-the middle classes had found out their error, and had turned ferociously against the King. In the Rhine Provinces, and more or less generally all over Prussia, they were so exasperated that they, being short themselves of men able to represent them in the Press, went to the length of an alliance with the extreme philosophical party, of which we have spoken above. The fruit of this alliance was the Rhenish Gazette of Cologne, a paper which was suppressed after fifteen months' existence, but from which may be dated the existence of the Newspaper Press in Germany. This was in 1842. The poor King, whose commercial difficulties were the keenest satire upon his Mediaeval propensities, very soon found out that he could not continue to reign without making some slight concession to the popular outcry for that "Representation of the People," which, as the last remnant of the long-forgotten promises of 1813 and 1815 had been embodied in the law of 1820. He found the least objectionable mode of satisfying this untoward law in calling together the Standing Committees of the Provincial Diets. The Provincial Diets had been instituted in 1823. They consisted for every one of the eight provinces of the kingdom:—(I) Of the higher nobility, the formerly sovereign families of the German Empire, the heads of which were members of the Diet by birthright. (2) Of the representatives of the knights, or lower nobility. (3) Of representatives of towns. (4) Of deputies of the peasantry, or small farming class. The whole was arranged in such a manner that in every province the two sections of the nobility always had a majority of the Diet. Every one of these eight Provincial Diets elected a Committee, and these eight Committees were now called to Berlin in order to form a Representative Assembly for the purpose of voting the much-desired loan. It was stated that the Treasury was full, and that the loan was required, not for current wants, but for the construction of a State railway. But the united Committees gave the King a flat refusal, declaring themselves incompetent to act as the representatives of the people, and called upon His Majesty to fulfil the promise of a Representative Constitution which his father had given, when he wanted the aid of the people against Napoleon. The sitting of the united Committees proved that the spirit of opposition was no longer confined to the bourgeoisie. A part of the peasantry had joined them, and many nobles, being themselves large farmers on their own properties, and dealers in corn, wool, spirits, and flax, requiring the same guarantees against absolutism, bureaucracy, and feudal restoration, had equally pronounced against the Government, and for a Representative Constitution. The King's plan had signally failed; he had got no money, and had increased the power of the opposition. The subsequent sitting of the Provincial Diets themselves was still more unfortunate for the King. All of them asked for reforms, for the fulfilment of the promises of 1813 and 1815, for a Constitution and a Free Press; the resolutions to this effect of some of them were rather disrespectfully worded, and the ill-humored replies of the exasperated King made the evil still greater. In the meantime, the financial difficulties of the Government went on increasing. For a time, abatements made upon the moneys appropriated for the different public services, fraudulent transactions with the "Seehandlung," a commercial establishment speculating and trading for account and risk of the State, and long since acting as its money-broker, had sufficed to keep up appearances; increased issues of State paper-money had furnished some resources; and the secret, upon the whole, had been pretty well kept. But all these contrivances were soon exhausted. There was another plan tried: the establishment of a bank, the capital of which was to be furnished partly by the State and partly by private shareholders; the chief direction to belong to the State, in such a manner as to enable the Government to draw upon the funds of this bank to a large amount, and thus to repeat the same fraudulent transactions that would no longer do with the "Seehandlung." But, as a matter of course, there were no capitalists to be found who would hand over their money upon such conditions; the statutes of the bank had to be altered, and the property of the shareholders guaranteed from the encroachments of the Treasury, before any shares were subscribed for. Thus, this plan having failed, there remained nothing but to try a loan, if capitalists could be found who would lend their cash without requiring the permission and guarantee of that mysterious "future Representation of the People." Rothchild was applied to, and he declared that if the loan was to be guaranteed by this "Representation of the People," he would undertake the thing at a moment's notice—if not, he could not have anything to do with the transaction. Thus every hope of obtaining money had vanished, and there was no possibility of escaping the fatal "Representation of the People." Rothschild's refusal was known in autumn, 1846, and in February of the next year the King called together all the eight Provincial Diets to Berlin, forming them into one "United Diet." This Diet was to do the work required, in case of need, by the law of 1820; it was to vote loans and increased taxes, but beyond that it was to have no rights. Its voice upon general legislation was to be merely consultative; it was to assemble, not at fixed periods, but whenever it pleased the King; it was to discuss nothing but what the Government pleased to lay before it. Of course, the members were very little satisfied with the part they were expected to perform. They repeated the wishes they had enounced when they met in the provincial assembles; the relations between them and the Government soon became acrimonious, and when the loan, which was again stated to be required for railway constructions, was demanded from them, they again refused to grant it. This vote very soon brought their sitting to a close. The King, more and more exasperated, dismissed them with a reprimand, but still remained without money. And, indeed, he had every reason to be alarmed at his position, seeing that the Liberal League, headed by the middle classes, comprising a large part of the lower nobility, and all the different sections of the lower orders—that this Liberal League was determined to have what it wanted. In vain the King had declared, in the opening speech, that he would never, never grant a Constitution in the modern sense of the word; the Liberal League insisted upon such a modern, anti-feudal, Representative Constitution, with all its sequels, Liberty of the Press, Trial by Jury, etc.; and before they got it, not a farthing of money would they grant. There was one thing evident: that things could not go on long in this manner, and that either one of the parties must give way, or that a rupture—a bloody struggle—must ensue. And the middle classes knew that they were on the eve of a revolution, and they prepared themselves for it. They sought to obtain by every possible means the support of the working class of the towns, and of the peasantry in the agricultural districts, and it is well known that there was, in the latter end of 1847, hardly a single prominent political character among the bourgeoisie who did not proclaim himself a "Socialist," in order to insure to himself the sympathy of the proletarian class. We shall see these "Socialists" at work by and by. This eagerness of the leading bourgeoisie to adopt, at least the outward show of Socialism, was caused by a great change that had come over the working classes of Germany. There had been ever since 1840 a fraction of German workmen, who, travelling in France and Switzerland, had more or less imbibed the crude Socialist or Communist notions then current among the French workmen. The increasing attention paid to similar ideas in France ever since 1840 made Socialism and Communism fashionable in Germany also, and as far back as 1843, all newspapers teemed with discussions of social questions. A school of Socialists very soon formed itself in Germany, distinguished more for the obscurity than for the novelty of its ideas; its principal efforts consisted in the translation of French Fourierist, Saint-Simonian, and other doctrines into the abstruse language of German philosophy. The German Communist school, entirely different from this sect, was formed about the same time. In 1844, there occurred the Silesian weavers' riots, followed by the insurrection of the calico printers of Prague. These riots, cruelly suppressed, riots of working men not against the Government, but against their employers, created a deep sensation, and gave a new stimulus to Socialist and Communist propaganda amongst the working people. So did the bread riots during the year of famine, 1847. In short, in the same manner as Constitutional Opposition rallied around its banner the great bulk of the propertied classes (with the exception of the large feudal land-holders), so the working classes of the larger towns looked for their emancipation to the Socialist and Communist doctrines, although, under the then existing Press laws, they could be made to know only very little about them. They could not be expected to have any very definite ideas as to what they wanted; they only knew that the programme of the Constitutional bourgeoisie did not contain all they wanted, and that their wants were no wise contained in the Constitutional circle of ideas. There was then no separate Republican party in Germany. People were either Constitutional Monarchists, or more or less clearly defined Socialists or Communists. With such elements the slightest collision must have brought about a great revolution. While the higher nobility and the older civil and military officers were the only safe supports of the existing system; while the lower nobility, the trading middle classes, the universities, the school-masters of every degree, and even part of the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and military officers were all leagued against the Government; while behind these there stood the dissatisfied masses of the peasantry, and of the proletarians of the large towns, supporting, for the time being, the Liberal Opposition, but already muttering strange words about taking things into their own hands; while the bourgeoisie was ready to hurl down the Government, and the proletarians were preparing to hurl down the bourgeoisie in its turn; this Government went on obstinately in a course which must bring about a collision. Germany was, in the beginning of 1848, on the eve of a revolution, and this revolution was sure to come, even had the French Revolution of February not hastened it. What the effects of this Parisian Revolution were upon Germany we shall see in our next. LONDON, September, 1851. "The Rhenish Gazette." This paper was published at Cologne, as the organ of the Liberal leaders, Hansemann and Camphausen. Marx contributed certain articles on the Landtag, which created so great a sensation that he was offered in 1842—although only 21 years of age—the editorship of the paper. He accepted the offer, and then began his long fight with the Prussian Government. Of course the paper was published under the supervision of a censor, but he, good, easy man, was hopelessly outwitted by the young firebrand. So the Government sent a second "special" censor from Berlin, but the double censorship proved unequal to the task, and in 1843 the paper was suppressed.	<urn:uuid:e0589ddc-1276-4197-b948-0f94a483d0c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://marxengels.public-archive.net/en/ME0680en.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00145.warc.gz	en	0.981722	4,785	3.546875	4	[ -0.3130486011505127, 0.1052817776799202, -0.021209657192230225, 0.1890156865119934, -0.09758195281028748, 0.21683822572231293, 0.012872062623500824, 0.24054153263568878, -0.5473024249076843, -0.1664833426475525, 0.032251711934804916, -0.38200026750564575, 0.07346919178962708, -0.0058418149...	2	Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany The Prussian State OCTOBER 28th, 1851 THE political movement of the middle class or bourgeoisie, in Germany, may be dated from 1840. It had been preceded by symptoms showing that the moneyed and industrial class of that country was ripening into a state which would no longer allow it to continue apathetic and passive under the pressure of a half-feudal, half-bureaucratic Monarchism. The smaller princes of Germany, partly to insure to themselves a greater independence against the supremacy of Austria and Prussia, or against the influence of the nobility of their own States, partly in order to consolidate into a whole the disconnected provinces united under their rule by the Congress of Vienna, one after the other granted constitutions of a more or less liberal character. They could do so without any danger to themselves; for if the Diet of the Confederation, this mere puppet of Austria and Prussia, was to encroach upon their independence as sovereigns, they knew that in resisting its dictates they would be backed by public opinion and the Chambers; and if, on the contrary, these Chambers grew too strong, they could readily command the power of the Diet to break down all opposition. The Bavarian, Wurtemberg, Baden or Hanoverian Constitutional institutions could not, under such circumstances, give rise to any serious struggle for political power, and, therefore, the great bulk of the German middle class kept very generally aloof from the petty squabbles raised in the Legislatures of the small States, well knowing that without a fundamental change in the policy and constitution of the two great powers of Germany, no secondary efforts and victories would be of any avail. But, at the same time, a race of Liberal lawyers, professional oppositionists, sprung up in these small assemblies: the Rottecks, the Welckers, the Roemers, the Jordans, the Stuves, the Eisenmanns, those great "popular men" (Volksmänner) who, after a more or less noisy, but always unsuccessful, opposition of twenty years, were carried to the summit of power by the revolutionary springtide of 1848, and who, after having there shown their utter impotency and insignificance, were hurled down again in a moment. These first specimen upon German soil of the trader in politics and opposition, by their speeches and writings made familiar to the German ear the language of Constitutionalism, and by their very existence foreboded the approach of a time when the middle class would seize upon and restore to their proper meaning political phrases which these talkative attorneys and professors were in the habit of using without knowing much about the sense originally attached to them. German literature, too, labored under the influence of the political excitement into which all Europe had been thrown by the events of 1830. A crude Constitutionalism or a still cruder Republicanism, were preached by almost all writers of the time. It became more and more the habit, particularly of the inferior sorts of literati, to make up for the want of cleverness in their productions, by political allusions which were sure to attract attention. Poetry, novels, reviews, the drama, every literary production teemed with what was called "tendency," that is with more or less timid exhibitions of an anti-govermental spirit. In order to complete the confusion of ideas reigning after 1830 in Germany, with these elements of political opposition there were mixed up ill-digested university-recollections of German philosophy, and misunderstood gleanings from French Socialism, particularly Saint-Simonism; and the clique of writers who expatiated upon this heterogeneous conglomerate of ideas, presumptuously called themselves "Young Germany," or "the Modern School." They have since repented their youthful sins, but not improved their style of writing. Lastly, German philosophy, that most complicated, but at the same time most sure thermometer of the development of the German mind, had declared for the middle class, when Hegel in his "Philosophy of Law" pronounced Constitutional Monarchy to be the final and most perfect form of government. In other words, he proclaimed the approaching advent of the middle classes of the country to political power. His school, after his death, did not stop here. While the more advanced section of his followers, on one hand, subjected every religious belief to the ordeal of a rigorous criticism, and shook to its foundation the ancient fabric of Christianity, they at the same time brought forward bolder political principles than hitherto it had been the fate of German ears to hear expounded, and attempted to restore to glory the memory of the heroes of the first French Revolution. The abstruse philosophical language in which these ideas were clothed, if it obscured the mind of both the writer and the reader, equally blinded the eyes of the censor, and thus it was that the "young Hegelian" writers enjoyed a liberty of the Press unknown in every other branch of literature. Thus it was evident that public opinion was undergoing a great change in Germany. By degrees the vast majority of those classes whose education or position in life enabled them, under an Absolute Monarchy, to gain some political information, and to form anything like an independent political opinion, united into one mighty phalanx of opposition against the existing system. And in passing judgment upon the slowness of political development in Germany no one ought to omit taking into account the difficulty of obtaining correct information upon any subject in a country where all sources of information were under the control of the Government, where from the Ragged School and the Sunday School to the Newspaper and University nothing was said, taught, printed, or published but what had previously obtained its approbation. Look at Vienna, for instance. The people of Vienna, in industry and manufactures, second to none perhaps in Germany; in spirit, courage, and revolutionary energy, proving themselves far superior to all, were yet more ignorant as to their real interests, and committed more blunders during the Revolution than any others, and this was due in a very great measure to the almost absolute ignorance with regard to the very commonest political subjects in which Metternich's Government had succeeded in keeping them. It needs no further explanation why, under such a system, political information was an almost exclusive monopoly of such classes of society as could afford to pay for its being smuggled into the country, and more particularly of those whose interests were most seriously attacked by the existing state of things, namely, the manufacturing and commercial classes. They, therefore, were the first to unite in a mass against the continuance of a more or less disguised Absolutism, and from their passing into the ranks of the opposition must be dated the beginning of the real revolutionary movement in Germany. The oppositional pronunciamento of the German bourgeoisie may be dated from 1840, from the death of the late King of Prussia, the last surviving founder of the Holy Alliance of 1815. The new King was known to be no supporter of the predominantly bureaucratic and military monarchy of his father. What the French middle class had expected from the advent of Louis XVI., the German bourgeoisie hoped, in some measure, from Frederick William IV. of Prussia. It was agreed upon all hands that the old system was exploded, worn-out, and must be given up; and what had been borne in silence under the old King now was loudly proclaimed to be intolerable. But if Louis XVI., "Louis le Desire," had been a plain, unpretending simpleton, half conscious of his own nullity, without any fixed opinions, ruled principally by the habits contracted during his education, "Frederick William le Desire" was something quite different. While he certainly surpassed his French original in weakness of character, he was neither without pretensions nor without opinions. He had made himself acquainted, in an amateur sort of way, with the rudiments of most sciences, and thought himself, therefore, learned enough to consider final his judgment upon every subject. He made sure he was a first-rate orator, and there was certainly no commercial traveller in Berlin who could beat him either in prolixity of pretended wit, or in fluency of elocution. And, above all, he had his opinions. He hated and despised the bureaucratic element of the Prussian Monarchy, but only because all his sympathies were with the feudal element. Himself one of the founders of, and chief contributors to, the Berlin Political Weekly Paper, the so-called Historical School (a school living upon the ideas of Bonald, De Maistre, and other writers of the first generation of French Legitimists), he aimed at a restoration, as complete as possible, of the predominant social position of the nobility. The King, first nobleman of his realm, surrounded in the first instance by a splendid court of mighty vassals, princes, dukes, and counts; in the second instance, by a numerous and wealthy lower nobility; ruling according to his discretion over his loyal burgesses and peasants, and thus being himself the chief of a complete hierarchy of social ranks or castes, each of which was to enjoy its particular privileges, and to be separated from the others by the almost insurmountable barrier of birth, or of a fixed, inalterable social position; the whole of these castes, or "estates of the realm" balancing each other at the same time so nicely in power and influence that a complete independence of action should remain to the King—-such was the beau ideal which Frederick William IV. undertook to realize, and which he is again trying to realize at the present moment. It took some time before the Prussian bourgeoisie, not very well versed in theoretical questions, found out the real purport of their King's tendency. But what they very soon found out was the fact that he was bent upon things quite the reverse of what they wanted. Hardly did the new King find his "gift of the gab" unfettered by his father's death than he set about proclaiming his intentions in speeches without number; and every speech, every act of his, went far to estrange from him the sympathies of the middle class. He would not have cared much for that, if it had not been for some stern and startling realities which interrupted his poetic dreams. Alas, that romanticism is not very quick at accounts, and that feudalism ever since Don Quixote, reckons without its host! Frederick William IV. partook too much of that contempt of ready cash which ever has been the noblest inheritance of the sons of the Crusaders. He found at his accession a costly, although parsimoniously arranged system of government, and a moderately filled State Treasury. In two years every trace of a surplus was spent in court festivals, royal progresses, largesses, subventions to needy, seedy, and greedy noblemen, etc., and the regular taxes were no longer sufficient for the exigencies of either Court or Government. And thus His Majesty found himself very soon placed between a glaring deficit on one side, and a law of 1820 on the other, by which any new loan, or any increase of the then existing taxation was made illegal without the assent of "the future Representation of the People." This representation did not exist; the new King was less inclined than even his father to create it; and if he had been, he knew that public opinion had wonderfully changed since his accession. Indeed, the middle classes, who had partly expected that the new King would at once grant a Constitution, proclaim the Liberty of the Press, Trial by Jury, etc., etc.—in short, himself take the lead of that peaceful revolution which they wanted in order to obtain political supremacy-the middle classes had found out their error, and had turned ferociously against the King. In the Rhine Provinces, and more or less generally all over Prussia, they were so exasperated that they, being short themselves of men able to represent them in the Press, went to the length of an alliance with the extreme philosophical party, of which we have spoken above. The fruit of this alliance was the Rhenish Gazette of Cologne, a paper which was suppressed after fifteen months' existence, but from which may be dated the existence of the Newspaper Press in Germany. This was in 1842. The poor King, whose commercial difficulties were the keenest satire upon his Mediaeval propensities, very soon found out that he could not continue to reign without making some slight concession to the popular outcry for that "Representation of the People," which, as the last remnant of the long-forgotten promises of 1813 and 1815 had been embodied in the law of 1820. He found the least objectionable mode of satisfying this untoward law in calling together the Standing Committees of the Provincial Diets. The Provincial Diets had been instituted in 1823. They consisted for every one of the eight provinces of the kingdom:—(I) Of the higher nobility, the formerly sovereign families of the German Empire, the heads of which were members of the Diet by birthright. (2) Of the representatives of the knights, or lower nobility. (3) Of representatives of towns. (4) Of deputies of the peasantry, or small farming class. The whole was arranged in such a manner that in every province the two sections of the nobility always had a majority of the Diet. Every one of these eight Provincial Diets elected a Committee, and these eight Committees were now called to Berlin in order to form a Representative Assembly for the purpose of voting the much-desired loan. It was stated that the Treasury was full, and that the loan was required, not for current wants, but for the construction of a State railway. But the united Committees gave the King a flat refusal, declaring themselves incompetent to act as the representatives of the people, and called upon His Majesty to fulfil the promise of a Representative Constitution which his father had given, when he wanted the aid of the people against Napoleon. The sitting of the united Committees proved that the spirit of opposition was no longer confined to the bourgeoisie. A part of the peasantry had joined them, and many nobles, being themselves large farmers on their own properties, and dealers in corn, wool, spirits, and flax, requiring the same guarantees against absolutism, bureaucracy, and feudal restoration, had equally pronounced against the Government, and for a Representative Constitution. The King's plan had signally failed; he had got no money, and had increased the power of the opposition. The subsequent sitting of the Provincial Diets themselves was still more unfortunate for the King. All of them asked for reforms, for the fulfilment of the promises of 1813 and 1815, for a Constitution and a Free Press; the resolutions to this effect of some of them were rather disrespectfully worded, and the ill-humored replies of the exasperated King made the evil still greater. In the meantime, the financial difficulties of the Government went on increasing. For a time, abatements made upon the moneys appropriated for the different public services, fraudulent transactions with the "Seehandlung," a commercial establishment speculating and trading for account and risk of the State, and long since acting as its money-broker, had sufficed to keep up appearances; increased issues of State paper-money had furnished some resources; and the secret, upon the whole, had been pretty well kept. But all these contrivances were soon exhausted. There was another plan tried: the establishment of a bank, the capital of which was to be furnished partly by the State and partly by private shareholders; the chief direction to belong to the State, in such a manner as to enable the Government to draw upon the funds of this bank to a large amount, and thus to repeat the same fraudulent transactions that would no longer do with the "Seehandlung." But, as a matter of course, there were no capitalists to be found who would hand over their money upon such conditions; the statutes of the bank had to be altered, and the property of the shareholders guaranteed from the encroachments of the Treasury, before any shares were subscribed for. Thus, this plan having failed, there remained nothing but to try a loan, if capitalists could be found who would lend their cash without requiring the permission and guarantee of that mysterious "future Representation of the People." Rothchild was applied to, and he declared that if the loan was to be guaranteed by this "Representation of the People," he would undertake the thing at a moment's notice—if not, he could not have anything to do with the transaction. Thus every hope of obtaining money had vanished, and there was no possibility of escaping the fatal "Representation of the People." Rothschild's refusal was known in autumn, 1846, and in February of the next year the King called together all the eight Provincial Diets to Berlin, forming them into one "United Diet." This Diet was to do the work required, in case of need, by the law of 1820; it was to vote loans and increased taxes, but beyond that it was to have no rights. Its voice upon general legislation was to be merely consultative; it was to assemble, not at fixed periods, but whenever it pleased the King; it was to discuss nothing but what the Government pleased to lay before it. Of course, the members were very little satisfied with the part they were expected to perform. They repeated the wishes they had enounced when they met in the provincial assembles; the relations between them and the Government soon became acrimonious, and when the loan, which was again stated to be required for railway constructions, was demanded from them, they again refused to grant it. This vote very soon brought their sitting to a close. The King, more and more exasperated, dismissed them with a reprimand, but still remained without money. And, indeed, he had every reason to be alarmed at his position, seeing that the Liberal League, headed by the middle classes, comprising a large part of the lower nobility, and all the different sections of the lower orders—that this Liberal League was determined to have what it wanted. In vain the King had declared, in the opening speech, that he would never, never grant a Constitution in the modern sense of the word; the Liberal League insisted upon such a modern, anti-feudal, Representative Constitution, with all its sequels, Liberty of the Press, Trial by Jury, etc.; and before they got it, not a farthing of money would they grant. There was one thing evident: that things could not go on long in this manner, and that either one of the parties must give way, or that a rupture—a bloody struggle—must ensue. And the middle classes knew that they were on the eve of a revolution, and they prepared themselves for it. They sought to obtain by every possible means the support of the working class of the towns, and of the peasantry in the agricultural districts, and it is well known that there was, in the latter end of 1847, hardly a single prominent political character among the bourgeoisie who did not proclaim himself a "Socialist," in order to insure to himself the sympathy of the proletarian class. We shall see these "Socialists" at work by and by. This eagerness of the leading bourgeoisie to adopt, at least the outward show of Socialism, was caused by a great change that had come over the working classes of Germany. There had been ever since 1840 a fraction of German workmen, who, travelling in France and Switzerland, had more or less imbibed the crude Socialist or Communist notions then current among the French workmen. The increasing attention paid to similar ideas in France ever since 1840 made Socialism and Communism fashionable in Germany also, and as far back as 1843, all newspapers teemed with discussions of social questions. A school of Socialists very soon formed itself in Germany, distinguished more for the obscurity than for the novelty of its ideas; its principal efforts consisted in the translation of French Fourierist, Saint-Simonian, and other doctrines into the abstruse language of German philosophy. The German Communist school, entirely different from this sect, was formed about the same time. In 1844, there occurred the Silesian weavers' riots, followed by the insurrection of the calico printers of Prague. These riots, cruelly suppressed, riots of working men not against the Government, but against their employers, created a deep sensation, and gave a new stimulus to Socialist and Communist propaganda amongst the working people. So did the bread riots during the year of famine, 1847. In short, in the same manner as Constitutional Opposition rallied around its banner the great bulk of the propertied classes (with the exception of the large feudal land-holders), so the working classes of the larger towns looked for their emancipation to the Socialist and Communist doctrines, although, under the then existing Press laws, they could be made to know only very little about them. They could not be expected to have any very definite ideas as to what they wanted; they only knew that the programme of the Constitutional bourgeoisie did not contain all they wanted, and that their wants were no wise contained in the Constitutional circle of ideas. There was then no separate Republican party in Germany. People were either Constitutional Monarchists, or more or less clearly defined Socialists or Communists. With such elements the slightest collision must have brought about a great revolution. While the higher nobility and the older civil and military officers were the only safe supports of the existing system; while the lower nobility, the trading middle classes, the universities, the school-masters of every degree, and even part of the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and military officers were all leagued against the Government; while behind these there stood the dissatisfied masses of the peasantry, and of the proletarians of the large towns, supporting, for the time being, the Liberal Opposition, but already muttering strange words about taking things into their own hands; while the bourgeoisie was ready to hurl down the Government, and the proletarians were preparing to hurl down the bourgeoisie in its turn; this Government went on obstinately in a course which must bring about a collision. Germany was, in the beginning of 1848, on the eve of a revolution, and this revolution was sure to come, even had the French Revolution of February not hastened it. What the effects of this Parisian Revolution were upon Germany we shall see in our next. LONDON, September, 1851. "The Rhenish Gazette." This paper was published at Cologne, as the organ of the Liberal leaders, Hansemann and Camphausen. Marx contributed certain articles on the Landtag, which created so great a sensation that he was offered in 1842—although only 21 years of age—the editorship of the paper. He accepted the offer, and then began his long fight with the Prussian Government. Of course the paper was published under the supervision of a censor, but he, good, easy man, was hopelessly outwitted by the young firebrand. So the Government sent a second "special" censor from Berlin, but the double censorship proved unequal to the task, and in 1843 the paper was suppressed.	4,856	ENGLISH	1
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s unexpected death from a stroke in Warm Springs, Georgia, on April 12, 1945, was a huge shock for many people. He had been the U.S. president since 1933, elected four times – the most of any president. During this long tenure he had led the nation through the Great Depression and into Word War Two. Many Americans considered Roosevelt a father figure because he’d been the president for much of their lives. This was especially true for the young men fighting overseas against fascism in the Western European and Pacific theaters of WWII. There were many reports of American soldiers and sailors crying upon receiving word of his death. American forces in the Pacific theater were fighting the Japanese in the Battle of Okinawa at the time of Roosevelt’s death. They U.S. had invaded that southern Japanese island on April 1st and the troops had made good progress until they had encountered a strong Japanese defensive line along Kakazu Ridge. The initial American assaults against it failed and the Japanese took advantage of this by distributing propaganda leaflets trying to discourage further attacks. They began with, “We must express our deep regret over the death of President Roosevelt.” The Germans also took note of Roosevelt’s death in the European theater. The Western Allies had launched attacks across the Rhine River on Germany’s western border in March of 1945 which had destroyed Nazi Germany’s defenses on that front. The allied troops, under the command of General Dwight Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in Western Europe, were approaching Berlin from the west. On Germany’s eastern border, the Soviets were poised along the Oder River preparing to attack Berlin, which was only about 50 miles away. Hitler knew there was little chance that his depleted forces could stop the Allies. But when he learned of Roosevelt’s death he became elated. He had always been inspired by Frederick the Great, the King of Prussia who had held out against overwhelming odds in the Seven Years’ War until the alliance against him unexpectedly dissolved after the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Hitler thought Roosevelt’s death was a sign that the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviets would now disintegrate. But Hitler soon found that Roosevelt’s successor, Harry Truman, had no intention of betraying the Soviets by making a separate peace with the Nazis. On May 8, 1945, when Truman announced Germany’s unconditional surrender, he said, “I only wish that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day.” Roosevelt’s death also prompted responses from America’s allies in WWII. When the American ambassador to the Soviet Union informed Stalin about it the Soviet leader said “President Roosevelt has died but his cause must live on. We shall support President Truman with all our forces and all our will.” British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who reportedly sobbed like a baby upon hearing of Roosevelt’s passing, gave a long eulogy for Roosevelt in the House of Commons a few days after his death. It concluded with, “For us. it remains only to say that in Franklin Roosevelt there died the greatest American friend we have ever known and the greatest champion of freedom who has ever brought help and comfort from the new world to the old.” Churchill later wrote of Roosevelt: “He altered decisively and permanently the social axis, the moral axis, of mankind by involving the New World inexorably and irrevocably in the fortunes of the Old. His life must therefore be regarded as one of the most commanding events in human destiny.” Liked this post? Follow this blog to get more.	<urn:uuid:c1b666b8-7352-4a66-bb15-71500478ea69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jeffreydavidburgess.com/franklin-roosevelt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00538.warc.gz	en	0.981654	757	3.8125	4	[ -0.34080588817596436, 0.4157642126083374, 0.25036850571632385, -0.09989163279533386, 0.4468033015727997, 0.22732192277908325, 0.2976604998111725, 0.18280701339244843, 0.22088119387626648, -0.45982474088668823, 0.4547015428543091, 0.4124435782432556, 0.2677890360355377, 0.7451775074005127, ...	1	President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s unexpected death from a stroke in Warm Springs, Georgia, on April 12, 1945, was a huge shock for many people. He had been the U.S. president since 1933, elected four times – the most of any president. During this long tenure he had led the nation through the Great Depression and into Word War Two. Many Americans considered Roosevelt a father figure because he’d been the president for much of their lives. This was especially true for the young men fighting overseas against fascism in the Western European and Pacific theaters of WWII. There were many reports of American soldiers and sailors crying upon receiving word of his death. American forces in the Pacific theater were fighting the Japanese in the Battle of Okinawa at the time of Roosevelt’s death. They U.S. had invaded that southern Japanese island on April 1st and the troops had made good progress until they had encountered a strong Japanese defensive line along Kakazu Ridge. The initial American assaults against it failed and the Japanese took advantage of this by distributing propaganda leaflets trying to discourage further attacks. They began with, “We must express our deep regret over the death of President Roosevelt.” The Germans also took note of Roosevelt’s death in the European theater. The Western Allies had launched attacks across the Rhine River on Germany’s western border in March of 1945 which had destroyed Nazi Germany’s defenses on that front. The allied troops, under the command of General Dwight Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in Western Europe, were approaching Berlin from the west. On Germany’s eastern border, the Soviets were poised along the Oder River preparing to attack Berlin, which was only about 50 miles away. Hitler knew there was little chance that his depleted forces could stop the Allies. But when he learned of Roosevelt’s death he became elated. He had always been inspired by Frederick the Great, the King of Prussia who had held out against overwhelming odds in the Seven Years’ War until the alliance against him unexpectedly dissolved after the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Hitler thought Roosevelt’s death was a sign that the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviets would now disintegrate. But Hitler soon found that Roosevelt’s successor, Harry Truman, had no intention of betraying the Soviets by making a separate peace with the Nazis. On May 8, 1945, when Truman announced Germany’s unconditional surrender, he said, “I only wish that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day.” Roosevelt’s death also prompted responses from America’s allies in WWII. When the American ambassador to the Soviet Union informed Stalin about it the Soviet leader said “President Roosevelt has died but his cause must live on. We shall support President Truman with all our forces and all our will.” British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who reportedly sobbed like a baby upon hearing of Roosevelt’s passing, gave a long eulogy for Roosevelt in the House of Commons a few days after his death. It concluded with, “For us. it remains only to say that in Franklin Roosevelt there died the greatest American friend we have ever known and the greatest champion of freedom who has ever brought help and comfort from the new world to the old.” Churchill later wrote of Roosevelt: “He altered decisively and permanently the social axis, the moral axis, of mankind by involving the New World inexorably and irrevocably in the fortunes of the Old. His life must therefore be regarded as one of the most commanding events in human destiny.” Liked this post? Follow this blog to get more.	728	ENGLISH	1
The last queen of Ptolemaic Egypt left quite a mark during her reign. Born in 69 BC, she ruled Egypt from 51 BC – 30 BC. During her reign, she was able to bring peace and prosperity to a country that was struck by bankruptcy during the civil war. She was known to be a brilliant and limitless ruler who would do anything to remain in power. Her seductiveness enabled her to form ties with the Romans sparking fury among members of its Senate who believed she was a bad influence on their civilization. Her life is marked by her direct involvement in the murder of her relatives and the fall of ancient Egypt. Below are ten of the most intriguing facts about the life of Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt. She Murdered Her Siblings Leadership wrangles among the Ptolemies were very brutal, whereby some resorted to murder as the most convenient way to obtain power. A dispute arose when Cleopatra wanted to be the sole ruler against her brother and husband, Ptolemy XIII. Her brother made her run from Egypt after their disagreement with Julius Caesar. A civil war arose, and together with Caesar, they battled against Ptolemy who ended up dead by drowning in the Nile. After the war, she got married to her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, who she also murdered to make her son the co-ruler. Later on, she killed her sister, Arsinoe IV, after she heard of her fame in Ephesus, where she was being addressed as “Queen.” For her, there could only be one queen in the Mediterranean, so she decided to get rid of her rising rival. Cleopatra Was a Perfect Schemer Cleopatra was full of surprises. Her fearlessness did not go unnoticed when she met with the Romans. When Cleopatra’s younger brother, Ptolemy XIII, seized power and overthrew her, she became furious and sought means to get back to power. Cleopatra heard of Caesar’s visit to Egypt and arranged to meet him to ask for help. Knowing that her brother would disapprove of her meeting with Caesar, she became creative. She smuggled herself in Caesar’s suite wrapped in an ornamental carpet and surprised him with her beguiling beauty. She convinced Caesar to help her battle her brother for the throne and make her the sole ruler. Cleopatra made a grand arrival when she went to meet with Mark Antony. When she arrived, she traveled up the river in a barge filled with flowers and scented with exotic perfumes. She reclined on the deck surrounded by her servants with gold trappings. This made Antony fall for her irresistible charm. Cleopatra Was a Product of Incest After the death of Ptolemy I, the Ptolemies started to embrace native traditions of divine rulership. Later on, incest became a norm in their lineage. Born in 70 or 69 BC, Cleopatra’s ancestry had quite several people marrying their siblings to preserve their bloodline. Most of her ancestors are unknown, the few, however, allow us to trace her parents. Her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, and her father was Ptolemy XII. Her father and mother were both children of the same father. Her mother was, however, mothered by a concubine while her father’s mother was the legitimate wife. She Influenced the Assassination of Caesar She went to live in Rome in 46 BC and there she was at the time Caesar was stabbed. After the assassination, Cleopatra was banished from Rome because of the hatred that the Romans had for her. They believed that Caesar spent too much of the roman’s wealth on Cleopatra. Money that could have been used in developing Rome was used in financing his mistress’ lavish life by buying her riches. Her influence on Caesar’s foolish decisions led the Senate to conspire to have him killed. She dressed with similarity to Isis, the Egyptian goddess. Upon her departure from Rome, she left a lot of her influence on the people. On the positive side, forming political ties with Cleopatra helped the Roman empire acquire much wealth. She Was Accused of Bewitching a Man Mark Antony was so much charmed by Cleopatra that it seemed he could do anything for her. Octavian became furious over Mark Antony’s decisions and accused Cleopatra of bewitching him. Antony had gone so far as to give Cleopatra and her son parts of Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus. This led Octavian into thinking that they would lose the Roman empire to the Egyptian queen. Antony went ahead to prove his commitment to Cleopatra by divorcing his wife after scandals erupted concerning his relationship with her. She charmed Antony so much that he could not imagine living without her. After Octavian’s triumph in the battle of Actium, Antony stabbed himself to death, thinking that the love of his life, Cleopatra, had died. She Had More Brains Than Beauty During the Greek reign over Egypt, education for the royal family was stressed for both boys and girls equally so that both could take the throne. This was so as Cleopatra was very educated. Her intelligence rather than her beauty was undoubtedly her biggest strength. Ancient historians report that Cleopatra was not that beautiful. She, however, had a seductive charm. She learned languages quickly and was fluent in nine languages among them being Egyptian. Previous rulers had relied on interpreters to translate Greek to Egyptian. Cleopatra could speak well in public, a skill that was highly regarded. During her rule, she was able to communicate easily with other kings, thus making her reign so admirable. She Had a Decadent Love Affair With Mark Antony Mark Antony disputed the succession of the roman leaderships by Caesar’s legal heir, Octavian, making him contact the Egyptian queen to form political ties. The charming queen initially had political reasons for meeting with Mark Antony but ended up spending the winter together after falling in love. The two spent time lavishly, wasting fortunes expensive pleasures, they even formed a drinking club. The queen once won a bet against Antony on who between them would spend the most on a dinner. Cleopatra took a valuable earing worth a million sesterces, dissolved it in a goblet of vinegar and drank it, swallowing a great fortune. She Married Both Her Brothers The Egyptians saw no shame in incest. When Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, died in 51 BC, Cleopatra became the co-regent with her brother Ptolemy XIII who was ten years old at the time. She got married to her brother following the Egyptian traditions which decreed that pharaohs shall marry their sisters. Cleopatra then married her younger brother after Ptolemy XIII died in battle. The marriages were, however, not ideal. She killed both of her brothers and additionally, had relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony while married to them. She bore children for both Caesar and Mark Antony. It was noted that Cleopatra’s father did not adhere to the Ptolemaic dictates by not marrying his daughter when she became queen after her mother died. She Led a Fleet to a Naval Battle Mark Antony had married and allied with Cleopatra during the Battle of Actium. The battle was fought during the civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian over the leadership of the Roman Empire. Octavian accused Antony of trying to install Cleopatra as the ruler of Rome and making Caesarion his legal heir. Cleopatra contributed supplies and fleets of ships for the battle. When the battle worsened, she fled to Egypt, leaving her lover, who also fled in her pursuit. Antony lost the battle, and Octavian subdued his army. Soon, Octavian’s army started to close in on Alexandria. Antony resorted to suicide as his last resort and so did Cleopatra. She Committed Suicide Cleopatra died at the age of 39. According to popular belief, she committed suicide by letting an asp bite her. An asp is any of the poisonous snakes found in the Nile region. When Octavian arrived in Alexandria, Cleopatra went to hide in her mausoleum. False information reached Antony that she had died making him stab himself with the pain of the loss of his lover. When Octavian arrived, Cleopatra’s attempts to seduce him in a bid to make peace failed. She resolved to kill herself rather than fall under the dominion of Octavian. She also lost hope in triumph over Octavian after the death of her decadent lover. Because the Roman empire was the greatest in the Western World, Cleopatra had seen no hope after Octavian managed to defeat her men in battle. Octavian then executed Cleopatra’s son and took over Egypt.	<urn:uuid:dcdfd290-d34a-4c22-a1d4-7563ad0570e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listgecko.com/cleopatra-facts/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00407.warc.gz	en	0.985664	1,890	3.375	3	[ -0.0784139484167099, 0.8866227865219116, 0.563125491142273, 0.09777994453907013, -0.770271360874176, -0.13928839564323425, 0.5460431575775146, 0.17002956569194794, 0.33805811405181885, 0.32144686579704285, 0.14144867658615112, -0.5666412115097046, -0.045840032398700714, -0.1096680611371994...	3	The last queen of Ptolemaic Egypt left quite a mark during her reign. Born in 69 BC, she ruled Egypt from 51 BC – 30 BC. During her reign, she was able to bring peace and prosperity to a country that was struck by bankruptcy during the civil war. She was known to be a brilliant and limitless ruler who would do anything to remain in power. Her seductiveness enabled her to form ties with the Romans sparking fury among members of its Senate who believed she was a bad influence on their civilization. Her life is marked by her direct involvement in the murder of her relatives and the fall of ancient Egypt. Below are ten of the most intriguing facts about the life of Cleopatra, the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt. She Murdered Her Siblings Leadership wrangles among the Ptolemies were very brutal, whereby some resorted to murder as the most convenient way to obtain power. A dispute arose when Cleopatra wanted to be the sole ruler against her brother and husband, Ptolemy XIII. Her brother made her run from Egypt after their disagreement with Julius Caesar. A civil war arose, and together with Caesar, they battled against Ptolemy who ended up dead by drowning in the Nile. After the war, she got married to her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, who she also murdered to make her son the co-ruler. Later on, she killed her sister, Arsinoe IV, after she heard of her fame in Ephesus, where she was being addressed as “Queen.” For her, there could only be one queen in the Mediterranean, so she decided to get rid of her rising rival. Cleopatra Was a Perfect Schemer Cleopatra was full of surprises. Her fearlessness did not go unnoticed when she met with the Romans. When Cleopatra’s younger brother, Ptolemy XIII, seized power and overthrew her, she became furious and sought means to get back to power. Cleopatra heard of Caesar’s visit to Egypt and arranged to meet him to ask for help. Knowing that her brother would disapprove of her meeting with Caesar, she became creative. She smuggled herself in Caesar’s suite wrapped in an ornamental carpet and surprised him with her beguiling beauty. She convinced Caesar to help her battle her brother for the throne and make her the sole ruler. Cleopatra made a grand arrival when she went to meet with Mark Antony. When she arrived, she traveled up the river in a barge filled with flowers and scented with exotic perfumes. She reclined on the deck surrounded by her servants with gold trappings. This made Antony fall for her irresistible charm. Cleopatra Was a Product of Incest After the death of Ptolemy I, the Ptolemies started to embrace native traditions of divine rulership. Later on, incest became a norm in their lineage. Born in 70 or 69 BC, Cleopatra’s ancestry had quite several people marrying their siblings to preserve their bloodline. Most of her ancestors are unknown, the few, however, allow us to trace her parents. Her mother was Cleopatra V Tryphaena, and her father was Ptolemy XII. Her father and mother were both children of the same father. Her mother was, however, mothered by a concubine while her father’s mother was the legitimate wife. She Influenced the Assassination of Caesar She went to live in Rome in 46 BC and there she was at the time Caesar was stabbed. After the assassination, Cleopatra was banished from Rome because of the hatred that the Romans had for her. They believed that Caesar spent too much of the roman’s wealth on Cleopatra. Money that could have been used in developing Rome was used in financing his mistress’ lavish life by buying her riches. Her influence on Caesar’s foolish decisions led the Senate to conspire to have him killed. She dressed with similarity to Isis, the Egyptian goddess. Upon her departure from Rome, she left a lot of her influence on the people. On the positive side, forming political ties with Cleopatra helped the Roman empire acquire much wealth. She Was Accused of Bewitching a Man Mark Antony was so much charmed by Cleopatra that it seemed he could do anything for her. Octavian became furious over Mark Antony’s decisions and accused Cleopatra of bewitching him. Antony had gone so far as to give Cleopatra and her son parts of Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus. This led Octavian into thinking that they would lose the Roman empire to the Egyptian queen. Antony went ahead to prove his commitment to Cleopatra by divorcing his wife after scandals erupted concerning his relationship with her. She charmed Antony so much that he could not imagine living without her. After Octavian’s triumph in the battle of Actium, Antony stabbed himself to death, thinking that the love of his life, Cleopatra, had died. She Had More Brains Than Beauty During the Greek reign over Egypt, education for the royal family was stressed for both boys and girls equally so that both could take the throne. This was so as Cleopatra was very educated. Her intelligence rather than her beauty was undoubtedly her biggest strength. Ancient historians report that Cleopatra was not that beautiful. She, however, had a seductive charm. She learned languages quickly and was fluent in nine languages among them being Egyptian. Previous rulers had relied on interpreters to translate Greek to Egyptian. Cleopatra could speak well in public, a skill that was highly regarded. During her rule, she was able to communicate easily with other kings, thus making her reign so admirable. She Had a Decadent Love Affair With Mark Antony Mark Antony disputed the succession of the roman leaderships by Caesar’s legal heir, Octavian, making him contact the Egyptian queen to form political ties. The charming queen initially had political reasons for meeting with Mark Antony but ended up spending the winter together after falling in love. The two spent time lavishly, wasting fortunes expensive pleasures, they even formed a drinking club. The queen once won a bet against Antony on who between them would spend the most on a dinner. Cleopatra took a valuable earing worth a million sesterces, dissolved it in a goblet of vinegar and drank it, swallowing a great fortune. She Married Both Her Brothers The Egyptians saw no shame in incest. When Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, died in 51 BC, Cleopatra became the co-regent with her brother Ptolemy XIII who was ten years old at the time. She got married to her brother following the Egyptian traditions which decreed that pharaohs shall marry their sisters. Cleopatra then married her younger brother after Ptolemy XIII died in battle. The marriages were, however, not ideal. She killed both of her brothers and additionally, had relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony while married to them. She bore children for both Caesar and Mark Antony. It was noted that Cleopatra’s father did not adhere to the Ptolemaic dictates by not marrying his daughter when she became queen after her mother died. She Led a Fleet to a Naval Battle Mark Antony had married and allied with Cleopatra during the Battle of Actium. The battle was fought during the civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian over the leadership of the Roman Empire. Octavian accused Antony of trying to install Cleopatra as the ruler of Rome and making Caesarion his legal heir. Cleopatra contributed supplies and fleets of ships for the battle. When the battle worsened, she fled to Egypt, leaving her lover, who also fled in her pursuit. Antony lost the battle, and Octavian subdued his army. Soon, Octavian’s army started to close in on Alexandria. Antony resorted to suicide as his last resort and so did Cleopatra. She Committed Suicide Cleopatra died at the age of 39. According to popular belief, she committed suicide by letting an asp bite her. An asp is any of the poisonous snakes found in the Nile region. When Octavian arrived in Alexandria, Cleopatra went to hide in her mausoleum. False information reached Antony that she had died making him stab himself with the pain of the loss of his lover. When Octavian arrived, Cleopatra’s attempts to seduce him in a bid to make peace failed. She resolved to kill herself rather than fall under the dominion of Octavian. She also lost hope in triumph over Octavian after the death of her decadent lover. Because the Roman empire was the greatest in the Western World, Cleopatra had seen no hope after Octavian managed to defeat her men in battle. Octavian then executed Cleopatra’s son and took over Egypt.	1,835	ENGLISH	1
Pilate asks Jesus questions 1All the people at the meeting stood up to leave. They took Jesus to stand in front of Pilate. #23:1 Pontius Pilate ruled over this part of the land that the Romans ruled. He ruled over Jerusalem. 2Then they all started to tell Pilate that Jesus had done bad things. They said, ‘We found this man when he was telling our people wrong things. He said that we must not pay taxes to the Roman government. He also said that he himself is the Messiah, that is, a king.’ 3Pilate asked Jesus, ‘Are you the king of the Jews?’ Jesus replied, ‘You have said it.’ 4Pilate then said to the leaders of the priests and to all the crowd of people, ‘I cannot find anything that this man has done which is wrong.’ 5But they continued to speak strongly to him. They said, ‘He makes the people angry and ready to fight against the government. He has taught these bad things everywhere in Judea. He started in Galilee and now he has come to Jerusalem.’ 6When Pilate heard them say this, he asked if Jesus came from Galilee. 7He discovered that he was from the country where Herod ruled. So Pilate sent Jesus to stand in front of Herod. Herod was also in Jerusalem at that time. #23:7 Herod was a king and he ruled over the whole of Galilee. It was Herod that had killed John the Baptist. Herod asks Jesus questions 8Herod was very happy to see Jesus. He had heard about him and he had wanted to meet him for a long time. He wanted to see Jesus do something to show God's power. 9He asked Jesus many questions, but Jesus did not answer any of them. 10The leaders of the priests and the teachers of God's Law stood there. They were shouting out that Jesus had done many bad things. 11Then Herod and his soldiers started to laugh at Jesus. They were saying things to make him feel bad. They put a beautiful coat on him. Then they sent him back to Pilate. 12That same day, Herod and Pilate became friends. Until then, they had not liked each other. Pilate and the Jewish leaders argue about Jesus 13Pilate then told the leaders of the priests, the leaders of the Jews and the people to come back to him. 14He said to them, ‘You brought this man to me. You said that he was causing the people to fight against their rulers. Listen! I have asked him some questions in front of you. But I have not found that he has done anything wrong. 15Herod also did not find that he had done anything wrong. That is why he has sent him back to me. You can see this. He has not done anything bad that means he ought to die. 16So I will just punish him. I will order a soldier to hit him with whips. Then I will let him go.’ [17Pilate usually let one person go free out of the prison at Passover time.] #23:17 Verse 17 is not in many copies of Luke. 18But the crowd all shouted together, ‘Take this man away and kill him! We want Barabbas to go free.’ 19Barabbas had fought against the Roman rulers in Jerusalem. He had also killed somebody. That is why the rulers had put him in prison. 20But Pilate still wanted to let Jesus go. So, he spoke to the crowd again. 21But they continued to shout. They were shouting, ‘Kill him on a cross, kill him on a cross.’ #23:21 Roman rulers fixed bad people to a big cross made from wood, to kill them. 22Pilate asked them the same question for the third time. ‘Why should I kill him? What wrong things has he done? You want me to say that he should die. But I have not found anything wrong that would cause me to say that. So, I will punish him. I will order my soldiers to hit him with a whip. Then I will let him go.’ 23But they continued to shout at Pilate, ‘Kill him on a cross.’ They continued to shout very much. So, in the end, 24Pilate did what they wanted. 25They had asked Pilate to let Barabbas go free out of the prison. He was the man that had caused the Jewish people to fight against the Roman rulers. He had also killed somebody. He was the man that Pilate let go free. As for Jesus, Pilate ordered the soldiers to take him away. He let the people do to him what they wanted. They kill Jesus on a cross 26So the soldiers took Jesus away, to go to the place where they would kill him. On the way, they took hold of a man called Simon. This man was from the town called Cyrene. He was coming in from outside the city. The soldiers took the cross that Jesus was carrying on his shoulders. They made Simon carry it instead as he walked behind Jesus. 27A very large crowd of people were following Jesus. There were many women among them. They were crying with loud voices. They were weeping and crying because they were very sad. 28So Jesus turned round and he said to them, ‘You women that live in Jerusalem, do not weep for me. Instead, cry for yourselves and for your children. 29Listen! Days will come when people will say, “It is better for those women that could not have babies. Those women that never had babies to feed are the happy ones!” 30People will begin to say, “It would be better if we were dead.” They will ask the mountains to fall on top of them. They will ask the hills to cover them up. 31There is much trouble and pain now. But much worse things will happen! Now the fire burns slowly. But soon it will be like a fire that quickly burns dry wood!’ #23:31 Again, Jesus is telling the people that enemies will soon destroy Jerusalem. Jesus is like a tree that is alive. He has not done anything wrong. But still the Romans will kill him on a cross. The bad people in Jerusalem are like dry wood. They have done many wrong things. The Romans will do worse things to them. 32The soldiers also took two other men out of the prison. These men had done bad things. The soldiers were going to kill them and Jesus together. 33They took them to the place that is called ‘The Skull’. There they fixed Jesus to a cross to die. They also fixed the two bad men to crosses. One of these men was on the right side of Jesus. The other was on his left side. #23:33 The skull is the name of the bone inside a human head. 34Jesus said, ‘Father, these people do not know what they are doing. So please forgive them.’ The soldiers then picked up Jesus' clothes for themselves. They played a game to decide who would receive each piece of his clothes. 35The people stood there and they were watching. The Jewish leaders were laughing at Jesus. They said, ‘He saved other people, did he? Then he should save his own life! Then we will know that he is really the Messiah, the man that God has chosen.’ 36The soldiers also laughed at him. They came up to him and they offered him cheap wine to drink. 37They said, ‘If you are really the King of the Jews, save your own life.’ 38There was also a notice fixed at the top of the cross. It said, ‘This is the King of the Jews.’ 39One of the bad men on a cross at the side of Jesus started to say bad things against him. He shouted, ‘You say that you are the Messiah, don't you? Then save your own life and save our lives too!’ 40But the bad man on the other cross told him that he should be quiet. He said, ‘You should be more afraid of God. We will die here, as well as him. 41We two men have done very bad things. So, it is right that we should die. But this man has not done anything wrong.’ 42Then the man said to Jesus, ‘Remember me, Jesus, when you start to rule in your kingdom.’ 43Jesus replied, ‘I promise you, today you will be with me in paradise.’ 44It was now about midday. The whole country became dark for three hours. 45The sun did not give any light. Then the curtain inside God's Great House tore into two parts. 46Then Jesus shouted loudly, ‘Father, I give my spirit to you.’ After he shouted this, he died. 47There was a captain of the soldiers there. When he saw what had happened, he praised God. He said. ‘I am sure that this man had not done anything wrong.’ 48A very big crowd had come together to watch the men die. They saw what had happened. Then they began to go home. They were very sad, and they were hitting their own bodies with their hands. 49The friends of Jesus were there. The women that had come with him from Galilee were also there. They were all standing a long way away. They also saw what happened to him. Joseph buries Jesus 50A man called Joseph was also there. He was one of a special group of important Jewish leaders. He was a good man that wanted to do right things. #23:50 This was the same group that asked Jesus questions. They had wanted Pilate to kill Jesus. 51He was from the Jewish town called Arimathea. He had not agreed with the other leaders that Jesus should die. He was waiting for God to begin to rule his people in his kingdom. 52So Joseph went to see Pilate. He asked to have the dead body of Jesus. Pilate agreed to this. 53Joseph then went to the place where Jesus died. He took the dead body down from the cross. He covered it in a piece of soft cloth. Then he put the body into a large hole in the rock. People had cut this hole in the rock for him. It was a place to bury dead bodies but it was the first time that anyone had used it. #23:53 At that time, they buried a dead person in a hole in a rock. Then the family and friends closed the front with a big stone. 54This all happened on the day before the Jewish day for rest. It was nearly time for the Jewish day for rest to begin. #23:54 For the Jews, the end of a day was when the sun went down, at about six o'clock in the evening. Then the next day began. Jesus becomes alive again 55The women who had come with Jesus from Galilee followed Joseph. They saw the place where the hole in the rock was. They also saw Joseph put Jesus' body into the empty hole. 56Then they returned to the house where they were staying in Jerusalem. They prepared spices and oil that had a beautiful smell. On the Jewish day for rest they obeyed God's Law and they did not work.	<urn:uuid:ea53c1e9-a1ae-4ce8-a9f7-724017bb27ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible.com/bible/2079/LUK.23.easy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00494.warc.gz	en	0.994283	2,401	3.765625	4	[ -0.2834562063217163, 0.41771775484085083, -0.003025301732122898, -0.03851030394434929, -0.03772539272904396, -0.48510515689849854, 0.39166921377182007, 0.09397915750741959, 0.23170019686222076, 0.1531829535961151, 0.1230073869228363, -0.04668615758419037, 0.230153888463974, -0.000535321421...	1	Pilate asks Jesus questions 1All the people at the meeting stood up to leave. They took Jesus to stand in front of Pilate. #23:1 Pontius Pilate ruled over this part of the land that the Romans ruled. He ruled over Jerusalem. 2Then they all started to tell Pilate that Jesus had done bad things. They said, ‘We found this man when he was telling our people wrong things. He said that we must not pay taxes to the Roman government. He also said that he himself is the Messiah, that is, a king.’ 3Pilate asked Jesus, ‘Are you the king of the Jews?’ Jesus replied, ‘You have said it.’ 4Pilate then said to the leaders of the priests and to all the crowd of people, ‘I cannot find anything that this man has done which is wrong.’ 5But they continued to speak strongly to him. They said, ‘He makes the people angry and ready to fight against the government. He has taught these bad things everywhere in Judea. He started in Galilee and now he has come to Jerusalem.’ 6When Pilate heard them say this, he asked if Jesus came from Galilee. 7He discovered that he was from the country where Herod ruled. So Pilate sent Jesus to stand in front of Herod. Herod was also in Jerusalem at that time. #23:7 Herod was a king and he ruled over the whole of Galilee. It was Herod that had killed John the Baptist. Herod asks Jesus questions 8Herod was very happy to see Jesus. He had heard about him and he had wanted to meet him for a long time. He wanted to see Jesus do something to show God's power. 9He asked Jesus many questions, but Jesus did not answer any of them. 10The leaders of the priests and the teachers of God's Law stood there. They were shouting out that Jesus had done many bad things. 11Then Herod and his soldiers started to laugh at Jesus. They were saying things to make him feel bad. They put a beautiful coat on him. Then they sent him back to Pilate. 12That same day, Herod and Pilate became friends. Until then, they had not liked each other. Pilate and the Jewish leaders argue about Jesus 13Pilate then told the leaders of the priests, the leaders of the Jews and the people to come back to him. 14He said to them, ‘You brought this man to me. You said that he was causing the people to fight against their rulers. Listen! I have asked him some questions in front of you. But I have not found that he has done anything wrong. 15Herod also did not find that he had done anything wrong. That is why he has sent him back to me. You can see this. He has not done anything bad that means he ought to die. 16So I will just punish him. I will order a soldier to hit him with whips. Then I will let him go.’ [17Pilate usually let one person go free out of the prison at Passover time.] #23:17 Verse 17 is not in many copies of Luke. 18But the crowd all shouted together, ‘Take this man away and kill him! We want Barabbas to go free.’ 19Barabbas had fought against the Roman rulers in Jerusalem. He had also killed somebody. That is why the rulers had put him in prison. 20But Pilate still wanted to let Jesus go. So, he spoke to the crowd again. 21But they continued to shout. They were shouting, ‘Kill him on a cross, kill him on a cross.’ #23:21 Roman rulers fixed bad people to a big cross made from wood, to kill them. 22Pilate asked them the same question for the third time. ‘Why should I kill him? What wrong things has he done? You want me to say that he should die. But I have not found anything wrong that would cause me to say that. So, I will punish him. I will order my soldiers to hit him with a whip. Then I will let him go.’ 23But they continued to shout at Pilate, ‘Kill him on a cross.’ They continued to shout very much. So, in the end, 24Pilate did what they wanted. 25They had asked Pilate to let Barabbas go free out of the prison. He was the man that had caused the Jewish people to fight against the Roman rulers. He had also killed somebody. He was the man that Pilate let go free. As for Jesus, Pilate ordered the soldiers to take him away. He let the people do to him what they wanted. They kill Jesus on a cross 26So the soldiers took Jesus away, to go to the place where they would kill him. On the way, they took hold of a man called Simon. This man was from the town called Cyrene. He was coming in from outside the city. The soldiers took the cross that Jesus was carrying on his shoulders. They made Simon carry it instead as he walked behind Jesus. 27A very large crowd of people were following Jesus. There were many women among them. They were crying with loud voices. They were weeping and crying because they were very sad. 28So Jesus turned round and he said to them, ‘You women that live in Jerusalem, do not weep for me. Instead, cry for yourselves and for your children. 29Listen! Days will come when people will say, “It is better for those women that could not have babies. Those women that never had babies to feed are the happy ones!” 30People will begin to say, “It would be better if we were dead.” They will ask the mountains to fall on top of them. They will ask the hills to cover them up. 31There is much trouble and pain now. But much worse things will happen! Now the fire burns slowly. But soon it will be like a fire that quickly burns dry wood!’ #23:31 Again, Jesus is telling the people that enemies will soon destroy Jerusalem. Jesus is like a tree that is alive. He has not done anything wrong. But still the Romans will kill him on a cross. The bad people in Jerusalem are like dry wood. They have done many wrong things. The Romans will do worse things to them. 32The soldiers also took two other men out of the prison. These men had done bad things. The soldiers were going to kill them and Jesus together. 33They took them to the place that is called ‘The Skull’. There they fixed Jesus to a cross to die. They also fixed the two bad men to crosses. One of these men was on the right side of Jesus. The other was on his left side. #23:33 The skull is the name of the bone inside a human head. 34Jesus said, ‘Father, these people do not know what they are doing. So please forgive them.’ The soldiers then picked up Jesus' clothes for themselves. They played a game to decide who would receive each piece of his clothes. 35The people stood there and they were watching. The Jewish leaders were laughing at Jesus. They said, ‘He saved other people, did he? Then he should save his own life! Then we will know that he is really the Messiah, the man that God has chosen.’ 36The soldiers also laughed at him. They came up to him and they offered him cheap wine to drink. 37They said, ‘If you are really the King of the Jews, save your own life.’ 38There was also a notice fixed at the top of the cross. It said, ‘This is the King of the Jews.’ 39One of the bad men on a cross at the side of Jesus started to say bad things against him. He shouted, ‘You say that you are the Messiah, don't you? Then save your own life and save our lives too!’ 40But the bad man on the other cross told him that he should be quiet. He said, ‘You should be more afraid of God. We will die here, as well as him. 41We two men have done very bad things. So, it is right that we should die. But this man has not done anything wrong.’ 42Then the man said to Jesus, ‘Remember me, Jesus, when you start to rule in your kingdom.’ 43Jesus replied, ‘I promise you, today you will be with me in paradise.’ 44It was now about midday. The whole country became dark for three hours. 45The sun did not give any light. Then the curtain inside God's Great House tore into two parts. 46Then Jesus shouted loudly, ‘Father, I give my spirit to you.’ After he shouted this, he died. 47There was a captain of the soldiers there. When he saw what had happened, he praised God. He said. ‘I am sure that this man had not done anything wrong.’ 48A very big crowd had come together to watch the men die. They saw what had happened. Then they began to go home. They were very sad, and they were hitting their own bodies with their hands. 49The friends of Jesus were there. The women that had come with him from Galilee were also there. They were all standing a long way away. They also saw what happened to him. Joseph buries Jesus 50A man called Joseph was also there. He was one of a special group of important Jewish leaders. He was a good man that wanted to do right things. #23:50 This was the same group that asked Jesus questions. They had wanted Pilate to kill Jesus. 51He was from the Jewish town called Arimathea. He had not agreed with the other leaders that Jesus should die. He was waiting for God to begin to rule his people in his kingdom. 52So Joseph went to see Pilate. He asked to have the dead body of Jesus. Pilate agreed to this. 53Joseph then went to the place where Jesus died. He took the dead body down from the cross. He covered it in a piece of soft cloth. Then he put the body into a large hole in the rock. People had cut this hole in the rock for him. It was a place to bury dead bodies but it was the first time that anyone had used it. #23:53 At that time, they buried a dead person in a hole in a rock. Then the family and friends closed the front with a big stone. 54This all happened on the day before the Jewish day for rest. It was nearly time for the Jewish day for rest to begin. #23:54 For the Jews, the end of a day was when the sun went down, at about six o'clock in the evening. Then the next day began. Jesus becomes alive again 55The women who had come with Jesus from Galilee followed Joseph. They saw the place where the hole in the rock was. They also saw Joseph put Jesus' body into the empty hole. 56Then they returned to the house where they were staying in Jerusalem. They prepared spices and oil that had a beautiful smell. On the Jewish day for rest they obeyed God's Law and they did not work.	2,411	ENGLISH	1
Composition and Elections Members of Seanad Éireann by session The 1922 version of the Constitution provided for a Seanad of 60 members directly elected. Members would serve 12 year terms, with one quarter of the house elected every three years. The members would be elected under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote in a single, nationwide, 15 seat constituency. However, to get the house started, the body's initial membership would be appointed by Dáil and the President of the Executive Council. To complicate matters even further, after the holding of the first direct election, the constitution was amended by the Constitution (Amendment No. 6) Act, passed on 23 July 1928, so that the final three elections to the Seanad occurred by a method of indirect election. Therefore, in the 5 elections to the Seanad to occur before its abolition, 3 different systems were used. It was originally required that membership of the Seanad be limited to those who were over 35 who would serve 12 year terms. The Constitution (Amendment No. 8) Act, passed on 25 October 1928, reduced the minimum age of eligibility for Seanad members to 30 and the Constitution (Amendment No. 7) Act, passed on 30 October 1928, reduced the term of office of senators to 9 years. Today incarnations of the modern Seanad are given a new number after each senatorial election. Thus, the current Seanad elected in 2007 is known as the 'Twenty-third Seanad'. This was not the custom during the Irish Free State because the Seanad was elected in stages and therefore considered to be in permanent session. However, as a gesture of continuity with its predecessor, the first Seanad elected after 1937 is numbered as the 'Second Seanad'. The Seanad, despite the occurrence of three senatorial elections before its abolition, is considered to have been a single Seanad for the duration of its existence and is thus referred for that whole period as the 'First Seanad'. Other articles related to "composition and elections, election, elections": ... elected in this way would serve only until the next senatorial election, when the seat would come up for election along with the others scheduled to be filled ... ... The most recent elections to the borough council were held on on 5 May 2011, the results were as follows Dacorum Local Election Result 2011 Party Seats Gains Losses Net gain/loss ... Famous quotes containing the words elections and/or composition: “Apparently, a democracy is a place where numerous elections are held at great cost without issues and with interchangeable candidates.” —Gore Vidal (b. 1925) “There is singularly nothing that makes a difference a difference in beginning and in the middle and in ending except that each generation has something different at which they are all looking. By this I mean so simply that anybody knows it that composition is the difference which makes each and all of them then different from other generations and this is what makes everything different otherwise they are all alike and everybody knows it because everybody says it.” —Gertrude Stein (18741946)	<urn:uuid:498890e5-07a7-4ba0-bf4c-4a3b668449c3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.primidi.com/oireachtas_of_the_irish_free_state/seanad_%C3%89ireann/composition_and_elections	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00234.warc.gz	en	0.981652	649	3.28125	3	[ -0.4350842833518982, -0.10078087449073792, 0.22493787109851837, -0.6518930196762085, -0.40242546796798706, 0.5428646802902222, -0.028669504448771477, -0.1594783365726471, 0.28045162558555603, -0.05751322954893112, 0.04091848433017731, 0.21032634377479553, 0.39782387018203735, 0.18995074927...	1	Composition and Elections Members of Seanad Éireann by session The 1922 version of the Constitution provided for a Seanad of 60 members directly elected. Members would serve 12 year terms, with one quarter of the house elected every three years. The members would be elected under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote in a single, nationwide, 15 seat constituency. However, to get the house started, the body's initial membership would be appointed by Dáil and the President of the Executive Council. To complicate matters even further, after the holding of the first direct election, the constitution was amended by the Constitution (Amendment No. 6) Act, passed on 23 July 1928, so that the final three elections to the Seanad occurred by a method of indirect election. Therefore, in the 5 elections to the Seanad to occur before its abolition, 3 different systems were used. It was originally required that membership of the Seanad be limited to those who were over 35 who would serve 12 year terms. The Constitution (Amendment No. 8) Act, passed on 25 October 1928, reduced the minimum age of eligibility for Seanad members to 30 and the Constitution (Amendment No. 7) Act, passed on 30 October 1928, reduced the term of office of senators to 9 years. Today incarnations of the modern Seanad are given a new number after each senatorial election. Thus, the current Seanad elected in 2007 is known as the 'Twenty-third Seanad'. This was not the custom during the Irish Free State because the Seanad was elected in stages and therefore considered to be in permanent session. However, as a gesture of continuity with its predecessor, the first Seanad elected after 1937 is numbered as the 'Second Seanad'. The Seanad, despite the occurrence of three senatorial elections before its abolition, is considered to have been a single Seanad for the duration of its existence and is thus referred for that whole period as the 'First Seanad'. Other articles related to "composition and elections, election, elections": ... elected in this way would serve only until the next senatorial election, when the seat would come up for election along with the others scheduled to be filled ... ... The most recent elections to the borough council were held on on 5 May 2011, the results were as follows Dacorum Local Election Result 2011 Party Seats Gains Losses Net gain/loss ... Famous quotes containing the words elections and/or composition: “Apparently, a democracy is a place where numerous elections are held at great cost without issues and with interchangeable candidates.” —Gore Vidal (b. 1925) “There is singularly nothing that makes a difference a difference in beginning and in the middle and in ending except that each generation has something different at which they are all looking. By this I mean so simply that anybody knows it that composition is the difference which makes each and all of them then different from other generations and this is what makes everything different otherwise they are all alike and everybody knows it because everybody says it.” —Gertrude Stein (18741946)	691	ENGLISH	1
Why does Germany bear war guilt and given the title of the aggressor? Let’s wheel the clock back to 1871 and get an overview from the beginning. Bismark, after cleverly tricking the French into declaring war would unite the German states with Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Saxony leading the charge into a single Germanic State. They would in the process of peace negotiations seize the French territories of Alsace-Lorraine and as the result of the war Napoleon III would be ousted and the Third Republic would be declared. After this war and the 1866 war with Austria to seize other German lands, Germany would be declared and they would overnight rise into being a world power. By 1880 they would be the leading industrial power in Europe…and they would be completely surrounded by “great powers” — Britain in the seas to the North, France to the West, Austria-Hungary to the South, and Russia to the East. This is where we briefly mention Bismarkian politics or what is more aptly referenced as the “3/5th’s rule”. That is, Germany must always have alliance 3 out of the 5 “great powers” as to secure the risk from total encirclement. In 1879 they would create a defense treaty with Austria-Hungary w.r.t. the mutual threat of the Russian Empire. In 1887 Bismark would also secure a non-aggression treaty with said Russian Empire which would state both parties would remain neutral in each others respective conflicts unless the other was the aggressor. This was precisely what Bismark wanted — he had completely secured his Southern and Easterly borders. With the addition of Italy to the group Germany would only have to worry about her French enemies to the West and a potential British threat in the North Sea. When Willhelm II ascended his fathers throne in 1888 he had big shoes to fill and felt the need to do it on his own with his own new troupe of advisers, thus sacking Bismark to retirement and taking up the reigns of diplomacy himself. When in 1890 Russia (rather persistently) tried to renew the treaty for a more permanent, more alliance sounding one Willhelm II would just as persistently refuse. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, would (rightfully so) feel exposed and without any friends. The British hated Russia and vice versa because of the Crimean War and Central Asian colonial ambitions, Austria-Hungary was a natural enemy to them because of conflict in the Balkans, Germany was supporting Austria-Hungary and was giving him the cold shoulder, but France remained. And boy, France would take Russia in with open arms creating a formal alliance in 1892. Now we can start discussing aggression. This is the formal state of affairs going into the 20th century: Germany and Austria-Hungary have a defensive pact with regards to Russia. France and Russia have a mutual defense treaty against Germany. The United Kingdom is allied to nobody formally but is unfriendly to the Russian Empire, neutral with the French Republic, and neutral with a leaning of cordial with the Germans. Kaiser Willhelm and frankly the German people as a whole were incredibly insecure about their status in the world. They were less than 50 years old at this point and were bordered by nations which had been around for almost a thousand and at times can trace their history back even further. They had no great national history or prestige to work off of as a unified Germany. They also came into the game in 1871 — well after the 16th and 17th century colonial rushes. They had no colonies. Germany is a notably isolated region and as the industrial leader relied on foreign imports to keep its factories churning out goods but perhaps equally important is the concept of prestige.Wilhelm II embarked on a policy of “Weltmahct,” or world power. A common turn of phrase in Germany was “Weltmacht oder Niedergang,” world power or downfall. They legitimately believed, the Kaiser, the government, and the people themselves, that it was Germany’s time to be the world power. That the German people, through social darwinism, were the superior and they were to seize prestige, colony, and resources through aggression. Don’t conflate this with Nazism, it wasn’t by any means. However, the concept of social darwinism was a popular one in this time and would last well into the 20th century. To get colonies and to secure colonies though, you need a navy. So Germany would start a rapid buildup of said navy. This had a twofold purpose — one of creating a colonial fleet to secure shipping lanes and seize lands through war and to secure an alliance with the British. By performing a rapid naval buildup and flexing German muscle, combined with a shared cultural heritage, he had hoped that Britain would see Germany as too strong too culturally similar to be an enemy and would fall right into Germany’s arms with an alliance. Does any of that make sense? No, because it doesn’t and it failed horrendously. Britain told Germany to stop building up such a massive navy (which was being created for the express intent of contesting British naval hegemony) and Germany repeatedly refused. As the Germans continued to contest British naval hegemony into the 20th century, we get to our first major date! In 1904 the French and the British, already uneasy with the German buildup, would begin to create some of the first legitimate and lasting bonds of friendship in their entire history. It actually wasn’t initially made with any regard toward Germany but rather a mutual understanding between the two powers. France would recognize the U.K.’s control over Egypt and likewise the U.K. would recognize French hegemony of basically the rest of North Africa Westward from there, Algiers and Morocco namely. In a few years Britain would also begin to make nice with Russia by diplomatically solving the the disputes in central asia (ie: Persia primarily) permanently. The French and Spanish would divvy up Morocco between them (with the French getting the majority, obviously) and Germany would respond in its second act of aggression — the May 1905 Moroccan Crisis. Kaiser Willhelm II would sail to Morocco just as these deals were being finalized and gave a keynote speech with the Sultan in front of a large crowd crying out for Moroccan independence from “foreign oppressors” and that Morocco should remain independent and free from influence. This was an attempt to undermine French legitimacy and drive a wedge between the British and French relationships by giving the Entente Cordiale a strenuous test w.r.t. the legitimacy of their agreement. It would have the exact opposite effect as you might already imagine. The French and British, already uneasy by the German build up, would be pressed closer than they would at any point in history. While it would be nothing formal, Britain began seriously considering Germany a threat at this point and would, more as an act of informal policy and general thinking than anything else, lean toward supporting France in a theoretical European conflict. The third major event would be the coming of the famous Dreadnought — with one pictured here. The coming of the Dreadnought shook the naval world, so much so that every battleship in recent memory before it became known as “pre-Dreadnoughts.” They would completely and utterly outclass anything any other nation was fielding. Their range and their firepower and their new engines and armor was like a fencing sword facing up against a claymore. and it would “reset” the naval arms race between Britain, Germany, and the world as a whole. You see Britain’s policy was called the Two-Power Standard — that is, having as many ships as the next two highest powers combined. They were a naval nation and they had naval hegemony. This gave Germany its first real shot, as both were starting from a blank slate essentially, to create a fleet that could legitimately contest the British in the North Sea region. It should be noted that Dreadnought’s were not exactly long range fighters, which made them useless for colonial protections. They had one use, attacking the British fleet in the North and Baltic Seas. The Germans would begin an unprecedented buildup buildings dozens upon dozens of these ships and constantly making orders for more. All these tensions would finally culminate in 1911 — the Second Moroccan Crisis. Oh those Germans were back for a vengeance and it would totally work this time. Right guys? The Moroccans would rebel against French rule and the French were going to send troops to protect its interests. Kaiser Willhelm, always the opportunist, would seize the situation by the proverbial horns and send a gunboat — the SMS Panther — to be backed up by the SMS Berlin shortly after to go “protect German trade interests.” Let’s call a spade a spade however, Germany sent war ships to go intervene in a conflict between France and a country which had, in the very conference Germany called for in 1905was determined to remain under French influence. Germany would also demand territorial concessions in sub-Saharan Africa from the French along with pulling out of Morocco entirely. Not only would Britain back up France again driving them closer, Austria-Hungary wouldn’t even give Germany diplomatic support — let alone military backing. Germany had at this point completely abandoned Bismark’s strategy of balance: Constantly giving conciliatory gifts or speeches or letters to rival powers to calm their nerves and keep everyone friendly. Remaining content as not only a land power, but the land power of Europe. Not getting greedy about the idea of the superior German and German prestige. Germany was in a precarious position in the world and Willhelm II did everything in his power to do the worst possible options. France and Britain, who were formerly neutral at best were driven into the strongest friendship they’ve had in their 1000 year history. Britain, who in 1887 had no intent of getting involved in continental conflicts and was now drawing up plans for direct land intervention in Europe to assist the two powers and had an agreement with France to provide it naval support in the event of war with Germany. Even more astoundingly was how it drove Britain and Russia together. These were two nations who for all purposes wanted nothing to do with each other. Britain, fearing German control over the Baltic Sea (that one to the right of Sweden and bordering Russia and Germany) and a reciprocated fear from Russia would begin to fix former grievances. Britain and Russia would go from hating each other in 1900 to informal military support and friendship in 1912 because of Germany’s actions. The last peg in Germany’s coffin of war guilt was their actions in between June 28th and July 28th 1914 — the July Crisis. This post is dragging on and this doesn’t require the most analysis so it goes like this: Austria-Hungary used the assassination of Franz-Ferdinand as a justification and premise for their long standing objective of annexing Serbia. They knew however this would definitively mean war with Russia, which means they need German permission before doing this. Germany would give them the infamous Blank Cheque — essentially telling the Austro-Hungarians to do whatever they want with Serbia and tacitly accepting war. Austria-Hungary would send Serbia, who to this day has absolutely no hard link to the assassins and by all accounts cut ties with the Black Hand well before the killing, an ultimatum. A list of concessions Serbia would have to agree to which amounted to essentially Serbia becoming a puppet state. Serbia would obviously decline. Russia would begin to mobilize, Germany would declare war. Not only would Germany declare war, it was their strategic plan that sealed the deal of them being perceived as the aggressors. Fearing their ‘encirclement’ they wanted to strike at France with everything they had and knock them out immediately. Infamously it would be given 950 hours — 40 days, no more. To do this they couldn’t just go through the border and push the French back, they would need to crush the French with total encirclement. This meant attacking through neutral Belgium. This is a topic that goes into the “evil” discussion that I’ll talk about briefly but needless to say, Belgium had absolutely no ties to the French or Russians or Germans or anyone for that matter. They were sitting there by themselves and Germany saw them as a convenient stepping stone to knock the French out faster so they invaded this completely uninvolved power without provocation. This would be the primary accusation as to the claim of German aggression — someone who is merely defending against two fronts would not declare war and then immediately perform a massive offensive through an uninvolved neutral country for the express intent of encirclement and annihilation of the enemy army. That is aggression full stop. LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin (Deutsches Luftschiff Zeppelin #127; Registration: D-LZ 127) was a German-built and -operated, passenger-carrying, hydrogen-filled, rigid airship which operated commercially from 1928 to 1937. It was named after the German pioneer of airships, Graf Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who was a Count in the German nobility. The ‘Graf Zeppelin’ is considered the finest airship ever built. It flew more miles than any airship had done to that time or would in the future. Its first flight was on September 18, 1928. In August 1929, it circled the globe. Its flight began with a trip from Friedrichshaften, Germany, to Lakehurst, New Jersey, allowing William Randolph Hearst, who had financed the trip in exchange for exclusive rights to the story, to claim that the voyage began from American soil. Piloted by Eckener, the craft stopped only at Tokyo, Japan, Los Angeles, California, and Lakehurst. The trip took 12 days—less time than the ocean trip from Tokyo to San Francisco. During the 10 years the Graf Zeppelin flew, it made 590 flights including 144 ocean crossings. It flew more than one million miles (1,609,344 kilometers), visited the United States, the Arctic, the Middle East, and South America, and carried 13,110 passengers. Dagen H (H day), today usually called “Högertrafikomläggningen” (“The right-hand traffic diversion”), was the day on 3 September 1967, in which the traffic in Sweden switched from driving on the left-hand side of the road to the right. The “H” stands for “Högertrafik”, the Swedish word for “right traffic”. It was by far the largest logistical event in Sweden’s history. There were various major arguments for the change: - All of Sweden’s neighbours (including Norway and Finland, with which Sweden has land borders) drove on the right, with 5 million vehicles crossing those borders annually. - Approximately 90 percent of Swedes drove left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles. This led to many head-on collisions when passing on narrow two-lane highways, which were common in Sweden due to the fact that the country’s low population density and traffic levels made road-building expensive in per capita terms. City buses were among the very few vehicles that conformed to the normal opposite-steering wheel rule, being left-hand drive. However, the change was widely unpopular; in a 1955 referendum, 83 percent voted to keep driving on the left. Nevertheless, on May 10, 1963, the Swedish Parliament (Riksdagen) approved the Prime Minister Tage Erlander‘s government proposal of an introduction of right hand traffic in 1967, as the number of cars on the road tripled from 500,000 to 1.5 million, and was expected to reach 2.8 million by 1975. A body known as Statens Högertrafikkommission (HTK) (“the state right-hand traffic commission”) was established to oversee the changeover. It also began implementing a four-year education programme, with the advice of psychologists. The campaign included displaying the Dagen H logo on various commemorative items, including milk cartons and underwear. Swedish television held a contest for songs about the change; the winning entry was “Håll dig till höger, Svensson” (‘Keep to the right, Svensson‘) written by Expressen journalist by Peter Himmelstrand and performed by The Telstars. As Dagen H neared, every intersection was equipped with an extra set of poles and traffic signals wrapped in black plastic. Workers roamed the streets early in the morning on Dagen H to remove the plastic. Similarly, a parallel set of lines were painted on the roads with white paint, then covered with black tape. Before Dagen H, Swedish roads had used yellow lines. On Dagen H, Sunday, 3 September, all non-essential traffic was banned from the roads from 01:00 to 06:00. Any vehicles on the roads during that time had to follow special rules. All vehicles had to come to a complete stop at 04:50, then carefully change to the right-hand side of the road and stop again (to give others time to switch sides of the road and avoid a head on collision) before being allowed to proceed at 05:00. In Stockholm and Malmö, however, the ban was longer — from 10:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sunday — to allow work crews to reconfigure intersections. Certain other towns also saw an extended ban, from 15:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sunday. The relatively smooth changeover saw a reduction in the number of accidents. On the day of the change, only 157 minor accidents were reported, of which only 32 involved personal injuries, with only a handful serious. On the Monday following Dagen H, there were 125 reported traffic accidents, compared to a range of 130 to 198 for previous Mondays, none of them fatal. Experts suggested that changing to driving on the right reduced accidents while overtaking, as people already drove left-hand drive vehicles, thereby having a better view of the road ahead; additionally, the change made a marked surge in perceived risk that exceeded the target level and thus was followed by very cautious behaviour that caused a major decrease in road fatalities. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents dropped sharply as a result, and the number of motor insurance claims went down by 40%. These initial improvements did not last, however. The number of motor insurance claims returned to ‘normal’ over the next six weeks and, by 1969, the accident rates were back to the levels seen before the change. In 3 days, 200 people packed 3600+ pieces of art, sculpture, and other valuables and transported them into the Loire Valley, where they were kept until the end of the war. (Source) By the time Collapsible Boat D was launched at 2:05 a.m., there were still 1,500 people on board Titanic and only 47 seats in the lifeboat. Crew members formed a circle around the boat to ensure that only women and children could board. Two small boys were brought through the cordon by a man calling himself “Louis Hoffman”. His real name was Michel Navratil; he was a Slovak tailor who had kidnapped his sons from his estranged wife and was taking them to the United States. He did not board the lifeboat and died when the ship sank. The identity of the children, who became known as the “Titanic Orphans”, was a mystery for some time after the sinking and was only resolved when Navratil’s wife recognised them from photographs that had been circulated around the world. The older of the two boys, Michel Marcel Navratil, was the last living male survivor of the disaster. First Class passenger Edith Evans gave up her place in the lifeboat to Caroline Brown, who became the last passenger to enter a lifeboat from the davits. Evans became one of only four First Class women to perish in the disaster. In the end, about 25 people were on board when it left the deck under the command of Quartermaster Arthur Bright. Two first class passengers, Hugh Woolner and Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson, jumped from A-Deck (which had started to flood) into the boat as it was being lowered, with Björnström-Stefansson landing upside down in the boat’s bow and Woolner landing half-out, before being pulled aboard by the occupants. Another first class passenger, Frederick Maxfield Hoyt, who had previously put his wife in the boat, jumped in the water immediately after, and was hauled aboard by Woolner and Björnström-Steffansson. The number of people on board later increased when about 10–12 survivors were transferred to collapsible D from another boat. Carpathia picked up those aboard collapsible D at 7:15 a.m. Four-year-old Michael Finder of East Germany is tossed by his father into a net held by firemen across the border in West Berlin. The apartments were in East Berlin while their windows opened into West Berlin; October 7th, 1961 Public execution of Roman Catholic Priests and other Polish Civilians in Bydgoszcz’s Old Market Square; September 9th, 1939 Colored photo of the cascades of Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe, a landscape park in Kassel, Germany, and a future UNESCO World Heritage Site. Cascades are created from the 92,000 gallons of water flowing through the then 200-year-old hydro-pneumatic devices; ca. 1890 – 1905	<urn:uuid:4bb7afd9-0b6b-43f4-b6ed-6fc06f10b213>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://miepvonsydow.wordpress.com/author/miepvonsydow/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00108.warc.gz	en	0.980196	4,553	3.375	3	[ -0.3250986933708191, 0.2612664997577667, -0.06043446063995361, 0.03891157731413841, 0.030720975250005722, -0.16948828101158142, -0.06839783489704132, 0.2572733163833618, 0.19895772635936737, -0.2711195945739746, 0.10095292329788208, -0.6268682479858398, -0.14978934824466705, 0.557550072669...	1	Why does Germany bear war guilt and given the title of the aggressor? Let’s wheel the clock back to 1871 and get an overview from the beginning. Bismark, after cleverly tricking the French into declaring war would unite the German states with Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Saxony leading the charge into a single Germanic State. They would in the process of peace negotiations seize the French territories of Alsace-Lorraine and as the result of the war Napoleon III would be ousted and the Third Republic would be declared. After this war and the 1866 war with Austria to seize other German lands, Germany would be declared and they would overnight rise into being a world power. By 1880 they would be the leading industrial power in Europe…and they would be completely surrounded by “great powers” — Britain in the seas to the North, France to the West, Austria-Hungary to the South, and Russia to the East. This is where we briefly mention Bismarkian politics or what is more aptly referenced as the “3/5th’s rule”. That is, Germany must always have alliance 3 out of the 5 “great powers” as to secure the risk from total encirclement. In 1879 they would create a defense treaty with Austria-Hungary w.r.t. the mutual threat of the Russian Empire. In 1887 Bismark would also secure a non-aggression treaty with said Russian Empire which would state both parties would remain neutral in each others respective conflicts unless the other was the aggressor. This was precisely what Bismark wanted — he had completely secured his Southern and Easterly borders. With the addition of Italy to the group Germany would only have to worry about her French enemies to the West and a potential British threat in the North Sea. When Willhelm II ascended his fathers throne in 1888 he had big shoes to fill and felt the need to do it on his own with his own new troupe of advisers, thus sacking Bismark to retirement and taking up the reigns of diplomacy himself. When in 1890 Russia (rather persistently) tried to renew the treaty for a more permanent, more alliance sounding one Willhelm II would just as persistently refuse. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, would (rightfully so) feel exposed and without any friends. The British hated Russia and vice versa because of the Crimean War and Central Asian colonial ambitions, Austria-Hungary was a natural enemy to them because of conflict in the Balkans, Germany was supporting Austria-Hungary and was giving him the cold shoulder, but France remained. And boy, France would take Russia in with open arms creating a formal alliance in 1892. Now we can start discussing aggression. This is the formal state of affairs going into the 20th century: Germany and Austria-Hungary have a defensive pact with regards to Russia. France and Russia have a mutual defense treaty against Germany. The United Kingdom is allied to nobody formally but is unfriendly to the Russian Empire, neutral with the French Republic, and neutral with a leaning of cordial with the Germans. Kaiser Willhelm and frankly the German people as a whole were incredibly insecure about their status in the world. They were less than 50 years old at this point and were bordered by nations which had been around for almost a thousand and at times can trace their history back even further. They had no great national history or prestige to work off of as a unified Germany. They also came into the game in 1871 — well after the 16th and 17th century colonial rushes. They had no colonies. Germany is a notably isolated region and as the industrial leader relied on foreign imports to keep its factories churning out goods but perhaps equally important is the concept of prestige.Wilhelm II embarked on a policy of “Weltmahct,” or world power. A common turn of phrase in Germany was “Weltmacht oder Niedergang,” world power or downfall. They legitimately believed, the Kaiser, the government, and the people themselves, that it was Germany’s time to be the world power. That the German people, through social darwinism, were the superior and they were to seize prestige, colony, and resources through aggression. Don’t conflate this with Nazism, it wasn’t by any means. However, the concept of social darwinism was a popular one in this time and would last well into the 20th century. To get colonies and to secure colonies though, you need a navy. So Germany would start a rapid buildup of said navy. This had a twofold purpose — one of creating a colonial fleet to secure shipping lanes and seize lands through war and to secure an alliance with the British. By performing a rapid naval buildup and flexing German muscle, combined with a shared cultural heritage, he had hoped that Britain would see Germany as too strong too culturally similar to be an enemy and would fall right into Germany’s arms with an alliance. Does any of that make sense? No, because it doesn’t and it failed horrendously. Britain told Germany to stop building up such a massive navy (which was being created for the express intent of contesting British naval hegemony) and Germany repeatedly refused. As the Germans continued to contest British naval hegemony into the 20th century, we get to our first major date! In 1904 the French and the British, already uneasy with the German buildup, would begin to create some of the first legitimate and lasting bonds of friendship in their entire history. It actually wasn’t initially made with any regard toward Germany but rather a mutual understanding between the two powers. France would recognize the U.K.’s control over Egypt and likewise the U.K. would recognize French hegemony of basically the rest of North Africa Westward from there, Algiers and Morocco namely. In a few years Britain would also begin to make nice with Russia by diplomatically solving the the disputes in central asia (ie: Persia primarily) permanently. The French and Spanish would divvy up Morocco between them (with the French getting the majority, obviously) and Germany would respond in its second act of aggression — the May 1905 Moroccan Crisis. Kaiser Willhelm II would sail to Morocco just as these deals were being finalized and gave a keynote speech with the Sultan in front of a large crowd crying out for Moroccan independence from “foreign oppressors” and that Morocco should remain independent and free from influence. This was an attempt to undermine French legitimacy and drive a wedge between the British and French relationships by giving the Entente Cordiale a strenuous test w.r.t. the legitimacy of their agreement. It would have the exact opposite effect as you might already imagine. The French and British, already uneasy by the German build up, would be pressed closer than they would at any point in history. While it would be nothing formal, Britain began seriously considering Germany a threat at this point and would, more as an act of informal policy and general thinking than anything else, lean toward supporting France in a theoretical European conflict. The third major event would be the coming of the famous Dreadnought — with one pictured here. The coming of the Dreadnought shook the naval world, so much so that every battleship in recent memory before it became known as “pre-Dreadnoughts.” They would completely and utterly outclass anything any other nation was fielding. Their range and their firepower and their new engines and armor was like a fencing sword facing up against a claymore. and it would “reset” the naval arms race between Britain, Germany, and the world as a whole. You see Britain’s policy was called the Two-Power Standard — that is, having as many ships as the next two highest powers combined. They were a naval nation and they had naval hegemony. This gave Germany its first real shot, as both were starting from a blank slate essentially, to create a fleet that could legitimately contest the British in the North Sea region. It should be noted that Dreadnought’s were not exactly long range fighters, which made them useless for colonial protections. They had one use, attacking the British fleet in the North and Baltic Seas. The Germans would begin an unprecedented buildup buildings dozens upon dozens of these ships and constantly making orders for more. All these tensions would finally culminate in 1911 — the Second Moroccan Crisis. Oh those Germans were back for a vengeance and it would totally work this time. Right guys? The Moroccans would rebel against French rule and the French were going to send troops to protect its interests. Kaiser Willhelm, always the opportunist, would seize the situation by the proverbial horns and send a gunboat — the SMS Panther — to be backed up by the SMS Berlin shortly after to go “protect German trade interests.” Let’s call a spade a spade however, Germany sent war ships to go intervene in a conflict between France and a country which had, in the very conference Germany called for in 1905was determined to remain under French influence. Germany would also demand territorial concessions in sub-Saharan Africa from the French along with pulling out of Morocco entirely. Not only would Britain back up France again driving them closer, Austria-Hungary wouldn’t even give Germany diplomatic support — let alone military backing. Germany had at this point completely abandoned Bismark’s strategy of balance: Constantly giving conciliatory gifts or speeches or letters to rival powers to calm their nerves and keep everyone friendly. Remaining content as not only a land power, but the land power of Europe. Not getting greedy about the idea of the superior German and German prestige. Germany was in a precarious position in the world and Willhelm II did everything in his power to do the worst possible options. France and Britain, who were formerly neutral at best were driven into the strongest friendship they’ve had in their 1000 year history. Britain, who in 1887 had no intent of getting involved in continental conflicts and was now drawing up plans for direct land intervention in Europe to assist the two powers and had an agreement with France to provide it naval support in the event of war with Germany. Even more astoundingly was how it drove Britain and Russia together. These were two nations who for all purposes wanted nothing to do with each other. Britain, fearing German control over the Baltic Sea (that one to the right of Sweden and bordering Russia and Germany) and a reciprocated fear from Russia would begin to fix former grievances. Britain and Russia would go from hating each other in 1900 to informal military support and friendship in 1912 because of Germany’s actions. The last peg in Germany’s coffin of war guilt was their actions in between June 28th and July 28th 1914 — the July Crisis. This post is dragging on and this doesn’t require the most analysis so it goes like this: Austria-Hungary used the assassination of Franz-Ferdinand as a justification and premise for their long standing objective of annexing Serbia. They knew however this would definitively mean war with Russia, which means they need German permission before doing this. Germany would give them the infamous Blank Cheque — essentially telling the Austro-Hungarians to do whatever they want with Serbia and tacitly accepting war. Austria-Hungary would send Serbia, who to this day has absolutely no hard link to the assassins and by all accounts cut ties with the Black Hand well before the killing, an ultimatum. A list of concessions Serbia would have to agree to which amounted to essentially Serbia becoming a puppet state. Serbia would obviously decline. Russia would begin to mobilize, Germany would declare war. Not only would Germany declare war, it was their strategic plan that sealed the deal of them being perceived as the aggressors. Fearing their ‘encirclement’ they wanted to strike at France with everything they had and knock them out immediately. Infamously it would be given 950 hours — 40 days, no more. To do this they couldn’t just go through the border and push the French back, they would need to crush the French with total encirclement. This meant attacking through neutral Belgium. This is a topic that goes into the “evil” discussion that I’ll talk about briefly but needless to say, Belgium had absolutely no ties to the French or Russians or Germans or anyone for that matter. They were sitting there by themselves and Germany saw them as a convenient stepping stone to knock the French out faster so they invaded this completely uninvolved power without provocation. This would be the primary accusation as to the claim of German aggression — someone who is merely defending against two fronts would not declare war and then immediately perform a massive offensive through an uninvolved neutral country for the express intent of encirclement and annihilation of the enemy army. That is aggression full stop. LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin (Deutsches Luftschiff Zeppelin #127; Registration: D-LZ 127) was a German-built and -operated, passenger-carrying, hydrogen-filled, rigid airship which operated commercially from 1928 to 1937. It was named after the German pioneer of airships, Graf Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who was a Count in the German nobility. The ‘Graf Zeppelin’ is considered the finest airship ever built. It flew more miles than any airship had done to that time or would in the future. Its first flight was on September 18, 1928. In August 1929, it circled the globe. Its flight began with a trip from Friedrichshaften, Germany, to Lakehurst, New Jersey, allowing William Randolph Hearst, who had financed the trip in exchange for exclusive rights to the story, to claim that the voyage began from American soil. Piloted by Eckener, the craft stopped only at Tokyo, Japan, Los Angeles, California, and Lakehurst. The trip took 12 days—less time than the ocean trip from Tokyo to San Francisco. During the 10 years the Graf Zeppelin flew, it made 590 flights including 144 ocean crossings. It flew more than one million miles (1,609,344 kilometers), visited the United States, the Arctic, the Middle East, and South America, and carried 13,110 passengers. Dagen H (H day), today usually called “Högertrafikomläggningen” (“The right-hand traffic diversion”), was the day on 3 September 1967, in which the traffic in Sweden switched from driving on the left-hand side of the road to the right. The “H” stands for “Högertrafik”, the Swedish word for “right traffic”. It was by far the largest logistical event in Sweden’s history. There were various major arguments for the change: - All of Sweden’s neighbours (including Norway and Finland, with which Sweden has land borders) drove on the right, with 5 million vehicles crossing those borders annually. - Approximately 90 percent of Swedes drove left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles. This led to many head-on collisions when passing on narrow two-lane highways, which were common in Sweden due to the fact that the country’s low population density and traffic levels made road-building expensive in per capita terms. City buses were among the very few vehicles that conformed to the normal opposite-steering wheel rule, being left-hand drive. However, the change was widely unpopular; in a 1955 referendum, 83 percent voted to keep driving on the left. Nevertheless, on May 10, 1963, the Swedish Parliament (Riksdagen) approved the Prime Minister Tage Erlander‘s government proposal of an introduction of right hand traffic in 1967, as the number of cars on the road tripled from 500,000 to 1.5 million, and was expected to reach 2.8 million by 1975. A body known as Statens Högertrafikkommission (HTK) (“the state right-hand traffic commission”) was established to oversee the changeover. It also began implementing a four-year education programme, with the advice of psychologists. The campaign included displaying the Dagen H logo on various commemorative items, including milk cartons and underwear. Swedish television held a contest for songs about the change; the winning entry was “Håll dig till höger, Svensson” (‘Keep to the right, Svensson‘) written by Expressen journalist by Peter Himmelstrand and performed by The Telstars. As Dagen H neared, every intersection was equipped with an extra set of poles and traffic signals wrapped in black plastic. Workers roamed the streets early in the morning on Dagen H to remove the plastic. Similarly, a parallel set of lines were painted on the roads with white paint, then covered with black tape. Before Dagen H, Swedish roads had used yellow lines. On Dagen H, Sunday, 3 September, all non-essential traffic was banned from the roads from 01:00 to 06:00. Any vehicles on the roads during that time had to follow special rules. All vehicles had to come to a complete stop at 04:50, then carefully change to the right-hand side of the road and stop again (to give others time to switch sides of the road and avoid a head on collision) before being allowed to proceed at 05:00. In Stockholm and Malmö, however, the ban was longer — from 10:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sunday — to allow work crews to reconfigure intersections. Certain other towns also saw an extended ban, from 15:00 on Saturday until 15:00 on Sunday. The relatively smooth changeover saw a reduction in the number of accidents. On the day of the change, only 157 minor accidents were reported, of which only 32 involved personal injuries, with only a handful serious. On the Monday following Dagen H, there were 125 reported traffic accidents, compared to a range of 130 to 198 for previous Mondays, none of them fatal. Experts suggested that changing to driving on the right reduced accidents while overtaking, as people already drove left-hand drive vehicles, thereby having a better view of the road ahead; additionally, the change made a marked surge in perceived risk that exceeded the target level and thus was followed by very cautious behaviour that caused a major decrease in road fatalities. Indeed, fatal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian accidents dropped sharply as a result, and the number of motor insurance claims went down by 40%. These initial improvements did not last, however. The number of motor insurance claims returned to ‘normal’ over the next six weeks and, by 1969, the accident rates were back to the levels seen before the change. In 3 days, 200 people packed 3600+ pieces of art, sculpture, and other valuables and transported them into the Loire Valley, where they were kept until the end of the war. (Source) By the time Collapsible Boat D was launched at 2:05 a.m., there were still 1,500 people on board Titanic and only 47 seats in the lifeboat. Crew members formed a circle around the boat to ensure that only women and children could board. Two small boys were brought through the cordon by a man calling himself “Louis Hoffman”. His real name was Michel Navratil; he was a Slovak tailor who had kidnapped his sons from his estranged wife and was taking them to the United States. He did not board the lifeboat and died when the ship sank. The identity of the children, who became known as the “Titanic Orphans”, was a mystery for some time after the sinking and was only resolved when Navratil’s wife recognised them from photographs that had been circulated around the world. The older of the two boys, Michel Marcel Navratil, was the last living male survivor of the disaster. First Class passenger Edith Evans gave up her place in the lifeboat to Caroline Brown, who became the last passenger to enter a lifeboat from the davits. Evans became one of only four First Class women to perish in the disaster. In the end, about 25 people were on board when it left the deck under the command of Quartermaster Arthur Bright. Two first class passengers, Hugh Woolner and Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson, jumped from A-Deck (which had started to flood) into the boat as it was being lowered, with Björnström-Stefansson landing upside down in the boat’s bow and Woolner landing half-out, before being pulled aboard by the occupants. Another first class passenger, Frederick Maxfield Hoyt, who had previously put his wife in the boat, jumped in the water immediately after, and was hauled aboard by Woolner and Björnström-Steffansson. The number of people on board later increased when about 10–12 survivors were transferred to collapsible D from another boat. Carpathia picked up those aboard collapsible D at 7:15 a.m. Four-year-old Michael Finder of East Germany is tossed by his father into a net held by firemen across the border in West Berlin. The apartments were in East Berlin while their windows opened into West Berlin; October 7th, 1961 Public execution of Roman Catholic Priests and other Polish Civilians in Bydgoszcz’s Old Market Square; September 9th, 1939 Colored photo of the cascades of Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe, a landscape park in Kassel, Germany, and a future UNESCO World Heritage Site. Cascades are created from the 92,000 gallons of water flowing through the then 200-year-old hydro-pneumatic devices; ca. 1890 – 1905	4,618	ENGLISH	1
Gyrth’s brother, Leofwine was born to Earl Godwin and his wife Gytha. Gyrth’s brother, Wulfnoth , was born to Earl Godwin and his wife, Gytha Gyrth’s elder brother, Sweyn became Earl of an area that included Berkshire, Gloucestershire, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire and Somerset. 1045 (23rd January) Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, was exiled for abducting the abbess of Leominster. It is thought that he intended to marry her and take control of the abbey estate, but he was denied permission. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, returned to England to ask for forgiveness. Harold and his cousin Beorn did not support the return as they had been allocated Sweyn’s lands in his absence. Beorn eventually agreed to support Sweyn but while accompanying Sweyn to meet the King he was murdered by Sweyn’s men. Sweyn was again exiled. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, was pardoned and returned to England. A group of Normans including William Duke of Normandy , had visited Edward the Confessor in London. On their return journey they had been involved in a conflict with the people of Dover and some were killed. Edward the Confessor asked Harold’s father, Earl Godwin to punish the townspeople of Dover. Earl Godwin refused to carry out the King’s demand and instead raised an army against the King. Not wanting civil war, the Witan intervened and the Godwin family were exiled. Gyrth Godwinson went to Flanders with his parents and brothers, Sweyn and Tostig. His brothers, Harold and Leofwine went to Dublin. Harold’s brother Wulfnoth and Sweyn’s son, Hakon were taken hostage. It is believed that Edward may have told William that he would nominate him to be his successor. Gyrth and his family returned to England at the head of an army. King Edward was unable to raise a force that would defeat them and was forced to sue for peace terms. It was agreed that the Godwin family could return and their former lands would be restored to them. A large number of King Edward’s Norman supporters at court had fled to Normandy in the face of the Godwin invasion. It is likely that Gyrth’s brother Wulfnoth and his nephew Hakon were taken to Normandy as hostages. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn chose not to return to England. He embarked on a Crusade instead, possibly seeking atonement for the crimes he had committed. 1052 (29th September) Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn became ill on Crusade and died. 1053 (15th April) Earl Godwin, died. Gyrth’s elder brother, Harold became Earl of Wessex. Gyrth Godwinson became Earl of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire and Oxfordshire. Gyrth’s brother, Tostig became Earl of Northumbria. Gyrth’s brother, Harold took a boat journey, setting sail from Bosham in the south. The purpose of the journey is not known but it may have been to try to secure the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Hakon, or that he was simply taking a fishing trip. However, his boat was blown off course and he was shipwrecked off the coast of Ponthieu. William, Duke of Normandy ordered that Harold be brought to him. Harold rode into battle with William and helped to defeat Conan II of Brittany . After the battle William knighted Harold before he returned to England with his nephew Hakon. The Normans claimed that Harold then swore an oath to support William’s claim to the throne of England after the death of Edward. The oath is not recorded in any Anglo-Saxon sources. The people of Northumbria rebelled against the rule of Gyrth’s brother Tostig. In order to maintain peace in England, Tostig was exiled. 1066 (5th January) King Edward the Confessor died. Gyrth’s brother, Harold claimed that Edward named him as successor. 1066 (6th January) Harold Godwinson, was crowned King Harold II. 1066 (5th May) Gyrth’s brother Tostig had been provided with ships by his brother-in-law, Count Baldwin V of Flanders and made a series of raids along the South Coast and landed on the Isle of Wight. 1066 (20th May) William made a case against Harold claiming he broke an oath sworn on holy relics. The Pope was persuaded by William’s arguments and gave papal backing for an invasion of England. The Pope sent William a banner to carry into battle. 1066 (8th September) supported by Gyrth’s brother Tostig invaded England. They sailed through the Humber estuary and into the River Ouse. 1066 (11th September) Harold Godwinson learned of Harald Hardrada’s invasion. Having just disbanded his army he was forced to recall his troops. 1066 (20th September) Battle of Fulford The northern earls Morcar were defeated by the Viking forces of Harald and Tostig at this battle. The two earls fled the battlefield. 1066 (after 20th September) Gyrth accompanied his brother, Harold Godwinson, as he marched rapidly north. 1066 (25th September) Battle of Stamford Bridge The English army reached the north and surprised Harald Hardrada and Tostig who were completely unprepared for battle. The English had to cross a small bridge which legend states was defended by a very large Viking warrior. The English had to get under the bridge and kill him by thrusting a sword upwards. Once the bridge was cleared the English army defeated the Norwegians, many of whom had not put on their protective chain mail or armour. Harald Hardrada was killed around midday. Tostig Godwinson was offered a pardon but he refused and the fighting continued until Tostig was killed in the early evening. 1066 (28th September) William, Duke of Normandy sailed overnight and landed at Pevensey on the South coast of England in the morning. He was surprised to find no army waiting for him. 1066 (1st October) A messenger arrived with the news that William had invaded. Gyrth rode south with his brother. 1066 (6th October) Harold Godwinson reached London. He sent out a call to arms for men to join his army. 1066 (10th October) Gyrth tried to persuade Harold to let him lead the army south and fight William. But Harold insisted on leading the troops himself. 1066 (11th October) Gyrth accompanied Harold as they left London at the head of the Saxon army. 1066 (13th October) By the evening of 13th October they had reached Caldbec Hill. Harold had wanted to make a surprise attack on the Norman camp at Hastings but he found out that William knew of his presence and had to change tactic. 1066 (14th October) Battle of Hastings Harold Godwinson knew that he didn’t have the manpower to defend Caldbec Hill and so at first light he moved his men to Senlac Hill where they formed a shield wall and waited for the Normans. William arrived and set up his forces at the bottom of the hill. He had three groups – Normans, Flemings and Bretons, both cavalry and infantry. William opened the battle with a barrage of arrows which, because of the hill flew over the heads of the Saxons. Next William sent in his infantrymen but they were unable to break through the shield wall. A group of Breton infantrymen turned and ran down the hill. The Saxons that had been withstanding that group broke the shield wall and ran down after them. William ordered that they become the focus of the next attack and although some managed to return to their line, most were cut down. It is thought that Gyrth and his younger brother Leofwine were killed at this point in the battle. In the late afternoon, Harold was hit by an arrow. It may have gone through the eye slit of Harold’s helmet and struck him in the eye or near to the eye. It is thought that while reeling from this injury he was cut down by a sword, possibly to his thigh, or an axe and died of his injuries. 1066 (after 14th October) William of Normandy went on to take the South of England and then London. He was crowned King William I on 25th December 1066.	<urn:uuid:2bcff808-c884-423a-a709-61dcaee740a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.totallytimelines.com/gyrth-godwinson-1032-1066/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00201.warc.gz	en	0.988392	1,901	3.390625	3	[ 0.19635508954524994, 0.4825108051300049, -0.17426037788391113, -0.29895278811454773, 0.052696555852890015, -0.05314268544316292, 0.0677858367562294, -0.25069016218185425, -0.43080204725265503, -0.3544832468032837, -0.2519184947013855, -0.35174795985221863, 0.36214208602905273, 0.2045698910...	8	Gyrth’s brother, Leofwine was born to Earl Godwin and his wife Gytha. Gyrth’s brother, Wulfnoth , was born to Earl Godwin and his wife, Gytha Gyrth’s elder brother, Sweyn became Earl of an area that included Berkshire, Gloucestershire, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire and Somerset. 1045 (23rd January) Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, was exiled for abducting the abbess of Leominster. It is thought that he intended to marry her and take control of the abbey estate, but he was denied permission. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, returned to England to ask for forgiveness. Harold and his cousin Beorn did not support the return as they had been allocated Sweyn’s lands in his absence. Beorn eventually agreed to support Sweyn but while accompanying Sweyn to meet the King he was murdered by Sweyn’s men. Sweyn was again exiled. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn, was pardoned and returned to England. A group of Normans including William Duke of Normandy , had visited Edward the Confessor in London. On their return journey they had been involved in a conflict with the people of Dover and some were killed. Edward the Confessor asked Harold’s father, Earl Godwin to punish the townspeople of Dover. Earl Godwin refused to carry out the King’s demand and instead raised an army against the King. Not wanting civil war, the Witan intervened and the Godwin family were exiled. Gyrth Godwinson went to Flanders with his parents and brothers, Sweyn and Tostig. His brothers, Harold and Leofwine went to Dublin. Harold’s brother Wulfnoth and Sweyn’s son, Hakon were taken hostage. It is believed that Edward may have told William that he would nominate him to be his successor. Gyrth and his family returned to England at the head of an army. King Edward was unable to raise a force that would defeat them and was forced to sue for peace terms. It was agreed that the Godwin family could return and their former lands would be restored to them. A large number of King Edward’s Norman supporters at court had fled to Normandy in the face of the Godwin invasion. It is likely that Gyrth’s brother Wulfnoth and his nephew Hakon were taken to Normandy as hostages. Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn chose not to return to England. He embarked on a Crusade instead, possibly seeking atonement for the crimes he had committed. 1052 (29th September) Gyrth’s brother, Sweyn became ill on Crusade and died. 1053 (15th April) Earl Godwin, died. Gyrth’s elder brother, Harold became Earl of Wessex. Gyrth Godwinson became Earl of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire and Oxfordshire. Gyrth’s brother, Tostig became Earl of Northumbria. Gyrth’s brother, Harold took a boat journey, setting sail from Bosham in the south. The purpose of the journey is not known but it may have been to try to secure the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Hakon, or that he was simply taking a fishing trip. However, his boat was blown off course and he was shipwrecked off the coast of Ponthieu. William, Duke of Normandy ordered that Harold be brought to him. Harold rode into battle with William and helped to defeat Conan II of Brittany . After the battle William knighted Harold before he returned to England with his nephew Hakon. The Normans claimed that Harold then swore an oath to support William’s claim to the throne of England after the death of Edward. The oath is not recorded in any Anglo-Saxon sources. The people of Northumbria rebelled against the rule of Gyrth’s brother Tostig. In order to maintain peace in England, Tostig was exiled. 1066 (5th January) King Edward the Confessor died. Gyrth’s brother, Harold claimed that Edward named him as successor. 1066 (6th January) Harold Godwinson, was crowned King Harold II. 1066 (5th May) Gyrth’s brother Tostig had been provided with ships by his brother-in-law, Count Baldwin V of Flanders and made a series of raids along the South Coast and landed on the Isle of Wight. 1066 (20th May) William made a case against Harold claiming he broke an oath sworn on holy relics. The Pope was persuaded by William’s arguments and gave papal backing for an invasion of England. The Pope sent William a banner to carry into battle. 1066 (8th September) supported by Gyrth’s brother Tostig invaded England. They sailed through the Humber estuary and into the River Ouse. 1066 (11th September) Harold Godwinson learned of Harald Hardrada’s invasion. Having just disbanded his army he was forced to recall his troops. 1066 (20th September) Battle of Fulford The northern earls Morcar were defeated by the Viking forces of Harald and Tostig at this battle. The two earls fled the battlefield. 1066 (after 20th September) Gyrth accompanied his brother, Harold Godwinson, as he marched rapidly north. 1066 (25th September) Battle of Stamford Bridge The English army reached the north and surprised Harald Hardrada and Tostig who were completely unprepared for battle. The English had to cross a small bridge which legend states was defended by a very large Viking warrior. The English had to get under the bridge and kill him by thrusting a sword upwards. Once the bridge was cleared the English army defeated the Norwegians, many of whom had not put on their protective chain mail or armour. Harald Hardrada was killed around midday. Tostig Godwinson was offered a pardon but he refused and the fighting continued until Tostig was killed in the early evening. 1066 (28th September) William, Duke of Normandy sailed overnight and landed at Pevensey on the South coast of England in the morning. He was surprised to find no army waiting for him. 1066 (1st October) A messenger arrived with the news that William had invaded. Gyrth rode south with his brother. 1066 (6th October) Harold Godwinson reached London. He sent out a call to arms for men to join his army. 1066 (10th October) Gyrth tried to persuade Harold to let him lead the army south and fight William. But Harold insisted on leading the troops himself. 1066 (11th October) Gyrth accompanied Harold as they left London at the head of the Saxon army. 1066 (13th October) By the evening of 13th October they had reached Caldbec Hill. Harold had wanted to make a surprise attack on the Norman camp at Hastings but he found out that William knew of his presence and had to change tactic. 1066 (14th October) Battle of Hastings Harold Godwinson knew that he didn’t have the manpower to defend Caldbec Hill and so at first light he moved his men to Senlac Hill where they formed a shield wall and waited for the Normans. William arrived and set up his forces at the bottom of the hill. He had three groups – Normans, Flemings and Bretons, both cavalry and infantry. William opened the battle with a barrage of arrows which, because of the hill flew over the heads of the Saxons. Next William sent in his infantrymen but they were unable to break through the shield wall. A group of Breton infantrymen turned and ran down the hill. The Saxons that had been withstanding that group broke the shield wall and ran down after them. William ordered that they become the focus of the next attack and although some managed to return to their line, most were cut down. It is thought that Gyrth and his younger brother Leofwine were killed at this point in the battle. In the late afternoon, Harold was hit by an arrow. It may have gone through the eye slit of Harold’s helmet and struck him in the eye or near to the eye. It is thought that while reeling from this injury he was cut down by a sword, possibly to his thigh, or an axe and died of his injuries. 1066 (after 14th October) William of Normandy went on to take the South of England and then London. He was crowned King William I on 25th December 1066.	1,867	ENGLISH	1
11/22/2017 \| News release \| Distributed by Public on 11/22/2017 11:05 WASHINGTON, Nov. 22, 2017 - The first American units saw action in World War I during the battle of Cambrai, France, Nov. 20-Dec. 7, 1917. The same battle also showcased the first large-scale effective use of combined arms, marking an evolution in warfare, said Brian F. Neumann, a historian and World War I subject matter expert with the U.S. Army Center of Military History. The battle began with a successful British offensive against the Germans, Neumann said. Success of the offensive, he said, was due to the effective coordination of combined arms, which included infantry, artillery, tanks and combat air support. All were used to overrun the German trench lines in the vicinity of the northern French town of Cambrai. The use of combined arms gave the battlefield more of a three-dimensional look, with air, tanks and artillery all supporting infantry, along with some cavalry support, he said. The British employed several hundred tanks, which were used to overrun the German trenches and tear holes through their lines, he said. It was the most significant utilization of tanks to date. The Army's role in the fighting was fairly limited, he said, noting that it consisted of soldiers from the 11th, 12th and 14th Engineer Regiments, who were engaged in railway construction work behind the trench lines in support of the British. Although America's role in the battle was limited, the news that soldiers were finally engaged in a major battle for the first time since war was declared in April made headlines and boosted morale on the home front, he said. By Nov. 30, the British had essentially outrun their supply lines and artillery support, and that's when the Germans mounted a successful counterattack, Neumann said. Luck for the Army engineers ran out on that day as well, when the Germans overran their area, resulting in 28 U.S. casualties. The survivors regrouped and were reorganized into reserve infantry with their main effort being to build trenches and help the British to stabilize their lines, he said. The Battle of Cambrai, though heralded for successful use of combined arms, was actually a fairly typical World War I battle in that a successful offensive was then met by a successful counteroffensive, with the lines between friend and foe not shifting that much and a lot of casualties taken on both sides: around 45,000 on each side, he said. Although America had declared war against Germany seven months earlier, the American Army wasn't yet ready for large-scale combat operations, Neumann said. While the roughly four U.S. combat divisions in France were still in training in late 1917, he said, they would see plenty of action in 1918.(Follow David Vergun on Twitter: @vergunARNEWS)	<urn:uuid:c4dfa70d-e37d-4b67-88a1-e558c659b51e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.publicnow.com/view/00E6DC4FE826FC7D354E607E5C22970CF9DFBEFD?2017-11-22-17:30:20+00:00-xxx6875	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00385.warc.gz	en	0.98207	599	3.671875	4	[ -0.3857651948928833, 0.4451250433921814, 0.044880662113428116, -0.1260082721710205, -0.24865925312042236, 0.012371305376291275, -0.3547014594078064, 0.37328970432281494, 0.14580577611923218, -0.06341342628002167, 0.049660999327898026, -0.2085982710123062, -0.041814982891082764, 0.624313473...	1	11/22/2017 \| News release \| Distributed by Public on 11/22/2017 11:05 WASHINGTON, Nov. 22, 2017 - The first American units saw action in World War I during the battle of Cambrai, France, Nov. 20-Dec. 7, 1917. The same battle also showcased the first large-scale effective use of combined arms, marking an evolution in warfare, said Brian F. Neumann, a historian and World War I subject matter expert with the U.S. Army Center of Military History. The battle began with a successful British offensive against the Germans, Neumann said. Success of the offensive, he said, was due to the effective coordination of combined arms, which included infantry, artillery, tanks and combat air support. All were used to overrun the German trench lines in the vicinity of the northern French town of Cambrai. The use of combined arms gave the battlefield more of a three-dimensional look, with air, tanks and artillery all supporting infantry, along with some cavalry support, he said. The British employed several hundred tanks, which were used to overrun the German trenches and tear holes through their lines, he said. It was the most significant utilization of tanks to date. The Army's role in the fighting was fairly limited, he said, noting that it consisted of soldiers from the 11th, 12th and 14th Engineer Regiments, who were engaged in railway construction work behind the trench lines in support of the British. Although America's role in the battle was limited, the news that soldiers were finally engaged in a major battle for the first time since war was declared in April made headlines and boosted morale on the home front, he said. By Nov. 30, the British had essentially outrun their supply lines and artillery support, and that's when the Germans mounted a successful counterattack, Neumann said. Luck for the Army engineers ran out on that day as well, when the Germans overran their area, resulting in 28 U.S. casualties. The survivors regrouped and were reorganized into reserve infantry with their main effort being to build trenches and help the British to stabilize their lines, he said. The Battle of Cambrai, though heralded for successful use of combined arms, was actually a fairly typical World War I battle in that a successful offensive was then met by a successful counteroffensive, with the lines between friend and foe not shifting that much and a lot of casualties taken on both sides: around 45,000 on each side, he said. Although America had declared war against Germany seven months earlier, the American Army wasn't yet ready for large-scale combat operations, Neumann said. While the roughly four U.S. combat divisions in France were still in training in late 1917, he said, they would see plenty of action in 1918.(Follow David Vergun on Twitter: @vergunARNEWS)	626	ENGLISH	1
On December 17, 1961, a fire at a circus in Brazil kills more than 300 people and severely burns hundreds more. The cause of the fire was never conclusively determined but it may have been the result of sparks from a train passing nearby. Christmas week was just beginning, the children had just begun their winter vacations, and spirits were high for the 2,500 in attendance at the Gran Circo Norte Americano, the Brazilian version of America’s Ringling Brothers. The large blue-and-white tent was set up across the bay from Rio de Janeiro and was filled to capacity. All seemed to be proceeding as planned when disaster struck suddenly. Antonietta Estavanovich, a trapeze artist, was the first to see the flames. From her high perch, she could see the roof of the tent beginning to burn. As the crowd became aware of the fire, pandemonium ensued and people were trampled as they tried to exit. In one reported instance, a Boy Scout attending the circus pulled out a knife, cut a hole in the tent and managed to get his family out safely. Hundreds of others, though, were not so lucky–323 people, many of them children, died in the fire. At least 500 more people were seriously injured, from burns, smoke inhalation and trampling.	<urn:uuid:83dd8323-31c1-45a4-a9f3-d0e4e523e4df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/circus-catches-fire-in-brazil	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00151.warc.gz	en	0.988918	271	3.421875	3	[ -0.010295924730598927, 0.2773011028766632, 0.38585248589515686, -0.03351064771413803, 0.18306317925453186, 0.36649075150489807, 0.1885688453912735, 0.2501797080039978, -0.172645702958107, -0.14202919602394104, 0.14305374026298523, -0.09075343608856201, -0.13757818937301636, 0.4847736954689...	4	On December 17, 1961, a fire at a circus in Brazil kills more than 300 people and severely burns hundreds more. The cause of the fire was never conclusively determined but it may have been the result of sparks from a train passing nearby. Christmas week was just beginning, the children had just begun their winter vacations, and spirits were high for the 2,500 in attendance at the Gran Circo Norte Americano, the Brazilian version of America’s Ringling Brothers. The large blue-and-white tent was set up across the bay from Rio de Janeiro and was filled to capacity. All seemed to be proceeding as planned when disaster struck suddenly. Antonietta Estavanovich, a trapeze artist, was the first to see the flames. From her high perch, she could see the roof of the tent beginning to burn. As the crowd became aware of the fire, pandemonium ensued and people were trampled as they tried to exit. In one reported instance, a Boy Scout attending the circus pulled out a knife, cut a hole in the tent and managed to get his family out safely. Hundreds of others, though, were not so lucky–323 people, many of them children, died in the fire. At least 500 more people were seriously injured, from burns, smoke inhalation and trampling.	282	ENGLISH	1
Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven (baptized 17 December 1770 in Bonn – 26 March 1827 in Vienna; pronounced LUD-vig vahn BAY-TOH-ven) was a German composer. He wrote classical music for the piano, orchestras and different groups of instruments. His best-known works are his third ("Eroica"), fifth, sixth ("Pastorale") and ninth ("Choral") symphonies, the eighth ("Pathetique") and fourteenth ("Moonlight") piano sonatas, two of his later piano concertos, his opera "Fidelio", and also the piano piece Für Elise. Beethoven lived when the piano was still a new instrument, and when he was a young man, he was a talented pianist. Beethoven was popular with the rich and important people in Vienna, Austria, where he lived. Ludwig van Beethoven A portrait by Joseph Karl Steiler, 1820 \|Baptised\|\|17 December 1770\| \|Died\|\|26 March 1827 (aged 56)\| \|Occupation\|\|Composer and pianist\| In 1801, however, he began to lose his hearing. His deafness became worse. By 1817, he was completely deaf. Although he could no longer play in concerts, he continued to compose. During this time he composed some of his greatest works. He is said to be one of the greatest classical composers who has ever lived. When Beethoven died, he was surrounded by friends on his death bed. His funeral was held at the Church of the Holy Trinity. Between 10,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have attended. Franz Schubert was a pall bearer at his funeral, even though the two were never close. Very little is known about Beethoven’s childhood. He was baptized on December 17, 1770 and was probably born a few days before that. Beethoven's parents were Johann van Beethoven (1740 in Bonn – December 18, 1792) and Maria Magdalena Keverich (1744 in Ehrenbreitstein – July 17, 1787). Magdalena's father, Johann Heinrich Keverich, had been Chief at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier at Festung Ehrenbreitstein fortress opposite to Koblenz. His father was a fairly unimportant musician who worked at the court of the Elector of Cologne. This court was in Bonn and it was here that he lived until he was a young man. His father gave him his first lessons in piano and violin. Beethoven was a child prodigy like Mozart, but while Mozart as a little boy was taken all over Europe by his father, Beethoven never traveled until he was 17. By that time, his piano teacher was a man called Neefe who had learned the piano from Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, the son of Johann Sebastian Bach. Neefe said to the Elector that the young Beethoven should be given the chance to travel, so he was allowed to go to Vienna. There, he might have had one or two lessons from Mozart, but then Beethoven got a letter saying that his mother was dying, so he hurried back to Bonn. Soon his mother died, and Beethoven had to help to look after the family because his father had become an alcoholic. Beethoven played the viola in the orchestra of the Elector, he started to compose, and made many friends. Some of these friends were musicians and others were very important people, many of them were aristocrats who would be able to help him in his career. In 1792, the Elector let Beethoven travel to Vienna again. They expected him to return after a while. However, Beethoven never left Vienna. He stayed there for the rest of his life. He would have loved to have had some more composition lessons from Mozart, but Mozart had just died, so he had lessons from Haydn instead. Haydn was a good teacher, but a year later, he went off to England. Therefore, Beethoven took lessons from a man called Albrechtsberger who was not famous like Haydn. He was a good teacher too, and he made him write lots of technical exercises. He showed him how to write advanced counterpoint and fugues. This helped him to be a great composer. Beethoven wanted to become famous as a pianist and composer, so he started to get to know important, aristocratic people. Some of these people had already heard him in Bonn when they had traveled there, so his name was becoming known in Vienna. It also helped that he could say he was the pupil of the famous Joseph Haydn. There were a lot of aristocratic people in Vienna who liked music, and many had their own private orchestras. Some of them started to give Beethoven places to live when the Elector of Bonn stopped sending him money in 1794. Beethoven started to perform in private houses, and he became known for his improvisations. In 1795 he performed one of his piano concertos at a concert. He also had his first publication (his opus 1). This was a group of three Piano Trios. Haydn had heard them at a private concert a year before and had advised Beethoven not to publish the third one. However, he did publish it, and that was the one which became the most successful. His opus 2 was a group of three piano sonatas which he played at the court of his friend Prince Lichnowsky. When he published them, he dedicated them to Haydn. Beethoven was starting to become famous, travelling to places like Prague and Pressburg. He wrote much chamber music. He was, perhaps, a little jealous of the success that Haydn had with his latest symphonies he had written for London. In 1800 he gave his first public concert with his own music. He conducted his First Symphony as well as the Septet. By now several publishers were trying to persuade him to let them publish his new works. Beethoven was becoming famous as a composer. And during this period Beethoven produced his most famous piano sonata: No. 14, in C sharp minor, nicknamed, "Moonlight". This was written for his girlfriend, 16-year-old Giulietta Guicciardi. However, he was far from happy because he realized that he was starting to become deaf. And when he asked for Giulietta's marriage, her parents refused and married her to another 20-year-old man instead. Beethoven seems to have tried to forget these bad thoughts by working very hard. He composed a lot more music, including his Third Symphony, called the Eroica. Originally he gave it the title Bonaparte in honour of Napoleon whom he admired. But when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, Beethoven began to think that he was just a tyrant who wanted a lot of power. He went to the table where the score of the symphony was lying and tore up the title page. Beethoven stayed in Vienna that year, working hard at an opera and giving piano lessons to Josephine von Brunsvik to whom he wrote passionate letters. She was a young widow with four children. It is impossible to know quite what her feelings were for Beethoven, but socially she belonged in higher society and probably thought that a wild musician was not a suitable husband. In the end she married a Baron, but this marriage, like her first one, was not happy either. In 1805 Beethoven wrote his only opera. The next spring it had two performances but was then not performed again for another eight years. Beethoven had made several changes to the opera which became known as Fidelio. The overture that he had written for the 1806 performance is now known as Leonore 3 and is usually performed separately at concerts. The opera is a “rescue” opera, a typical French kind of opera describing a man who is imprisoned and rescued by his lover who disguises herself as a man and manages to get into the prison. Beethoven continued to write compositions: a Violin Concerto, symphonies, piano concertos, string quartets and chamber music. Two of his greatest symphonies were produced in 1806: Symphony No. 5 and Symphony No. 6 "Pastorale". The first one was known for its dark and deep tone, especially in its first movement. The second was famous for its depiction of the countryside. He also wrote Piano Concerto No. 4 and Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor". He earned money by pleasing the aristocrats, dedicating works to them in return for fees, and by selling his music to publishers. Occasionally he earned money from concerts. It was not a regular income. He would have liked the job of Kapellmeister to the emperor. He was not able to get this, but in 1809 three rich aristocrats: the Archduke Rodolph, Prince Lobkowitz and Prince Kinsky gave him an income for the rest of his life on condition that he stayed in Vienna. This meant that Beethoven did not have to worry so much about money. He was asked to write music for Egmont, a play by Goethe. The overture is very often performed as a concert piece. Beethoven very much wanted to meet Goethe. The two great men met in Teplitz. Goethe later described Beethoven as a rather wild-mannered man who made life difficult for himself by his cross attitude to the world. Beethoven admired several women, including one to whom he wrote a passionate letter. She is known as the “Immortal Beloved”, but no one knows who she was. Beethoven seems pølle to have become deeply depressed because he never found true happiness in love. In a letter dated June 29, 1801, Beethoven told a friend in Bonn about a terrible secret he had for some time. He knew that he was becoming deaf. For some time, he had spells of fever and stomach pains. A young man does not expect to become deaf, but now he was starting to admit it to himself. He was finding it hard to hear what people were saying. Just at the moment when he was starting to become known as one of the greatest of all composers, it was a terrible blow to realize that he was losing his hearing. In 1802, he stayed for a time in Heiligenstadt which is now a suburb of Vienna but at that time it was outside the city. There he wrote a famous letter which is known as the Heiligenstadt Testament. It is dated October 6 and told about his rising frustration at his deafness. He asks people to forgive him if he cannot hear what they are saying. He said that he had often thought of suicide, but that he had so much music in his head which had to be written down that he decided to continue his life. This very emotional letter was found amongst his papers after his death. He never sent it to anyone. By 1814, Beethoven had reached the height of his fame. The Viennese people thought of him as the greatest living composer, and he was often invited by royal people to their palaces. It was the year in which he played his famous Piano Trio Op. 97 The Archduke. That was the last time he played the piano in public. His deafness was making it impossible to continue. Beethoven had many problems when his brother Caspar Carl died, leaving a 9-year-old son. The boy’s mother may have been incapable of looking after him, but Beethoven had to prove this in a court of law. For several years he looked after his nephew, but it was a difficult relationship and it involved a lot of legal letters and quarrels with people. In 1826, Karl tried to shoot himself. He survived, but people persuaded Beethoven to stop being his guardian. Karl went into the army. The last years were unhappy years for Beethoven. During this time he composed very little. Then, in 1817, he recovered and wrote his last two symphonies, a mass called Missa Solemnis, his last five piano sonatas, and a group of string quartets which were so modern and difficult that very few people at the time understood the music. Nowadays, people think they are the greatest works ever written for string quartet. His Ninth Symphony is called the Choral Symphony because there is a choir and soloists in the last movement. At the time people did not understand this either, because a symphony is normally a work for orchestra, not a work with singers. Beethoven chose the words of a poem by the German poet Friedrich Schiller: An die Freude (Ode to Joy). It is all about living together in peace and harmony, so that it sends an important message to people. This is why it has been chosen in recent years as the National Anthem for the European Union. The Ninth Symphony was performed at a concert on May 7, 1824. After the scherzo movement the audience applauded enthusiastically, but Beethoven could not hear the applause and one of the singers had to turn him round so that he could see that people were clapping. Beethoven died on March 26, 1827. About 20,000 people came onto the streets for his funeral. The famous poet Franz Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech. One of the torchbearers was Franz Schubert. Schubert died the next year. In 1888 Beethoven’s and Schubert’s remains were moved to another cemetery in Vienna and were placed side by side. Beethoven’s music is usually divided into three periods: Early, Middle and Late. Most composers who live a long time develop as they get older and change their way of composing. Of course, these changes in style are not sudden, but they are quite a good way of understanding the different periods of his composing life. His first period includes the works he wrote in his youth in Bonn, and his early days in Vienna up to about 1803. His middle period starts with the Eroica Symphony and includes most of his orchestral works. His last period includes the Ninth Symphony and the late string quartets. Beethoven is probably the most famous of all composers, and the most written about. He had a wild personality and this was something that the Romantics in the 19th century always expected from great artists. The Romantics thought that the artist was somehow a person with exaggerated qualities who was not like normal people. Beethoven had a very strong personality. He lived in the time of the French Revolution and had strong views on independence and ways of living free from tyranny. This made him a hero in many people’s eyes. The irony is that Beethoven was known to be a hermit. His music was so famous that many composers in the 19th century found it quite hard to compose because they thought they would be compared to him. For example, Johannes Brahms, took a long time to write his First Symphony. He thought that everyone was expecting him to be the next Beethoven. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that Gustav Mahler wrote several symphonies which include singing, although he does this very differently to Beethoven. - Beethoven was baptized on December 17. His date of birth is not known. Usually, it is given as December 16. This date is given based on evidence at the time: for more detail see below - "Ludwig van Beethoven's Biography". Retrieved 2009-05-24. - "Who is who.de". Retrieved 2009-05-24. - Marie, George (22 February 2016). "Beethoven's Death". Beethoven Piano Online. Retrieved 28 February 2016. - As an adult, Beethoven believed he had been born in 1772. He told friends that the 1770 baptism was of his older brother Ludwig Maria, who died in infancy, but Ludwig Maria's baptism is recorded as taking place in 1769. Some biographers say that his father falsified his date of birth in an attempt to pass him off as a child prodigy like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but this is disputed. Children of that era were usually baptized the day after birth, but there is no written evidence that this occurred in Beethoven's case. It is known that his family and his teacher Johann Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December. While the evidence supports the idea that 16 December 1770 was Beethoven's date of birth, this cannot be stated with certainty. This is discussed in depth in Solomon's biography, chapter 1. - Kerman and Tyson - "Biography: Beethoven's life". Retrieved 2009-06-20. - "The offspring of Johann van Beethoven". Retrieved 2009-05-31. - "A Biography of Ludwig van Beethoven by his Birthtown Bonn". Bonn.de. Retrieved 2009-05-24. - "Ludwig van Beethoven's Biography from Biography.com". Retrieved 2009-06-20. - "Beethovens Biographie". aeiou.at. Retrieved 14 April 2010. - "German biography of van Beethoven". raptusassociation.org. Retrieved 2009-05-25. Find more about Ludwig van Beethoven at Wikipedia's sister projects \|Definitions from Wiktionary\| \|Media from Commons\| \|News stories from Wikinews\| \|Quotations from Wikiquote\| \|Source texts from Wikisource\| \|Textbooks from Wikibooks\| \|Learning resources from Wikiversity\| - Douglas Johnson; Scott G. Burnham; William Drabkin; Joseph Kerman; Alan Tyson, "Beethoven, Ludwig van", Grove Music Online, doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40026 - Albrecht, Theodor, and Elaine Schwensen (1988). More Than Just Peanuts: Evidence for December 16 as Beethoven's birthday. The Beethoven Newsletter. p. 60-63.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Bohle, Bruce, and Robert Sabin (1975). The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. London: J.M.Dent & Sons LTD. ISBN 0-460-04235-1.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Clive, Peter (2001). Beethoven and His World: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816672-9. - Davies, Peter J. (2002). The Character of a Genius: Beethoven in Perspective. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31913-8. - Davies, Peter J. (2001). Beethoven in Person: His Deafness, Illnesses, and Death. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31587-6. - DeNora, Tia (1995). Beethoven and the Construction of Genius: Musical Politics in Vienna, 1792-1803. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21158-8. - Geck, Martin (2003). Beethoven. London: Haus. ISBN 1-904341-03-9 (h). ISBN 1-904341-00-4 (p). - Hatten, Robert (1994). Musical Meaning in Beethoven. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 372. ISBN 0-253-32742-3. - Kropfinger, Klaus (2001). Beethoven. Verlage Bärenreiter/Metzler. ISBN 3-7618-1621-9. - Russell Martin (2000). Beethoven's Hair. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-0350-9. - Meredith, William (2005). The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments. The Beethoven Journal. p. 3-46. - Morris, Edmund (2005). Beethoven: The Universal Composer. New York: Atlas Books / HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-075974-7. - Rosen, Charles (1998). The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04020-8 (hc). ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb). - Solomon, Maynard (2001). Beethoven 2nd revised edition. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-8256-7268-6. - Solomon, Maynard (2003). Late Beethoven: Music, Thought, Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23746-3. - Stanley, Glenn, ed (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Beethoven. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ISBN 0-521-58074-9 (hc). ISBN 0-521-58934-7 (pb). - Thayer, Alexander Wheelock (1866–1908). Ludwig van Beethoven's Leben. 5 vols. (vols. 4 and 5 posthumously ed. by Hugo Riemann). Berlin.CS1 maint: date format (link) - Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. rev. and ed Elliot Forbes (ed.). Thayer's Life of Beethoven. 2 vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09103-X. - English homepage of big Beethoven website - Beethoven’s Personality and Music: The Introverted Romantic	<urn:uuid:4edd2e77-aae1-4f53-9c75-4fefe050c78e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beethoven	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00182.warc.gz	en	0.981674	4,655	3.328125	3	[ 0.0025564958341419697, 0.26896220445632935, 0.12598364055156708, -0.04374440014362335, -0.5714951753616333, -0.08470433205366135, -0.3062700033187866, 0.010362369939684868, 0.3458157181739807, -0.21074563264846802, 0.14522096514701843, -0.26259011030197144, -0.40113556385040283, -0.1123303...	1	Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven (baptized 17 December 1770 in Bonn – 26 March 1827 in Vienna; pronounced LUD-vig vahn BAY-TOH-ven) was a German composer. He wrote classical music for the piano, orchestras and different groups of instruments. His best-known works are his third ("Eroica"), fifth, sixth ("Pastorale") and ninth ("Choral") symphonies, the eighth ("Pathetique") and fourteenth ("Moonlight") piano sonatas, two of his later piano concertos, his opera "Fidelio", and also the piano piece Für Elise. Beethoven lived when the piano was still a new instrument, and when he was a young man, he was a talented pianist. Beethoven was popular with the rich and important people in Vienna, Austria, where he lived. Ludwig van Beethoven A portrait by Joseph Karl Steiler, 1820 \|Baptised\|\|17 December 1770\| \|Died\|\|26 March 1827 (aged 56)\| \|Occupation\|\|Composer and pianist\| In 1801, however, he began to lose his hearing. His deafness became worse. By 1817, he was completely deaf. Although he could no longer play in concerts, he continued to compose. During this time he composed some of his greatest works. He is said to be one of the greatest classical composers who has ever lived. When Beethoven died, he was surrounded by friends on his death bed. His funeral was held at the Church of the Holy Trinity. Between 10,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have attended. Franz Schubert was a pall bearer at his funeral, even though the two were never close. Very little is known about Beethoven’s childhood. He was baptized on December 17, 1770 and was probably born a few days before that. Beethoven's parents were Johann van Beethoven (1740 in Bonn – December 18, 1792) and Maria Magdalena Keverich (1744 in Ehrenbreitstein – July 17, 1787). Magdalena's father, Johann Heinrich Keverich, had been Chief at the court of the Archbishopric of Trier at Festung Ehrenbreitstein fortress opposite to Koblenz. His father was a fairly unimportant musician who worked at the court of the Elector of Cologne. This court was in Bonn and it was here that he lived until he was a young man. His father gave him his first lessons in piano and violin. Beethoven was a child prodigy like Mozart, but while Mozart as a little boy was taken all over Europe by his father, Beethoven never traveled until he was 17. By that time, his piano teacher was a man called Neefe who had learned the piano from Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, the son of Johann Sebastian Bach. Neefe said to the Elector that the young Beethoven should be given the chance to travel, so he was allowed to go to Vienna. There, he might have had one or two lessons from Mozart, but then Beethoven got a letter saying that his mother was dying, so he hurried back to Bonn. Soon his mother died, and Beethoven had to help to look after the family because his father had become an alcoholic. Beethoven played the viola in the orchestra of the Elector, he started to compose, and made many friends. Some of these friends were musicians and others were very important people, many of them were aristocrats who would be able to help him in his career. In 1792, the Elector let Beethoven travel to Vienna again. They expected him to return after a while. However, Beethoven never left Vienna. He stayed there for the rest of his life. He would have loved to have had some more composition lessons from Mozart, but Mozart had just died, so he had lessons from Haydn instead. Haydn was a good teacher, but a year later, he went off to England. Therefore, Beethoven took lessons from a man called Albrechtsberger who was not famous like Haydn. He was a good teacher too, and he made him write lots of technical exercises. He showed him how to write advanced counterpoint and fugues. This helped him to be a great composer. Beethoven wanted to become famous as a pianist and composer, so he started to get to know important, aristocratic people. Some of these people had already heard him in Bonn when they had traveled there, so his name was becoming known in Vienna. It also helped that he could say he was the pupil of the famous Joseph Haydn. There were a lot of aristocratic people in Vienna who liked music, and many had their own private orchestras. Some of them started to give Beethoven places to live when the Elector of Bonn stopped sending him money in 1794. Beethoven started to perform in private houses, and he became known for his improvisations. In 1795 he performed one of his piano concertos at a concert. He also had his first publication (his opus 1). This was a group of three Piano Trios. Haydn had heard them at a private concert a year before and had advised Beethoven not to publish the third one. However, he did publish it, and that was the one which became the most successful. His opus 2 was a group of three piano sonatas which he played at the court of his friend Prince Lichnowsky. When he published them, he dedicated them to Haydn. Beethoven was starting to become famous, travelling to places like Prague and Pressburg. He wrote much chamber music. He was, perhaps, a little jealous of the success that Haydn had with his latest symphonies he had written for London. In 1800 he gave his first public concert with his own music. He conducted his First Symphony as well as the Septet. By now several publishers were trying to persuade him to let them publish his new works. Beethoven was becoming famous as a composer. And during this period Beethoven produced his most famous piano sonata: No. 14, in C sharp minor, nicknamed, "Moonlight". This was written for his girlfriend, 16-year-old Giulietta Guicciardi. However, he was far from happy because he realized that he was starting to become deaf. And when he asked for Giulietta's marriage, her parents refused and married her to another 20-year-old man instead. Beethoven seems to have tried to forget these bad thoughts by working very hard. He composed a lot more music, including his Third Symphony, called the Eroica. Originally he gave it the title Bonaparte in honour of Napoleon whom he admired. But when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, Beethoven began to think that he was just a tyrant who wanted a lot of power. He went to the table where the score of the symphony was lying and tore up the title page. Beethoven stayed in Vienna that year, working hard at an opera and giving piano lessons to Josephine von Brunsvik to whom he wrote passionate letters. She was a young widow with four children. It is impossible to know quite what her feelings were for Beethoven, but socially she belonged in higher society and probably thought that a wild musician was not a suitable husband. In the end she married a Baron, but this marriage, like her first one, was not happy either. In 1805 Beethoven wrote his only opera. The next spring it had two performances but was then not performed again for another eight years. Beethoven had made several changes to the opera which became known as Fidelio. The overture that he had written for the 1806 performance is now known as Leonore 3 and is usually performed separately at concerts. The opera is a “rescue” opera, a typical French kind of opera describing a man who is imprisoned and rescued by his lover who disguises herself as a man and manages to get into the prison. Beethoven continued to write compositions: a Violin Concerto, symphonies, piano concertos, string quartets and chamber music. Two of his greatest symphonies were produced in 1806: Symphony No. 5 and Symphony No. 6 "Pastorale". The first one was known for its dark and deep tone, especially in its first movement. The second was famous for its depiction of the countryside. He also wrote Piano Concerto No. 4 and Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor". He earned money by pleasing the aristocrats, dedicating works to them in return for fees, and by selling his music to publishers. Occasionally he earned money from concerts. It was not a regular income. He would have liked the job of Kapellmeister to the emperor. He was not able to get this, but in 1809 three rich aristocrats: the Archduke Rodolph, Prince Lobkowitz and Prince Kinsky gave him an income for the rest of his life on condition that he stayed in Vienna. This meant that Beethoven did not have to worry so much about money. He was asked to write music for Egmont, a play by Goethe. The overture is very often performed as a concert piece. Beethoven very much wanted to meet Goethe. The two great men met in Teplitz. Goethe later described Beethoven as a rather wild-mannered man who made life difficult for himself by his cross attitude to the world. Beethoven admired several women, including one to whom he wrote a passionate letter. She is known as the “Immortal Beloved”, but no one knows who she was. Beethoven seems pølle to have become deeply depressed because he never found true happiness in love. In a letter dated June 29, 1801, Beethoven told a friend in Bonn about a terrible secret he had for some time. He knew that he was becoming deaf. For some time, he had spells of fever and stomach pains. A young man does not expect to become deaf, but now he was starting to admit it to himself. He was finding it hard to hear what people were saying. Just at the moment when he was starting to become known as one of the greatest of all composers, it was a terrible blow to realize that he was losing his hearing. In 1802, he stayed for a time in Heiligenstadt which is now a suburb of Vienna but at that time it was outside the city. There he wrote a famous letter which is known as the Heiligenstadt Testament. It is dated October 6 and told about his rising frustration at his deafness. He asks people to forgive him if he cannot hear what they are saying. He said that he had often thought of suicide, but that he had so much music in his head which had to be written down that he decided to continue his life. This very emotional letter was found amongst his papers after his death. He never sent it to anyone. By 1814, Beethoven had reached the height of his fame. The Viennese people thought of him as the greatest living composer, and he was often invited by royal people to their palaces. It was the year in which he played his famous Piano Trio Op. 97 The Archduke. That was the last time he played the piano in public. His deafness was making it impossible to continue. Beethoven had many problems when his brother Caspar Carl died, leaving a 9-year-old son. The boy’s mother may have been incapable of looking after him, but Beethoven had to prove this in a court of law. For several years he looked after his nephew, but it was a difficult relationship and it involved a lot of legal letters and quarrels with people. In 1826, Karl tried to shoot himself. He survived, but people persuaded Beethoven to stop being his guardian. Karl went into the army. The last years were unhappy years for Beethoven. During this time he composed very little. Then, in 1817, he recovered and wrote his last two symphonies, a mass called Missa Solemnis, his last five piano sonatas, and a group of string quartets which were so modern and difficult that very few people at the time understood the music. Nowadays, people think they are the greatest works ever written for string quartet. His Ninth Symphony is called the Choral Symphony because there is a choir and soloists in the last movement. At the time people did not understand this either, because a symphony is normally a work for orchestra, not a work with singers. Beethoven chose the words of a poem by the German poet Friedrich Schiller: An die Freude (Ode to Joy). It is all about living together in peace and harmony, so that it sends an important message to people. This is why it has been chosen in recent years as the National Anthem for the European Union. The Ninth Symphony was performed at a concert on May 7, 1824. After the scherzo movement the audience applauded enthusiastically, but Beethoven could not hear the applause and one of the singers had to turn him round so that he could see that people were clapping. Beethoven died on March 26, 1827. About 20,000 people came onto the streets for his funeral. The famous poet Franz Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech. One of the torchbearers was Franz Schubert. Schubert died the next year. In 1888 Beethoven’s and Schubert’s remains were moved to another cemetery in Vienna and were placed side by side. Beethoven’s music is usually divided into three periods: Early, Middle and Late. Most composers who live a long time develop as they get older and change their way of composing. Of course, these changes in style are not sudden, but they are quite a good way of understanding the different periods of his composing life. His first period includes the works he wrote in his youth in Bonn, and his early days in Vienna up to about 1803. His middle period starts with the Eroica Symphony and includes most of his orchestral works. His last period includes the Ninth Symphony and the late string quartets. Beethoven is probably the most famous of all composers, and the most written about. He had a wild personality and this was something that the Romantics in the 19th century always expected from great artists. The Romantics thought that the artist was somehow a person with exaggerated qualities who was not like normal people. Beethoven had a very strong personality. He lived in the time of the French Revolution and had strong views on independence and ways of living free from tyranny. This made him a hero in many people’s eyes. The irony is that Beethoven was known to be a hermit. His music was so famous that many composers in the 19th century found it quite hard to compose because they thought they would be compared to him. For example, Johannes Brahms, took a long time to write his First Symphony. He thought that everyone was expecting him to be the next Beethoven. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that Gustav Mahler wrote several symphonies which include singing, although he does this very differently to Beethoven. - Beethoven was baptized on December 17. His date of birth is not known. Usually, it is given as December 16. This date is given based on evidence at the time: for more detail see below - "Ludwig van Beethoven's Biography". Retrieved 2009-05-24. - "Who is who.de". Retrieved 2009-05-24. - Marie, George (22 February 2016). "Beethoven's Death". Beethoven Piano Online. Retrieved 28 February 2016. - As an adult, Beethoven believed he had been born in 1772. He told friends that the 1770 baptism was of his older brother Ludwig Maria, who died in infancy, but Ludwig Maria's baptism is recorded as taking place in 1769. Some biographers say that his father falsified his date of birth in an attempt to pass him off as a child prodigy like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but this is disputed. Children of that era were usually baptized the day after birth, but there is no written evidence that this occurred in Beethoven's case. It is known that his family and his teacher Johann Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December. While the evidence supports the idea that 16 December 1770 was Beethoven's date of birth, this cannot be stated with certainty. This is discussed in depth in Solomon's biography, chapter 1. - Kerman and Tyson - "Biography: Beethoven's life". Retrieved 2009-06-20. - "The offspring of Johann van Beethoven". Retrieved 2009-05-31. - "A Biography of Ludwig van Beethoven by his Birthtown Bonn". Bonn.de. Retrieved 2009-05-24. - "Ludwig van Beethoven's Biography from Biography.com". Retrieved 2009-06-20. - "Beethovens Biographie". aeiou.at. Retrieved 14 April 2010. - "German biography of van Beethoven". raptusassociation.org. Retrieved 2009-05-25. Find more about Ludwig van Beethoven at Wikipedia's sister projects \|Definitions from Wiktionary\| \|Media from Commons\| \|News stories from Wikinews\| \|Quotations from Wikiquote\| \|Source texts from Wikisource\| \|Textbooks from Wikibooks\| \|Learning resources from Wikiversity\| - Douglas Johnson; Scott G. Burnham; William Drabkin; Joseph Kerman; Alan Tyson, "Beethoven, Ludwig van", Grove Music Online, doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40026 - Albrecht, Theodor, and Elaine Schwensen (1988). More Than Just Peanuts: Evidence for December 16 as Beethoven's birthday. The Beethoven Newsletter. p. 60-63.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Bohle, Bruce, and Robert Sabin (1975). The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. London: J.M.Dent & Sons LTD. ISBN 0-460-04235-1.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Clive, Peter (2001). Beethoven and His World: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816672-9. - Davies, Peter J. (2002). The Character of a Genius: Beethoven in Perspective. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31913-8. - Davies, Peter J. (2001). Beethoven in Person: His Deafness, Illnesses, and Death. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31587-6. - DeNora, Tia (1995). Beethoven and the Construction of Genius: Musical Politics in Vienna, 1792-1803. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21158-8. - Geck, Martin (2003). Beethoven. London: Haus. ISBN 1-904341-03-9 (h). ISBN 1-904341-00-4 (p). - Hatten, Robert (1994). Musical Meaning in Beethoven. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 372. ISBN 0-253-32742-3. - Kropfinger, Klaus (2001). Beethoven. Verlage Bärenreiter/Metzler. ISBN 3-7618-1621-9. - Russell Martin (2000). Beethoven's Hair. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-0350-9. - Meredith, William (2005). The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments. The Beethoven Journal. p. 3-46. - Morris, Edmund (2005). Beethoven: The Universal Composer. New York: Atlas Books / HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-075974-7. - Rosen, Charles (1998). The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04020-8 (hc). ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb). - Solomon, Maynard (2001). Beethoven 2nd revised edition. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-8256-7268-6. - Solomon, Maynard (2003). Late Beethoven: Music, Thought, Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23746-3. - Stanley, Glenn, ed (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Beethoven. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) ISBN 0-521-58074-9 (hc). ISBN 0-521-58934-7 (pb). - Thayer, Alexander Wheelock (1866–1908). Ludwig van Beethoven's Leben. 5 vols. (vols. 4 and 5 posthumously ed. by Hugo Riemann). Berlin.CS1 maint: date format (link) - Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. rev. and ed Elliot Forbes (ed.). Thayer's Life of Beethoven. 2 vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09103-X. - English homepage of big Beethoven website - Beethoven’s Personality and Music: The Introverted Romantic	4,850	ENGLISH	1
The first 10 changes to the Constitution were easy. Since then, it has been an uphill battle every time, and some of those battles are, at least technically, still undecided. We are speaking of the amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and those first 10 are, of course, better known as the Bill of Rights. They provide some of the most important guarantees of freedom associated with the U.S. Constitution — even though they were added years after the Constitution was first written in the summer of 1787. It wasn't that the framers of the Constitution didn't believe in freedom of the press or freedom of religion — or the right to own guns or have a fair trial. They clearly did. But many, including influential framer James Madison, believed these rights were implicit in the Constitution itself (and in the constitutions of the individual states). Madison and others considered a separate catalog of rights unnecessary and potentially troublesome because of what it might omit. In the process of ratifying that new Constitution 230 years ago, the founders got some pushback from the states. There was popular demand for spelling out citizens' freedoms and rights explicitly — so as to make them as clear and inviolable as the Constitution itself. So, when the first Congress met in 1789, Madison himself (a member of the House from Virginia) brought forth a package of 12 amendments — formally introduced just six weeks after George Washington had taken the oath as the first president. These "further declaratory and restrictive clauses" were soon passed with two-thirds votes of the House and the Senate. Ten of these were ratified in short order by the states, making them part of the Constitution as of Dec. 15, 1791. But two of Madison's original dozen were left behind, failing to get the three-fourths of the states of the time. One provided a formula for determining the number of seats in the House of Representatives, and the other said that congressional pay raises could not take effect until after the next election for the House. The zombie amendment These became what might be called orphan amendments, abandoned partway through the process. But Congress had included no expiration date on them, so they could also be called zombie amendments — kept in a suspended condition indefinitely, neither finally dead nor fully alive. In fact, one of those two early amendments, the one about the pay raise, actually came back to life. It was dusted off in the late 1980s — in the midst of a fracas over congressional pay — and states once again began voting on its ratification. Lo and behold, the necessary 38 states signed on, and, in 1992, the amendment that Congress had blessed way back in 1789, was finally ratified. It is now the 27th Amendment to the Constitution, the last (or at least most recent) of the amendments and one of only two added in the past 50 years. Altogether, the Constitution has only been amended 17 times since the Bill of Rights, and one of those amendments (the 21st) was done just to repeal another (the 18th, known as Prohibition). Five amendments have dealt with presidential succession, elections or terms in office. A flurry of amendments after the Civil War abolished slavery, guaranteed equal protection under the law and banned racial discrimination. A successor amendment in the 1960s banned the poll tax, often used to keep African-Americans from voting in states that once had slavery. Other momentous amendments have granted women the right to vote (19th), lowered the voting age to 18 from 21 (26th), imposed the income tax (16th) and provided for the direct election of senators by the voters rather than by state legislatures (17th). The Equal Rights Amendment that still hasn't been But not all the amendments passed by Congress have stood the test of ratification by the states. Counting that very first item in Madison's package, there are six in all. Call them orphans, oddities or zombies, but considering how much time has passed, it is perhaps most amazing that there have been so few. The best known of these in our time is the Equal Rights Amendment, which provided that "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." It was the culmination of the women's rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Its bipartisan support carried it to two-thirds majorities in the House and Senate in the 1970s. It went out to the states in 1972 of states with a full head of steam. But the number of ratifying states stalled out at 35 — three short of the 38 required. Eventually, the seven-year time frame Congress had set for ratification was extended by three years. But, by this point, a strong opposition movement had arisen, blocking ratification in the remaining states and persuading some state legislatures to reconsider and rescind their ratification. One key element in this opposition was the Eagle Forum, led by Phyllis Schlafly, a prominent social conservative from Alton, Ill. She argued that the ERA could force unwanted changes on women who preferred their traditional roles. For example, Schlafly and others argued the ERA could subject women to a military draft. Despite having a full decade to win ratification, the ERA fell short and expired in 1982. Still taxation without representation A similar fate befell the Voting Rights Amendment for the District of Columbia. Passed by Congress in 1978, it would have given citizens of the nation's capital city the same full representation in Congress as any state (one voting representative in the House and two senators). This amendment, too, survived a battle in Congress, where some conservatives argued the Constitution had been wise to restrict D.C., so that it did not become an overly powerful center of national politics on the model of London or Paris. The states proved less than enthusiastic, and the seven-year expiration date Congress had added as part of the deal (as with the ERA) meant the amendment died in 1985. (It should be noted that another amendment, the 23rd, at least gave D.C. a chance to participate in the Electoral College with three electoral votes — just as it would have if it were a state. That amendment was ratified in 1961.) For either of these amendments to go back to the states for another round of ratification votes, it would have to first be passed by two-thirds votes in the Congress. It is far from certain that either could surmount that hurdle in the current House and Senate. Three other zombies that linger There are three other amendments that remain in zombie space, as it were, as they have never been ratified by three-fourths of the states, but have never expired: 1. The oldest is the Titles of Nobility Amendment, first sent to the states in 1810 on the verge of the second war with Great Britain (to be known as the War of 1812). It provided that any American citizen who accepted or received any title of nobility from a foreign power (or accepted any gift from such a power without the consent of Congress) would forfeit his or her American citizenship. This amendment came close to ratification, with a dozen states giving thumbs-up within two years. But there were 17 states as of 1803, so the Anti-Title Amendment fell short. No states have since joined in, but in the absence of an expiration clause, this amendment remains technically available. The next of the zombies had a far shorter interval of viability but conjures a moment of maximum tension in U.S. history. 2. It was known as the Corwin Amendment after the Ohio congressman who proposed it, but it has been remembered as the Slavery Amendment. Passed by Congress in 1861, on the eve of the Civil War, the Slavery Amendment sought to halt the secession movement by guaranteeing the federal government would not abolish slavery or otherwise interfere with the "domestic institutions of any state, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State." It came too late to appease the seceding states, which would eventually number 11. But it was ratified by two of the slave-holding states that did not leave the Union. Needless to say, interest in this measure was superseded by the 1865 passage and ratification of the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude. But technically, the Slavery Amendment has never expired and remains outstanding. 3. The latest of this group of still-pending amendments is the Child Labor Amendment, granting the Congress power to regulate the labor of children under the age of 18. It was ratified by 28 states, far short of the 36 required at the time. The last state to ratify did so in 1937, nearly a decade after Congress had passed this amendment, but none has signed on since, largely because other laws enacted since (principally the Fair Labor Standards Act) have accomplished much of the amendment's intent. You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix.	<urn:uuid:26cf2b67-6753-43db-bf1e-b35635c2d6d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://knpr.org/npr/2018-03/zombie-amendments-constitution-youve-probably-never-heard	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00549.warc.gz	en	0.980453	1,927	3.890625	4	[ -0.8167647123336792, -0.25019118189811707, 0.294517457485199, -0.42287498712539673, -0.3578924536705017, 0.534084677696228, -0.02865030989050865, -0.02458704635500908, 0.050687626004219055, 0.047671008855104446, 0.10732929408550262, 0.82210373878479, -0.09906581044197083, 0.115268006920814...	1	The first 10 changes to the Constitution were easy. Since then, it has been an uphill battle every time, and some of those battles are, at least technically, still undecided. We are speaking of the amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and those first 10 are, of course, better known as the Bill of Rights. They provide some of the most important guarantees of freedom associated with the U.S. Constitution — even though they were added years after the Constitution was first written in the summer of 1787. It wasn't that the framers of the Constitution didn't believe in freedom of the press or freedom of religion — or the right to own guns or have a fair trial. They clearly did. But many, including influential framer James Madison, believed these rights were implicit in the Constitution itself (and in the constitutions of the individual states). Madison and others considered a separate catalog of rights unnecessary and potentially troublesome because of what it might omit. In the process of ratifying that new Constitution 230 years ago, the founders got some pushback from the states. There was popular demand for spelling out citizens' freedoms and rights explicitly — so as to make them as clear and inviolable as the Constitution itself. So, when the first Congress met in 1789, Madison himself (a member of the House from Virginia) brought forth a package of 12 amendments — formally introduced just six weeks after George Washington had taken the oath as the first president. These "further declaratory and restrictive clauses" were soon passed with two-thirds votes of the House and the Senate. Ten of these were ratified in short order by the states, making them part of the Constitution as of Dec. 15, 1791. But two of Madison's original dozen were left behind, failing to get the three-fourths of the states of the time. One provided a formula for determining the number of seats in the House of Representatives, and the other said that congressional pay raises could not take effect until after the next election for the House. The zombie amendment These became what might be called orphan amendments, abandoned partway through the process. But Congress had included no expiration date on them, so they could also be called zombie amendments — kept in a suspended condition indefinitely, neither finally dead nor fully alive. In fact, one of those two early amendments, the one about the pay raise, actually came back to life. It was dusted off in the late 1980s — in the midst of a fracas over congressional pay — and states once again began voting on its ratification. Lo and behold, the necessary 38 states signed on, and, in 1992, the amendment that Congress had blessed way back in 1789, was finally ratified. It is now the 27th Amendment to the Constitution, the last (or at least most recent) of the amendments and one of only two added in the past 50 years. Altogether, the Constitution has only been amended 17 times since the Bill of Rights, and one of those amendments (the 21st) was done just to repeal another (the 18th, known as Prohibition). Five amendments have dealt with presidential succession, elections or terms in office. A flurry of amendments after the Civil War abolished slavery, guaranteed equal protection under the law and banned racial discrimination. A successor amendment in the 1960s banned the poll tax, often used to keep African-Americans from voting in states that once had slavery. Other momentous amendments have granted women the right to vote (19th), lowered the voting age to 18 from 21 (26th), imposed the income tax (16th) and provided for the direct election of senators by the voters rather than by state legislatures (17th). The Equal Rights Amendment that still hasn't been But not all the amendments passed by Congress have stood the test of ratification by the states. Counting that very first item in Madison's package, there are six in all. Call them orphans, oddities or zombies, but considering how much time has passed, it is perhaps most amazing that there have been so few. The best known of these in our time is the Equal Rights Amendment, which provided that "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." It was the culmination of the women's rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Its bipartisan support carried it to two-thirds majorities in the House and Senate in the 1970s. It went out to the states in 1972 of states with a full head of steam. But the number of ratifying states stalled out at 35 — three short of the 38 required. Eventually, the seven-year time frame Congress had set for ratification was extended by three years. But, by this point, a strong opposition movement had arisen, blocking ratification in the remaining states and persuading some state legislatures to reconsider and rescind their ratification. One key element in this opposition was the Eagle Forum, led by Phyllis Schlafly, a prominent social conservative from Alton, Ill. She argued that the ERA could force unwanted changes on women who preferred their traditional roles. For example, Schlafly and others argued the ERA could subject women to a military draft. Despite having a full decade to win ratification, the ERA fell short and expired in 1982. Still taxation without representation A similar fate befell the Voting Rights Amendment for the District of Columbia. Passed by Congress in 1978, it would have given citizens of the nation's capital city the same full representation in Congress as any state (one voting representative in the House and two senators). This amendment, too, survived a battle in Congress, where some conservatives argued the Constitution had been wise to restrict D.C., so that it did not become an overly powerful center of national politics on the model of London or Paris. The states proved less than enthusiastic, and the seven-year expiration date Congress had added as part of the deal (as with the ERA) meant the amendment died in 1985. (It should be noted that another amendment, the 23rd, at least gave D.C. a chance to participate in the Electoral College with three electoral votes — just as it would have if it were a state. That amendment was ratified in 1961.) For either of these amendments to go back to the states for another round of ratification votes, it would have to first be passed by two-thirds votes in the Congress. It is far from certain that either could surmount that hurdle in the current House and Senate. Three other zombies that linger There are three other amendments that remain in zombie space, as it were, as they have never been ratified by three-fourths of the states, but have never expired: 1. The oldest is the Titles of Nobility Amendment, first sent to the states in 1810 on the verge of the second war with Great Britain (to be known as the War of 1812). It provided that any American citizen who accepted or received any title of nobility from a foreign power (or accepted any gift from such a power without the consent of Congress) would forfeit his or her American citizenship. This amendment came close to ratification, with a dozen states giving thumbs-up within two years. But there were 17 states as of 1803, so the Anti-Title Amendment fell short. No states have since joined in, but in the absence of an expiration clause, this amendment remains technically available. The next of the zombies had a far shorter interval of viability but conjures a moment of maximum tension in U.S. history. 2. It was known as the Corwin Amendment after the Ohio congressman who proposed it, but it has been remembered as the Slavery Amendment. Passed by Congress in 1861, on the eve of the Civil War, the Slavery Amendment sought to halt the secession movement by guaranteeing the federal government would not abolish slavery or otherwise interfere with the "domestic institutions of any state, including that of persons held to labor or service by the laws of said State." It came too late to appease the seceding states, which would eventually number 11. But it was ratified by two of the slave-holding states that did not leave the Union. Needless to say, interest in this measure was superseded by the 1865 passage and ratification of the 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude. But technically, the Slavery Amendment has never expired and remains outstanding. 3. The latest of this group of still-pending amendments is the Child Labor Amendment, granting the Congress power to regulate the labor of children under the age of 18. It was ratified by 28 states, far short of the 36 required at the time. The last state to ratify did so in 1937, nearly a decade after Congress had passed this amendment, but none has signed on since, largely because other laws enacted since (principally the Fair Labor Standards Act) have accomplished much of the amendment's intent. You won’t find a paywall here. Come as often as you like — we’re not counting. You’ve found a like-minded tribe that cherishes what a free press stands for. If you can spend another couple of minutes making a pledge of as little as $5, you’ll feel like a superhero defending democracy for less than the cost of a month of Netflix.	2,009	ENGLISH	1
The Spanish American war of 1898 ended Spain’s empire in the Western Hemisphere and gave the United States the position as Pacific power. When the United States won the victory in this war it produced a peace treaty that made the Spanish give up their claims to Cuba and to cede sovereignty over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Phillipines to the United States. The United States also gained Hawaii during this conflict. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Impact of Pearl Harbor on America" essay for youCreate order The United States was interested in Hawaii because of the industry of whaling and its natural resources of pineapples, sugarcane, coffee, macadamia nuts, and flowers. During this time those were the biggest industries in Hawaii however currently the leading industry is tourism. Hawaii has many big cities that people love to tour such as Honolulu, Kailua, Kaneohe, and Pearl City. There are also islands that are popular to tourists such as Kailua, Hilo, and Oahu which is home to Pearl Harbor. Pearl Harbor is a naval base and headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet in Honolulu county, just south of Oahu Island, Hawaii. Pearl Harbor was a beautiful island originally called Wai Momi meaning the Water of Pearl, and it was also called Pu’uloa. In the ancient stories told by the native people Pearl Harbor was home to the shark goddess Ka’ahupahau and her brother (or son), no one’s really sure which one, Kahi’uka. The gods were rumored to have lived in a cave at the entrance to Pearl Harbor and guard the waters against man-eating sharks. The ancient people depended on the gods to protect the harbors abundance of fish. Also until the late 1800s the harbor was abundant in pearl producing oysters. Due to an agreement between the United States and Hawaii, they agreed that the United States obtained rights to Pearl Harbor and Hawaii could enter sugar into the United States duty free, the United States owned the rights to the harbor. Since the Spanish American war in 1898 the United States needed a permanent place in the Pacific Ocean, which is a big reason Hawaii became annexed, to put a naval base to have the Pacific more protected. The United States wanted to use the harbor as a navy port, but the native people hated the idea. Many were outraged and with their beliefs they thought that the gods were, or would be, outraged as well. Although the natives were outraged, the United States proceeded with the work on the harbor and in August of 1919 the harbor was opened. Tensions between Japan and the United States began to expand so the United States made the decisions to place the Navy’s ships at the dock at Pearl Harbor for the Pacific fleet, they also had an Atlantic fleet. At the time this seemed like the smart thing to do, but it would prove fatal to the United States. The United States prepared the Navy for a war by training around the island of Hawaii. Thousands of people in the armed forces of the United States began moving to Hawaii, which added more culture to the island. With the constant training and drills being run no one expected that anything could happen to the harbor. On December 7, 1941 the tension with Japan came to a peak. On the morning of December 7th seemed just like any other day on the harbor, but unfortunately that was not the case. The harbor was expecting planes from the mainland, the United States, and when planes were detected on the radar that were identified the lieutenant said to disregard, thinking it was the US planes and a faulty radar. Around 7:55 A.M. on December 7th the first Japanese bomber planes were over the base. The first plane was followed by around two-hundred other planes that were equipped with not only bombs but also with machine guns and torpedoes.In less than an hour the harbor was in ruins. As if the Japanese did not cause enough damage the first time, they sent a second wave of fighters to hit the base. The second wave basically destroyed the whole harbor. Many naval ships were destroyed and nearly all aircrafts. The United States used what they had and tried to fight back as much as they could, but it barely caused any damage. In total only twenty-nine Japanese planes were shot down during the attack.Unfortunately the attacks took the lives of around two-thousand Americans and injured over a thousand. In the confusion the real American planes arrived at the harbor and ended up in friendly fire because the soldiers on the naval base couldn’t tell that they were American planes and not the Japanese. Pearl Harbor was an attack that took the United States by surprise and proved fatal to many. The lives of the American citizens were forever changed and the day went down in history as Pearl Harbor Day. Every year on December 7th people and families of lost loved ones mourn over the past. On this day we remember the lives lost of the confused and brave soldiers and civilians caught in the fire of the Japanese. The attack on Pearl Harbor led to the United States using an atomic bomb on Japan and killing around two-hundred and fifty thousand people in Japan. The effects of the atomic bomb were far worse than the effects of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, but the United States had to fight back. The attacks on Pearl Harbor will forever be in the minds of Americans and will forever impact how the US sets up their navy ships. The attack on the harbor led to the United States entry into World War II and taught nations around the world that the United States stands with protecting our nation. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:969edea9-0d4d-4ce4-af27-e22594cbfa99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/the-impact-of-pearl-harbor-on-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00107.warc.gz	en	0.981907	1,181	3.734375	4	[ -0.04915223270654678, 0.12312661111354828, 0.19564007222652435, -0.3139730989933014, 0.13963191211223602, 0.1551486849784851, 0.12373200803995132, 0.29464253783226013, -0.04710519313812256, 0.15220418572425842, 0.3267981708049774, -0.200154647231102, -0.21604834496974945, 0.321566760540008...	2	The Spanish American war of 1898 ended Spain’s empire in the Western Hemisphere and gave the United States the position as Pacific power. When the United States won the victory in this war it produced a peace treaty that made the Spanish give up their claims to Cuba and to cede sovereignty over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Phillipines to the United States. The United States also gained Hawaii during this conflict. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Impact of Pearl Harbor on America" essay for youCreate order The United States was interested in Hawaii because of the industry of whaling and its natural resources of pineapples, sugarcane, coffee, macadamia nuts, and flowers. During this time those were the biggest industries in Hawaii however currently the leading industry is tourism. Hawaii has many big cities that people love to tour such as Honolulu, Kailua, Kaneohe, and Pearl City. There are also islands that are popular to tourists such as Kailua, Hilo, and Oahu which is home to Pearl Harbor. Pearl Harbor is a naval base and headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet in Honolulu county, just south of Oahu Island, Hawaii. Pearl Harbor was a beautiful island originally called Wai Momi meaning the Water of Pearl, and it was also called Pu’uloa. In the ancient stories told by the native people Pearl Harbor was home to the shark goddess Ka’ahupahau and her brother (or son), no one’s really sure which one, Kahi’uka. The gods were rumored to have lived in a cave at the entrance to Pearl Harbor and guard the waters against man-eating sharks. The ancient people depended on the gods to protect the harbors abundance of fish. Also until the late 1800s the harbor was abundant in pearl producing oysters. Due to an agreement between the United States and Hawaii, they agreed that the United States obtained rights to Pearl Harbor and Hawaii could enter sugar into the United States duty free, the United States owned the rights to the harbor. Since the Spanish American war in 1898 the United States needed a permanent place in the Pacific Ocean, which is a big reason Hawaii became annexed, to put a naval base to have the Pacific more protected. The United States wanted to use the harbor as a navy port, but the native people hated the idea. Many were outraged and with their beliefs they thought that the gods were, or would be, outraged as well. Although the natives were outraged, the United States proceeded with the work on the harbor and in August of 1919 the harbor was opened. Tensions between Japan and the United States began to expand so the United States made the decisions to place the Navy’s ships at the dock at Pearl Harbor for the Pacific fleet, they also had an Atlantic fleet. At the time this seemed like the smart thing to do, but it would prove fatal to the United States. The United States prepared the Navy for a war by training around the island of Hawaii. Thousands of people in the armed forces of the United States began moving to Hawaii, which added more culture to the island. With the constant training and drills being run no one expected that anything could happen to the harbor. On December 7, 1941 the tension with Japan came to a peak. On the morning of December 7th seemed just like any other day on the harbor, but unfortunately that was not the case. The harbor was expecting planes from the mainland, the United States, and when planes were detected on the radar that were identified the lieutenant said to disregard, thinking it was the US planes and a faulty radar. Around 7:55 A.M. on December 7th the first Japanese bomber planes were over the base. The first plane was followed by around two-hundred other planes that were equipped with not only bombs but also with machine guns and torpedoes.In less than an hour the harbor was in ruins. As if the Japanese did not cause enough damage the first time, they sent a second wave of fighters to hit the base. The second wave basically destroyed the whole harbor. Many naval ships were destroyed and nearly all aircrafts. The United States used what they had and tried to fight back as much as they could, but it barely caused any damage. In total only twenty-nine Japanese planes were shot down during the attack.Unfortunately the attacks took the lives of around two-thousand Americans and injured over a thousand. In the confusion the real American planes arrived at the harbor and ended up in friendly fire because the soldiers on the naval base couldn’t tell that they were American planes and not the Japanese. Pearl Harbor was an attack that took the United States by surprise and proved fatal to many. The lives of the American citizens were forever changed and the day went down in history as Pearl Harbor Day. Every year on December 7th people and families of lost loved ones mourn over the past. On this day we remember the lives lost of the confused and brave soldiers and civilians caught in the fire of the Japanese. The attack on Pearl Harbor led to the United States using an atomic bomb on Japan and killing around two-hundred and fifty thousand people in Japan. The effects of the atomic bomb were far worse than the effects of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, but the United States had to fight back. The attacks on Pearl Harbor will forever be in the minds of Americans and will forever impact how the US sets up their navy ships. The attack on the harbor led to the United States entry into World War II and taught nations around the world that the United States stands with protecting our nation. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,183	ENGLISH	1
Aztech and Inka Mini Q Essay The Aztecs, a civilization, lived in Tenochtitlan (Modern day Mexico City). The Incas were also an indiginios group that lived on the Andes Mountain Range. Religion was an important component that made up Aztec and Inca civilization. They The Aztecs and Incas both believed in the gods and valued religion. The Aztecs were looking for a place to settle and build their empire. According to Aztec myth, Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec sun and war god, told the Aztecs that they would find the right place to settle when they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. They were able to establish and build their empire. They began to settle by 1325. On the other hand, the Inkas were a small tribe in the Andes struggling agriculturally. However, around the 1200s when the Inka took up residence in Cuzco, they started to attack neighboring tribes and were able to make a name for their self as well as profit. Religion was important to both empires. In fact, they were willing to take lives in the name of religion. The Aztecs participated in sacrifices more commonly, but the Inka also took part in such practices. Human Sacrifices were performed to appease the gods and hope for a good agricultural season. According to Document D, the Aztecs also believed that they owe a debt to the gods and that the only way to repay this debt would be with human lives and blood. Prisoners of war, children, and volunteers would usually play the sacrificial lamb. Volunteers were so committed to their religion that they would die in the name of it. Aztec children and volunteers would live lavish lifestyles before they were sacrificed. The Inka would more generally sacrifice animals like goats, but on occasion, they sacrificed humans. The Inka would have ceremonies where they would sacrifice children, one sacrifice ritual being Capacocha. During Capacocha, children would be selected “for their beauty and possible nobility, honored by their selection, and well fed and cared for before their ritual deaths. According to Ikca beliefs, such children were to serve as guardians over their villages from the heights of the mountains, joining the ancestors and honored in death” (Document H). The Religion between the Aztech and Inka did not differ much. I am showing you an ideal essay, ordered on help research paper It can be used as a template for your essays.	<urn:uuid:61728cd8-36c3-4dee-a4f1-32dcae76e7fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://elevatewalnuthills.org/aztech-and-inka-mini-q-essay.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00142.warc.gz	en	0.988874	530	4.0625	4	[ -0.4048931300640106, 0.486736923456192, 0.15054230391979218, 0.5308098196983337, -0.266973078250885, -0.12092903256416321, -0.09537604451179504, 0.38443928956985474, -0.07079973071813583, -0.16653132438659668, 0.028815757483243942, -0.3107060194015503, 0.09491568058729172, 0.20112778246402...	5	Aztech and Inka Mini Q Essay The Aztecs, a civilization, lived in Tenochtitlan (Modern day Mexico City). The Incas were also an indiginios group that lived on the Andes Mountain Range. Religion was an important component that made up Aztec and Inca civilization. They The Aztecs and Incas both believed in the gods and valued religion. The Aztecs were looking for a place to settle and build their empire. According to Aztec myth, Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec sun and war god, told the Aztecs that they would find the right place to settle when they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. They were able to establish and build their empire. They began to settle by 1325. On the other hand, the Inkas were a small tribe in the Andes struggling agriculturally. However, around the 1200s when the Inka took up residence in Cuzco, they started to attack neighboring tribes and were able to make a name for their self as well as profit. Religion was important to both empires. In fact, they were willing to take lives in the name of religion. The Aztecs participated in sacrifices more commonly, but the Inka also took part in such practices. Human Sacrifices were performed to appease the gods and hope for a good agricultural season. According to Document D, the Aztecs also believed that they owe a debt to the gods and that the only way to repay this debt would be with human lives and blood. Prisoners of war, children, and volunteers would usually play the sacrificial lamb. Volunteers were so committed to their religion that they would die in the name of it. Aztec children and volunteers would live lavish lifestyles before they were sacrificed. The Inka would more generally sacrifice animals like goats, but on occasion, they sacrificed humans. The Inka would have ceremonies where they would sacrifice children, one sacrifice ritual being Capacocha. During Capacocha, children would be selected “for their beauty and possible nobility, honored by their selection, and well fed and cared for before their ritual deaths. According to Ikca beliefs, such children were to serve as guardians over their villages from the heights of the mountains, joining the ancestors and honored in death” (Document H). The Religion between the Aztech and Inka did not differ much. I am showing you an ideal essay, ordered on help research paper It can be used as a template for your essays.	527	ENGLISH	1
Pages that link here: Zacharias Janssen is one of the three original spectacle-makers from Netherlands who claimed that he was the first persons who have discovered first modern telescope. Even though his claims were never confirmed, he managed to carve his way into our history. Galileo Galilei is today remembered as one of the most celebrated and most influential scientist from the age of Italian 17th century Renaissance. One of his greatest inventions was his powerful telescope, which enabled him to completely change our view on the universe around us. In 1608, three inventors contacted Dutch government and asked from it permission to patent their original Telescope designs. One of those three was Jacob Metius, a famous spectacle-maker from Dutch city Alkmaar. Johannes Kepler is without a doubt one of the most important scientists that contributed to the rise of Enlightenment, a scientific movement that significantly impacted the development of Renaissance Europe. Many of his most important discoveries happened because of his involvement with telescopes, which were introduced to them by none other than Galileo Galilei.	<urn:uuid:9f3d062d-fa8a-4166-9c43-b19c7922b8ae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.historyoftelescope.com/picture/picture-of-zacharias-janssen/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00351.warc.gz	en	0.984255	218	3.484375	3	[ 0.1991456151008606, 0.6138407588005066, 0.05358150228857994, -0.18050037324428558, -0.5229043960571289, -0.09587757289409637, 0.20194019377231598, 0.5495023131370544, -0.2589332163333893, -0.016389640048146248, -0.2494821846485138, -0.3684293031692505, -0.34066900610923767, 0.2431759983301...	1	Pages that link here: Zacharias Janssen is one of the three original spectacle-makers from Netherlands who claimed that he was the first persons who have discovered first modern telescope. Even though his claims were never confirmed, he managed to carve his way into our history. Galileo Galilei is today remembered as one of the most celebrated and most influential scientist from the age of Italian 17th century Renaissance. One of his greatest inventions was his powerful telescope, which enabled him to completely change our view on the universe around us. In 1608, three inventors contacted Dutch government and asked from it permission to patent their original Telescope designs. One of those three was Jacob Metius, a famous spectacle-maker from Dutch city Alkmaar. Johannes Kepler is without a doubt one of the most important scientists that contributed to the rise of Enlightenment, a scientific movement that significantly impacted the development of Renaissance Europe. Many of his most important discoveries happened because of his involvement with telescopes, which were introduced to them by none other than Galileo Galilei.	218	ENGLISH	1
Last Updated on : The Papacy In History And Prophecy In France, after the death of King Henry IV, the Huguenots were frequently the subject of Catholic persecu- tion organized and implemented by the famous Cardinal Richelieu. By him they were, as a distinct political organization, effectively suppressed. After Richelieu's death his successors stepped up their organized purges and in 1679 an extensive system of proselytizing was organized. Harsh punishment was threatened to every Roman Catholic who should go over to the Protestant Church, whilst Huguenots were by degrees excluded from all offices and dignities. At length the atrocious scheme of the dragonnade, or the billeting of soldiers in Huguenot families, was resorted until in 1685 the Edict of Nantes was revoked by the King at the instigation of the Church. Thousands fled and hundreds were massacred. The next century signalized the breaking away from the traditions of the past in every department of thought and inquiry. Although wholesome progress was made in many fields, it was not tempered by religious aspirations and resulted in a bias towards skepticism and unbelief. Men were tired with the warfare of creeds which had chilled the spirit of piety. The conflicts of the eighteenth century were dynastic and not religious struggles, caused mainly by the ambition of Kings rather than prelates. An event highly important in itself and at the same time well adapted to illustrate the character of the age, was the downfall of the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits. In the 1700's they comprised approximately 20,000 members who were busily at work in all parts of the world. They owned huge amounts of property and held the education of youth in their grasp. Some of their doctrines, such as "moral probableism" and some of their actions, became obnoxious to the people of Europe. More than one pontiff in the latter part of the 17th century had interposed to condemn the unethical precepts the Jesuits taught. The Jesuits at the outset were obedient to the pope and devoted to building up his authority, but this changed and soon they began to put their order first. The first serious collision between the Jesuits and the Church arose over the conduct of the Jesuit missionaries. They taught that converts could retain their heathen practices and still become Christians. This provoked hostility from the pope himself. Repeated edicts of the Roman See were stubbornly disregarded and resisted by the Jesuits of the East until finally in 1741 they gave way. What brought to pass their downfall was their active interference in political affairs and the way in which they engaged in trade and commercial speculations. Their missionary stations were in reality factions and the centers of commercial speculations. In 1759 they were expelled from Portugal, 1767 expelled from France and in 1773 abolished by the Pope. In Europe as well, reforms, looking to the independence of states and the reduction of foreign ecclesiastical influence, were vigorously undertaken. In 1780 Joseph II, Emperor of Austria issued edicts of toleration. Protestantism was protected, the Church was now to be governed by the sovereign and the jurisdiction of the pope was reduced to the narrowest limits. No titles could be conferred nor could any papal decree be published without the emperor's consent. Joseph even ordered a few well established bulls to be torn out of the ritual book. Unfortunately Joseph's successors gradually restored the former religious status in the Austrian dominions. The example of Joseph II however was contagious and various plans of reform in different countries took place, the greatest of which was the French Revolution in which the king nobles and clergy were expelled. The Church in France held an immense amount of land, controlled a multitude of peasants and reaped a vast income from tithes and taxes. Prelates lived at a distance from their dioceses and expended their revenues in indolence and luxurious pleasures. The common priests; who managed education, were as a rule ignorant, and the other ecclesiastics were full of infidelity. In 1789 the States-General was called to investigate the impoverishment of the public treasury and the Church, with its immense wealth, could not fail to be an immediate object of attention. Church property was consequently confiscated and ecclesiastics were to receive a salary from the State. This was followed by the abolition of cloisters and all nuns and monks were released from their vows. To these measures the pope was naturally hostile and the requirement that the clergy should swear allegiance to the new constitution and not himself, brought on a collision. The pope, in 1791, issued a bull which banned all priests who took the vow, but this went unheeded by the government. On 21.9.1792 the National Convention proclaimed France, a republic and in 1793 condemned Louis XVI to death. The emigration of the nobles and priests and the aggressive measures of foreign powers hostile to the Revolution, infused a fanatical violence amongst the revolutionaries and after much bloodshed the Catholic religion was formerly abolished as being hostile to the republic. In 1791 the National Assembly annexed the papal districts of Avignon and Venaissin and Pope Pius VI protested. He then, as in former days, united with the allied sovereigns who opposed France and began to agitate. He did not foresee the rise of Napoleon however, who in 1797 invaded Italy and took command of the pope. The French then sacked Rome. In the same year though a French general lost his life and therefore Napoleon returned and took Pius captive. Despite this seeming opposition to Catholicism Napoleon concluded a concordat with Pius VII in 1801, in which the Catholic religion was declared to be the majority of the French people but was strictly under the control of the French Government. Next year saw the laws of the government which modelled the Church along the lines of reform instituted by Joseph II in Austria and despite the pope's opposition, he came to Paris in 1804 to crown Napoleon. When however several years after (1808) the emperor went so far as to demand the creation of a Patriarch of France to be appointed by himself, and to require the pope to join in with him against England, Pius refused. As a penalty his states were annexed to the French Empire the next year. A papal bull of excommunication against all unrighteous assailants of the Holy See was issued, and Napoleon was privately informed afterwards that he was included amongst them. The pope was consequently carried as a prisoner first to Savona and then to France. Under these trying circumstances Pius VII maintained his position with firmness but was at length induced to make large concessions. Unfortunately for France the conflict between the two ended with the fall of Napoleon and the triumph of the allies in 1814. But in whatever part of Europe the influence of Napoleon had been felt the civil authority was made supreme, the authority of the papacy was curtailed and made subject to the rulers of the State, and institutions, like monastic establishments were swept away. The mediaeval was transformed into the modern state. THE PAPACY AFTER THE FALL OF NAPOLEON The fall of Napoleon restored Pius VII to Rome and enabled him to resume the exercise of his pontifical authority. Russia, Prussia and Austria formed Holy Alliance by which they agreed to stamp out popular insurrections and rule with absolute sway. The pope supported this and restored the Inquisition and the Index whilst at the same time reviving the Jesuit order in 1814. In Spain and France the bishops again rose in ascendancy and stirred the Catholics to rise against the Protestants. This they did in 1815 slaying hundreds of them until the government interfered. Pius was succeeded in 1823 by a papal absolutist, Leo XII. His adherents proclaimed the pope supreme over secular rulers, the Jesuits were favoured and exalted whilst the papal kingdom was miserably governed. France broke into revolution again in 1830 and the leader Louis Philippe put an end to the domination of the clerical party and deprived the Jesuits of their new found power. In 1831 the doctrine of freedom of worship, liberty of conscience and liberty of the press came from Paris but was solidly opposed by pope Gregory XVI. Gregory died in 1846 and this gave rise to liberal pope, Pius IX who much against the desires of the European monarchs supported the liberal inclinations of the fomenting tide, of revolutionary thinking. As temporal power of the papal states of Italy he began encouraging popular government but when he refused to give his blessing to an army of liberals who intended driving the Austrians out in 1848, his popularity vanished. The liberals began then to demand more concessions and then after riots occurred Pius fled in Nov. 1848. Mazzini and Garibaldi took power and formed a revolutionary government. Louis Napoleon of France however alarmed at this restored the Pope under French protection. He, did not find it easy however for he underestimated the tenacity of Garibaldi. In 1849 Rome was opened to the French. The pope by this time had learnt not to support liberalism and on his restoration tended back to an authoritarian direction. The continual upheavals and revolutions which took place all over Europe in 1848 convinced him of the danger of liberalism. Pius IX after a turbulent beginning now began to sail in calmer waters during the 1850's but this was just a lull before, the storm. THE LOSS OF THE PAPAL STATES After the collapse of the revolutions of 1848-49 the eyes of Italy looked for help which would be able to rid the peninsula of French and Austrians alike. In Piedmont there was one prince who maintained a constitution - Victor Emmanuel II and he had an army as well. In this small independent state the Church had no control of education, courts, sanctuary rights, feast days and the press. The Pope was alarmed at this and saw that if Italy became united that papal states would be totally abolished. In July 1858 Emperor Napoleon III and Cavour (Emmanuel's premier) held a secret interview to liquidate the papal states and in 1858 they drove the Austrians out of northern Italy. Seeing his protectors gone the pope set about raising a task-force of international volunteers to reinforce his small professional army in defence of the papacy. A recruiting campaign was launched in Ireland (until stopped by Britain) in Belgium, in France (until Napoleon stopped it) in Austria, in Poland, in Spain and in Portugal. When they arrived they were trained in the old coach houses and cellars of the Vatican. In 1860 Garibaldi arrived with his "Thousand" in Sicily and began his lightning advance through the island on to Naples. At the same time Victor Emmanuel's troops moved south and attached a few more papal states to their dominion. The papal armies were disastrously defeated and the papal power became reduced to a narrow strip of land along the western coast of Italy. Garibaldi, however was defeated in the south but the pope still recognised that the survival of Rome depended on the goodwill of the French Government which alone was strong enough to prevent Emmanuel's army occupying the city. Under the delicately balanced politics of the later half of the 1860's Pius IX invited 800 ecclesiastics from all over the world to form the Vatican Council to reassert the fundamental beliefs of the Catholic Church in an age of disbelief and scepticism. The main task of the Council however defined the nature of the Church, her authority and her relations with the state. It was in the year 1870 that the Council ruled (after 300 walked out) that the pope is infallible only when speaking "ex cathedra" i.e. when occupying the papal chair and speaking to the whole Church. The final crisis in the liquidation of the papal states came just after the Council had concluded. In July 1870 Napoleon declared war on Prussia and consequently the French army left Rome but Napoleon's empire came to end in September of the same year. This was the opportunity Emmanuel had been waiting for and sent an envoy to the Pope stating that he proposed to take over Rome "to maintain order" but the pope rejected the ultimatum, and awaited the outcome. Victor Emmanuel and his Peidmontese army moved in overthrew the resisting army and officially proclaimed Rome the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy. Pius IX was then stripped of his temporal power and allowed to use the Vatican while still retaining his own personal guard. The prestige of the pope within the Church may have been very high after 1870; but outside the Church and especially in the chancelleries of the great states it was desperately low and the governments felt free as never before to attack both the Church and her head in every possible way. All Books/Booklets, Editorials, and Articles are FREE and can be downloaded without permission.	<urn:uuid:5b9a3435-0b78-4fbf-a079-ed7abe50782c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.antipas.org/books/papacy_in_history/pap_part1_8.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00038.warc.gz	en	0.983724	2,636	3.71875	4	[ -0.13727395236492157, 0.5360852479934692, -0.06462052464485168, -0.2234526127576828, 0.0927538275718689, -0.10921859741210938, -0.2933272123336792, 0.06797872483730316, 0.482707142829895, -0.09704311192035675, -0.3151989281177521, -0.120271235704422, 0.19790056347846985, 0.1934442818164825...	2	Last Updated on : The Papacy In History And Prophecy In France, after the death of King Henry IV, the Huguenots were frequently the subject of Catholic persecu- tion organized and implemented by the famous Cardinal Richelieu. By him they were, as a distinct political organization, effectively suppressed. After Richelieu's death his successors stepped up their organized purges and in 1679 an extensive system of proselytizing was organized. Harsh punishment was threatened to every Roman Catholic who should go over to the Protestant Church, whilst Huguenots were by degrees excluded from all offices and dignities. At length the atrocious scheme of the dragonnade, or the billeting of soldiers in Huguenot families, was resorted until in 1685 the Edict of Nantes was revoked by the King at the instigation of the Church. Thousands fled and hundreds were massacred. The next century signalized the breaking away from the traditions of the past in every department of thought and inquiry. Although wholesome progress was made in many fields, it was not tempered by religious aspirations and resulted in a bias towards skepticism and unbelief. Men were tired with the warfare of creeds which had chilled the spirit of piety. The conflicts of the eighteenth century were dynastic and not religious struggles, caused mainly by the ambition of Kings rather than prelates. An event highly important in itself and at the same time well adapted to illustrate the character of the age, was the downfall of the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits. In the 1700's they comprised approximately 20,000 members who were busily at work in all parts of the world. They owned huge amounts of property and held the education of youth in their grasp. Some of their doctrines, such as "moral probableism" and some of their actions, became obnoxious to the people of Europe. More than one pontiff in the latter part of the 17th century had interposed to condemn the unethical precepts the Jesuits taught. The Jesuits at the outset were obedient to the pope and devoted to building up his authority, but this changed and soon they began to put their order first. The first serious collision between the Jesuits and the Church arose over the conduct of the Jesuit missionaries. They taught that converts could retain their heathen practices and still become Christians. This provoked hostility from the pope himself. Repeated edicts of the Roman See were stubbornly disregarded and resisted by the Jesuits of the East until finally in 1741 they gave way. What brought to pass their downfall was their active interference in political affairs and the way in which they engaged in trade and commercial speculations. Their missionary stations were in reality factions and the centers of commercial speculations. In 1759 they were expelled from Portugal, 1767 expelled from France and in 1773 abolished by the Pope. In Europe as well, reforms, looking to the independence of states and the reduction of foreign ecclesiastical influence, were vigorously undertaken. In 1780 Joseph II, Emperor of Austria issued edicts of toleration. Protestantism was protected, the Church was now to be governed by the sovereign and the jurisdiction of the pope was reduced to the narrowest limits. No titles could be conferred nor could any papal decree be published without the emperor's consent. Joseph even ordered a few well established bulls to be torn out of the ritual book. Unfortunately Joseph's successors gradually restored the former religious status in the Austrian dominions. The example of Joseph II however was contagious and various plans of reform in different countries took place, the greatest of which was the French Revolution in which the king nobles and clergy were expelled. The Church in France held an immense amount of land, controlled a multitude of peasants and reaped a vast income from tithes and taxes. Prelates lived at a distance from their dioceses and expended their revenues in indolence and luxurious pleasures. The common priests; who managed education, were as a rule ignorant, and the other ecclesiastics were full of infidelity. In 1789 the States-General was called to investigate the impoverishment of the public treasury and the Church, with its immense wealth, could not fail to be an immediate object of attention. Church property was consequently confiscated and ecclesiastics were to receive a salary from the State. This was followed by the abolition of cloisters and all nuns and monks were released from their vows. To these measures the pope was naturally hostile and the requirement that the clergy should swear allegiance to the new constitution and not himself, brought on a collision. The pope, in 1791, issued a bull which banned all priests who took the vow, but this went unheeded by the government. On 21.9.1792 the National Convention proclaimed France, a republic and in 1793 condemned Louis XVI to death. The emigration of the nobles and priests and the aggressive measures of foreign powers hostile to the Revolution, infused a fanatical violence amongst the revolutionaries and after much bloodshed the Catholic religion was formerly abolished as being hostile to the republic. In 1791 the National Assembly annexed the papal districts of Avignon and Venaissin and Pope Pius VI protested. He then, as in former days, united with the allied sovereigns who opposed France and began to agitate. He did not foresee the rise of Napoleon however, who in 1797 invaded Italy and took command of the pope. The French then sacked Rome. In the same year though a French general lost his life and therefore Napoleon returned and took Pius captive. Despite this seeming opposition to Catholicism Napoleon concluded a concordat with Pius VII in 1801, in which the Catholic religion was declared to be the majority of the French people but was strictly under the control of the French Government. Next year saw the laws of the government which modelled the Church along the lines of reform instituted by Joseph II in Austria and despite the pope's opposition, he came to Paris in 1804 to crown Napoleon. When however several years after (1808) the emperor went so far as to demand the creation of a Patriarch of France to be appointed by himself, and to require the pope to join in with him against England, Pius refused. As a penalty his states were annexed to the French Empire the next year. A papal bull of excommunication against all unrighteous assailants of the Holy See was issued, and Napoleon was privately informed afterwards that he was included amongst them. The pope was consequently carried as a prisoner first to Savona and then to France. Under these trying circumstances Pius VII maintained his position with firmness but was at length induced to make large concessions. Unfortunately for France the conflict between the two ended with the fall of Napoleon and the triumph of the allies in 1814. But in whatever part of Europe the influence of Napoleon had been felt the civil authority was made supreme, the authority of the papacy was curtailed and made subject to the rulers of the State, and institutions, like monastic establishments were swept away. The mediaeval was transformed into the modern state. THE PAPACY AFTER THE FALL OF NAPOLEON The fall of Napoleon restored Pius VII to Rome and enabled him to resume the exercise of his pontifical authority. Russia, Prussia and Austria formed Holy Alliance by which they agreed to stamp out popular insurrections and rule with absolute sway. The pope supported this and restored the Inquisition and the Index whilst at the same time reviving the Jesuit order in 1814. In Spain and France the bishops again rose in ascendancy and stirred the Catholics to rise against the Protestants. This they did in 1815 slaying hundreds of them until the government interfered. Pius was succeeded in 1823 by a papal absolutist, Leo XII. His adherents proclaimed the pope supreme over secular rulers, the Jesuits were favoured and exalted whilst the papal kingdom was miserably governed. France broke into revolution again in 1830 and the leader Louis Philippe put an end to the domination of the clerical party and deprived the Jesuits of their new found power. In 1831 the doctrine of freedom of worship, liberty of conscience and liberty of the press came from Paris but was solidly opposed by pope Gregory XVI. Gregory died in 1846 and this gave rise to liberal pope, Pius IX who much against the desires of the European monarchs supported the liberal inclinations of the fomenting tide, of revolutionary thinking. As temporal power of the papal states of Italy he began encouraging popular government but when he refused to give his blessing to an army of liberals who intended driving the Austrians out in 1848, his popularity vanished. The liberals began then to demand more concessions and then after riots occurred Pius fled in Nov. 1848. Mazzini and Garibaldi took power and formed a revolutionary government. Louis Napoleon of France however alarmed at this restored the Pope under French protection. He, did not find it easy however for he underestimated the tenacity of Garibaldi. In 1849 Rome was opened to the French. The pope by this time had learnt not to support liberalism and on his restoration tended back to an authoritarian direction. The continual upheavals and revolutions which took place all over Europe in 1848 convinced him of the danger of liberalism. Pius IX after a turbulent beginning now began to sail in calmer waters during the 1850's but this was just a lull before, the storm. THE LOSS OF THE PAPAL STATES After the collapse of the revolutions of 1848-49 the eyes of Italy looked for help which would be able to rid the peninsula of French and Austrians alike. In Piedmont there was one prince who maintained a constitution - Victor Emmanuel II and he had an army as well. In this small independent state the Church had no control of education, courts, sanctuary rights, feast days and the press. The Pope was alarmed at this and saw that if Italy became united that papal states would be totally abolished. In July 1858 Emperor Napoleon III and Cavour (Emmanuel's premier) held a secret interview to liquidate the papal states and in 1858 they drove the Austrians out of northern Italy. Seeing his protectors gone the pope set about raising a task-force of international volunteers to reinforce his small professional army in defence of the papacy. A recruiting campaign was launched in Ireland (until stopped by Britain) in Belgium, in France (until Napoleon stopped it) in Austria, in Poland, in Spain and in Portugal. When they arrived they were trained in the old coach houses and cellars of the Vatican. In 1860 Garibaldi arrived with his "Thousand" in Sicily and began his lightning advance through the island on to Naples. At the same time Victor Emmanuel's troops moved south and attached a few more papal states to their dominion. The papal armies were disastrously defeated and the papal power became reduced to a narrow strip of land along the western coast of Italy. Garibaldi, however was defeated in the south but the pope still recognised that the survival of Rome depended on the goodwill of the French Government which alone was strong enough to prevent Emmanuel's army occupying the city. Under the delicately balanced politics of the later half of the 1860's Pius IX invited 800 ecclesiastics from all over the world to form the Vatican Council to reassert the fundamental beliefs of the Catholic Church in an age of disbelief and scepticism. The main task of the Council however defined the nature of the Church, her authority and her relations with the state. It was in the year 1870 that the Council ruled (after 300 walked out) that the pope is infallible only when speaking "ex cathedra" i.e. when occupying the papal chair and speaking to the whole Church. The final crisis in the liquidation of the papal states came just after the Council had concluded. In July 1870 Napoleon declared war on Prussia and consequently the French army left Rome but Napoleon's empire came to end in September of the same year. This was the opportunity Emmanuel had been waiting for and sent an envoy to the Pope stating that he proposed to take over Rome "to maintain order" but the pope rejected the ultimatum, and awaited the outcome. Victor Emmanuel and his Peidmontese army moved in overthrew the resisting army and officially proclaimed Rome the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy. Pius IX was then stripped of his temporal power and allowed to use the Vatican while still retaining his own personal guard. The prestige of the pope within the Church may have been very high after 1870; but outside the Church and especially in the chancelleries of the great states it was desperately low and the governments felt free as never before to attack both the Church and her head in every possible way. All Books/Booklets, Editorials, and Articles are FREE and can be downloaded without permission.	2,764	ENGLISH	1
Metaphors In The Pearl In John Steinbeck’s story The Pearl, it is the precious stone itself that serves a parable for the greed and avarice that naturally accompany the discovery and revelation of sudden wealth in the hands of desperately poor people. Kino and his wife Juana hope to use the proceeds from the sale of the pearl they found to both secure financial resources needed to have their infant son Coyotito treated for his sickness from the scorpion bit, and to elevate their social status among their community. Whether this constitutes greed or simply a determined effort at helping his family find a better life is worthy of debate, but The Pearl clearly is intended to act as warning against avarice and greed. Since finding the pearl, Kino becomes entangled in a number of menacing confrontations and, very soon, his previously peaceable nature becomes supplanted by a more threatening, defensive posture that merely wants to preserve the pearl until it can be sold. It is one such confrontation where Steinbeck employs a metaphor to describe the descent of his protagonist from peaceable, happy father into angry, defenseless and ultimately murderous protector of the pearl. It is in Chapter Five where one finds Steinbeck’s use of a metaphor in comparing Kino’s canoe, which had originally belonged to his grandfather and, consequently, holds a personal and spiritual value that transcends its otherwise questionable condition. Reflecting on his having killed one of the men who had intended to rob him of the pearl, Kino subsequently notes the condition of the canoe, through the hull of which somebody had poked a sizable hole: “The killing of a man was not so evil as the killing of a boat. For a boat does not have sons, and a boat cannot protect itself, and a wounded boat does not heal. There was sorrow in Kino's rage, but this last thing had tightened him beyond breaking. He was an animal now, for hiding, for attacking, and he lived only to preserve himself and his family.” Kino has become that which he has previously eschewed: a violent murderous member of the lowest echelon of society. He has incorporated the pearl into his very being, protecting and revering at the expense of his values and worth as a human being. As Steinbeck’s protagonist notes following the egregious acts that have taken place in the interest of possessing this valuable deposit of calcium carbonate formed from the shell of a mollusk, a crustacean, a bottom-feeder: "This pearl has become my soul," said Kino. "If I give it up I shall lose my soul. Go thou also with God." check Approved by eNotes Editorial An example of a metaphor from Chapter 5 of The Pearl can be found in this line: "He was an animal now, for hiding, for attacking, and he lived only to preserve himself and his family." This is on page 62 of my copy, a Penguin book paperback edition. The comparison is, of course, between the man (Kino) and a wild animal.	<urn:uuid:4c6430c5-2cac-455c-b916-6fab1a340505>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-metaphor-chapter-5-pearl-by-john-steinbeck-356160?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00002.warc.gz	en	0.981337	631	3.59375	4	[ 0.07113080471754074, 0.05960734188556671, 0.15208637714385986, -0.21815098822116852, 0.08175398409366608, -0.3256801962852478, 0.6506120562553406, 0.25648537278175354, -0.007708830758929253, -0.16977643966674805, 0.3566020727157593, -0.355349600315094, 0.275136798620224, -0.022139588370919...	3	Metaphors In The Pearl In John Steinbeck’s story The Pearl, it is the precious stone itself that serves a parable for the greed and avarice that naturally accompany the discovery and revelation of sudden wealth in the hands of desperately poor people. Kino and his wife Juana hope to use the proceeds from the sale of the pearl they found to both secure financial resources needed to have their infant son Coyotito treated for his sickness from the scorpion bit, and to elevate their social status among their community. Whether this constitutes greed or simply a determined effort at helping his family find a better life is worthy of debate, but The Pearl clearly is intended to act as warning against avarice and greed. Since finding the pearl, Kino becomes entangled in a number of menacing confrontations and, very soon, his previously peaceable nature becomes supplanted by a more threatening, defensive posture that merely wants to preserve the pearl until it can be sold. It is one such confrontation where Steinbeck employs a metaphor to describe the descent of his protagonist from peaceable, happy father into angry, defenseless and ultimately murderous protector of the pearl. It is in Chapter Five where one finds Steinbeck’s use of a metaphor in comparing Kino’s canoe, which had originally belonged to his grandfather and, consequently, holds a personal and spiritual value that transcends its otherwise questionable condition. Reflecting on his having killed one of the men who had intended to rob him of the pearl, Kino subsequently notes the condition of the canoe, through the hull of which somebody had poked a sizable hole: “The killing of a man was not so evil as the killing of a boat. For a boat does not have sons, and a boat cannot protect itself, and a wounded boat does not heal. There was sorrow in Kino's rage, but this last thing had tightened him beyond breaking. He was an animal now, for hiding, for attacking, and he lived only to preserve himself and his family.” Kino has become that which he has previously eschewed: a violent murderous member of the lowest echelon of society. He has incorporated the pearl into his very being, protecting and revering at the expense of his values and worth as a human being. As Steinbeck’s protagonist notes following the egregious acts that have taken place in the interest of possessing this valuable deposit of calcium carbonate formed from the shell of a mollusk, a crustacean, a bottom-feeder: "This pearl has become my soul," said Kino. "If I give it up I shall lose my soul. Go thou also with God." check Approved by eNotes Editorial An example of a metaphor from Chapter 5 of The Pearl can be found in this line: "He was an animal now, for hiding, for attacking, and he lived only to preserve himself and his family." This is on page 62 of my copy, a Penguin book paperback edition. The comparison is, of course, between the man (Kino) and a wild animal.	615	ENGLISH	1
wryneck defined in 1930 yearwryneck - Wryneck; wryneck - Upper parts reddish grey, irregularly spotted and lined with brown and black; a broad black and brown band from the back of the head to the back; under parts dull white, tinged with buff, and barred with dark brown, except on the breast and belly, where the markings become arrow-headed in form; outer web of the quills marked with rectangular, alternate black and yellowish red spots; tail-feathers barred with black zigzag bands; beak and feet olive-brown. Length, seven inches. The wryneck is placed by anatomists next to the woodpeckers, and is like them in the form of its feet and the habit of perching vertically on the trunks of trees; but he does not dig into the wood with his beak, nor does he support himself with his tail, the feathers of which are soft, as in most perching birds. He is a singular bird, differing from all others in form, colouring, language, and habits. His variously coloured plumage, so curiously and beautifully barred and mottled, is most like that of the nightjar; but his beauty appears only when he is seen very near. At a distance of twenty-five or thirty yards he is obscure in colouring, and is more remarkable for his attitudes and gestures, when seen on a tree trunk deftly and rapidly picking up the small ants on which he feeds. When thus engaged he twists his neck, turning his head from side to side in a most singular manner; hence the name of wryneck. When taken in the hand he twists his neck about in the same manner, and hisses like a snake, as he also does when disturbed during incubation; and on this account he has been called snake-bird. When held in the hand he sometimes swoons, and appears to be dead until released, whereupon he quickly recovers and makes his escape. Even more characteristic than his contortions, hissings, and ' death feignings,' is his voice. It is an unmistakable and familiar sound of early spring, as distinctive as the shrill cry of the swift and the cuckoo's call - a clear, high-pitched, far-reaching note, reiterated many times - a sound that makes itself heard at a distance of a quarter of a mile. As a rule, this note is heard a few days before the cuckoo's call, and on this account the wryneck is known in the southern counties, where he is most common, as the cuckoo's mate, or messenger, or boder, and is also called the cuckoo's maid. The wryneck feeds chiefly on ants and their larvae, and, like the green woodpecker, he goes to the anthills on commons and uncultivated grounds; the insects are taken with the long, retractile tongue, which is covered with an adhesive saliva, and which the bird, when feeding, darts out and withdraws with lightning rapidity. A hole in the trunk of a tree, often near the roots, is a favourite nesting-place. The eggs are seven to ten in number, and are deposited, without any nest, on the rotten wood. They are pure white, and have glossy shells. The same breeding-hole is used year after year. The wryneck is most common in the southern and south-eastern counties; in the West of England and in Wales it is rarer. In the northern counties of England it is also rare and local; in Scotland it does not breed, and in Ireland it is not known. pictures for wryneck near wryneck in Knolik definition of word "wryneck" was readed 1086 times	<urn:uuid:05480c7e-5bd2-4934-aacb-994f5f24cbe5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://knolik.com/article0004826.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00526.warc.gz	en	0.980781	797	3.390625	3	[ -0.24543920159339905, -0.5864368677139282, 0.11096526682376862, 0.2099272757768631, -0.1351795792579651, 0.14372019469738007, 0.6031305193901062, 0.1395573616027832, -0.17923879623413086, -0.11804163455963135, 0.11956475675106049, -0.5535777807235718, 0.21944411098957062, -0.07995609194040...	1	wryneck defined in 1930 yearwryneck - Wryneck; wryneck - Upper parts reddish grey, irregularly spotted and lined with brown and black; a broad black and brown band from the back of the head to the back; under parts dull white, tinged with buff, and barred with dark brown, except on the breast and belly, where the markings become arrow-headed in form; outer web of the quills marked with rectangular, alternate black and yellowish red spots; tail-feathers barred with black zigzag bands; beak and feet olive-brown. Length, seven inches. The wryneck is placed by anatomists next to the woodpeckers, and is like them in the form of its feet and the habit of perching vertically on the trunks of trees; but he does not dig into the wood with his beak, nor does he support himself with his tail, the feathers of which are soft, as in most perching birds. He is a singular bird, differing from all others in form, colouring, language, and habits. His variously coloured plumage, so curiously and beautifully barred and mottled, is most like that of the nightjar; but his beauty appears only when he is seen very near. At a distance of twenty-five or thirty yards he is obscure in colouring, and is more remarkable for his attitudes and gestures, when seen on a tree trunk deftly and rapidly picking up the small ants on which he feeds. When thus engaged he twists his neck, turning his head from side to side in a most singular manner; hence the name of wryneck. When taken in the hand he twists his neck about in the same manner, and hisses like a snake, as he also does when disturbed during incubation; and on this account he has been called snake-bird. When held in the hand he sometimes swoons, and appears to be dead until released, whereupon he quickly recovers and makes his escape. Even more characteristic than his contortions, hissings, and ' death feignings,' is his voice. It is an unmistakable and familiar sound of early spring, as distinctive as the shrill cry of the swift and the cuckoo's call - a clear, high-pitched, far-reaching note, reiterated many times - a sound that makes itself heard at a distance of a quarter of a mile. As a rule, this note is heard a few days before the cuckoo's call, and on this account the wryneck is known in the southern counties, where he is most common, as the cuckoo's mate, or messenger, or boder, and is also called the cuckoo's maid. The wryneck feeds chiefly on ants and their larvae, and, like the green woodpecker, he goes to the anthills on commons and uncultivated grounds; the insects are taken with the long, retractile tongue, which is covered with an adhesive saliva, and which the bird, when feeding, darts out and withdraws with lightning rapidity. A hole in the trunk of a tree, often near the roots, is a favourite nesting-place. The eggs are seven to ten in number, and are deposited, without any nest, on the rotten wood. They are pure white, and have glossy shells. The same breeding-hole is used year after year. The wryneck is most common in the southern and south-eastern counties; in the West of England and in Wales it is rarer. In the northern counties of England it is also rare and local; in Scotland it does not breed, and in Ireland it is not known. pictures for wryneck near wryneck in Knolik definition of word "wryneck" was readed 1086 times	786	ENGLISH	1
Robinson novel, the protagonist is Robinson Crusoe. Robinson Crusoe is a novel which is written by Daniel Defoe. In this novel, the protagonist is Robinson Crusoe. He is a rebellious, disobedient and thrill-seeker young man. He lives with his parents, However, he has a profound desire for sailing. He tells his father about his desire/ or passion. His parents, especially his father, stand out against Robinson’s desire and warn his beloved son. Robinson was so overwhelmed with his passion that, no matter what his father says, he disobeyed his father and then sailed. This was the beginning of a long and spiritual journey for Robinson Crusoe. We can not separate faith and the novel from each other. This novel is full of lots of religious messages about faith, religion, Christianism and finding faith. Also, we should take Daniel Defoe’s life into consideration in order to understand and analyse this masterpiece. Daniel Defoe was a deeply religious presbyterian in denomination who treasured John Bunyan’s famous work of art: Pilgrim’s Progress. It is possible to say that Daniel Defoe was impressed a lot by John Bunyan’s idea of writing an allegorical novel. We can easily realise this fact since the novel has many religious symbolisms, biblical allusions and moral messages that affected by Christianity. In the novel, Robinson Crusoe’s religious opinions change radically throughout his journey. At the beginning of the novel he had nothing to feel for God and religion. After the accident, he blamed God and then he realised that God protected him and finally he got religion. As I mentioned before, at the beginning of the novel, Robinson Crusoe was not a believing man. He had nothing to do with religion and religious life. Robinson had everything in his life in England. He had a loving family, safety and peace. However, all these blessings were not enough for him. His goal was to reach high benefits and profit through sailing and trading. He had further dreams and sailing was the most important dream and obsession of him. Even though his father did not give his blessings, he made his choice and sailed. In this respect, we can say that Robinson Crusoe resembles Adam. Just like Adam in Bible, Robinson Crusoe disobeyed his father and his warnings, too. As a result of Robinson’s disobedience, he experienced terrible things. For this reason, it is possible to say that Robinson’s father acts as a figure of God. When Robinson rebelled his father, he also rebelled against God. After the shipwreck, he was angry and upset as he tought that God did forsake him with this unfortunate accident and the accident’s results. He tought that God punished him just because he was not a believer. During his life on the isolated island, he reflected on God and religion. Then, he began to realise that this accident was not a punishment for him. Rather than a punishment, it was God’s will.God had pity on him. God wanted him to not only be a good believer, but also find his way to providence.Therefore, he experienced these tribulations. Moreover, when he tought about why he was the only survived one, he got the feeling that he had been kept alive even though he did not deserve to be. Also, he had lots of things to be alive and healthy. That was a factor that makes him more closer to God and religion, as well. Another factor which makes Robinson Crusoe more religious is his illness. At the beginning of the chapter which focuses mainly on his life on the island, he has a fever dream or hallucination. When he hallucinates, he sees an hallucination of a wrathful angel figure. This hallucination and angel figure affect him highly. This wrathful angel figure says him that he is not regretful his sins and attempts to kill him. This wrathful angel figure and hallucination is a major event for his spiritual and religious life. By the same token, The Bible has a big impact on his spiritual journey. While he is searching for food and any workable equipment in the ruined ship, he finds The Bible. He begins to read The Bible like never before. He comes to experience thankfulness for his living conditions. In this way, Robinson Crusoe perceives God’s mercy and icreasingly experiences a serious religious and spiritual conversion. To sum up, there are several factors and moments which makes Robinson Crusoe closer to God and religion. Throughout his life, he experiences different events such as disobeying his father, sailing, the shipwreck, being lonely and the only one on an island, and after all these experiences, finding his way to faith and religion. If we examine the novel throughly, we can see that Robinson Crusoe undergoes a radical change in terms of spirit and religion. First, we see a careless Robinson. He was careless of religion and God. On the other hand, when we continue to read, we see that Robinson changes gradually. He becomes a faithful man as a result of his life on the island. Thanks to Robinson Crusoe, it is possible to say that people may change when they experience inexpressible events.	<urn:uuid:1396f382-19f7-417f-9532-65b338ea7160>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/robinson-novel-the-protagonist-is-robinson-crusoe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00506.warc.gz	en	0.988701	1,075	3.28125	3	[ 0.1015096977353096, 0.3846156597137451, 0.06469112634658813, -0.03532346710562706, -0.33673030138015747, -0.09580546617507935, 0.30278170108795166, 0.2789357304573059, 0.24656987190246582, -0.11779707670211792, 0.0655820295214653, -0.21728414297103882, 0.001285855658352375, 0.0980803668498...	1	Robinson novel, the protagonist is Robinson Crusoe. Robinson Crusoe is a novel which is written by Daniel Defoe. In this novel, the protagonist is Robinson Crusoe. He is a rebellious, disobedient and thrill-seeker young man. He lives with his parents, However, he has a profound desire for sailing. He tells his father about his desire/ or passion. His parents, especially his father, stand out against Robinson’s desire and warn his beloved son. Robinson was so overwhelmed with his passion that, no matter what his father says, he disobeyed his father and then sailed. This was the beginning of a long and spiritual journey for Robinson Crusoe. We can not separate faith and the novel from each other. This novel is full of lots of religious messages about faith, religion, Christianism and finding faith. Also, we should take Daniel Defoe’s life into consideration in order to understand and analyse this masterpiece. Daniel Defoe was a deeply religious presbyterian in denomination who treasured John Bunyan’s famous work of art: Pilgrim’s Progress. It is possible to say that Daniel Defoe was impressed a lot by John Bunyan’s idea of writing an allegorical novel. We can easily realise this fact since the novel has many religious symbolisms, biblical allusions and moral messages that affected by Christianity. In the novel, Robinson Crusoe’s religious opinions change radically throughout his journey. At the beginning of the novel he had nothing to feel for God and religion. After the accident, he blamed God and then he realised that God protected him and finally he got religion. As I mentioned before, at the beginning of the novel, Robinson Crusoe was not a believing man. He had nothing to do with religion and religious life. Robinson had everything in his life in England. He had a loving family, safety and peace. However, all these blessings were not enough for him. His goal was to reach high benefits and profit through sailing and trading. He had further dreams and sailing was the most important dream and obsession of him. Even though his father did not give his blessings, he made his choice and sailed. In this respect, we can say that Robinson Crusoe resembles Adam. Just like Adam in Bible, Robinson Crusoe disobeyed his father and his warnings, too. As a result of Robinson’s disobedience, he experienced terrible things. For this reason, it is possible to say that Robinson’s father acts as a figure of God. When Robinson rebelled his father, he also rebelled against God. After the shipwreck, he was angry and upset as he tought that God did forsake him with this unfortunate accident and the accident’s results. He tought that God punished him just because he was not a believer. During his life on the isolated island, he reflected on God and religion. Then, he began to realise that this accident was not a punishment for him. Rather than a punishment, it was God’s will.God had pity on him. God wanted him to not only be a good believer, but also find his way to providence.Therefore, he experienced these tribulations. Moreover, when he tought about why he was the only survived one, he got the feeling that he had been kept alive even though he did not deserve to be. Also, he had lots of things to be alive and healthy. That was a factor that makes him more closer to God and religion, as well. Another factor which makes Robinson Crusoe more religious is his illness. At the beginning of the chapter which focuses mainly on his life on the island, he has a fever dream or hallucination. When he hallucinates, he sees an hallucination of a wrathful angel figure. This hallucination and angel figure affect him highly. This wrathful angel figure says him that he is not regretful his sins and attempts to kill him. This wrathful angel figure and hallucination is a major event for his spiritual and religious life. By the same token, The Bible has a big impact on his spiritual journey. While he is searching for food and any workable equipment in the ruined ship, he finds The Bible. He begins to read The Bible like never before. He comes to experience thankfulness for his living conditions. In this way, Robinson Crusoe perceives God’s mercy and icreasingly experiences a serious religious and spiritual conversion. To sum up, there are several factors and moments which makes Robinson Crusoe closer to God and religion. Throughout his life, he experiences different events such as disobeying his father, sailing, the shipwreck, being lonely and the only one on an island, and after all these experiences, finding his way to faith and religion. If we examine the novel throughly, we can see that Robinson Crusoe undergoes a radical change in terms of spirit and religion. First, we see a careless Robinson. He was careless of religion and God. On the other hand, when we continue to read, we see that Robinson changes gradually. He becomes a faithful man as a result of his life on the island. Thanks to Robinson Crusoe, it is possible to say that people may change when they experience inexpressible events.	1,056	ENGLISH	1
Women's Struggle for Equality in America uk Beginning before to the civil war women fought hard for equal rights that included rights to vote and was granted with the passage for the 19th amendment and during the eras of progressivism as well as the New deal women continued to struggle for change in their various families sexual and social more and struggled for the participation both in the workforce and in the political arena. During the 1940’s women continued to gain ground particularly when they were given the rights to serve in military as well as becoming significantly more involved in labor force. 1960s especially with the advent of feminism focus on women rights became even more pressing and women fought very hard fro the social equality as well as equal pay and while its correct that women of this era have achieved both the legal and the economic progress many still face many challenges that included un equal pay and the balancing of demands of career and the needs of their families. Both scholars and the feminists have divided the history of the moment for feminism into three wave where the first wave refers to the activities of the movement especially the women’s suffrage movements that occurred in nineteenth century and in the early 20th century and they were mainly concerned with women rights to vote. The movements second wave refers to ideas and actions that are associated with women’s liberation movement that begun in the 1960s and campaigned for social and equal equality fro women. Finally the third wave refers to the continuation of as well as the reaction to the perceived failures of the second wave and it begun in the 1990s. In the United States today men and women are often offered a wider range of higher education options. However, historically women’s access to higher education has been limited where as men have been offered an great quantity of higher knowledge possibilities. As a result of this apparent inequalities women’s colleges started to take root in American history in the mid-1830s. In the years proceeding as well as the reform organizations formed new institutions such as the prisons, asylums and orphanages, sought to transform the public schools to help eradicate social ills like the prostitution and drunkenness in order to reinforce family life and to reform the system of support for the unfortunate. Many of these reform agendas have contemporary counterparts in attempts to redefining the welfare attack drug addiction and spousal abuse as well as to contain crime. But the two most controversial reform movements and the ones which struck deepest at the foundations of American society include the campaigns for the elimination of slavery and the equality of women. Several of the issues these two movements grappled with are still with us nowadays. The United States today is a significantly less racially unequal society as it was in the nineteenth century or at the stop of the Second World War but Americans still fight back with the meanings of justice and equality as well as how to implement them in society. The status of women in American has changed in problematical ways since the achievement of the vote in 192 that included the emergence of a very powerful feminist movement amid much resistance and criticism. Changing attitudes coupled with other forces of change in the economy and in the family have transformed the roles of millions of women at work, at home and in the public life. Today, women occupy positions as well as enjoy personal freedoms that the early on advocates of women’s rights could only dimly imagine, but Americans remain divided over a lot of questions about woman’s role in society. Buy Women's Struggle for Equality in America essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Significance of topic The women’s struggle for equality in America plays a critical role in understanding the events, influential people as well as the achievement that characterize the long time struggle for the presence equality in America. This is crucial in that by the year 1890, less than one of the one percent of women was employed and was also able to gain outside of the home. In the following hundred years women have not only gained and access to jobs especially outside their homes but have also fought for an equality in the work place. As a matter of fact these struggles were not by any means easy thus women have overcome numerous obstacles in their journey into the workforce none greater than were the piers of their counter parts male as many of them continued to think that no place fro women existed in the work place. Consequently women started to wok in the strides of their courageous pioneers in the work force and also they did so banding together to show their strength. After the Declaration of independence was penned in the year 1776 it claimed that all men were created equal but never mentioned of women rights or even their equality. This prompted the leading advocates of women rights l with the likes of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan Anthony to act as they considered it unacceptable and together with other like minded women created what was termed as ‘womanifesto’ that was modeled after the declaration for independence. Furthermore this idea got conveyed at one of the first women rights conventions in Seneca Falls, New York in the year 1848. One of the most significant resolutions contained within the document was the demand for equal voting rights for women and surprising some of the participants in the convention found it shocking but women like Stanton had a strong believe that suffrage was the only way that could make women to be truly equal. She said that she believed’ the power to make laws was the right through which all other rights could be secured’. The Seneca’s convention had to wait for the next seventy two years before it became part of the United States constitution after the passage of the 19th amendment in the year 1920. Women suffrage is the right for women to vote as well as to run for office and the term is often used to refer to political and economic reform movement that is aimed at extending these rights of women and with no restrictions or qualifications like the property ownership, marital status and payment of tax. The early fore runner in colonial America to be allowed to vote in the three New England town meeting is Lydia Chapin and begun in 1756, at Uxbridge in Massachusetts. Following the America revolution women were allowed to vote in New Jersey and in no other states from 1790 until 1807 as long as they met properly requirements in place at the time. In the year 1807 women were again forbidden from voting in these states and in 1848 Gerit Smith made woman suffrage a planning the liberty party platform. The same yea also saw Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Candy start a sevent year struggle by women to help them secure the right to vote and it begun at the Seneca Falls convention in New York. During the convention attendees signed a document called the declaration of rights and sentiments and Stanton was the primary author. After that equal rights became the rallying cry of the initial movement for the women rights and therefore equal rights meant claiming of access to the prevailing definitions of freedom. In 1850, Lucy Stone help in organize for a larger rally with a wider focus that is national women’s convention in Worchester and other women including Susan Anthony joined the cause in 1852 after the of the stone’s speech in 1850. At this time the women pointed out that the black and had been grated the franchise and had not been include in the language of United states constitution 14th and 15th amendment that gave people equal protection under the law as well as the right to vote regardless of one race. Despite the victories that were worn in Wyoming in 1869 and in Utah in 1870, women in Utah were disenfranchised by the provisions of the federal Edmunds-Tucker act that was enacted by United States congress in 1887. The government disenfranchised the Utah women particularly after these women exercised their suffrage rights in favor of the polygamy that it has been believed that after given the right to vote women would use it to dispose the polygamy. By the end of the nineteen century other states including Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado and Utah had enfranchised women state level efforts by the suffrage association. During the begging of the twentieth century the women suffrage faced several federal votes and the portion of the movement the national women’s party that was led by suffragette Alice plan became the fits cause to picket outside the white house and considering the manner that the suffragists protested they became subject to arrests and jailing. 1918 saw the congress passed the ratified nineteenth amendment which prohibits the federal and sate agencies from the gender based restriction on voting. 1877-1920: Social Reform The progressive era from the 1890’s to 1920’s was a very important period as it regards to the growth fro women movement especially in the areas concerning social reform. During this period many women started to seek what Jane Addams termed as ‘the larger life’ of the public affairs and this includes the many social activities that were generally considered as the traditional roles including raising of children, housekeeping and preparation of meals but were then expanded to encompass making of decisions about as well as becoming more involved in various community affairs. In addition to that this era also saw activist extend their activities to include broader social politics and reform and they sponsored policies that helped cerate a kind of social democracy for the poor mothers, the impoverished women, exploited handworkers as well as the victims of industrial accidents. However despite the fact that social reform was a crucial aspect of this era the most pivotal event that occurred with regards to women rights was undoubtedly the passing of the 19th amendment that gave women the right to vote. The first state in the united sates to make the suffrage permanent fro women was the sate of Wyoming in the year 1869. During the year 1878 saw the amendment introduced in congress but was declared later in 1887 especially after being neglected for a period of nine years. By the year 1919 twenty eight states had ratified that amendment and with the support of then country’s president Woodrow Wilson by 1920 ‘35 of the required thirty six sates had voted for the ratification’. Finally in the year 1920 after the two roll calls and the tied vote, the republican Burn Harry switched sides and thus voted for ratification which is now termed as the ‘war of the roses’. During the time between after the passage of the 19th amendment in the year 1920 and the feminist movement that happened in 1960s its usually thought that the women movement had ceased but according to Taylor (1969) after the victory of suffrage the feminist activism was transformed as a consequence of organizational success, social changes, internal conflict that served to alter women’s common interest. As a result of that transformation of social changes the two major organizations involved with women’s movement got split into opposing directions (Stevens &O'Hare, 1995). The national Women’s party(NWP) was to a greater extend the most radial of the two groups started to focus strongly on the passage of the equal rights amendments (ERA) which then played a critical role in alienating the mainstream activists. On the other hand, the more cooperative national American Woman Suffrage association considered a take in different direction and consequently formed the league of women voters which diverged from passing the ERA and got focused on education of women as well as in the advocating for a broader rage of reforms. Although the feminist activism continued all the way through 1920s and into 1930s, there was an increasing hostility between the two camps of the suffrage movement and therefore cooperation developed on only very few issues (O’Neill, 2001) During this time race was also an issue as it pertained to the ongoing struggle for women’s rights and therefore many suffrage groups consisted of the white women had fear for the black participation in the movement which would serve to confirming the southern perceptions that the expansion of the suffrage to women would help in disrupting the well established black disenfranchisement in the region. In addition to that this era also was an important time for women who were serving both in the labor force and in the military because in 1943 Women Army Corps was formed prompting women to be given a full army status, equal pay as well as equal rights. However men continued to dominate the ranks in the military and this is evident by the fact that throughout the Second World War II as many as twelve million men were enlisted in the military. The era also aw the demand for women employees soar and this was coupled with the significant growth regarding their participation in the workforce and this is attributed to the fact that women were seen as unused source of labor. On the other hand, even though the status of women and their economic status improved somewhat with their advancements in the military and in the labor force most of their attitude regarding to gender remained mostly unchanged. After the Second World War needed the birth rate soared forcing many women to return to working at home. More than decade went by after which the Americas stance on women rights and attitudes pertaining to gender underwent a revolutionary change. Some of the major events that took place during this era regarding the struggle by women for equality in America include the following: the founding of American birth control league by Margaret Sangeer in 1921, the organization of the National Council of Negro Women by Mary McLeod Bethune, a coalition of black women's groups that lobbies against job discrimination, racism, and sexism. In addition to that the federal law in 1936 prohibited the dissemination of contraceptive information through the mail is modified and the birth control information was no longer classified and as obscene. The food and drug administration approved the birth control pills in 1960 (Flexner, 1996). Starting in late 1950s the progressing changes in the social trends started to establish a positive climate that favored the growth of feminism and during this time the birth rte begun to decline significantly as the use of contraceptive methods like the birth control bill help in permitting a more sexual freedom as well as small family sizes. In addition to that American attitudes towards the issues like dating, abortion as well as marriage and health care begun to gradually change and these changes in social realm became part and parcel of the women’s liberation in America. However while some of these social concerns were significant to feminists the movement was all about establishing equal of opportunity and according to Hanson (2008) the most compelling arguments for the feminism was basically that women must receive equal pay for equal work and that they should not be just mere appendages of their husbands and the responsibility of having children should not hinder or be prelude a woman from pursuing a career. The case for feminism got further advancement with the passage of the civil rights act in the year 1964 and it prohibited sex discrimination in employment and also by the substantial legislation in 1970s which was passed with a great help from women who were serving in congress. This also included the freedom of choice in reproductive rights in 1973, the minimum wage protection for the domestic workers in 1974 as well as the prohibition of employment discrimination against pregnant women in 1978 (DuBois, 1997). 1976 – Present In the past few decades very significant step have been taken to ensure that there is an improvement in education, economic opportunity, family life as well as in the political empowerment of women, however to ensure that women’s rights continue to improve and expand there exists several problems that must be first overcome. One of the most significant of these tights is that of equal pay for equal work and while in united states 2005 census revealed that women accounted for fifty nine percent of the entire workforce they earn onl0 0.77 dollars for every one dollar that men area in performing similar jobs. In addition to that balancing of the demands of career with those required to raising a family pose as another challenge in this decade. therefore with out the same support systems in place especially those that are available to men with children, the women who are working usually feel that in order for them to successful in an endeavor thy should do so at the expense of the other. For instance a study that was conducted concluded that forty two percent of women that work in corporate setting were childless by the time they attain forty years of age where as only fourteen percent planned to be. There has been an increasing struggle for equality especially in response to the perceived failures in the third wave of feminism as well to the backlash against movements as well as initiatives that played a role in the second wave, the struggle during his era struggles to challenge or avoid the previous definition of feminism and argued that it over emphasize on experiences of the upper middle class white women (Mathur, 45). The currents struggle focuses on micro-politics and challenges what was previously seen as good for women and thus tend to use the poststructuralists interpretation of sexuality and gender and it also contains debates regarding to different feminists who believe in the existence of the significant differences between the sexes as well as those who believe that no inherent differences exists between sexes contenting to the idea that most of gender roles are as a result of social conditioning (Rhoads, 2004). Some of the key events that took place during this era regarding the struggle by women for equality in America and rights movement include the following: establishment of EMLY’s list in 1984 as a financial framework fro pro-choice democratic women who run fro the national political office and the organization plays a very important role especially by increasing numbers of women are get elected to the congress. In 1986 the Supreme Court finds sexual harassment as form of illegal job discrimination and also same court in 1992 reaffirmed the validity of a woman’s right to abortion and successfully challenges the Pennsylvanian 1989 abortion control act which sought to reinstate restrictions that were previously ruled unconstitutional. In 1994 the Violence against Women Act tightens federal penalties for sex offenders, funds services for victims of rape and domestic violence, and provides for special training of police officers. Other ruling made by the supreme court regarding women rights include the 1996 ruling that the all-male Virginia Military School has to admit women in order to continue to receive public funding holding that creating a separate, all-female school will not suffice, the ruling that women to sue for punitive damages foe sex discrimination if the anti-discrimination law was violated with malice or indifference to the law, even if that conduct was not especially severe. In 2005 the Supreme Court rules that Title IX, which prohibits discrimination based on sex, also inherently prohibits disciplining someone for complaining about sex-based discrimination. It further holds that this is the case even when the person complaining is not among those being discriminated against. Finally in President Obama signed the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act, which allows victims of pay discrimination to file a complaint with the government against their employer within 180 days of their last paycheck. Previously, victims (most often women) were only allowed 180 days from the date of the first unfair paycheck. This Act is named after a former employee of Goodyear who alleged that she was paid 15–40% less than her male counterparts, which was later found to be accurate (Lind, 2002). In conclusion since the mid 1880most advocates of women rights have struggled very hard to make sure that they achieve a significant advances in economic, social as well as political status of women and specifically these activist have rallied successfully for suffrage of women, help in gaining of advancements both in the military and in the labor forces thus pushing forwards the social reforms greatly increasing the equality of women. While it’s a fact that the rights of women have come a very long way over the pat one hundred and fifty years women still experience some difficulties to overcome in furtherance of a complete quality. Related research essays Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:27254020-74d2-4d41-9406-31ce8c884c87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primewritings.co.uk/essays/research/women-s-struggle-for-equality-in-america.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00546.warc.gz	en	0.980954	3,978	3.8125	4	[ -0.24724803864955902, -0.2836500406265259, 0.01776750758290291, 0.3442511558532715, -0.2827473282814026, 0.8175249099731445, -0.6669484376907349, 0.055945247411727905, -0.05245998129248619, -0.3426706790924072, 0.0006129848770797253, -0.04914521053433418, 0.06116141378879547, -0.1755995005...	1	Women's Struggle for Equality in America uk Beginning before to the civil war women fought hard for equal rights that included rights to vote and was granted with the passage for the 19th amendment and during the eras of progressivism as well as the New deal women continued to struggle for change in their various families sexual and social more and struggled for the participation both in the workforce and in the political arena. During the 1940’s women continued to gain ground particularly when they were given the rights to serve in military as well as becoming significantly more involved in labor force. 1960s especially with the advent of feminism focus on women rights became even more pressing and women fought very hard fro the social equality as well as equal pay and while its correct that women of this era have achieved both the legal and the economic progress many still face many challenges that included un equal pay and the balancing of demands of career and the needs of their families. Both scholars and the feminists have divided the history of the moment for feminism into three wave where the first wave refers to the activities of the movement especially the women’s suffrage movements that occurred in nineteenth century and in the early 20th century and they were mainly concerned with women rights to vote. The movements second wave refers to ideas and actions that are associated with women’s liberation movement that begun in the 1960s and campaigned for social and equal equality fro women. Finally the third wave refers to the continuation of as well as the reaction to the perceived failures of the second wave and it begun in the 1990s. In the United States today men and women are often offered a wider range of higher education options. However, historically women’s access to higher education has been limited where as men have been offered an great quantity of higher knowledge possibilities. As a result of this apparent inequalities women’s colleges started to take root in American history in the mid-1830s. In the years proceeding as well as the reform organizations formed new institutions such as the prisons, asylums and orphanages, sought to transform the public schools to help eradicate social ills like the prostitution and drunkenness in order to reinforce family life and to reform the system of support for the unfortunate. Many of these reform agendas have contemporary counterparts in attempts to redefining the welfare attack drug addiction and spousal abuse as well as to contain crime. But the two most controversial reform movements and the ones which struck deepest at the foundations of American society include the campaigns for the elimination of slavery and the equality of women. Several of the issues these two movements grappled with are still with us nowadays. The United States today is a significantly less racially unequal society as it was in the nineteenth century or at the stop of the Second World War but Americans still fight back with the meanings of justice and equality as well as how to implement them in society. The status of women in American has changed in problematical ways since the achievement of the vote in 192 that included the emergence of a very powerful feminist movement amid much resistance and criticism. Changing attitudes coupled with other forces of change in the economy and in the family have transformed the roles of millions of women at work, at home and in the public life. Today, women occupy positions as well as enjoy personal freedoms that the early on advocates of women’s rights could only dimly imagine, but Americans remain divided over a lot of questions about woman’s role in society. Buy Women's Struggle for Equality in America essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. Significance of topic The women’s struggle for equality in America plays a critical role in understanding the events, influential people as well as the achievement that characterize the long time struggle for the presence equality in America. This is crucial in that by the year 1890, less than one of the one percent of women was employed and was also able to gain outside of the home. In the following hundred years women have not only gained and access to jobs especially outside their homes but have also fought for an equality in the work place. As a matter of fact these struggles were not by any means easy thus women have overcome numerous obstacles in their journey into the workforce none greater than were the piers of their counter parts male as many of them continued to think that no place fro women existed in the work place. Consequently women started to wok in the strides of their courageous pioneers in the work force and also they did so banding together to show their strength. After the Declaration of independence was penned in the year 1776 it claimed that all men were created equal but never mentioned of women rights or even their equality. This prompted the leading advocates of women rights l with the likes of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan Anthony to act as they considered it unacceptable and together with other like minded women created what was termed as ‘womanifesto’ that was modeled after the declaration for independence. Furthermore this idea got conveyed at one of the first women rights conventions in Seneca Falls, New York in the year 1848. One of the most significant resolutions contained within the document was the demand for equal voting rights for women and surprising some of the participants in the convention found it shocking but women like Stanton had a strong believe that suffrage was the only way that could make women to be truly equal. She said that she believed’ the power to make laws was the right through which all other rights could be secured’. The Seneca’s convention had to wait for the next seventy two years before it became part of the United States constitution after the passage of the 19th amendment in the year 1920. Women suffrage is the right for women to vote as well as to run for office and the term is often used to refer to political and economic reform movement that is aimed at extending these rights of women and with no restrictions or qualifications like the property ownership, marital status and payment of tax. The early fore runner in colonial America to be allowed to vote in the three New England town meeting is Lydia Chapin and begun in 1756, at Uxbridge in Massachusetts. Following the America revolution women were allowed to vote in New Jersey and in no other states from 1790 until 1807 as long as they met properly requirements in place at the time. In the year 1807 women were again forbidden from voting in these states and in 1848 Gerit Smith made woman suffrage a planning the liberty party platform. The same yea also saw Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Candy start a sevent year struggle by women to help them secure the right to vote and it begun at the Seneca Falls convention in New York. During the convention attendees signed a document called the declaration of rights and sentiments and Stanton was the primary author. After that equal rights became the rallying cry of the initial movement for the women rights and therefore equal rights meant claiming of access to the prevailing definitions of freedom. In 1850, Lucy Stone help in organize for a larger rally with a wider focus that is national women’s convention in Worchester and other women including Susan Anthony joined the cause in 1852 after the of the stone’s speech in 1850. At this time the women pointed out that the black and had been grated the franchise and had not been include in the language of United states constitution 14th and 15th amendment that gave people equal protection under the law as well as the right to vote regardless of one race. Despite the victories that were worn in Wyoming in 1869 and in Utah in 1870, women in Utah were disenfranchised by the provisions of the federal Edmunds-Tucker act that was enacted by United States congress in 1887. The government disenfranchised the Utah women particularly after these women exercised their suffrage rights in favor of the polygamy that it has been believed that after given the right to vote women would use it to dispose the polygamy. By the end of the nineteen century other states including Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado and Utah had enfranchised women state level efforts by the suffrage association. During the begging of the twentieth century the women suffrage faced several federal votes and the portion of the movement the national women’s party that was led by suffragette Alice plan became the fits cause to picket outside the white house and considering the manner that the suffragists protested they became subject to arrests and jailing. 1918 saw the congress passed the ratified nineteenth amendment which prohibits the federal and sate agencies from the gender based restriction on voting. 1877-1920: Social Reform The progressive era from the 1890’s to 1920’s was a very important period as it regards to the growth fro women movement especially in the areas concerning social reform. During this period many women started to seek what Jane Addams termed as ‘the larger life’ of the public affairs and this includes the many social activities that were generally considered as the traditional roles including raising of children, housekeeping and preparation of meals but were then expanded to encompass making of decisions about as well as becoming more involved in various community affairs. In addition to that this era also saw activist extend their activities to include broader social politics and reform and they sponsored policies that helped cerate a kind of social democracy for the poor mothers, the impoverished women, exploited handworkers as well as the victims of industrial accidents. However despite the fact that social reform was a crucial aspect of this era the most pivotal event that occurred with regards to women rights was undoubtedly the passing of the 19th amendment that gave women the right to vote. The first state in the united sates to make the suffrage permanent fro women was the sate of Wyoming in the year 1869. During the year 1878 saw the amendment introduced in congress but was declared later in 1887 especially after being neglected for a period of nine years. By the year 1919 twenty eight states had ratified that amendment and with the support of then country’s president Woodrow Wilson by 1920 ‘35 of the required thirty six sates had voted for the ratification’. Finally in the year 1920 after the two roll calls and the tied vote, the republican Burn Harry switched sides and thus voted for ratification which is now termed as the ‘war of the roses’. During the time between after the passage of the 19th amendment in the year 1920 and the feminist movement that happened in 1960s its usually thought that the women movement had ceased but according to Taylor (1969) after the victory of suffrage the feminist activism was transformed as a consequence of organizational success, social changes, internal conflict that served to alter women’s common interest. As a result of that transformation of social changes the two major organizations involved with women’s movement got split into opposing directions (Stevens &O'Hare, 1995). The national Women’s party(NWP) was to a greater extend the most radial of the two groups started to focus strongly on the passage of the equal rights amendments (ERA) which then played a critical role in alienating the mainstream activists. On the other hand, the more cooperative national American Woman Suffrage association considered a take in different direction and consequently formed the league of women voters which diverged from passing the ERA and got focused on education of women as well as in the advocating for a broader rage of reforms. Although the feminist activism continued all the way through 1920s and into 1930s, there was an increasing hostility between the two camps of the suffrage movement and therefore cooperation developed on only very few issues (O’Neill, 2001) During this time race was also an issue as it pertained to the ongoing struggle for women’s rights and therefore many suffrage groups consisted of the white women had fear for the black participation in the movement which would serve to confirming the southern perceptions that the expansion of the suffrage to women would help in disrupting the well established black disenfranchisement in the region. In addition to that this era also was an important time for women who were serving both in the labor force and in the military because in 1943 Women Army Corps was formed prompting women to be given a full army status, equal pay as well as equal rights. However men continued to dominate the ranks in the military and this is evident by the fact that throughout the Second World War II as many as twelve million men were enlisted in the military. The era also aw the demand for women employees soar and this was coupled with the significant growth regarding their participation in the workforce and this is attributed to the fact that women were seen as unused source of labor. On the other hand, even though the status of women and their economic status improved somewhat with their advancements in the military and in the labor force most of their attitude regarding to gender remained mostly unchanged. After the Second World War needed the birth rate soared forcing many women to return to working at home. More than decade went by after which the Americas stance on women rights and attitudes pertaining to gender underwent a revolutionary change. Some of the major events that took place during this era regarding the struggle by women for equality in America include the following: the founding of American birth control league by Margaret Sangeer in 1921, the organization of the National Council of Negro Women by Mary McLeod Bethune, a coalition of black women's groups that lobbies against job discrimination, racism, and sexism. In addition to that the federal law in 1936 prohibited the dissemination of contraceptive information through the mail is modified and the birth control information was no longer classified and as obscene. The food and drug administration approved the birth control pills in 1960 (Flexner, 1996). Starting in late 1950s the progressing changes in the social trends started to establish a positive climate that favored the growth of feminism and during this time the birth rte begun to decline significantly as the use of contraceptive methods like the birth control bill help in permitting a more sexual freedom as well as small family sizes. In addition to that American attitudes towards the issues like dating, abortion as well as marriage and health care begun to gradually change and these changes in social realm became part and parcel of the women’s liberation in America. However while some of these social concerns were significant to feminists the movement was all about establishing equal of opportunity and according to Hanson (2008) the most compelling arguments for the feminism was basically that women must receive equal pay for equal work and that they should not be just mere appendages of their husbands and the responsibility of having children should not hinder or be prelude a woman from pursuing a career. The case for feminism got further advancement with the passage of the civil rights act in the year 1964 and it prohibited sex discrimination in employment and also by the substantial legislation in 1970s which was passed with a great help from women who were serving in congress. This also included the freedom of choice in reproductive rights in 1973, the minimum wage protection for the domestic workers in 1974 as well as the prohibition of employment discrimination against pregnant women in 1978 (DuBois, 1997). 1976 – Present In the past few decades very significant step have been taken to ensure that there is an improvement in education, economic opportunity, family life as well as in the political empowerment of women, however to ensure that women’s rights continue to improve and expand there exists several problems that must be first overcome. One of the most significant of these tights is that of equal pay for equal work and while in united states 2005 census revealed that women accounted for fifty nine percent of the entire workforce they earn onl0 0.77 dollars for every one dollar that men area in performing similar jobs. In addition to that balancing of the demands of career with those required to raising a family pose as another challenge in this decade. therefore with out the same support systems in place especially those that are available to men with children, the women who are working usually feel that in order for them to successful in an endeavor thy should do so at the expense of the other. For instance a study that was conducted concluded that forty two percent of women that work in corporate setting were childless by the time they attain forty years of age where as only fourteen percent planned to be. There has been an increasing struggle for equality especially in response to the perceived failures in the third wave of feminism as well to the backlash against movements as well as initiatives that played a role in the second wave, the struggle during his era struggles to challenge or avoid the previous definition of feminism and argued that it over emphasize on experiences of the upper middle class white women (Mathur, 45). The currents struggle focuses on micro-politics and challenges what was previously seen as good for women and thus tend to use the poststructuralists interpretation of sexuality and gender and it also contains debates regarding to different feminists who believe in the existence of the significant differences between the sexes as well as those who believe that no inherent differences exists between sexes contenting to the idea that most of gender roles are as a result of social conditioning (Rhoads, 2004). Some of the key events that took place during this era regarding the struggle by women for equality in America and rights movement include the following: establishment of EMLY’s list in 1984 as a financial framework fro pro-choice democratic women who run fro the national political office and the organization plays a very important role especially by increasing numbers of women are get elected to the congress. In 1986 the Supreme Court finds sexual harassment as form of illegal job discrimination and also same court in 1992 reaffirmed the validity of a woman’s right to abortion and successfully challenges the Pennsylvanian 1989 abortion control act which sought to reinstate restrictions that were previously ruled unconstitutional. In 1994 the Violence against Women Act tightens federal penalties for sex offenders, funds services for victims of rape and domestic violence, and provides for special training of police officers. Other ruling made by the supreme court regarding women rights include the 1996 ruling that the all-male Virginia Military School has to admit women in order to continue to receive public funding holding that creating a separate, all-female school will not suffice, the ruling that women to sue for punitive damages foe sex discrimination if the anti-discrimination law was violated with malice or indifference to the law, even if that conduct was not especially severe. In 2005 the Supreme Court rules that Title IX, which prohibits discrimination based on sex, also inherently prohibits disciplining someone for complaining about sex-based discrimination. It further holds that this is the case even when the person complaining is not among those being discriminated against. Finally in President Obama signed the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act, which allows victims of pay discrimination to file a complaint with the government against their employer within 180 days of their last paycheck. Previously, victims (most often women) were only allowed 180 days from the date of the first unfair paycheck. This Act is named after a former employee of Goodyear who alleged that she was paid 15–40% less than her male counterparts, which was later found to be accurate (Lind, 2002). In conclusion since the mid 1880most advocates of women rights have struggled very hard to make sure that they achieve a significant advances in economic, social as well as political status of women and specifically these activist have rallied successfully for suffrage of women, help in gaining of advancements both in the military and in the labor forces thus pushing forwards the social reforms greatly increasing the equality of women. While it’s a fact that the rights of women have come a very long way over the pat one hundred and fifty years women still experience some difficulties to overcome in furtherance of a complete quality. Related research essays Most popular orders	4,159	ENGLISH	1
Most of Greek myths and especially the ones about plants include love, jealousy, passion and punishment. They explain certain characteristics and they indicate that Greeks observed, respected and were inspired by the natural environment. This myth is a poetic one that has inspired many artists through the years. Echo was a beautiful nymph who lived in the mountains among forests, had a beautiful voice and was the favourite nymph of goddess Artemis. She was punished by Hera _the jealous wife of ever cheating Zeus_ as she distracted the Goddess by talking to her, so not to discover Zeus love affair. Her punishment was to lose her speech and for then on to been able only to repeat the words what others were saying. One day Echo saw in the woods the beautiful young Narcissus who was hunting in the woods, and she immediately fell in love with him. Narcissus the son of a river god was so beautiful that everyone who saw him fell in love with him, but he never loved anyone back. Until the day he saw his own reflection at a pool of water near a spring and immediately fell in love with the beauty he saw. Echo who tried to talk to him to express her love was only able to repeat the love words that he was saying to his own image. He stayed admiring his own reflection until he was wasted away and turned to a daffodil . The shape of the flower is reminding us Narcissus looking down at his own reflection. Echo desperately in love with him stayed beside him in vain trying to communicate her love until she also faded away and all that was left of her was her voice forever repeating other people’s words.	<urn:uuid:f668dd33-df96-4953-b2c8-7af6eadca7ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.220trees.com/single-post/2017/02/14/The-love-story-of-Narcissus-and-Echo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00452.warc.gz	en	0.994195	336	3.3125	3	[ 0.10204055160284042, 0.23312564194202423, 0.27887341380119324, 0.10708724707365036, -0.23749494552612305, -0.24409306049346924, 0.36460334062576294, 0.5376946330070496, 0.07230439782142639, 0.08211852610111237, -0.47895270586013794, -0.43880695104599, -0.2235601842403412, 0.392489433288574...	1	Most of Greek myths and especially the ones about plants include love, jealousy, passion and punishment. They explain certain characteristics and they indicate that Greeks observed, respected and were inspired by the natural environment. This myth is a poetic one that has inspired many artists through the years. Echo was a beautiful nymph who lived in the mountains among forests, had a beautiful voice and was the favourite nymph of goddess Artemis. She was punished by Hera _the jealous wife of ever cheating Zeus_ as she distracted the Goddess by talking to her, so not to discover Zeus love affair. Her punishment was to lose her speech and for then on to been able only to repeat the words what others were saying. One day Echo saw in the woods the beautiful young Narcissus who was hunting in the woods, and she immediately fell in love with him. Narcissus the son of a river god was so beautiful that everyone who saw him fell in love with him, but he never loved anyone back. Until the day he saw his own reflection at a pool of water near a spring and immediately fell in love with the beauty he saw. Echo who tried to talk to him to express her love was only able to repeat the love words that he was saying to his own image. He stayed admiring his own reflection until he was wasted away and turned to a daffodil . The shape of the flower is reminding us Narcissus looking down at his own reflection. Echo desperately in love with him stayed beside him in vain trying to communicate her love until she also faded away and all that was left of her was her voice forever repeating other people’s words.	328	ENGLISH	1
More about Amazing Grace Banjo song The hymn Amazing Grace is a Christian hymn published in 1779 by Anglican clergyman John Newton. The words came from a personal experience when he had a supernatural encounter that changed the course of his life. Newton grew up with no religious conviction and had a life formed by many twist and turns. Newton was conscripted into the royal navy and after leaving the force he joined the Atlantic slave trade. However, the event that marked the change in the life of Newton came in 1748, when a violent storm battered his vessels off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland. The storm was so severe that for fear of losing his life and everything that he had built, Newton went on his knees and called out to God. That was the beginning of his spiritual journey and when he ended his seafaring in 1764, he immediately picked up an interest in Christian theology. In 1764, he was ordained in the church of England and he became the curate of Olney, Buckenshire. There he began to write hymns alongside William Cowper, who was also a poet. Many might not know, but ‘Amazing Grace’ was inspired by a sermon on new year's day of 1773. There is no known fact that the music came with accompanying verse, but there is a possibility that the congregation merely chanted it. The hymn saw the publicity it deserved in 1779 when it was printed in Newton and Cowper's Olney Hymns. However, the obscurity surrounding hymns soon put it back in the dust, especially in England. Amazing grace is one hymn that carries the message of the gospel quite well and it describes the forgiveness and redemption of sins from the view of a merciful God that loves, no matter what. And so in the 19th century, the hymn was used extensively during the great awakening. There are about 20 melodies associated with it and the most popular of it all that is still widely used today is the tune used in 1835, which is called "new Britain." The hymn is now seen as an emblematic African American spiritual with influence in folk music.	<urn:uuid:c4a9b175-1116-49b4-bdd8-57c7ab73568b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tunefox.com/banjo/amazing-grace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00046.warc.gz	en	0.986529	441	3.359375	3	[ -0.14736491441726685, -0.3063131272792816, 0.29204249382019043, -0.03284035995602608, -0.06765921413898468, 0.026294948533177376, -0.26932838559150696, -0.08341418206691742, -0.09551609307527542, 0.11337333917617798, -0.07613205909729004, -0.05048330873250961, -0.030466770753264427, -0.235...	1	More about Amazing Grace Banjo song The hymn Amazing Grace is a Christian hymn published in 1779 by Anglican clergyman John Newton. The words came from a personal experience when he had a supernatural encounter that changed the course of his life. Newton grew up with no religious conviction and had a life formed by many twist and turns. Newton was conscripted into the royal navy and after leaving the force he joined the Atlantic slave trade. However, the event that marked the change in the life of Newton came in 1748, when a violent storm battered his vessels off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland. The storm was so severe that for fear of losing his life and everything that he had built, Newton went on his knees and called out to God. That was the beginning of his spiritual journey and when he ended his seafaring in 1764, he immediately picked up an interest in Christian theology. In 1764, he was ordained in the church of England and he became the curate of Olney, Buckenshire. There he began to write hymns alongside William Cowper, who was also a poet. Many might not know, but ‘Amazing Grace’ was inspired by a sermon on new year's day of 1773. There is no known fact that the music came with accompanying verse, but there is a possibility that the congregation merely chanted it. The hymn saw the publicity it deserved in 1779 when it was printed in Newton and Cowper's Olney Hymns. However, the obscurity surrounding hymns soon put it back in the dust, especially in England. Amazing grace is one hymn that carries the message of the gospel quite well and it describes the forgiveness and redemption of sins from the view of a merciful God that loves, no matter what. And so in the 19th century, the hymn was used extensively during the great awakening. There are about 20 melodies associated with it and the most popular of it all that is still widely used today is the tune used in 1835, which is called "new Britain." The hymn is now seen as an emblematic African American spiritual with influence in folk music.	464	ENGLISH	1
Today, Bluebirds heard the Bible story of Esau and Jacob to understand more about fairness and found out that God’s view of fairness and justness is greater and longer lasting than our view as humans. Throughout the story, children identified aspects that did not seem fair. Millie – It’s not fair that only Jacob got the blessing. Havana – It was unfair that Esau paid for his food. Jessica – It was not fair that each parent favoured one of their children over the other. Pippa – It was not fair that the eldest child was in charge over everything. Dylan – It wasn’t fair to trick the Dad because he was blind. Also I don’t think it was fair one had to be born hairy! Mrs Parry explained that Esau had disappointed God by choosing food over his birthright and did not see the importance of his special gift he would get later on. She asked the children to think about the brothers making bad choices that they couldn’t change. They should have been careful with their choices as they didn’t realise how it would change their lives later on. Bluebirds were very excited to begin their new topic about Ancient Egyptians this afternoon. The class soon got to work using atlases to discover where in the world Egypt is in relation to the UK and then located the countries and seas of Africa. Mrs Parry asked the children what they already knew about Egyptians. Jacob – They had mummies. Seth – They wrapped the body in bandages. They had lots of different Gods. Dewha – They built pyramids. Dylan – They may have had traps inside the pyramids to protect treasure. Lexi – The River Nile is the longest river in the world. Today, Bluebirds listened to a very famous song written by Bob Marley. They discovered this genre of music was called reggae and is played “off the beat.” Out of 26 children, only 5 did not like the track. It was very catchy and lots of people couldn’t help but jig along to the beat! Bluebirds asked lots of questions about Bob Marley and wanted to know if he was still alive. We calculated he was only 36 when he died (1945 – 1981). Bluebirds tried to listen out for which instruments were being played too. Charlie – I think there’s a saxophone Millie – Something sounds a bit like a violin Jessica – There are some drums in it Seth – May be a guitar is being used. Bluebirds have been putting the finishing touches to their pencil cases by attaching button and designing felt shape decorations. There are some spectacular and colourful creations! Well done Bluebirds! Bluebirds have been busily learning and practising their running stitch, back stitch and over stitch recently. This week they have measured and cut out their material carefully. Yesterday, everyone decided which stitch to use and began sewing the sides up of their pencil case. Lots of perseverance and patience was needed. It was busier than Santa’s workshop! Next, Bluebirds will be attaching their button and decorating them. This week, Bluebirds enjoyed an interesting “unplugged” computing lesson, to understand the difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet. After learning about this, the class completed a close activity to check their understanding. Lots of children learnt new information so it was a really worthwhile lesson! Bluebirds have been learning about what to do in an emergency and also discussing what is classed as a real emergency. This was an important lesson, as many children quote the USA emergency telephone number. Everyone now knows it is 999. The children watched a video to see what questions are asked when someone dials 999 in a real emergency. We discussed why you should never ring this as a joke. Finally, the children write a play script of a typical conversation. Mrs Parry has challenged Bluebirds to all make sure they know their home address as not everyone does. Bluebirds learnt that counties are smaller areas within the UK, containing lots of towns and villages. They are the top level of local government and look after education, libraries, transport, waste management, social care, fire and public safety. Bluebirds used a map to find out which county Birmingham is in (West Midlands) and then locate neighbouring counties. Bluebirds have been enjoying their ERIC (Enjoying Reading in Class) sessions and are trying a variety of reading positions, places and books. They are busy with the reading challenge too. They love our super school library too!	<urn:uuid:40479e42-7c6b-44a6-baa4-cb5d6ede0883>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://year3.bellsfarm.org/?cat=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00311.warc.gz	en	0.986325	941	3.28125	3	[ -0.19087332487106323, -0.21530862152576447, -0.19485528767108917, -0.2388872355222702, -0.07232316583395004, 0.2380061149597168, 0.002109393710270524, 0.18761295080184937, 0.0974583700299263, 0.013244202360510826, -0.5487083792686462, -0.4168335199356079, 0.046670157462358475, 0.1275330185...	1	Today, Bluebirds heard the Bible story of Esau and Jacob to understand more about fairness and found out that God’s view of fairness and justness is greater and longer lasting than our view as humans. Throughout the story, children identified aspects that did not seem fair. Millie – It’s not fair that only Jacob got the blessing. Havana – It was unfair that Esau paid for his food. Jessica – It was not fair that each parent favoured one of their children over the other. Pippa – It was not fair that the eldest child was in charge over everything. Dylan – It wasn’t fair to trick the Dad because he was blind. Also I don’t think it was fair one had to be born hairy! Mrs Parry explained that Esau had disappointed God by choosing food over his birthright and did not see the importance of his special gift he would get later on. She asked the children to think about the brothers making bad choices that they couldn’t change. They should have been careful with their choices as they didn’t realise how it would change their lives later on. Bluebirds were very excited to begin their new topic about Ancient Egyptians this afternoon. The class soon got to work using atlases to discover where in the world Egypt is in relation to the UK and then located the countries and seas of Africa. Mrs Parry asked the children what they already knew about Egyptians. Jacob – They had mummies. Seth – They wrapped the body in bandages. They had lots of different Gods. Dewha – They built pyramids. Dylan – They may have had traps inside the pyramids to protect treasure. Lexi – The River Nile is the longest river in the world. Today, Bluebirds listened to a very famous song written by Bob Marley. They discovered this genre of music was called reggae and is played “off the beat.” Out of 26 children, only 5 did not like the track. It was very catchy and lots of people couldn’t help but jig along to the beat! Bluebirds asked lots of questions about Bob Marley and wanted to know if he was still alive. We calculated he was only 36 when he died (1945 – 1981). Bluebirds tried to listen out for which instruments were being played too. Charlie – I think there’s a saxophone Millie – Something sounds a bit like a violin Jessica – There are some drums in it Seth – May be a guitar is being used. Bluebirds have been putting the finishing touches to their pencil cases by attaching button and designing felt shape decorations. There are some spectacular and colourful creations! Well done Bluebirds! Bluebirds have been busily learning and practising their running stitch, back stitch and over stitch recently. This week they have measured and cut out their material carefully. Yesterday, everyone decided which stitch to use and began sewing the sides up of their pencil case. Lots of perseverance and patience was needed. It was busier than Santa’s workshop! Next, Bluebirds will be attaching their button and decorating them. This week, Bluebirds enjoyed an interesting “unplugged” computing lesson, to understand the difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet. After learning about this, the class completed a close activity to check their understanding. Lots of children learnt new information so it was a really worthwhile lesson! Bluebirds have been learning about what to do in an emergency and also discussing what is classed as a real emergency. This was an important lesson, as many children quote the USA emergency telephone number. Everyone now knows it is 999. The children watched a video to see what questions are asked when someone dials 999 in a real emergency. We discussed why you should never ring this as a joke. Finally, the children write a play script of a typical conversation. Mrs Parry has challenged Bluebirds to all make sure they know their home address as not everyone does. Bluebirds learnt that counties are smaller areas within the UK, containing lots of towns and villages. They are the top level of local government and look after education, libraries, transport, waste management, social care, fire and public safety. Bluebirds used a map to find out which county Birmingham is in (West Midlands) and then locate neighbouring counties. Bluebirds have been enjoying their ERIC (Enjoying Reading in Class) sessions and are trying a variety of reading positions, places and books. They are busy with the reading challenge too. They love our super school library too!	915	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of the Atlantic, 1941-1943: Peaks and Troughs The westward extension of U-boat operations had necessitated the stationing of a German tanker to the southwest of Greenland; other ships were at sea to provide middle and South Atlantic replenishment for submarines and raiders. The most unlooked-for reprieve came from Hitler himself when, early in September, he ordered six of the Atlantic U-boats to the Mediterranean, where the war at sea was going badly for the Axis. The numbers available for Atlantic operations were made up by new arrivals from German home waters, but this meant that the defenses faced no more submarines in October than they had in the two preceding months, while their own strength continued to increase. The Operational Intelligence Centre was aware of the Mediterranean reinforcement and of the general abandonment of the Atlantic, and it took appropriate steps not merely to protect shipping but also to sink U-boats.	<urn:uuid:1e37fbe4-2b03-457b-98b8-d4e939947408>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9780367274795/chapters/10.4324/9780367274795-9	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00116.warc.gz	en	0.98062	189	3.453125	3	[ -0.24465635418891907, 0.4903505742549896, 0.1627478003501892, -0.2198367565870285, 0.10986927896738052, 0.05419078841805458, -0.37358397245407104, 0.18988795578479767, -0.12049698829650879, -0.3864634037017822, 0.30451351404190063, -0.13563324511051178, 0.08428242057561874, 0.6209651827812...	1	The Battle of the Atlantic, 1941-1943: Peaks and Troughs The westward extension of U-boat operations had necessitated the stationing of a German tanker to the southwest of Greenland; other ships were at sea to provide middle and South Atlantic replenishment for submarines and raiders. The most unlooked-for reprieve came from Hitler himself when, early in September, he ordered six of the Atlantic U-boats to the Mediterranean, where the war at sea was going badly for the Axis. The numbers available for Atlantic operations were made up by new arrivals from German home waters, but this meant that the defenses faced no more submarines in October than they had in the two preceding months, while their own strength continued to increase. The Operational Intelligence Centre was aware of the Mediterranean reinforcement and of the general abandonment of the Atlantic, and it took appropriate steps not merely to protect shipping but also to sink U-boats.	193	ENGLISH	1
An object does not magically appear out of nowhere. It takes years, centuries and even thousands of years of fine tuning before an object assumes its final form, whether invented or the result of chance, and there is always room for future improvement. The idea itself of the object may change in unpredictable ways over time as contexts, purpose, materials, production and channels for its circulation vary. The object’s evolution, together with that of so many others, becomes an important aspect of History. We are familiar with the history of the briar pipe, but what is interesting is its forerunner in clay, which was fashioned in a continent that had just been discovered and which was brought back to Europe by merchants and adventurers. However, the concept of the pipe itself reaches much further back in time, when groups of people gathered round a fire of sacred herbs and inhaled the intoxicating smoke, when they first started to use small pipes to draw in the smoke more easily, and later, but still long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, when they realized that the leaves of certain wild plants had some rather interesting properties. These plants were originally from the Americas, today classified as Nicotiana belonging to the Solanaceae family, specifically from Central America and Southern Mexico. But they were also to be found in the Caribbean, Cuba and the Bahamas, where the Genoese explorer first landed in 1492 convinced he had found India. The members of the expedition came across so many strange sights, in particular “certain large dried leaves” offered by the natives as precious gifts. Two sailors that were sent to investigate for a few days observed “ many people, men and women, who were going to their villages, with a firebrand in their hand, and herbs to drink the smoke thereof, as they are accustomed”. This is recorded by Columbus in his journal, who was baffled by this curious local custom. Then one of the sailors decided to try this “firebrand”. From what is later reported we get a better idea of the phenomenon: “They wrapped dried herbs in a dried leaf, which formed a kind of tube…they lit it at one end, sucking in and inhaling the smoke at the other end… These tubes … they called tabaccos”. So the “tabaccos" referred to the tubes, not the plant, which was already called “petun” by the natives. The term may have been onomatopoeic, mimicking the sound of lips when smoking and then taken up by Europeans in scientific discourse. In any case, the word “tobacco” stuck and became synonymous of the plant itself. On the other hand, although the petunia is related to the tobacco plant and has wonderful flowers, its leaves have no particular properties. The use of “tubes”, and pipes that Europeans came across in other parts of the Americas suggests that it was similar to the more familiar modern concept of tobacco smoking, but there is no certainty here. The phenomenon of “smoking” has always existed in various forms, especially in the past, and attempting to explore this further has led to contradictory theories based on archaeological excavations, ancient texts, and the customs of populations that in modern times lived or still live in remote parts of the world. In the beginning there was fire, of course. Prometheus’ gift was at the heart of the community and its rituals. The smoke that rose up and faded away held sacred properties, and if certain herbs or vegetable substances were burned so much the better for communication with another world, the people, priests or shaman achieving a state of total abandonment more easily. As for the myth of Prometheus, the story goes that his brother, Epimetheus, attracted by the smoke rising up from the fire that Prometheus was about to steal from the gods took a straw stalk and started to inhale it. In the 5th century BCE Herodotus described the Scythians inhaling cannabis smoke, most likely during funerary rites. They would throw cannabis seeds onto heated stones and inhale the smoke “so delighted that they shout for joy”. Ancient populations, such as the Mayans, were familiar with smoking (probably tobacco) and at Palenque (Mexico) there is a bas-relief in a 6th century BCE temple depicting a priest in ceremonial attire smoking through a tube with smoke billowing out through the end. In ancient times such customs were recorded throughout the world and above all played a social, magical, religious and also therapeutic role. In Europe, as well as in Africa and Asia, various plants were burnt and then inhaled, such as hemp, coltsfoot, lavender, henbane, oregano, thyme, mint, verbena and incense. Moreover, Roman “pipes” have been discovered in various parts of Europe (although there is some debate about dating here) and a fresco at Herculaneum depicts women smoking “pipes” . Here we should ask what purpose these objects really served, in what context, and what types of herbs were used. It is highly unlikely that tobacco was used, as it has never been found on archaeological sites, nor in written records. Moreover, it seems rather strange that such an important and widespread custom seems to have been forgotten in Europe until the 16th century and that the tobacco plant, if it really did exist before Columbus’ discovery, became extinct. On the other hand, evidence of pollen from the tobacco plant has been found on sites in Yucatan, suggesting that it existed as early as 15,000 years ago in the Americas. If it is true that tobacco and the devices for smoking it are closely related, the origins of the pipe should be sought in the Americas, without forgetting, however, that the development of the pipe as we know it today also occurred in other parts of the world.	<urn:uuid:3245aeae-9f2a-4811-aab1-2f815d464382>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alpascia.com/moments/en/detail/26/origins-of-the-pipe-part-i	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00082.warc.gz	en	0.982203	1,216	3.390625	3	[ -0.025108933448791504, 0.45079731941223145, 0.35676807165145874, -0.15561917424201965, 0.08591021597385406, -0.06398320198059082, 0.5547887086868286, 0.15768615901470184, -0.18130287528038025, 0.3168395161628723, -0.3973834812641144, -0.4030766785144806, -0.25537341833114624, 0.15663820505...	5	An object does not magically appear out of nowhere. It takes years, centuries and even thousands of years of fine tuning before an object assumes its final form, whether invented or the result of chance, and there is always room for future improvement. The idea itself of the object may change in unpredictable ways over time as contexts, purpose, materials, production and channels for its circulation vary. The object’s evolution, together with that of so many others, becomes an important aspect of History. We are familiar with the history of the briar pipe, but what is interesting is its forerunner in clay, which was fashioned in a continent that had just been discovered and which was brought back to Europe by merchants and adventurers. However, the concept of the pipe itself reaches much further back in time, when groups of people gathered round a fire of sacred herbs and inhaled the intoxicating smoke, when they first started to use small pipes to draw in the smoke more easily, and later, but still long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, when they realized that the leaves of certain wild plants had some rather interesting properties. These plants were originally from the Americas, today classified as Nicotiana belonging to the Solanaceae family, specifically from Central America and Southern Mexico. But they were also to be found in the Caribbean, Cuba and the Bahamas, where the Genoese explorer first landed in 1492 convinced he had found India. The members of the expedition came across so many strange sights, in particular “certain large dried leaves” offered by the natives as precious gifts. Two sailors that were sent to investigate for a few days observed “ many people, men and women, who were going to their villages, with a firebrand in their hand, and herbs to drink the smoke thereof, as they are accustomed”. This is recorded by Columbus in his journal, who was baffled by this curious local custom. Then one of the sailors decided to try this “firebrand”. From what is later reported we get a better idea of the phenomenon: “They wrapped dried herbs in a dried leaf, which formed a kind of tube…they lit it at one end, sucking in and inhaling the smoke at the other end… These tubes … they called tabaccos”. So the “tabaccos" referred to the tubes, not the plant, which was already called “petun” by the natives. The term may have been onomatopoeic, mimicking the sound of lips when smoking and then taken up by Europeans in scientific discourse. In any case, the word “tobacco” stuck and became synonymous of the plant itself. On the other hand, although the petunia is related to the tobacco plant and has wonderful flowers, its leaves have no particular properties. The use of “tubes”, and pipes that Europeans came across in other parts of the Americas suggests that it was similar to the more familiar modern concept of tobacco smoking, but there is no certainty here. The phenomenon of “smoking” has always existed in various forms, especially in the past, and attempting to explore this further has led to contradictory theories based on archaeological excavations, ancient texts, and the customs of populations that in modern times lived or still live in remote parts of the world. In the beginning there was fire, of course. Prometheus’ gift was at the heart of the community and its rituals. The smoke that rose up and faded away held sacred properties, and if certain herbs or vegetable substances were burned so much the better for communication with another world, the people, priests or shaman achieving a state of total abandonment more easily. As for the myth of Prometheus, the story goes that his brother, Epimetheus, attracted by the smoke rising up from the fire that Prometheus was about to steal from the gods took a straw stalk and started to inhale it. In the 5th century BCE Herodotus described the Scythians inhaling cannabis smoke, most likely during funerary rites. They would throw cannabis seeds onto heated stones and inhale the smoke “so delighted that they shout for joy”. Ancient populations, such as the Mayans, were familiar with smoking (probably tobacco) and at Palenque (Mexico) there is a bas-relief in a 6th century BCE temple depicting a priest in ceremonial attire smoking through a tube with smoke billowing out through the end. In ancient times such customs were recorded throughout the world and above all played a social, magical, religious and also therapeutic role. In Europe, as well as in Africa and Asia, various plants were burnt and then inhaled, such as hemp, coltsfoot, lavender, henbane, oregano, thyme, mint, verbena and incense. Moreover, Roman “pipes” have been discovered in various parts of Europe (although there is some debate about dating here) and a fresco at Herculaneum depicts women smoking “pipes” . Here we should ask what purpose these objects really served, in what context, and what types of herbs were used. It is highly unlikely that tobacco was used, as it has never been found on archaeological sites, nor in written records. Moreover, it seems rather strange that such an important and widespread custom seems to have been forgotten in Europe until the 16th century and that the tobacco plant, if it really did exist before Columbus’ discovery, became extinct. On the other hand, evidence of pollen from the tobacco plant has been found on sites in Yucatan, suggesting that it existed as early as 15,000 years ago in the Americas. If it is true that tobacco and the devices for smoking it are closely related, the origins of the pipe should be sought in the Americas, without forgetting, however, that the development of the pipe as we know it today also occurred in other parts of the world.	1,192	ENGLISH	1
‘The Slave’s dream’, written in 1842 by the white man H. W. Longfellow, tells of the final dream of a black slave before his death. It is set on a plantation in America where the slave has stopped in the middle of a day’s work, giving up hope of freedom in life, believing only in freedom by death. ‘I, too’ was written later than ‘The Slave’s Dream by Langston Hughes. It is about the hope for equality of a black servant after the abolishment of slavery in America. Written during the abolitionism movement, ‘The Slave’s Dream’ helps to raise awareness of the immoral injustices black people had to face. This reflects the mood of the era as people at this time were trying to change the public’s opinion of slavery and get it abolished. As the most important people at this time were whites, Longfellow must have used the colour of his skin to get people to listen to his point of view through his poems. H. W. Longfellow uses this poem to show that black people had lives before slavery, but that the white race had taken them away. The type of life that followed the taking of black people’s freedom is reflected in the poem’s rhyme scheme and stanza patterns. The poem has a very rigid structure. The rhyme scheme is regular and the lengths of lines have a repetitive pattern. The poet has conformed to such a rigid way of writing poetry, as a slave in America would have to conform to their master’s commands. The poet may also have chosen to write in this regular way because it is similar to the slave’s life, which is monotonous. A slave does the same thing everyday like the stanzas all follow the same pattern. In stanza one, there is also the internal rhyme of the words “bare” and “hair”. This emphasises how uninteresting the slave’s life is. This also gives the poem a more childish, nursery rhyme affect. In this stanza we are introduced to the mistreated slave, who is lying “beside the ungather’d rice”. The fact that he is lying down suggests that he is not in a fit state to be working, yet by being in the plantation, next to the rice, which is waiting to be gathered, it is clear that he has no choice. The stanza describes the slave as having a bare breast and “matted hair”. Little clothing and tangled hair suggests the slave has little comfort and is not cared for. Towards the end of this stanza, we see the slave dreaming “again in the mist and shadow of sleep”. The slave is dreaming of his native land. The use of the word “again”, followed by a punctuation mark, makes you stop and think this is not the first time the slave has had this dream. This dream continues into stanza two, where it is described in greater detail. We are told that Nigeria is full of open spaces, ” wide through the landscape of his dreams”. This is very unlike his real life in which he is enclosed and limited. This makes it obvious how much he preferred his homeland to where he is now. The slave’s native country is made to sound like a paradise; “the Lordly Niger flowed” and “Beneath the palm trees”. Palm trees are usually associated with paradise or an oasis and the word ‘Lordly’ can be associated with the word ‘sacred’. This dream life is at the opposite end of the spectrum to what he is really experiencing. This gives the reader an insight as to what his life would be like if he hadn’t been made into a worthless slave. Far from being worthless in Nigeria, “once more a king he strode”. This majestic imagery contrasts his slave life to his old life and enables the liberty he once had to become clear to the audience. Stanza three talks of his family in Nigeria. His wife is described as “his dark-eyed queen”. Not only does this make her sound of great importance to him, but also, this extended metaphor helps to prolong the majestic image of the slave and his family. The importance of his family to him is emphasised through the evocative text “a tear burst”. A man strong enough to survive the harsh conditions he was now in and the vigorous journey to America, along which many slaves died, is brought to tears by thoughts of his family. This shows how much he misses the simple things in life. It makes the audience think of their own families and how they would feel to know they would never see them again. It helps you to sympathise with the slave. The strength of the slave is reinforced in stanza four by the many associations between slavery and war. Words such as “stallion’s flank”, “marital clank” and “scabbard of steel” can be linked into the battle of being a slave, the battle for survival. Also, the stallions can be viewed as the slaves, being forced to do all the work. This stanza shows the control the whites had over other human beings at this time, making everyday a struggle to stay alive. To show that it is the life in America that is boring, not the poem itself, Longfellow uses the simile “like a blood red flag”. This gives a varied image to the audience, making the poem more appealing. H. W. Longfellow uses alliteration in stanza five to reflect the noise of flapping wings. “Flamingos flew”. The slave wants to be able to fly away from the plantations like the flamingos, but can not escape because he is not free. The rich colours of the flamingos are exotic compared to the plainness of America, where life is as dull as the colours. Like the flamingos, stanza six mentions many wild animals, free to live their own lives. “He heard the lion roar and the hyena scream”. In America, the slave is like the hyena, cowering to the powerful lion, but the slave wants to be as strong and free as the lion. At the end of this stanza, it is like the slave has become the lion, “Like a glorious roll of drums, through the triumph of his dream”. This is a very powerful and triumphant line, suggesting that, like the animals, mentally the slave is still free and can never be tamed. By being untameable, the slave is also like a natural force. “The forests with their myriad tongues” are wild and cannot be tamed this is personification, bringing the forests to life to show that even compared to things which are not living, the slave has no liberty. In the final stanza, the slave reaches his end. “Death had illuminated the land of sleep”. This makes it seem as though the slave had wanted to die all along. The word “illuminated” makes you realise he is really experiencing death, no longer dreaming. We also know his life has ended because “he did not feel the drivers whip”. This also suggests that he is finally free and whatever they do to him can not affect him any more. The last two lines of the poem suggest that the only way to become free is through death, and that now his soul is free, the slave drivers can never tame him. This is a very optimistic end to the poem in that the slave is not in pain. The chains have been broken. The message given at the end is that you can enslave the body but not the soul. However, the poem is pessimistic in that he is dead, which cannot be a good thing. It is a saddening poem in that the only way he could be happy was in death. ‘The Slaves Dream’ differs to ‘I, too’ in this aspect, for ‘I, too’ brings across the message that things can get better in life, not just in death. ‘I, too’ argues with the hopelessness of ‘The slave’s dream’. It is more positive and encouraging. However, although ‘I, too’ is set and written in a time when slavery has been abolished, it is similar to ‘The Slave’s Dream’ in that the black people are still not free and are still prejudiced against. The only difference in the situations of the two black men in these poems is that the man in ‘I, too’ has the freedom to walk away from his job at any time, but if he does, he will starve. The two poems therefore are also similar in that the only alternative to their poor state the men are in at the moment seems to be death. ‘I, too’ was written after slavery in America had been abolished, unlike ‘The Slave’s Dream’ which was written for this cause. ‘The Slave’s dream was trying to change the views on slavery whereas ‘I, too’ is trying to show white people the will power of blacks and that they will receive justice. Langston Hughes is a black man himself, who comes from a family of abolitionists. He wrote this poem out of spite for the white people, not sympathy for blacks, because his race had just lost him a job. Hughes’ poetry usually reflected the music he heard in jazz clubs, giving it a more irregular structure and rhythm than ‘A Slave’s Dream’. Langston Hughes uses punctuation to add emphasis to parts of his poem such as the title ‘I, too’. Longfellow chooses other techniques such as alliteration to portray the same affect. Hughes also changes the rhythm to fit with the words. A strong rhythm is used to emphasise the strength of the character. The character in ‘I, too’ seems to be stronger in a mental way than the slave in Longfellow’s poem. He does not want to give up and let the white man win; he wants to become equal. He has the opposite approach to the slave, who is quite passive. “I, too, sing America” suggests his want for equality. He is saying that he has a right to be part of his country and to be an American. He is not looking back to the past like the slave, but forward to tomorrow, when his opinion will matter. Langston Hughes, or the person he is writing as, seems to have the confidence to say to the white people ‘”I am the darker brother”, however much you may hate it, we are united’. The character in ‘The Slave’s Dream’ seems to want nothing to do with the white men at all; he’d rather give up hope all together than become a brother to his enemy. He does not consider himself an American. In ‘I, too’, conditions for blacks seem not to have not improved much since the time of ‘The Slave’s Dream’. “They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes”. Although slavery has been abolished, this shows that prejudice still exists. Like a lot of ‘The Slave’s Dream’, this makes you sympathise with the character and with Langston Hughes, being black himself. Showing his audience that sympathy is not needed, the poem continues to say “But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong.” This is proving to the whites that he doesn’t care what they put him through because he is strong enough to live through it. ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is opposed to this because it tells of how badly a slave is affected by white people’s actions. The end stop lines add emphasis to the strength he is feeling in America. It has a strong rhythm, showing that he is not going to let himself be suppressed and worn down by the whites. The next stanza looks onwards to the future. I’ll sit at the table When Company comes.” This is saying to the whites that in the future blacks will be equal. The enjambment used here makes the poem more like speech. This makes it more like realistic, everyday conversation. The rest of this stanza is very challenging, “Nobody’ll dare”. This is a very challenging line, perhaps included to show that the servant had had enough of being treated unfairly, so now he was going to break the rules. The last line of this stanza, “Then.” Has a lot of impact. It is like the final word in an argument. It is saying I will be equal and I will sit at the table with the higher people. The penultimate stanza tells of the guilt that white men will feel in the future. “They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed.” This is saying just because someone is black, doesn’t mean they are ugly and that the white people have not given him a chance to be himself and show his inner beauty. The black men thinks white people should be ashamed of how they treat black people. This is a very definitive, confident statement. The enjambment used makes the lines flow, like his thoughts going through his head. The black person in ‘The Slave’s Dream’ does not believe the white people have consciences, as they are treating the slaves like animals. The final line of this poem is almost a repetition of the first. “I, too, am America.” This line is not just saying he has a right to say he is American, it is telling white people that he represents America as much as them and that he is actually part of it by choice, not through orders from them. Personally, I think the poem ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is the better of the two as it is more emotive and gives you more of an insight into life as a slave and what it is like to be treated unfairly. However, I think that ‘I, too’ is easier to relate to as the poet himself is black. ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is easier to get more involved with because of the length. The techniques used and rigid structure makes it easier to understand. I prefer this poem to ‘I, too’ because I prefer the more traditional rhyming poem. I accept that not all poems should rhyme, but this common technique enables the poem to become clearer. I dislike the repeated use of enjambment in ‘I, too’ because it does not allow you to pause and think about what has been written. Both poems are very effective at bringing across discrimination against black people both during and after slavery. Cite this page The Slave’s dream. (2017, Oct 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-slaves-dream-essay	<urn:uuid:61945dd9-8f1f-40ea-8813-91e654909c6e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/the-slaves-dream-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00292.warc.gz	en	0.982436	3,218	3.625	4	[ -0.2839796543121338, 0.40760529041290283, 0.2878771424293518, 0.5463840961456299, -0.12331365048885345, 0.3575235605239868, -0.0514322891831398, -0.529965877532959, 0.06280524283647537, 0.04272617772221565, 0.12141413986682892, 0.15816837549209595, -0.5762662887573242, 0.17841282486915588,...	1	‘The Slave’s dream’, written in 1842 by the white man H. W. Longfellow, tells of the final dream of a black slave before his death. It is set on a plantation in America where the slave has stopped in the middle of a day’s work, giving up hope of freedom in life, believing only in freedom by death. ‘I, too’ was written later than ‘The Slave’s Dream by Langston Hughes. It is about the hope for equality of a black servant after the abolishment of slavery in America. Written during the abolitionism movement, ‘The Slave’s Dream’ helps to raise awareness of the immoral injustices black people had to face. This reflects the mood of the era as people at this time were trying to change the public’s opinion of slavery and get it abolished. As the most important people at this time were whites, Longfellow must have used the colour of his skin to get people to listen to his point of view through his poems. H. W. Longfellow uses this poem to show that black people had lives before slavery, but that the white race had taken them away. The type of life that followed the taking of black people’s freedom is reflected in the poem’s rhyme scheme and stanza patterns. The poem has a very rigid structure. The rhyme scheme is regular and the lengths of lines have a repetitive pattern. The poet has conformed to such a rigid way of writing poetry, as a slave in America would have to conform to their master’s commands. The poet may also have chosen to write in this regular way because it is similar to the slave’s life, which is monotonous. A slave does the same thing everyday like the stanzas all follow the same pattern. In stanza one, there is also the internal rhyme of the words “bare” and “hair”. This emphasises how uninteresting the slave’s life is. This also gives the poem a more childish, nursery rhyme affect. In this stanza we are introduced to the mistreated slave, who is lying “beside the ungather’d rice”. The fact that he is lying down suggests that he is not in a fit state to be working, yet by being in the plantation, next to the rice, which is waiting to be gathered, it is clear that he has no choice. The stanza describes the slave as having a bare breast and “matted hair”. Little clothing and tangled hair suggests the slave has little comfort and is not cared for. Towards the end of this stanza, we see the slave dreaming “again in the mist and shadow of sleep”. The slave is dreaming of his native land. The use of the word “again”, followed by a punctuation mark, makes you stop and think this is not the first time the slave has had this dream. This dream continues into stanza two, where it is described in greater detail. We are told that Nigeria is full of open spaces, ” wide through the landscape of his dreams”. This is very unlike his real life in which he is enclosed and limited. This makes it obvious how much he preferred his homeland to where he is now. The slave’s native country is made to sound like a paradise; “the Lordly Niger flowed” and “Beneath the palm trees”. Palm trees are usually associated with paradise or an oasis and the word ‘Lordly’ can be associated with the word ‘sacred’. This dream life is at the opposite end of the spectrum to what he is really experiencing. This gives the reader an insight as to what his life would be like if he hadn’t been made into a worthless slave. Far from being worthless in Nigeria, “once more a king he strode”. This majestic imagery contrasts his slave life to his old life and enables the liberty he once had to become clear to the audience. Stanza three talks of his family in Nigeria. His wife is described as “his dark-eyed queen”. Not only does this make her sound of great importance to him, but also, this extended metaphor helps to prolong the majestic image of the slave and his family. The importance of his family to him is emphasised through the evocative text “a tear burst”. A man strong enough to survive the harsh conditions he was now in and the vigorous journey to America, along which many slaves died, is brought to tears by thoughts of his family. This shows how much he misses the simple things in life. It makes the audience think of their own families and how they would feel to know they would never see them again. It helps you to sympathise with the slave. The strength of the slave is reinforced in stanza four by the many associations between slavery and war. Words such as “stallion’s flank”, “marital clank” and “scabbard of steel” can be linked into the battle of being a slave, the battle for survival. Also, the stallions can be viewed as the slaves, being forced to do all the work. This stanza shows the control the whites had over other human beings at this time, making everyday a struggle to stay alive. To show that it is the life in America that is boring, not the poem itself, Longfellow uses the simile “like a blood red flag”. This gives a varied image to the audience, making the poem more appealing. H. W. Longfellow uses alliteration in stanza five to reflect the noise of flapping wings. “Flamingos flew”. The slave wants to be able to fly away from the plantations like the flamingos, but can not escape because he is not free. The rich colours of the flamingos are exotic compared to the plainness of America, where life is as dull as the colours. Like the flamingos, stanza six mentions many wild animals, free to live their own lives. “He heard the lion roar and the hyena scream”. In America, the slave is like the hyena, cowering to the powerful lion, but the slave wants to be as strong and free as the lion. At the end of this stanza, it is like the slave has become the lion, “Like a glorious roll of drums, through the triumph of his dream”. This is a very powerful and triumphant line, suggesting that, like the animals, mentally the slave is still free and can never be tamed. By being untameable, the slave is also like a natural force. “The forests with their myriad tongues” are wild and cannot be tamed this is personification, bringing the forests to life to show that even compared to things which are not living, the slave has no liberty. In the final stanza, the slave reaches his end. “Death had illuminated the land of sleep”. This makes it seem as though the slave had wanted to die all along. The word “illuminated” makes you realise he is really experiencing death, no longer dreaming. We also know his life has ended because “he did not feel the drivers whip”. This also suggests that he is finally free and whatever they do to him can not affect him any more. The last two lines of the poem suggest that the only way to become free is through death, and that now his soul is free, the slave drivers can never tame him. This is a very optimistic end to the poem in that the slave is not in pain. The chains have been broken. The message given at the end is that you can enslave the body but not the soul. However, the poem is pessimistic in that he is dead, which cannot be a good thing. It is a saddening poem in that the only way he could be happy was in death. ‘The Slaves Dream’ differs to ‘I, too’ in this aspect, for ‘I, too’ brings across the message that things can get better in life, not just in death. ‘I, too’ argues with the hopelessness of ‘The slave’s dream’. It is more positive and encouraging. However, although ‘I, too’ is set and written in a time when slavery has been abolished, it is similar to ‘The Slave’s Dream’ in that the black people are still not free and are still prejudiced against. The only difference in the situations of the two black men in these poems is that the man in ‘I, too’ has the freedom to walk away from his job at any time, but if he does, he will starve. The two poems therefore are also similar in that the only alternative to their poor state the men are in at the moment seems to be death. ‘I, too’ was written after slavery in America had been abolished, unlike ‘The Slave’s Dream’ which was written for this cause. ‘The Slave’s dream was trying to change the views on slavery whereas ‘I, too’ is trying to show white people the will power of blacks and that they will receive justice. Langston Hughes is a black man himself, who comes from a family of abolitionists. He wrote this poem out of spite for the white people, not sympathy for blacks, because his race had just lost him a job. Hughes’ poetry usually reflected the music he heard in jazz clubs, giving it a more irregular structure and rhythm than ‘A Slave’s Dream’. Langston Hughes uses punctuation to add emphasis to parts of his poem such as the title ‘I, too’. Longfellow chooses other techniques such as alliteration to portray the same affect. Hughes also changes the rhythm to fit with the words. A strong rhythm is used to emphasise the strength of the character. The character in ‘I, too’ seems to be stronger in a mental way than the slave in Longfellow’s poem. He does not want to give up and let the white man win; he wants to become equal. He has the opposite approach to the slave, who is quite passive. “I, too, sing America” suggests his want for equality. He is saying that he has a right to be part of his country and to be an American. He is not looking back to the past like the slave, but forward to tomorrow, when his opinion will matter. Langston Hughes, or the person he is writing as, seems to have the confidence to say to the white people ‘”I am the darker brother”, however much you may hate it, we are united’. The character in ‘The Slave’s Dream’ seems to want nothing to do with the white men at all; he’d rather give up hope all together than become a brother to his enemy. He does not consider himself an American. In ‘I, too’, conditions for blacks seem not to have not improved much since the time of ‘The Slave’s Dream’. “They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes”. Although slavery has been abolished, this shows that prejudice still exists. Like a lot of ‘The Slave’s Dream’, this makes you sympathise with the character and with Langston Hughes, being black himself. Showing his audience that sympathy is not needed, the poem continues to say “But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong.” This is proving to the whites that he doesn’t care what they put him through because he is strong enough to live through it. ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is opposed to this because it tells of how badly a slave is affected by white people’s actions. The end stop lines add emphasis to the strength he is feeling in America. It has a strong rhythm, showing that he is not going to let himself be suppressed and worn down by the whites. The next stanza looks onwards to the future. I’ll sit at the table When Company comes.” This is saying to the whites that in the future blacks will be equal. The enjambment used here makes the poem more like speech. This makes it more like realistic, everyday conversation. The rest of this stanza is very challenging, “Nobody’ll dare”. This is a very challenging line, perhaps included to show that the servant had had enough of being treated unfairly, so now he was going to break the rules. The last line of this stanza, “Then.” Has a lot of impact. It is like the final word in an argument. It is saying I will be equal and I will sit at the table with the higher people. The penultimate stanza tells of the guilt that white men will feel in the future. “They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed.” This is saying just because someone is black, doesn’t mean they are ugly and that the white people have not given him a chance to be himself and show his inner beauty. The black men thinks white people should be ashamed of how they treat black people. This is a very definitive, confident statement. The enjambment used makes the lines flow, like his thoughts going through his head. The black person in ‘The Slave’s Dream’ does not believe the white people have consciences, as they are treating the slaves like animals. The final line of this poem is almost a repetition of the first. “I, too, am America.” This line is not just saying he has a right to say he is American, it is telling white people that he represents America as much as them and that he is actually part of it by choice, not through orders from them. Personally, I think the poem ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is the better of the two as it is more emotive and gives you more of an insight into life as a slave and what it is like to be treated unfairly. However, I think that ‘I, too’ is easier to relate to as the poet himself is black. ‘The Slave’s Dream’ is easier to get more involved with because of the length. The techniques used and rigid structure makes it easier to understand. I prefer this poem to ‘I, too’ because I prefer the more traditional rhyming poem. I accept that not all poems should rhyme, but this common technique enables the poem to become clearer. I dislike the repeated use of enjambment in ‘I, too’ because it does not allow you to pause and think about what has been written. Both poems are very effective at bringing across discrimination against black people both during and after slavery. Cite this page The Slave’s dream. (2017, Oct 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-slaves-dream-essay	2,934	ENGLISH	1
Tecumseh was born on March 9, 1968. He is also known as Tecumtha or Tekamthi. The name Tecumseh means “Shooting Star” or “Panther across the Sky.” Just outside Chillicothe north Xenia, Ohio was where he’s said to be born. His father was named Puckinwah and mother Methoataske his father’s second wife. Tecumseh father took part in the French and Indian War during 1760 and later in Lord Dunmore’s War; he was killed at the Battle of Point Release in 1774. During his youth he had to move around every year so there was always a war going on that caused their homes to be destroyed. He eventually settled down in Ohio County when he was 11 years old. He was raised by his eldest brother Chiksika and his sister, Tecumpease. War and Death His brother Chikskia trained him on how to become a warrior. During an encounter with the military, Tecumseh was panic-stricken and fled from the battlefield. Humiliated he decided never to run again. He quickly grew into a brave warrior that even the young children admired him. Most tribes living in Ohio signed a Treaty of Greenville in 1795, where the Native American was to give up their land except northwestern corner of present day Ohio. Tecumseh was among the few Indians that didn’t concur with the action. He decided the best way to stop them was to form a confederacy of the Indian Tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains. He believed that no single tribe owned the land and that only the whites and also they are united. With this they have a better chance of fending off the whites. They lost in the battle against Harrison which weakened Tecumseh’s confederation. The Americans defeated the Prophet and his followers, and they destroyed Prophetstown. Although Harrison lost more men in this battle than the Indians, he held the ground at the end of the day. It was a victory that would eventually elect “Old Tippecanoe” to be President of the United States. This defeat tremendously weakened Tecumseh’s Confederation. Tecumseh hoped that, if the English won, that they would return the Indians’ homeland to them. Tecumseh died at one of the most important battles of the conflict, the Battle of the Thames, in 1813. A combined English-Indian force met an American army led by William Henry Harrison. The British soldiers ran from the battlefield, leaving Tecumseh and his Indian followers to continue on their own. The Americans drove the natives from the field, and an American’s bullet killed Tecumseh. Tecumseh’s death signified the end of united Indian resistance against the Americans.	<urn:uuid:1835f3a9-465b-4e47-b670-6576cbd8ca68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biographyarchive.com/biography-of-tecumseh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00231.warc.gz	en	0.98753	602	3.390625	3	[ -0.25001728534698486, 0.4419139623641968, 0.014620012603700161, 0.16408488154411316, -0.317277193069458, -0.39070403575897217, 0.2729976177215576, 0.21006962656974792, -0.4775218367576599, 0.20455795526504517, -0.06918215751647949, -0.774372935295105, 0.24899016320705414, 0.245463460683822...	14	Tecumseh was born on March 9, 1968. He is also known as Tecumtha or Tekamthi. The name Tecumseh means “Shooting Star” or “Panther across the Sky.” Just outside Chillicothe north Xenia, Ohio was where he’s said to be born. His father was named Puckinwah and mother Methoataske his father’s second wife. Tecumseh father took part in the French and Indian War during 1760 and later in Lord Dunmore’s War; he was killed at the Battle of Point Release in 1774. During his youth he had to move around every year so there was always a war going on that caused their homes to be destroyed. He eventually settled down in Ohio County when he was 11 years old. He was raised by his eldest brother Chiksika and his sister, Tecumpease. War and Death His brother Chikskia trained him on how to become a warrior. During an encounter with the military, Tecumseh was panic-stricken and fled from the battlefield. Humiliated he decided never to run again. He quickly grew into a brave warrior that even the young children admired him. Most tribes living in Ohio signed a Treaty of Greenville in 1795, where the Native American was to give up their land except northwestern corner of present day Ohio. Tecumseh was among the few Indians that didn’t concur with the action. He decided the best way to stop them was to form a confederacy of the Indian Tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains. He believed that no single tribe owned the land and that only the whites and also they are united. With this they have a better chance of fending off the whites. They lost in the battle against Harrison which weakened Tecumseh’s confederation. The Americans defeated the Prophet and his followers, and they destroyed Prophetstown. Although Harrison lost more men in this battle than the Indians, he held the ground at the end of the day. It was a victory that would eventually elect “Old Tippecanoe” to be President of the United States. This defeat tremendously weakened Tecumseh’s Confederation. Tecumseh hoped that, if the English won, that they would return the Indians’ homeland to them. Tecumseh died at one of the most important battles of the conflict, the Battle of the Thames, in 1813. A combined English-Indian force met an American army led by William Henry Harrison. The British soldiers ran from the battlefield, leaving Tecumseh and his Indian followers to continue on their own. The Americans drove the natives from the field, and an American’s bullet killed Tecumseh. Tecumseh’s death signified the end of united Indian resistance against the Americans.	595	ENGLISH	1
By Kandice Watson (Wolf Clan), Documentarian The Oneida Indian Nation has always been known as “The People of the Standing Stone”, “The Granite People”, among others. Of course, it is impossible for us to know the exact origins of the “standing stone” name, but it has defined us as a people since time immemorial. There were many stones associated with the Oneida Indian Nation and it is doubtful that any one single stone was the Oneida Stone. Oneida legend states that the stone would follow the people wherever they went and would always end up on the outskirts of the village after they moved. Other legends say that the stone would lead the people to their new village, which to me, seems to make a bit more sense. When the people lived in a certain area for some time, the soil could become less fertile and unable to grow crops when compared to the beginning of their time there; or perhaps the game had become scarce and the men were required to travel further and further distances to acquire meat. For whatever reason, the people would have to move their village roughly every 10 – 15 years. To ensure a smooth transition, some men would go out and scout new areas to relocate. They would have to find an area that met all of the requirements needed for a successful village, which included a fresh, clean water source, rich, fertile soil, ample game for hunting, and plenty of fish available as well. After securing all of these items, the men would look around to find a substantial stone that could be used for ceremonies or as a gathering space. Once all of these requirements were met, they would begin to prepare the land for settlement. Oftentimes, they might find a very good region with all the necessities so they could re-use that spot many times, with decades in between encampments. Perhaps they remembered stories of their grandparents’ villages and re-occupied them later with their own children. The larger villages were known as the principal villages, with many smaller villages in the surrounding vicinity. The smaller villages may had their own stone that could be moved from place to place, but the larger stones in the principal villages were too large to move. Oftentimes, smaller stones were painted red and placed up in the trees to signify Oneida territorial boundaries. In 1746, when asked to display their National symbol, the Oneidas placed a red-painted rock in a tree (O’Callaghan 1849-51, 4:432). This identification was repeated several times throughout the early 18th century by the Oneidas, so there is no doubt they identified with a stone. In 1796, south of Kanonwalohale (present day Oneida Castle), travelers Jeremy Belknap and Jedidiah Morse encountered an Oneida stone in front of the home of an old man named Silversmith, aged about 80. In his book, Rebellious Younger Brother, David Norton explains that this man was Alawistonis, who had been named Leader of the Pagan Party and Keeper of the Stone after the Revolutionary War. He was a warrior from the Wolf Clan and was the nephew of Agwlongdongwas (Good Peter) but did not share Agwlongdongwas’s affection for Christianity. He kept his home at Old Oneida, which was situated on Primes Hill in Munnsville, and did not move to Kanonwalohale along with his uncle after the religious upheaval that occurred there. This specific stone is the one that was moved to the Forest Hills Cemetery in Utica, NY in 1846 (The Sabbath Recorder, 12/6/ 1849). It sat on the ground there for many years before being placed upon a granite pedestal where it remained undisturbed until May 1974 when it was returned to the Nation’s thirty-two acre reservation. The stone was placed in front of Delia Waterman’s white house on the reservation and tobacco was burned in recognition of its return (Syracuse Post Standard, 5/24/1974). The people held a feast and a plate of food was prepared for the stone and placed atop it. The stone was later moved to its current location, next to the Oneida Indian Nation Council House near the end of Territory Road where it will remain. There are other stones that some claim to be the Oneida Stone. There is a large boulder at the Nichols Pond site that Henry Schoolcraft asserted was the Oneida stone. He drew several pictures of this stone, which were distributed widely, leading to much confusion. This may have been the Oneida Stone at one point, but it is too large to follow anyone anywhere. Another stone that has gained notoriety, which is often confused with the Oneida Stone, is Skenandoa’s Boulder. This stone sits near the location of where his house stood during the Revolutionary War. He hosted many dignitaries as well as state and federal officials in his home, including Timothy Pickering, the Indian agent who prepared the Schedule of Losses in 1794. A curious stone located in Huntingdon, PA must also be mentioned when discussing the Oneida Stone. Prior to and during the Revolutionary War, the Oneidas were known as “The Keepers of the Southern Door” and often had a village in the southern region. One village was known as Oquaga, which is located near present day Harpursville, NY and another near Juniata, PA which was later renamed Huntingdon. Juniata history tells of a stone 14’ tall, 6” square on each side that they claim is the Oneida Stone, and it sat in the middle of the village. Conrad Weiser, an Indian trader, recorded a reference to the standing stone in a journal of his travels through the area in 1748. His account relays that the Tuscarora Nation stole this stone and secreted it off into the woods where the Oneidas later found it. Over time, the stone was lost and a replica was situated in its place in around 1896, which still stands today. This stone is the only one that I would truly call a Standing Stone, in the sense that it is more of an obelisk, which is what we normally think of when discussing a standing stone. The Oneida Stone will forever be thought of fondly by its people and we can be assured that it now rests where it will remain forever, next to our Council House on original Oneida homelands.	<urn:uuid:aa278c7b-223c-46f1-8aa7-c5554f8c987a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.oneidaindiannation.com/the-travels-of-the-oneida-stone/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00556.warc.gz	en	0.986812	1,341	3.796875	4	[ -0.23438920080661774, 0.2540796995162964, 0.07990734279155731, 0.030654381960630417, -0.49102166295051575, -0.0481133908033371, 0.47877082228660583, -0.22265905141830444, -0.3608875870704651, -0.07929636538028717, 0.08607672899961472, -0.24246232211589813, 0.10330787301063538, 0.1969231665...	7	By Kandice Watson (Wolf Clan), Documentarian The Oneida Indian Nation has always been known as “The People of the Standing Stone”, “The Granite People”, among others. Of course, it is impossible for us to know the exact origins of the “standing stone” name, but it has defined us as a people since time immemorial. There were many stones associated with the Oneida Indian Nation and it is doubtful that any one single stone was the Oneida Stone. Oneida legend states that the stone would follow the people wherever they went and would always end up on the outskirts of the village after they moved. Other legends say that the stone would lead the people to their new village, which to me, seems to make a bit more sense. When the people lived in a certain area for some time, the soil could become less fertile and unable to grow crops when compared to the beginning of their time there; or perhaps the game had become scarce and the men were required to travel further and further distances to acquire meat. For whatever reason, the people would have to move their village roughly every 10 – 15 years. To ensure a smooth transition, some men would go out and scout new areas to relocate. They would have to find an area that met all of the requirements needed for a successful village, which included a fresh, clean water source, rich, fertile soil, ample game for hunting, and plenty of fish available as well. After securing all of these items, the men would look around to find a substantial stone that could be used for ceremonies or as a gathering space. Once all of these requirements were met, they would begin to prepare the land for settlement. Oftentimes, they might find a very good region with all the necessities so they could re-use that spot many times, with decades in between encampments. Perhaps they remembered stories of their grandparents’ villages and re-occupied them later with their own children. The larger villages were known as the principal villages, with many smaller villages in the surrounding vicinity. The smaller villages may had their own stone that could be moved from place to place, but the larger stones in the principal villages were too large to move. Oftentimes, smaller stones were painted red and placed up in the trees to signify Oneida territorial boundaries. In 1746, when asked to display their National symbol, the Oneidas placed a red-painted rock in a tree (O’Callaghan 1849-51, 4:432). This identification was repeated several times throughout the early 18th century by the Oneidas, so there is no doubt they identified with a stone. In 1796, south of Kanonwalohale (present day Oneida Castle), travelers Jeremy Belknap and Jedidiah Morse encountered an Oneida stone in front of the home of an old man named Silversmith, aged about 80. In his book, Rebellious Younger Brother, David Norton explains that this man was Alawistonis, who had been named Leader of the Pagan Party and Keeper of the Stone after the Revolutionary War. He was a warrior from the Wolf Clan and was the nephew of Agwlongdongwas (Good Peter) but did not share Agwlongdongwas’s affection for Christianity. He kept his home at Old Oneida, which was situated on Primes Hill in Munnsville, and did not move to Kanonwalohale along with his uncle after the religious upheaval that occurred there. This specific stone is the one that was moved to the Forest Hills Cemetery in Utica, NY in 1846 (The Sabbath Recorder, 12/6/ 1849). It sat on the ground there for many years before being placed upon a granite pedestal where it remained undisturbed until May 1974 when it was returned to the Nation’s thirty-two acre reservation. The stone was placed in front of Delia Waterman’s white house on the reservation and tobacco was burned in recognition of its return (Syracuse Post Standard, 5/24/1974). The people held a feast and a plate of food was prepared for the stone and placed atop it. The stone was later moved to its current location, next to the Oneida Indian Nation Council House near the end of Territory Road where it will remain. There are other stones that some claim to be the Oneida Stone. There is a large boulder at the Nichols Pond site that Henry Schoolcraft asserted was the Oneida stone. He drew several pictures of this stone, which were distributed widely, leading to much confusion. This may have been the Oneida Stone at one point, but it is too large to follow anyone anywhere. Another stone that has gained notoriety, which is often confused with the Oneida Stone, is Skenandoa’s Boulder. This stone sits near the location of where his house stood during the Revolutionary War. He hosted many dignitaries as well as state and federal officials in his home, including Timothy Pickering, the Indian agent who prepared the Schedule of Losses in 1794. A curious stone located in Huntingdon, PA must also be mentioned when discussing the Oneida Stone. Prior to and during the Revolutionary War, the Oneidas were known as “The Keepers of the Southern Door” and often had a village in the southern region. One village was known as Oquaga, which is located near present day Harpursville, NY and another near Juniata, PA which was later renamed Huntingdon. Juniata history tells of a stone 14’ tall, 6” square on each side that they claim is the Oneida Stone, and it sat in the middle of the village. Conrad Weiser, an Indian trader, recorded a reference to the standing stone in a journal of his travels through the area in 1748. His account relays that the Tuscarora Nation stole this stone and secreted it off into the woods where the Oneidas later found it. Over time, the stone was lost and a replica was situated in its place in around 1896, which still stands today. This stone is the only one that I would truly call a Standing Stone, in the sense that it is more of an obelisk, which is what we normally think of when discussing a standing stone. The Oneida Stone will forever be thought of fondly by its people and we can be assured that it now rests where it will remain forever, next to our Council House on original Oneida homelands.	1,361	ENGLISH	1
Alexander the Great was one of the most powerful military leaders in human history. He never lost and won countless battles to unite much of the eastern world and build the biggest empire known to man. Much of what he did still influences us today. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Alexander the Great in The Human History" essay for youCreate order But in order to fully understand what he did and how he did it you have to start with the beginning. Alexander was born in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias in Macedonia, but legend says that his father was really Zeus. Philip was an outstanding military leader and turned Macedonia into a great empire and a powerful force. He had dreams of conquering Persia and uniting the eastern world. Philip was a huge influence in Alexander’s life and gave him most of his drive in conquering Persia and uniting the eastern world. Philip taught Alexander to be fearless and have great courage at a very young age. When Alexander was 12, he tamed a wild horse named Bucephalus. Many men were scared of the great stallion because of how mean and massive it was. This horse became his war horse for the rest of his life and he rode him into countless battles starting with a battle against the Sacred Band of Thebes. Everyone knew them as an unstoppable and unbeatable fighting force. Alexander was only 16 when he was left in charge of Macedonia while his father was off fighting the Byzantiums. Alexander saw this as a chance to prove his worth to his father and lead his cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes in 338 B.C., Alexander’s cavalry destroyed them and was praised by Macedonia for it. In 336 B.C. Philip was assassinated, Alexander being only 20 claimed the throne and killed his rivals before they could take the throne. Once that was finished he followed in his father’s footsteps and began his long journey to world domination. He appointed Antipater as regent and set out for Persia. He crossed the Hellespont and met Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus river and defeated them with ease. He then headed south and took the cities of Sardes, Miletus, Mylasa, and Halicarnassus. In 333 B.C., Alexander was met by a massive Persian army in the town of Issus. Though outnumbered, Alexander’s army had more experience than the Persian and decimated the Persian army. Darius III, king of Persia, fled the battle with a small portion of his troops leaving his family behind. After Alexander claimed Issus he moved toward the Island of Tyre. Tyre resisted for several days but had her walls breached in July 336 B.C. by Alexander. Moving south Alexander conquered Egypt and established the city of Alexandria, it still stands today. After Egypt was conquered Alexander faced Darius at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. for one final battle. After fierce fighting Darius began to flee but was killed by his own men. When Alexander saw his body he gave him a proper burial and proclaimed himself as the king of Persia, but someone named Bessus had also named himself king. Alexander chased him until Bessus’ own men handed him over to Alexander who executed him. After many years of fighting, Alexander was finally the true king of Persia. He marched on into India to unite the known world. After conquering tribes in India Alexander’s men had decided that they were tired of fighting. There was mutiny among his men so Alexander agreed to go home. On the way back however Alexander was struck with an illness that ended up killing him on June 323 B.C. at age 35. After all his hard work he died before he could name a successor and the empire he fought so hard to create unraveled and was sent into political turmoil. Nonetheless Alexander was one of the greatest military leaders in all of human history. His cities are still important cultures to this day. He will always be known as the man who united an entire world. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:790e3b43-3252-4d0d-8d5a-12829b74cf80>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/alexander-the-great-in-the-human-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00241.warc.gz	en	0.990516	862	3.421875	3	[ -0.1159810945391655, 0.6162598729133606, 0.3768351078033447, 0.02744632586836815, -0.4166873097419739, -0.5999805331230164, 0.17061910033226013, 0.5278413891792297, 0.021609606221318245, -0.11406209319829941, 0.1493825912475586, -0.19189545512199402, 0.03538248687982559, -0.012304138392210...	1	Alexander the Great was one of the most powerful military leaders in human history. He never lost and won countless battles to unite much of the eastern world and build the biggest empire known to man. Much of what he did still influences us today. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Alexander the Great in The Human History" essay for youCreate order But in order to fully understand what he did and how he did it you have to start with the beginning. Alexander was born in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias in Macedonia, but legend says that his father was really Zeus. Philip was an outstanding military leader and turned Macedonia into a great empire and a powerful force. He had dreams of conquering Persia and uniting the eastern world. Philip was a huge influence in Alexander’s life and gave him most of his drive in conquering Persia and uniting the eastern world. Philip taught Alexander to be fearless and have great courage at a very young age. When Alexander was 12, he tamed a wild horse named Bucephalus. Many men were scared of the great stallion because of how mean and massive it was. This horse became his war horse for the rest of his life and he rode him into countless battles starting with a battle against the Sacred Band of Thebes. Everyone knew them as an unstoppable and unbeatable fighting force. Alexander was only 16 when he was left in charge of Macedonia while his father was off fighting the Byzantiums. Alexander saw this as a chance to prove his worth to his father and lead his cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes in 338 B.C., Alexander’s cavalry destroyed them and was praised by Macedonia for it. In 336 B.C. Philip was assassinated, Alexander being only 20 claimed the throne and killed his rivals before they could take the throne. Once that was finished he followed in his father’s footsteps and began his long journey to world domination. He appointed Antipater as regent and set out for Persia. He crossed the Hellespont and met Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus river and defeated them with ease. He then headed south and took the cities of Sardes, Miletus, Mylasa, and Halicarnassus. In 333 B.C., Alexander was met by a massive Persian army in the town of Issus. Though outnumbered, Alexander’s army had more experience than the Persian and decimated the Persian army. Darius III, king of Persia, fled the battle with a small portion of his troops leaving his family behind. After Alexander claimed Issus he moved toward the Island of Tyre. Tyre resisted for several days but had her walls breached in July 336 B.C. by Alexander. Moving south Alexander conquered Egypt and established the city of Alexandria, it still stands today. After Egypt was conquered Alexander faced Darius at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. for one final battle. After fierce fighting Darius began to flee but was killed by his own men. When Alexander saw his body he gave him a proper burial and proclaimed himself as the king of Persia, but someone named Bessus had also named himself king. Alexander chased him until Bessus’ own men handed him over to Alexander who executed him. After many years of fighting, Alexander was finally the true king of Persia. He marched on into India to unite the known world. After conquering tribes in India Alexander’s men had decided that they were tired of fighting. There was mutiny among his men so Alexander agreed to go home. On the way back however Alexander was struck with an illness that ended up killing him on June 323 B.C. at age 35. After all his hard work he died before he could name a successor and the empire he fought so hard to create unraveled and was sent into political turmoil. Nonetheless Alexander was one of the greatest military leaders in all of human history. His cities are still important cultures to this day. He will always be known as the man who united an entire world. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	882	ENGLISH	1
Miss Phillips: November 2017 We have had a fabulous week in Base 2, with plenty of fun learning going on! In Maths this week, we have started multiplication and division and began with understanding the concept of multiplication. We looked at the vocabulary used for multiplication and what it means. Then we moved to using multiplication and repeated addition which has helped us to understand the concept. Some of us were applying this concept in different problems. Next week we will continue to work on multiplication. In Literacy, we have been learning how to write a recount of a real-life event. Following our fantastic trip on Tuesday we all had so much information in our heads, so we decided to write a recount of our trip including the different things we did and what we learnt. We are now really securing our sentence structure and using a wider range of vocabulary across our writing. Next week we will be editing and writing a postcard. On Tuesday, we had a very lovely day out of school at Blists Hill, a Victorian village. We spent half the day exploring the village, looking at the different shops that the Victorians had. We visited a grocery store, the butcher's, the dressmaker's shop, the sweet shop, the printer's, the bakery and the post office. The children very much enjoyed the visit to the bank and identified the differences between the modern day bank. We visited the Chemist which in Victorian times was four shops in one: the dentist, the vet's, the pharmacy and the optician's. It was very interesting to learn that all of the medicines were made in the shop and not brought in from a large factory. After having lunch, it was our turn to become Victorian children and go to school. We got dressed up in Victorian clothes and walked down to the school in a line of boys and girls and in height order. Victorian School was much stricter than school is today. We had to sit in lines, only speak when we are spoken to and boys with their hands behind their backs and girls with their hands on their knees. If anyone was misbehaving they would have been hit with the cane on their left hand. We had a go at writing on slate boards with a slate pencil because the Victorians didn't have work books. It was a fabulous experience for all of the children and the adults. Thank you to all of the parent helpers who joined us! Keep practising your spellings and times tables, as well as reading to climb up the ladder! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning... It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who... I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a...	<urn:uuid:930d830f-a7fe-422c-be6f-38c62aeadbff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-2s-weekly-update.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00545.warc.gz	en	0.985218	685	3.359375	3	[ -0.4213903844356537, -0.21466907858848572, 0.16730816662311554, 0.21757584810256958, -0.3644222021102905, -0.23172757029533386, -0.3155384361743927, 0.0005480990512296557, -0.0015576593577861786, 0.0775492936372757, 0.3194041848182678, -0.6757952570915222, -0.3122107982635498, 0.2419218719...	1	Miss Phillips: November 2017 We have had a fabulous week in Base 2, with plenty of fun learning going on! In Maths this week, we have started multiplication and division and began with understanding the concept of multiplication. We looked at the vocabulary used for multiplication and what it means. Then we moved to using multiplication and repeated addition which has helped us to understand the concept. Some of us were applying this concept in different problems. Next week we will continue to work on multiplication. In Literacy, we have been learning how to write a recount of a real-life event. Following our fantastic trip on Tuesday we all had so much information in our heads, so we decided to write a recount of our trip including the different things we did and what we learnt. We are now really securing our sentence structure and using a wider range of vocabulary across our writing. Next week we will be editing and writing a postcard. On Tuesday, we had a very lovely day out of school at Blists Hill, a Victorian village. We spent half the day exploring the village, looking at the different shops that the Victorians had. We visited a grocery store, the butcher's, the dressmaker's shop, the sweet shop, the printer's, the bakery and the post office. The children very much enjoyed the visit to the bank and identified the differences between the modern day bank. We visited the Chemist which in Victorian times was four shops in one: the dentist, the vet's, the pharmacy and the optician's. It was very interesting to learn that all of the medicines were made in the shop and not brought in from a large factory. After having lunch, it was our turn to become Victorian children and go to school. We got dressed up in Victorian clothes and walked down to the school in a line of boys and girls and in height order. Victorian School was much stricter than school is today. We had to sit in lines, only speak when we are spoken to and boys with their hands behind their backs and girls with their hands on their knees. If anyone was misbehaving they would have been hit with the cane on their left hand. We had a go at writing on slate boards with a slate pencil because the Victorians didn't have work books. It was a fabulous experience for all of the children and the adults. Thank you to all of the parent helpers who joined us! Keep practising your spellings and times tables, as well as reading to climb up the ladder! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning... It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who... I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a...	680	ENGLISH	1
By the middle of the 17th century, some people were obsessed with the nature of…nothing. Specifically, they had discovered that strange thing called a vacuum. In 1654, Otto von Guericke proved that two evacuated hemispheres could resist all the power of two teams of horses trying to pull them apart. Apparently this nothing was pretty powerful stuff. Air, despite being one of the ancient four elements, seemed to be nothing much. But von Guericke and his vacuum pump led inevitably to the conclusion that air was really a substantial something since its absence created the great and powerful nothing. So what was air, exactly? Well, for one thing, air was clearly something that went bad, often with fatal results. People trapped in mines suffocated when the air went bad. The effect could even be demonstrated in a lab. It became the favorite parlor trick of scientists to put mice under glass jars. Within a few minutes the mice would pant and die, just like those trapped miners. But it wasn’t just breathing that made air go bad. Placing a candle under a glass jar and then lighting it with a magnifying glass had the same results: in a few minutes the flame would shrink down and go out, just like the mice. And the bad air stayed bad. No matter how long they waited, trying to relight the candle always ended in failure. So there was clearly some relation between whatever air was, whatever breathing did, and whatever that strange phenomenon of burning actually was. Along about 1667, a man named Johann Joachim Becher came up with the solution. It was neat, logical, and a perfect match to the evidence: Phlogiston. What Becher did was propose that something was flammable because it contained an invisible, tasteless, and odorless something-or-other called phlogiston (from a Greek word meaning flammable). The tendency of anything to burn was directly proportional to the amount of phlogiston it contained. Plant material accumulated phlogiston as it grew, hence it had a great tendency to burn. Air, according to Becher, had the natural ability to absorb phlogiston. Hence burning was the visible process of the phlogiston passing from some object into the air. But, and here is the very important fact, the capacity of air to absorb phlogiston was limited. In a closed space, all the air would eventually become saturated with phlogiston. It would become “phlogisticated.” Once that happened, combustion had to cease, since there was nowhere for the phlogiston to go. It was fairly easy to prove all this: Put a candle under a glass jar, and it would begin to die out. However, if you allowed some fresh air into the jar, the flame would immediately flare into life. You had replaced the saturated air with fresh air. Since people and animals consumed vegetable matter, they tended to accumulate phlogiston. What kept them from getting so full that they just burst into flame? Respiration. Respiration was just like burning. We inhale fresh air, the phlogiston in our bodies is absorbed by the air, and we don’t burn up. But worse, if we didn’t breathe, the phlogiston would build up in our bodies to the point that it became toxic. This is what we see in suffocation. Joseph Priestley, one of the more interesting of the great English eccentrics, performed many experiments on air. He was able to show that air was not just one thing, but rather had several components. In one of his most interesting experiments he tried to kill a plant by putting it in a jar with a candle. After the candle went out, he waited patiently for the plant to die, since the air was now phlogisticated. To his surprise, the plant seemed not to care that the air in the jar had been made bad by the candle. It continued to grow. This led him to try a number of other tests. In one of them he tried to relight the candle with a magnifying glass. To his surprise, it not only lit, it seemed to flame as brightly and as long as the first time. Clearly the plant was somehow rejuvenating the bad air. This and other experiments led Priestley to announce to the world that he had identified the component of air that sustained combustion and respiration. He called it “Dephlogisticated Air.” A few years later Lavoisier was able to demonstrate with his own experiments that Priestley’s “Dephlogisticated Air” was actually an element he called “Oxygen” and that phlogiston was a myth. That’s the problem with a perfect theory making a perfect match to your data: sometimes you’re wrong, anyway. So today with our economic crisis. Everybody’s got a perfect theory that perfectly fits the facts. And everyone proposes solutions based on their perfect theories. What we need is more public spending…or we need less. What we need is less regulation of the financial markets…or we need more. What we need is higher taxes on the wealthy and corporations…or lower taxes on just those folks. Looking at the beautiful evidence they present and trying to decide who is right and who is wrong, I keep finding one thought echoing in my head:	<urn:uuid:510e9f37-6ff1-46f5-801b-23c0b81520c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.but-i-digress.com/the-nature-of-nothing/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00189.warc.gz	en	0.985476	1,122	3.265625	3	[ -0.08630476891994476, 0.42678722739219666, 0.23161523044109344, 0.3196640908718109, 0.07171455025672913, -0.21772021055221558, 0.6611825227737427, 0.24031725525856018, -0.3258306682109833, -0.1214059442281723, -0.12071243673563004, -0.31367191672325134, -0.10119091719388962, 0.225349515676...	2	By the middle of the 17th century, some people were obsessed with the nature of…nothing. Specifically, they had discovered that strange thing called a vacuum. In 1654, Otto von Guericke proved that two evacuated hemispheres could resist all the power of two teams of horses trying to pull them apart. Apparently this nothing was pretty powerful stuff. Air, despite being one of the ancient four elements, seemed to be nothing much. But von Guericke and his vacuum pump led inevitably to the conclusion that air was really a substantial something since its absence created the great and powerful nothing. So what was air, exactly? Well, for one thing, air was clearly something that went bad, often with fatal results. People trapped in mines suffocated when the air went bad. The effect could even be demonstrated in a lab. It became the favorite parlor trick of scientists to put mice under glass jars. Within a few minutes the mice would pant and die, just like those trapped miners. But it wasn’t just breathing that made air go bad. Placing a candle under a glass jar and then lighting it with a magnifying glass had the same results: in a few minutes the flame would shrink down and go out, just like the mice. And the bad air stayed bad. No matter how long they waited, trying to relight the candle always ended in failure. So there was clearly some relation between whatever air was, whatever breathing did, and whatever that strange phenomenon of burning actually was. Along about 1667, a man named Johann Joachim Becher came up with the solution. It was neat, logical, and a perfect match to the evidence: Phlogiston. What Becher did was propose that something was flammable because it contained an invisible, tasteless, and odorless something-or-other called phlogiston (from a Greek word meaning flammable). The tendency of anything to burn was directly proportional to the amount of phlogiston it contained. Plant material accumulated phlogiston as it grew, hence it had a great tendency to burn. Air, according to Becher, had the natural ability to absorb phlogiston. Hence burning was the visible process of the phlogiston passing from some object into the air. But, and here is the very important fact, the capacity of air to absorb phlogiston was limited. In a closed space, all the air would eventually become saturated with phlogiston. It would become “phlogisticated.” Once that happened, combustion had to cease, since there was nowhere for the phlogiston to go. It was fairly easy to prove all this: Put a candle under a glass jar, and it would begin to die out. However, if you allowed some fresh air into the jar, the flame would immediately flare into life. You had replaced the saturated air with fresh air. Since people and animals consumed vegetable matter, they tended to accumulate phlogiston. What kept them from getting so full that they just burst into flame? Respiration. Respiration was just like burning. We inhale fresh air, the phlogiston in our bodies is absorbed by the air, and we don’t burn up. But worse, if we didn’t breathe, the phlogiston would build up in our bodies to the point that it became toxic. This is what we see in suffocation. Joseph Priestley, one of the more interesting of the great English eccentrics, performed many experiments on air. He was able to show that air was not just one thing, but rather had several components. In one of his most interesting experiments he tried to kill a plant by putting it in a jar with a candle. After the candle went out, he waited patiently for the plant to die, since the air was now phlogisticated. To his surprise, the plant seemed not to care that the air in the jar had been made bad by the candle. It continued to grow. This led him to try a number of other tests. In one of them he tried to relight the candle with a magnifying glass. To his surprise, it not only lit, it seemed to flame as brightly and as long as the first time. Clearly the plant was somehow rejuvenating the bad air. This and other experiments led Priestley to announce to the world that he had identified the component of air that sustained combustion and respiration. He called it “Dephlogisticated Air.” A few years later Lavoisier was able to demonstrate with his own experiments that Priestley’s “Dephlogisticated Air” was actually an element he called “Oxygen” and that phlogiston was a myth. That’s the problem with a perfect theory making a perfect match to your data: sometimes you’re wrong, anyway. So today with our economic crisis. Everybody’s got a perfect theory that perfectly fits the facts. And everyone proposes solutions based on their perfect theories. What we need is more public spending…or we need less. What we need is less regulation of the financial markets…or we need more. What we need is higher taxes on the wealthy and corporations…or lower taxes on just those folks. Looking at the beautiful evidence they present and trying to decide who is right and who is wrong, I keep finding one thought echoing in my head:	1,086	ENGLISH	1
Pages that link here: The Zeppelin LZ 7 was a German civilian, passenger-carrying airship, constructed for DELAG. It was first flown on 19 June 1910. On 28 June 1910, LZ 7 was damaged beyond repair after crashing during a thunderstorm over the Teutoburg Forest. Read more about LZ 7. The Zeppelin LZ 20 - Z V was a German military rigid airship first flown on 8 July 1913. It was used in World War I for reconnaissance missions in Western Poland. After an attack on Mława during the Battle of Tannenberg it was forced landing due to damage from ground fire, its crew was captured. Read more about LZ 20. The Zeppelin LZ 11 was a German civilian and military rigid airship. It was first flown on 19 February 1912 as DELAG’s passenger-carrying aircraft. Later it was used as military airship. LZ 11 was broke apart while being put into its hangar on 1 October 1915. Read more about LZ 11. The Zeppelin LZ 6 was German experimental passenger-carrying airship. Its design included first experiments with wireless communication. LZ 6 was a first airship for DELAG – German Airship Transport Company. It was accidentally destroyed by fire in its hangar at Oos, Baden-Baden on 14 September 1910. Read more about LZ 6.	<urn:uuid:3edaec84-258e-48f6-b27c-a88f74aa3e12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.zeppelinhistory.com/picture/picture-of-zeppelin-lz-7-passenger-zeppelin/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00407.warc.gz	en	0.985921	290	3.359375	3	[ -0.39038604497909546, 0.6713101863861084, 0.19474293291568756, -0.1500595062971115, 0.004219141788780689, 0.20478813350200653, 0.16781003773212433, 0.5624333024024963, -0.49512526392936707, -0.39959993958473206, 0.08408553153276443, -0.21045352518558502, -0.09784678369760513, 0.56139743328...	1	Pages that link here: The Zeppelin LZ 7 was a German civilian, passenger-carrying airship, constructed for DELAG. It was first flown on 19 June 1910. On 28 June 1910, LZ 7 was damaged beyond repair after crashing during a thunderstorm over the Teutoburg Forest. Read more about LZ 7. The Zeppelin LZ 20 - Z V was a German military rigid airship first flown on 8 July 1913. It was used in World War I for reconnaissance missions in Western Poland. After an attack on Mława during the Battle of Tannenberg it was forced landing due to damage from ground fire, its crew was captured. Read more about LZ 20. The Zeppelin LZ 11 was a German civilian and military rigid airship. It was first flown on 19 February 1912 as DELAG’s passenger-carrying aircraft. Later it was used as military airship. LZ 11 was broke apart while being put into its hangar on 1 October 1915. Read more about LZ 11. The Zeppelin LZ 6 was German experimental passenger-carrying airship. Its design included first experiments with wireless communication. LZ 6 was a first airship for DELAG – German Airship Transport Company. It was accidentally destroyed by fire in its hangar at Oos, Baden-Baden on 14 September 1910. Read more about LZ 6.	324	ENGLISH	1
The Maiden (also known as the Scottish Maiden) is an early form of guillotine, or gibbet, that was used between the 16th and 18th centuries as a means of execution in Edinburgh, Scotland. The device was introduced in 1564 during the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, and was last used in 1716. It long predates the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution. Manufactured in Edinburgh, the Maiden is built of oak, with a lead weight and iron blade. It is displayed at the National Museum of Scotland. By 1563 the sword used for executions in Edinburgh was worn out, and in February of that year funds were used to pay for the loan of a sword for a beheading. After this, the Maiden was constructed to an order from the Provost and Magistrates of Edinburgh in 1564, during the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, and the records of the construction of the Maiden survive. The accounts reveal that it was made by the carpenters Adam and Patrick Shang and George Tod. Andrew Gotterson added the lead weight to the blade. Patrick Shang was paid two pounds for his 'whole labours and devising of the timber work'. Shang also made furniture in Edinburgh, including an oak bed for Queen Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray. The first execution on record was that of Thomas Scott of Cambusmichael, on 3 April 1565. The accounts of the City Treasurer for this execution record payment for moving the components of the Maiden from Blackfriars to the town cross, assembling the machine and taking it down afterwards. The oak construction could be readily dismantled for storage, and moved to various locations: executions using it were carried out at the Mercat Cross, Edinburgh, (off the High Street), the Castlehill and the Grassmarket. The Maiden was lent to Leith in 1591 for the execution of William Gibsone, and the accounts show payment for "careing of the Maiden ther and hame agin". During the minority of King James VI, the Regent James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton was executed by the Maiden in 1581. David Hume of Godscroft's 1644 History of the House of Douglas said that Morton was responsible for its introduction, and had based the concept on the Halifax Gibbet: "the Maiden, which he himself had caused make after the patterne which he had seen in Halifax in Yorkshire". Although there was no other support for this claim, later writers repeated the legend. A 1789 history of Halifax embellished it with the story that Morton "carried a model of it to his own country, where it remained so long unused, that it acquired the name of the Maiden." From 1564 to 1710 more than 150 people were executed on the Maiden, after which it was withdrawn from use. Notable victims included Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, in 1661, executed following the Restoration of Charles II, and his son Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, in 1685, executed for intending to lead a rebellion against James VII. These executions took place at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh. The last execution that was performed upon the Maiden was that of John Hamilton on 30 June 1716, for the murder of a publican during a brawl. The Maiden was stored away, and when rediscovered was put on display at the Museum of Antiquities, now the National Museum of Scotland. The person under sentence of death placed his head on a crossbar which is about four feet from the bottom. Lead weights weighing around 75 pounds (34 kg) were attached to the axe blade. The blade is guided by grooves cut within the inner edges of the frame. A peg, which is in turn attached to a cord, kept the blade in place. The executioner removed the peg by pulling sharply on the cord, and this caused the blade to fall and decapitate the condemned. If the condemned had been tried for stealing a horse, the cord was attached to the animal which, on being whipped, started away removing the peg, thereby becoming the executioner.	<urn:uuid:8adc0c6a-2295-4c6d-a1f8-b5503085b8a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=Maiden_(beheading)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00059.warc.gz	en	0.981135	856	3.28125	3	[ -0.3574908375740051, 0.015155580826103687, 0.2861766219139099, 0.06250693649053574, 0.05277086794376373, -0.33989837765693665, 0.2138976752758026, 0.06450039893388748, -0.1242886483669281, 0.06908484548330307, 0.004277953878045082, -0.2537921071052551, 0.18120191991329193, -0.4540000557899...	1	The Maiden (also known as the Scottish Maiden) is an early form of guillotine, or gibbet, that was used between the 16th and 18th centuries as a means of execution in Edinburgh, Scotland. The device was introduced in 1564 during the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, and was last used in 1716. It long predates the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution. Manufactured in Edinburgh, the Maiden is built of oak, with a lead weight and iron blade. It is displayed at the National Museum of Scotland. By 1563 the sword used for executions in Edinburgh was worn out, and in February of that year funds were used to pay for the loan of a sword for a beheading. After this, the Maiden was constructed to an order from the Provost and Magistrates of Edinburgh in 1564, during the reign of Mary Queen of Scots, and the records of the construction of the Maiden survive. The accounts reveal that it was made by the carpenters Adam and Patrick Shang and George Tod. Andrew Gotterson added the lead weight to the blade. Patrick Shang was paid two pounds for his 'whole labours and devising of the timber work'. Shang also made furniture in Edinburgh, including an oak bed for Queen Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray. The first execution on record was that of Thomas Scott of Cambusmichael, on 3 April 1565. The accounts of the City Treasurer for this execution record payment for moving the components of the Maiden from Blackfriars to the town cross, assembling the machine and taking it down afterwards. The oak construction could be readily dismantled for storage, and moved to various locations: executions using it were carried out at the Mercat Cross, Edinburgh, (off the High Street), the Castlehill and the Grassmarket. The Maiden was lent to Leith in 1591 for the execution of William Gibsone, and the accounts show payment for "careing of the Maiden ther and hame agin". During the minority of King James VI, the Regent James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton was executed by the Maiden in 1581. David Hume of Godscroft's 1644 History of the House of Douglas said that Morton was responsible for its introduction, and had based the concept on the Halifax Gibbet: "the Maiden, which he himself had caused make after the patterne which he had seen in Halifax in Yorkshire". Although there was no other support for this claim, later writers repeated the legend. A 1789 history of Halifax embellished it with the story that Morton "carried a model of it to his own country, where it remained so long unused, that it acquired the name of the Maiden." From 1564 to 1710 more than 150 people were executed on the Maiden, after which it was withdrawn from use. Notable victims included Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, in 1661, executed following the Restoration of Charles II, and his son Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, in 1685, executed for intending to lead a rebellion against James VII. These executions took place at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh. The last execution that was performed upon the Maiden was that of John Hamilton on 30 June 1716, for the murder of a publican during a brawl. The Maiden was stored away, and when rediscovered was put on display at the Museum of Antiquities, now the National Museum of Scotland. The person under sentence of death placed his head on a crossbar which is about four feet from the bottom. Lead weights weighing around 75 pounds (34 kg) were attached to the axe blade. The blade is guided by grooves cut within the inner edges of the frame. A peg, which is in turn attached to a cord, kept the blade in place. The executioner removed the peg by pulling sharply on the cord, and this caused the blade to fall and decapitate the condemned. If the condemned had been tried for stealing a horse, the cord was attached to the animal which, on being whipped, started away removing the peg, thereby becoming the executioner.	913	ENGLISH	1
The Roman Empire in Britain was one of the most significant periods of the island’s history. It changed the face of the country for hundreds of years. But how did this dramatic change begin? The start of Roman rulership in Britain really begins with Julius Caesar’s incursions into the island in the first century B.C.E. There were two attempts made, with the first ending in disaster for the Romans. They were driven back from the island very soon after landing, being completely unprepared for the foreign and comparatively chaotic fighting style of the Britons. The following year, 54 B.C.E., the Romans returned under Caesar and made much more progress through the country. The various British tribes of the south east had been fighting amongst themselves, but upon the arrival of the Romans, they united under one ruler. This ruler was Cassivellaunus, the king of the Catuvellauni, one of the most powerful tribes in Britain at that time. Though Cassivellaunus put up a powerful defense, many tribes sided with Caesar as the fighting went on, and the Roman leader was eventually able to force Cassivellaunus into submission. Right from the start, one British chief, Mandubracius, was working with Caesar to subdue Cassivellaunus, due to the trouble that he had caused him. After the Romans had defeated this powerful British leader, Caesar compelled Cassivellaunus to no longer cause any trouble for Mandubracius. He also compelled the Britons to send him a yearly tribute. While Caesar was able to show his might to the Britons and establish a firm connection between the island and the continent for the first time, he did not achieve anything in the way of conquest. Nonetheless, his incursions had resulted in the ‘mysterious’ island of Britain being demystified to the Romans for the first time. Trade links and even friendships were now established. The True Rise of the Empire A little under a century later, the Roman Emperor Caligula made plans to conquer Britain. However, this never actually transpired. Three years later, in 43 C.E., the Emperor of Rome was Claudius. The available sources give conflicting claims for his motivation, but whatever it was, in this year he decided to invade Britain. According to one source, it was because he desired to give himself a glorious victory to bolster his fame and reputation. According to another source, he was motivated by the fact that Verica, the king of the Atrebates tribe in southern Britain, pleaded with Claudius to assist him in reclaiming his throne, which he had recently been expelled from. It is likely that it was for a combination of reasons, rather than just one, that led to Claudius invading Britain. In any case, the invasion took place. There is some measure of debate over where exactly the invading force landed. It has generally been concluded that they landed in the east of the country, at Richborough, Kent. However, there are a number of scholars who believe that at least some of the invading forces arrived much further west, in the West Sussex or Hampshire area. This latter view ties in well with the information about Verica wanting to be reinstated by the Romans, for he had been a king of that very area. In any case, the Romans made swift progress very early on. There were two particularly notable battles along rivers at this early stage. The first was the battle on the River Medway, which lasted for two days. Then, as the Romans continued to progress through the country, a battle was fought on the Thames. After this battle, Togodumnus, the chief king of the Britons who was opposing the Romans, was killed. While the Britons were attempting to avenge the death of their king, the Roman leader, Plautius, called for Emperor Claudius to come to Britain and join the conquest. This he did, and he was able to bring about the surrender of almost a dozen kings without force. Thus, the Roman Empire was able to make extremely effective and remarkably swift progress through the country at this early stage of the invasion. The expansion of the empire was similarly effective (though perhaps not quite so bloodless) further west. Vespasian headed the Legio II Augusta, which was the legion that had fought against Togodumnus, and attacked the West Country. He captured twenty towns and was said to have subjected two ‘nations’, or tribes, which have been identified by modern scholars as most likely being the Durotriges and the Dumnonii in the south west. In c. 50 C.E., soon after Vespasian left Britain, a Roman legionary fortress was established at Exeter. Meanwhile, Togodumnus’ brother Caratacus was causing serious trouble for the Romans in Wales. The invaders had first attempted to infiltrate that area in 47, when a new governor of Britain had been appointed. This governor was Publius Ostorius Scapula. He was opposed by Caratacus for some time (who, after the defeat of his own tribe, had re-emerged as the chief of the Silures, a tribe in south east Wales). Finally, in the year 50, Caratacus was defeated. This incident provides a valuable insight into the fact that many of the tribes in Britain at this point, while not exactly under Roman domination, were loyal to Rome. After Caratacus had been defeated at the battle of Caer Caradoc, he fled to Cartimandua, the queen of the Brigantes, a large tribe in the middle of Britain. However, while she was still an independent British queen in her own right, she did not side with her fellow British king. Instead, she handed Caratacus in chains to the Romans. Nonetheless, despite Caratacus’s defeat and capture, the Romans were still not able to get a firm grasp on the south of Wales. Even after the defeat of their war leader, the Silures continued to put up a ferocious fight against the invaders, so much so that the governor, Ostorius, was reported as saying that the tribe was so dangerous that it would need to either be transported or completely exterminated. As it happened, the Roman governor died in 52. The Silures continued to cause intense trouble for the Romans, even capturing the soldiers that they defeated and distributing them among themselves and their neighboring tribes as slaves. In the same year in which Ostorius died, it is also reported that they defeated an entire legion, the II Augusta. It was not until eight governors later, in the year 78, that this tribe was finally subjugated. The Northern Conquests While the Legio II Augusta travelled west, the Legio IX Hispana was sent north. It did share in the defeat of Caratacus in Wales in the year 50, but it subsequently went to the Lincoln area. They established the legionary base known as Lindum Colonia. Around this time, in the 50s, the husband of Cartimandua revolted. His name was Venutius, and the Romans were able to defeat him, though they did not kill him. Cartimandua’s tribe, the Brigantes, took up a substantial portion of the centre of Britain, so her alliance with the Romans was of significant benefit to the invaders. The Parisi, a smaller tribe to the east of the Brigantes, were also allied to the Romans. The Coritani, the tribe to the immediate south of the Parisi, receive no prominent mention in the accounts of the Roman conquest of Britain. They certainly do not seem to have offered any serious resistance to the Empire, so they either allied themselves as well or simply allowed themselves to be fully subjugated by Rome. Beneath the Coritani, predominantly in the Norfolk area, were the Iceni. They, too, allied themselves with Rome. From this we can see that an incredibly substantial part of the middle of Britain accepted loyalty to Rome without any resistance. The expansion of the Empire into Britain thus proved to be, on the whole, a swift and bloodless affair for much of the southern half of Britain. However, things were about to change. The following incident illustrates the fine line between having a ‘friendly’ allied kingdom and actually trying to dominate that kingdom. The Iceni remained pro-Roman until the death of its king, Prasutagus, in the year 60. After his death, the Romans attempted to completely take over control of the kingdom, leading directly to the famous and incredibly bloody rebellion of Boudicca. Both the Iceni and the Trinovantes took part in this rebellion, first attacking Camulodunum, completely destroying it. The IX Hispana attempted to quash the attacks, but was itself defeated by Boudicca’s troops. The rebels moved on to Londinium and Veralum, both of which were completely destroyed. However, a force led by Suetonius the governor of Britain managed to defeat Boudicca and her far more numerous forces in open battle, resulting in the death of the rebels’ leader. The intense and vicious rebellion had almost led to the abandonment of Britain by Emperor Nero, but now, by the year 61, the Romans had the province back under their control. Client Kingdoms Are Conquered Venutius, the former husband of Cartimandua mentioned earlier, rebelled for a second time in the year 69. It seems that his attacks were directly primarily against his ex-wife rather than the Romans themselves, at least at first. Cartimandua called on the Romans for help, but they did not send many reinforcements. She was evacuated from her kingdom, and Venutius took power. The Romans were subsequently able to defeat Venutius, and eventually the entire Brigantes tribe was conquered. However, this appears to have been a slow and painful process, lasting until near the end of the first century. Thus, it appears that when the Romans were actively opposed by the natives, at times it was incredibly difficult to progress through the territory. The Parisi, too, came to be dominated by the Empire around this era. Incidentally, this also corresponds to the general time frame in which the Silures in south east Wales were subjected. In the late 70s, Agricola started to campaign across Britain to consolidate Roman control over various tribes. Some had started to re-establish their independence, such as the inhabitants of north Wales. These were effectively dealt with, and progress through to the north of the country really began to start with this campaign. By the beginning of the 80s, the Romans were actually campaigning in Scotland itself. During this campaign of Agricola’s, quite a number of forts were set up, establishing definite Roman control over the region. They had engulfed all of southern Scotland and captured much of the eastern side up until nearly the northern-most part. However, Agricola was recalled soon after, and within a number of years, Roman domination over most of Scotland began to disintegrate. Thus, by the end of the first century, the Roman Empire had control of the entire island of Britain from the southern coast up to more or less the present-day border between England and Scotland. While the extent of the Roman Empire in the island would expand and contract slightly at various points over the following 300 years, the Romans had now gained control of the territory that would, on the whole, make up ‘Roman Britain’ for the rest of the length of its existence. Caleb Howells is a writer from the south coast of England. He has spent years researching various different myths and legends from around the world, with his primary area of interest being the legends of King Arthur. In May 2019, Caleb published King Arthur: The Man Who Conquered Europe, outlining his theories on the origin of the legend.	<urn:uuid:3f8e239b-5f08-4e64-b71f-dec1832ed7b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.arthurlegends.com/the-rise-of-the-roman-empire-in-britain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00348.warc.gz	en	0.986104	2,471	3.9375	4	[ -0.11540112644433975, 0.14496518671512604, 0.8464770317077637, -0.1064998209476471, -0.5121784210205078, -0.3585844933986664, -0.057184044271707535, 0.2254381775856018, 0.31953859329223633, -0.14265409111976624, -0.050005316734313965, -0.5530074238777161, -0.3252658545970917, 0.29136604070...	5	The Roman Empire in Britain was one of the most significant periods of the island’s history. It changed the face of the country for hundreds of years. But how did this dramatic change begin? The start of Roman rulership in Britain really begins with Julius Caesar’s incursions into the island in the first century B.C.E. There were two attempts made, with the first ending in disaster for the Romans. They were driven back from the island very soon after landing, being completely unprepared for the foreign and comparatively chaotic fighting style of the Britons. The following year, 54 B.C.E., the Romans returned under Caesar and made much more progress through the country. The various British tribes of the south east had been fighting amongst themselves, but upon the arrival of the Romans, they united under one ruler. This ruler was Cassivellaunus, the king of the Catuvellauni, one of the most powerful tribes in Britain at that time. Though Cassivellaunus put up a powerful defense, many tribes sided with Caesar as the fighting went on, and the Roman leader was eventually able to force Cassivellaunus into submission. Right from the start, one British chief, Mandubracius, was working with Caesar to subdue Cassivellaunus, due to the trouble that he had caused him. After the Romans had defeated this powerful British leader, Caesar compelled Cassivellaunus to no longer cause any trouble for Mandubracius. He also compelled the Britons to send him a yearly tribute. While Caesar was able to show his might to the Britons and establish a firm connection between the island and the continent for the first time, he did not achieve anything in the way of conquest. Nonetheless, his incursions had resulted in the ‘mysterious’ island of Britain being demystified to the Romans for the first time. Trade links and even friendships were now established. The True Rise of the Empire A little under a century later, the Roman Emperor Caligula made plans to conquer Britain. However, this never actually transpired. Three years later, in 43 C.E., the Emperor of Rome was Claudius. The available sources give conflicting claims for his motivation, but whatever it was, in this year he decided to invade Britain. According to one source, it was because he desired to give himself a glorious victory to bolster his fame and reputation. According to another source, he was motivated by the fact that Verica, the king of the Atrebates tribe in southern Britain, pleaded with Claudius to assist him in reclaiming his throne, which he had recently been expelled from. It is likely that it was for a combination of reasons, rather than just one, that led to Claudius invading Britain. In any case, the invasion took place. There is some measure of debate over where exactly the invading force landed. It has generally been concluded that they landed in the east of the country, at Richborough, Kent. However, there are a number of scholars who believe that at least some of the invading forces arrived much further west, in the West Sussex or Hampshire area. This latter view ties in well with the information about Verica wanting to be reinstated by the Romans, for he had been a king of that very area. In any case, the Romans made swift progress very early on. There were two particularly notable battles along rivers at this early stage. The first was the battle on the River Medway, which lasted for two days. Then, as the Romans continued to progress through the country, a battle was fought on the Thames. After this battle, Togodumnus, the chief king of the Britons who was opposing the Romans, was killed. While the Britons were attempting to avenge the death of their king, the Roman leader, Plautius, called for Emperor Claudius to come to Britain and join the conquest. This he did, and he was able to bring about the surrender of almost a dozen kings without force. Thus, the Roman Empire was able to make extremely effective and remarkably swift progress through the country at this early stage of the invasion. The expansion of the empire was similarly effective (though perhaps not quite so bloodless) further west. Vespasian headed the Legio II Augusta, which was the legion that had fought against Togodumnus, and attacked the West Country. He captured twenty towns and was said to have subjected two ‘nations’, or tribes, which have been identified by modern scholars as most likely being the Durotriges and the Dumnonii in the south west. In c. 50 C.E., soon after Vespasian left Britain, a Roman legionary fortress was established at Exeter. Meanwhile, Togodumnus’ brother Caratacus was causing serious trouble for the Romans in Wales. The invaders had first attempted to infiltrate that area in 47, when a new governor of Britain had been appointed. This governor was Publius Ostorius Scapula. He was opposed by Caratacus for some time (who, after the defeat of his own tribe, had re-emerged as the chief of the Silures, a tribe in south east Wales). Finally, in the year 50, Caratacus was defeated. This incident provides a valuable insight into the fact that many of the tribes in Britain at this point, while not exactly under Roman domination, were loyal to Rome. After Caratacus had been defeated at the battle of Caer Caradoc, he fled to Cartimandua, the queen of the Brigantes, a large tribe in the middle of Britain. However, while she was still an independent British queen in her own right, she did not side with her fellow British king. Instead, she handed Caratacus in chains to the Romans. Nonetheless, despite Caratacus’s defeat and capture, the Romans were still not able to get a firm grasp on the south of Wales. Even after the defeat of their war leader, the Silures continued to put up a ferocious fight against the invaders, so much so that the governor, Ostorius, was reported as saying that the tribe was so dangerous that it would need to either be transported or completely exterminated. As it happened, the Roman governor died in 52. The Silures continued to cause intense trouble for the Romans, even capturing the soldiers that they defeated and distributing them among themselves and their neighboring tribes as slaves. In the same year in which Ostorius died, it is also reported that they defeated an entire legion, the II Augusta. It was not until eight governors later, in the year 78, that this tribe was finally subjugated. The Northern Conquests While the Legio II Augusta travelled west, the Legio IX Hispana was sent north. It did share in the defeat of Caratacus in Wales in the year 50, but it subsequently went to the Lincoln area. They established the legionary base known as Lindum Colonia. Around this time, in the 50s, the husband of Cartimandua revolted. His name was Venutius, and the Romans were able to defeat him, though they did not kill him. Cartimandua’s tribe, the Brigantes, took up a substantial portion of the centre of Britain, so her alliance with the Romans was of significant benefit to the invaders. The Parisi, a smaller tribe to the east of the Brigantes, were also allied to the Romans. The Coritani, the tribe to the immediate south of the Parisi, receive no prominent mention in the accounts of the Roman conquest of Britain. They certainly do not seem to have offered any serious resistance to the Empire, so they either allied themselves as well or simply allowed themselves to be fully subjugated by Rome. Beneath the Coritani, predominantly in the Norfolk area, were the Iceni. They, too, allied themselves with Rome. From this we can see that an incredibly substantial part of the middle of Britain accepted loyalty to Rome without any resistance. The expansion of the Empire into Britain thus proved to be, on the whole, a swift and bloodless affair for much of the southern half of Britain. However, things were about to change. The following incident illustrates the fine line between having a ‘friendly’ allied kingdom and actually trying to dominate that kingdom. The Iceni remained pro-Roman until the death of its king, Prasutagus, in the year 60. After his death, the Romans attempted to completely take over control of the kingdom, leading directly to the famous and incredibly bloody rebellion of Boudicca. Both the Iceni and the Trinovantes took part in this rebellion, first attacking Camulodunum, completely destroying it. The IX Hispana attempted to quash the attacks, but was itself defeated by Boudicca’s troops. The rebels moved on to Londinium and Veralum, both of which were completely destroyed. However, a force led by Suetonius the governor of Britain managed to defeat Boudicca and her far more numerous forces in open battle, resulting in the death of the rebels’ leader. The intense and vicious rebellion had almost led to the abandonment of Britain by Emperor Nero, but now, by the year 61, the Romans had the province back under their control. Client Kingdoms Are Conquered Venutius, the former husband of Cartimandua mentioned earlier, rebelled for a second time in the year 69. It seems that his attacks were directly primarily against his ex-wife rather than the Romans themselves, at least at first. Cartimandua called on the Romans for help, but they did not send many reinforcements. She was evacuated from her kingdom, and Venutius took power. The Romans were subsequently able to defeat Venutius, and eventually the entire Brigantes tribe was conquered. However, this appears to have been a slow and painful process, lasting until near the end of the first century. Thus, it appears that when the Romans were actively opposed by the natives, at times it was incredibly difficult to progress through the territory. The Parisi, too, came to be dominated by the Empire around this era. Incidentally, this also corresponds to the general time frame in which the Silures in south east Wales were subjected. In the late 70s, Agricola started to campaign across Britain to consolidate Roman control over various tribes. Some had started to re-establish their independence, such as the inhabitants of north Wales. These were effectively dealt with, and progress through to the north of the country really began to start with this campaign. By the beginning of the 80s, the Romans were actually campaigning in Scotland itself. During this campaign of Agricola’s, quite a number of forts were set up, establishing definite Roman control over the region. They had engulfed all of southern Scotland and captured much of the eastern side up until nearly the northern-most part. However, Agricola was recalled soon after, and within a number of years, Roman domination over most of Scotland began to disintegrate. Thus, by the end of the first century, the Roman Empire had control of the entire island of Britain from the southern coast up to more or less the present-day border between England and Scotland. While the extent of the Roman Empire in the island would expand and contract slightly at various points over the following 300 years, the Romans had now gained control of the territory that would, on the whole, make up ‘Roman Britain’ for the rest of the length of its existence. Caleb Howells is a writer from the south coast of England. He has spent years researching various different myths and legends from around the world, with his primary area of interest being the legends of King Arthur. In May 2019, Caleb published King Arthur: The Man Who Conquered Europe, outlining his theories on the origin of the legend.	2,459	ENGLISH	1
New Orleans—Part 7 Today, I would like to talk about the history of jazz music. A lot of people will instantly think about jazz when they think about New Orleans. New Orleans is known for its jazz, but it is actually considered to be the birthplace of all kinds of music. Its history goes way back to the 19th century. Many slaves were brought to the United States from Africa, and they were often not allowed to communicate. So, they created songs—and by singing them, they were able to communicate with each other. While other places were not allowing slaves to talk, communicate, sing or dance, New Orleans was the only place where slaves were allowed to play drums. African drums were used for Voodoo rituals, and are still used today. The earliest style of jazz is called Dixieland, and it is considered “traditional” jazz music. From there, it has changed into different styles of music, such as: funk, hip hop, R&B, soul, pop and etc. Voodoo rhythms also originated from New Orleans’ traditional jazz as well. In churches, there used to be different seating areas for white people and black people. On the first floor, white people were the only ones who were allowed to be seated, and the second floor—or seats all the way in the back—were only reserved for black people. However, the Voodoo religion was different, as it placed no restrictions. It made everyone feel free, and they used African drums to express their emotions. In Voodoo religious ceremonies and services, the atmosphere is filled with music, and everyone can get up and dance.	<urn:uuid:2585bb0c-a102-4f56-a9be-6590a57fecf9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://one.v-english.jp/news/teachers-blog/12041898	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00381.warc.gz	en	0.980799	338	3.3125	3	[ -0.24972912669181824, 0.12825211882591248, 0.10893159359693527, -0.533393383026123, -0.27889078855514526, 0.48995181918144226, -0.23268909752368927, -0.3008526563644409, 0.21965162456035614, -0.02176804281771183, 0.3588277995586395, 0.5712612867355347, -0.40525442361831665, 0.0073914881795...	3	New Orleans—Part 7 Today, I would like to talk about the history of jazz music. A lot of people will instantly think about jazz when they think about New Orleans. New Orleans is known for its jazz, but it is actually considered to be the birthplace of all kinds of music. Its history goes way back to the 19th century. Many slaves were brought to the United States from Africa, and they were often not allowed to communicate. So, they created songs—and by singing them, they were able to communicate with each other. While other places were not allowing slaves to talk, communicate, sing or dance, New Orleans was the only place where slaves were allowed to play drums. African drums were used for Voodoo rituals, and are still used today. The earliest style of jazz is called Dixieland, and it is considered “traditional” jazz music. From there, it has changed into different styles of music, such as: funk, hip hop, R&B, soul, pop and etc. Voodoo rhythms also originated from New Orleans’ traditional jazz as well. In churches, there used to be different seating areas for white people and black people. On the first floor, white people were the only ones who were allowed to be seated, and the second floor—or seats all the way in the back—were only reserved for black people. However, the Voodoo religion was different, as it placed no restrictions. It made everyone feel free, and they used African drums to express their emotions. In Voodoo religious ceremonies and services, the atmosphere is filled with music, and everyone can get up and dance.	331	ENGLISH	1
Vietnam War was a time of fear and panic for Australia as the ideology of communism had spread. Australia had been influenced by the fear of communism by the US and media. The media had become a big part of the perspectives during the War, through TV coverage, protests, campaigns and newspapers. Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War produced dilemmas that divided the nation. The changing ways that the Australian newspapers covered about the conflict had reflected the dilemmas and intensified them. Australian society had become aware of the atrocities and consequences. Australian society had become worried because of the outcomes. Australia was mainly an Anglo-Saxon society, but Asia was coming in close. Yet media only showed certain views, not others and Australia were influenced to change. Something had to change the way Australia dealt with countries and veterans, especially during the current and future wars. The Television had become popular in US and Australia during the 1950’s-1960’s. The Vietnam War was also the first war where Australians could view images of the conflict in their living rooms. The war was often shown on TV, especially the outcomes or results of the atrocities. Australia’s thoughts on the war from the ANZAC legend were positive. Many had thought that the soldiers were brave and heroic, but TV broadcasts showed Vietnam War in a new perspective. Women had created protests to stop the conscription of young men entering the war during the 1960s. What was seen over TV broadcasting had also been the main reason for change because what they saw was horrific. In an ABC episode, Antony Funnell states that Australia’s understanding, and views of Vietnam War were not shaped from personal experiences, but what the media had shown through television and newspapers in the 60’s-70’s (The Australian Media and Vietnam War, 2007). TV, protests and newspapers were influential in framing the debate politically and socially in Australia about Vietnam. The media showed what happens behind the scenes of the once-famous pictures. Many people were devastated and influenced by the images or broadcastings because they had thought that the War was always about the “good” guys (Australia) beating the “bad” guys. These include North Vietnam also known as Viet Cong (VC), Germany and Turkey. Two images produced by John Immig depicting the Vietnam War greatly represents the images that once appeared on TV during the war. Television changed the way Australia viewed images and videos of conflict with the ability to show film footage of events and incidents which media presented almost immediately. In those images and videos, the enemies are always depicted as defeated. Images show they are either lying down, hands tied or blindfolded. Although they seem unarmed, the enemies were closely guarded. Suggesting that they are dangerous and harmful, despite the fact that not a lot of evidence can be provided against this statement. There are not many positive aspects of the war, nor the images provided or researched portrayed positivity. Media about the Vietnam War had destroyed the courageous and determined identity Australia once had during wars. The sights and sounds of the Vietnam War which used to associate with Australia was a public memory of America. Attendance during ANZAC Days in the 1960’s and 1970’s has been very low. The disrespect received by Veterans from the Vietnam War and treatment of the veterans compared to those who had served before in the other two world wars had been worse and unpleasant. Society neglected and ignored Australian veterans from Vietnam; they never rose to the “legendary status” of the ANZAC according to a blog posted in 2012. Australia blamed the soldiers rather than the media. Veterans experienced hatred and the abandonment contributed to their suffering. Their actions had only one perspective, the media. And only around ten years after the war, the healing and recovery process had begun with Welcome Home marches commencing. Another twenty years after the war, the nation produced a memorial. There are many monuments dedicated to the Vietnam War around the country. The soldiers were still considered brave but the consequences and situations for the soldiers were eye-opening and life-changing. Identity of the soldiers was deconstructed and rebuilt to deliver the best service. Australian society was greatly influenced by the perspectives of media through television, newspapers, campaigns and protests during the Vietnam War. To keep our nation safe and strong, there was a need for change and many tried to create that change. Australian society was blind-sided to the reality of war until the media stepped in and changed everyone’s point of view. Australian society had become aware and worried of the atrocities and consequences. Veterans had suffered the worst from the outcomes and Australia’s poor attitude. Yet recovery begun only a decade after the war and Australia was finally back on track to create changes to benefit the country.	<urn:uuid:14c98c17-cfaf-4f0e-ade4-103f9fa15b74>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/the-media-in-australia-during-the-vietnam-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00266.warc.gz	en	0.984773	975	3.4375	3	[ 0.10471704602241516, 0.5617706775665283, -0.06383781135082245, 0.17699292302131653, 0.8131828308105469, 0.8628982901573181, -0.025081807747483253, 0.1506699025630951, 0.00656068604439497, 0.3041086792945862, 0.18244463205337524, -0.12438520044088364, 0.3613206744194031, 0.44737544655799866...	2	Vietnam War was a time of fear and panic for Australia as the ideology of communism had spread. Australia had been influenced by the fear of communism by the US and media. The media had become a big part of the perspectives during the War, through TV coverage, protests, campaigns and newspapers. Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War produced dilemmas that divided the nation. The changing ways that the Australian newspapers covered about the conflict had reflected the dilemmas and intensified them. Australian society had become aware of the atrocities and consequences. Australian society had become worried because of the outcomes. Australia was mainly an Anglo-Saxon society, but Asia was coming in close. Yet media only showed certain views, not others and Australia were influenced to change. Something had to change the way Australia dealt with countries and veterans, especially during the current and future wars. The Television had become popular in US and Australia during the 1950’s-1960’s. The Vietnam War was also the first war where Australians could view images of the conflict in their living rooms. The war was often shown on TV, especially the outcomes or results of the atrocities. Australia’s thoughts on the war from the ANZAC legend were positive. Many had thought that the soldiers were brave and heroic, but TV broadcasts showed Vietnam War in a new perspective. Women had created protests to stop the conscription of young men entering the war during the 1960s. What was seen over TV broadcasting had also been the main reason for change because what they saw was horrific. In an ABC episode, Antony Funnell states that Australia’s understanding, and views of Vietnam War were not shaped from personal experiences, but what the media had shown through television and newspapers in the 60’s-70’s (The Australian Media and Vietnam War, 2007). TV, protests and newspapers were influential in framing the debate politically and socially in Australia about Vietnam. The media showed what happens behind the scenes of the once-famous pictures. Many people were devastated and influenced by the images or broadcastings because they had thought that the War was always about the “good” guys (Australia) beating the “bad” guys. These include North Vietnam also known as Viet Cong (VC), Germany and Turkey. Two images produced by John Immig depicting the Vietnam War greatly represents the images that once appeared on TV during the war. Television changed the way Australia viewed images and videos of conflict with the ability to show film footage of events and incidents which media presented almost immediately. In those images and videos, the enemies are always depicted as defeated. Images show they are either lying down, hands tied or blindfolded. Although they seem unarmed, the enemies were closely guarded. Suggesting that they are dangerous and harmful, despite the fact that not a lot of evidence can be provided against this statement. There are not many positive aspects of the war, nor the images provided or researched portrayed positivity. Media about the Vietnam War had destroyed the courageous and determined identity Australia once had during wars. The sights and sounds of the Vietnam War which used to associate with Australia was a public memory of America. Attendance during ANZAC Days in the 1960’s and 1970’s has been very low. The disrespect received by Veterans from the Vietnam War and treatment of the veterans compared to those who had served before in the other two world wars had been worse and unpleasant. Society neglected and ignored Australian veterans from Vietnam; they never rose to the “legendary status” of the ANZAC according to a blog posted in 2012. Australia blamed the soldiers rather than the media. Veterans experienced hatred and the abandonment contributed to their suffering. Their actions had only one perspective, the media. And only around ten years after the war, the healing and recovery process had begun with Welcome Home marches commencing. Another twenty years after the war, the nation produced a memorial. There are many monuments dedicated to the Vietnam War around the country. The soldiers were still considered brave but the consequences and situations for the soldiers were eye-opening and life-changing. Identity of the soldiers was deconstructed and rebuilt to deliver the best service. Australian society was greatly influenced by the perspectives of media through television, newspapers, campaigns and protests during the Vietnam War. To keep our nation safe and strong, there was a need for change and many tried to create that change. Australian society was blind-sided to the reality of war until the media stepped in and changed everyone’s point of view. Australian society had become aware and worried of the atrocities and consequences. Veterans had suffered the worst from the outcomes and Australia’s poor attitude. Yet recovery begun only a decade after the war and Australia was finally back on track to create changes to benefit the country.	965	ENGLISH	1
Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay A subject of debate in Sophocles play Antigone is which character complies with the characteristics of a tragic hero. The qualities that constitute a tragic hero are, in no particular order, having a high social position, not being overly good or bad, isolation, being tenacious in their actions, arousing pity in the audience, a revelatory manifestation, and having a single flaw that brings about their own demise and the demise of others around them. Creon possesses some of these qualities but, does not completely fulfill them all. Antigone does, however, conform to the persona of a tragic hero. The first qualifying aspect is that Antigone has a high social position. She is the daughter of Jocasta and Oedipus (the former king and queen of Thebes), and the niece of Creon (the present king of Thebes). Because of her stature she is capable of suffering more and losing the fame and regard she holds. Some may argue that because she had no political power she does not qualify to be a tragic hero but, she is still a powerful figure in Thebes. She was to be wed to Creons son, Haemon, and it seemed as though the citizens of Thebes knew how tragic her life had become. Both Creon and Antigone show that they are not overly good or bad. Creon shows his negative side when he creates a law against burying Polyneices. His positive side is that he has let Antigone and Ismene live with him and raise them after their father passed on. Antigone expresses her positive side when she insists on burying her brother who has been killed in battle. Antigone isolates herself from others, a quality common among tragic heros. Ismene offers to share the crime of burying their brother but, Antigone denies the request by saying, No! Justice will not suffer that; for you Refused, and I gave you no part in it (Lines 538-539). The act of burying her brother was a form of isolation. No one else dared to go against Creons law that forbade the burial of Polyneices. Antigone went against the law and mourned her brother. A tragic hero possesses a flaw that leads to their demise and the demise of others. Antigone never attempted to speak to Creon about the possibility of a burial for her brother. She broke the law. Ismene offered to take part in the blame but, Antigone was set against it. Refusing to let Creon get his way she took her own life. Had she waited a little longer she would have been released and her brother would have been given the proper respect. Antigone, being rash and quick to act, hung herself. Her flaw led to the death of her future husband and his mother (Eurydice). Haemon was enraged by his fathers actions against his bride to be and, his failed attempt to murder Creon was followed by his own suicide. Haemons mother heard of what her son had done and, took her own life. Though Haemon and Eurydice committed suicide it was Antigones actions that led to their self annihilation. Creon is not tenacious in nature. He wavers on the burial of Polyneices throughout the play. He is stubborn against the burial but, changes his mind later on. A tragic hero would stick to their beliefs without teetering back and forth. Antigone stays with her story and beliefs. Even so, the god of Death demands these rites (Lines 517-518). She feels as though she had done nothing wrong. She is tenacious in nature. Tragic heros reach an epiphany. It could be considered that Creons epiphany was when he changed his mind about the burial after speaking to Tiresias. He agreed that the Gods decided he was wrong in his actions against Polyneices and Antigones sentence. Antigone reached the plays true epiphany when she was about to kill herself. Now, because to you, Polyneices, I have given burial, To me they give a recompense like this! Yet what I did, the wise will all approve (Lines 903-906). She realized that what has become of her life was due to her own fatal flaw. Antigone clearly captures the audiences pity. Creons stubbornness and lack of compassion do not win pity. When Creons wife and son die the pity is shifted to them not Creon. All of Thebes sympathizes with Antigone, especially after she has been sentenced to die. Haemon even tells Creon what people have said. And I have heard them, muttering and whisperingNo other woman, So they are saying, so undeservedly Has been condemned for such a glorious deed (Lines 693-695). It is obvious that she had the pity of the entire city except for Creon. Only the chorus sympathized with Creon at times. Not having pity disqualifies Creon as being the tragic hero. From her tenacity and personal strength in defying the law to her tragic death, Antigone captures the audiences pity and sympathy. She is the tragic hero. Cite this Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay. (2019, Feb 20). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/antigone-is-a-tragic-hero/	<urn:uuid:17c68160-694f-40c6-b25a-9b2cbfb5361c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/antigone-is-a-tragic-hero/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00385.warc.gz	en	0.982131	1,143	3.265625	3	[ -0.27689212560653687, 0.20018714666366577, 0.002237212611362338, -0.37736961245536804, -0.3212463855743408, 0.03532782196998596, 0.7852527499198914, 0.32921749353408813, -0.3322964608669281, -0.005057977046817541, 0.010198349133133888, -0.2502574324607849, 0.6141583919525146, 0.35821482539...	1	Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay A subject of debate in Sophocles play Antigone is which character complies with the characteristics of a tragic hero. The qualities that constitute a tragic hero are, in no particular order, having a high social position, not being overly good or bad, isolation, being tenacious in their actions, arousing pity in the audience, a revelatory manifestation, and having a single flaw that brings about their own demise and the demise of others around them. Creon possesses some of these qualities but, does not completely fulfill them all. Antigone does, however, conform to the persona of a tragic hero. The first qualifying aspect is that Antigone has a high social position. She is the daughter of Jocasta and Oedipus (the former king and queen of Thebes), and the niece of Creon (the present king of Thebes). Because of her stature she is capable of suffering more and losing the fame and regard she holds. Some may argue that because she had no political power she does not qualify to be a tragic hero but, she is still a powerful figure in Thebes. She was to be wed to Creons son, Haemon, and it seemed as though the citizens of Thebes knew how tragic her life had become. Both Creon and Antigone show that they are not overly good or bad. Creon shows his negative side when he creates a law against burying Polyneices. His positive side is that he has let Antigone and Ismene live with him and raise them after their father passed on. Antigone expresses her positive side when she insists on burying her brother who has been killed in battle. Antigone isolates herself from others, a quality common among tragic heros. Ismene offers to share the crime of burying their brother but, Antigone denies the request by saying, No! Justice will not suffer that; for you Refused, and I gave you no part in it (Lines 538-539). The act of burying her brother was a form of isolation. No one else dared to go against Creons law that forbade the burial of Polyneices. Antigone went against the law and mourned her brother. A tragic hero possesses a flaw that leads to their demise and the demise of others. Antigone never attempted to speak to Creon about the possibility of a burial for her brother. She broke the law. Ismene offered to take part in the blame but, Antigone was set against it. Refusing to let Creon get his way she took her own life. Had she waited a little longer she would have been released and her brother would have been given the proper respect. Antigone, being rash and quick to act, hung herself. Her flaw led to the death of her future husband and his mother (Eurydice). Haemon was enraged by his fathers actions against his bride to be and, his failed attempt to murder Creon was followed by his own suicide. Haemons mother heard of what her son had done and, took her own life. Though Haemon and Eurydice committed suicide it was Antigones actions that led to their self annihilation. Creon is not tenacious in nature. He wavers on the burial of Polyneices throughout the play. He is stubborn against the burial but, changes his mind later on. A tragic hero would stick to their beliefs without teetering back and forth. Antigone stays with her story and beliefs. Even so, the god of Death demands these rites (Lines 517-518). She feels as though she had done nothing wrong. She is tenacious in nature. Tragic heros reach an epiphany. It could be considered that Creons epiphany was when he changed his mind about the burial after speaking to Tiresias. He agreed that the Gods decided he was wrong in his actions against Polyneices and Antigones sentence. Antigone reached the plays true epiphany when she was about to kill herself. Now, because to you, Polyneices, I have given burial, To me they give a recompense like this! Yet what I did, the wise will all approve (Lines 903-906). She realized that what has become of her life was due to her own fatal flaw. Antigone clearly captures the audiences pity. Creons stubbornness and lack of compassion do not win pity. When Creons wife and son die the pity is shifted to them not Creon. All of Thebes sympathizes with Antigone, especially after she has been sentenced to die. Haemon even tells Creon what people have said. And I have heard them, muttering and whisperingNo other woman, So they are saying, so undeservedly Has been condemned for such a glorious deed (Lines 693-695). It is obvious that she had the pity of the entire city except for Creon. Only the chorus sympathized with Creon at times. Not having pity disqualifies Creon as being the tragic hero. From her tenacity and personal strength in defying the law to her tragic death, Antigone captures the audiences pity and sympathy. She is the tragic hero. Cite this Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay Antigone is a Tragic Hero Essay. (2019, Feb 20). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/antigone-is-a-tragic-hero/	1,150	ENGLISH	1
TEAM 1403 COUGAR ROBOTICS PROJECT/ACTIVITY: Social Media Where: Montgomery High School Number of Students: 83 Action Items: Masking Tape, PVC Pipe, Rubber Bands, Rubber Tube, and Popsicle Sticks. Impact on Team: This Cougar Class was mainly focused on social media and the various effects it can have on people. On one hand, social media can promote communication, provide information, and allow easy networking. On the other hand, social media has the ability to create an addiction, potentially expose private information to thousands of people, and cause depression. Since the majority of people have some form of social media, it means that almost everything can be easily viewed by anyone who has internet connection. The challenge was for each team to create a contraption that could launch a ping pong ball the furthest. Two weeks before the activity, the students had the option to request materials that were three dollars or under, which could include construction materials or anything that was not obviously cheating (an actual ping pong launcher, for instance). During the activity, the students were split into teams and were given roughly five minutes to brainstorm ideas about what they needed to assemble their launcher. After the five minutes passed, the students were given a piece of paper on which they could write the type and amount of material they wanted long as it was within reason (500 rubber bands is not realistic). After the students were given the materials, they could start building; however, halfway through the activity, all the members of the team had to stay silent except for one randomly selected member. Finally, when the students finished building their structures, they were taken to the cafeteria and were given three chances to shoot a ping pong ball as far as they could with their launcher. One of the things that students learned was that teamwork was important for completing the challenge. In order to complete the apparatus to launch the ping-pong ball, students had to communicate with one another about various ways to launch the ping-pong ball, such as with a catapult or trebuchet design. Teamwork became even more important when only one member could talk as the students in the group had to communicate and work together through other means besides speech. As well as teamwork, use of time effectively was needed in this challenge due to the fact that we had a limited amount of time to create an entire machine. Overall, this challenge required skills that are needed in robotics, as well as jobs that require cooperation like engineering or lawyers.	<urn:uuid:516bce10-3c71-4801-b73b-be085e2df88f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cougarrobotics.com/2019/10/2019-cougar-class-3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00061.warc.gz	en	0.986713	519	3.625	4	[ 0.12776143848896027, -0.05408526211977005, 0.032842542976140976, -0.42840203642845154, -0.1299086958169937, 0.021911635994911194, 0.13778023421764374, 0.27817147970199585, -0.1314016431570053, 0.026380013674497604, 0.4814665913581848, -0.15682409703731537, 0.47497794032096863, 0.0491746887...	14	TEAM 1403 COUGAR ROBOTICS PROJECT/ACTIVITY: Social Media Where: Montgomery High School Number of Students: 83 Action Items: Masking Tape, PVC Pipe, Rubber Bands, Rubber Tube, and Popsicle Sticks. Impact on Team: This Cougar Class was mainly focused on social media and the various effects it can have on people. On one hand, social media can promote communication, provide information, and allow easy networking. On the other hand, social media has the ability to create an addiction, potentially expose private information to thousands of people, and cause depression. Since the majority of people have some form of social media, it means that almost everything can be easily viewed by anyone who has internet connection. The challenge was for each team to create a contraption that could launch a ping pong ball the furthest. Two weeks before the activity, the students had the option to request materials that were three dollars or under, which could include construction materials or anything that was not obviously cheating (an actual ping pong launcher, for instance). During the activity, the students were split into teams and were given roughly five minutes to brainstorm ideas about what they needed to assemble their launcher. After the five minutes passed, the students were given a piece of paper on which they could write the type and amount of material they wanted long as it was within reason (500 rubber bands is not realistic). After the students were given the materials, they could start building; however, halfway through the activity, all the members of the team had to stay silent except for one randomly selected member. Finally, when the students finished building their structures, they were taken to the cafeteria and were given three chances to shoot a ping pong ball as far as they could with their launcher. One of the things that students learned was that teamwork was important for completing the challenge. In order to complete the apparatus to launch the ping-pong ball, students had to communicate with one another about various ways to launch the ping-pong ball, such as with a catapult or trebuchet design. Teamwork became even more important when only one member could talk as the students in the group had to communicate and work together through other means besides speech. As well as teamwork, use of time effectively was needed in this challenge due to the fact that we had a limited amount of time to create an entire machine. Overall, this challenge required skills that are needed in robotics, as well as jobs that require cooperation like engineering or lawyers.	510	ENGLISH	1
America is one of the most diverse nations in the world. People with origins all across the planet call America their home. This diverse population results in many diverse viewpoints on what it means to be an American. Unique cultures result in unique ideas. However, there is one constant throughout all of this, and that is the importance of family. In particular, family history. Family history provides the traditional and cultural foundation for Americans to establish their own personal identity within their community and their country. Family values and American values are both extremely important in the lives of many people. A study, conducted by Barna Group, showed that family is the most important factor relating to one’s personal identity. This was followed, in second place, by being an American. The study involved a survey of 1,000 U.S adults asked to rate different factors on how much they influenced their identity. Participants were given choices of, “a lot,” “some,” “not too much” or “not at all” to describe the different factors. The study resulted in 62% of them having family as influencing their identity a lot, while, 52% had being an American as influencing their identity a lot. This study highlights the importance family has on personal identity. On top of this, it shows a relationship between family and being American. They both are the dominant factors that shape who we are as people. Due to this dominance in people’s lives, family values and American values tend to blend. Family values, such as family history, and American values, such as freedom, tend to form their own unique American ideas. In my own life, for example, my family’s history influences my ideas about America through the way that both my parents grew up in very different situations but still succeeded and prospered. Everyone has their own American creed based on their family and American values that make them who they are. This shows how family and being American are related when it comes to personal identity and values that make up an American identity. Family history is incredibly important. History does not separate, but rather, is always combining new elements and ideas. In an interview with Mary Leinweber, my mom, I asked how she felt her family history has influenced who she is as a person today, and how she still expresses this history. She responded by saying that she was very proud of her Irish and Polish history. She went on to say how she still feels connected to her history through traditional foods and music. She is a member of the Gaelic League of Detroit and has even taken our family on a trip to Ireland. She thinks that it is very important for people to embrace their family history and to let it be a guiding factor in their lives. She believes that her American identity does not conflict in any ways with her family values. Instead, she believes that her family history has blended with her American identity to create the person she is today. My interview with my mom showed a unique perspective on the importance of family history in shaping who we are as people. My mom grew up rather poor. She did not have a lot of the privileges growing up that many American kids have. As a result, she had to rely a lot on her family, which involved learning and practicing family traditions. Along with this, she did not develop any cynical or negative views about what it means to be an American. Despite her growing up poor, she still embraces being an American as well as her family history. My dad, Mike Leinweber, is Irish and German. His family history has been one of embracing the American dream. In an interview, I talked to my dad about his family history, and how he feels this history plays a role in his views of being an American. My dad told me about how his childhood was less focussed on his past, and more focussed on looking to the future. Both his grandpa and father were extremely successful self made men. As a result, he grew up in an environment that was all about the American dream. If you work hard, you will succeed. As a result, less emphasis was put on his Irish and German ancestry, and more emphasis was put on being an American. He told me how, even with this emphasis on being an American, his history was not completely abandoned. He is also a member of the Detroit Gaelic League, and actively embraces his family history through food and music. This interview with my dad provided a different perspective on the influence of family history. As opposed to my mom, my dad grew up wealthy and embraced more of the American dream. However, Despite these differences, both my mom and my dad agree that their family history does influence their American Identity. Family history history holds influence beyond tradition and culture. Family history can help teach and develop values that are very important. According to familysearch.org, “Knowing, recording, preserving, and sharing our family histories can provide countless benefits to individuals, families, and entire societies.” The cite goes on to describe how values such as “Compassion”, “Resilience” and “selflessness” all can be influenced by one’s family history. On top of this, family history can help people connect and contribute to one’s ideas of self worth and core identity. All of this goes to show the extent to which family history influences us as people. Beyond tradition and culture, this history provides important values that are at the core of being an American, and values that help us grow and develop into better people. It has been shown that family values contribute the most to a person's idea of self identity. Along with this, family values and American values are closely related. Family history provides the foundation for which we can form our own American Identity. Everyone’s family history is different. It is through these differences that we develop our own unique ideas about what it means to be an American.	<urn:uuid:8167f6b4-7c0a-4545-a87a-9a952a6ef4c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://writingourfuture.nwp.org/americancreed/responses/1567-family-and-an-american-identity	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00118.warc.gz	en	0.983848	1,220	3.296875	3	[ 0.31351056694984436, 0.7113741636276245, 0.12277794629335403, -0.47630974650382996, -0.10378921777009964, 0.5531196594238281, 0.3068735599517822, 0.1579170525074005, 0.09682996571063995, -0.2041752189397812, 0.14825361967086792, 0.04799465462565422, 0.09306619316339493, 0.01477197650820016...	13	America is one of the most diverse nations in the world. People with origins all across the planet call America their home. This diverse population results in many diverse viewpoints on what it means to be an American. Unique cultures result in unique ideas. However, there is one constant throughout all of this, and that is the importance of family. In particular, family history. Family history provides the traditional and cultural foundation for Americans to establish their own personal identity within their community and their country. Family values and American values are both extremely important in the lives of many people. A study, conducted by Barna Group, showed that family is the most important factor relating to one’s personal identity. This was followed, in second place, by being an American. The study involved a survey of 1,000 U.S adults asked to rate different factors on how much they influenced their identity. Participants were given choices of, “a lot,” “some,” “not too much” or “not at all” to describe the different factors. The study resulted in 62% of them having family as influencing their identity a lot, while, 52% had being an American as influencing their identity a lot. This study highlights the importance family has on personal identity. On top of this, it shows a relationship between family and being American. They both are the dominant factors that shape who we are as people. Due to this dominance in people’s lives, family values and American values tend to blend. Family values, such as family history, and American values, such as freedom, tend to form their own unique American ideas. In my own life, for example, my family’s history influences my ideas about America through the way that both my parents grew up in very different situations but still succeeded and prospered. Everyone has their own American creed based on their family and American values that make them who they are. This shows how family and being American are related when it comes to personal identity and values that make up an American identity. Family history is incredibly important. History does not separate, but rather, is always combining new elements and ideas. In an interview with Mary Leinweber, my mom, I asked how she felt her family history has influenced who she is as a person today, and how she still expresses this history. She responded by saying that she was very proud of her Irish and Polish history. She went on to say how she still feels connected to her history through traditional foods and music. She is a member of the Gaelic League of Detroit and has even taken our family on a trip to Ireland. She thinks that it is very important for people to embrace their family history and to let it be a guiding factor in their lives. She believes that her American identity does not conflict in any ways with her family values. Instead, she believes that her family history has blended with her American identity to create the person she is today. My interview with my mom showed a unique perspective on the importance of family history in shaping who we are as people. My mom grew up rather poor. She did not have a lot of the privileges growing up that many American kids have. As a result, she had to rely a lot on her family, which involved learning and practicing family traditions. Along with this, she did not develop any cynical or negative views about what it means to be an American. Despite her growing up poor, she still embraces being an American as well as her family history. My dad, Mike Leinweber, is Irish and German. His family history has been one of embracing the American dream. In an interview, I talked to my dad about his family history, and how he feels this history plays a role in his views of being an American. My dad told me about how his childhood was less focussed on his past, and more focussed on looking to the future. Both his grandpa and father were extremely successful self made men. As a result, he grew up in an environment that was all about the American dream. If you work hard, you will succeed. As a result, less emphasis was put on his Irish and German ancestry, and more emphasis was put on being an American. He told me how, even with this emphasis on being an American, his history was not completely abandoned. He is also a member of the Detroit Gaelic League, and actively embraces his family history through food and music. This interview with my dad provided a different perspective on the influence of family history. As opposed to my mom, my dad grew up wealthy and embraced more of the American dream. However, Despite these differences, both my mom and my dad agree that their family history does influence their American Identity. Family history history holds influence beyond tradition and culture. Family history can help teach and develop values that are very important. According to familysearch.org, “Knowing, recording, preserving, and sharing our family histories can provide countless benefits to individuals, families, and entire societies.” The cite goes on to describe how values such as “Compassion”, “Resilience” and “selflessness” all can be influenced by one’s family history. On top of this, family history can help people connect and contribute to one’s ideas of self worth and core identity. All of this goes to show the extent to which family history influences us as people. Beyond tradition and culture, this history provides important values that are at the core of being an American, and values that help us grow and develop into better people. It has been shown that family values contribute the most to a person's idea of self identity. Along with this, family values and American values are closely related. Family history provides the foundation for which we can form our own American Identity. Everyone’s family history is different. It is through these differences that we develop our own unique ideas about what it means to be an American.	1,188	ENGLISH	1
Who Was Crazy Horse? Crazy Horse was an Oglala Sioux Indian chief who fought against removal to a reservation in the Black Hills. In 1876, he joined with Cheyenne forces in a surprise attack against Gen. George Crook; then united with Chief Sitting Bull for the Battle of the Little Bighorn. In 1877, Crazy Horse surrendered and was killed in a scuffle with soldiers. An uncompromising and fearless Lakota leader who was committed to protecting his people's way of life, Crazy Horse was born with the Native American name Tashunka Witco around 1840 near what is present-day Rapid Springs, South Dakota. The details of how he came to acquire the name Crazy Horse are up for debate. One account says that his father, also named Crazy Horse, passed the name on to him after his son had demonstrated his skills as a warrior. Even as a young boy, Crazy Horse stood out. He was fair-skinned and had brown, curly hair, giving him an appearance that was noticeably different from other boys his age. These physical differences may have laid the groundwork for a personality that even among his own people made him a loner and a bit distant. Crazy Horse's birth had come during a great time for the Lakota people. A division of the Sioux, the Lakota represented the largest band of the tribe. Their domain included a giant swath of land that ran from the Missouri River to the Big Horn Mountains in the west. Their contact with whites was minimal, and by the 1840s the Lakota were at the peak of their power. Changes for the Lakota In the 1850s, however, life for the Lakota began to change considerably. As white settlers began pushing west in search of gold and a new life out on the frontier, competition for resources between these new immigrants and the Lakota created tension. Military forts were established in parts of the Great Plains, bringing in even more white settlers and introducing diseases that took their toll on the native Indian populations. In August 1854, everything boiled over in what became known as the Grattan Massacre. It started when a group of white men, led by Lieutenant John Grattan, entered a Sioux camp to take prisoner the men who had killed a migrant's cow. After Chief Conquering Bear refused to give in to their demands, violence erupted. After one of the white soldiers shot and killed the chief, the camp's warriors fought back and killed Grattan and his 30 men. The Grattan Massacre is widely considered the conflict that kicked off the First Sioux War between the United States and the Lakota. For the still young Crazy Horse, it also helped establish what would be a lifetime of distrust for whites. The Fetterman Massacre, Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 As conflicts escalated between the Lakota and the United States, Crazy Horse was at the center of many key battles. In one important victory for his people, Crazy Horse led an attack on Captain William J. Fetterman and his brigade of 80 men. The Fetterman Massacre, as it came to be known, proved to be a huge embarrassment for the U.S. military. Even after the signing of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which guaranteed the Lakota important land, including the coveted Black Hills territory, Crazy Horse continued his fight. Beyond his seemingly mystical ability to avoid injury or death on the battlefield, Crazy Horse also showed himself to be uncompromising with his white foes. He refused to be photographed and never committed his signature to any document. The aim of his fight was to retake the Lakota life he'd known as a child when his people had full run of the Great Plains. The Battle of the Little Bighorn Following the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, and the U.S. government's backing of white explorers in the territory, the War Department ordered all Lakota onto reservations. Crazy Horse and Chief Sitting Bull refused. On June 17, 1876, Crazy Horse led a force of 1,200 Oglala and Cheyenne warriors against General George Crook and his brigade, successfully turning back the soldiers as they attempted to advance toward Sitting Bull's encampment on the Little Bighorn River. A week later Crazy Horse teamed up with Sitting Bull to decimate Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and his esteemed Seventh Cavalry in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, perhaps the greatest victory ever by Native Americans over U.S. troops. The Death of Crazy Horse Following the defeat of Custer, the U.S. Army struck back hard against the Lakota, pursuing a scorched-earth policy whose aim was to extract total surrender. While Sitting Bull led his followers into Canada to escape the wrath of the Army, Crazy Horse continued to fight. But as the winter of 1877 set in and food supplies began to shorten, Crazy Horse's followers started to abandon him. On May 6, 1877, he rode to Fort Robinson in Nebraska and surrendered. Instructed to remain on the reservation, he defied orders that summer to put his sick wife in the care of his parents. After his arrest, Crazy Horse was returned to Fort Robinson, where, in a struggle with the officers, he was bayoneted in the kidneys. He passed away with his father at his side on September 5, 1877. Years after his death, Crazy Horse is still revered for being a visionary leader who fought hard to preserve his people's traditions and way of life. Crazy Horse Monument The Crazy Horse Memorial is located in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Started in 1948, the monumental sculpture is an ongoing project, carved from Thunderhead Mountain, and located about 17 miles from Mount Rushmore. It is set to be part of a museum and cultural center honoring Native Americans. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:e102a177-de70-40b7-bef3-10428ece1f4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/military-figure/crazy-horse	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00390.warc.gz	en	0.982455	1,227	3.765625	4	[ -0.08645046502351761, 0.14462321996688843, 0.45494359731674194, 0.24364951252937317, -0.3300274610519409, -0.09185594320297241, 0.25578147172927856, -0.00985654816031456, -0.1870536506175995, -0.10226352512836456, 0.34499120712280273, 0.02195393294095993, -0.028609752655029297, 0.416976064...	5	Who Was Crazy Horse? Crazy Horse was an Oglala Sioux Indian chief who fought against removal to a reservation in the Black Hills. In 1876, he joined with Cheyenne forces in a surprise attack against Gen. George Crook; then united with Chief Sitting Bull for the Battle of the Little Bighorn. In 1877, Crazy Horse surrendered and was killed in a scuffle with soldiers. An uncompromising and fearless Lakota leader who was committed to protecting his people's way of life, Crazy Horse was born with the Native American name Tashunka Witco around 1840 near what is present-day Rapid Springs, South Dakota. The details of how he came to acquire the name Crazy Horse are up for debate. One account says that his father, also named Crazy Horse, passed the name on to him after his son had demonstrated his skills as a warrior. Even as a young boy, Crazy Horse stood out. He was fair-skinned and had brown, curly hair, giving him an appearance that was noticeably different from other boys his age. These physical differences may have laid the groundwork for a personality that even among his own people made him a loner and a bit distant. Crazy Horse's birth had come during a great time for the Lakota people. A division of the Sioux, the Lakota represented the largest band of the tribe. Their domain included a giant swath of land that ran from the Missouri River to the Big Horn Mountains in the west. Their contact with whites was minimal, and by the 1840s the Lakota were at the peak of their power. Changes for the Lakota In the 1850s, however, life for the Lakota began to change considerably. As white settlers began pushing west in search of gold and a new life out on the frontier, competition for resources between these new immigrants and the Lakota created tension. Military forts were established in parts of the Great Plains, bringing in even more white settlers and introducing diseases that took their toll on the native Indian populations. In August 1854, everything boiled over in what became known as the Grattan Massacre. It started when a group of white men, led by Lieutenant John Grattan, entered a Sioux camp to take prisoner the men who had killed a migrant's cow. After Chief Conquering Bear refused to give in to their demands, violence erupted. After one of the white soldiers shot and killed the chief, the camp's warriors fought back and killed Grattan and his 30 men. The Grattan Massacre is widely considered the conflict that kicked off the First Sioux War between the United States and the Lakota. For the still young Crazy Horse, it also helped establish what would be a lifetime of distrust for whites. The Fetterman Massacre, Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 As conflicts escalated between the Lakota and the United States, Crazy Horse was at the center of many key battles. In one important victory for his people, Crazy Horse led an attack on Captain William J. Fetterman and his brigade of 80 men. The Fetterman Massacre, as it came to be known, proved to be a huge embarrassment for the U.S. military. Even after the signing of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which guaranteed the Lakota important land, including the coveted Black Hills territory, Crazy Horse continued his fight. Beyond his seemingly mystical ability to avoid injury or death on the battlefield, Crazy Horse also showed himself to be uncompromising with his white foes. He refused to be photographed and never committed his signature to any document. The aim of his fight was to retake the Lakota life he'd known as a child when his people had full run of the Great Plains. The Battle of the Little Bighorn Following the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, and the U.S. government's backing of white explorers in the territory, the War Department ordered all Lakota onto reservations. Crazy Horse and Chief Sitting Bull refused. On June 17, 1876, Crazy Horse led a force of 1,200 Oglala and Cheyenne warriors against General George Crook and his brigade, successfully turning back the soldiers as they attempted to advance toward Sitting Bull's encampment on the Little Bighorn River. A week later Crazy Horse teamed up with Sitting Bull to decimate Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and his esteemed Seventh Cavalry in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, perhaps the greatest victory ever by Native Americans over U.S. troops. The Death of Crazy Horse Following the defeat of Custer, the U.S. Army struck back hard against the Lakota, pursuing a scorched-earth policy whose aim was to extract total surrender. While Sitting Bull led his followers into Canada to escape the wrath of the Army, Crazy Horse continued to fight. But as the winter of 1877 set in and food supplies began to shorten, Crazy Horse's followers started to abandon him. On May 6, 1877, he rode to Fort Robinson in Nebraska and surrendered. Instructed to remain on the reservation, he defied orders that summer to put his sick wife in the care of his parents. After his arrest, Crazy Horse was returned to Fort Robinson, where, in a struggle with the officers, he was bayoneted in the kidneys. He passed away with his father at his side on September 5, 1877. Years after his death, Crazy Horse is still revered for being a visionary leader who fought hard to preserve his people's traditions and way of life. Crazy Horse Monument The Crazy Horse Memorial is located in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Started in 1948, the monumental sculpture is an ongoing project, carved from Thunderhead Mountain, and located about 17 miles from Mount Rushmore. It is set to be part of a museum and cultural center honoring Native Americans. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	1,266	ENGLISH	1
Since the beginning of recorded history, information has been handed down from generation to generation with stone carvings, by word of mouth, and finally with paper. When paper was invented, it made backups a lot easier; it was less time consuming than chiseling it into stone, and the message did not get lost as easily as word of mouth, however, paper does not last forever. So, in order to make a backup copy, someone had to copy the entire book, word for word. That’s how things went for hundreds of years until the invention of electricity, when we began to backup data in a whole new way. How Punch Cards Changed Everything In the year 1880, the United States took its 10th census (as it has done every 10 years since it was written in the constitution) But, since the nation was growing so fast, it took eight years to finish gathering the data from that census. And, it was predicted to take up to 13 years to do the same for the 1890 census, which would mean that the country would be taking a census while it was still compiling the data from the last census. So Herman Hollerith, a census bureau employee at the time, tried to figure out a more effective way of compiling all that data. To solve the problem, he turned to an old technology; punch cards, which had been used for nearly 100 years in the French textile industry. Hollerith took that idea and made a simple machine that could read punch cards to record lots of different sets of data at once. When a punch card was placed in the Hollerith machine, a series of needles would be lowered onto it. Any of these needles that passed through the perforated holes in the punch cards would make contact with a bed of Mercury that was under the card, which would close an electrical circuit. Each needle was hooked up to a counter, which recorded and tallied every time a needle passed through a perforated hole. This allowed for different sets of data to be recorded and tallied much easier. In fact, Hollerith’s machine worked so well that he was able to compile the data from the 1890 census in less than a year. With his success, Hollerith went on to found the International Business Machines Corporation, or IBM. How Magnetic Tape Changed Everything While Hollerith was looking for solutions for the census, he also experimented with punch tape, which is just like a punch card, only in a roll form (similar to the rolls used in player pianos) However, he did not end up using it, as he found that the paper rolls were more fragile than punch cards. It took forty years for Fritz Pfleumer, a German Engineer, to take Hollerith’s idea of punch tape and finally made it work. Pfleumer coated the tape in an iron-oxide material, which allowed him to permanently magnetize it. Then, he used outside magnetic charges to write data on the strips. Just like the punch tape, the magnetic charges could be read and written with a machine. With one roll of magnetic tape, you could store as much data as 10,000 punch cards. Also, magnetic tape was re-writeable, allowing for new sets of data to be written over old sets of data. This revolutionized the way that data was backed up. Soon, businesses of all sizes and even some home users were able to backup data with magnetic tape. However, the problem with magnetic tape was in their design; information had to be stored sequentially, which made it very hard to recover specific information, as you would have to find the very spot on the tape that you backed up the data to before you could retrieve it. How Floppy Disks Changed Everything Pfleumer’s idea of storing data with a magnetically charged tape was so revolutionary that another 40 years later, a field engineer at IBM, Alan Shugart, tweaked the same idea to create the floppy disk drive (FDD). The idea was very similar to magnetic tape; using a magnetically charged material to record data, but it was the design of the floppy disk changed everything. Rather than storing the data on a roll, floppy disks were flat. This meant they did not need to store data sequentially, so any data could be accessed and recovered instantly. Floppy disks became such an industry standard that their image is still the symbol for the “save” and “backup” icons in your modern computer systems. However, the demand for more storage continued to grow, and since floppy disks could only hold a few hundred kilobytes at best, another innovation had to be made. How Hard Drives Changed Everything Hard disks actually date all the way back to 1956, when IBM introduced the 305 RAMAC. It was larger than two refrigerators and only held 3.75 megabytes (MB) of storage space. So, it did not catch on with many businesses at first. The basic principle of a hard drive is the same as a floppy disk; they both record data on a thin magnetic surface. Actually, the only real difference between a floppy disk and a hard drive is that a hard disk drive contains its own read/write heads, while the floppy disks have to rely on the read/write head within the computer. But, having all the equipment together allowed for hard disk drives to become smaller and cheaper. We now find them in every computer, and are commercially available at 6 terabytes (TB) of storage. However, the problem with hard drives is that they don’t last very long. The typical hard drive will not survive more than 10 years, and 50% of them do not survive their 6th year. This creates a big problem, as you would have to make several backup copies to ensure that your data was secure, and even then you can never really be sure. Then, when the internet was invented, we began to backup data in a whole new way. How Data Centers Changed Everything In the 1980’s and 1990’s, the internet became a bourgeoning marketplace. Suddenly, businesses needed to have a consistent presence online. So data centers were built to backup data and ensure a consistent online presence. Data centers are basically made up of lots and lots of hard drives, all plugged in together. At first, only larger businesses could afford to have their own data centers, which left smaller businesses at a disadvantage. So, internet data centers or colocation facilities were built to accommodate smaller businesses. Colocation allowed for any business to rent data center space without having to build the entire infrastructure of their own data center from the ground up. Rather being responsible for maintenance and administration, it was much cheaper to use a colocation facility. How the Cloud Changed Everything Private data centers and colocation soon paved the way for public data centers, which later became known as the cloud. It allows everyone to have a little piece of a data center, where they can backup their data to a safe and secure location. The IT teams at the cloud are able to manage a data center for thousands of businesses and people at once, which brings the cost down for everyone. However, there are issues with keeping everyone’s data in the same place. It is really important to find a cloud provider that focuses heavily on security. Since so many people are sharing the same security, it becomes a target for hackers. What the Future of Backups Entail The future of data backups is still unknown. Without the innovations of electricity we would still be using paper to backup all our data, and the next big innovation is impossible to know. Whatever innovations are made in the future, they must be able to handle larger and larger sets of data. As we have seen, the trend is toward big data, and that trend does not seem to be going away any time soon.	<urn:uuid:e85f9f5d-4bc9-44dd-b447-7156444abbd6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.colocationamerica.com/blog/data-backup-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00245.warc.gz	en	0.980585	1,623	3.640625	4	[ -0.2565174400806427, 0.2382783740758896, -0.03849043697118759, 0.0008467320585623384, 0.01939152181148529, 0.10272011160850525, -0.3991166353225708, 0.04441695287823677, -0.09845276921987534, 0.08066479861736298, -0.11239582300186157, 0.2516525685787201, 0.26379746198654175, 0.098805226385...	1	Since the beginning of recorded history, information has been handed down from generation to generation with stone carvings, by word of mouth, and finally with paper. When paper was invented, it made backups a lot easier; it was less time consuming than chiseling it into stone, and the message did not get lost as easily as word of mouth, however, paper does not last forever. So, in order to make a backup copy, someone had to copy the entire book, word for word. That’s how things went for hundreds of years until the invention of electricity, when we began to backup data in a whole new way. How Punch Cards Changed Everything In the year 1880, the United States took its 10th census (as it has done every 10 years since it was written in the constitution) But, since the nation was growing so fast, it took eight years to finish gathering the data from that census. And, it was predicted to take up to 13 years to do the same for the 1890 census, which would mean that the country would be taking a census while it was still compiling the data from the last census. So Herman Hollerith, a census bureau employee at the time, tried to figure out a more effective way of compiling all that data. To solve the problem, he turned to an old technology; punch cards, which had been used for nearly 100 years in the French textile industry. Hollerith took that idea and made a simple machine that could read punch cards to record lots of different sets of data at once. When a punch card was placed in the Hollerith machine, a series of needles would be lowered onto it. Any of these needles that passed through the perforated holes in the punch cards would make contact with a bed of Mercury that was under the card, which would close an electrical circuit. Each needle was hooked up to a counter, which recorded and tallied every time a needle passed through a perforated hole. This allowed for different sets of data to be recorded and tallied much easier. In fact, Hollerith’s machine worked so well that he was able to compile the data from the 1890 census in less than a year. With his success, Hollerith went on to found the International Business Machines Corporation, or IBM. How Magnetic Tape Changed Everything While Hollerith was looking for solutions for the census, he also experimented with punch tape, which is just like a punch card, only in a roll form (similar to the rolls used in player pianos) However, he did not end up using it, as he found that the paper rolls were more fragile than punch cards. It took forty years for Fritz Pfleumer, a German Engineer, to take Hollerith’s idea of punch tape and finally made it work. Pfleumer coated the tape in an iron-oxide material, which allowed him to permanently magnetize it. Then, he used outside magnetic charges to write data on the strips. Just like the punch tape, the magnetic charges could be read and written with a machine. With one roll of magnetic tape, you could store as much data as 10,000 punch cards. Also, magnetic tape was re-writeable, allowing for new sets of data to be written over old sets of data. This revolutionized the way that data was backed up. Soon, businesses of all sizes and even some home users were able to backup data with magnetic tape. However, the problem with magnetic tape was in their design; information had to be stored sequentially, which made it very hard to recover specific information, as you would have to find the very spot on the tape that you backed up the data to before you could retrieve it. How Floppy Disks Changed Everything Pfleumer’s idea of storing data with a magnetically charged tape was so revolutionary that another 40 years later, a field engineer at IBM, Alan Shugart, tweaked the same idea to create the floppy disk drive (FDD). The idea was very similar to magnetic tape; using a magnetically charged material to record data, but it was the design of the floppy disk changed everything. Rather than storing the data on a roll, floppy disks were flat. This meant they did not need to store data sequentially, so any data could be accessed and recovered instantly. Floppy disks became such an industry standard that their image is still the symbol for the “save” and “backup” icons in your modern computer systems. However, the demand for more storage continued to grow, and since floppy disks could only hold a few hundred kilobytes at best, another innovation had to be made. How Hard Drives Changed Everything Hard disks actually date all the way back to 1956, when IBM introduced the 305 RAMAC. It was larger than two refrigerators and only held 3.75 megabytes (MB) of storage space. So, it did not catch on with many businesses at first. The basic principle of a hard drive is the same as a floppy disk; they both record data on a thin magnetic surface. Actually, the only real difference between a floppy disk and a hard drive is that a hard disk drive contains its own read/write heads, while the floppy disks have to rely on the read/write head within the computer. But, having all the equipment together allowed for hard disk drives to become smaller and cheaper. We now find them in every computer, and are commercially available at 6 terabytes (TB) of storage. However, the problem with hard drives is that they don’t last very long. The typical hard drive will not survive more than 10 years, and 50% of them do not survive their 6th year. This creates a big problem, as you would have to make several backup copies to ensure that your data was secure, and even then you can never really be sure. Then, when the internet was invented, we began to backup data in a whole new way. How Data Centers Changed Everything In the 1980’s and 1990’s, the internet became a bourgeoning marketplace. Suddenly, businesses needed to have a consistent presence online. So data centers were built to backup data and ensure a consistent online presence. Data centers are basically made up of lots and lots of hard drives, all plugged in together. At first, only larger businesses could afford to have their own data centers, which left smaller businesses at a disadvantage. So, internet data centers or colocation facilities were built to accommodate smaller businesses. Colocation allowed for any business to rent data center space without having to build the entire infrastructure of their own data center from the ground up. Rather being responsible for maintenance and administration, it was much cheaper to use a colocation facility. How the Cloud Changed Everything Private data centers and colocation soon paved the way for public data centers, which later became known as the cloud. It allows everyone to have a little piece of a data center, where they can backup their data to a safe and secure location. The IT teams at the cloud are able to manage a data center for thousands of businesses and people at once, which brings the cost down for everyone. However, there are issues with keeping everyone’s data in the same place. It is really important to find a cloud provider that focuses heavily on security. Since so many people are sharing the same security, it becomes a target for hackers. What the Future of Backups Entail The future of data backups is still unknown. Without the innovations of electricity we would still be using paper to backup all our data, and the next big innovation is impossible to know. Whatever innovations are made in the future, they must be able to handle larger and larger sets of data. As we have seen, the trend is toward big data, and that trend does not seem to be going away any time soon.	1,626	ENGLISH	1
The feminization of Shakespeare Shakespeare feminizes source material. Other Shakespearean authorship theories develop outlandish and imaginative reasons for the author to adopt a pseudonym. A far simpler explanation would be, because Shakespeare was a woman writing in Elizabethan England. In Elizabethan England, writing plays was not considered an acceptable female pursuit. There were plenty of females involved in theatre. They worked in the wardrobe departments, collected admission tickets and featured and patrons, financing theatre productions. However, they were not expected to feature on stage in productions, nor were they involved in the writing process, which was very much a masculine domain. With many women active in the theatre, but playwriting off-limits, it is no surprise that around 80% of Elizabethan plays were authored anonymously, suggesting that many women did write plays but did not put their names to them. It is not beyond the realms of possibility, therefore, that Shakespeare was a front for a female writer who needed to stay anonymous to preserve her reputation. There are many reasons why someone writing plays in Elizabethan England might use a pseudonym and the use of a pseudonym does not exclusively mean the author of Shakespeare's plays was a woman. If we accept that Shakespeare was not the author of the work penned under his name, it is just as plausible to suggest that the author was, in fact, a man of high social standing. The theatre was seen as an immoral and lowly pursuit at the time. An aristocrat writing plays might also adopt a pseudonym to protect his reputation. However, the far simpler conclusion is that Shakespeare, the glover's son from Stratford wrote the plays. If 80% of plays were left anonymous, why would an author that wished to hide his/her identity bother to find someone to put their name to it at all? Why not just publish the plays anonymously? This would likely be far easier (and cheaper) than paying a Stratfordian bard to put his name to the works. [P1] Playwriting was not deemed a suitable female pursuit in Elizabethan England. [P2] Therefore, a female writer would have likely published her work anonymously or behind a pen name. [P3] Therefore, it is possible that Shakespeare was not the author of his accredited works and a woman was using his name and identity as a front. [Rejecting P1] Nor was it considered a suitable pursuit of noblemen and citizens of high social standing. [Rejecting P2] A male aristocrat would also have likely published under a pen name or anonymously. [Rejecting P3] It is just as likely that Shakespeare was a male of high social standing.	<urn:uuid:81023051-d6ba-43ef-b712-c3496d2cecad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://parlia.com/a/JKgKRQdnnxSkJBCdlDMtCZDlS/who-was-shakespeare/he-was-a-she/there-is-sufficient-motive	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00224.warc.gz	en	0.9901	540	3.390625	3	[ 0.11098748445510864, 0.009664664044976234, 0.2410145401954651, -0.004098257515579462, -0.3712673783302307, 0.21876627206802368, 0.028265904635190964, 0.0701630711555481, -0.051502667367458344, -0.24987629055976868, 0.03171016275882721, -0.15755024552345276, -0.004967295564711094, -0.072605...	1	The feminization of Shakespeare Shakespeare feminizes source material. Other Shakespearean authorship theories develop outlandish and imaginative reasons for the author to adopt a pseudonym. A far simpler explanation would be, because Shakespeare was a woman writing in Elizabethan England. In Elizabethan England, writing plays was not considered an acceptable female pursuit. There were plenty of females involved in theatre. They worked in the wardrobe departments, collected admission tickets and featured and patrons, financing theatre productions. However, they were not expected to feature on stage in productions, nor were they involved in the writing process, which was very much a masculine domain. With many women active in the theatre, but playwriting off-limits, it is no surprise that around 80% of Elizabethan plays were authored anonymously, suggesting that many women did write plays but did not put their names to them. It is not beyond the realms of possibility, therefore, that Shakespeare was a front for a female writer who needed to stay anonymous to preserve her reputation. There are many reasons why someone writing plays in Elizabethan England might use a pseudonym and the use of a pseudonym does not exclusively mean the author of Shakespeare's plays was a woman. If we accept that Shakespeare was not the author of the work penned under his name, it is just as plausible to suggest that the author was, in fact, a man of high social standing. The theatre was seen as an immoral and lowly pursuit at the time. An aristocrat writing plays might also adopt a pseudonym to protect his reputation. However, the far simpler conclusion is that Shakespeare, the glover's son from Stratford wrote the plays. If 80% of plays were left anonymous, why would an author that wished to hide his/her identity bother to find someone to put their name to it at all? Why not just publish the plays anonymously? This would likely be far easier (and cheaper) than paying a Stratfordian bard to put his name to the works. [P1] Playwriting was not deemed a suitable female pursuit in Elizabethan England. [P2] Therefore, a female writer would have likely published her work anonymously or behind a pen name. [P3] Therefore, it is possible that Shakespeare was not the author of his accredited works and a woman was using his name and identity as a front. [Rejecting P1] Nor was it considered a suitable pursuit of noblemen and citizens of high social standing. [Rejecting P2] A male aristocrat would also have likely published under a pen name or anonymously. [Rejecting P3] It is just as likely that Shakespeare was a male of high social standing.	540	ENGLISH	1
Before we even begin, we do not tell students precisely what we are doing (we’ve found that telling them that we are writing a poem stifles their creativity). We simply ask them to cut out about 40-50 words and phrases from magazines that are of interest to them. They can be anything of their choice – maybe they like the color or the font, or they find a phrase that “speaks” to them – it doesn’t matter. We also let students know that they will need articles and conjunctions to help make this project “work.” This activity is meant to be creative, so we really allow students a great deal of independence. Once students have “found” their words and phrases, we now tell them that we are writing a poem using JUST what they have found. They cannot add anything else to their poem; they may only use what they have cut out. It’s meant to be fun and challenging! Have students arrange the words on their blank piece of paper. Students are not required to use all of the words that they have cut out, but we do request that our students use at least 30 words in their poems (otherwise, you might get poems that are only two words!). Once students have decided that they like the way their poem looks and sounds, they glue their words and phrases to the computer paper to create a final product! It is extremely interesting and darling to see what they come up with. You’ll find yourself quite impressed by some of your students at the end of this project! And that is precisely why we love teaching and why we love teaching poetry.	<urn:uuid:cdc4f646-cae8-484c-af3c-bfbff786f0aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ebacademics.com/2017/01/found-poetry-activity.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00285.warc.gz	en	0.981362	341	3.71875	4	[ -0.05390394851565361, -0.1279713660478592, 0.18018868565559387, -0.32521846890449524, -0.10741802304983139, -0.02868025377392769, 0.007824692875146866, 0.3127099871635437, -0.04296232387423515, -0.2438102811574936, 0.16012533009052277, 0.31139734387397766, -0.03490787371993065, 0.120153397...	4	Before we even begin, we do not tell students precisely what we are doing (we’ve found that telling them that we are writing a poem stifles their creativity). We simply ask them to cut out about 40-50 words and phrases from magazines that are of interest to them. They can be anything of their choice – maybe they like the color or the font, or they find a phrase that “speaks” to them – it doesn’t matter. We also let students know that they will need articles and conjunctions to help make this project “work.” This activity is meant to be creative, so we really allow students a great deal of independence. Once students have “found” their words and phrases, we now tell them that we are writing a poem using JUST what they have found. They cannot add anything else to their poem; they may only use what they have cut out. It’s meant to be fun and challenging! Have students arrange the words on their blank piece of paper. Students are not required to use all of the words that they have cut out, but we do request that our students use at least 30 words in their poems (otherwise, you might get poems that are only two words!). Once students have decided that they like the way their poem looks and sounds, they glue their words and phrases to the computer paper to create a final product! It is extremely interesting and darling to see what they come up with. You’ll find yourself quite impressed by some of your students at the end of this project! And that is precisely why we love teaching and why we love teaching poetry.	327	ENGLISH	1
Before Rosa Parks, this woman made history Pine Brook Cemetery dates back to the 17th century As an African-American woman living in New York City before the Civil War, Elizabeth Jennings was at the mercy of the whims of white people. Sometimes, she was able to take the first streetcar that came her way and she could get on with her ordinary life as a schoolteacher and church organist. Other days, she was denied passage and told to wait until another streetcar came along, one with a sign that said "Colored." On July 16, 1854, Jennings encountered a particularly ornery white streetcar conductor, who refused to let her board. Jennings got on anyway. "I did not wish to be detained," she wrote, in an account published three days later by the New-York Daily Tribune. The conductor dragged Jennings off the streetcar. She got back on. A police officer was hailed, and Jennings was tossed off the streetcar once more. She was left there on the street, dazed and bruised, while the streetcar drove on. It was just an ordinary day for the racist bullies who prevented Jennings from getting to church on time. But Jennings had had enough. And she had witnesses, black and white, willing to stand by her. She had the power of the press behind her, the support of the black community, and legal representation by a future president, a young lawyer named Chester A. Arthur. Elizabeth Jennings would get her day in court. One hundred years before Rosa Parks refused to move to the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama, Elizabeth Jennings fought for the basic right to ride a New York City streetcar in peace. And she won. The author and journalist Amy Hill Hearth has kept the story of Elizabeth Jennings close to her heart for more than 20 years. She first became aware of Jennings while living in Ossining, New York, near the abandoned summer home of Chester A. Arthur. Curious about the president, she began to do research, and learned that in his youth he had been a lawyer who had taken on cases for equal rights for African Americans. One of them, she learned, was Elizabeth Jennings v. Third Avenue Railroad Company. Like a detective, Hearth began to snoop through library stacks and microfilm machines, in search of clues about Elizabeth Jennings. As a reporter, Hearth knew a good story when she heard one. "I really enjoyed doing this as a hobby," she said, noting that she once spent Valentine's Day with her husband researching Jennings at the New York Public Library. "I enjoyed it as an unfolding mystery." Ruth Ann Butler talks about her involvement in some of the first lunch counter sit-ins in Greenville during the civil rights movement. But she kept the mystery to herself, mainly because she had work to do on other articles and books, including the one that would make her a best-selling author. "Having Our Say: The Delany Sisters' First 100 Years" grew from a New York Times article Hearth wrote about Sadie and Bessie Delany, two accomplished centenarians who were the daughters of a man born into slavery in the South. Hearth's 1993 book was later adapted for Broadway, by Emily Mann, artistic director at McCarter Theatre in Princeton, and as a TV movie for CBS. The sisters' wit and common sense, along with their eyewitness accounts of the Jim Crow era, inspired Hearth and encouraged her natural curiosity about the stories of little-known historic figures. The Delany sisters also urged Hearth to write more books, and she thinks they would be pleased to see Jennings' story given its due. The memory of her time with the Delany sisters, along with a nudge by another friend who told Hearth she had a responsibility to tell the story of Jennings' life, convinced the author to wrap up her research and start her 10th book. "Streetcar To Justice: How Elizabeth Jennings Won The Right To Ride In New York," was published in January as a book for middle-school readers by Greenwillow/HarperCollins. A book-signing with Hearth is planned for March 10 at the Barnes & Noble in Union Square, 33 E. 17th St. in Manhattan. Black History Month: Diversity in dolls: "This doll looks like me" "You get attached to your subjects," Hearth said, "and I was frustrated that her story hadn't been told. She deserved a book." "Streetcar" tells the story of how Jennings, who later moved to Eatontown, undermined New York's de facto segregation, and how she went on to found the city's first free kindergarten for African-American children. It also examines how Jennings' success was helped by the support of the middle-class black community and its leaders, including her father, Thomas L. Jennings, and Frederick Douglass, who championed her cause in his eponymous newspaper. "Streetcar To Justice" also makes clear the important role played by a free press in a democracy. It is something of a valentine to newspapers, libraries and museums. Hearth wants young readers to follow their curiosity, to seek out primary sources, and to realize that there is more to doing journalism and scholarly research than simply typing a few key words in a Google search. "I want them to know that the Internet gets a lot of things wrong," Hearth said. "As little as there is about Elizabeth Jennings on the Internet, a lot of it is wrong. They get her age wrong. There's a picture on the Internet that is said to be of her father, but it's not him. You can't just copy-and-paste and assume it's going to be accurate." Things To Do: 12 museums to visit in winter Because there was a law on the books supporting equal rights on streetcars, Jennings' case should've been a slam dunk. Yet everything hinged on whether Jennings was deemed a credible witness. Simply by taking her case, Arthur boosted her credibility, and jeopardized his own. "The vast majority of lawyers in that time would not be interested in taking the case of a black woman who was mistreated on a streetcar," Hearth said. "It was unpopular and brave of Chester Arthur to do this. He should be getting credit now, because he was ahead of his time and very progressive." Hearth, who lives in Little Silver with her husband, Blair, can trace her paternal family's history back to pre-Revolutionary times, when her ancestors lived in Toms River. She values roots, reputations and legacies. She spent her early childhood, in the 1960s, in Columbia, South Carolina, where she noticed water fountains marked "White" and "Colored." Video View by Dennis Richmond Jr. of Yonkers about the importance of Black History Month. "We had completely segregated schools, even though that was against the law," Hearth said. "Every day, black kids would get on a bus and go in one direction, and white kids would get on another bus and go in the other direction. We had a brand-new bus; theirs was falling apart. At the end of the year, I knew that our beat-up books went to the 'colored' school." In fourth grade, she had to write a report on a woman she admired from history. Her teacher handed her report back to her, ungraded, and told her, "You have to pick a different topic." Hearth had chosen to write about Harriet Tubman. "Write about Dolly Madison," her teacher advised. "But I didn't want to write about Dolly Madison," Hearth recalled. "I admired Harriet Tubman, and her bravery in getting people to freedom through the Underground Railroad. My mom got involved, and I got an A. But the teacher never liked me again." (Scroll through the slide show gallery above to see how one artist paid tribute to Harriet Tubman with an installation at Grounds For Sculpture). With the publication of "Streetcar," Hearth hopes to give current and future students another worthy subject for reports and research. The book's extensive bibliography and footnotes are nearly as fascinating as the text itself, introducing the reader to new places and subjects to explore. More on Books: Judy Blume remembers: NJ, books and childhood Hearth said her book became as much the story of a remarkable time as it is about a remarkable person, and she hopes it sheds light on the complexity of the history of racism in the United States. "The very idea that a streetcar was labeled "Colored" in New York City in 1854 is stunning," Hearth said. "History usually gives us an oversimplification of what slavery and segregation was, and where it happened. It becomes this tired story of the North were the good guys and the South were the bad guys, and it's much more complicated than this." From Malcolm X to Toni Morrison (Watch the video above for literature and non-fiction books that shed light on American history.) Because there is only one known photograph of Jennings, the book cover for "Streetcar" features a painting by the artist Cozbi Cabrera, depicting what Jennings might've looked like as a young woman. Elizabeth Jennings stares out from the book cover with earnest brown eyes, her hands lightly clasped, as if she is about to say something or do something. Hearth hopes that the image catches the attention of young readers, saying, in essence, that this is someone who was once their age, and she did something daring. Read all about it.	<urn:uuid:e8ea44ff-fae8-4188-92a3-4d267b662749>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.app.com/story/entertainment/books/2018/02/08/black-history-month-rosa-parks-elizabeth-jennings/312226002/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00143.warc.gz	en	0.98395	1,968	3.609375	4	[ -0.19631190598011017, 0.025272663682699203, 0.42658260464668274, 0.3246513605117798, -0.3734128773212433, 0.12669794261455536, 0.20101851224899292, -0.12022730708122253, 0.06064990907907486, 0.007631180342286825, -0.21119827032089233, 0.3615734577178955, -0.24455155432224274, 0.14818190038...	1	Before Rosa Parks, this woman made history Pine Brook Cemetery dates back to the 17th century As an African-American woman living in New York City before the Civil War, Elizabeth Jennings was at the mercy of the whims of white people. Sometimes, she was able to take the first streetcar that came her way and she could get on with her ordinary life as a schoolteacher and church organist. Other days, she was denied passage and told to wait until another streetcar came along, one with a sign that said "Colored." On July 16, 1854, Jennings encountered a particularly ornery white streetcar conductor, who refused to let her board. Jennings got on anyway. "I did not wish to be detained," she wrote, in an account published three days later by the New-York Daily Tribune. The conductor dragged Jennings off the streetcar. She got back on. A police officer was hailed, and Jennings was tossed off the streetcar once more. She was left there on the street, dazed and bruised, while the streetcar drove on. It was just an ordinary day for the racist bullies who prevented Jennings from getting to church on time. But Jennings had had enough. And she had witnesses, black and white, willing to stand by her. She had the power of the press behind her, the support of the black community, and legal representation by a future president, a young lawyer named Chester A. Arthur. Elizabeth Jennings would get her day in court. One hundred years before Rosa Parks refused to move to the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama, Elizabeth Jennings fought for the basic right to ride a New York City streetcar in peace. And she won. The author and journalist Amy Hill Hearth has kept the story of Elizabeth Jennings close to her heart for more than 20 years. She first became aware of Jennings while living in Ossining, New York, near the abandoned summer home of Chester A. Arthur. Curious about the president, she began to do research, and learned that in his youth he had been a lawyer who had taken on cases for equal rights for African Americans. One of them, she learned, was Elizabeth Jennings v. Third Avenue Railroad Company. Like a detective, Hearth began to snoop through library stacks and microfilm machines, in search of clues about Elizabeth Jennings. As a reporter, Hearth knew a good story when she heard one. "I really enjoyed doing this as a hobby," she said, noting that she once spent Valentine's Day with her husband researching Jennings at the New York Public Library. "I enjoyed it as an unfolding mystery." Ruth Ann Butler talks about her involvement in some of the first lunch counter sit-ins in Greenville during the civil rights movement. But she kept the mystery to herself, mainly because she had work to do on other articles and books, including the one that would make her a best-selling author. "Having Our Say: The Delany Sisters' First 100 Years" grew from a New York Times article Hearth wrote about Sadie and Bessie Delany, two accomplished centenarians who were the daughters of a man born into slavery in the South. Hearth's 1993 book was later adapted for Broadway, by Emily Mann, artistic director at McCarter Theatre in Princeton, and as a TV movie for CBS. The sisters' wit and common sense, along with their eyewitness accounts of the Jim Crow era, inspired Hearth and encouraged her natural curiosity about the stories of little-known historic figures. The Delany sisters also urged Hearth to write more books, and she thinks they would be pleased to see Jennings' story given its due. The memory of her time with the Delany sisters, along with a nudge by another friend who told Hearth she had a responsibility to tell the story of Jennings' life, convinced the author to wrap up her research and start her 10th book. "Streetcar To Justice: How Elizabeth Jennings Won The Right To Ride In New York," was published in January as a book for middle-school readers by Greenwillow/HarperCollins. A book-signing with Hearth is planned for March 10 at the Barnes & Noble in Union Square, 33 E. 17th St. in Manhattan. Black History Month: Diversity in dolls: "This doll looks like me" "You get attached to your subjects," Hearth said, "and I was frustrated that her story hadn't been told. She deserved a book." "Streetcar" tells the story of how Jennings, who later moved to Eatontown, undermined New York's de facto segregation, and how she went on to found the city's first free kindergarten for African-American children. It also examines how Jennings' success was helped by the support of the middle-class black community and its leaders, including her father, Thomas L. Jennings, and Frederick Douglass, who championed her cause in his eponymous newspaper. "Streetcar To Justice" also makes clear the important role played by a free press in a democracy. It is something of a valentine to newspapers, libraries and museums. Hearth wants young readers to follow their curiosity, to seek out primary sources, and to realize that there is more to doing journalism and scholarly research than simply typing a few key words in a Google search. "I want them to know that the Internet gets a lot of things wrong," Hearth said. "As little as there is about Elizabeth Jennings on the Internet, a lot of it is wrong. They get her age wrong. There's a picture on the Internet that is said to be of her father, but it's not him. You can't just copy-and-paste and assume it's going to be accurate." Things To Do: 12 museums to visit in winter Because there was a law on the books supporting equal rights on streetcars, Jennings' case should've been a slam dunk. Yet everything hinged on whether Jennings was deemed a credible witness. Simply by taking her case, Arthur boosted her credibility, and jeopardized his own. "The vast majority of lawyers in that time would not be interested in taking the case of a black woman who was mistreated on a streetcar," Hearth said. "It was unpopular and brave of Chester Arthur to do this. He should be getting credit now, because he was ahead of his time and very progressive." Hearth, who lives in Little Silver with her husband, Blair, can trace her paternal family's history back to pre-Revolutionary times, when her ancestors lived in Toms River. She values roots, reputations and legacies. She spent her early childhood, in the 1960s, in Columbia, South Carolina, where she noticed water fountains marked "White" and "Colored." Video View by Dennis Richmond Jr. of Yonkers about the importance of Black History Month. "We had completely segregated schools, even though that was against the law," Hearth said. "Every day, black kids would get on a bus and go in one direction, and white kids would get on another bus and go in the other direction. We had a brand-new bus; theirs was falling apart. At the end of the year, I knew that our beat-up books went to the 'colored' school." In fourth grade, she had to write a report on a woman she admired from history. Her teacher handed her report back to her, ungraded, and told her, "You have to pick a different topic." Hearth had chosen to write about Harriet Tubman. "Write about Dolly Madison," her teacher advised. "But I didn't want to write about Dolly Madison," Hearth recalled. "I admired Harriet Tubman, and her bravery in getting people to freedom through the Underground Railroad. My mom got involved, and I got an A. But the teacher never liked me again." (Scroll through the slide show gallery above to see how one artist paid tribute to Harriet Tubman with an installation at Grounds For Sculpture). With the publication of "Streetcar," Hearth hopes to give current and future students another worthy subject for reports and research. The book's extensive bibliography and footnotes are nearly as fascinating as the text itself, introducing the reader to new places and subjects to explore. More on Books: Judy Blume remembers: NJ, books and childhood Hearth said her book became as much the story of a remarkable time as it is about a remarkable person, and she hopes it sheds light on the complexity of the history of racism in the United States. "The very idea that a streetcar was labeled "Colored" in New York City in 1854 is stunning," Hearth said. "History usually gives us an oversimplification of what slavery and segregation was, and where it happened. It becomes this tired story of the North were the good guys and the South were the bad guys, and it's much more complicated than this." From Malcolm X to Toni Morrison (Watch the video above for literature and non-fiction books that shed light on American history.) Because there is only one known photograph of Jennings, the book cover for "Streetcar" features a painting by the artist Cozbi Cabrera, depicting what Jennings might've looked like as a young woman. Elizabeth Jennings stares out from the book cover with earnest brown eyes, her hands lightly clasped, as if she is about to say something or do something. Hearth hopes that the image catches the attention of young readers, saying, in essence, that this is someone who was once their age, and she did something daring. Read all about it.	1,962	ENGLISH	1
The months immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Paris brought the departure of the French colonial officials and military and some of the leading families, the installation of a British military government and an influx of merchants, land speculators and settlers from the American colonies and from Britain. However, it was not yet clear that the final destiny of the territory that would become Canada had yet been permanently decided. France was building up its navy and might perhaps reverse its defeat. Relations between the American colonies and Britain were increasingly fractious. The desire to obtain the loyalty of their new subjects in the colony that became the province of Quebec led the British to pass the Quebec Act in 1774. This act guaranteed freedom of religion to the colonists and restored the old French civil law that had been suspended after the Conquest. It extended the borders of the Province of Quebec to include all territories that had been under the governor of Quebec during the French regime. The American Revolution once more brought war to what had been New France: an American force occupied Montreal in 1775-1776 but was unable to take Quebec. An important consequence of the Revolution for Canada was the large influx of Loyalists, those American colonists who had remained faithful to the Crown and had to flee to avoid persecution. While some of these settled in the French villages most of the more than 30,000 of them settled in the Maritimes, in the Eastern Townships and in what is now Ontario, opening up territory that had been wilderness. On the economic scene, 1783 saw the founding of the North West Company with headquarters in Montreal. This company which entered into victorious competition with both the Hudson’s Bay Company in the north and American trade to the south, helped make Montreal the economic hub of the new country that was emerging.	<urn:uuid:e3a4b11f-9fc5-4272-b96f-2c0d8deb7bbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://archivesvirtuelles-cnd.org/en/history/1763-1799	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00024.warc.gz	en	0.986751	360	4.125	4	[ -0.3871639370918274, 0.3082289397716522, 0.3751365840435028, -0.2206314504146576, -0.1863439679145813, 0.0030975118279457092, -0.1058313325047493, 0.2429284155368805, 0.23658223450183868, 0.18062080442905426, 0.35420510172843933, -0.08072960376739502, -0.10259215533733368, 0.08952639251947...	9	The months immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Paris brought the departure of the French colonial officials and military and some of the leading families, the installation of a British military government and an influx of merchants, land speculators and settlers from the American colonies and from Britain. However, it was not yet clear that the final destiny of the territory that would become Canada had yet been permanently decided. France was building up its navy and might perhaps reverse its defeat. Relations between the American colonies and Britain were increasingly fractious. The desire to obtain the loyalty of their new subjects in the colony that became the province of Quebec led the British to pass the Quebec Act in 1774. This act guaranteed freedom of religion to the colonists and restored the old French civil law that had been suspended after the Conquest. It extended the borders of the Province of Quebec to include all territories that had been under the governor of Quebec during the French regime. The American Revolution once more brought war to what had been New France: an American force occupied Montreal in 1775-1776 but was unable to take Quebec. An important consequence of the Revolution for Canada was the large influx of Loyalists, those American colonists who had remained faithful to the Crown and had to flee to avoid persecution. While some of these settled in the French villages most of the more than 30,000 of them settled in the Maritimes, in the Eastern Townships and in what is now Ontario, opening up territory that had been wilderness. On the economic scene, 1783 saw the founding of the North West Company with headquarters in Montreal. This company which entered into victorious competition with both the Hudson’s Bay Company in the north and American trade to the south, helped make Montreal the economic hub of the new country that was emerging.	373	ENGLISH	1
The ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival, or celebration of and for Zeus; later, The games were held every four years, or olympiad, which became a unit of time in The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance . His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in The Summer Olympics officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, was the first The Athens Games were funded by the legacies of Evangelis Zappas and This the Greek government did despite the fact that the cost of refurbishing In the following years both Coubertin and Demetrius Vikelas would offer. The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in ancient Greece. The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several hundred tried to revive the Olympics by holding local athletic games in Athens during the The political overtones of the Olympics did not lessen with the fall of Nazi. Each year, the various city-states of Greece sent athletes to festivals of games, which In the beginning, the participants in the Olympic games were all men. Beginning in ancient Greece in BC, the Olympic Games lasted 12 centuries. The Olympic games were reinstated in Athens in However, the Games were highly popular and continued to grow over the years. Moreover, ancient Olympic winners earned much money and were given gifts and military or. When it was announced in that the first modern Olympics as the Greek government was concerned, the news was received with less enthusiasm. of the original ancient structure (4th century BC), became a gleaming. The ancient Olympic Games began in the year BC, when Koroibos, that was first introduced in the Modern Olympic Games of in Athens, a race from . The first Olympics games are usually given the start year of BCE, but they probably began even sooner. The Olympics were not the only competition games held in ancient Greece, but they were the most popular. their city-state at the ancient Greek Olympic Games - Athens, Sparta, Megara, Types of Government. A brief History the first Olympic Games that can be traced back to the BC until their The Olympiad it was a time of union, with a four-year interval. of Olympia that since the 10th century BC. was a religious and political meeting place. From BC the Olympic Games, became more important in the ancient Greece. The games were held on an official basis every four years from B.C.E., but they were the inspiration for the modern Olympic Games, first staged in Athens in . In all these races the runners made a standing start, from a row of stone . prominently at Olympia in connection with both sporting and military victories. 05 For After Effects And Premiere pro. rar. (241.	<urn:uuid:fdedad1a-7f7c-44c9-8ad3-29d98278cfc5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yfitidogurys.tk/desktop/what-year-did-the-olympics-began-in-athens-government.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00506.warc.gz	en	0.989037	560	3.328125	3	[ -0.322282612323761, 0.5651359558105469, 0.3649042844772339, -0.3762822151184082, -0.4874023199081421, -0.014982124790549278, -0.06581887602806091, 0.19043278694152832, 0.07143767923116684, 0.13479335606098175, -0.2676469683647156, -0.28696590662002563, -0.04132905602455139, 0.2216230034828...	1	The ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival, or celebration of and for Zeus; later, The games were held every four years, or olympiad, which became a unit of time in The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance . His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in The Summer Olympics officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, was the first The Athens Games were funded by the legacies of Evangelis Zappas and This the Greek government did despite the fact that the cost of refurbishing In the following years both Coubertin and Demetrius Vikelas would offer. The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in ancient Greece. The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several hundred tried to revive the Olympics by holding local athletic games in Athens during the The political overtones of the Olympics did not lessen with the fall of Nazi. Each year, the various city-states of Greece sent athletes to festivals of games, which In the beginning, the participants in the Olympic games were all men. Beginning in ancient Greece in BC, the Olympic Games lasted 12 centuries. The Olympic games were reinstated in Athens in However, the Games were highly popular and continued to grow over the years. Moreover, ancient Olympic winners earned much money and were given gifts and military or. When it was announced in that the first modern Olympics as the Greek government was concerned, the news was received with less enthusiasm. of the original ancient structure (4th century BC), became a gleaming. The ancient Olympic Games began in the year BC, when Koroibos, that was first introduced in the Modern Olympic Games of in Athens, a race from . The first Olympics games are usually given the start year of BCE, but they probably began even sooner. The Olympics were not the only competition games held in ancient Greece, but they were the most popular. their city-state at the ancient Greek Olympic Games - Athens, Sparta, Megara, Types of Government. A brief History the first Olympic Games that can be traced back to the BC until their The Olympiad it was a time of union, with a four-year interval. of Olympia that since the 10th century BC. was a religious and political meeting place. From BC the Olympic Games, became more important in the ancient Greece. The games were held on an official basis every four years from B.C.E., but they were the inspiration for the modern Olympic Games, first staged in Athens in . In all these races the runners made a standing start, from a row of stone . prominently at Olympia in connection with both sporting and military victories. 05 For After Effects And Premiere pro. rar. (241.	553	ENGLISH	1
September 28, 1951 – The Naval Battle of the Han River was fought during the Korean War. The main fighting occurred after an Australian frigate was attacked by communist Chinese forces while transiting the Han River in Korea. Up until that time United Nations (UN) warships had operated on the river with only limited Chinese resistance. Following the engagement UN naval forces continued to operate on the Han, although riverine operations were suspended two months later. Four Australians were wounded during the engagement, while Chinese casualties have been estimated at around 40 killed and several guns destroyed. Starting in July, a number of small UN warships—including the British Royal Navy frigate HMS Cardigan Bay, the South Korean frigate PF62 and the Royal Australian Navy frigate HMAS Murchison—began operating in the Han River, north-west of the South Korean capital, Seoul. The UN warships were able to penetrate 50 kilometres (31 mi) inland from the Yellow Sea to a wide anchorage at the confluence of a number of narrow channels which were still navigable at high tide. From this point many important Chinese targets on the north bank of the Han were engaged with naval gunfire. The frigates had been selected for this task as they combined a shallow draft with adequate firepower and range. For the first two months Chinese opposition to UN naval operations on the Han was limited to sniping and small arms fire from the riverbank, and occasional fire from 75 mm field-guns which were quickly withdrawn from range. This resistance proved little more than a nuisance to UN operations. Indeed, despite requiring careful navigation, and the constant risk of grounding amidst the numerous sand and mud banks, for a number of weeks the UN ships were able to move along the narrow channels to bombard targets from positions close inshore, enabling them to dominate the Han by both day and night. The Chinese soon responded to the challenge and the threat that this posed, however. On the afternoon of 28 September 1951, Murchison—under the command of Lieutenant Commander Allen Dollard—was ambushed near the mouth of the Yesong River from Chinese positions entrenched and concealed in three nearby villages. The Chinese engaged with 75 mm field-guns, mortars and small arms fire from a range of 2,000 metres (2,200 yd), while Murchison responded with the ships’ 4-inch main armament and Bofors. The Australians were struck repeatedly by small arms fire and shrapnel, but achieved direct hits on a 75 mm gun and an enemy trench. No serious damage was sustained, and just one man was wounded. 40 Chinese troops were reported killed in the engagement. Two days later on 30 September, Murchison was again engaged by Chinese fire while transiting the same stretch of river. This time the fire was heavier and more accurate, and the Australian warship was hit several times by 50 mm anti-tank rounds which passed straight through its hull. A 75 mm round also exploded in the engine room, although no significant damage was inflicted. In response Murchison returned a heavy weight of fire and attempted to move westward as the Chinese fire started to slacken. A misty rain squall reduced visibility in the narrow channel, however, forcing Dollard to slow down almost to a halt. As the rain eased the Murchison began to proceed again but was suddenly engaged once more, this time from further to the west by a second group of Chinese weapons from a range of just 600 metres (660 yd). Returning fire vigorously, the Australians destroyed several Chinese positions and subsequently managed to fight their way clear. The warship suffered seven shell holes as well as extensive, although minor, damage from shrapnel and small arms fire. One of the ship’s Bofors guns had also been put out of action. Three more Australians were wounded during this encounter, including one seriously. Despite the incident, UN river patrols continued, although they were significantly restricted due to the increasing threat posed to the ships from Chinese positions along the shore. In November 1951, however, it was decided to cease operations on the Han altogether.	<urn:uuid:9561f951-3c36-4d48-858a-1d23b7458543>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mwh52.wordpress.com/2013/09/28/september-28-this-day-during-the-korean-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00185.warc.gz	en	0.981552	827	3.625	4	[ -0.43197235465049744, 0.2613331079483032, 0.21958239376544952, -0.26796630024909973, 0.17165043950080872, -0.049562498927116394, 0.030054977163672447, 0.16136769950389862, -0.522528886795044, 0.08648577332496643, 0.5892539024353027, -0.5860708951950073, 0.192001074552536, 0.470732927322387...	2	September 28, 1951 – The Naval Battle of the Han River was fought during the Korean War. The main fighting occurred after an Australian frigate was attacked by communist Chinese forces while transiting the Han River in Korea. Up until that time United Nations (UN) warships had operated on the river with only limited Chinese resistance. Following the engagement UN naval forces continued to operate on the Han, although riverine operations were suspended two months later. Four Australians were wounded during the engagement, while Chinese casualties have been estimated at around 40 killed and several guns destroyed. Starting in July, a number of small UN warships—including the British Royal Navy frigate HMS Cardigan Bay, the South Korean frigate PF62 and the Royal Australian Navy frigate HMAS Murchison—began operating in the Han River, north-west of the South Korean capital, Seoul. The UN warships were able to penetrate 50 kilometres (31 mi) inland from the Yellow Sea to a wide anchorage at the confluence of a number of narrow channels which were still navigable at high tide. From this point many important Chinese targets on the north bank of the Han were engaged with naval gunfire. The frigates had been selected for this task as they combined a shallow draft with adequate firepower and range. For the first two months Chinese opposition to UN naval operations on the Han was limited to sniping and small arms fire from the riverbank, and occasional fire from 75 mm field-guns which were quickly withdrawn from range. This resistance proved little more than a nuisance to UN operations. Indeed, despite requiring careful navigation, and the constant risk of grounding amidst the numerous sand and mud banks, for a number of weeks the UN ships were able to move along the narrow channels to bombard targets from positions close inshore, enabling them to dominate the Han by both day and night. The Chinese soon responded to the challenge and the threat that this posed, however. On the afternoon of 28 September 1951, Murchison—under the command of Lieutenant Commander Allen Dollard—was ambushed near the mouth of the Yesong River from Chinese positions entrenched and concealed in three nearby villages. The Chinese engaged with 75 mm field-guns, mortars and small arms fire from a range of 2,000 metres (2,200 yd), while Murchison responded with the ships’ 4-inch main armament and Bofors. The Australians were struck repeatedly by small arms fire and shrapnel, but achieved direct hits on a 75 mm gun and an enemy trench. No serious damage was sustained, and just one man was wounded. 40 Chinese troops were reported killed in the engagement. Two days later on 30 September, Murchison was again engaged by Chinese fire while transiting the same stretch of river. This time the fire was heavier and more accurate, and the Australian warship was hit several times by 50 mm anti-tank rounds which passed straight through its hull. A 75 mm round also exploded in the engine room, although no significant damage was inflicted. In response Murchison returned a heavy weight of fire and attempted to move westward as the Chinese fire started to slacken. A misty rain squall reduced visibility in the narrow channel, however, forcing Dollard to slow down almost to a halt. As the rain eased the Murchison began to proceed again but was suddenly engaged once more, this time from further to the west by a second group of Chinese weapons from a range of just 600 metres (660 yd). Returning fire vigorously, the Australians destroyed several Chinese positions and subsequently managed to fight their way clear. The warship suffered seven shell holes as well as extensive, although minor, damage from shrapnel and small arms fire. One of the ship’s Bofors guns had also been put out of action. Three more Australians were wounded during this encounter, including one seriously. Despite the incident, UN river patrols continued, although they were significantly restricted due to the increasing threat posed to the ships from Chinese positions along the shore. In November 1951, however, it was decided to cease operations on the Han altogether.	872	ENGLISH	1
- Describe the principles that distinguish between good and bad graphs, and use them to identify good versus bad graphs. - Understand the human limitations that must be accommodated in order to make effective graphs. - Promise to never create a pie chart. Ever. On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after takeoff, killing all 7 of the astronauts on board. As when any such disaster occurs, there was an official investigation into the cause of the accident, which found that an O-ring connecting two sections of the solid rocket booster had leaked, resulting in failure of the joint and explosion of the large liquid fuel tank (see figure 6.1). The investigation found that many aspects of the NASA decision making process were flawed, and focused in particular on a meeting that was had between NASA staff and engineers from Morton Thiokol, a contractor who had built the solid rocket boosters. These engineers were particularly concerned because the temperatures were forecast to be very cold on the morning of the launch, and they had data from previous launches showing that performance of the O-rings was compromised at lower temperatures. In a meeting on the evening before the launch, the engineers presented their data to the NASA managers, but were unable to convince them to postpone the launch. Their evidence was a set of hand-written slides showing numbers from various past launches. The visualization expert Edward Tufte has argued that with a proper presentation of all of the data, the engineers could have been much more persuasive. In particular, they could have shown a figure like the one in Figure 6.2, which highlights two important facts. First, it shows that the amount of O-ring damage (defined by the amount of erosion and soot found outside the rings after the solid rocket boosters were retrieved from the ocean in previous flights) was closely related to the temperature at takeoff. Second, it shows that the range of forecasted temperatures for the morning of January 28 (shown in the shaded area) was well outside of the range of all previous launches. While we can’t know for sure, it seems at least plausible that this could have been more persuasive.	<urn:uuid:32be8a40-34e8-4ce6-b486-da6ad6f5fe00>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Statistics/Book%3A_Statistical_Thinking_for_the_21st_Century_(Poldrack)/06%3A__Data_Visualization	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00065.warc.gz	en	0.980373	437	3.640625	4	[ -0.2023143768310547, -0.05051696300506592, 0.07261382043361664, -0.030023392289876938, -0.1123463436961174, 0.17221079766750336, -0.03331248089671135, 0.3354545533657074, 0.05505826696753502, -0.16295985877513885, 0.1984676569700241, -0.2897959351539612, 0.6151323914527893, 0.2629744112491...	7	- Describe the principles that distinguish between good and bad graphs, and use them to identify good versus bad graphs. - Understand the human limitations that must be accommodated in order to make effective graphs. - Promise to never create a pie chart. Ever. On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after takeoff, killing all 7 of the astronauts on board. As when any such disaster occurs, there was an official investigation into the cause of the accident, which found that an O-ring connecting two sections of the solid rocket booster had leaked, resulting in failure of the joint and explosion of the large liquid fuel tank (see figure 6.1). The investigation found that many aspects of the NASA decision making process were flawed, and focused in particular on a meeting that was had between NASA staff and engineers from Morton Thiokol, a contractor who had built the solid rocket boosters. These engineers were particularly concerned because the temperatures were forecast to be very cold on the morning of the launch, and they had data from previous launches showing that performance of the O-rings was compromised at lower temperatures. In a meeting on the evening before the launch, the engineers presented their data to the NASA managers, but were unable to convince them to postpone the launch. Their evidence was a set of hand-written slides showing numbers from various past launches. The visualization expert Edward Tufte has argued that with a proper presentation of all of the data, the engineers could have been much more persuasive. In particular, they could have shown a figure like the one in Figure 6.2, which highlights two important facts. First, it shows that the amount of O-ring damage (defined by the amount of erosion and soot found outside the rings after the solid rocket boosters were retrieved from the ocean in previous flights) was closely related to the temperature at takeoff. Second, it shows that the range of forecasted temperatures for the morning of January 28 (shown in the shaded area) was well outside of the range of all previous launches. While we can’t know for sure, it seems at least plausible that this could have been more persuasive.	441	ENGLISH	1
"C-Section babies are no more likely to be obese than those born normally," reports the Mail Online. The recent rise in the number of babies being born by caesarean section has been linked to the rise in childhood obesity. Previously, scientists have suggested that babies born by caesarean section might have missed out on exposure to beneficial bacteria from a vaginal birth, which might have made them more likely to grow up overweight. However, this latest study suggests that may not be true. Researchers followed up more than 97,000 boys born in Sweden between 1982 and 1987, and looked at their weight and height when they were conscripted to military service at 18 years of age. After taking account of their mothers' pre-pregnancy weight, the researchers found that how they were born made no difference to the boys' chances of being obese as they got older. The study was carried out when both caesarean sections and obesity were less common, which reduces the likelihood of finding a link. Also, because it used conscription to military service as the measuring point, the study only included boys. Conscription was compulsory for boys in the period studied, but not for girls. We do not know if the results of the study would apply to girls. For practical advice on tackling weight gain in children, visit the NHS website's healthy weight for children section. Where did the story come from? The researchers who carried out the study were from the Karolinska Institutet and Umeå University in Sweden. The study was funded by the Stockholm County Council and published in the peer-reviewed journal PLOS Medicine on an open access basis so it is free to read online. The Times, the Mail Online and The Guardian reported no increased risk of obesity but did not point out that this was based on just 460 boys who had been delivered by caesarean section and were obese at 18 years of age. What kind of research was this? This was a cohort study. Cohort studies are good ways to investigate links between factors such as how someone was born and outcomes such as weight in adulthood. They cannot tell us if any particular factor caused a particular outcome. They can tell us if a result is affected by other confounding factors – in this case, the mother's weight. What did the research involve? Researchers used data for all boys born between 1982 and 1987 in Sweden, for whom they could collect information about how they were born (vaginal, planned caesarean or emergency caesarean), and who were conscripted into military service at 18 years of age. They took their height and weight measurements at conscription to calculate their body mass index (BMI). They then calculated the number of 18 year olds who were obese, overweight or a normal weight, and compared them by birth category. The researchers took account of potential confounding factors likely to affect the risk of obesity. These included: - the mothers' pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) - if the mother had diabetes, high blood pressure or pre-eclampsia when she gave birth - if the mother smoked - the babies' birthweight and gestational age - the mothers' age at delivery They also looked at parental education, and carried out analyses to check for statistical biases. This included looking at a sub-group of boys who had brothers to check for family influences on obesity. What were the basic results? The researchers had information about 97,291 boys. They found that overall, 4.9% of the boys were obese at age 18. Of these, 4.9% (4,334) born by vaginal delivery were obese, 5.5% (229) born by planned caesarean were obese and 5.6% (231) by unplanned caesarean were obese. However, once the researchers took account of the potential confounding factors, including mothers' pre-pregnancy BMI, there was no difference in the chances of being obese, regardless of how they were born (relative risk ratio (RRR) for planned caesarean versus vaginal birth 1.02, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.88 to 1.18; RRR for emergency caesarean versus vaginal birth 0.96, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.10). The same was true when looking at the chances of being overweight. How did the researchers interpret the results? The researchers said: "We observed no association between elective [planned] or nonelective [emergency] CS [caesarean section] and young adult obesity in young male conscripts when accounting for maternal and prenatal factors." They note that "most of the crude association between CS and obesity could be explained by the maternal pre-pregnancy BMI. This suggests that there is no clinically relevant association between CS and the development of obesity". There are many reasons why a woman may have a caesarean section. Some previous studies have suggested a caesarean birth might have negative health outcomes for the child. This study should reassure women that having a caesarean section is unlikely to cause a child to become overweight or obese later in life. While children born by caesarean were slightly more likely to be obese at 18 years of age than those born vaginally, the study suggests that this is not because of how they were born. It may be a reflection of the fact that women who are obese may be more likely to need a caesarean section, and more likely to have children who are overweight or obese. However, the study was not set up to find this out, so we cannot tell for sure. The main limitation of the study was the low number of boys who had been delivered by caesarean section and were obese at 18 years of age. This reduces the reliability of the findings. The study used information about boys born between 37 and 32 years ago, who would have been 18 between 2000 and 2005. A lot has changed since then and obesity is much more common than it was. The number of caesarean sections has also risen since the 1980s. This raises questions about the relevance of the findings today. A further limitation was that all the babies in the study were male. We do not know if the results can apply to girls. Finally, more than half of the boys born during the time period studied were excluded from the study because of missing data about their birth, weight and height, or parents. We do not know how the missing data might have affected the results. Analysis by Bazian Edited by NHS Website Links to the headlines The Guardian, 6 December 2019 The Times, 7 December 2019 Mail Online, 7 December 2019 Links to the science PLOS Medicine. Published online 6 December 2019	<urn:uuid:23858732-af9d-41d0-8966-3838f0618b1b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nhs.uk/news/obesity/no-link-found-between-caesarean-section-and-obesity-boys/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00154.warc.gz	en	0.984178	1,409	3.3125	3	[ 0.18341846764087677, 0.26293498277664185, 0.11277107894420624, 0.2663376033306122, 0.19150619208812714, 0.49788615107536316, -0.42632588744163513, 0.3126312792301178, -0.023938868194818497, 0.12090149521827698, 0.41850870847702026, -0.46342363953590393, 0.14437241852283478, 0.3117679655551...	2	"C-Section babies are no more likely to be obese than those born normally," reports the Mail Online. The recent rise in the number of babies being born by caesarean section has been linked to the rise in childhood obesity. Previously, scientists have suggested that babies born by caesarean section might have missed out on exposure to beneficial bacteria from a vaginal birth, which might have made them more likely to grow up overweight. However, this latest study suggests that may not be true. Researchers followed up more than 97,000 boys born in Sweden between 1982 and 1987, and looked at their weight and height when they were conscripted to military service at 18 years of age. After taking account of their mothers' pre-pregnancy weight, the researchers found that how they were born made no difference to the boys' chances of being obese as they got older. The study was carried out when both caesarean sections and obesity were less common, which reduces the likelihood of finding a link. Also, because it used conscription to military service as the measuring point, the study only included boys. Conscription was compulsory for boys in the period studied, but not for girls. We do not know if the results of the study would apply to girls. For practical advice on tackling weight gain in children, visit the NHS website's healthy weight for children section. Where did the story come from? The researchers who carried out the study were from the Karolinska Institutet and Umeå University in Sweden. The study was funded by the Stockholm County Council and published in the peer-reviewed journal PLOS Medicine on an open access basis so it is free to read online. The Times, the Mail Online and The Guardian reported no increased risk of obesity but did not point out that this was based on just 460 boys who had been delivered by caesarean section and were obese at 18 years of age. What kind of research was this? This was a cohort study. Cohort studies are good ways to investigate links between factors such as how someone was born and outcomes such as weight in adulthood. They cannot tell us if any particular factor caused a particular outcome. They can tell us if a result is affected by other confounding factors – in this case, the mother's weight. What did the research involve? Researchers used data for all boys born between 1982 and 1987 in Sweden, for whom they could collect information about how they were born (vaginal, planned caesarean or emergency caesarean), and who were conscripted into military service at 18 years of age. They took their height and weight measurements at conscription to calculate their body mass index (BMI). They then calculated the number of 18 year olds who were obese, overweight or a normal weight, and compared them by birth category. The researchers took account of potential confounding factors likely to affect the risk of obesity. These included: - the mothers' pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) - if the mother had diabetes, high blood pressure or pre-eclampsia when she gave birth - if the mother smoked - the babies' birthweight and gestational age - the mothers' age at delivery They also looked at parental education, and carried out analyses to check for statistical biases. This included looking at a sub-group of boys who had brothers to check for family influences on obesity. What were the basic results? The researchers had information about 97,291 boys. They found that overall, 4.9% of the boys were obese at age 18. Of these, 4.9% (4,334) born by vaginal delivery were obese, 5.5% (229) born by planned caesarean were obese and 5.6% (231) by unplanned caesarean were obese. However, once the researchers took account of the potential confounding factors, including mothers' pre-pregnancy BMI, there was no difference in the chances of being obese, regardless of how they were born (relative risk ratio (RRR) for planned caesarean versus vaginal birth 1.02, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.88 to 1.18; RRR for emergency caesarean versus vaginal birth 0.96, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.10). The same was true when looking at the chances of being overweight. How did the researchers interpret the results? The researchers said: "We observed no association between elective [planned] or nonelective [emergency] CS [caesarean section] and young adult obesity in young male conscripts when accounting for maternal and prenatal factors." They note that "most of the crude association between CS and obesity could be explained by the maternal pre-pregnancy BMI. This suggests that there is no clinically relevant association between CS and the development of obesity". There are many reasons why a woman may have a caesarean section. Some previous studies have suggested a caesarean birth might have negative health outcomes for the child. This study should reassure women that having a caesarean section is unlikely to cause a child to become overweight or obese later in life. While children born by caesarean were slightly more likely to be obese at 18 years of age than those born vaginally, the study suggests that this is not because of how they were born. It may be a reflection of the fact that women who are obese may be more likely to need a caesarean section, and more likely to have children who are overweight or obese. However, the study was not set up to find this out, so we cannot tell for sure. The main limitation of the study was the low number of boys who had been delivered by caesarean section and were obese at 18 years of age. This reduces the reliability of the findings. The study used information about boys born between 37 and 32 years ago, who would have been 18 between 2000 and 2005. A lot has changed since then and obesity is much more common than it was. The number of caesarean sections has also risen since the 1980s. This raises questions about the relevance of the findings today. A further limitation was that all the babies in the study were male. We do not know if the results can apply to girls. Finally, more than half of the boys born during the time period studied were excluded from the study because of missing data about their birth, weight and height, or parents. We do not know how the missing data might have affected the results. Analysis by Bazian Edited by NHS Website Links to the headlines The Guardian, 6 December 2019 The Times, 7 December 2019 Mail Online, 7 December 2019 Links to the science PLOS Medicine. Published online 6 December 2019	1,481	ENGLISH	1
THE HISTORY OF THE PENNSYLVANIA GERMANS is a most interesting subject. It began more than three hundred years ago, and the end is not in sight. One of many things to be remembered about the people called Pennsylvania Germans (or Dutch), is that they came here of their own free will from the Old World, and supported themselves without any help from what might be called the mother country. Not so in other instances, viz: Spain was in Florida; France had a good chunk of Canada and Louisiana; Holland was in New York; England was firmly rooted in Massachusetts and Rhode Island; Sweden had a foothold in New Jersey, and the governments of those respective countries pushed the colonization ideas to the limit. It has been estimated that before the Revolution there were 100,000 Germans and Swiss in Pennsylvania alone, with many others in Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland and New York. The Germany of that day (the Germany still to be), was made up of a number of more or less loosely related independent principalities, etc., without a central government such as had England, Spain and France. Thus it was that these many thousands of pioneering people, the cream of her population, fell under the influence of other governments; the mother country did nothing toward colonizing. This policy of neglect was so unlike the Germany of a hundred years later. Excuses have been offered, the main one being the demoralized condition of the country after the terrible religious and civil wars which were so common at that time in Europe. About half of the German-speaking people finally were merged with the peoples of Hungary and Bohemia, forming Austria, the other half being split up into small kingdoms, or principalities, etc. The Reformation.--One of the real reasons for the original and almost spontaneous emigration to America goes back to the Reformation. It was after that upheaval that the Protestant movement grew ever stronger, until through its many clashes with other faiths and civil authorities, many of these believers in the new freedom of worship, cast longing eyes on the possibilities of the New World. The German people who went through the Thirty Years' war experienced all of the ravages that war can bring, since most of those old conflicts usually resulted in untold misery and suffering unto death. They did not have in those early days the all ‘round type of warfare that we now know, but history records the damage to the physical man, to his mind, and to Mother Earth . Before the Thirty Years' war the peasants enjoyed life about as well as any ordinary folk, for they had plenty of this world's goods; they could store-by for the "rainy days" that might come--that surely did come. Soon everything was to be destroyed--everything but the indomitable spirit of men and women. They, like people in our most recent war, lived in caves, in marshes, woods--everywhere but in houses, or barns. Destruction was so complete that it took two hundred years to rebuild as many houses as were destroyed, and as for the population, more than that many years to reach the same level. The Palatinate: Much of the population which we know as Pennsylvania German today, came from a section of Germany called the Palatinate. Its inhabitants were descended from a group of German tribes called the Rheinfranken, with an admixture of Alemanni. There seems to be little doubt but that the farmers in the Palatinate section of Germany were the world's best farmers. They were in their day, but their offspring in America are not such bad farmers by whatever method of comparison. The great water-ways of Europe traversed their lands, and travelers said that they not only could farm well, but credited them with a reputation for keen wit, indomitable industry and a high degree of intelligence. About three hundred years ago, during the years 1635-36 there was great suffering and misery due to the wars and famine. The eating of grass and roots, even cannibalism, was noted. Another "peace" came along in 1649, at Westphalia, and the map was settled to the satisfaction (supposedly) of three faiths--Catholics, Lutherans and Reformed. This was of short duration for the Palatinate had became as desolate as the desert. But nature would have her way, and again farms produced, people built new houses, and church memberships grew. Under Karl Ludwig, the Mennonites, who had heretofore been outrageously oppressed, were given freedom of worship. These people knew how to farm, and before long there was prosperity in the land. War Between France and Holland: In 1674-75 war between France and Holland brought destruction again to the Palatinate. Again in 1685 to 1689 more devastation for these poor unfortunates, who were always caught in civil or religious embroilments that were so bitter and destructive as to stagger the imagination; or, to compare it with the latest tortures we know of, we need but look at the bestial butchery of World War II. This is fresh in mind, and must picture what had happened long before. That is war! It was at this time (1685) that Lutherans and Reformed were pretty much at loggerheads, and much blood had been spilt. This went on for some time, and it pleased the Catholics, no end. There was little left of the Protestant church in the Palatinate after the cessation of the wars between France and Germany, ending with a peace treaty at Ryswick in 1697. Most of the property of the Protestant churches was taken over by the State, or more specifically the Catholic church. Protestants were tolerated, more or less, but they enjoyed little rights in the matter of church property, and were compelled to bend the knee at the passing of the Host. Exclusion from the Palatinate: Up to this time many Huguenots, Walloons, and Swiss Mennonites had found their way into the Palatinate; now they were driven from the land; some went to Prussia, others to Holland, and some to America. Inasmuch as the conditions brought about by the warring civil and church leaders extended to Zweibrücken and Würtemberg, and others in the vicinity of the Palatinate, the inhabitants of those parts started the trek to other parts and lands. Switzerland was a country which was spared the horrors of the several wars. It received oppressed peoples, churchmen, and others, from neighboring borders. But not everything was milk and honey in little Switzerland. Until the French Revolution Switzerland was little better than an aristocracy, with the offices in the hands of the same families for generations. Menial services of all sorts, high taxes, and other complaints gave impetus to the idea among the persecuted that if there could be freedom to worship as they pleased elsewhere, there they would go. Mennonite Beginnings: Much of the background of the Mennonite movement is to be traced directly to Switzerland. This movement was active back in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and records indicate attempts to root these people out because of their refusal to bear arms, a trait they adhere to today with all the tenacity they can command. The government in time of war can make Mennonite and Amish boys rake leaves, but can't get them to bear arms! One student reaches the conclusion that the Amish and Mennonite roots go back to the days of the early Christians who sought haven in the catacombs at Rome. The Reformed churchmen didn't like the Mennonites from the beginning, and many of the latter were subjected to persecution of all sorts, some being sold as galley slaves to the Turks. Mennonite communities had existed in the Palatinate since 1527, and to these places like-believers in Switzerland would flee across frontiers; by 1671 a considerable emigration took place when seven hundred persons left their native home to settle on the banks of the Rhine. We are now approaching the time when these early Mennonite settlers in the Palatinate and the newcomers agreed to help their compatriots in Switzerland who left there in after years--willingly, or otherwise. They finally found themselves under such a heavy yoke that they decided on a large movement of their people to America, and the settlement at Pequea, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, resulted. Zürich and Berne, in Switzerland, published decrees forbidding emigration, the latter city rescinding a policy previously planned, for a Swiss colony to settle in Georgia. Subsequently some Germanic people did come to America, through Georgia, and up through the Carolinas. The main reasons for emigration from Europe to America, by the Germans, motivated and included also the Huguenots; the latter got into this picture by reason of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by Louis XIV, in France, in 1685, when many of France's most substantial citizens went to Holland, Germany and Switzerland, all in fear of their lives. In connection with the subject of enforced slavery it may be noted that Huguenots from France were likewise sold as galley slaves. In 1896, Henry S. Dotterer, editor of "Historical Notes Relating to the Pennsylvania Reformed Church," was making some researches in the archives of Dortrecht, Holland. Here he discovered a printed list of Huguenot galley slaves who had been released by the order of Louis XIV of France, on condition that they leave the realm. There was another list of many who were not so lucky. This list numbers 39,336 names of Huguenots who were not released! And this is but a fraction of those who were enslaved. Historians, almost with one accord, agree that this exodus caused such a severe blow to the economic, religious and other forms of expression common to man, to the country of France, that it finally led to the first Revolution. The depriving of her people of the right to worship as they pleased caused France a mortal blow from which she never recovered. Penn Advocates Emigration: William Penn traveled in Germany, and his pamphlets describing his "Holy Experiment" (published in English, Dutch and German), were scattered in large numbers in parts of Holland and Germany. Queen Anne and her "Golden Book" caused a flood of Palatines to proceed to London in 1709. From this movement developed the settlements about the Schoharie and Mohawk in New York, and later the Tulpehocken, in Berks county, Pennsylvania. In addition to stirring up of interest by Penn and others, once the early arrivals were here, they sent some capable person back to the Fatherland every so often, to tell others of this new land of great opportunity. Likewise, the ship-owners lost no time in noting the increase in their profits, and they sent out agents to intrigue more and more people to sail the great Atlantic, often making statements about the easy life in Pennsylvania that were far from the truth. These Germanic people, the Swiss and Huguenot elements, constitute the people who, generally speaking, came to America's shores before the Revolution, or before 1800. They form the back-bone of what are called "the Pennsylvania Germans," or "Dutch." Social and literary groups require heredity in their organization to be based on immigrant arrivals before the year 1800. Those Germans who came soon after that year have been well assimilated, but after that date new arrivals are not counted as being from the same parts of Germany, nor with the same general characteristics and aspirations. Later arrivals found more room in cities to the West, and they contributed nothing to the art, culture, or customs of Lancaster and the many other counties in Pennsylvania settled by those who arrived on the earlier dates.	<urn:uuid:56c36917-593a-4651-aa76-4d24c8a1fd0e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://clearfamily.org/arrival1.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00484.warc.gz	en	0.982838	2,443	3.3125	3	[ -0.039787717163562775, 0.6750816702842712, 0.1767321079969406, 0.0539548434317112, 0.013507945463061333, 0.08375973999500275, -0.22273904085159302, 0.340246319770813, -0.080330990254879, -0.11161047220230103, 0.04865998029708862, 0.013805150054395199, -0.3000810742378235, 0.326126188039779...	2	THE HISTORY OF THE PENNSYLVANIA GERMANS is a most interesting subject. It began more than three hundred years ago, and the end is not in sight. One of many things to be remembered about the people called Pennsylvania Germans (or Dutch), is that they came here of their own free will from the Old World, and supported themselves without any help from what might be called the mother country. Not so in other instances, viz: Spain was in Florida; France had a good chunk of Canada and Louisiana; Holland was in New York; England was firmly rooted in Massachusetts and Rhode Island; Sweden had a foothold in New Jersey, and the governments of those respective countries pushed the colonization ideas to the limit. It has been estimated that before the Revolution there were 100,000 Germans and Swiss in Pennsylvania alone, with many others in Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland and New York. The Germany of that day (the Germany still to be), was made up of a number of more or less loosely related independent principalities, etc., without a central government such as had England, Spain and France. Thus it was that these many thousands of pioneering people, the cream of her population, fell under the influence of other governments; the mother country did nothing toward colonizing. This policy of neglect was so unlike the Germany of a hundred years later. Excuses have been offered, the main one being the demoralized condition of the country after the terrible religious and civil wars which were so common at that time in Europe. About half of the German-speaking people finally were merged with the peoples of Hungary and Bohemia, forming Austria, the other half being split up into small kingdoms, or principalities, etc. The Reformation.--One of the real reasons for the original and almost spontaneous emigration to America goes back to the Reformation. It was after that upheaval that the Protestant movement grew ever stronger, until through its many clashes with other faiths and civil authorities, many of these believers in the new freedom of worship, cast longing eyes on the possibilities of the New World. The German people who went through the Thirty Years' war experienced all of the ravages that war can bring, since most of those old conflicts usually resulted in untold misery and suffering unto death. They did not have in those early days the all ‘round type of warfare that we now know, but history records the damage to the physical man, to his mind, and to Mother Earth . Before the Thirty Years' war the peasants enjoyed life about as well as any ordinary folk, for they had plenty of this world's goods; they could store-by for the "rainy days" that might come--that surely did come. Soon everything was to be destroyed--everything but the indomitable spirit of men and women. They, like people in our most recent war, lived in caves, in marshes, woods--everywhere but in houses, or barns. Destruction was so complete that it took two hundred years to rebuild as many houses as were destroyed, and as for the population, more than that many years to reach the same level. The Palatinate: Much of the population which we know as Pennsylvania German today, came from a section of Germany called the Palatinate. Its inhabitants were descended from a group of German tribes called the Rheinfranken, with an admixture of Alemanni. There seems to be little doubt but that the farmers in the Palatinate section of Germany were the world's best farmers. They were in their day, but their offspring in America are not such bad farmers by whatever method of comparison. The great water-ways of Europe traversed their lands, and travelers said that they not only could farm well, but credited them with a reputation for keen wit, indomitable industry and a high degree of intelligence. About three hundred years ago, during the years 1635-36 there was great suffering and misery due to the wars and famine. The eating of grass and roots, even cannibalism, was noted. Another "peace" came along in 1649, at Westphalia, and the map was settled to the satisfaction (supposedly) of three faiths--Catholics, Lutherans and Reformed. This was of short duration for the Palatinate had became as desolate as the desert. But nature would have her way, and again farms produced, people built new houses, and church memberships grew. Under Karl Ludwig, the Mennonites, who had heretofore been outrageously oppressed, were given freedom of worship. These people knew how to farm, and before long there was prosperity in the land. War Between France and Holland: In 1674-75 war between France and Holland brought destruction again to the Palatinate. Again in 1685 to 1689 more devastation for these poor unfortunates, who were always caught in civil or religious embroilments that were so bitter and destructive as to stagger the imagination; or, to compare it with the latest tortures we know of, we need but look at the bestial butchery of World War II. This is fresh in mind, and must picture what had happened long before. That is war! It was at this time (1685) that Lutherans and Reformed were pretty much at loggerheads, and much blood had been spilt. This went on for some time, and it pleased the Catholics, no end. There was little left of the Protestant church in the Palatinate after the cessation of the wars between France and Germany, ending with a peace treaty at Ryswick in 1697. Most of the property of the Protestant churches was taken over by the State, or more specifically the Catholic church. Protestants were tolerated, more or less, but they enjoyed little rights in the matter of church property, and were compelled to bend the knee at the passing of the Host. Exclusion from the Palatinate: Up to this time many Huguenots, Walloons, and Swiss Mennonites had found their way into the Palatinate; now they were driven from the land; some went to Prussia, others to Holland, and some to America. Inasmuch as the conditions brought about by the warring civil and church leaders extended to Zweibrücken and Würtemberg, and others in the vicinity of the Palatinate, the inhabitants of those parts started the trek to other parts and lands. Switzerland was a country which was spared the horrors of the several wars. It received oppressed peoples, churchmen, and others, from neighboring borders. But not everything was milk and honey in little Switzerland. Until the French Revolution Switzerland was little better than an aristocracy, with the offices in the hands of the same families for generations. Menial services of all sorts, high taxes, and other complaints gave impetus to the idea among the persecuted that if there could be freedom to worship as they pleased elsewhere, there they would go. Mennonite Beginnings: Much of the background of the Mennonite movement is to be traced directly to Switzerland. This movement was active back in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and records indicate attempts to root these people out because of their refusal to bear arms, a trait they adhere to today with all the tenacity they can command. The government in time of war can make Mennonite and Amish boys rake leaves, but can't get them to bear arms! One student reaches the conclusion that the Amish and Mennonite roots go back to the days of the early Christians who sought haven in the catacombs at Rome. The Reformed churchmen didn't like the Mennonites from the beginning, and many of the latter were subjected to persecution of all sorts, some being sold as galley slaves to the Turks. Mennonite communities had existed in the Palatinate since 1527, and to these places like-believers in Switzerland would flee across frontiers; by 1671 a considerable emigration took place when seven hundred persons left their native home to settle on the banks of the Rhine. We are now approaching the time when these early Mennonite settlers in the Palatinate and the newcomers agreed to help their compatriots in Switzerland who left there in after years--willingly, or otherwise. They finally found themselves under such a heavy yoke that they decided on a large movement of their people to America, and the settlement at Pequea, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, resulted. Zürich and Berne, in Switzerland, published decrees forbidding emigration, the latter city rescinding a policy previously planned, for a Swiss colony to settle in Georgia. Subsequently some Germanic people did come to America, through Georgia, and up through the Carolinas. The main reasons for emigration from Europe to America, by the Germans, motivated and included also the Huguenots; the latter got into this picture by reason of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by Louis XIV, in France, in 1685, when many of France's most substantial citizens went to Holland, Germany and Switzerland, all in fear of their lives. In connection with the subject of enforced slavery it may be noted that Huguenots from France were likewise sold as galley slaves. In 1896, Henry S. Dotterer, editor of "Historical Notes Relating to the Pennsylvania Reformed Church," was making some researches in the archives of Dortrecht, Holland. Here he discovered a printed list of Huguenot galley slaves who had been released by the order of Louis XIV of France, on condition that they leave the realm. There was another list of many who were not so lucky. This list numbers 39,336 names of Huguenots who were not released! And this is but a fraction of those who were enslaved. Historians, almost with one accord, agree that this exodus caused such a severe blow to the economic, religious and other forms of expression common to man, to the country of France, that it finally led to the first Revolution. The depriving of her people of the right to worship as they pleased caused France a mortal blow from which she never recovered. Penn Advocates Emigration: William Penn traveled in Germany, and his pamphlets describing his "Holy Experiment" (published in English, Dutch and German), were scattered in large numbers in parts of Holland and Germany. Queen Anne and her "Golden Book" caused a flood of Palatines to proceed to London in 1709. From this movement developed the settlements about the Schoharie and Mohawk in New York, and later the Tulpehocken, in Berks county, Pennsylvania. In addition to stirring up of interest by Penn and others, once the early arrivals were here, they sent some capable person back to the Fatherland every so often, to tell others of this new land of great opportunity. Likewise, the ship-owners lost no time in noting the increase in their profits, and they sent out agents to intrigue more and more people to sail the great Atlantic, often making statements about the easy life in Pennsylvania that were far from the truth. These Germanic people, the Swiss and Huguenot elements, constitute the people who, generally speaking, came to America's shores before the Revolution, or before 1800. They form the back-bone of what are called "the Pennsylvania Germans," or "Dutch." Social and literary groups require heredity in their organization to be based on immigrant arrivals before the year 1800. Those Germans who came soon after that year have been well assimilated, but after that date new arrivals are not counted as being from the same parts of Germany, nor with the same general characteristics and aspirations. Later arrivals found more room in cities to the West, and they contributed nothing to the art, culture, or customs of Lancaster and the many other counties in Pennsylvania settled by those who arrived on the earlier dates.	2,493	ENGLISH	1
In 1913, a sequence of disturbing crimes occurred in the Atlanta area, beginning with the shocking murder of Mary Phagan, a 13-year-old employee at the National Pencil Factory who was found strangled in the basement of her workplace. The factory's Jewish superintendent, Leo Frank, was convicted of her murder and subjected to vigilante justice when he was kidnapped from prison and lynched in 1915. His lynching drew national attention and became the focus of social concerns, especially regarding antisemitism. The case around Leo Frank embodied the area’s growing tensions and fears brought about by the New South’s urbanization, industrialization, and changing economy. Many Southern white families resented Northern industrialists like Frank, whom they blamed for the destruction of traditional family values as women and children entered the workforce. At the turn of the century, antisemetic views were also on the rise as an influx of Jewish people from eastern and southern Europe immigrated to the South. Southern newspapers at times sensationalized stories that inflamed these local prejudices and bigotry. This was the backdrop against which the murder trial of Leo Frank, a well-educated, Northern industrialist Jew, took place in 1913. Despite the lack of any credible evidence against Leo Frank, he was quickly fingered as Mary Phagan’s killer. Less than four months after her body was discovered in the factory, Frank was tried and convicted of the murder. He was sentenced to death by hanging.	<urn:uuid:1101971e-2f67-47d8-bd80-1d3c95216a65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gpb.org/blogs/education-matters/2020/01/08/keys-leo-franks-prison-cell-discovered-by-ung-student	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00289.warc.gz	en	0.980681	299	3.53125	4	[ -0.12913908064365387, 0.31331396102905273, 0.010628600604832172, 0.13646942377090454, 0.3482948839664459, 0.12871921062469482, 0.5070517659187317, 0.05354100838303566, 0.06825868785381317, -0.38097959756851196, 0.26053547859191895, 0.10350732505321503, -0.2557377219200134, 0.29134187102317...	1	In 1913, a sequence of disturbing crimes occurred in the Atlanta area, beginning with the shocking murder of Mary Phagan, a 13-year-old employee at the National Pencil Factory who was found strangled in the basement of her workplace. The factory's Jewish superintendent, Leo Frank, was convicted of her murder and subjected to vigilante justice when he was kidnapped from prison and lynched in 1915. His lynching drew national attention and became the focus of social concerns, especially regarding antisemitism. The case around Leo Frank embodied the area’s growing tensions and fears brought about by the New South’s urbanization, industrialization, and changing economy. Many Southern white families resented Northern industrialists like Frank, whom they blamed for the destruction of traditional family values as women and children entered the workforce. At the turn of the century, antisemetic views were also on the rise as an influx of Jewish people from eastern and southern Europe immigrated to the South. Southern newspapers at times sensationalized stories that inflamed these local prejudices and bigotry. This was the backdrop against which the murder trial of Leo Frank, a well-educated, Northern industrialist Jew, took place in 1913. Despite the lack of any credible evidence against Leo Frank, he was quickly fingered as Mary Phagan’s killer. Less than four months after her body was discovered in the factory, Frank was tried and convicted of the murder. He was sentenced to death by hanging.	302	ENGLISH	1
George Henry Thomas (July 31, 1816 – March 28, 1870) was a career United States Army officer and a Union General during the Civil War, becoming one of the principal commanders in the Western Theater and the hero of the Battle of Chickamauga. Despite being a Southerner, Thomas chose to serve the Union during the Civil War. The Virginian served in important subordinate commands at Perryville and Stones River before his stout defense at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863 saved the Union Army from being completely routed and earned him his most famous nickname, the "Rock of Chickamauga." He followed soon after with a dramatic breakthrough on Missionary Ridge in the Battle of Chattanooga. In the Franklin-Nashville Campaign of 1864, he achieved one of the most decisive victories of the war, destroying the army of Confederate General John Bell Hood, at the Battle of Nashville. Thomas had a successful record in the Civil War, but he failed to achieve the historical acclaim of some of his contemporaries, including Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman. He developed a reputation as a slow, deliberate general who shunned self-promotion and who turned down advancements in position when he did not think they were justified. After the war, he did not write memoirs to advance his legacy. He also had an uncomfortable personal relationship with Grant, which served him poorly as Grant advanced in rank and eventually to the presidency. Days after the Battle of Chickamauga, Thomas wrote his official account of the battle, and it was preserved in The War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. This edition of his account includes illustrations of the the battle's important generals.	<urn:uuid:40af6059-f35a-40d0-a8ac-e3a6d5772053>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/ca/book/official-records-union-confederate-armies-george-h/id476938050	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00503.warc.gz	en	0.981102	346	3.453125	3	[ -0.23090976476669312, 0.3466295897960663, 0.3717891275882721, 0.18586991727352142, -0.30945315957069397, 0.29692673683166504, 0.36106598377227783, 0.1454421877861023, -0.34479910135269165, -0.16718962788581848, 0.14584951102733612, -0.1994071751832962, 0.08479023724794388, 0.26714843511581...	1	George Henry Thomas (July 31, 1816 – March 28, 1870) was a career United States Army officer and a Union General during the Civil War, becoming one of the principal commanders in the Western Theater and the hero of the Battle of Chickamauga. Despite being a Southerner, Thomas chose to serve the Union during the Civil War. The Virginian served in important subordinate commands at Perryville and Stones River before his stout defense at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863 saved the Union Army from being completely routed and earned him his most famous nickname, the "Rock of Chickamauga." He followed soon after with a dramatic breakthrough on Missionary Ridge in the Battle of Chattanooga. In the Franklin-Nashville Campaign of 1864, he achieved one of the most decisive victories of the war, destroying the army of Confederate General John Bell Hood, at the Battle of Nashville. Thomas had a successful record in the Civil War, but he failed to achieve the historical acclaim of some of his contemporaries, including Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman. He developed a reputation as a slow, deliberate general who shunned self-promotion and who turned down advancements in position when he did not think they were justified. After the war, he did not write memoirs to advance his legacy. He also had an uncomfortable personal relationship with Grant, which served him poorly as Grant advanced in rank and eventually to the presidency. Days after the Battle of Chickamauga, Thomas wrote his official account of the battle, and it was preserved in The War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. This edition of his account includes illustrations of the the battle's important generals.	361	ENGLISH	1
You've seen Caravaggio's stunning paintings, but do you know the story behind the images? Caravaggio was a violent and tragic figure who likely died because of his commitment to his art. He became "the most famous painter in Rome" in 1600 and gave birth to the Baroque style and the technique of chiaroscuro, but when he wasn't painting, Caravaggio surrounded himself with thieves, prostitutes, and fights. It doesn't take a degree in Renaissance art symbols and codes to notice the violence in Caravaggio paintings. Caravaggio may hold the Renaissance record for the most paintings of severed heads, and his religious paintings angered the Catholic Church because he used a prostitute as his model for the Virgin Mary. The life of Caravaggio was tragic – he was orphaned at only 10 after losing most of his family to the plague. And after witnessing the brutal execution of a young noblewoman in 1599, he started painting avenging women cutting off men's heads. Who was Caravaggio? We may never fully know the mystery behind the most stunning paintings of the Baroque period, but a look at Caravaggio's history reveals some of his secrets. Caravaggio was born in 1571 in the city of Milan. His full name was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, linking him with the most famous Italian artist of the 16th century. Caravaggio was still a boy when a devastating plague swept through Milan in 1576. The plague killed several of his family members, including his father, grandfather, and grandmother in less than three days. At 10, Caravaggio's mother also died. That same year, the young artist began an apprenticeship with the painter Simone Peterzano in Milan. Peterzano was a student of Titian, and he helped train Caravaggio and launch his artistic career. But the early traumas of Caravaggio's childhood haunted him throughout his life. Caravaggio's paintings aren't just dark in tone - the content is also often brutal and violent. The artist had a particular affection for paintings of severed heads, which show up in a number of his works. One of his most famous, of Medusa, shows the screaming monster just after losing her head, blood pouring fom her neck, and the snakes encircling her head still writhing. In other paintings, Caravaggio tackled the beheaded Goliath and the beheaded Holofernes. Violence followed Caravaggio even off the canvas. In 1604, a published description of Caravaggio claimed that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him." In 1599, all of Rome wept when the beautiful young noblewoman Beatrice Cenci was executed by the pope, alongside her family. Her crime was plotting the murder of her own father, an abusive man who raped Beatrice repeatedly. To many Romans, Beatrice's crime was justified. But the pope couldn't allow patricide, so Beatrice was beheaded in a very public ceremony. Caravaggio was in the audience that day, watching Beatrice's poise as she faced the executioner. Beatrice Cenci's tragic story inspired Caravaggio to paint the Biblical scene of Judith killing Holofernes. Caravaggio knew he was an amazing painter, and he wasn't shy about criticizing his rivals. His contemporary Giovanni Baglione said, "At times he would speak badly of the painters of the past, and also of the present, no matter how distinguished they were, because he thought that he alone had surpassed all the other artists in his profession." And just to make it clear, Caravaggio even used his paintings to insult his rivals. His "Conversion of Saint Paul" featured a very large horse (even bigger than the saint), and when displayed in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, the horse's rump is aimed directly at a rival's saccharine painting of the Virgin Mary. Apparently not everyone got the joke. A church official demanded to know why the horse was the middle, while the saint was lying on the ground. Caravaggio replied, "He stands in God's light!"	<urn:uuid:5606f864-2b65-453b-b8c3-372bd7fec469>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ranker.com/list/life-of-caravaggio/genevieve-carlton?ref=collections&l=2544499&collectionId=2240	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00195.warc.gz	en	0.98138	938	3.390625	3	[ 0.007006702944636345, 0.12954789400100708, 0.10614211857318878, 0.24928194284439087, -0.3338139057159424, 0.2105490118265152, 0.5815649032592773, 0.1558341383934021, 0.237596794962883, -0.16162653267383575, -0.04438311606645584, 0.034243322908878326, 0.16033540666103363, 0.5356727838516235...	2	You've seen Caravaggio's stunning paintings, but do you know the story behind the images? Caravaggio was a violent and tragic figure who likely died because of his commitment to his art. He became "the most famous painter in Rome" in 1600 and gave birth to the Baroque style and the technique of chiaroscuro, but when he wasn't painting, Caravaggio surrounded himself with thieves, prostitutes, and fights. It doesn't take a degree in Renaissance art symbols and codes to notice the violence in Caravaggio paintings. Caravaggio may hold the Renaissance record for the most paintings of severed heads, and his religious paintings angered the Catholic Church because he used a prostitute as his model for the Virgin Mary. The life of Caravaggio was tragic – he was orphaned at only 10 after losing most of his family to the plague. And after witnessing the brutal execution of a young noblewoman in 1599, he started painting avenging women cutting off men's heads. Who was Caravaggio? We may never fully know the mystery behind the most stunning paintings of the Baroque period, but a look at Caravaggio's history reveals some of his secrets. Caravaggio was born in 1571 in the city of Milan. His full name was Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, linking him with the most famous Italian artist of the 16th century. Caravaggio was still a boy when a devastating plague swept through Milan in 1576. The plague killed several of his family members, including his father, grandfather, and grandmother in less than three days. At 10, Caravaggio's mother also died. That same year, the young artist began an apprenticeship with the painter Simone Peterzano in Milan. Peterzano was a student of Titian, and he helped train Caravaggio and launch his artistic career. But the early traumas of Caravaggio's childhood haunted him throughout his life. Caravaggio's paintings aren't just dark in tone - the content is also often brutal and violent. The artist had a particular affection for paintings of severed heads, which show up in a number of his works. One of his most famous, of Medusa, shows the screaming monster just after losing her head, blood pouring fom her neck, and the snakes encircling her head still writhing. In other paintings, Caravaggio tackled the beheaded Goliath and the beheaded Holofernes. Violence followed Caravaggio even off the canvas. In 1604, a published description of Caravaggio claimed that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him." In 1599, all of Rome wept when the beautiful young noblewoman Beatrice Cenci was executed by the pope, alongside her family. Her crime was plotting the murder of her own father, an abusive man who raped Beatrice repeatedly. To many Romans, Beatrice's crime was justified. But the pope couldn't allow patricide, so Beatrice was beheaded in a very public ceremony. Caravaggio was in the audience that day, watching Beatrice's poise as she faced the executioner. Beatrice Cenci's tragic story inspired Caravaggio to paint the Biblical scene of Judith killing Holofernes. Caravaggio knew he was an amazing painter, and he wasn't shy about criticizing his rivals. His contemporary Giovanni Baglione said, "At times he would speak badly of the painters of the past, and also of the present, no matter how distinguished they were, because he thought that he alone had surpassed all the other artists in his profession." And just to make it clear, Caravaggio even used his paintings to insult his rivals. His "Conversion of Saint Paul" featured a very large horse (even bigger than the saint), and when displayed in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, the horse's rump is aimed directly at a rival's saccharine painting of the Virgin Mary. Apparently not everyone got the joke. A church official demanded to know why the horse was the middle, while the saint was lying on the ground. Caravaggio replied, "He stands in God's light!"	922	ENGLISH	1
- Freedom of expression is crucial to democracy. It means that everyone can take part in political discussions, and the media can hold those who are in power to account. - A free, independent and diverse media plays the role of a “public watchdog”, keeping people informed and holding power to account. - Many journalists, media outlets and individuals have used the European Convention on Human Rights to fight for free speech. Four Belgian journalists were targeted by the police in a huge search and seizure operation aimed at identifying the source of leaked government information. The Strasbourg court ruled that the operation had been unjustified and disproportionate. The case influenced new legislation to improve protections for journalists and their sources. Brigitte Heinisch was a geriatric nurse. She claimed that practices in the old people’s home where she worked were putting patients at risk. After she made her allegations public, she was fired. Yet, the German courts found that her dismissal was lawful - so Mrs Heinisch took her case to Strasbourg. Her case was then re-opened and she won compensation. Italian television was dominated by a small number of channels, with little diversity of ownership. When Centro Europa 7 tried to set up new channels, they were refused access to a broadcast frequency. The company complained to the Strasbourg court that the authorities were maintaining the concentration of media power in Italy. The case led to new rules for protecting media pluralism. Zoran Lepojić wrote an article saying that a mayor had wasted public money. The mayor successfully brought defamation charges, and Mr Lepojić was fined more than 8 average monthly salaries. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had been unreasonable, violating Mr Lepojić’s right to free speech. The Supreme Court of Serbia took steps to protect freedom of expression in such circumstances. Before a presidential election, the newspaper The Day published articles criticising two of the candidates. The politicians sued the owners of the newspaper for damages and won. The Strasbourg court found that the owners had been punished merely for publishing opinions, violating their right to free speech. The case influenced reforms to protect freedom of expression in Ukraine. Retired journalist Veseljko Koprivica was ordered to pay huge damages after losing a defamation case. The Strasbourg court ruled that the damages awarded were so excessive that they violated his right to free speech. A ruling by the Supreme Court of Montenegro specified that damages for defamation should not be high enough to discourage journalists from playing their key role in society. In the early 1980s Thorgeir Thorgeirson wrote articles claiming that there was a problem with police brutality in Reykjavik. His reporting was based on the prosecution of a police officer and various public allegations. Nevertheless, he was convicted for defaming the Reykjavik police. The European court ruled that this had violated his right to freedom of expression, leading to free speech... The magazine Mladina published an article criticising a politician for homophobic remarks in a parliamentary debate. The politician sued the magazine because he had been offended by its criticism. The Slovenian courts ruled against the magazine, ordering it to pay damages. The European court ruled this had violated the magazine’s rights – leading to reforms to protect free speech. Greater protections for free speech after journalist sued for reporting on alleged political corruption In July 2000 Ilnar Gorelishvili wrote an article about a politician who owned various expensive properties. She questioned how he had bought these whilst working in public service on a moderate salary. The politician sued her for defamation and won. The European court ruled that Georgian law had not properly protected Ms Gorelishvili’s right to give her opinion. Matti Paloaro and Pentti Eerikäinen were journalists. They reported on the prosecution of a businesswoman, who had abused public funds and was later sentenced to prison. The businesswoman sued the journalists, claiming they had invaded her privacy by publicising her prosecution. The businesswoman won in the Finnish courts – but the Strasbourg court ruled in favour of the journalists. In a report on alleged corruption in Portuguese football, José Manuel Colaço Mestre asked questions to an interviewee about the dual role played by Mr Pinto de Costa, who was then both Chairman of FC Porto and President of the Portuguese Football League. Because of these questions, Mr Colaço Mestre and his employer were both found guilty of criminal defamation in the Portuguese courts. Senator Miguel Castells wrote an article claiming that the government was failing to investigate a series of murders. He was convicted of insulting the government and sentenced to a year in prison. The European court ruled that his right to free speech had been violated. The Spanish Constitutional Court then developed its case law to provide greater protection to free speech in Spain. In 1988 the local newspaper Bladet Tromsø published claims by a government inspector alleging misconduct by certain seal hunters. The Norwegian courts found the newspaper liable for defamation, saying that it had relied too heavily on government reports. The Strasbourg court ruled that this violated the paper’s right to free speech – leading to reforms to protect freedom of expression. Elina Goussev and Michael Marenk were protesting against the fur trade. Police searched their homes and seized campaign materials. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had breached their right to free speech, as the seizure had not been clearly justified by Finnish law. After the case had been submitted to the court, reforms were made to prevent arbitrary seizures. Isaak Grinberg wrote an opinion article criticising a local governor. The governor sued Mr Grinberg for defamation, making him pay a fine. The Strasbourg court ruled that Mr Grinberg had been punished for giving a value judgment about a public figure. This violated his right to free speech. Mr Grinberg was awarded €1,120 in compensation. Greater protection for the media after journalist fined for refusing to reveal the identity of his source Journalist William Goodwin was given leaked information about a company. The company wanted to sue the source of the leak - but Mr Goodwin refused to reveal their identity. The UK courts fined Mr Goodwin 5,000 pounds for contempt of court. The Strasbourg court ruled this had violated his right to receive and give out information. Jens Jersild is a journalist. He was convicted for filming a news report in which extremists made racist remarks. The Strasbourg court found that convicting Mr Jersild for his work was disproportionate and violated his right to free speech. The case helped improve legal protections for media freedom in Denmark. Ionel Dălban was a Romanian journalist and ran a local weekly magazine, Cronica Romaşcană. He was convicted and given a prison sentence for writing about an alleged fraud by public figures. The Strasbourg court ruled that the conviction had violated his right to freedom of expression. The case triggered reforms to free speech protections in Romania. During the 1970s and 1980s, various Austrians wanted to set up local TV or radio stations. However, Austrian law banned them from doing so, as it gave the Austrian Broadcasting Company a monopoly. The Strasbourg court ruled that the ban was disproportionate and violated the right to free speech. The judgment led to the opening up of broadcasting regulations. Björk Eidsdottir is a journalist who claimed that the owner of a strip club was making his staff work as prostitutes. The issue was a matter of public interest, and her article was published in good faith and with due diligence. Nevertheless, the club owner sued Ms Eidsdottir for defamation and won. The Strasbourg court held that this had breached the journalist’s right to free speech. Small political parties received virtually no television news coverage, and were banned from TV advertising. The Strasbourg court ruled that this left the Pensioner’s Party no way of transmitting its message on TV, violating its right to freedom speech. Reforms were made to political broadcasting rules, requiring the national broadcaster to include smaller parties in its TV coverage. Sofija Tešić received a monthly pension equivalent to 170 euros. After she lost a defamation case, every month two-thirds of her pension was taken to pay off her debt – leaving her without money to pay for medication. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had been disproportionate. The Serbian courts changed their case law to limit defamation awards, and enforcement proceedings were also... Hervé Eon waved a satirical sign at President Sarkozy. He was then charged with offending the President of France, a crime dating from the 19th Century. Mr Eon was convicted and given a suspended fine. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had breached Mr Eon’s right to free speech. The offence of insulting the President of France was abolished later that year. Factsheets on the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights: Protection of journalistic sources PDF (220 Ko) Protection of reputation PDF (560 Ko)	<urn:uuid:7d207e4a-78f0-44f7-87e7-30fc36ec63fb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coe.int/en/web/impact-convention-human-rights/freedom-of-speech	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00387.warc.gz	en	0.983012	1,852	3.59375	4	[ -0.46300438046455383, 0.2107560932636261, -0.38354119658470154, -0.3170434534549713, -0.001521371304988861, 0.26061683893203735, 0.3922041058540344, 0.23584342002868652, 0.24782311916351318, 0.6030745506286621, -0.25549864768981934, 0.31495004892349243, 0.08770968019962311, 0.1752617061138...	3	- Freedom of expression is crucial to democracy. It means that everyone can take part in political discussions, and the media can hold those who are in power to account. - A free, independent and diverse media plays the role of a “public watchdog”, keeping people informed and holding power to account. - Many journalists, media outlets and individuals have used the European Convention on Human Rights to fight for free speech. Four Belgian journalists were targeted by the police in a huge search and seizure operation aimed at identifying the source of leaked government information. The Strasbourg court ruled that the operation had been unjustified and disproportionate. The case influenced new legislation to improve protections for journalists and their sources. Brigitte Heinisch was a geriatric nurse. She claimed that practices in the old people’s home where she worked were putting patients at risk. After she made her allegations public, she was fired. Yet, the German courts found that her dismissal was lawful - so Mrs Heinisch took her case to Strasbourg. Her case was then re-opened and she won compensation. Italian television was dominated by a small number of channels, with little diversity of ownership. When Centro Europa 7 tried to set up new channels, they were refused access to a broadcast frequency. The company complained to the Strasbourg court that the authorities were maintaining the concentration of media power in Italy. The case led to new rules for protecting media pluralism. Zoran Lepojić wrote an article saying that a mayor had wasted public money. The mayor successfully brought defamation charges, and Mr Lepojić was fined more than 8 average monthly salaries. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had been unreasonable, violating Mr Lepojić’s right to free speech. The Supreme Court of Serbia took steps to protect freedom of expression in such circumstances. Before a presidential election, the newspaper The Day published articles criticising two of the candidates. The politicians sued the owners of the newspaper for damages and won. The Strasbourg court found that the owners had been punished merely for publishing opinions, violating their right to free speech. The case influenced reforms to protect freedom of expression in Ukraine. Retired journalist Veseljko Koprivica was ordered to pay huge damages after losing a defamation case. The Strasbourg court ruled that the damages awarded were so excessive that they violated his right to free speech. A ruling by the Supreme Court of Montenegro specified that damages for defamation should not be high enough to discourage journalists from playing their key role in society. In the early 1980s Thorgeir Thorgeirson wrote articles claiming that there was a problem with police brutality in Reykjavik. His reporting was based on the prosecution of a police officer and various public allegations. Nevertheless, he was convicted for defaming the Reykjavik police. The European court ruled that this had violated his right to freedom of expression, leading to free speech... The magazine Mladina published an article criticising a politician for homophobic remarks in a parliamentary debate. The politician sued the magazine because he had been offended by its criticism. The Slovenian courts ruled against the magazine, ordering it to pay damages. The European court ruled this had violated the magazine’s rights – leading to reforms to protect free speech. Greater protections for free speech after journalist sued for reporting on alleged political corruption In July 2000 Ilnar Gorelishvili wrote an article about a politician who owned various expensive properties. She questioned how he had bought these whilst working in public service on a moderate salary. The politician sued her for defamation and won. The European court ruled that Georgian law had not properly protected Ms Gorelishvili’s right to give her opinion. Matti Paloaro and Pentti Eerikäinen were journalists. They reported on the prosecution of a businesswoman, who had abused public funds and was later sentenced to prison. The businesswoman sued the journalists, claiming they had invaded her privacy by publicising her prosecution. The businesswoman won in the Finnish courts – but the Strasbourg court ruled in favour of the journalists. In a report on alleged corruption in Portuguese football, José Manuel Colaço Mestre asked questions to an interviewee about the dual role played by Mr Pinto de Costa, who was then both Chairman of FC Porto and President of the Portuguese Football League. Because of these questions, Mr Colaço Mestre and his employer were both found guilty of criminal defamation in the Portuguese courts. Senator Miguel Castells wrote an article claiming that the government was failing to investigate a series of murders. He was convicted of insulting the government and sentenced to a year in prison. The European court ruled that his right to free speech had been violated. The Spanish Constitutional Court then developed its case law to provide greater protection to free speech in Spain. In 1988 the local newspaper Bladet Tromsø published claims by a government inspector alleging misconduct by certain seal hunters. The Norwegian courts found the newspaper liable for defamation, saying that it had relied too heavily on government reports. The Strasbourg court ruled that this violated the paper’s right to free speech – leading to reforms to protect freedom of expression. Elina Goussev and Michael Marenk were protesting against the fur trade. Police searched their homes and seized campaign materials. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had breached their right to free speech, as the seizure had not been clearly justified by Finnish law. After the case had been submitted to the court, reforms were made to prevent arbitrary seizures. Isaak Grinberg wrote an opinion article criticising a local governor. The governor sued Mr Grinberg for defamation, making him pay a fine. The Strasbourg court ruled that Mr Grinberg had been punished for giving a value judgment about a public figure. This violated his right to free speech. Mr Grinberg was awarded €1,120 in compensation. Greater protection for the media after journalist fined for refusing to reveal the identity of his source Journalist William Goodwin was given leaked information about a company. The company wanted to sue the source of the leak - but Mr Goodwin refused to reveal their identity. The UK courts fined Mr Goodwin 5,000 pounds for contempt of court. The Strasbourg court ruled this had violated his right to receive and give out information. Jens Jersild is a journalist. He was convicted for filming a news report in which extremists made racist remarks. The Strasbourg court found that convicting Mr Jersild for his work was disproportionate and violated his right to free speech. The case helped improve legal protections for media freedom in Denmark. Ionel Dălban was a Romanian journalist and ran a local weekly magazine, Cronica Romaşcană. He was convicted and given a prison sentence for writing about an alleged fraud by public figures. The Strasbourg court ruled that the conviction had violated his right to freedom of expression. The case triggered reforms to free speech protections in Romania. During the 1970s and 1980s, various Austrians wanted to set up local TV or radio stations. However, Austrian law banned them from doing so, as it gave the Austrian Broadcasting Company a monopoly. The Strasbourg court ruled that the ban was disproportionate and violated the right to free speech. The judgment led to the opening up of broadcasting regulations. Björk Eidsdottir is a journalist who claimed that the owner of a strip club was making his staff work as prostitutes. The issue was a matter of public interest, and her article was published in good faith and with due diligence. Nevertheless, the club owner sued Ms Eidsdottir for defamation and won. The Strasbourg court held that this had breached the journalist’s right to free speech. Small political parties received virtually no television news coverage, and were banned from TV advertising. The Strasbourg court ruled that this left the Pensioner’s Party no way of transmitting its message on TV, violating its right to freedom speech. Reforms were made to political broadcasting rules, requiring the national broadcaster to include smaller parties in its TV coverage. Sofija Tešić received a monthly pension equivalent to 170 euros. After she lost a defamation case, every month two-thirds of her pension was taken to pay off her debt – leaving her without money to pay for medication. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had been disproportionate. The Serbian courts changed their case law to limit defamation awards, and enforcement proceedings were also... Hervé Eon waved a satirical sign at President Sarkozy. He was then charged with offending the President of France, a crime dating from the 19th Century. Mr Eon was convicted and given a suspended fine. The Strasbourg court ruled that this had breached Mr Eon’s right to free speech. The offence of insulting the President of France was abolished later that year. Factsheets on the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights: Protection of journalistic sources PDF (220 Ko) Protection of reputation PDF (560 Ko)	1,834	ENGLISH	1
Little is known about long-lived David Grim (1737-1826) outside of the brief personal account of his life held by the New-York Historical Society Library. What can be said is that his memory was sound. A tavern keeper, merchant, and owner of Hessian’s Coffee House from 1767 to 1789, Grim sought to leave behind more than an amalgam of facts about his life: he preserved the city of his youth for posterity through various maps, building sketches, and notes. Born to parents who were natives of Bavaria, Grim arrived to America as an infant, and the small but already bustling New York City was the first home he knew. “A Plan of the City and Environs of New York as they were in the years 1742, 1743, 1744,” or the Grim Plan, is a manuscript map drawn by a 76-year-old Grim recalling the Manhattan of his boyhood. Grim would have been five-years-old in 1742. The spectacularly minute detail of the Grim Plan depicts New York City as it was before the 1776 Great Fire of New York. After the British occupied the city, one-third of Manhattan (nearly 500 houses and buildings) were destroyed. It is uncertain if the fires were set intentionally, and if so, by whom. In 1744, however, the city was smaller by a third. According to David Grim’s notes, where he relates his many recollections, there were 1,141 houses. He explains he used the Ratzer Map as his guide, “knowing the same to be correct.” The map’s key lists the government and community buildings, the homes and farms of notable families, and landmarks that are familiar today, such as Bowling Green (no. 59) and Old Trinity Church (no. 11). Grim depicted many of these important buildings across the top of his map; those for the synagogue of the country’s first Jewish congregation, the Quaker and Baptist Meeting Houses, and the poorhouse, are the only known illustrations to survive. Grim also remembers the Great Negro Plot of 1741, when a supposed uprising of slaves set a series of fires in the city. Like the Great Fire of 1776, the validity of these accusations is dubious, but the fear and fervor of New York’s residents were not. A sixteen-year-old indentured servant, Mary Burton, accused her white master, John Hughson, prostitute Margaret “Peggy” Kerry, and a number of slaves of planning to kill all the wealthy, white families and raze their dwellings. . . . the talk now in town is about the Negroes conspiracy . . . two of the Conspirators [sic] one was the Philips’s Cuff & the other the Negro of Rosevelts they confesst their setting the Fort on fire . . . I think no death can be too bad for [Hughson] he is prov’d to be a most vile wicked Wretch . . . a Negro of Pecks cut his throat last night I suppose he knew himself guilty & did it to prevent a kinder death.” According to Grim’s notes, Hughson was the “perpetrator of this horned plot,” along with a slave named Caesar. Both were executed. In the end, 152 slaves were imprisoned (one committed suicide), 30 men were executed, and 84 men and women were deported and sold into slavery in the Caribbean. Depicted on the Grim Plan are the locations (nos. 55-57) in which the supposed perpetrators were put to death, some hanged and some burned at the stake. David Grim’s written recollections continue, recounting the building of Manhattan’s palisades, the visit of the Mohawk and Oneida Native Americans from Albany during the French and Indian War, and a few end notes regarding the history of New York City’s slips, “Having spare paper here in order to fill that part.” These notes add a personal vitality to the corresponding Grim Plan, but the gravity of the map speaks for itself in its exquisite detail. It is a true treasure, which in keeping with Grim’s own dedication to the preservation of history, was presented to the New-York Historical Society by the man himself. This post is by Crystal Toscano, Reference Librarian for Printed Collections.	<urn:uuid:04cd8ec9-d07c-400c-84a7-a8a8e246496c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blog.nyhistory.org/a-correct-and-perfect-recollection-david-grims-map-of-prerevolutionary-manhattan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00025.warc.gz	en	0.980069	925	3.359375	3	[ -0.153626948595047, -0.06857840716838837, 0.39893800020217896, 0.0865275114774704, -0.204746812582016, 0.26132041215896606, 0.002200087998062372, -0.10417500138282776, -0.4752596616744995, 0.009524587541818619, -0.07026252895593643, 0.5429022312164307, -0.11039295792579651, 0.4536645412445...	2	Little is known about long-lived David Grim (1737-1826) outside of the brief personal account of his life held by the New-York Historical Society Library. What can be said is that his memory was sound. A tavern keeper, merchant, and owner of Hessian’s Coffee House from 1767 to 1789, Grim sought to leave behind more than an amalgam of facts about his life: he preserved the city of his youth for posterity through various maps, building sketches, and notes. Born to parents who were natives of Bavaria, Grim arrived to America as an infant, and the small but already bustling New York City was the first home he knew. “A Plan of the City and Environs of New York as they were in the years 1742, 1743, 1744,” or the Grim Plan, is a manuscript map drawn by a 76-year-old Grim recalling the Manhattan of his boyhood. Grim would have been five-years-old in 1742. The spectacularly minute detail of the Grim Plan depicts New York City as it was before the 1776 Great Fire of New York. After the British occupied the city, one-third of Manhattan (nearly 500 houses and buildings) were destroyed. It is uncertain if the fires were set intentionally, and if so, by whom. In 1744, however, the city was smaller by a third. According to David Grim’s notes, where he relates his many recollections, there were 1,141 houses. He explains he used the Ratzer Map as his guide, “knowing the same to be correct.” The map’s key lists the government and community buildings, the homes and farms of notable families, and landmarks that are familiar today, such as Bowling Green (no. 59) and Old Trinity Church (no. 11). Grim depicted many of these important buildings across the top of his map; those for the synagogue of the country’s first Jewish congregation, the Quaker and Baptist Meeting Houses, and the poorhouse, are the only known illustrations to survive. Grim also remembers the Great Negro Plot of 1741, when a supposed uprising of slaves set a series of fires in the city. Like the Great Fire of 1776, the validity of these accusations is dubious, but the fear and fervor of New York’s residents were not. A sixteen-year-old indentured servant, Mary Burton, accused her white master, John Hughson, prostitute Margaret “Peggy” Kerry, and a number of slaves of planning to kill all the wealthy, white families and raze their dwellings. . . . the talk now in town is about the Negroes conspiracy . . . two of the Conspirators [sic] one was the Philips’s Cuff & the other the Negro of Rosevelts they confesst their setting the Fort on fire . . . I think no death can be too bad for [Hughson] he is prov’d to be a most vile wicked Wretch . . . a Negro of Pecks cut his throat last night I suppose he knew himself guilty & did it to prevent a kinder death.” According to Grim’s notes, Hughson was the “perpetrator of this horned plot,” along with a slave named Caesar. Both were executed. In the end, 152 slaves were imprisoned (one committed suicide), 30 men were executed, and 84 men and women were deported and sold into slavery in the Caribbean. Depicted on the Grim Plan are the locations (nos. 55-57) in which the supposed perpetrators were put to death, some hanged and some burned at the stake. David Grim’s written recollections continue, recounting the building of Manhattan’s palisades, the visit of the Mohawk and Oneida Native Americans from Albany during the French and Indian War, and a few end notes regarding the history of New York City’s slips, “Having spare paper here in order to fill that part.” These notes add a personal vitality to the corresponding Grim Plan, but the gravity of the map speaks for itself in its exquisite detail. It is a true treasure, which in keeping with Grim’s own dedication to the preservation of history, was presented to the New-York Historical Society by the man himself. This post is by Crystal Toscano, Reference Librarian for Printed Collections.	927	ENGLISH	1
St. Wenceslaus (Feast: September 28) Wenceslaus was born near Prague in the year 907. His father was Duke Wratislaw, a Christian, and his mother, Dragomir, a pretended Christian, but a secret favorer of paganism. One of twins, Wenceslaus was raised by his grandmother, St. Ludmilla, while his brother, known as Boleslaus the Cruel, was raised by their mother. Jealous of the great influence which Ludmilla wielded over Wenceslaus, Dragomir instigated two noblemen to murder her. She is said to have been strangled by them with her own veil. Wratislaw died in 916, also at the hand of assassins, leaving the eight-year-old Wenceslaus as his successor. Acting as regent for her son, Dragomir actively opposed Christianity and promoted pagan practices. Urged by the people, Wenceslaus took over the reins of government and placed his duchy under the protection of Charlemagne’s successor, the German Henry I. Emperor Otto I subsequently conferred on him the dignity and title of king. However, his German suzerainty and his support of Catholicism within Bohemia were vehemently opposed by some of his subjects and a rebellion ensued. After the virtuous monarch married and had a son, the king’s brother Boleslaus, seeing himself displaced from the direct succession to the throne by his nephew, joined the rebellion. At the instigation of their mother, Dragomir, Boleslaus conspired with the rebels to murder his royal brother. In September of 929, Boleslaus invited Wenceslaus to celebrate the feast of Sts. Cosmas and Damian with him. The king accepted, and on the night of the feast, said his prayers and went to bed. The next morning, as Wenceslaus walked to Mass, he met Boleslaus and stopped to thank him for his hospitality. Instead, the jealous brother stabbed the king and held him down as other traitors killed him. King Wenceslaus’s last words were addressed to his brother. “Brother, may God forgive you!” His body, hacked to pieces, was buried at the place of the murder. Three years later, having repented of his deed, Boleslaw ordered the translation of his brother’s remains to the Church of St. Vitus in Prague where they may be venerated to this day. The martyr-king is the patron of Bohemia, Hungary and Poland. Photo by: Ales Tosovsky DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020 SAINT OF THE DAY Sts. Timothy and Titus Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together.	<urn:uuid:00a46f9f-1c39-4aab-b1ce-eb7f7115066b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.americaneedsfatima.org/Saints-Heroes/st-wenceslaus.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00516.warc.gz	en	0.990507	602	3.34375	3	[ 0.2111455649137497, 0.3334851861000061, -0.5498835444450378, -0.4769502878189087, 0.20319724082946777, -0.18298211693763733, 0.20269179344177246, -0.13549955189228058, 0.28755268454551697, -0.19292744994163513, -0.11968231201171875, -0.3249518573284149, -0.061221227049827576, -0.0694879069...	1	St. Wenceslaus (Feast: September 28) Wenceslaus was born near Prague in the year 907. His father was Duke Wratislaw, a Christian, and his mother, Dragomir, a pretended Christian, but a secret favorer of paganism. One of twins, Wenceslaus was raised by his grandmother, St. Ludmilla, while his brother, known as Boleslaus the Cruel, was raised by their mother. Jealous of the great influence which Ludmilla wielded over Wenceslaus, Dragomir instigated two noblemen to murder her. She is said to have been strangled by them with her own veil. Wratislaw died in 916, also at the hand of assassins, leaving the eight-year-old Wenceslaus as his successor. Acting as regent for her son, Dragomir actively opposed Christianity and promoted pagan practices. Urged by the people, Wenceslaus took over the reins of government and placed his duchy under the protection of Charlemagne’s successor, the German Henry I. Emperor Otto I subsequently conferred on him the dignity and title of king. However, his German suzerainty and his support of Catholicism within Bohemia were vehemently opposed by some of his subjects and a rebellion ensued. After the virtuous monarch married and had a son, the king’s brother Boleslaus, seeing himself displaced from the direct succession to the throne by his nephew, joined the rebellion. At the instigation of their mother, Dragomir, Boleslaus conspired with the rebels to murder his royal brother. In September of 929, Boleslaus invited Wenceslaus to celebrate the feast of Sts. Cosmas and Damian with him. The king accepted, and on the night of the feast, said his prayers and went to bed. The next morning, as Wenceslaus walked to Mass, he met Boleslaus and stopped to thank him for his hospitality. Instead, the jealous brother stabbed the king and held him down as other traitors killed him. King Wenceslaus’s last words were addressed to his brother. “Brother, may God forgive you!” His body, hacked to pieces, was buried at the place of the murder. Three years later, having repented of his deed, Boleslaw ordered the translation of his brother’s remains to the Church of St. Vitus in Prague where they may be venerated to this day. The martyr-king is the patron of Bohemia, Hungary and Poland. Photo by: Ales Tosovsky DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020 SAINT OF THE DAY Sts. Timothy and Titus Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together.	601	ENGLISH	1
Historically, exchange of gift has its roots in pagan rituals held during the winter and Christianity transformed these rituals into Christmas. The justification for bearing gifts was redirected to the Three Wise Men, the Magi, who gave gifts to the infant Jesus. Long before the advent of Christianity, plants and trees that remained green all year had a special meaning for people in the winter. Just as people today decorate their homes during the festive season with pine, spruce, and fir trees, ancient peoples hung evergreen boughs over their doors and windows. In many countries it was believed that evergreens would keep away witches, ghosts, evil spirits, and illness. Some account of history has is that; the birth of Jesus wasn’t celebrated on December 25 until the 4th or 5th century. Most historians believe it occurred at a different time of the year but there is some possibility that this day corresponds with Jesus’ actual birth. The major reason the celebration was moved to December 25 was the desire to Christian the Roman festival that occurred during the time. From December 17 – 23, Romans celebrated “Saturnalia,” a feast dedicated to the agricultural god known as Saturn. During these days Romans would give various gifts to each other. Similarly, the Roman New Year on January 1 was an additional day of gift giving in honor of the god Janus. As Christianity spread all over Europe, there was also an increase in the devotion to St. Nicholas, whose feast was celebrated on December 6. He was known to leave gifts in shoes or stockings on his feast and this tradition grew in popularity all over the world. In the 19th and 20th centuries they were massive immigrants from European countries to the United States. At this period the popular figure of Santa Claus was born and it was highly influenced by the poem Twas the Night Before Christmas and the commercial campaigns by Coca-Cola. Over time, these different traditions were combined into a new celebration of Christmas that focused on gift giving and the overnight arrival of Santa. The exchange of presents on December 25 by Christians recalls the gifts by the Magi, in ancient times and also cherish the greatest gift to mankind which is JESUS.	<urn:uuid:879544d1-f26a-4766-bf65-93661a408469>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nigeriamonthly.ng/gift-giving-at-christmas/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00129.warc.gz	en	0.984909	447	3.609375	4	[ 0.17830437421798706, 0.6452604532241821, 0.5930072069168091, -0.19825367629528046, 0.08571792393922806, -0.16887149214744568, 0.04994587227702141, 0.023307349532842636, 0.05212938040494919, 0.08427275717258453, 0.08413641899824142, 0.4634955823421478, -0.29374951124191284, 0.12922342121601...	2	Historically, exchange of gift has its roots in pagan rituals held during the winter and Christianity transformed these rituals into Christmas. The justification for bearing gifts was redirected to the Three Wise Men, the Magi, who gave gifts to the infant Jesus. Long before the advent of Christianity, plants and trees that remained green all year had a special meaning for people in the winter. Just as people today decorate their homes during the festive season with pine, spruce, and fir trees, ancient peoples hung evergreen boughs over their doors and windows. In many countries it was believed that evergreens would keep away witches, ghosts, evil spirits, and illness. Some account of history has is that; the birth of Jesus wasn’t celebrated on December 25 until the 4th or 5th century. Most historians believe it occurred at a different time of the year but there is some possibility that this day corresponds with Jesus’ actual birth. The major reason the celebration was moved to December 25 was the desire to Christian the Roman festival that occurred during the time. From December 17 – 23, Romans celebrated “Saturnalia,” a feast dedicated to the agricultural god known as Saturn. During these days Romans would give various gifts to each other. Similarly, the Roman New Year on January 1 was an additional day of gift giving in honor of the god Janus. As Christianity spread all over Europe, there was also an increase in the devotion to St. Nicholas, whose feast was celebrated on December 6. He was known to leave gifts in shoes or stockings on his feast and this tradition grew in popularity all over the world. In the 19th and 20th centuries they were massive immigrants from European countries to the United States. At this period the popular figure of Santa Claus was born and it was highly influenced by the poem Twas the Night Before Christmas and the commercial campaigns by Coca-Cola. Over time, these different traditions were combined into a new celebration of Christmas that focused on gift giving and the overnight arrival of Santa. The exchange of presents on December 25 by Christians recalls the gifts by the Magi, in ancient times and also cherish the greatest gift to mankind which is JESUS.	452	ENGLISH	1
The South Not Responsible for Slavery Neither the Introduction of Slaves into America nor their continued Importation can be charge to the South. Undoubtedly England, Spain and the Dutch were primarily and largely responsible for the introduction and the earlier importation of slaves to this country. As Bancroft says, “The sovereigns of England and Spain were the greatest slave merchants in the world.” Later on, this county came into prominence in the traffic in human bodies and DuBois, the black historical writer says, “The American slave trade came to be carried on principally by United States capital, in United States ships, officered by United State citizens and under the United States flag.” Supporting this, Dr. Phillips of Tulane University in his section of “The South in the Building of the Nation,” states, “The great volume of the slave traffic from the earlier 17th century onward was carried on by English and Yankee vessels, with some competition from the French and the Dutch.” The responsibility for this home, or American, participation in the slave importing business rests primarily and principally upon New England and likewise, very largely, upon New York. It was a boast and a taut of pre-war days with pro-slavery orators that, “The North imported slaves, the South only bought them” and historians assert that “there is some truth in the assertion.” Indeed, it has been widely claimed that “No Southern man or Southern ship ever brought a slave to the United States,” and while this statement is disputed and is perhaps not strictly true according to the letter, it is undoubtedly true in spirit, for the cases where a Southern an or Southern ship could be charged with importing slaves are few indeed, while New England, as well as New York. Were openly and boldly engaged in the traffic, employing hundreds of ships in the nefarious business. “Slavery,” says Henry Patterson, in the Louisville Courier Journal, “existed in the beginning North and South. But the North finding slave labor unsuited to its needs and therefore, unprofitable, sold its slaves to the South, not forgetting to pocket the money it got for them, having indeed at great profit brought them over from Africa in the ships”. Mr. Cecil Chesterman, a distinguished English historian, in his “History of the United States” says on this point, “The North had been the original slave traders. The African slave trade had been their particular industry. Boston itself had risen to prosperity on the profits of the abominable traffic.” The Marquis of Lothian, in his “Confederate Secession” makes the statement that “out of 1500 American slave traders, only five were from the South,” but apparently this statement is contradicted later in his volume when he says, “out of 202 slavers entering the port of Charleston, S. C., in four years, 1796 to 1799 inclusive 91 were English, 88 Yankees, 10 were French and 13 South. * * * “ Many indeed are the authorities that support the statement that the south did not import slaves. “Slavery,” says Senator John W. Daniel of Virginia,” was thrust on the South an uninvited, aye, a forbidden guest” and Dr. Charles Morris, in his “History of Civilization” says “The institution of slavery was not of their making: it had been thrust upon their fathers against their violent opposition.” Mrs. Sea, in her book, “The Synoptical Review of Slavery,” says “I have heard the statement made, and gentlemen of the highest standing for scholarly attainment given as authority, that no southern man ever owned a slave ship and that no slave ship handled by a southern man ever brought a cargo of slaves from Africa.” Dr. Lyon Gl Tyler, the scholarly President of William and Mary College, Virginia, and an authority, says regarding this statement, “I am sure it can be said that no souther man or southern ship, as far as is know, engaged in the slave trade.” References to southern ships or Southern men as engaged in the slave importing business are at best vague. The famous case of the “Wanderer,” one of the most noted of slave trading vessels, is often mentioned and her ownership is credited to men of Charleston and Savannah, but even if this be true she was built in New York, her captain was a New York man, and a member of the New York Yacht Club and the “Wanderer” sailed under the proud flag of the club when she went to the Congo after slaves. Her captain was later expelled from the club for this offense. The fact that there was domestic traffic in slaves, some of this domestic traffic being carried on through coastwise trading, seems to have confused some and induced them to believe the South engaged in the slave importing business. On the other hand, the responsibility of New England and New York for the almost exclusive monopoly of domestic participation in the slave importing business is most clearly established. Massachusetts looms largely to the front when investigation into this gruesome subject is pursued. The first slave ship of this country, the “Desire,” was fitted out in Massachusetts, and set sail for the coast of Africa from Marblehead. Massachusetts was the first of all the colonies to authorize the establishment of slavery by statute law, doing this some decades before her example was fooled by any of the Southern colonies. The first statute establishing slavery in America is embodied in the Code of Massachusetts colony in New England, adopted in 1641, and it should be realized that slave trading in Massachusetts was not a private enterprise but was carried on by authority of the Plymouth Rock colony. The Puritans early evinced a tendency to enslave Indian captives and sell them out of the country, and from that early day down to a period practically after the War Between the States had begun (for the last slave ship, the Nightingale, sailing from Boston and fitted out there, with 900 slaves on board was captured at the mouth of Congo River after the war had started) New England with Massachusetts leading, stood preeminent in the slave trade. Much of the prominence and wealth of these states was derived from the slave trade and the commercial importance of such towns as Newport, Rhode Island, was based entirely upon the traffic. It is stated that Faneuil Hall, the famous “Cradle of Liberty” were so many abolition speeches, denunciatory of the South were made, was built with money earned in the slave traffic, as Perter Faneuil was actively engaged in it. “It was a traffic,” says Dr. Phillips, in “The South in Building of the Nation,’ “in whier highly honorable men like Peter Faneuil engaged and which the Puritans did not condemn in the Colonial period.” Stephen Girard is another prominent philanthropist of the North who made money is slaves, working large numbers of them on a Louisiana super plantation which he owned, and it is asserted that Girard College was built with money earned by the labors of these slaves. In fact, DuBois asserts that the New England conscience which would not allow slavery to flourish on the sacred soil of Massachusetts did not hesitate to seize the profits resulting from the rape of slaves from their African homes and their sale to Southern planters. But, according to John Adams, it was not a tender conscience but an economic reason upon which the forbidding of slaves in Massachusetts was based, for he is quoted as saying, “Argument might have had some weight in the abolition of slavery in Massachusetts, but the real cause was the multiplication of laboring white people who no longer would suffer the rich to employ these sable rivals so much to their injury.” Thomas Jefferson, who had introduced a scathing denunciation of, and protest against, the slave trade in the Declaration of Independence, withdrew it upon the insistence of John Adams and other New Englanders, and he indulges in the following little bit of sarcasm at their expense, “our Northern friends who were tender under these censures, for though their people have very few slaves, yet they had been considerable carriers of them to others.” Economic reasons were the base of abolition of slavery in New England. There is abundance of record to show dissatisfaction with African labor, who were stated to be “eye servants, great thieves, much addicted to lying and stealing,” and the superiority of white labor was brought prominently forward. Furthermore, the mortality of the africans in the cold New England climate was great and figures were brought forward to show how their importation into the section was not “profitable.” Governor Dudley in a formal report in 1708 stated “negroes have been found unprofitable investments, the planters preferring white servants.” Boston was all along prominent in the slave trade, the “Continental Monthly” of New York, as late as January, 1862, being quoted as saying, “The city of New York has been until late (1862) the principal port of the world for this infamous traffic, the cities of Portland and Boston being only second to her in that distinction.” “Slave dealers,” it continues, “added much to the wealth of our metropolis.” Vessels from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire were early and largely engaged in the slave trade, and it is a very significant fact that while duties, more or less heavy, were imposed upon the imported slaves in southern harbors, and other harbors of the country, the ports of New England were offered as a free exchange mart for slavers. New England citizens were traders by instinct and profession, and with the birth of commerce in the New World they eagerly turned to the high profits of the African slave trade and made it a regular business. The “Hartford Courant” in an issue of July, 1916, said, “Northern rum had much to do with the extension of slavery in the South. Many people in this state (Connecticut) as well as I Boston, made snug fortunes for themselves by sending rum to Africa to be exchanged for slaves and then selling the slaves to the planters of Southern states.” Rhode Island at an early date had 150 vessels engaged in the slave trade, while at a later date, when New York had loomed to the front of the trade, the New York “Journal of commerce: is quoted as saying, “Few of our readers are aware of the extent to which this infernal traffic is carried on by vessels clearing from New York and down town merchants of wealth and respectability are engaged extensively in buying and selling African and have been for an indefinite number of years.” As early as 1711 a slave market was established in New York City in the neighborhood of Wall Street were slave from Africa were brought to supply the Southern market. There was another prominent slave market in Boston. The slaves were hurried into the south as fast as possible as hundreds died from cold and exposure and the sudden change from a tropic African climate to a bleak Northern temperature. The United States Dept. Marshall for that New York district reported in 1856 that “the business of fitting out slavers was never prosecuted with greater energy than at present.” In a year and a half preceding the War Between the States eight five slave trading vessels are reported as fitting out in New York harbor and DuBois writes that, “from 1850 to 1860 the fitting out of slavers became a flourishing business in the United States and centered in New York City.” Although Massachusetts and New York were thus prominent in the business of enslaving and importing Africans and selling them to South America and the Southern colonies, and later the southern states in the Union, other parts of New England took most prominent part in the slave trade. Indeed, in the “of Samuel Hopkins,” rhode Islands said to have been more deeply interested in the slave trade than any other colony in New England and has enslaved more Africans.” Thus beginning with that first slave ship of this country, the “Desire” of Marblehead, Massachusetts, the slave trade flourished in New England and New York. The favorite method was to exchange rum for africans and to sell the africans to the Southern plantations. Federal laws were powerless to hold in check the keenness for this profitable traffic in human flesh. As late as 1850, the noted slave smuggler, Drake, who flourished and operated along the Gulf Coast, is reported to have said, “Slave trading is growing more profitable every year, and if you should hang all the Yankee merchants engaged in it, hundreds more would take their places.” The outlawing of the traffic seemed but to stimulate it. From the very inception of the institution of slavery in this country there was protest and action against it throughout the Southern colonies. The vigorous action of Virginia and her protests to the royal government to prohibit the further importation of slaves to her territory are well known. We have seen how Thomas Jefferson introduce into the Declaration of Independence a protest against the slave trade which he withdrew at the behest of New England. Every prominent man in Virginia at this period was in favor of gradual emancipation and there were more than five times as many members of abolition societies in the South than in the North. Only with the rise of the rabid abolitionists of New England and their fierce denunciations of the south idid the south abandon hope of gradual emancipation. Touching this, Mr. Cecil Chesterman, quoted above, states very pointedly in his “History of the United States,” what could exceed the effrontery of men,” asked the Southerner, “who reproach us with grave personal sin in owning property which they themselves sold us and the price of which is at this moment in their pockets?” Virginia legislated against slavery over a score of times; South Carolina protested against it as early as 1727, and in Georgia there was absolute prohibition of it by law. Let it be remembered that when the National Government took action and the slavery prohibition laws of Congress went into effect in 1808, every southern state had prohibited it. But, as stated, the outlawing of the traffic seemed but to stimulate it. In the earlier years of the 19th century thousands of slaves were imported into this country. In the year 1819, General James Talmadge, speaking in the House of Representatives, declared: “It our country this year.” And Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, said: “It is notorious that in spite of the utmost vigilance that can be employed, Africans are clandestinely brought in and sold as slaves.” This “vigilance” he speaks of however, was much ridiculed by others, and it was openly hinted that the efforts of the Federal authorities to suppress the trade, even the look out for slavers along the African coast as conducted by vessels of the United States Navy, were merely perfunctory, Blake in his “History of Slavery and the Slave Trade,” published in 1857, says: “It is stated upon good authority that in 1844 more slaves were carried away from Africa in ships than in 1744 when the trade was legal and in full vigor;” while in the year immediately preceding the opening of the War Between the States, John C. Underwood is quoted as writing to the New York Tribune: “I have ample evidence of the fact that the reopening of the African slave trade is an accomplished fact and the traffic is brisk.” Not only was the traffic brisk with the United Sates but thousands of slaves were being smuggled in Brazil. Southern members of Congress complained of the violations of the law and the illegal importation of slaves Ito their territory. Smith, of South Carolina, said on the floor of congress in 1819: “Our Northern friends are not afraid to furnish the southern States with africans;” and in 1819, Middleton, of South Carolina and Wright, of Virginia estimated the illicit introduction of slaves at from 1300 to 1500 respectively. There is interest in the striking fact that one year before the outbreak of the War Between the States, and at the time when the rabid abolitionists of New England and the North were most vigorous in their denunciations of the south and the slave holders, there were in Massachusetts only 9000 free africans, while in Virginia there were 53,000 of these africans, free, and able to go where they pleased; and it is significant that about as many free africans chose to live in Southern slave holding states as dwelt in Northern states; and many of these free africans tuned slaves themselves and were well to do citizens. In the city of Charleston, S. C., some three hundred free africans owned slaves themselves. In closing this article the following letter, which appeared in the columns of the New Orleans Picayune years ago, may be of interest: “My father, Captain John Julius Guthrie, then of the United States Navy, while executive officer of the sloop of war “Saratoga” on April 21st, 1861, captured at the mouth of the Congo River, on the west coast of Africa, the slave ship ‘Nightingale’ with 900 slaves aboard. The slaver was owned, manned and equipped in the city of Boston, Massachusetts, and in reference to the date it will appear that her capture was after the assault on fort Sumter and the Baltimore riot consequent upon the passage of the 6th Massachusetts Regiment through the city. This was the last slaver captured by an American war ship and as my father soon after resigned and went in to the confederate service, her captain and ones were never brought to trial. All this is a matter of record on file at the Navy Department in Washington D. C.. Thus it will be seen that the last capture of a slaver war by a Southern officer and the good people of Massachusetts were engaged in this nefarious business at the beginning of our unhappy war.” (Signed) J. Julius Guthrie Too long has the South had the odium of slavery forced upon her. With the institution thrust upon her against her protest, the slaves flourished in her boundaries on account of climate, and economic conditions favored the spread of the institution itself. The facts set forth above indicate the innocence of the South in posting this feature upon our national life, as well as her freedom from guilt in the continued importation of slaves into this country. While no claim is made for special virtue in that the south did not engage in the slave importing business as the North did, yet the facts as they exist are to her credit. With the facts in her favor, the South its still under the false indictments constantly made against her by the section of our country most responsible for the whole trouble. Willing to abide by the verdict of posterity, if the verdict is based upon the truth, and not upon the false statements of Northern historians, writers and speakers, and willing to accept her share, her full share of due responsibility, this section, in justice to her dead who died gloriously in a maligned cause, and to her unborn children, inheritors of a glorious heritage, must set forth to the world the fact as they are, neither tainted with injustice to others nor burdened with hypocritical claims of righteousness for herself; and these facts will establish her in the proud position to which she has all along been entitled among the people of the earth.	<urn:uuid:905994f0-efb1-4e06-87a8-e27c0b094717>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.scvvirginia.org/the-south-not-responsible-for-slave	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00257.warc.gz	en	0.980248	4,102	3.609375	4	[ -0.051991697400808334, -0.03476642817258835, 0.11204389482736588, -0.6695839166641235, 0.1866529881954193, -0.4673866629600525, -0.003662128932774067, -0.18038439750671387, -0.2816053628921509, -0.07993381470441818, 0.42107829451560974, 0.13439355790615082, -0.26409026980400085, 0.31034079...	5	The South Not Responsible for Slavery Neither the Introduction of Slaves into America nor their continued Importation can be charge to the South. Undoubtedly England, Spain and the Dutch were primarily and largely responsible for the introduction and the earlier importation of slaves to this country. As Bancroft says, “The sovereigns of England and Spain were the greatest slave merchants in the world.” Later on, this county came into prominence in the traffic in human bodies and DuBois, the black historical writer says, “The American slave trade came to be carried on principally by United States capital, in United States ships, officered by United State citizens and under the United States flag.” Supporting this, Dr. Phillips of Tulane University in his section of “The South in the Building of the Nation,” states, “The great volume of the slave traffic from the earlier 17th century onward was carried on by English and Yankee vessels, with some competition from the French and the Dutch.” The responsibility for this home, or American, participation in the slave importing business rests primarily and principally upon New England and likewise, very largely, upon New York. It was a boast and a taut of pre-war days with pro-slavery orators that, “The North imported slaves, the South only bought them” and historians assert that “there is some truth in the assertion.” Indeed, it has been widely claimed that “No Southern man or Southern ship ever brought a slave to the United States,” and while this statement is disputed and is perhaps not strictly true according to the letter, it is undoubtedly true in spirit, for the cases where a Southern an or Southern ship could be charged with importing slaves are few indeed, while New England, as well as New York. Were openly and boldly engaged in the traffic, employing hundreds of ships in the nefarious business. “Slavery,” says Henry Patterson, in the Louisville Courier Journal, “existed in the beginning North and South. But the North finding slave labor unsuited to its needs and therefore, unprofitable, sold its slaves to the South, not forgetting to pocket the money it got for them, having indeed at great profit brought them over from Africa in the ships”. Mr. Cecil Chesterman, a distinguished English historian, in his “History of the United States” says on this point, “The North had been the original slave traders. The African slave trade had been their particular industry. Boston itself had risen to prosperity on the profits of the abominable traffic.” The Marquis of Lothian, in his “Confederate Secession” makes the statement that “out of 1500 American slave traders, only five were from the South,” but apparently this statement is contradicted later in his volume when he says, “out of 202 slavers entering the port of Charleston, S. C., in four years, 1796 to 1799 inclusive 91 were English, 88 Yankees, 10 were French and 13 South. * * * “ Many indeed are the authorities that support the statement that the south did not import slaves. “Slavery,” says Senator John W. Daniel of Virginia,” was thrust on the South an uninvited, aye, a forbidden guest” and Dr. Charles Morris, in his “History of Civilization” says “The institution of slavery was not of their making: it had been thrust upon their fathers against their violent opposition.” Mrs. Sea, in her book, “The Synoptical Review of Slavery,” says “I have heard the statement made, and gentlemen of the highest standing for scholarly attainment given as authority, that no southern man ever owned a slave ship and that no slave ship handled by a southern man ever brought a cargo of slaves from Africa.” Dr. Lyon Gl Tyler, the scholarly President of William and Mary College, Virginia, and an authority, says regarding this statement, “I am sure it can be said that no souther man or southern ship, as far as is know, engaged in the slave trade.” References to southern ships or Southern men as engaged in the slave importing business are at best vague. The famous case of the “Wanderer,” one of the most noted of slave trading vessels, is often mentioned and her ownership is credited to men of Charleston and Savannah, but even if this be true she was built in New York, her captain was a New York man, and a member of the New York Yacht Club and the “Wanderer” sailed under the proud flag of the club when she went to the Congo after slaves. Her captain was later expelled from the club for this offense. The fact that there was domestic traffic in slaves, some of this domestic traffic being carried on through coastwise trading, seems to have confused some and induced them to believe the South engaged in the slave importing business. On the other hand, the responsibility of New England and New York for the almost exclusive monopoly of domestic participation in the slave importing business is most clearly established. Massachusetts looms largely to the front when investigation into this gruesome subject is pursued. The first slave ship of this country, the “Desire,” was fitted out in Massachusetts, and set sail for the coast of Africa from Marblehead. Massachusetts was the first of all the colonies to authorize the establishment of slavery by statute law, doing this some decades before her example was fooled by any of the Southern colonies. The first statute establishing slavery in America is embodied in the Code of Massachusetts colony in New England, adopted in 1641, and it should be realized that slave trading in Massachusetts was not a private enterprise but was carried on by authority of the Plymouth Rock colony. The Puritans early evinced a tendency to enslave Indian captives and sell them out of the country, and from that early day down to a period practically after the War Between the States had begun (for the last slave ship, the Nightingale, sailing from Boston and fitted out there, with 900 slaves on board was captured at the mouth of Congo River after the war had started) New England with Massachusetts leading, stood preeminent in the slave trade. Much of the prominence and wealth of these states was derived from the slave trade and the commercial importance of such towns as Newport, Rhode Island, was based entirely upon the traffic. It is stated that Faneuil Hall, the famous “Cradle of Liberty” were so many abolition speeches, denunciatory of the South were made, was built with money earned in the slave traffic, as Perter Faneuil was actively engaged in it. “It was a traffic,” says Dr. Phillips, in “The South in Building of the Nation,’ “in whier highly honorable men like Peter Faneuil engaged and which the Puritans did not condemn in the Colonial period.” Stephen Girard is another prominent philanthropist of the North who made money is slaves, working large numbers of them on a Louisiana super plantation which he owned, and it is asserted that Girard College was built with money earned by the labors of these slaves. In fact, DuBois asserts that the New England conscience which would not allow slavery to flourish on the sacred soil of Massachusetts did not hesitate to seize the profits resulting from the rape of slaves from their African homes and their sale to Southern planters. But, according to John Adams, it was not a tender conscience but an economic reason upon which the forbidding of slaves in Massachusetts was based, for he is quoted as saying, “Argument might have had some weight in the abolition of slavery in Massachusetts, but the real cause was the multiplication of laboring white people who no longer would suffer the rich to employ these sable rivals so much to their injury.” Thomas Jefferson, who had introduced a scathing denunciation of, and protest against, the slave trade in the Declaration of Independence, withdrew it upon the insistence of John Adams and other New Englanders, and he indulges in the following little bit of sarcasm at their expense, “our Northern friends who were tender under these censures, for though their people have very few slaves, yet they had been considerable carriers of them to others.” Economic reasons were the base of abolition of slavery in New England. There is abundance of record to show dissatisfaction with African labor, who were stated to be “eye servants, great thieves, much addicted to lying and stealing,” and the superiority of white labor was brought prominently forward. Furthermore, the mortality of the africans in the cold New England climate was great and figures were brought forward to show how their importation into the section was not “profitable.” Governor Dudley in a formal report in 1708 stated “negroes have been found unprofitable investments, the planters preferring white servants.” Boston was all along prominent in the slave trade, the “Continental Monthly” of New York, as late as January, 1862, being quoted as saying, “The city of New York has been until late (1862) the principal port of the world for this infamous traffic, the cities of Portland and Boston being only second to her in that distinction.” “Slave dealers,” it continues, “added much to the wealth of our metropolis.” Vessels from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire were early and largely engaged in the slave trade, and it is a very significant fact that while duties, more or less heavy, were imposed upon the imported slaves in southern harbors, and other harbors of the country, the ports of New England were offered as a free exchange mart for slavers. New England citizens were traders by instinct and profession, and with the birth of commerce in the New World they eagerly turned to the high profits of the African slave trade and made it a regular business. The “Hartford Courant” in an issue of July, 1916, said, “Northern rum had much to do with the extension of slavery in the South. Many people in this state (Connecticut) as well as I Boston, made snug fortunes for themselves by sending rum to Africa to be exchanged for slaves and then selling the slaves to the planters of Southern states.” Rhode Island at an early date had 150 vessels engaged in the slave trade, while at a later date, when New York had loomed to the front of the trade, the New York “Journal of commerce: is quoted as saying, “Few of our readers are aware of the extent to which this infernal traffic is carried on by vessels clearing from New York and down town merchants of wealth and respectability are engaged extensively in buying and selling African and have been for an indefinite number of years.” As early as 1711 a slave market was established in New York City in the neighborhood of Wall Street were slave from Africa were brought to supply the Southern market. There was another prominent slave market in Boston. The slaves were hurried into the south as fast as possible as hundreds died from cold and exposure and the sudden change from a tropic African climate to a bleak Northern temperature. The United States Dept. Marshall for that New York district reported in 1856 that “the business of fitting out slavers was never prosecuted with greater energy than at present.” In a year and a half preceding the War Between the States eight five slave trading vessels are reported as fitting out in New York harbor and DuBois writes that, “from 1850 to 1860 the fitting out of slavers became a flourishing business in the United States and centered in New York City.” Although Massachusetts and New York were thus prominent in the business of enslaving and importing Africans and selling them to South America and the Southern colonies, and later the southern states in the Union, other parts of New England took most prominent part in the slave trade. Indeed, in the “of Samuel Hopkins,” rhode Islands said to have been more deeply interested in the slave trade than any other colony in New England and has enslaved more Africans.” Thus beginning with that first slave ship of this country, the “Desire” of Marblehead, Massachusetts, the slave trade flourished in New England and New York. The favorite method was to exchange rum for africans and to sell the africans to the Southern plantations. Federal laws were powerless to hold in check the keenness for this profitable traffic in human flesh. As late as 1850, the noted slave smuggler, Drake, who flourished and operated along the Gulf Coast, is reported to have said, “Slave trading is growing more profitable every year, and if you should hang all the Yankee merchants engaged in it, hundreds more would take their places.” The outlawing of the traffic seemed but to stimulate it. From the very inception of the institution of slavery in this country there was protest and action against it throughout the Southern colonies. The vigorous action of Virginia and her protests to the royal government to prohibit the further importation of slaves to her territory are well known. We have seen how Thomas Jefferson introduce into the Declaration of Independence a protest against the slave trade which he withdrew at the behest of New England. Every prominent man in Virginia at this period was in favor of gradual emancipation and there were more than five times as many members of abolition societies in the South than in the North. Only with the rise of the rabid abolitionists of New England and their fierce denunciations of the south idid the south abandon hope of gradual emancipation. Touching this, Mr. Cecil Chesterman, quoted above, states very pointedly in his “History of the United States,” what could exceed the effrontery of men,” asked the Southerner, “who reproach us with grave personal sin in owning property which they themselves sold us and the price of which is at this moment in their pockets?” Virginia legislated against slavery over a score of times; South Carolina protested against it as early as 1727, and in Georgia there was absolute prohibition of it by law. Let it be remembered that when the National Government took action and the slavery prohibition laws of Congress went into effect in 1808, every southern state had prohibited it. But, as stated, the outlawing of the traffic seemed but to stimulate it. In the earlier years of the 19th century thousands of slaves were imported into this country. In the year 1819, General James Talmadge, speaking in the House of Representatives, declared: “It our country this year.” And Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, said: “It is notorious that in spite of the utmost vigilance that can be employed, Africans are clandestinely brought in and sold as slaves.” This “vigilance” he speaks of however, was much ridiculed by others, and it was openly hinted that the efforts of the Federal authorities to suppress the trade, even the look out for slavers along the African coast as conducted by vessels of the United States Navy, were merely perfunctory, Blake in his “History of Slavery and the Slave Trade,” published in 1857, says: “It is stated upon good authority that in 1844 more slaves were carried away from Africa in ships than in 1744 when the trade was legal and in full vigor;” while in the year immediately preceding the opening of the War Between the States, John C. Underwood is quoted as writing to the New York Tribune: “I have ample evidence of the fact that the reopening of the African slave trade is an accomplished fact and the traffic is brisk.” Not only was the traffic brisk with the United Sates but thousands of slaves were being smuggled in Brazil. Southern members of Congress complained of the violations of the law and the illegal importation of slaves Ito their territory. Smith, of South Carolina, said on the floor of congress in 1819: “Our Northern friends are not afraid to furnish the southern States with africans;” and in 1819, Middleton, of South Carolina and Wright, of Virginia estimated the illicit introduction of slaves at from 1300 to 1500 respectively. There is interest in the striking fact that one year before the outbreak of the War Between the States, and at the time when the rabid abolitionists of New England and the North were most vigorous in their denunciations of the south and the slave holders, there were in Massachusetts only 9000 free africans, while in Virginia there were 53,000 of these africans, free, and able to go where they pleased; and it is significant that about as many free africans chose to live in Southern slave holding states as dwelt in Northern states; and many of these free africans tuned slaves themselves and were well to do citizens. In the city of Charleston, S. C., some three hundred free africans owned slaves themselves. In closing this article the following letter, which appeared in the columns of the New Orleans Picayune years ago, may be of interest: “My father, Captain John Julius Guthrie, then of the United States Navy, while executive officer of the sloop of war “Saratoga” on April 21st, 1861, captured at the mouth of the Congo River, on the west coast of Africa, the slave ship ‘Nightingale’ with 900 slaves aboard. The slaver was owned, manned and equipped in the city of Boston, Massachusetts, and in reference to the date it will appear that her capture was after the assault on fort Sumter and the Baltimore riot consequent upon the passage of the 6th Massachusetts Regiment through the city. This was the last slaver captured by an American war ship and as my father soon after resigned and went in to the confederate service, her captain and ones were never brought to trial. All this is a matter of record on file at the Navy Department in Washington D. C.. Thus it will be seen that the last capture of a slaver war by a Southern officer and the good people of Massachusetts were engaged in this nefarious business at the beginning of our unhappy war.” (Signed) J. Julius Guthrie Too long has the South had the odium of slavery forced upon her. With the institution thrust upon her against her protest, the slaves flourished in her boundaries on account of climate, and economic conditions favored the spread of the institution itself. The facts set forth above indicate the innocence of the South in posting this feature upon our national life, as well as her freedom from guilt in the continued importation of slaves into this country. While no claim is made for special virtue in that the south did not engage in the slave importing business as the North did, yet the facts as they exist are to her credit. With the facts in her favor, the South its still under the false indictments constantly made against her by the section of our country most responsible for the whole trouble. Willing to abide by the verdict of posterity, if the verdict is based upon the truth, and not upon the false statements of Northern historians, writers and speakers, and willing to accept her share, her full share of due responsibility, this section, in justice to her dead who died gloriously in a maligned cause, and to her unborn children, inheritors of a glorious heritage, must set forth to the world the fact as they are, neither tainted with injustice to others nor burdened with hypocritical claims of righteousness for herself; and these facts will establish her in the proud position to which she has all along been entitled among the people of the earth.	4,023	ENGLISH	1
How was Anne Frank not a hero? Anne Frank was a victim of Nazi atrocities, but she serves as an inspiration to many. I recently heard an Auschwitz survivor speak. He was talking to a group of seventh and eighth graders. He said, “Anne Frank was not a hero. She was a victim.” This man, who had been through horrors similar to Anne’s, was not seeking to diminish her memory. He just wanted the class to understand that Anne should not have had to suffer. What is a hero? A hero is someone who helps others or inspires others. By this token, Anne is a hero. She has served as an inspiration to many through her published diary. Anne would have liked the fact that her diary is so widely read. She wanted to be a writer. It's much easier now to tell Peter things I'd normally keep to myself; for example, I told him I want to write later on, and if I can't be a writer, to write in addition to my work. (Saturday, March 25, 1944) Anne’s diary shows the triumph of the human spirit. She was locked up, fearing for her life and in hiding day after day. Yet Anne and the others persevered. They lived their lives with as much normalcy as they could. Anne did everything she could to brighten the lives of those around her. In that sense, she was a hero. Heroism is really in the eye of the beholder. A person who hides from the Nazis is brave, in my book. Anne and her family did not give up. They fought back against oppression in the best way they knew how. Because of this, Anne and her family lived a little bit longer. Anne also was able to write about her experiences, which her father published to serve as an inspiration to others. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:b864d9c4-bbf5-4ba3-b2e0-67de505ab6a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-was-anne-frank-not-hero-632042	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00361.warc.gz	en	0.994466	391	3.546875	4	[ -0.4620833396911621, 0.41144922375679016, -0.09892824292182922, 0.43514999747276306, -0.33051854372024536, 0.09116408973932266, 0.5723245143890381, 0.2906043529510498, -0.13881459832191467, -0.08190864324569702, 0.43791308999061584, -0.0689699649810791, -0.0024152612313628197, 0.1734358072...	1	How was Anne Frank not a hero? Anne Frank was a victim of Nazi atrocities, but she serves as an inspiration to many. I recently heard an Auschwitz survivor speak. He was talking to a group of seventh and eighth graders. He said, “Anne Frank was not a hero. She was a victim.” This man, who had been through horrors similar to Anne’s, was not seeking to diminish her memory. He just wanted the class to understand that Anne should not have had to suffer. What is a hero? A hero is someone who helps others or inspires others. By this token, Anne is a hero. She has served as an inspiration to many through her published diary. Anne would have liked the fact that her diary is so widely read. She wanted to be a writer. It's much easier now to tell Peter things I'd normally keep to myself; for example, I told him I want to write later on, and if I can't be a writer, to write in addition to my work. (Saturday, March 25, 1944) Anne’s diary shows the triumph of the human spirit. She was locked up, fearing for her life and in hiding day after day. Yet Anne and the others persevered. They lived their lives with as much normalcy as they could. Anne did everything she could to brighten the lives of those around her. In that sense, she was a hero. Heroism is really in the eye of the beholder. A person who hides from the Nazis is brave, in my book. Anne and her family did not give up. They fought back against oppression in the best way they knew how. Because of this, Anne and her family lived a little bit longer. Anne also was able to write about her experiences, which her father published to serve as an inspiration to others. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	381	ENGLISH	1
- from Vikings Who were the Vikings? They were fierce warriors and cruel raiders who conquered many places. They were great poets and storytellers. The Vikings were also brave explorers, good sailors, and skilled shipbuilders. The Vikings’ home was in northern Europe. They lived in the countries we now know as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They were most active from the late 8th century CE to the late 11th century CE. Vikings went all over the world. They were looking for land, gold, silver, and people to enslave. They discovered Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. They were probably the first Europeans to go to North America. But they left a trail of terror behind them. Other names for the Vikings were Northmen and Norsemen. Some think of them as barbarians (crude people). Others think they were smart and took advantage of any situation. People say the Vikings did a lot for civilization. Come travel with these famous, and dangerous, sailors of the past and decide for yourself what they were like.	<urn:uuid:43bc6c39-532f-4205-bae7-7d6df80441d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/vikings/topic/who-were-the-vikings/1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00440.warc.gz	en	0.993816	218	3.59375	4	[ 0.12884345650672913, 0.5131386518478394, 0.004156426526606083, -0.04430210962891579, 0.2200266569852829, -0.21141129732131958, -0.07283670455217361, 0.3845656216144562, 0.04068638011813164, 0.022098185494542122, 0.43506914377212524, -0.2128589004278183, -0.019133273512125015, 0.03450173884...	2	- from Vikings Who were the Vikings? They were fierce warriors and cruel raiders who conquered many places. They were great poets and storytellers. The Vikings were also brave explorers, good sailors, and skilled shipbuilders. The Vikings’ home was in northern Europe. They lived in the countries we now know as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They were most active from the late 8th century CE to the late 11th century CE. Vikings went all over the world. They were looking for land, gold, silver, and people to enslave. They discovered Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. They were probably the first Europeans to go to North America. But they left a trail of terror behind them. Other names for the Vikings were Northmen and Norsemen. Some think of them as barbarians (crude people). Others think they were smart and took advantage of any situation. People say the Vikings did a lot for civilization. Come travel with these famous, and dangerous, sailors of the past and decide for yourself what they were like.	218	ENGLISH	1
: November 2015 Another busy week in Base 5! In maths we started the week looking at 3d shape. I challenged the children to make 3d shapes from 2d pictures using spaghetti and marshmallows. We had to make sure we measured carefully and got the correct angles when putting the shape together. I saw some excellent engineering skills going on to strengthen shapes. And, although tempting, no-one ate the marshmallows! On Tuesday the children were challenged to find all 11 possible nets of a cube. I was really pleased to see perseverance from many children. Some didn't even want to go out to play until they had all 11 nets! We then moved on to investigate radius, diameter and circumference and continued to work on our reasoning and problem solving skills. In Literacy we started work on persuasive writing. We read a newspaper article about the reintroduction of wolves into Britain. A great link to our Wolf Brother novel. The children picked out the for and against arguments form the article. We then looked at four samples of a persuasive text and the children unpicked the samples by annotating them to state what was good or bad about the way they were written. From this we have now got a success criteria for our own writing. The children are now in the middle of planning their own persuasive piece either for or against the reintroduction of wolves. In SPaG we looked at colons, sentences, clauses and phrases. In History we investigated Skara Brae and the children made notes about all the information we had. After looking at the historical evidence available to us the children were all very keen to try to make educated guesses about what some of the houses were used for. As homework I have asked them to write a report about Skara Brae using the notes they made in class and any additional research they can do at home. As next week is anti-bullying week we have been spending some time looking at bullying. The children have been working on putting together presentations to present to their house groups at the house assemblies on Thursday. We have been continuing to practise the songs for Singfest in music, and we now need to make sure we are learning the words to all the songs so that we can sing without our sheets. See you all on Monday! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning... It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who... I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a...	<urn:uuid:6eabbb35-0a62-4106-ab73-03aa6789b975>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-5-weekly-news.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00433.warc.gz	en	0.980071	643	3.328125	3	[ -0.7259414196014404, -0.28433799743652344, 0.21142101287841797, 0.0040234290063381195, -0.12796364724636078, 0.33606502413749695, -0.3645029664039612, 0.23349404335021973, -0.027553683146834373, -0.34638869762420654, 0.3881436884403229, -0.5503043532371521, -0.2813253402709961, 0.519775748...	1	: November 2015 Another busy week in Base 5! In maths we started the week looking at 3d shape. I challenged the children to make 3d shapes from 2d pictures using spaghetti and marshmallows. We had to make sure we measured carefully and got the correct angles when putting the shape together. I saw some excellent engineering skills going on to strengthen shapes. And, although tempting, no-one ate the marshmallows! On Tuesday the children were challenged to find all 11 possible nets of a cube. I was really pleased to see perseverance from many children. Some didn't even want to go out to play until they had all 11 nets! We then moved on to investigate radius, diameter and circumference and continued to work on our reasoning and problem solving skills. In Literacy we started work on persuasive writing. We read a newspaper article about the reintroduction of wolves into Britain. A great link to our Wolf Brother novel. The children picked out the for and against arguments form the article. We then looked at four samples of a persuasive text and the children unpicked the samples by annotating them to state what was good or bad about the way they were written. From this we have now got a success criteria for our own writing. The children are now in the middle of planning their own persuasive piece either for or against the reintroduction of wolves. In SPaG we looked at colons, sentences, clauses and phrases. In History we investigated Skara Brae and the children made notes about all the information we had. After looking at the historical evidence available to us the children were all very keen to try to make educated guesses about what some of the houses were used for. As homework I have asked them to write a report about Skara Brae using the notes they made in class and any additional research they can do at home. As next week is anti-bullying week we have been spending some time looking at bullying. The children have been working on putting together presentations to present to their house groups at the house assemblies on Thursday. We have been continuing to practise the songs for Singfest in music, and we now need to make sure we are learning the words to all the songs so that we can sing without our sheets. See you all on Monday! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Read all the things our children have learned through their autumn term Learning... It was lovely to receive the following email this morning, following our contribution to the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday. I would just like to congratulate all who were involved in any way with the Service at Chester Cathedral yesterday.The children's behaviour was impeccable all the time they were there, even when not on show.Please give special thanks to the 2 children, who... I am so proud of all the children who took part in this afternoon's service at Chester Cathedral led by leaders of different denominations in the Christian Church and attended by Lord David Alton of Liverpool and MP Fiona Bruce. The theme of the service, for Christian Prayer Week, was 'Unusual Kindness' and as a school, who embrace the ethos 'we all matter', it was a...	643	ENGLISH	1
Story Workshop is a structure we have at Opal School that supports language and literacy. We have discovered that the use of materials such as clay, paint, drama, or block building can play an integral role in language development, and strongly support children to see themselves as storytellers and authors. This happens for example, when a child is playing at the sensory table and imagines or remembers a story. As the child continues to play and explore his story, he may consider more details, the sequence may become stronger, and the language the child uses to tell the story becomes more clear and powerful. The story can come alive! This happened for ZB this week and was a powerful example for everyone about the role materials can play in helping us discover and uncover our stories. On Tuesday, as the children were making their plans for where they would work on telling their stories in story workshop, ZB decided to go to writing center to put a story in a book. When asked if he already had an idea for his story he replied that he didn't yet, but that he thought he'd find one once he started drawing. Within minutes ZB was laying on the risers stating that he was stuck and he couldn't find an idea for his story. I suggested that possibly he needed support from another material to find an idea before he tried to put that story into a book. He agreed and quickly decided to give the paper collage materials a try. He worked thoughtfully and carefully with the paper collage cutting and gluing for a long time. Towards the end of story workshop he came enthusiastically running over saying "It worked! A new story just struck into my head!" He explained further, "I started making a story and then I figured out which story I was going to make!" ZB: It's about red and black meeting. The black paper helped me to figure it out. After they meet they become friends. Kerry: Wow! That makes me want to know more! How do they meet? ZBL Umm, I don't know that part of the story yet. So we made a plan together about what he might do to find out more about that piece of his story the next day. When ZB arrived at school he was met with new materials to help support his story. And here is what he discovered: This is red and this is black. They go to school for the first day. They first meet each other playing capture the flag. They were on the same team. They both found the flag and they both took it at the same time. Then they became friends! In the beginning of the year we are inviting the children to explore the classroom in search of their stories, and nudging them gently to uncover more. We set up intentional spaces to inspire and entice children, as a variety of materials like blocks, collage, paint, or small bugs become the vehicles for the children's first story. We continue to support this process with supportive, individualized feedback including many celebrations of success!	<urn:uuid:484113ec-34ae-49ab-af3d-0336d471cc8c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://opalschool.org/story-workshop-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00114.warc.gz	en	0.988928	623	3.890625	4	[ 0.06155647709965706, 0.0632096379995346, -0.09761341661214828, -0.005821983329951763, -0.6266046762466431, 0.16403287649154663, -0.25849640369415283, 0.27374178171157837, -0.30350786447525024, 0.02082362025976181, 0.2951938211917877, 0.03492628037929535, 0.005057945381850004, 0.63726878166...	14	Story Workshop is a structure we have at Opal School that supports language and literacy. We have discovered that the use of materials such as clay, paint, drama, or block building can play an integral role in language development, and strongly support children to see themselves as storytellers and authors. This happens for example, when a child is playing at the sensory table and imagines or remembers a story. As the child continues to play and explore his story, he may consider more details, the sequence may become stronger, and the language the child uses to tell the story becomes more clear and powerful. The story can come alive! This happened for ZB this week and was a powerful example for everyone about the role materials can play in helping us discover and uncover our stories. On Tuesday, as the children were making their plans for where they would work on telling their stories in story workshop, ZB decided to go to writing center to put a story in a book. When asked if he already had an idea for his story he replied that he didn't yet, but that he thought he'd find one once he started drawing. Within minutes ZB was laying on the risers stating that he was stuck and he couldn't find an idea for his story. I suggested that possibly he needed support from another material to find an idea before he tried to put that story into a book. He agreed and quickly decided to give the paper collage materials a try. He worked thoughtfully and carefully with the paper collage cutting and gluing for a long time. Towards the end of story workshop he came enthusiastically running over saying "It worked! A new story just struck into my head!" He explained further, "I started making a story and then I figured out which story I was going to make!" ZB: It's about red and black meeting. The black paper helped me to figure it out. After they meet they become friends. Kerry: Wow! That makes me want to know more! How do they meet? ZBL Umm, I don't know that part of the story yet. So we made a plan together about what he might do to find out more about that piece of his story the next day. When ZB arrived at school he was met with new materials to help support his story. And here is what he discovered: This is red and this is black. They go to school for the first day. They first meet each other playing capture the flag. They were on the same team. They both found the flag and they both took it at the same time. Then they became friends! In the beginning of the year we are inviting the children to explore the classroom in search of their stories, and nudging them gently to uncover more. We set up intentional spaces to inspire and entice children, as a variety of materials like blocks, collage, paint, or small bugs become the vehicles for the children's first story. We continue to support this process with supportive, individualized feedback including many celebrations of success!	608	ENGLISH	1
I’ve been dipping back into Mark Herber’s book “Ancestral Trails” published by The History Press 2005, looking at the subject of researching back before Parish records started in the mid-16th century. He warns his readers to expect difficulties tracing their ancestors in that time. It seems that before then, you are only likely to come across sporadic references to your ancestors – or perhaps more properly people who could be your ancestors – in wills, tax records or court documents. Herber writes that “… you are unlikely to be able to trace a line of descent in this period (and in particular find documents that evidence that one man was related to another) unless you find your ancestors in property records.” Now property records can be found for people from various classes, those who were substantial land owners and also yeoman, tenant farmers and labourers. This is why it is said that English manorial documents are perhaps one of the few types of records in which genealogical information about the common man, as opposed to those from the upper classes, is likely to survive from medieval times. So what was the manorial system? In the England of the Middle Ages, land was held from the English monarch by a lord and on his land the peasants worked and received his protection in return. Anglo-Saxon society was, as in most of the other European countries, rigidly hierarchical. Social status depended on birth and family relationships. Power was gained through the ownership of land, as this was the principal source of wealth at this time. After the Norman conquest of England all the land of England was deemed to be owned by the monarch. The king would then grant use of it by means of a transaction known as “enfeoffment”, where land grants or “fiefs” were awarded to the earls, barons, bishops and others, in return for them providing him with some type of service. There were two sorts of tenure, according to the type of service rendered by the tenant to the lord, free and unfree. Free tenure can then be broken down into different forms again. A tenure in chivalry, for example “tenure of knight service”, would be where the tenant was charged to provide his lord with a number of armed horsemen. Mark Heber in Ancestral Trails points out that this type of tenure was soon commuted to a money payment (or “scutage”). He also explains that among the types of “free tenure” was to be found “spiritual tenure” where divine services, or “frankelmoign” by which a clergyman, holding land from the lord of the manor, would pay his due in prayers said for the lord and his family.”Socage tenures” existed where the tenant provided his lord with agricultural services such as ploughing the lord’s retained land for 20 days a year. “Villein tenure” or unfree tenure applied to those men known as villeins, serfs or bondmen. This class of tenant was not free to leave the manor without obtaining the permission of the lord. They would be subject to many obligations, some of which were onerous and these individuals held their land in exchange for providing the lord a number of days work in return. This could be, for example, four days work a week -Â but the nature of the work could vary depending on what was required. Manorial Documents are fascinating for family historians, as are will documents that were not the exclusive preserve of the rich. I shall explore this area again in other posts.	<urn:uuid:f660c93a-7104-4aac-be55-86fe3fabe72f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.noseygenealogist.com/blog/747/manorial-documents-in-english-family-history-research	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00377.warc.gz	en	0.983987	761	3.328125	3	[ -0.10295896977186203, 0.2934466600418091, 0.27654969692230225, 0.0008544456213712692, 0.183240607380867, -0.1557406485080719, 0.00015545380301773548, -0.4949440360069275, 0.2790455222129822, 0.11553915590047836, -0.20382241904735565, -0.060975007712841034, 0.060264915227890015, 0.136856272...	4	I’ve been dipping back into Mark Herber’s book “Ancestral Trails” published by The History Press 2005, looking at the subject of researching back before Parish records started in the mid-16th century. He warns his readers to expect difficulties tracing their ancestors in that time. It seems that before then, you are only likely to come across sporadic references to your ancestors – or perhaps more properly people who could be your ancestors – in wills, tax records or court documents. Herber writes that “… you are unlikely to be able to trace a line of descent in this period (and in particular find documents that evidence that one man was related to another) unless you find your ancestors in property records.” Now property records can be found for people from various classes, those who were substantial land owners and also yeoman, tenant farmers and labourers. This is why it is said that English manorial documents are perhaps one of the few types of records in which genealogical information about the common man, as opposed to those from the upper classes, is likely to survive from medieval times. So what was the manorial system? In the England of the Middle Ages, land was held from the English monarch by a lord and on his land the peasants worked and received his protection in return. Anglo-Saxon society was, as in most of the other European countries, rigidly hierarchical. Social status depended on birth and family relationships. Power was gained through the ownership of land, as this was the principal source of wealth at this time. After the Norman conquest of England all the land of England was deemed to be owned by the monarch. The king would then grant use of it by means of a transaction known as “enfeoffment”, where land grants or “fiefs” were awarded to the earls, barons, bishops and others, in return for them providing him with some type of service. There were two sorts of tenure, according to the type of service rendered by the tenant to the lord, free and unfree. Free tenure can then be broken down into different forms again. A tenure in chivalry, for example “tenure of knight service”, would be where the tenant was charged to provide his lord with a number of armed horsemen. Mark Heber in Ancestral Trails points out that this type of tenure was soon commuted to a money payment (or “scutage”). He also explains that among the types of “free tenure” was to be found “spiritual tenure” where divine services, or “frankelmoign” by which a clergyman, holding land from the lord of the manor, would pay his due in prayers said for the lord and his family.”Socage tenures” existed where the tenant provided his lord with agricultural services such as ploughing the lord’s retained land for 20 days a year. “Villein tenure” or unfree tenure applied to those men known as villeins, serfs or bondmen. This class of tenant was not free to leave the manor without obtaining the permission of the lord. They would be subject to many obligations, some of which were onerous and these individuals held their land in exchange for providing the lord a number of days work in return. This could be, for example, four days work a week -Â but the nature of the work could vary depending on what was required. Manorial Documents are fascinating for family historians, as are will documents that were not the exclusive preserve of the rich. I shall explore this area again in other posts.	730	ENGLISH	1
Seven monuments of the ancient world appeared on various lists of historians. The list is given below. It was in Alexandrian period, the historians started to classify various monuments as marvels and wonders. These are the seven monuments regarded as wonders in the ancient era. The Pyramid of Khufu It is the only surviving ancient wonder now. Situauted on the banks of river Nile, in Egypt, it extends in 12 acres. The pyramid was built in 27th century BC. It took hundred thousand workers about 20 years to complete it. It is called the Great Pyramid. There is also a statue of a sphinx nearby, with a length of 172.5 ft and height of 66 ft. It was built even before, in 3750 BC. The Hanging Gardens and Walls of Babylon It was constructed by the then Babylon king Nebuchadnezzer. Babylon was one of the most prominent cities then. It was built on terraces in different levels and had many fountains as well. The gardens didn't survive many years. The Statue of Zeus The statue of Greek god Zeus used to be situated at Olympia. Designed by Greek sculptor Phidias, it was built around 463 BC. The statue was in marble and was covered by gold. It had a height of 9 meters. It was ruined in a fire in 475 AD. Soon it was taken to Constantinople but didn't have a long life since then. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Also called the temple of Diana, it was bulit in 4th century BC, during the tenure of Alexander the Great. It was situated in Asia Minor region. Built completely in marble, the entire edifice had a length of 342 ft and width of 164 ft. There were 127 spears of height of more than 60 ft. The temple was demolished in 262 AD. The Tomb of Mausolus at Hali Carnassus It was built by Queen Artemisia of Asia Minor for the memory of her husband. Built in 352 BC, the marble structure had a height of 140 ft. It was in a circular shape. The edifice is believed to have been destroyed in an earthquake. The Colossus of Rhodes The statue of Helios, the Sun God, was completely in bronze. With a height of 105 ft, it was built in around 280 BC. It took a period of 12 years for construction. It collapsed in an earthquake in 224 BC. The Pharos (Light House) of Alexandria This marvel used to be situated in the island of Pharos, near Alexandria port in Egypt. It is believed to have been built before 247 BC. It had a height of 200 ft. An earthquake was also the destroyer of this structure. It is the first known light house in the world. This list of ancient wonders later inspired succeeding generations of historians to come up with various list of wonders, including that of middle ages and modern world. Assassination of an Austrian Archduke by a small rebel organization in 1914 precipitated the First World War and indirectly led to the extinction of the great Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, the ascendancy of the Arabs, a new wave of Pan-Islamic conservatism, the Bolshevik Revolution, humiliating defeat of Germany, League of Nations, and according to some, even the Great Depression. After 28th June, 1914, the world was never the same again!. The article speaks about the significance of Chapra Shashti in the lives of Hindus in different part of the world. It is celebrated on the 6th day of the month, on the waxing phase of the moon.. The Philippines was invited by Foreign Minister Arita of Japan to take part of their program called Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. And because our country’s citizen doesn’t want to be under a foreign occupation, the government officials did not believe it and thus did not join the invitation of the Japanese Government..	<urn:uuid:ee7bd862-296e-4589-93d0-071324c8757e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/seven-wonders-ancient-world-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00306.warc.gz	en	0.98173	816	3.515625	4	[ -0.11115908622741699, 0.6319384574890137, 0.589081883430481, 0.3529406189918518, -0.7108734250068665, 0.07028017938137054, 0.060707177966833115, 0.22194182872772217, 0.04320850595831871, 0.16335822641849518, -0.09396854788064957, -0.5281466245651245, -0.09677203744649887, 0.485664904117584...	1	Seven monuments of the ancient world appeared on various lists of historians. The list is given below. It was in Alexandrian period, the historians started to classify various monuments as marvels and wonders. These are the seven monuments regarded as wonders in the ancient era. The Pyramid of Khufu It is the only surviving ancient wonder now. Situauted on the banks of river Nile, in Egypt, it extends in 12 acres. The pyramid was built in 27th century BC. It took hundred thousand workers about 20 years to complete it. It is called the Great Pyramid. There is also a statue of a sphinx nearby, with a length of 172.5 ft and height of 66 ft. It was built even before, in 3750 BC. The Hanging Gardens and Walls of Babylon It was constructed by the then Babylon king Nebuchadnezzer. Babylon was one of the most prominent cities then. It was built on terraces in different levels and had many fountains as well. The gardens didn't survive many years. The Statue of Zeus The statue of Greek god Zeus used to be situated at Olympia. Designed by Greek sculptor Phidias, it was built around 463 BC. The statue was in marble and was covered by gold. It had a height of 9 meters. It was ruined in a fire in 475 AD. Soon it was taken to Constantinople but didn't have a long life since then. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Also called the temple of Diana, it was bulit in 4th century BC, during the tenure of Alexander the Great. It was situated in Asia Minor region. Built completely in marble, the entire edifice had a length of 342 ft and width of 164 ft. There were 127 spears of height of more than 60 ft. The temple was demolished in 262 AD. The Tomb of Mausolus at Hali Carnassus It was built by Queen Artemisia of Asia Minor for the memory of her husband. Built in 352 BC, the marble structure had a height of 140 ft. It was in a circular shape. The edifice is believed to have been destroyed in an earthquake. The Colossus of Rhodes The statue of Helios, the Sun God, was completely in bronze. With a height of 105 ft, it was built in around 280 BC. It took a period of 12 years for construction. It collapsed in an earthquake in 224 BC. The Pharos (Light House) of Alexandria This marvel used to be situated in the island of Pharos, near Alexandria port in Egypt. It is believed to have been built before 247 BC. It had a height of 200 ft. An earthquake was also the destroyer of this structure. It is the first known light house in the world. This list of ancient wonders later inspired succeeding generations of historians to come up with various list of wonders, including that of middle ages and modern world. Assassination of an Austrian Archduke by a small rebel organization in 1914 precipitated the First World War and indirectly led to the extinction of the great Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, the ascendancy of the Arabs, a new wave of Pan-Islamic conservatism, the Bolshevik Revolution, humiliating defeat of Germany, League of Nations, and according to some, even the Great Depression. After 28th June, 1914, the world was never the same again!. The article speaks about the significance of Chapra Shashti in the lives of Hindus in different part of the world. It is celebrated on the 6th day of the month, on the waxing phase of the moon.. The Philippines was invited by Foreign Minister Arita of Japan to take part of their program called Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. And because our country’s citizen doesn’t want to be under a foreign occupation, the government officials did not believe it and thus did not join the invitation of the Japanese Government..	868	ENGLISH	1
Pages that link here: Hot air balloons were the first flying machines and they have interesting history. They were toys at first, used for signalization and for celebrations, but in time grew in size and allowed us to fly around the world. Toy balloons are an old toy. Children and jesters used an inflated pig’s bladder as early as 14th century. Today we have much prettier (and much more sanitary) variants of toy balloons that we use for parties and celebrations. Read more about history of toy balloon. History of human flight begins in 18th century with an invention of two brothers - a hot air balloon. These brothers, Montgolfier Brothers, proved that humans can fly - with a little help from science. The first balloons where small flying lanterns which were used during festivals and as ways of communications between armies. They grew in time, became the first aircrafts and were capable of carrying people. Find out more about history of ballooning.	<urn:uuid:901e81be-cca8-4d15-b487-0e7a516cb890>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.historyofballoons.com/picture/picture-of-the-montgolfier-brothers-balloon-at-the-london-science-museum/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00011.warc.gz	en	0.982295	201	3.4375	3	[ 0.037898361682891846, 0.18079976737499237, 0.43057501316070557, -0.2512204349040985, -0.26481255888938904, 0.16503724455833435, 0.4091050326824188, 0.2222146987915039, -0.14872384071350098, -0.01586715318262577, -0.1320323497056961, -0.022363800555467606, 0.10442540049552917, 0.31359910964...	1	Pages that link here: Hot air balloons were the first flying machines and they have interesting history. They were toys at first, used for signalization and for celebrations, but in time grew in size and allowed us to fly around the world. Toy balloons are an old toy. Children and jesters used an inflated pig’s bladder as early as 14th century. Today we have much prettier (and much more sanitary) variants of toy balloons that we use for parties and celebrations. Read more about history of toy balloon. History of human flight begins in 18th century with an invention of two brothers - a hot air balloon. These brothers, Montgolfier Brothers, proved that humans can fly - with a little help from science. The first balloons where small flying lanterns which were used during festivals and as ways of communications between armies. They grew in time, became the first aircrafts and were capable of carrying people. Find out more about history of ballooning.	198	ENGLISH	1
Barton achieved widespread recognition by delivering lectures around the country about her war experiences in 1865–1868. During this time she met Susan B. Anthony and began an association with the woman's suffrage movement. She also became acquainted with Frederick Douglass and became an activist for civil rights. After her countrywide tour she was both mentally and physically exhausted and under doctor's orders to go somewhere that would take her far from her current work. She closed the Missing Soldiers Office in 1868 and traveled to Europe. In 1869, during her trip to Geneva, Switzerland, Barton was introduced to the Red Cross and Dr. Appia; he later would invite her to be the representative for the American branch of the Red Cross and help her find financial benefactors for the start of the American Red Cross. She was also introduced to Henry Dunant's book A Memory of Solferino, which called for the formation of national societies to provide relief voluntarily on a neutral basis.	<urn:uuid:ee58d305-403a-41a0-965d-9ad505b581b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tgblogsite.com/coloring/clara-barton-coloring-pages-free.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00092.warc.gz	en	0.98453	195	3.296875	3	[ -0.3662208914756775, 0.1502867043018341, 0.19125208258628845, 0.40389129519462585, -0.2866913080215454, 0.13975322246551514, 0.2648056149482727, 0.21613268554210663, -0.3431181311607361, -0.13018754124641418, -0.0034134911838918924, -0.4646514356136322, -0.2270973026752472, 0.1715293824672...	1	Barton achieved widespread recognition by delivering lectures around the country about her war experiences in 1865–1868. During this time she met Susan B. Anthony and began an association with the woman's suffrage movement. She also became acquainted with Frederick Douglass and became an activist for civil rights. After her countrywide tour she was both mentally and physically exhausted and under doctor's orders to go somewhere that would take her far from her current work. She closed the Missing Soldiers Office in 1868 and traveled to Europe. In 1869, during her trip to Geneva, Switzerland, Barton was introduced to the Red Cross and Dr. Appia; he later would invite her to be the representative for the American branch of the Red Cross and help her find financial benefactors for the start of the American Red Cross. She was also introduced to Henry Dunant's book A Memory of Solferino, which called for the formation of national societies to provide relief voluntarily on a neutral basis.	206	ENGLISH	1
Mutation was a process by which the genes of a lifeform were changed in some way by either internal or external stimuli. The lifeforms affected by this process were known as mutants. Mutation was a primary factor in evolution, as those mutations that increased an organism's overall likelihood of survival were usually incorporated into the genome of the lifeform's offspring. Other mutations were trivial, or detracted from an organism's viability for reproduction or continued existence. After Phlox explained to Jonathan Archer that a dead Suliban which he had autopsied was atypical of his species, Archer asked if he was a mutant. Phlox concurred, but clarified that his modifications were not the result of accident but of genetic engineering. (ENT: "Broken Bow") This article or section is incompleteThis page is marked as lacking essential detail, and needs attention. Information regarding expansion requirements may be found on the article's talk page. Feel free to edit this page to assist with this expansion.	<urn:uuid:8d22c393-fd50-48d7-9b1a-76eaf222b05e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://memory-alpha.fandom.com/wiki/Mutation	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00119.warc.gz	en	0.987791	202	3.609375	4	[ -0.5629940629005432, -0.025575170293450356, 0.42040175199508667, -0.017019635066390038, 0.032885316759347916, -0.13942918181419373, 0.2563638389110565, 0.4677027463912964, -0.5111942887306213, -0.16489985585212708, 0.42224857211112976, -0.42180562019348145, 0.3471493721008301, 0.1034914553...	2	Mutation was a process by which the genes of a lifeform were changed in some way by either internal or external stimuli. The lifeforms affected by this process were known as mutants. Mutation was a primary factor in evolution, as those mutations that increased an organism's overall likelihood of survival were usually incorporated into the genome of the lifeform's offspring. Other mutations were trivial, or detracted from an organism's viability for reproduction or continued existence. After Phlox explained to Jonathan Archer that a dead Suliban which he had autopsied was atypical of his species, Archer asked if he was a mutant. Phlox concurred, but clarified that his modifications were not the result of accident but of genetic engineering. (ENT: "Broken Bow") This article or section is incompleteThis page is marked as lacking essential detail, and needs attention. Information regarding expansion requirements may be found on the article's talk page. Feel free to edit this page to assist with this expansion.	194	ENGLISH	1
Brave women who contributed toward freedom of India Our freedom fighters India became a free country in 1947 although it was only half the independence as we lost two big parts of motherland in the name of Pakistan. That is what we got after a long struggle to get our freedom from the clutches of foreign invaders. They ruled more than two hundred years on before leaving this country and would have been still here had it not been for the brave men and women who fought gallantly against them. If we go back into the middle of 18th century, we shall see that this was perhaps the most crucial time when the fight for freedom began and women took as active part in it as men did. The famine in 1770 was the trigger point, which agitated Sadhus and saints of this country to revolt against British who did nothing to save dying Indians that perhaps motivated them to take our country out of clutches of foreigners. We often read about our male freedom fighters but women did not leg behind in the struggle for fight for freedom. Let us know about some of those big-hearted women who fought for the cause of freedom for their motherland. We know women like Laxmibai the brave queen of Jhansi, queen of Ramgarh Avantikabai who led the fight from the front, the lady from Budri who helped built revolutionary funds and revolt of Begum Hazarat Mahal against British will always be the golden chapters of Indian history. We have another example of woman contribution toward freedom struggle of India that perhaps is the unique most in itself. Azizen a professional dancer found the cause for freedom as fascinating that she stopped dancing and began gathering women in night hours to train them to help revolutionaries in every possible way. Later she came to Kanpur where Tatya Tope one of the greatest among the contemporary revolutionaries had been active those days. Whenever we shall mention Indian freedom fighters and their great efforts, especially by women, Rani Laxmibai will stand in the forefront of them all. She was brave girl right from her childhood with full-fledged martial training who was expert in fighting, riding and other planning level expertise in chalking out strategies of war. She was full of bravery, self-respect and had immense love for her motherland. She fought many wars against British in the battlefields as well hidden when it was so demanding. She was in close contact of other revolutionaries of her time who were fighting to set India free from the clutches of foreign rulers. Rani Laxmibai the queen of Jhansi, declared war against British and fought with them with her adopted son tied on her back having a single thought in her mind to see India free from ruthless British rule. But as it was a common practice in that period, there was no dearth of traitors and back-stabbers, who informed British forces about her whereabouts. The British forces surrounded her and followed her until she was left with no force and ultimately was killed by a fatal sword of a British soldier. Rani Laxmibai is no more but she will always remain in the memory of every Indian who loves this country. Begum Hazarat Mahal The Begum of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah popularly known Begum Hazarat Mahal took the reins of Oudh after her husband was kept under house arrest by British. It was around 1857, when the freedom movement was in its full gear. The British found this intolerable and surrounded the state of Oudh with heavy forces. The Begum fought with all her strength and even wrote a letter to the Queen of England expressing her concern about her willingness to live in free air. She wrote to Queen Victoria ‘If you are living in free air how you expect to live others in slavery, this was sheer injustice’ but Queen of England had no answer to Begum Hazarat Mahal. Begum even attacked through her secret armed attackers on the British headquarters, The Residency, which caused British army lots of troubles. However, the Begum made a statically wrong move to fight with them directly on the ground level that caused her defeat. She went to Nepal ultimately and died there later but she will be among the one who will always be in the history books for her gallantry. Azizen the community dancer Azizen the community dancer from Nitur was another example of our women revolutionaries who was a dancer by profession but her attraction toward freedom fighters and movement was so spellbinding for her that she stopped dancing and participated in freedom movement. She gathered women from her surrounding areas to teach them about freedom movement and trained them in different matters related to how to help freedom fighters. In fact, she formed a whole women-brigade who participated in the movement secretly. Azizen set another strategy to help the cause by wearing male dress in day hours and supply as many arms to revolutionaries and as much money as possible along with strategic information she gathered from the British army. Her dance was very popular and regular feature among the British soldiers, which she did for the particular purpose of gathering information and giving it to Nana Saheb and Tatya Tope. Later when she was captured during Kanpur phase of struggle for freedom fighting and was brought in front of General Havelock. The general found her beauty so astounding that he offered her to pardon on condition if she confessed herself guilty and surrender herself to general. Azizen refused and accepted the death-sentence, executed immediately by the firing squad. Chennamma the queen of Kittur Who can forget the famous queen Chennamma of Kittur a small place in Belgaum district in Karnataka, who gave stiffest of fights to the British army as one of the most fearful revolutionary force India has ever fought. Her fighting force was so immense that British army was unable to face her but she was captured due to some of her own unfaithful people who back-stabbed her helping British forces in capturing her. She was sent to nearby Dharbar Jail where she died later. She set an unforgettable example and will always remain in Indian history for her contribution towards the great cause for freedom along with other great freedom fighters of this country. Conclusion of this chapter of brave women of India There are thousands of such examples of women, who fought gallantly for the cause of freedom for India. The history will never forget the women like Umda Begum of Oudh, who was hanged by British government for her contribution to the cause of revolution. So was the case of Bhimabai Holker who fought until she breathed her last but kept fighting for the freedom of her country. Who can forget the contributions of Tahkurain of Buddi Baijabai, Alia Begum, Vassi Begum and Devi Choudhrani who participated with all their might for purpose of liberty for their country. They displayed to the world that women are not the weaker citizen or showpieces but real fighters as well when needed to stand together with men. Indian women like Mohasiya, Bera Maina, Haseena Zameel, Asha Devi, Rani Tejabai, Ganga, Ekka, and Surabhi also contributed with all their might for freedom in their own ways. Women fought from the front in Meerut in 1857, they were shot at when they tried to hoist the Indian flag on Fort of Mysore. Women lead from the front and we can prove from various examples available in every part of our country. Photos from - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_Lakshmibai Like it on Facebook, +1 on Google, Tweet it or share this article on other bookmarking websites.	<urn:uuid:6e2a1670-098a-427e-afd8-e7b31cabfe20>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.boddunan.com/articles/people-places/23073-brave-women-who-contributed-toward-freedom-of-india.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00035.warc.gz	en	0.981611	1,584	3.34375	3	[ -0.2639411985874176, 0.316283643245697, -0.23728394508361816, 0.19392210245132446, -0.18546412885189056, 0.11679321527481079, 0.3916999101638794, 0.39308005571365356, 0.2537423074245453, -0.25527721643447876, -0.13547652959823608, -0.38546425104141235, 0.21826310455799103, 0.05576977878808...	2	Brave women who contributed toward freedom of India Our freedom fighters India became a free country in 1947 although it was only half the independence as we lost two big parts of motherland in the name of Pakistan. That is what we got after a long struggle to get our freedom from the clutches of foreign invaders. They ruled more than two hundred years on before leaving this country and would have been still here had it not been for the brave men and women who fought gallantly against them. If we go back into the middle of 18th century, we shall see that this was perhaps the most crucial time when the fight for freedom began and women took as active part in it as men did. The famine in 1770 was the trigger point, which agitated Sadhus and saints of this country to revolt against British who did nothing to save dying Indians that perhaps motivated them to take our country out of clutches of foreigners. We often read about our male freedom fighters but women did not leg behind in the struggle for fight for freedom. Let us know about some of those big-hearted women who fought for the cause of freedom for their motherland. We know women like Laxmibai the brave queen of Jhansi, queen of Ramgarh Avantikabai who led the fight from the front, the lady from Budri who helped built revolutionary funds and revolt of Begum Hazarat Mahal against British will always be the golden chapters of Indian history. We have another example of woman contribution toward freedom struggle of India that perhaps is the unique most in itself. Azizen a professional dancer found the cause for freedom as fascinating that she stopped dancing and began gathering women in night hours to train them to help revolutionaries in every possible way. Later she came to Kanpur where Tatya Tope one of the greatest among the contemporary revolutionaries had been active those days. Whenever we shall mention Indian freedom fighters and their great efforts, especially by women, Rani Laxmibai will stand in the forefront of them all. She was brave girl right from her childhood with full-fledged martial training who was expert in fighting, riding and other planning level expertise in chalking out strategies of war. She was full of bravery, self-respect and had immense love for her motherland. She fought many wars against British in the battlefields as well hidden when it was so demanding. She was in close contact of other revolutionaries of her time who were fighting to set India free from the clutches of foreign rulers. Rani Laxmibai the queen of Jhansi, declared war against British and fought with them with her adopted son tied on her back having a single thought in her mind to see India free from ruthless British rule. But as it was a common practice in that period, there was no dearth of traitors and back-stabbers, who informed British forces about her whereabouts. The British forces surrounded her and followed her until she was left with no force and ultimately was killed by a fatal sword of a British soldier. Rani Laxmibai is no more but she will always remain in the memory of every Indian who loves this country. Begum Hazarat Mahal The Begum of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah popularly known Begum Hazarat Mahal took the reins of Oudh after her husband was kept under house arrest by British. It was around 1857, when the freedom movement was in its full gear. The British found this intolerable and surrounded the state of Oudh with heavy forces. The Begum fought with all her strength and even wrote a letter to the Queen of England expressing her concern about her willingness to live in free air. She wrote to Queen Victoria ‘If you are living in free air how you expect to live others in slavery, this was sheer injustice’ but Queen of England had no answer to Begum Hazarat Mahal. Begum even attacked through her secret armed attackers on the British headquarters, The Residency, which caused British army lots of troubles. However, the Begum made a statically wrong move to fight with them directly on the ground level that caused her defeat. She went to Nepal ultimately and died there later but she will be among the one who will always be in the history books for her gallantry. Azizen the community dancer Azizen the community dancer from Nitur was another example of our women revolutionaries who was a dancer by profession but her attraction toward freedom fighters and movement was so spellbinding for her that she stopped dancing and participated in freedom movement. She gathered women from her surrounding areas to teach them about freedom movement and trained them in different matters related to how to help freedom fighters. In fact, she formed a whole women-brigade who participated in the movement secretly. Azizen set another strategy to help the cause by wearing male dress in day hours and supply as many arms to revolutionaries and as much money as possible along with strategic information she gathered from the British army. Her dance was very popular and regular feature among the British soldiers, which she did for the particular purpose of gathering information and giving it to Nana Saheb and Tatya Tope. Later when she was captured during Kanpur phase of struggle for freedom fighting and was brought in front of General Havelock. The general found her beauty so astounding that he offered her to pardon on condition if she confessed herself guilty and surrender herself to general. Azizen refused and accepted the death-sentence, executed immediately by the firing squad. Chennamma the queen of Kittur Who can forget the famous queen Chennamma of Kittur a small place in Belgaum district in Karnataka, who gave stiffest of fights to the British army as one of the most fearful revolutionary force India has ever fought. Her fighting force was so immense that British army was unable to face her but she was captured due to some of her own unfaithful people who back-stabbed her helping British forces in capturing her. She was sent to nearby Dharbar Jail where she died later. She set an unforgettable example and will always remain in Indian history for her contribution towards the great cause for freedom along with other great freedom fighters of this country. Conclusion of this chapter of brave women of India There are thousands of such examples of women, who fought gallantly for the cause of freedom for India. The history will never forget the women like Umda Begum of Oudh, who was hanged by British government for her contribution to the cause of revolution. So was the case of Bhimabai Holker who fought until she breathed her last but kept fighting for the freedom of her country. Who can forget the contributions of Tahkurain of Buddi Baijabai, Alia Begum, Vassi Begum and Devi Choudhrani who participated with all their might for purpose of liberty for their country. They displayed to the world that women are not the weaker citizen or showpieces but real fighters as well when needed to stand together with men. Indian women like Mohasiya, Bera Maina, Haseena Zameel, Asha Devi, Rani Tejabai, Ganga, Ekka, and Surabhi also contributed with all their might for freedom in their own ways. Women fought from the front in Meerut in 1857, they were shot at when they tried to hoist the Indian flag on Fort of Mysore. Women lead from the front and we can prove from various examples available in every part of our country. Photos from - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_Lakshmibai Like it on Facebook, +1 on Google, Tweet it or share this article on other bookmarking websites.	1,584	ENGLISH	1
Roman Medicine: Uncovering the Beginning In early Rome, medicine took some time to begin to advance, but once it started there was nothing holding the discoveries back. All of these early detections that took place around 2,300 years ago which are viewed as home remedies today, were considered rather complex and have collectively led to the new medical breakthroughs of the present day. While early Roman medicine started off without much progress, it had evolved to impact the perspective and development of medicine today through the first simple tools and ancient methods. Early Medicine To prevent disease and illness according to the early Romans, the gods needed to constantly be happy. They are the ones who had the power to cause illness against anyone they are not pleased with and “people could not prevent or control disease, so there was no point in studying it” (Harris 35). Conventional wisdom has it that this is preposterous, but with the lack of scientific breakthroughs before this time period, these beliefs were strongly practiced until the Romans conquered Greece and some of their physicians were transferred to the Romans. Even after the Greek physicians and doctors had brought their medical advancements and techniques, some Romans were still skeptical and found this new belief hard to comprehend. While the Romans rarely admit as much, they would not have prospered as efficiently as they had without the help of the Greek. As Kate Kelly presents: Eventually, the Romans began to rely on their Greek predecessors for what the Greeks had learned about medicine. As the Roman Empire grew, the Romans took with them many of the Greek ideas, which they had adopted regarding medicine. A new health innovation, the hospital, was a convenience offered to the Roman military and eventually to the civilians (139). The Greek, including Hippocrates, disagreed with the Roman’s perspective of illness; Hippocrates and Asclepiads were two prime examples of physicians who understood the human body differently than the commoners. For example, Jacqueline Harris specifies that a man who was presumed dead did not look dead to him; after walking over and observing the man momentarily, he concluded this man was not dead and only needed a little massage and some cold water to reestablish him back to health. He soon became well known around Rome for his miraculous deed because those who had observed it, hastily spread the word for they could not hold such an impressive accomplishment to themselves. Along with the scientific advancements, some other discoveries were also founded. To be more precise, “many of Rome’s most important advances in medical technology did not involve treatment of disease. They involved disease prevention through sanitation and public health measures” (Woods 71). Because of the time period, their understanding of how swiftly germs will move from person to person through these public areas was impressive. Sewage disposal, for obvious reasons, was a key component to the attempt to prevent a city spread disease. On the other end of the spectrum however, aqueducts allowed for a constant flow of clean and safe drinking water for a community which were also instilled in their establishments. Roman Medics In 129 C. E. one of the most prominent medical minds emerged. Kate Kelly, author of The History of Medicine, acknowledges that he [Claudius Galen] lived 600 years after Hippocrates, but he became a strong believer in Hippocratic ideals and set about to revive many of the Greek Physician’s original teachings (121). His belief in their methods allowed for him to strive and surpass other physicians of his time. Jeanne Bendick claims that Galen practiced a therapeutic sense of healing by using various teas to sooth different types of pain in his patients; peppermint tea was typically used for headaches, clove tea worked wonders for depression, and chamomile tea managed to calm down the nerves of anyone who was tense or with a high anxiety level. Galen was a confident man who was soon able to approach medicine more logically then most of his peers; he did not view medicine as magic, but as a science. His confidence was what led him to the peak of discoveries during his time and he was well aware of his success as proven by his following statement, “I alone have indicated the true methods of treating diseases” (Harris 44). After Galen had died, the Romans slowly fell back into their original standpoint on medicine. Galen was a talented, special, and valued physician and was referred to as “a medical genius” (Harris 44). He was not used for the commoners, but only for the use of talented, special, valued and worthy people. These people included the royals, or emperors, and warriors. Such a magnificent healer could not be used for a commoner or anyone beneath a worthy status. Galen was able to achieve his high ranking through his dedication to learn more about the human body; this was pursued “from studying pigs and monkeys” (Bendick 2).Galen was not the only one who could heal the sick or injured; “people who were ill or in pain, depressed or upset, came to the temple for help” (Bendick 26), but this only applied to those who could not afford the excellent services of Galen who was clearly the preferred server. Aulus Cornelius Celsus was another prosperous physician in his time; he created an eight volume book filled with medical information that he had gathered, learned, and discovered throughout his lifetime which took place during the first century. His book was entitled “De Medicina” which translates to “Of Medicine”. In this book, Aulus Celsus had accurately described inflammation, distinguished between acute and chronic diseases, and made other precise observations about medicine and the human body” (Woods 62). All of these were major accomplishments which shocked researchers when they were rediscovered during searches. Unfortunately, not many people during the time period of Celsus were as educationally evolved and did not comprehend most of the more significant and crucial work that he did so, similarly to Galen, his work temporarily died off with him. Effect on Medicine Today Medicine today has evolved drastically since Galen and Celsus’ time, but it all started to branch off of what they had contributed to society. Surgeons used tools that were “razor sharp” (Woods 21), that were disposable when performing an operation. These tactics were advanced for their time period and we still follow similar procedures; now, surgeons have a variety of sharp objects used to probe around while performing a surgery and used tools are sent back to the distributors who then disinfect the utensils properly and efficiently before sending them back to be used once again. To remove a barb from a wounded soldier, operators would use a “spoon like instrument” (Woods 71) to remove the barb as simply and painlessly as probable. Pulling a barb out without an attempt with this device would immediately cause further damage; this excess wound could easily lead to an infection which without treatment can be fatal. Nowadays adaption’s have been made and doctors can safely remove an unwanted object from a person and fight the rare, but still possible infection. One of the most popular methods that were around in the first centuries which had been carried over was the soothing temptation of honey. Honey was used in many different types of remedies and could be used for almost all pains faced including ear aches, tonsil swelling, deep wounds, and coughing. Certain ones have carried over the centuries while others have been replaced with a more effective healing process. Currently, ear aches are treated with antibiotics if someone has an ear infection instead of placing drops of honey mixed with salt into an infected area. Dealing with swollen tonsils has also advanced and prospered to having them removed instead of gargling with honey. Deep wounds are yet another example of how medicine has developed and progressed to a more sophisticated state of healing. The Romans used to clean out deep, dirty cuts with this magical solution. Coughing, however is still treated with this comforting, resulting, home remedy. The smooth texture of honey thinly coats the sore throat which prevents some of the scratchiness and itching. Because “honey is one of the most complex natural mixtures and mainly consists of carbohydrates” (28 Honey in Traditional and Modern Medicine), it could be used in a number of different cases. Conclusion The productive work of the Roman medics before modern day has led to the great achievements and advancements that have saved millions of lives. These lives have been preserved thanks to early tools and simple remedies which were have been perfected and added upon. The early medicine from the Romans was based off of the Greek who also played a major part in these evolutions and the warnings of sanitation also further progressed. Specific talented minds including Galen and Celsus personally contributed a lot of the knowledge to current developments. Specific treatments were able to provide a beginning platform for some of these major progressions. These two main focuses were the first stepping stone for all modern day accomplishments and rescues.	<urn:uuid:5ae4ee19-e36a-4363-baba-db187dd85787>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://acasestudy.com/roman-medicine-uncovering-the-beginning/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00280.warc.gz	en	0.985888	1,851	3.5	4	[ -0.4181699752807617, 0.3422347605228424, 0.5469359159469604, 0.08126872777938843, -0.20737910270690918, -0.19807684421539307, -0.08499646186828613, 0.5367278456687927, -0.10839834809303284, -0.43497779965400696, 0.1673150360584259, -0.13555124402046204, -0.14400911331176758, 0.378027319908...	5	Roman Medicine: Uncovering the Beginning In early Rome, medicine took some time to begin to advance, but once it started there was nothing holding the discoveries back. All of these early detections that took place around 2,300 years ago which are viewed as home remedies today, were considered rather complex and have collectively led to the new medical breakthroughs of the present day. While early Roman medicine started off without much progress, it had evolved to impact the perspective and development of medicine today through the first simple tools and ancient methods. Early Medicine To prevent disease and illness according to the early Romans, the gods needed to constantly be happy. They are the ones who had the power to cause illness against anyone they are not pleased with and “people could not prevent or control disease, so there was no point in studying it” (Harris 35). Conventional wisdom has it that this is preposterous, but with the lack of scientific breakthroughs before this time period, these beliefs were strongly practiced until the Romans conquered Greece and some of their physicians were transferred to the Romans. Even after the Greek physicians and doctors had brought their medical advancements and techniques, some Romans were still skeptical and found this new belief hard to comprehend. While the Romans rarely admit as much, they would not have prospered as efficiently as they had without the help of the Greek. As Kate Kelly presents: Eventually, the Romans began to rely on their Greek predecessors for what the Greeks had learned about medicine. As the Roman Empire grew, the Romans took with them many of the Greek ideas, which they had adopted regarding medicine. A new health innovation, the hospital, was a convenience offered to the Roman military and eventually to the civilians (139). The Greek, including Hippocrates, disagreed with the Roman’s perspective of illness; Hippocrates and Asclepiads were two prime examples of physicians who understood the human body differently than the commoners. For example, Jacqueline Harris specifies that a man who was presumed dead did not look dead to him; after walking over and observing the man momentarily, he concluded this man was not dead and only needed a little massage and some cold water to reestablish him back to health. He soon became well known around Rome for his miraculous deed because those who had observed it, hastily spread the word for they could not hold such an impressive accomplishment to themselves. Along with the scientific advancements, some other discoveries were also founded. To be more precise, “many of Rome’s most important advances in medical technology did not involve treatment of disease. They involved disease prevention through sanitation and public health measures” (Woods 71). Because of the time period, their understanding of how swiftly germs will move from person to person through these public areas was impressive. Sewage disposal, for obvious reasons, was a key component to the attempt to prevent a city spread disease. On the other end of the spectrum however, aqueducts allowed for a constant flow of clean and safe drinking water for a community which were also instilled in their establishments. Roman Medics In 129 C. E. one of the most prominent medical minds emerged. Kate Kelly, author of The History of Medicine, acknowledges that he [Claudius Galen] lived 600 years after Hippocrates, but he became a strong believer in Hippocratic ideals and set about to revive many of the Greek Physician’s original teachings (121). His belief in their methods allowed for him to strive and surpass other physicians of his time. Jeanne Bendick claims that Galen practiced a therapeutic sense of healing by using various teas to sooth different types of pain in his patients; peppermint tea was typically used for headaches, clove tea worked wonders for depression, and chamomile tea managed to calm down the nerves of anyone who was tense or with a high anxiety level. Galen was a confident man who was soon able to approach medicine more logically then most of his peers; he did not view medicine as magic, but as a science. His confidence was what led him to the peak of discoveries during his time and he was well aware of his success as proven by his following statement, “I alone have indicated the true methods of treating diseases” (Harris 44). After Galen had died, the Romans slowly fell back into their original standpoint on medicine. Galen was a talented, special, and valued physician and was referred to as “a medical genius” (Harris 44). He was not used for the commoners, but only for the use of talented, special, valued and worthy people. These people included the royals, or emperors, and warriors. Such a magnificent healer could not be used for a commoner or anyone beneath a worthy status. Galen was able to achieve his high ranking through his dedication to learn more about the human body; this was pursued “from studying pigs and monkeys” (Bendick 2).Galen was not the only one who could heal the sick or injured; “people who were ill or in pain, depressed or upset, came to the temple for help” (Bendick 26), but this only applied to those who could not afford the excellent services of Galen who was clearly the preferred server. Aulus Cornelius Celsus was another prosperous physician in his time; he created an eight volume book filled with medical information that he had gathered, learned, and discovered throughout his lifetime which took place during the first century. His book was entitled “De Medicina” which translates to “Of Medicine”. In this book, Aulus Celsus had accurately described inflammation, distinguished between acute and chronic diseases, and made other precise observations about medicine and the human body” (Woods 62). All of these were major accomplishments which shocked researchers when they were rediscovered during searches. Unfortunately, not many people during the time period of Celsus were as educationally evolved and did not comprehend most of the more significant and crucial work that he did so, similarly to Galen, his work temporarily died off with him. Effect on Medicine Today Medicine today has evolved drastically since Galen and Celsus’ time, but it all started to branch off of what they had contributed to society. Surgeons used tools that were “razor sharp” (Woods 21), that were disposable when performing an operation. These tactics were advanced for their time period and we still follow similar procedures; now, surgeons have a variety of sharp objects used to probe around while performing a surgery and used tools are sent back to the distributors who then disinfect the utensils properly and efficiently before sending them back to be used once again. To remove a barb from a wounded soldier, operators would use a “spoon like instrument” (Woods 71) to remove the barb as simply and painlessly as probable. Pulling a barb out without an attempt with this device would immediately cause further damage; this excess wound could easily lead to an infection which without treatment can be fatal. Nowadays adaption’s have been made and doctors can safely remove an unwanted object from a person and fight the rare, but still possible infection. One of the most popular methods that were around in the first centuries which had been carried over was the soothing temptation of honey. Honey was used in many different types of remedies and could be used for almost all pains faced including ear aches, tonsil swelling, deep wounds, and coughing. Certain ones have carried over the centuries while others have been replaced with a more effective healing process. Currently, ear aches are treated with antibiotics if someone has an ear infection instead of placing drops of honey mixed with salt into an infected area. Dealing with swollen tonsils has also advanced and prospered to having them removed instead of gargling with honey. Deep wounds are yet another example of how medicine has developed and progressed to a more sophisticated state of healing. The Romans used to clean out deep, dirty cuts with this magical solution. Coughing, however is still treated with this comforting, resulting, home remedy. The smooth texture of honey thinly coats the sore throat which prevents some of the scratchiness and itching. Because “honey is one of the most complex natural mixtures and mainly consists of carbohydrates” (28 Honey in Traditional and Modern Medicine), it could be used in a number of different cases. Conclusion The productive work of the Roman medics before modern day has led to the great achievements and advancements that have saved millions of lives. These lives have been preserved thanks to early tools and simple remedies which were have been perfected and added upon. The early medicine from the Romans was based off of the Greek who also played a major part in these evolutions and the warnings of sanitation also further progressed. Specific talented minds including Galen and Celsus personally contributed a lot of the knowledge to current developments. Specific treatments were able to provide a beginning platform for some of these major progressions. These two main focuses were the first stepping stone for all modern day accomplishments and rescues.	1,836	ENGLISH	1
Technology and Religion/Beliefs The Ancient Huang He Civilization was a very impressive civilization. They started around 4000 B.C near the Yellow River in Asia; the start of this civilization was the start of many Chinese Empires. They viewed people outside of their civilization as uncivilized barbarians and that people should be loyal to their family before being loyal to anything else. The fathers were head of the family and women obeyed their fathers, sons when they got older and husbands. They also gave us a lot of inventions that we still use today and they also had a very different religion than most people. Religion was very important to the Huang He Civilization; the early religion of the Huang He people was polytheistic, meaning they had more than one. They believed in supernatural forces and that they could communicate with dead ancestors that were in the afterlife with oracle bones and also that spirits, kings and dead ancestors could help them have a good future. Confucianism and Taoism (also known as Daoism) existed in the area since about 450 BC and Buddhism hit the area in 110 BC – 220 AD and became the main religion in that area. One of the many dynasties near the Huang He River that was called the Shang Dynasty worshipped a God named Shang Di who ruled over Gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other natural forces. Ancestor worship was very important to the kings and nobles that ruled the Huang He River Valley civilization. They brought food and wine to temples as a sign of worship the ancestors and when a person died and their soul went to the afterlife (heaven) priests would write various peoples questions into oracle bones and hold a hold something hot over the bone to make cracks appear, these cracks were studied by priests to determine the answer that the ancestors gave them. When the Shang Dynasty was overthrown a new dynasty called the Zhou Dynasty formed and they believed in the “Mandate of Heaven”. The Mandate of Heaven meant that good rulers had the Gods approval but if they became bad rulers they could lose the approval and if the approval was lost then riots and floods would happen and the Mandate of Heaven would...	<urn:uuid:6f913ee7-1661-4624-b900-3bf2678f6105>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/technolgy-and-religion-beliefs	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00063.warc.gz	en	0.991049	444	3.71875	4	[ -0.34104955196380615, 0.6431371569633484, 0.2132834792137146, -0.23563264310359955, -0.14181916415691376, -0.16527459025382996, 0.4679616689682007, -0.03893623501062393, 0.0920056477189064, 0.09129297733306885, -0.11251375079154968, -0.4256117343902588, 0.08842451870441437, -0.068876013159...	1	Technology and Religion/Beliefs The Ancient Huang He Civilization was a very impressive civilization. They started around 4000 B.C near the Yellow River in Asia; the start of this civilization was the start of many Chinese Empires. They viewed people outside of their civilization as uncivilized barbarians and that people should be loyal to their family before being loyal to anything else. The fathers were head of the family and women obeyed their fathers, sons when they got older and husbands. They also gave us a lot of inventions that we still use today and they also had a very different religion than most people. Religion was very important to the Huang He Civilization; the early religion of the Huang He people was polytheistic, meaning they had more than one. They believed in supernatural forces and that they could communicate with dead ancestors that were in the afterlife with oracle bones and also that spirits, kings and dead ancestors could help them have a good future. Confucianism and Taoism (also known as Daoism) existed in the area since about 450 BC and Buddhism hit the area in 110 BC – 220 AD and became the main religion in that area. One of the many dynasties near the Huang He River that was called the Shang Dynasty worshipped a God named Shang Di who ruled over Gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other natural forces. Ancestor worship was very important to the kings and nobles that ruled the Huang He River Valley civilization. They brought food and wine to temples as a sign of worship the ancestors and when a person died and their soul went to the afterlife (heaven) priests would write various peoples questions into oracle bones and hold a hold something hot over the bone to make cracks appear, these cracks were studied by priests to determine the answer that the ancestors gave them. When the Shang Dynasty was overthrown a new dynasty called the Zhou Dynasty formed and they believed in the “Mandate of Heaven”. The Mandate of Heaven meant that good rulers had the Gods approval but if they became bad rulers they could lose the approval and if the approval was lost then riots and floods would happen and the Mandate of Heaven would...	454	ENGLISH	1
The building of big wooden hulls with load-bearing frames reached a stage in development at the end of the sixteenth century in which all structural elements were already present more or less as in nineteenth century ships. So refinements were slow in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Building methods varied from country to country only in the details. All ships, or at least all square rigged sailing ships which were built in European shipyards from Trieste to Königsberg, were essentially the same from a structural point of view. Eighteenth century English shipbuilding is fairly well documented, first by a number of original contemporary models made by the dockyards which had built the ships. Then there is a considerable amount of modern, high-level, research. What is missing are systematic, detailed works by contemporary writers during the early eighteenth century. These were only produced at the end of that century. Since the plans of Royal Caroline provide many indisputable elements, we can hope that the hull structure described below is, if not identical, at least very close to the original. She was certainly built like the other ships of the time. Correspondence shows that she received greater attention than was usual for a small vessel of the Sixth Rate. She was a small ship and many structural elements which had to be made up from several timbers on large ships could easily be made from a single plank or tree-trunk for her. The longitudinal structure, formed of keel, false keel, keelson, sternpost and stem, is clear from the drawings. Here we would observe that the keel was built of elm in several pieces joined by vertical scarphs, while the oak keelson and false keel were fashioned from several pieces joined by horizontal scarphs. A minimum of six or eight metal fastenings joined the two elements at each scarph joint and long bolts ran upwards from the lower face of the keel, through the individual ribs to the upper face of the keelson, where they were clinched over roves. These bolts did not pass through the false keel, which was joined to the keel by staples and by nails hammered in upwards from below. In this way the whole framework did not need to be dismantled to replace a damaged false keel. If the ship ran aground, the false keel broke easily because of its weak joint with the keel and in a certain sense acted as a 'shock absorber' to the body of the ship. The metal bolts, which were distinct from nails, ran through the whole thickness of the pieces to be joined and were clinched at the opposite end from the head. They were round bars, up to 2 inches thick on large ships, with a truncated conic head which was countersunk in or, sometimes a rounded head which protruded from, the wood. The craftsmen who did the job of inserting these bolts or rods through the wooden skeleton were highly specialized, and this was their sole occupation. It seems incredible today that, using only hand drills, they could cut a passage through a solid wood bow or stern more than 9 feet thick with minimal deviation from true. Ordinarily the bolts were made of iron or a copper alloy. Iron, under moist conditions, reacted in contact with tannic acid (in which oak is particularly rich) and caused the metal to corrode rapidly and the wood to decay. Nails and bolts soon ceased to be watertight and the joints loosened. So there was a tendency to make them in a copper alloy, which was less resilient than iron but much more durable in seawater. This became the rule when the practice of coppering the hull was adopted in England between 1770 and 1780. Bolts subject to particular tensile stresses (for example those which fixed the knees at the ribs and beams), rather than being clinched over a rove, were fixed with a key or metal spike called a 'gib' which fitted into a hole running diametrically through the bolt itself, resting against a rove. The entire skeleton of the ship was held together by these bolts, while nails were used only to join pieces less subject to stress. The athwartship structure consisted of frames usually formed by a pair of ribs bolted together. Every third pair is shown in the Admiralty plan. The frames were composed of different pieces since it was not possible to find wood of a suitable length and curvature naturally. In three-deckers, each rib might have been formed of seven or nine pieces. In Royal Caroline, as can be seen from the main frame taken directly from the original plans, it was formed of only five parts, a floor timber and two futtocks per side. Naturally, the joints between these elements were in different places in the two ribs which formed the frame so that when the two ribs were joined by the bolts, the result was a fairly rigid whole. Drawing B1 shows the English method of building frames around 1750. The 'room' or distance between the timbers was very narrow in ships of the line. The tendency was for it to be less than the calibre of enemy shot, at least up to the gun deck. Higher up, as the section of the futtocks reduced, the space widened. Light craft were built according to less expensive criteria, leaving wider spaces between the frames. The original Royal Caroline plans show that the room was more or less the section of a frame. Ballast, in the form of lead slabs, was placed in the interstices between the floor timbers. Normally there was little or no space between the floor timbers of warships and the ballast, in the form of cast iron slabs, old cannon balls or simply gravel, was laid above the internal planking. The system used on board Royal Caroline left more free space in the hold and this, as can be seen from the longitudinal section of the ship showing the internal divisions, was exploited down to its last cubic metre. Stowing the ballast in the lowest possible position made for greater stability, and also made it easier to keep the bilges clean and prevent an unpleasant odour from fouling the air below decks. This was, however, a peculiarity of this ship, not to be taken as a general rule. Among other things, a centre of gravity very much below the centre of the hull due to the special lead ballast gave the ship much greater stability, but after being heeled over by a gust of wind or a wave, her righting was much faster and sharper. The masts were stressed more and even the hull structure felt the effects. Hutchinson (Practical Seamanship, 1777) dwells at length on this subject with illuminating examples. Cargoes that were too heavy and compressed were not to be stored below the estimated hull centre to avoid the risk of the topmasts breaking off as a result of rolling too quickly. In Royal Caroline this drawback could easily be corrected by adjusting the amount of ballast so as to give a stable ship without excessive 'stiffness', and an uncluttered hold for personnel and equipment. Hutchinson's work makes interesting reading because he displays his very fine intuitive appreciation of the forces governing the movements of a hull in water. With regard to materials, the entrenched Royal Navy opinion was that British oak was by far the best type of wood. Hard, compact, durable in seawater as long as it was well seasoned, it was excellent timber. But some of the various species of Mediterranean oak were just as good and the magnificent woods which the Spaniards used in their shipyards of Manila and Havana were even better - alas, only as long as the forests lasted! All Royal Caroline's planking (decks included) was of English oak. This gave the hull the warm, yellowish-brown colour seen in many marine artists' paintings. The planking consisted of strakes 10 to 12 inches wide, about 3 inches thick for a small ship (7 to 8cm). Planks a little narrower tended to be used for the decks as they were less subject to structural strain, and thus to splintering. The planking was fixed to the hull frame using nails, bolts and treenails. There is a certain amount of confusion on this point due to the inaccuracy of certain authors, who lump periods, national traditions and types all together. The practice in England around the middle of the eighteenth century was to use treenails for a good part of these fastenings. This combined the advantages of econony (compared to iron and copper alloys), lightness and durability. They neither oxidized nor corroded the wood into which they were driven, and lasted practically as long. It is obvious that at the beginning the resistance of an iron nail or bolt was much greater than a treenail, but after two or three years the situation was the opposite. The following is one possible method for fixing the planking: two treenails for each strake on every frame, and two metal bolts running through and clinched on a rove at every butt joint between planks in the same strake. A metal nail was interposed in every two or three frames. When the width of the strake was less than 9 inches (20cm), a single treenail was used on each frame. Metal nails only were used on the wales and they were bigger and more numerous than those on normal planking. They were often round-headed instead of flat. The deck planking was fixed to the beams by treenails alone. Since there is often discussion on this point we would say that these treenails must not be confused with the dowels which were (and still are) used to cover the heads of bolts fixing deck planking to the iron frame of composite hulls, or the heads of spikes which attached planks to wooden beams where this was the practice. The grain of the dowels ran parallel to the deck, both for aesthetic reasons and because the deck had to remain uniformly smooth in use. These problems obviously did not arise with treenails. There were two treenails for each beam and ledge per plank. The diameter of the head was IVi to 2 inches (3 to 4cm). The deck was fashioned from planking running parallel to the keel for the whole length. The habit of tapering planks at the extremities of the decks was not unknown in the Royal Navy but the above rule applied more frequently. The planks were always jointed regularly on a beam, with an interval of three or four strakes between joints on the same beam. Caulking between the strakes was done with oakum and pitch which gave the seams between the planks, about one centimetre wide, a dark grey or blackish colour. Was this article helpful? Lets start by identifying what exactly certain boats are. Sometimes the terminology can get lost on beginners, so well look at some of the most common boats and what theyre called. These boats are exactly what the name implies. They are meant to be used for fishing. Most fishing boats are powered by outboard motors, and many also have a trolling motor mounted on the bow. Bass boats can be made of aluminium or fibreglass.	<urn:uuid:45733da0-87db-41bc-a8c6-f48118673ee4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.boatbuilding.xyz/caroline/hull-structure-and-planking.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00304.warc.gz	en	0.985113	2,303	3.796875	4	[ 0.02281399816274643, 0.018430545926094055, 0.43296223878860474, -0.2521744668483734, 0.17128466069698334, -0.15133316814899445, -0.8478000164031982, 0.17730028927326202, -0.08792366087436676, -0.19658420979976654, 0.20573487877845764, -0.32830336689949036, -0.249088317155838, 0.01051688380...	1	The building of big wooden hulls with load-bearing frames reached a stage in development at the end of the sixteenth century in which all structural elements were already present more or less as in nineteenth century ships. So refinements were slow in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Building methods varied from country to country only in the details. All ships, or at least all square rigged sailing ships which were built in European shipyards from Trieste to Königsberg, were essentially the same from a structural point of view. Eighteenth century English shipbuilding is fairly well documented, first by a number of original contemporary models made by the dockyards which had built the ships. Then there is a considerable amount of modern, high-level, research. What is missing are systematic, detailed works by contemporary writers during the early eighteenth century. These were only produced at the end of that century. Since the plans of Royal Caroline provide many indisputable elements, we can hope that the hull structure described below is, if not identical, at least very close to the original. She was certainly built like the other ships of the time. Correspondence shows that she received greater attention than was usual for a small vessel of the Sixth Rate. She was a small ship and many structural elements which had to be made up from several timbers on large ships could easily be made from a single plank or tree-trunk for her. The longitudinal structure, formed of keel, false keel, keelson, sternpost and stem, is clear from the drawings. Here we would observe that the keel was built of elm in several pieces joined by vertical scarphs, while the oak keelson and false keel were fashioned from several pieces joined by horizontal scarphs. A minimum of six or eight metal fastenings joined the two elements at each scarph joint and long bolts ran upwards from the lower face of the keel, through the individual ribs to the upper face of the keelson, where they were clinched over roves. These bolts did not pass through the false keel, which was joined to the keel by staples and by nails hammered in upwards from below. In this way the whole framework did not need to be dismantled to replace a damaged false keel. If the ship ran aground, the false keel broke easily because of its weak joint with the keel and in a certain sense acted as a 'shock absorber' to the body of the ship. The metal bolts, which were distinct from nails, ran through the whole thickness of the pieces to be joined and were clinched at the opposite end from the head. They were round bars, up to 2 inches thick on large ships, with a truncated conic head which was countersunk in or, sometimes a rounded head which protruded from, the wood. The craftsmen who did the job of inserting these bolts or rods through the wooden skeleton were highly specialized, and this was their sole occupation. It seems incredible today that, using only hand drills, they could cut a passage through a solid wood bow or stern more than 9 feet thick with minimal deviation from true. Ordinarily the bolts were made of iron or a copper alloy. Iron, under moist conditions, reacted in contact with tannic acid (in which oak is particularly rich) and caused the metal to corrode rapidly and the wood to decay. Nails and bolts soon ceased to be watertight and the joints loosened. So there was a tendency to make them in a copper alloy, which was less resilient than iron but much more durable in seawater. This became the rule when the practice of coppering the hull was adopted in England between 1770 and 1780. Bolts subject to particular tensile stresses (for example those which fixed the knees at the ribs and beams), rather than being clinched over a rove, were fixed with a key or metal spike called a 'gib' which fitted into a hole running diametrically through the bolt itself, resting against a rove. The entire skeleton of the ship was held together by these bolts, while nails were used only to join pieces less subject to stress. The athwartship structure consisted of frames usually formed by a pair of ribs bolted together. Every third pair is shown in the Admiralty plan. The frames were composed of different pieces since it was not possible to find wood of a suitable length and curvature naturally. In three-deckers, each rib might have been formed of seven or nine pieces. In Royal Caroline, as can be seen from the main frame taken directly from the original plans, it was formed of only five parts, a floor timber and two futtocks per side. Naturally, the joints between these elements were in different places in the two ribs which formed the frame so that when the two ribs were joined by the bolts, the result was a fairly rigid whole. Drawing B1 shows the English method of building frames around 1750. The 'room' or distance between the timbers was very narrow in ships of the line. The tendency was for it to be less than the calibre of enemy shot, at least up to the gun deck. Higher up, as the section of the futtocks reduced, the space widened. Light craft were built according to less expensive criteria, leaving wider spaces between the frames. The original Royal Caroline plans show that the room was more or less the section of a frame. Ballast, in the form of lead slabs, was placed in the interstices between the floor timbers. Normally there was little or no space between the floor timbers of warships and the ballast, in the form of cast iron slabs, old cannon balls or simply gravel, was laid above the internal planking. The system used on board Royal Caroline left more free space in the hold and this, as can be seen from the longitudinal section of the ship showing the internal divisions, was exploited down to its last cubic metre. Stowing the ballast in the lowest possible position made for greater stability, and also made it easier to keep the bilges clean and prevent an unpleasant odour from fouling the air below decks. This was, however, a peculiarity of this ship, not to be taken as a general rule. Among other things, a centre of gravity very much below the centre of the hull due to the special lead ballast gave the ship much greater stability, but after being heeled over by a gust of wind or a wave, her righting was much faster and sharper. The masts were stressed more and even the hull structure felt the effects. Hutchinson (Practical Seamanship, 1777) dwells at length on this subject with illuminating examples. Cargoes that were too heavy and compressed were not to be stored below the estimated hull centre to avoid the risk of the topmasts breaking off as a result of rolling too quickly. In Royal Caroline this drawback could easily be corrected by adjusting the amount of ballast so as to give a stable ship without excessive 'stiffness', and an uncluttered hold for personnel and equipment. Hutchinson's work makes interesting reading because he displays his very fine intuitive appreciation of the forces governing the movements of a hull in water. With regard to materials, the entrenched Royal Navy opinion was that British oak was by far the best type of wood. Hard, compact, durable in seawater as long as it was well seasoned, it was excellent timber. But some of the various species of Mediterranean oak were just as good and the magnificent woods which the Spaniards used in their shipyards of Manila and Havana were even better - alas, only as long as the forests lasted! All Royal Caroline's planking (decks included) was of English oak. This gave the hull the warm, yellowish-brown colour seen in many marine artists' paintings. The planking consisted of strakes 10 to 12 inches wide, about 3 inches thick for a small ship (7 to 8cm). Planks a little narrower tended to be used for the decks as they were less subject to structural strain, and thus to splintering. The planking was fixed to the hull frame using nails, bolts and treenails. There is a certain amount of confusion on this point due to the inaccuracy of certain authors, who lump periods, national traditions and types all together. The practice in England around the middle of the eighteenth century was to use treenails for a good part of these fastenings. This combined the advantages of econony (compared to iron and copper alloys), lightness and durability. They neither oxidized nor corroded the wood into which they were driven, and lasted practically as long. It is obvious that at the beginning the resistance of an iron nail or bolt was much greater than a treenail, but after two or three years the situation was the opposite. The following is one possible method for fixing the planking: two treenails for each strake on every frame, and two metal bolts running through and clinched on a rove at every butt joint between planks in the same strake. A metal nail was interposed in every two or three frames. When the width of the strake was less than 9 inches (20cm), a single treenail was used on each frame. Metal nails only were used on the wales and they were bigger and more numerous than those on normal planking. They were often round-headed instead of flat. The deck planking was fixed to the beams by treenails alone. Since there is often discussion on this point we would say that these treenails must not be confused with the dowels which were (and still are) used to cover the heads of bolts fixing deck planking to the iron frame of composite hulls, or the heads of spikes which attached planks to wooden beams where this was the practice. The grain of the dowels ran parallel to the deck, both for aesthetic reasons and because the deck had to remain uniformly smooth in use. These problems obviously did not arise with treenails. There were two treenails for each beam and ledge per plank. The diameter of the head was IVi to 2 inches (3 to 4cm). The deck was fashioned from planking running parallel to the keel for the whole length. The habit of tapering planks at the extremities of the decks was not unknown in the Royal Navy but the above rule applied more frequently. The planks were always jointed regularly on a beam, with an interval of three or four strakes between joints on the same beam. Caulking between the strakes was done with oakum and pitch which gave the seams between the planks, about one centimetre wide, a dark grey or blackish colour. Was this article helpful? Lets start by identifying what exactly certain boats are. Sometimes the terminology can get lost on beginners, so well look at some of the most common boats and what theyre called. These boats are exactly what the name implies. They are meant to be used for fishing. Most fishing boats are powered by outboard motors, and many also have a trolling motor mounted on the bow. Bass boats can be made of aluminium or fibreglass.	2,308	ENGLISH	1
“We’re not really at 37 states because some states revoked their ratifications.” - Article V of the Constitution authorizes states to ratify amendments but does not give states the power to rescind their ratification. - Allowing ratification while prohibiting a change of heart makes practical sense too. If states were allowed to rescind as well as ratify, there would be no point in time when we could safely say that three-fourths of the states ratified the amendment, making it part of the Constitution. The uncertainty would make it impossible to know what is or is not in the Constitution. - Three amendments to the Constitution were added while ignoring rescissions. All states that ratified, including those that had attempted to rescind a ratification, were included in the count that determined the amendment was, indeed, valid as part of the Constitution: - Fourteenth Amendment: Ohio and New Jersey attempted to rescind their ratification, their rescission was ignored, the Fourteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution - Fifteenth Amendment: New York attempted to rescind; Georgia ratified; both were considered among the ratifying states (NY’s rescission was ignored) - Nineteenth Amendment: Tennessee attempted to rescind but its rescission was ignored and the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution	<urn:uuid:500a752f-6141-4f25-80fe-7d219113489a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://varatifyera.org/background/faq/ratification-rescission/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00412.warc.gz	en	0.986452	262	3.65625	4	[ -0.6850054264068604, -0.2645779252052307, 0.09260594844818115, -0.06318612396717072, -0.2187817096710205, 0.30358177423477173, -0.009220563806593418, 0.08860698342323303, -0.4106668531894684, -0.10264556854963303, -0.0014482944970950484, -0.04431600123643875, 0.10986994206905365, 0.1110779...	8	“We’re not really at 37 states because some states revoked their ratifications.” - Article V of the Constitution authorizes states to ratify amendments but does not give states the power to rescind their ratification. - Allowing ratification while prohibiting a change of heart makes practical sense too. If states were allowed to rescind as well as ratify, there would be no point in time when we could safely say that three-fourths of the states ratified the amendment, making it part of the Constitution. The uncertainty would make it impossible to know what is or is not in the Constitution. - Three amendments to the Constitution were added while ignoring rescissions. All states that ratified, including those that had attempted to rescind a ratification, were included in the count that determined the amendment was, indeed, valid as part of the Constitution: - Fourteenth Amendment: Ohio and New Jersey attempted to rescind their ratification, their rescission was ignored, the Fourteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution - Fifteenth Amendment: New York attempted to rescind; Georgia ratified; both were considered among the ratifying states (NY’s rescission was ignored) - Nineteenth Amendment: Tennessee attempted to rescind but its rescission was ignored and the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution	262	ENGLISH	1
How do you react when you encounter challenging circumstances? Do you feel discouraged and give up or do you face the problem? Do you try to receive help from people like your friends?” In the novel, The Penelopiad, Margaret Atwood develops the idea that even though individuals often feel upset and frustrated towards challenging circumstance, they try to overcome it and sometimes seek help from others. Penelope, the main narrator of the novel, was put into challenging circumstances after her husband, Odysseus, left to Troy. She faced pressure from the suitors to marry one of them. This caused her to feel upset and frustrated that she often “would lie on her bed and weep” (pg.109). Her reaction to this situation is similar to how many people react when they face problems. For instance, when I had to make difficult decisions, I felt quite unsettled and even cried, similar to Penelope. In addition, when Telemachus left Ithaca in search of news of Odysseus without informing Penelope, she “cried so much she thought she would turn into a river or a fountain” (pg.121). This shows how sadnesses and frustration were the most dominant emotions Penelope felt when she faced challenging circumstances. During these difficult situations, Penelope did not give up and instead, tried to overcome the problem. When she was pressured to marry one of the suitors, she devised a clever plan. She “kept thinking of a way to postpone the day of decision” (pg.112). Her plan was to explain to the suitors that she would pick her new husband once she finished weaving a shroud for Laertes. However, this shroud would never be completed as she would unweave it at night. This shows how she attempted to overcome her challenging circumstances. This is similar to when I faced problems while working on a project for school. I came up with a plan in order to finish it on time. This shows that individuals try to find ways to overcome the problems they are facing. Despite her effort to resolve her frustrating situations, she was not able to solely solve the problem on her own and she needed help from her maids. She chose “twelve of her maidservants – the youngest ones” (pg.113) to help her with the shroud. In addition, the maids helped her “spy” (pg.115) on the suitors. Without them, her plan would not have worked. Penelope would not have been able to unweave the shroud alone. The maids also helped her to gain information about the suitors and their plans. When I had to solve difficult problems in the past, I also needed help from others. My friends often helped me when with school work. My friends played a similar role to the maids who helped Penelope in the novel. The ideas Margaret Atwood develops in the novel regarding individuals’ reactions to challenging circumstances is shown through Penelope actions. When encountered problems, she often wept about her situation, but she always tried to overcome these challenges. She was able to successfully solve her problems as a result of the help she received from her maids. Penelope’s responses towards her problematic situation was similar to the way I personally reacted to challenging circumstances.	<urn:uuid:85fa69d6-49c9-4196-a390-0bca9cd4037b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://firstnightdanbury.org/how-she-faced-pressure-from-the-suitors/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00473.warc.gz	en	0.985008	681	3.5625	4	[ -0.4424445629119873, 0.08972841501235962, 0.32619649171829224, 0.25072982907295227, -0.44386059045791626, 0.02593565732240677, 0.2954643666744232, 0.062374297529459, -0.16750657558441162, -0.35632768273353577, 0.2749703526496887, -0.14380121231079102, 0.09099605679512024, 0.292806148529052...	3	How do you react when you encounter challenging circumstances? Do you feel discouraged and give up or do you face the problem? Do you try to receive help from people like your friends?” In the novel, The Penelopiad, Margaret Atwood develops the idea that even though individuals often feel upset and frustrated towards challenging circumstance, they try to overcome it and sometimes seek help from others. Penelope, the main narrator of the novel, was put into challenging circumstances after her husband, Odysseus, left to Troy. She faced pressure from the suitors to marry one of them. This caused her to feel upset and frustrated that she often “would lie on her bed and weep” (pg.109). Her reaction to this situation is similar to how many people react when they face problems. For instance, when I had to make difficult decisions, I felt quite unsettled and even cried, similar to Penelope. In addition, when Telemachus left Ithaca in search of news of Odysseus without informing Penelope, she “cried so much she thought she would turn into a river or a fountain” (pg.121). This shows how sadnesses and frustration were the most dominant emotions Penelope felt when she faced challenging circumstances. During these difficult situations, Penelope did not give up and instead, tried to overcome the problem. When she was pressured to marry one of the suitors, she devised a clever plan. She “kept thinking of a way to postpone the day of decision” (pg.112). Her plan was to explain to the suitors that she would pick her new husband once she finished weaving a shroud for Laertes. However, this shroud would never be completed as she would unweave it at night. This shows how she attempted to overcome her challenging circumstances. This is similar to when I faced problems while working on a project for school. I came up with a plan in order to finish it on time. This shows that individuals try to find ways to overcome the problems they are facing. Despite her effort to resolve her frustrating situations, she was not able to solely solve the problem on her own and she needed help from her maids. She chose “twelve of her maidservants – the youngest ones” (pg.113) to help her with the shroud. In addition, the maids helped her “spy” (pg.115) on the suitors. Without them, her plan would not have worked. Penelope would not have been able to unweave the shroud alone. The maids also helped her to gain information about the suitors and their plans. When I had to solve difficult problems in the past, I also needed help from others. My friends often helped me when with school work. My friends played a similar role to the maids who helped Penelope in the novel. The ideas Margaret Atwood develops in the novel regarding individuals’ reactions to challenging circumstances is shown through Penelope actions. When encountered problems, she often wept about her situation, but she always tried to overcome these challenges. She was able to successfully solve her problems as a result of the help she received from her maids. Penelope’s responses towards her problematic situation was similar to the way I personally reacted to challenging circumstances.	681	ENGLISH	1
On the 8th of April 1886, William Gladstone introduced the First Home Rule Bill to the British govenment. The real name of the bill was the Government of Ireland Bill 1886. The bill was introduced by liberaal Prime Minister, William Gladstone. The purpose of the bill was to create a devolved parliament which would govern specific areas in Ireland. Charles Stewart Parnell had been campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland since the 1870's and so his opinion of this bill was highly sought after. The bill was well received by Parnell, who stated that although the bill was not without its faults, he was prepared to vote for it. The bill was hugley opposed by the Orange Order who saw Home Rule as equating to Rome Rule. Two months later the First Home Rule Bill was defeated in a vote and Gladstone's parliament dissolved.	<urn:uuid:922e11d8-b8e3-40f9-9068-a32d6d0cbeea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irelandxo.com/ireland-xo/history-and-genealogy/timeline/first-home-rule-bill	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00484.warc.gz	en	0.992031	179	3.8125	4	[ -0.21660929918289185, -0.016825521364808083, 0.3235481083393097, -0.3040291965007782, -0.2897785007953644, -0.04387202858924866, 0.35479268431663513, -0.22793343663215637, 0.08076494932174683, 0.09786254912614822, -0.14229868352413177, -0.16199414432048798, 0.06990033388137817, 0.154823258...	4	On the 8th of April 1886, William Gladstone introduced the First Home Rule Bill to the British govenment. The real name of the bill was the Government of Ireland Bill 1886. The bill was introduced by liberaal Prime Minister, William Gladstone. The purpose of the bill was to create a devolved parliament which would govern specific areas in Ireland. Charles Stewart Parnell had been campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland since the 1870's and so his opinion of this bill was highly sought after. The bill was well received by Parnell, who stated that although the bill was not without its faults, he was prepared to vote for it. The bill was hugley opposed by the Orange Order who saw Home Rule as equating to Rome Rule. Two months later the First Home Rule Bill was defeated in a vote and Gladstone's parliament dissolved.	186	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of the Bulge was the last battle of the German attacks. It started on December 16,1944 and ended on January 28, 1945. It was the largest land battle of World War II, more than millions of men joined the battle. 55,000 British armies, 500,000 American armies, and 600,000 German armies were fighting. The World War was coming to an end by 1944, the forces of Germany were becoming weak, and the armies of Hitler were on the run. Allies regained the land that was previously taken by the Nazis. Adolf decided a surprising attack against allies that could turn the flow of the war. Adolf built a huge number of armies that had new artillery, airplanes, and tanks built. Adolf’s last attack had to work, or he would lose. His idea was to walk eighty-five miles from South of Belgium all the way to Luxembourg and to fight with the allies as a surprise. Hitler wanted to attack during Christmas in the forest of Ardennes which is an area where there was a very few number of allied soldiers. The purpose of the takeover was to divide American armies and British armies in half. However, the plan didn’t succeed. The German army caught the allies, they had a bit of success in the start and they were able to takeover many lands from the allies and capture multiple allied soldiers. Allied forces attacked armies of Hitler’s thoughtfully, and they tried the best to hold onto their grounds. They made the German army slow down till English and America’s additional troops arrived to fight with Germany. The army of Germany had no match for allied forces. Germany was losing lots of men, fuel, and ammunition. After many strong battles the forces of Germany was pushed back, Germany gave all the lands they had been conquering in the start of the battle. The allied forces destroyed the German armies entirely. After what happened they were not able to build a huge army in order to attack other allies. Soon, Allied forces occupied and destroyed Germany and its army. Later, On May 1945, Adolf Hitler commits suicide, and the Germans gave up after his suicide. That event ended World War II.	<urn:uuid:c3d75447-b5f2-4aae-876b-8d3c8226cc3b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightinvisiblegreen.com/the-battle-of-the-bulge-was-the-last-battle-of-the-german-attacks/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00050.warc.gz	en	0.990273	439	3.5625	4	[ -0.1648026406764984, 0.5900967717170715, -0.06706365942955017, 0.008768249303102493, -0.16914121806621552, 0.068997822701931, -0.12979112565517426, 0.08895402401685715, -0.011904063634574413, -0.20140710473060608, 0.3810797929763794, -0.44856128096580505, 0.1646331399679184, 0.420729875564...	5	The Battle of the Bulge was the last battle of the German attacks. It started on December 16,1944 and ended on January 28, 1945. It was the largest land battle of World War II, more than millions of men joined the battle. 55,000 British armies, 500,000 American armies, and 600,000 German armies were fighting. The World War was coming to an end by 1944, the forces of Germany were becoming weak, and the armies of Hitler were on the run. Allies regained the land that was previously taken by the Nazis. Adolf decided a surprising attack against allies that could turn the flow of the war. Adolf built a huge number of armies that had new artillery, airplanes, and tanks built. Adolf’s last attack had to work, or he would lose. His idea was to walk eighty-five miles from South of Belgium all the way to Luxembourg and to fight with the allies as a surprise. Hitler wanted to attack during Christmas in the forest of Ardennes which is an area where there was a very few number of allied soldiers. The purpose of the takeover was to divide American armies and British armies in half. However, the plan didn’t succeed. The German army caught the allies, they had a bit of success in the start and they were able to takeover many lands from the allies and capture multiple allied soldiers. Allied forces attacked armies of Hitler’s thoughtfully, and they tried the best to hold onto their grounds. They made the German army slow down till English and America’s additional troops arrived to fight with Germany. The army of Germany had no match for allied forces. Germany was losing lots of men, fuel, and ammunition. After many strong battles the forces of Germany was pushed back, Germany gave all the lands they had been conquering in the start of the battle. The allied forces destroyed the German armies entirely. After what happened they were not able to build a huge army in order to attack other allies. Soon, Allied forces occupied and destroyed Germany and its army. Later, On May 1945, Adolf Hitler commits suicide, and the Germans gave up after his suicide. That event ended World War II.	463	ENGLISH	1
It is no exaggeration to say that the Romans have made profound impact on almost all civilized nations of the world and their culture is the cradle of many cultures of today (Rao, 113). The manner in which the Romans pick their girls has a whole lot to do with the laws governing marriage at that time. Before a marriage could be considered legal, both couples must be matured; for the girl twelve years and for the boy fourteen, the parents of the couple have to be fully aware; that is it has to be with the consent of both families of the bride and groom. During the Augustan age, families were forbidden any refusal of marriage without given any valid reason as to why they refused a marriage. Marriage between a close relation likewise ascendant and descendant marriage were also unlawful. There were two social classes during the early Roman period; the patricians who were the citizens and the plebeians who were the free non-citizens. During that time, the patricians only marry the patricians and the plebeians only the plebeians respectively as there was no inter-marital relationship between these two social classes. Marriage by the Patricians was considered a sacred institution which cannot be done just by merely saying it. Some manners of consideration have to be taken before a marriage could actually take place. With the direct consent of the gods, the patrician takes his bride from her father’s house to his own residence in the company of a representative of his clan. In this form of marriage, the bride is put under the authority of her husband and her husband in a way becomes her master. The plebeian marriage however consist essentially the cohabitation of a man and woman as husband and wife. Plebeian marriages were not recognized by the patricians as they were not considered citizens and even when the plebeians became citizens and their marriage were legalized, inter-marriage between the plebeians and the patricians were still not allowed because of the religious differences between them. But as years past, their laws were amended and the marriage between the social classes now became possible. The early Romans married at a relatively early age as a girl was considered ready for marriage between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. Her father would choose a husband and perform the required arrangements. Though young Roman children were not forced into marriage, very few children were able to refuse an arranged marriage (Mellor). Betrothal before marriage was considered a good form although it had no legal obligation attached to it. Betrothal involves a girl been promised solemnly by her family to the man or his family. This process in most case is represented by the man giving the prospective wife a ring. The ring is worn on the third finger of the left hand which the Romans believed had a direct link with the heart, as they believed that the finger had a connection with the heart by a nerve. It was customary point of pride with the Romans for the bride to bring her groom a dowry which was provided by her family if she is still dependent on them or by herself. The bride is dressed by her mother on the morning of her wedding day; one of the most significant parts of the dressing was the “knot of Hercules” who was considered the guardian of wedded life (Rome exposed – Roman Children). The groom is the only one permitted to loose the knot once it is tied and this is done after the wife has been accompanied to her new home. After the marriage ceremony, there is usually a dinner (reception) in the house of the bride after which she is then accompanied to her husband’s house by her family members. On entering into her new home, the bride is carried into the house so as to prevent any bad omen that may result if she stumbles upon her first entrance into the house. Until the first child is born, marriage itself is not regarded as having been consummated. This is because the Romans believe that children are of paramount importance in order for a marriage to be considered blissful. However husbands and wives could tend to love each other as time goes on. The Roman women enjoy social freedom as they could attend both public and private banquets in the society. After marriage, the social status of a Roman woman increases as she is raised to the rank of her husband and is considered equal with him sharing the same religious and civil status with him. Her responsibility however is to govern the home and being the mistress of the house, she oversees the education of her children as well as the slaves. During the Augustan age women had more encouragement to bear more children because of the privilege associated with it. The moment a woman has three children, she would be released form all supervision and was free to conduct business by herself (Bierkan, Sherman & Stocquart, 303-327). One could safely say that the Roman woman was vast and sophisticated when compared to her counterparts like the Greeks and this was due to the privileges given to her by the society.	<urn:uuid:94d03962-a9e9-4ed2-a63a-0770fefef5f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-western-humanities/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00541.warc.gz	en	0.990527	1,028	3.59375	4	[ -0.2102084457874298, 0.5419109463691711, -0.05319415032863617, -0.4136553704738617, -0.06738115847110748, 0.06600923836231232, -0.2503775954246521, 0.12445573508739471, 0.4173317849636078, -0.14072158932685852, 0.24489806592464447, 0.00019399053417146206, 0.25953713059425354, 0.12052925676...	2	It is no exaggeration to say that the Romans have made profound impact on almost all civilized nations of the world and their culture is the cradle of many cultures of today (Rao, 113). The manner in which the Romans pick their girls has a whole lot to do with the laws governing marriage at that time. Before a marriage could be considered legal, both couples must be matured; for the girl twelve years and for the boy fourteen, the parents of the couple have to be fully aware; that is it has to be with the consent of both families of the bride and groom. During the Augustan age, families were forbidden any refusal of marriage without given any valid reason as to why they refused a marriage. Marriage between a close relation likewise ascendant and descendant marriage were also unlawful. There were two social classes during the early Roman period; the patricians who were the citizens and the plebeians who were the free non-citizens. During that time, the patricians only marry the patricians and the plebeians only the plebeians respectively as there was no inter-marital relationship between these two social classes. Marriage by the Patricians was considered a sacred institution which cannot be done just by merely saying it. Some manners of consideration have to be taken before a marriage could actually take place. With the direct consent of the gods, the patrician takes his bride from her father’s house to his own residence in the company of a representative of his clan. In this form of marriage, the bride is put under the authority of her husband and her husband in a way becomes her master. The plebeian marriage however consist essentially the cohabitation of a man and woman as husband and wife. Plebeian marriages were not recognized by the patricians as they were not considered citizens and even when the plebeians became citizens and their marriage were legalized, inter-marriage between the plebeians and the patricians were still not allowed because of the religious differences between them. But as years past, their laws were amended and the marriage between the social classes now became possible. The early Romans married at a relatively early age as a girl was considered ready for marriage between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. Her father would choose a husband and perform the required arrangements. Though young Roman children were not forced into marriage, very few children were able to refuse an arranged marriage (Mellor). Betrothal before marriage was considered a good form although it had no legal obligation attached to it. Betrothal involves a girl been promised solemnly by her family to the man or his family. This process in most case is represented by the man giving the prospective wife a ring. The ring is worn on the third finger of the left hand which the Romans believed had a direct link with the heart, as they believed that the finger had a connection with the heart by a nerve. It was customary point of pride with the Romans for the bride to bring her groom a dowry which was provided by her family if she is still dependent on them or by herself. The bride is dressed by her mother on the morning of her wedding day; one of the most significant parts of the dressing was the “knot of Hercules” who was considered the guardian of wedded life (Rome exposed – Roman Children). The groom is the only one permitted to loose the knot once it is tied and this is done after the wife has been accompanied to her new home. After the marriage ceremony, there is usually a dinner (reception) in the house of the bride after which she is then accompanied to her husband’s house by her family members. On entering into her new home, the bride is carried into the house so as to prevent any bad omen that may result if she stumbles upon her first entrance into the house. Until the first child is born, marriage itself is not regarded as having been consummated. This is because the Romans believe that children are of paramount importance in order for a marriage to be considered blissful. However husbands and wives could tend to love each other as time goes on. The Roman women enjoy social freedom as they could attend both public and private banquets in the society. After marriage, the social status of a Roman woman increases as she is raised to the rank of her husband and is considered equal with him sharing the same religious and civil status with him. Her responsibility however is to govern the home and being the mistress of the house, she oversees the education of her children as well as the slaves. During the Augustan age women had more encouragement to bear more children because of the privilege associated with it. The moment a woman has three children, she would be released form all supervision and was free to conduct business by herself (Bierkan, Sherman & Stocquart, 303-327). One could safely say that the Roman woman was vast and sophisticated when compared to her counterparts like the Greeks and this was due to the privileges given to her by the society.	1,022	ENGLISH	1
This treatment of the International Sunday School Lesson (for December 4) is written by Sam E. Stone, former editor of CHRISTIAN STANDARD. The Lord Calls Abram (Genesis 11:27–12:9) By Sam E. Stone “God’s Covenant” is the general theme of our lessons this month highlighting several events in the life of Abraham. He is one of the most important figures in the Old Testament. He is first mentioned in Genesis 11:26, in the section before today’s printed text. There he is called Abram. It was not until many years later that the Lord changed his name to Abraham (Genesis 17:5). In Hebrews he is described like this: “By faith Abraham, when called to go to a place he would later receive as his inheritance, obeyed and went, even though he did not know where he was going” (11:8). “He was looking forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God” (v. 10). Abraham’s father Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. While still living in the land of his birth, Abram married Sarai. Scripture explains, “Now Sarai was barren; she had no children” (Genesis 11:30). The Lord had said to Abram, “Leave your country, your people and your father’s household and go to the land I will show you.” God spoke to him while he was still in Mesopotamia. The call to Abram contained both a command and a promise. He was told to leave all that was there and step out on faith, taking God at his word, obedient to his will. The land God selected was Canaan—the promised land. It appears that Abram did not even know where this was (Hebrews 11:8). When he was still in Ur (Acts 7:3), God’s call came. This was before he had taken a single step toward altering the life he had lived in heathenism! I will make you into a great nation. Later in life, Abraham would become the father of the Jewish people. God’s promised blessing would make his name great and make him a blessing to all peoples on earth. This greatest blessing of all would come through one of Abram’s descendants—Jesus, God’s Son, the one who would bring salvation to a lost world. C. F. Keil notes, “Abram was not only to receive blessing, but to be a blessing; not only to be blessed of God, but to become a blessing, or the medium of blessing, to others.” God’s promise to him included seven parts (Genesis 12:2, 3). The promises were later reaffirmed to his descendants. Genesis 12:4, 5 So Abram left, as the Lord told him. True faith requires obedience (Hebrews 11:8). Simply saying, “I believe,” is not enough. True faith is demonstrated by what one does (James 2:14-26). Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran. He took his wife Sarai. She is one of the few women mentioned prominently in the Old Testament. She demonstrated her faith just as her husband did his. Her name was later changed to Sarah (Genesis 17:15). She was the daughter of Terah by a different mother than Abraham had (Genesis 20:12). At length their large entourage arrived in the land of Canaan. At that time the Canaanites were in the land. These few words are significant. Abraham and his family were monotheistic, but they were relocating into a pagan, idolatrous culture. Shechem was evidently a site of pagan worship, but Abraham made it clear that he was not following the local pagan deity, but rather the one, true, living God. The Lord appeared to Abram and said, “To your offspring I will give this land.” In response, Abraham built an altar there. One of his first tasks in the promised land was to sacrifice and pray to the God who had called him here. He traveled next to the hills east of Bethel, just miles north of Jerusalem. Here he built another altar and praised God. Then Abram set out and continued through the Negev. He went next on to the desert country south of Beersheba that represents the southernmost section of the promised land. So began his remarkable relocation as he followed God’s plan for him. Herbert Lockyer said it well: “He uttered no prophecy, wrote no book, sang no song, gave no laws. Yet in the long list of Bible saints he alone is spoken of as ‘the father of the faithful’ and as ‘the friend of God’ (Isaiah 41:8).” *Scripture quotations are from the New International Version ©1984, unless otherwise indicated. \|HOME DAILY BIBLE READINGS\| \|November 28: Acts 7:1-8\| \|November 29: Deuteronomy 4:5-9\| \|November 30: Deuteronomy 26:1-11\| \|December 1: Isaiah 51:1-6\| \|December 2: Matthew 3:1-10\| \|December 3: Hebrews 6:13-20\| \|December 4: Genesis 12:1-9\| ABOUT THE LESSON WRITER: Sam E. Stone is the former editor of CHRISTIAN STANDARD. He continues his writing and speaking ministry from his home in Cincinnati, Ohio.	<urn:uuid:4842eaa6-93f2-4b8c-9b6d-521d8e4e4992>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://christianstandard.com/2011/11/lesson-for-dec-4-2011-the-lord-calls-abram-genesis-1127-129/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00028.warc.gz	en	0.985262	1,187	3.359375	3	[ 0.05197608470916748, 0.49387460947036743, -0.08218246698379517, -0.32821229100227356, -0.3810423016548157, 0.07285561412572861, 0.19241055846214294, 0.41293036937713623, -0.0992397889494896, 0.26483404636383057, -0.1335921734571457, -0.044165290892124176, 0.10776464641094208, 0.39037430286...	1	This treatment of the International Sunday School Lesson (for December 4) is written by Sam E. Stone, former editor of CHRISTIAN STANDARD. The Lord Calls Abram (Genesis 11:27–12:9) By Sam E. Stone “God’s Covenant” is the general theme of our lessons this month highlighting several events in the life of Abraham. He is one of the most important figures in the Old Testament. He is first mentioned in Genesis 11:26, in the section before today’s printed text. There he is called Abram. It was not until many years later that the Lord changed his name to Abraham (Genesis 17:5). In Hebrews he is described like this: “By faith Abraham, when called to go to a place he would later receive as his inheritance, obeyed and went, even though he did not know where he was going” (11:8). “He was looking forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God” (v. 10). Abraham’s father Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. While still living in the land of his birth, Abram married Sarai. Scripture explains, “Now Sarai was barren; she had no children” (Genesis 11:30). The Lord had said to Abram, “Leave your country, your people and your father’s household and go to the land I will show you.” God spoke to him while he was still in Mesopotamia. The call to Abram contained both a command and a promise. He was told to leave all that was there and step out on faith, taking God at his word, obedient to his will. The land God selected was Canaan—the promised land. It appears that Abram did not even know where this was (Hebrews 11:8). When he was still in Ur (Acts 7:3), God’s call came. This was before he had taken a single step toward altering the life he had lived in heathenism! I will make you into a great nation. Later in life, Abraham would become the father of the Jewish people. God’s promised blessing would make his name great and make him a blessing to all peoples on earth. This greatest blessing of all would come through one of Abram’s descendants—Jesus, God’s Son, the one who would bring salvation to a lost world. C. F. Keil notes, “Abram was not only to receive blessing, but to be a blessing; not only to be blessed of God, but to become a blessing, or the medium of blessing, to others.” God’s promise to him included seven parts (Genesis 12:2, 3). The promises were later reaffirmed to his descendants. Genesis 12:4, 5 So Abram left, as the Lord told him. True faith requires obedience (Hebrews 11:8). Simply saying, “I believe,” is not enough. True faith is demonstrated by what one does (James 2:14-26). Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran. He took his wife Sarai. She is one of the few women mentioned prominently in the Old Testament. She demonstrated her faith just as her husband did his. Her name was later changed to Sarah (Genesis 17:15). She was the daughter of Terah by a different mother than Abraham had (Genesis 20:12). At length their large entourage arrived in the land of Canaan. At that time the Canaanites were in the land. These few words are significant. Abraham and his family were monotheistic, but they were relocating into a pagan, idolatrous culture. Shechem was evidently a site of pagan worship, but Abraham made it clear that he was not following the local pagan deity, but rather the one, true, living God. The Lord appeared to Abram and said, “To your offspring I will give this land.” In response, Abraham built an altar there. One of his first tasks in the promised land was to sacrifice and pray to the God who had called him here. He traveled next to the hills east of Bethel, just miles north of Jerusalem. Here he built another altar and praised God. Then Abram set out and continued through the Negev. He went next on to the desert country south of Beersheba that represents the southernmost section of the promised land. So began his remarkable relocation as he followed God’s plan for him. Herbert Lockyer said it well: “He uttered no prophecy, wrote no book, sang no song, gave no laws. Yet in the long list of Bible saints he alone is spoken of as ‘the father of the faithful’ and as ‘the friend of God’ (Isaiah 41:8).” *Scripture quotations are from the New International Version ©1984, unless otherwise indicated. \|HOME DAILY BIBLE READINGS\| \|November 28: Acts 7:1-8\| \|November 29: Deuteronomy 4:5-9\| \|November 30: Deuteronomy 26:1-11\| \|December 1: Isaiah 51:1-6\| \|December 2: Matthew 3:1-10\| \|December 3: Hebrews 6:13-20\| \|December 4: Genesis 12:1-9\| ABOUT THE LESSON WRITER: Sam E. Stone is the former editor of CHRISTIAN STANDARD. He continues his writing and speaking ministry from his home in Cincinnati, Ohio.	1,176	ENGLISH	1
Sixty-nine years ago, at midnight on Aug. 15, 1947, over 300 million people rejoiced as the era of the British Raj drew to an end, and two new nations arose from what had been British India. Little did they know that the ensuing months would lead to the greatest movement of people in human history, with over 14 million people displaced from their homes and two million dead after the violence had subsided. India and Pakistan were born in this bloodshed, and they still bear the scars of this era today. Some of these scars were showcased at Stanford last Thursday, at an event co-hosted by the Center for South Asia and the 1947 Partition Archive, a Berkeley-based nonprofit committed to collecting and preserving oral histories of the Partition. Founded in 2013 by Guneeta Singh Bhalla, a physicist from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the archive was inspired by oral histories of Hiroshima and the Holocaust, and aims to collect 10,000 stories by 2017. “We have only now begun to look at the effects of the Partition on people,” said Jisha Menon, Associate Professor from the Center for South Asia and moderator of the event panel, as she described how projects like the archive are reshaping the state-centered narrative that surrounded discussion of the Partition till now. “This event has still not ended … and it sparks memories with contemporary moments of religious and ethnic tension,” she added. The event featured three survivors of the Partition, followed by one of the archive’s “citizen historians,” Arshad Mirza, who recounted how he collects stories from survivors to add to the archive. Faced with the lack of a single repository of survivors’ accounts, the archive has crowdsourced its investigations, and trains volunteers to look for and interview survivors. Most of these survivors, like those who spoke at the event, are well over the age of 70 and speak a variety of languages. Although the archive has collected over 2,000 stories in 10 languages from 157 cities, thousands of witnesses remain unreached with their stories left untold. “I wish that Partition had not happened,” said Om Kumari Baveja, one of the survivors speaking at the event, as she recounted some of the horrors she saw. “It is a curse, and should never happen in any country. Only the people suffer.” The violence was especially close and poignant for all of the survivors, having affected both them and their families. Baveja’s husband had migrated from Lahore in Pakistan to Amritsar in India, arriving on one of the many blood-drenched trains and leaving behind two dead uncles. For Ali Shan, one of the other featured survivors, the violence was particularly personal; he lived through a bloody massacre that killed most of his family when he was six years old. “We were in a village called Raha, just outside of Ludhiana in India,” he began, recounting in gory detail what happened next. “I saw hundreds of men dressed in white with swords and spears … The elders went to negotiate while the women and children stayed hidden in a room … They were all killed and the village was attacked.” The violence Shan described did not end there. “Two men burst through the roof and told us that if we didn’t open the door they’d burn us alive,” he said. “As we walked out, a gunman was standing there letting women and girls out but killing the men and boys … My mother found a white sheet and wrapped my brother and I in it so that we looked like girls … They sat us down below a tree outside the village, took the jewelry from the women, and then started killing.” Shan’s family was killed in the ensuing bloodbath, and he only survived because of the unexpected kindness of one of the killers. That killer led Shan through the fields to Ludhiana, where he stayed at a Sikh family’s house secretly until an uncle in the Pakistani army found him and took him to Pakistan. “He left me at that house in the village outside Ludhiana, and I never saw him again,” Shan said. Fortuitous kindness from strangers was a common theme in survivors’ stories. Baljit Dhillon Vikram Singh, another survivor, recounted how her family left suddenly in the middle of the night, and were very nearly killed by the Pakistani military. “White-uniformed military men came and raised their guns, asking us to stop,” she recounted. “My mother went and fell at the feet of the captain [and] said ‘I have small children in the van. Please let us go, we have done nothing.’ I had no idea what came into his heart, but he talked to her for a little while and let us go.” “Later, she told me what he had told her – he told her to not stay in the next village and keep going to Amritsar, because they were going to burn it down that night,” she added. The emotion coursing through the atmosphere was palpable as the three of them reflected on what they felt now, almost seventy years after those horrifying events. “Can you imagine now, when I look back in my 70s and say… ‘Can I take my four daughters in the middle of the night, pack their clothes and leave the house as it is and go never to return again?’ The impact even today leaves a very hard mark on my mind,” said Singh, echoing what her mother had to do on that fateful night when they left. “I was blessed, and I am blessed now … My goal now is to do anything to help people who are refugees and in need and resettlement.” But of all the emotions, most palpable were those of relief, gratitude and moving on. “My life has been full of tragedy and adventure,” said Shan.“I hike, I go to the gym, I do yoga, and I have survived three more near-death experiences and cancer since … My motto now is love everyone and hate no one. I have made peace with those who killed my family and childhood – and I forgive them.” Contact Arnav Mariwala at arnavm@ stanford.edu.	<urn:uuid:a76ae06f-ece1-4d15-852c-b051b6f52333>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stanforddaily.com/2016/02/24/voices-of-partition-discusses-stories-from-india-pakistan-partition/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00379.warc.gz	en	0.983185	1,343	3.421875	3	[ -0.28971004486083984, 0.34273865818977356, 0.2098952829837799, -0.019573725759983063, 0.13012878596782684, -0.08810018748044968, -0.3423957824707031, -0.06843830645084381, 0.10392870008945465, -0.04077976197004318, 0.44622018933296204, -0.026373427361249924, 0.08651413023471832, 0.32062488...	2	Sixty-nine years ago, at midnight on Aug. 15, 1947, over 300 million people rejoiced as the era of the British Raj drew to an end, and two new nations arose from what had been British India. Little did they know that the ensuing months would lead to the greatest movement of people in human history, with over 14 million people displaced from their homes and two million dead after the violence had subsided. India and Pakistan were born in this bloodshed, and they still bear the scars of this era today. Some of these scars were showcased at Stanford last Thursday, at an event co-hosted by the Center for South Asia and the 1947 Partition Archive, a Berkeley-based nonprofit committed to collecting and preserving oral histories of the Partition. Founded in 2013 by Guneeta Singh Bhalla, a physicist from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the archive was inspired by oral histories of Hiroshima and the Holocaust, and aims to collect 10,000 stories by 2017. “We have only now begun to look at the effects of the Partition on people,” said Jisha Menon, Associate Professor from the Center for South Asia and moderator of the event panel, as she described how projects like the archive are reshaping the state-centered narrative that surrounded discussion of the Partition till now. “This event has still not ended … and it sparks memories with contemporary moments of religious and ethnic tension,” she added. The event featured three survivors of the Partition, followed by one of the archive’s “citizen historians,” Arshad Mirza, who recounted how he collects stories from survivors to add to the archive. Faced with the lack of a single repository of survivors’ accounts, the archive has crowdsourced its investigations, and trains volunteers to look for and interview survivors. Most of these survivors, like those who spoke at the event, are well over the age of 70 and speak a variety of languages. Although the archive has collected over 2,000 stories in 10 languages from 157 cities, thousands of witnesses remain unreached with their stories left untold. “I wish that Partition had not happened,” said Om Kumari Baveja, one of the survivors speaking at the event, as she recounted some of the horrors she saw. “It is a curse, and should never happen in any country. Only the people suffer.” The violence was especially close and poignant for all of the survivors, having affected both them and their families. Baveja’s husband had migrated from Lahore in Pakistan to Amritsar in India, arriving on one of the many blood-drenched trains and leaving behind two dead uncles. For Ali Shan, one of the other featured survivors, the violence was particularly personal; he lived through a bloody massacre that killed most of his family when he was six years old. “We were in a village called Raha, just outside of Ludhiana in India,” he began, recounting in gory detail what happened next. “I saw hundreds of men dressed in white with swords and spears … The elders went to negotiate while the women and children stayed hidden in a room … They were all killed and the village was attacked.” The violence Shan described did not end there. “Two men burst through the roof and told us that if we didn’t open the door they’d burn us alive,” he said. “As we walked out, a gunman was standing there letting women and girls out but killing the men and boys … My mother found a white sheet and wrapped my brother and I in it so that we looked like girls … They sat us down below a tree outside the village, took the jewelry from the women, and then started killing.” Shan’s family was killed in the ensuing bloodbath, and he only survived because of the unexpected kindness of one of the killers. That killer led Shan through the fields to Ludhiana, where he stayed at a Sikh family’s house secretly until an uncle in the Pakistani army found him and took him to Pakistan. “He left me at that house in the village outside Ludhiana, and I never saw him again,” Shan said. Fortuitous kindness from strangers was a common theme in survivors’ stories. Baljit Dhillon Vikram Singh, another survivor, recounted how her family left suddenly in the middle of the night, and were very nearly killed by the Pakistani military. “White-uniformed military men came and raised their guns, asking us to stop,” she recounted. “My mother went and fell at the feet of the captain [and] said ‘I have small children in the van. Please let us go, we have done nothing.’ I had no idea what came into his heart, but he talked to her for a little while and let us go.” “Later, she told me what he had told her – he told her to not stay in the next village and keep going to Amritsar, because they were going to burn it down that night,” she added. The emotion coursing through the atmosphere was palpable as the three of them reflected on what they felt now, almost seventy years after those horrifying events. “Can you imagine now, when I look back in my 70s and say… ‘Can I take my four daughters in the middle of the night, pack their clothes and leave the house as it is and go never to return again?’ The impact even today leaves a very hard mark on my mind,” said Singh, echoing what her mother had to do on that fateful night when they left. “I was blessed, and I am blessed now … My goal now is to do anything to help people who are refugees and in need and resettlement.” But of all the emotions, most palpable were those of relief, gratitude and moving on. “My life has been full of tragedy and adventure,” said Shan.“I hike, I go to the gym, I do yoga, and I have survived three more near-death experiences and cancer since … My motto now is love everyone and hate no one. I have made peace with those who killed my family and childhood – and I forgive them.” Contact Arnav Mariwala at arnavm@ stanford.edu.	1,274	ENGLISH	1
18th Century gold rush mining town Bodie California The image describes The Old West Saloon. The image also mainly shows the 18th Century Gold Rush Mining Town Bodie California. The image mainly tries to explain the events that were happening in California in the 18th century. Bodie was a minor town in California that was mainly developing because of the mining activities that were taking place in the town. Many people in California do not know much information about the historic events that were taking place in the city. Bodie was mainly inhabited by the ancient Indians until when a big number of workers started arriving in the town when it was discovered that the town had numerous deposits of gold beneath it. This mass migration of workers is what could be referred to as Gold Rush. The population of Bodie rose to about 10,000 people in the 18th century. However, the town was later to be famous because of its wild living that was signified by numerous saloons and breweries that were distributed in the main street. After 1882 the town began to decline because the rich mines were beginning to decline and the mining companies were beginning to go bankrupt. Two major fires ravaged the city in 1892 and in 1940. These fires made the town to fade and the town has been left a ghost town. Today the town has been left bare and scaring. The town stands just as time and the fires have left it. In 1962, the town was preserved as a state historic site that has attracted many local and international tourists. The government has protected about 200 buildings. These buildings stand on remote land that is about 1000 acres. Bodie gives the tourists a good insight into the gold-rush period. The image is shot with a Hasselblad medium format camera at a whopping 65 meg digital back for extremely high-resolution photograph suitable for fine art printing.	<urn:uuid:298b62ff-957c-4da3-9a53-ea718a85682d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dankosmayer.com/travel/united-states/the-old-west-saloon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00284.warc.gz	en	0.990164	374	3.515625	4	[ 0.23587274551391602, -0.020058821886777878, -0.26975443959236145, 0.2658829987049103, 0.1868245005607605, -0.03716949000954628, -0.10326956957578659, 0.08390137553215027, -0.45062804222106934, -0.3949032127857208, 0.04581417143344879, -0.47157448530197144, -0.06916390359401703, 0.335984855...	1	18th Century gold rush mining town Bodie California The image describes The Old West Saloon. The image also mainly shows the 18th Century Gold Rush Mining Town Bodie California. The image mainly tries to explain the events that were happening in California in the 18th century. Bodie was a minor town in California that was mainly developing because of the mining activities that were taking place in the town. Many people in California do not know much information about the historic events that were taking place in the city. Bodie was mainly inhabited by the ancient Indians until when a big number of workers started arriving in the town when it was discovered that the town had numerous deposits of gold beneath it. This mass migration of workers is what could be referred to as Gold Rush. The population of Bodie rose to about 10,000 people in the 18th century. However, the town was later to be famous because of its wild living that was signified by numerous saloons and breweries that were distributed in the main street. After 1882 the town began to decline because the rich mines were beginning to decline and the mining companies were beginning to go bankrupt. Two major fires ravaged the city in 1892 and in 1940. These fires made the town to fade and the town has been left a ghost town. Today the town has been left bare and scaring. The town stands just as time and the fires have left it. In 1962, the town was preserved as a state historic site that has attracted many local and international tourists. The government has protected about 200 buildings. These buildings stand on remote land that is about 1000 acres. Bodie gives the tourists a good insight into the gold-rush period. The image is shot with a Hasselblad medium format camera at a whopping 65 meg digital back for extremely high-resolution photograph suitable for fine art printing.	405	ENGLISH	1
WEST GLACIER - An often overlooked aspect of Glacier National Park's history is that its earliest stewards were segregated black army regiments created during the Civil War and whose members came to be known as "Buffalo Soldiers." Before the National Park Service was created in 1916, military troops bore responsibility for patrolling federal lands, and the black regiments took turns marching into Glacier, Yellowstone, Yosemite, Sequoia and Kings Canyon national parks. "The African-American troops known as the Buffalo Soldiers played a central role in protecting our national parks. They were, in fact, our national parks' first guardians," said Alan Spears, a legislative representative for the National Parks Conservation Association. Despite their prominent role in protecting the federal lands, a dearth of information exists about Buffalo Soldiers in the national parks, and earlier this year Spears helped lobby support for the regiments in the National Parks Study Act, which will help determine how the soldiers' story should be represented within the National Park System. "These soldiers were in essence park rangers before there was a National Park Service. There was no one else to take care of these lands," Spears said. "It is one aspect of history where I think further exploration is needed. There is not a lot known about what it meant for these African-Americans and how they were received by the communities they were serving." It is known that the black soldiers were active for more than two decades in the area that now includes Glacier National Park, and they marched out of Fort Shaw near Great Falls to conduct extensive reconnaissance missions that served as some of the first explorations of the wild and mountainous terrain. They built roads and facilities, created maps, fought fires, made sure poachers weren't coming into the parks with guns, prevented illegal grazing and kept loggers from exploiting the parks, Spears said. Soldiers from the 25th Infantry, referred to at the time as a "crack black regiment," were famously called in during the Great Fire of 1910 - the same year Glacier National Park was established - to fight the largest blazes. On Aug. 15, weeks after becoming Glacier's first superintendent, William R. Logan called for the troops to be stationed at Lake McDonald, Nyack, Belton and Essex, where they battled the large fires in the region. "It is generally agreed that Soldier Mountain in the portion of the park near Essex was named for the black troops that fought fires in that area," writes Jack Holterman in his historical essay "The Twenty-Fifth Infantry in Glacier Park Country." The forest fires raged over 2,000 square miles of northern Idaho and western Montana and consumed more than 100,000 acres of park forests, killing 70 people and destroying timber worth $13 billion. In a commendation letter for the soldiers assigned to his region, Logan wrote to the Secretary of the Interior: "I deem it only proper that I should call your attention to the splendid work done by the troops fighting fires in Glacier National Park last summer. I had one company of the 25th Infantry (colored) stationed in east Essex, under the command of 1st Lieutenant W.S. Mapes. I doubt if I can say enough in praise of Lieutenant Mapes and his negro troops. The work performed by them could not be improved upon by any class of men. To their lot fell the worst fire in the park and they went at its extinguishment with snap and energy, built roads and trails and miles and miles of fire guard trenches without the least sign of discontent. Personally, I believe that it is only fair to the officers and men of the U.S. Army who participated in the fire fighting in Glacier National Park, that you call the War Department's attention to the splendid work performed by them, as they certainly deserve commendation." Their presence caused a stir in the nearby community of Essex, whose citizens "just looked on at the black troopers laboring after hours without support." In Avery, Idaho, citizens were evacuated from the region by train, and soldiers who rode on the platforms of railroad cars carrying the panic-stricken residents also earned praise. "They stuck to their posts like men," declared one forest ranger, according to the Holterman essay. "These negro soldiers stood on the platforms through this bath of fire and kept the doors closed, holding back the heat-crazed women and children, many of whom would have leaped off and been lost if they had not been restrained." You have free articles remaining. The soldiers became some of the earliest explorers of the region now known as Glacier National Park, "which was still unexplored by army men and was regarded by them as a lingering mystery," Holterman wrote, adding that the proximity to the U.S.-Canada border "had long been a notorious temptation to mischief-makers, poachers, whiskey-runners, rustlers and killers." In 1889, under the command of Lt. George P. Ahern - the black regiments were almost always led by white officers - three companies of the 25th Infantry marched out of Fort Shaw for a reconnaissance mission. They reached Choteau on the second day and Sheep Creek near Dupuyer on the fourth day, covering roughly 100 miles by foot. "From there they moved on to Birch Creek, Two Medicine River, Cut Bank Creek and a camp near Marias Pass, where they remained until September 17th engaged in military exercises. Then they about-faced and marched home the way they had come," according to Holterman. "Their maneuvers in this area occurred three months before John F. Stevens reconnoitered the pass for the railroad on December 11th, but they were black army men and Stevens was a white corporation man, so you know who gets the credits for the ‘discovery' or reconnoiter." Later, the soldiers established a recreation camp at St. Mary on the edge of Glacier Park, maintaining order among "the prospectors and boomers or sooners who poured into the country as soon as it was opened to the whites," Holterman wrote. Native Americans reportedly bestowed the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" on the black troops with affection, likening the kinkiness of their hair to that of a buffalo. But early regiments, many of them former slaves, also conducted campaigns against tribes on the western frontier, particularly in the southwest states like Texas and Arizona, but including Montana. "It is one of the ironies of American history that ... black soldiers had to earn their reputation as proficient troops by assisting in the suppression of [Native Americans] and by acting as strike breakers," wrote John H. Nankievell in his book "Buffalo Soldier Regiment: History of the Twenty-fifth United States Infantry, 1869-1926." The relationship between the black soldiers and the Native Americans is complex, Spears said. "Part of their job was to facilitate the westward expansion and to displace these Native Americans who had been there for thousands of years," Spears said. "What the history shows is that oftentimes you had men who were making their first transition from being former slaves into federal service, which came at the expense of the Native Americans." One of the most important roles of the National Park Service is as a keeper of the nation's stories, history and culture, Spears said. "It is not always a celebratory story, but it's a history of our culture," he said. "As we look at enhancing cultural diversity in the national parks, what I think is important about these stories is that the early American West was a far more diverse place than we originally believed. African Americans have always been in these parks and on these Western landscapes, far more than we knew." In concluding his essay, Holterman acknowledges that biographical information on the individual Buffalo Soldiers is scarce but that they earned a reputation for being disciplined and dedicated to their service. Superintendent Logan's commendation "may just as well be applied to other members of the Twenty-Fifth in their venture around Glacier Park, most of whom received similar praise from their officers but whose service has since been almost totally overlooked," Holterman wrote. Reporter Tristan Scott can be reached at (406) 730-1067 or at email@example.com.	<urn:uuid:342cca40-f549-4713-9294-abd49d635232>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://missoulian.com/lifestyles/territory/african-american-buffalo-soldiers-protected-national-parks-before-rangers/article_a53fe0ba-2833-11e1-b6b9-001871e3ce6c.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00277.warc.gz	en	0.983647	1,700	3.75	4	[ -0.2751317024230957, -0.0009028995409607887, 0.4174964129924774, -0.02108301967382431, 0.12213736772537231, 0.13977134227752686, 0.08227548748254776, -0.14844220876693726, -0.37628960609436035, 0.02042599767446518, 0.17151620984077454, -0.29483598470687866, 0.04837104305624962, 0.342984586...	1	WEST GLACIER - An often overlooked aspect of Glacier National Park's history is that its earliest stewards were segregated black army regiments created during the Civil War and whose members came to be known as "Buffalo Soldiers." Before the National Park Service was created in 1916, military troops bore responsibility for patrolling federal lands, and the black regiments took turns marching into Glacier, Yellowstone, Yosemite, Sequoia and Kings Canyon national parks. "The African-American troops known as the Buffalo Soldiers played a central role in protecting our national parks. They were, in fact, our national parks' first guardians," said Alan Spears, a legislative representative for the National Parks Conservation Association. Despite their prominent role in protecting the federal lands, a dearth of information exists about Buffalo Soldiers in the national parks, and earlier this year Spears helped lobby support for the regiments in the National Parks Study Act, which will help determine how the soldiers' story should be represented within the National Park System. "These soldiers were in essence park rangers before there was a National Park Service. There was no one else to take care of these lands," Spears said. "It is one aspect of history where I think further exploration is needed. There is not a lot known about what it meant for these African-Americans and how they were received by the communities they were serving." It is known that the black soldiers were active for more than two decades in the area that now includes Glacier National Park, and they marched out of Fort Shaw near Great Falls to conduct extensive reconnaissance missions that served as some of the first explorations of the wild and mountainous terrain. They built roads and facilities, created maps, fought fires, made sure poachers weren't coming into the parks with guns, prevented illegal grazing and kept loggers from exploiting the parks, Spears said. Soldiers from the 25th Infantry, referred to at the time as a "crack black regiment," were famously called in during the Great Fire of 1910 - the same year Glacier National Park was established - to fight the largest blazes. On Aug. 15, weeks after becoming Glacier's first superintendent, William R. Logan called for the troops to be stationed at Lake McDonald, Nyack, Belton and Essex, where they battled the large fires in the region. "It is generally agreed that Soldier Mountain in the portion of the park near Essex was named for the black troops that fought fires in that area," writes Jack Holterman in his historical essay "The Twenty-Fifth Infantry in Glacier Park Country." The forest fires raged over 2,000 square miles of northern Idaho and western Montana and consumed more than 100,000 acres of park forests, killing 70 people and destroying timber worth $13 billion. In a commendation letter for the soldiers assigned to his region, Logan wrote to the Secretary of the Interior: "I deem it only proper that I should call your attention to the splendid work done by the troops fighting fires in Glacier National Park last summer. I had one company of the 25th Infantry (colored) stationed in east Essex, under the command of 1st Lieutenant W.S. Mapes. I doubt if I can say enough in praise of Lieutenant Mapes and his negro troops. The work performed by them could not be improved upon by any class of men. To their lot fell the worst fire in the park and they went at its extinguishment with snap and energy, built roads and trails and miles and miles of fire guard trenches without the least sign of discontent. Personally, I believe that it is only fair to the officers and men of the U.S. Army who participated in the fire fighting in Glacier National Park, that you call the War Department's attention to the splendid work performed by them, as they certainly deserve commendation." Their presence caused a stir in the nearby community of Essex, whose citizens "just looked on at the black troopers laboring after hours without support." In Avery, Idaho, citizens were evacuated from the region by train, and soldiers who rode on the platforms of railroad cars carrying the panic-stricken residents also earned praise. "They stuck to their posts like men," declared one forest ranger, according to the Holterman essay. "These negro soldiers stood on the platforms through this bath of fire and kept the doors closed, holding back the heat-crazed women and children, many of whom would have leaped off and been lost if they had not been restrained." You have free articles remaining. The soldiers became some of the earliest explorers of the region now known as Glacier National Park, "which was still unexplored by army men and was regarded by them as a lingering mystery," Holterman wrote, adding that the proximity to the U.S.-Canada border "had long been a notorious temptation to mischief-makers, poachers, whiskey-runners, rustlers and killers." In 1889, under the command of Lt. George P. Ahern - the black regiments were almost always led by white officers - three companies of the 25th Infantry marched out of Fort Shaw for a reconnaissance mission. They reached Choteau on the second day and Sheep Creek near Dupuyer on the fourth day, covering roughly 100 miles by foot. "From there they moved on to Birch Creek, Two Medicine River, Cut Bank Creek and a camp near Marias Pass, where they remained until September 17th engaged in military exercises. Then they about-faced and marched home the way they had come," according to Holterman. "Their maneuvers in this area occurred three months before John F. Stevens reconnoitered the pass for the railroad on December 11th, but they were black army men and Stevens was a white corporation man, so you know who gets the credits for the ‘discovery' or reconnoiter." Later, the soldiers established a recreation camp at St. Mary on the edge of Glacier Park, maintaining order among "the prospectors and boomers or sooners who poured into the country as soon as it was opened to the whites," Holterman wrote. Native Americans reportedly bestowed the nickname "Buffalo Soldiers" on the black troops with affection, likening the kinkiness of their hair to that of a buffalo. But early regiments, many of them former slaves, also conducted campaigns against tribes on the western frontier, particularly in the southwest states like Texas and Arizona, but including Montana. "It is one of the ironies of American history that ... black soldiers had to earn their reputation as proficient troops by assisting in the suppression of [Native Americans] and by acting as strike breakers," wrote John H. Nankievell in his book "Buffalo Soldier Regiment: History of the Twenty-fifth United States Infantry, 1869-1926." The relationship between the black soldiers and the Native Americans is complex, Spears said. "Part of their job was to facilitate the westward expansion and to displace these Native Americans who had been there for thousands of years," Spears said. "What the history shows is that oftentimes you had men who were making their first transition from being former slaves into federal service, which came at the expense of the Native Americans." One of the most important roles of the National Park Service is as a keeper of the nation's stories, history and culture, Spears said. "It is not always a celebratory story, but it's a history of our culture," he said. "As we look at enhancing cultural diversity in the national parks, what I think is important about these stories is that the early American West was a far more diverse place than we originally believed. African Americans have always been in these parks and on these Western landscapes, far more than we knew." In concluding his essay, Holterman acknowledges that biographical information on the individual Buffalo Soldiers is scarce but that they earned a reputation for being disciplined and dedicated to their service. Superintendent Logan's commendation "may just as well be applied to other members of the Twenty-Fifth in their venture around Glacier Park, most of whom received similar praise from their officers but whose service has since been almost totally overlooked," Holterman wrote. Reporter Tristan Scott can be reached at (406) 730-1067 or at email@example.com.	1,703	ENGLISH	1
Bus Boycotts 1955 On many buses throughout America Black people had to sit at the back of the bus, while whites sat at the front. In December 1955 Rosa Parks, a Black woman, sat down in a ‘whites only’ seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. When she refused to give up her seat to a white person she was arrested. Black people were disgusted by this and got together to form a boycott. This movement found a leader in a young Black Christian preacher called Martin Luther King. Blacks got lifts to work or walked until the bus company banned segregation on its buses. In November 1956 the government ruled that segregation on buses was illegal. The Black protestors had won, In 1960 a group of Black students decided to go and sit in a Woolworth’s all-white lunch bar and asked to be served. They sat there until they were dragged out, beaten up or arrested by the Police. Martin Luther King himself was arrested and imprisoned. The idea of protest spread and over 50,000 people joined in across America. The Freedom Rides 1961 In 1961, groups of young people, both Blacks and Whites, set out on ‘Freedom Rides’ across America. They rode together on Greyhound buses through Southern States like Alabama and Mississippi where Blacks and Whites were still kept apart on buses and in bus stations. The ‘Freedom Riders’ were beaten up, buses were burned and there was a riot in Montgomery but a lot of publicity was gained for their cause. - Aimed at Students studying at UK Year 9 or equivalent - Free to download - Use as you wish in the classroom or home environment - Information sheet and challenging tasks.	<urn:uuid:e29571dd-112e-4c16-add9-91829a5bbb2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://schoolhistory.co.uk/industrial/black-history/the-civil-rights-movement-worksheets/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00050.warc.gz	en	0.982217	348	3.65625	4	[ -0.12479613721370697, -0.14608098566532135, 0.14839373528957367, -0.2685700058937073, -0.3571653664112091, -0.027292653918266296, 0.4550435245037079, -0.1263408064842224, -0.010840997099876404, 0.24401125311851501, -0.07866868376731873, 0.26572105288505554, -0.010935231111943722, 0.0437118...	1	Bus Boycotts 1955 On many buses throughout America Black people had to sit at the back of the bus, while whites sat at the front. In December 1955 Rosa Parks, a Black woman, sat down in a ‘whites only’ seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. When she refused to give up her seat to a white person she was arrested. Black people were disgusted by this and got together to form a boycott. This movement found a leader in a young Black Christian preacher called Martin Luther King. Blacks got lifts to work or walked until the bus company banned segregation on its buses. In November 1956 the government ruled that segregation on buses was illegal. The Black protestors had won, In 1960 a group of Black students decided to go and sit in a Woolworth’s all-white lunch bar and asked to be served. They sat there until they were dragged out, beaten up or arrested by the Police. Martin Luther King himself was arrested and imprisoned. The idea of protest spread and over 50,000 people joined in across America. The Freedom Rides 1961 In 1961, groups of young people, both Blacks and Whites, set out on ‘Freedom Rides’ across America. They rode together on Greyhound buses through Southern States like Alabama and Mississippi where Blacks and Whites were still kept apart on buses and in bus stations. The ‘Freedom Riders’ were beaten up, buses were burned and there was a riot in Montgomery but a lot of publicity was gained for their cause. - Aimed at Students studying at UK Year 9 or equivalent - Free to download - Use as you wish in the classroom or home environment - Information sheet and challenging tasks.	364	ENGLISH	1
About Nemacolin Castle Nemacolin Castle, also known as Bowman's Castle, was built in present-day Brownsville, Pennsylvania, at the western terminus of the Nemacolin's Trail on the east bank of the Monongahela River. It was built around the original trading post, which was built near the site of Fort Burd, the latter built by British colonists during the French and Indian War. Construction on the castle, including addition of a crenellated tower, continued through the Victorian era, when it was considered an engineering marvel. The trading post was built shortly after the American Revolutionary War, in the mid-to-latter 1780s. Jacob Bowman began constructing the castle during the mid-to-late 1790s in the community once known as Redstone. The trading post was located at the Redstone Creek river crossing. The community built flatboats for travelers and traders on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It was the long-time terminus of the western part of Nemacolin's Trail. Likely more than 1,200 years before construction of the fort, trading post or castle, prehistoric indigenous peoples had also found this site a strategic one. They built the earthwork mounds which the colonists called Redstone Old Fort. Fort Burd was built on top of its sandstone base. The Castle is one of several large buildings of the 1850s (In this case, the site holds part of Fort Burd; the well dug by the Fort Burd soildiers) still standing in western Pennsylvania. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Its alternate name, Nemacolin's Castle, was derived from Nemacolin's Trail, named after the Shawnee chief who helped improve and mark the ancient Native American trail through the Alleghenies. It connected the valleys of the Potomac River and the Ohio River drainage basin on the Monongahela River. Three generations of the Bowman family were the only ones to live in the house/castle. Jacob Bowman and his wife started building the first part of the structure some time around 1789, with a trading post on the ground floor and one room above. Finding they needed more room, they added a broad hallway. They had nine children. At Jacob's death in 1847, he left the house to his son Nelson. Nelson added the east wing of the house and the brick tower. Nelson Bowman and his wife, Elizabeth, also updated the nursery from a colonial to a Victorian style. Although Nelson married late in life, he and Elizabeth had six children. Only two survived to adulthood. When Nelson died in 1892, he left the house to their son Charles Bowman, who lived there with his wife Leila until his death. By her will, after the widow Leila Bowman died; years later The National Historical Society purchased the house and began to open it up to the public as a museum. It is now maintained and operated as a house museum by the Brownsville Historical Society.	<urn:uuid:339afc19-0943-4b6a-acf2-f5c35acdc97d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nemacolincastle.net/about	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00104.warc.gz	en	0.985005	616	3.40625	3	[ -0.28588050603866577, 0.02835434302687645, 0.680334210395813, 0.1569017916917801, -0.5078914165496826, -0.4572630524635315, 0.3497622609138489, 0.28171589970588684, -0.6166940927505493, 0.03340223431587219, -0.20686465501785278, -0.44899415969848633, 0.0036334795877337456, 0.18218746781349...	16	About Nemacolin Castle Nemacolin Castle, also known as Bowman's Castle, was built in present-day Brownsville, Pennsylvania, at the western terminus of the Nemacolin's Trail on the east bank of the Monongahela River. It was built around the original trading post, which was built near the site of Fort Burd, the latter built by British colonists during the French and Indian War. Construction on the castle, including addition of a crenellated tower, continued through the Victorian era, when it was considered an engineering marvel. The trading post was built shortly after the American Revolutionary War, in the mid-to-latter 1780s. Jacob Bowman began constructing the castle during the mid-to-late 1790s in the community once known as Redstone. The trading post was located at the Redstone Creek river crossing. The community built flatboats for travelers and traders on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It was the long-time terminus of the western part of Nemacolin's Trail. Likely more than 1,200 years before construction of the fort, trading post or castle, prehistoric indigenous peoples had also found this site a strategic one. They built the earthwork mounds which the colonists called Redstone Old Fort. Fort Burd was built on top of its sandstone base. The Castle is one of several large buildings of the 1850s (In this case, the site holds part of Fort Burd; the well dug by the Fort Burd soildiers) still standing in western Pennsylvania. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Its alternate name, Nemacolin's Castle, was derived from Nemacolin's Trail, named after the Shawnee chief who helped improve and mark the ancient Native American trail through the Alleghenies. It connected the valleys of the Potomac River and the Ohio River drainage basin on the Monongahela River. Three generations of the Bowman family were the only ones to live in the house/castle. Jacob Bowman and his wife started building the first part of the structure some time around 1789, with a trading post on the ground floor and one room above. Finding they needed more room, they added a broad hallway. They had nine children. At Jacob's death in 1847, he left the house to his son Nelson. Nelson added the east wing of the house and the brick tower. Nelson Bowman and his wife, Elizabeth, also updated the nursery from a colonial to a Victorian style. Although Nelson married late in life, he and Elizabeth had six children. Only two survived to adulthood. When Nelson died in 1892, he left the house to their son Charles Bowman, who lived there with his wife Leila until his death. By her will, after the widow Leila Bowman died; years later The National Historical Society purchased the house and began to open it up to the public as a museum. It is now maintained and operated as a house museum by the Brownsville Historical Society.	632	ENGLISH	1
When children with disabilities are excluded from participation in ordinary environments, children without disabilities have no opportunities to get to know them, to see them as their peers/equals, and/or to see beyond the disability. Thus, they’re ignorant that children with disabilities are children, first, and are more like them than different. What are the consequences of segregation? Segregation can certainly harm children with disabilities (per other articles described later). But it can also cause negative consequences for children and adults without disabilities and our society-at-large. Experiences during our recent family vacation provide a good illustration. We headed off for a two-week driving trip to visit presidential museums (a passion of our son, Benjamin) in different cities, then on to museums and memorial sites in Washington, DC. All was well: great weather and light crowds at presidential museums in May. Things changed, however, when we arrived in DC. The weather was still great, but huge crowds were everywhere, composed primarily of middle-school tour groups, herded here-and-there by their teachers/chaperones. Making our way was sometimes difficult, as Benjamin carefully maneuvered his power wheelchair through the crowds. We could handle that. What was more difficult to deal with was the behavior of thousands of middle-school students and their teachers. Most stared bug-eyed at Benjamin, and some whispered to each other as he passed by. Many displayed exaggerated responses as Benjamin tried to get from here to there: some students gave him an extremely wide berth (urged on by loud exhortations from their teachers) and made a “big deal” of moving out of the way, as if Benj had a communicable disease. Click here to continue. Consequences of Segregation New Ways of Thinking and Revolutionary Common Sense	<urn:uuid:c1b8c581-410e-4ea6-af4d-9e7fa0785766>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.disabilityisnatural.com/segregation-consequences.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00034.warc.gz	en	0.981723	373	3.625	4	[ 0.16018228232860565, -0.12892019748687744, 0.6044660806655884, -0.09956863522529602, -0.39849549531936646, 0.5677217245101929, 0.36647167801856995, 0.4423341751098633, -0.1359845995903015, -0.1001213863492012, 0.4970814883708954, 0.21677745878696442, 0.19139739871025085, 0.4544642269611358...	6	When children with disabilities are excluded from participation in ordinary environments, children without disabilities have no opportunities to get to know them, to see them as their peers/equals, and/or to see beyond the disability. Thus, they’re ignorant that children with disabilities are children, first, and are more like them than different. What are the consequences of segregation? Segregation can certainly harm children with disabilities (per other articles described later). But it can also cause negative consequences for children and adults without disabilities and our society-at-large. Experiences during our recent family vacation provide a good illustration. We headed off for a two-week driving trip to visit presidential museums (a passion of our son, Benjamin) in different cities, then on to museums and memorial sites in Washington, DC. All was well: great weather and light crowds at presidential museums in May. Things changed, however, when we arrived in DC. The weather was still great, but huge crowds were everywhere, composed primarily of middle-school tour groups, herded here-and-there by their teachers/chaperones. Making our way was sometimes difficult, as Benjamin carefully maneuvered his power wheelchair through the crowds. We could handle that. What was more difficult to deal with was the behavior of thousands of middle-school students and their teachers. Most stared bug-eyed at Benjamin, and some whispered to each other as he passed by. Many displayed exaggerated responses as Benjamin tried to get from here to there: some students gave him an extremely wide berth (urged on by loud exhortations from their teachers) and made a “big deal” of moving out of the way, as if Benj had a communicable disease. Click here to continue. Consequences of Segregation New Ways of Thinking and Revolutionary Common Sense	353	ENGLISH	1
The Roman goddess of marriage, home, and family, Juno was a champion of women and protector of the Roman state. She was married to Jupiter, king of all the gods, and served as a part of the divine ruling triumvirate known as the Capitoline Triad. Juno was adapted from the Greek goddess Hera, and her essential characteristics and mythology were nearly identical to her Greek predecessor. Juno was among the first Roman gods and goddesses, and like her counterpart deities was thought to oversee both the private affairs of her worshipers and the affairs of the Roman state. According to the time and place of her worship, she embodied several distinct personae. She was “Mother”, “Midwife”, “Queen”, and “Light Bringer.” She was also considered a moon goddess, likely for her association with the waxing and waning of the celestial body, which in turn symbolized the cycles of growth and decay that defined all of existence. The fluidity of her identity made her one of the most broadly worshiped Roman deities, as is evidenced by the huge number of temples built in her honor and festivals held in her name. Though she remained a beloved figure for centuries, Juno’s importance began to wane with the advent of the Roman Empire in the first century BCE. The name “Juno” is thought to have emerged from a host of words meaning youth, youthfulness, and rejuvenation. The name was widely believed to have been derived from the Latin iuvenis, meaning "youth.” The root of iuvenis was often seen in Latin words such as iunex, meaning “heifer,” or a cow that has not had a calf. It was also apparent in the verb iuvare, meaning “to give aid” or “to succor,” as well as iuvenescere, meaning “to rejuvenate,” or literally, “to make young again.” Both verbs related to Juno’s personae as a mother and rejuvenator, the latter of which was seen in her stewardship over lunar and menstrual cycles. In the ancient world and among the Romans, Juno was seen as a counterpart to the Etruscan goddess, Uni, who was the chief god of the Etruscan people. The Etruscans were a pre-Roman Italian people who built a sophisticated kingdom, the culture of greatly influenced the Romans. The Etruscan-Roman connection, as well as the striking similarity between the goddess’ names, suggested another origin for Juno as a goddess and a name. Juno was known by a number of epithets, each of which showcased a distinct persona of the goddess. For her role in succoring the needy, she was called Juno Sospita, or “Juno the Savior". She was also called Juno Moneta, or “Juno the Warner,” for bringing news of danger and preparing the threatened. She was named Juno Regina or “Queen Juno,” for her role as a head of state and member of the Capitoline Triad (with Jupiter and Minerva), but was also called Juno Opigena, or “Juno the Midwife,” for overseeing childbirth. Finally, she was known as Juno Lucina, or “Juno Who Brings Light,” for bringing light, life, and enlightenment to those who worshipped her. As matron goddess of the Roman pantheon, Juno oversaw all matters related to the health and growth of the Roman state and the people who comprised it. She was particularly associated with the cycles and processes related to women. She blessed marriages, oversaw sexual reproduction, and ensured the safe arrival of children. Her control over the female menstrual cycle—a manifestation of her rejuvenating spirit—was mirrored in the heavens via her control over the waxing and waning of the moon. Thus, rather than actually embodying or actually being the moon, Juno served as the source of cyclical transformations. Juno was a daughter of Saturn, the god of the sky who ruled before Jupiter, and Ops (or Opis), the goddess of the earth and growth. Her brothers were Jupiter, Neptune, god of the sea, and Pluto, god of the underworld and wealth. Her sisters were Ceres, an agricultural goddess who oversaw the growth of cereals (the word “cereal,” in fact, comes from Ceres), and Vesta, the protector goddess of the hearth and home, and a defender of purity, virginity, and maidens. Juno married her brother Jupiter, the king of gods, with whom she ruled the cosmos and, more humbly, the Roman state. They had several children together, including Mars, god of war and patron of Roman arms and armies, Bellona, a goddess of war, and Vulcan, god of fire, metalworking, and the forge. Another of their children was Juventus, a goddess who shared Juno’s association with youth and rejuvenation and oversaw the transition from childhood to adulthood. The Coming of Juno Rather than creating a tradition of mythological narratives themselves, the Romans often borrowed and appropriated the mythology of the Greeks, substituting Roman figures for the previously used Greek deities. In the Romanized version of this mythology, Juno took the part of Hera, the queen mother of the Greek deities. As a result, the mythologies of the two goddesses are largely identical. The story of Juno’s creation, for example, was very similar to Hera’s. In the beginning of time, the cosmos was ruled by a god or Titan known as Caelus. In time, Caelus’s son Saturn overthrew him and took control of the universe for himself. Saturn united with Ops, the goddess of elemental earth, and sired children with her. While the children were still growing in Ops’ womb, Saturn learned of a prophecy that predicted his downfall at the hands of one of his offspring. Not knowing who was to take the role of usurper, Saturn ate his first five children, one of whom was Juno. Ops saved the last child, Jupiter, and substituted a rock in his place. When Saturn ate the rock, he came down with a case of indigestion that ultimately caused him to vomit up his children; Juno, Pluto, Neptune, Ceres, and Vesta were soon free. After combining their strength with that of their younger brother Jupiter, the divine siblings took over the world and divided responsibilities amongst themselves. Juno, the Woman Spurned Eventually, Juno married her brother Jupiter. Though they had children together, their marriage was not a happy one. A notorious womanizer, Jupiter had many affairs. One Roman myth even explained that fog was created as a result of Jupiter trying to conceal his affairs from Juno’s watchful gaze. A jealous goddess, Juno was constantly trying to find and punish those with whom her husband had cheated. In an episode borrowed from Greek mythology, Juno doggedly pursued Io, one of Jupiter’s many lovers. Io was a priestess of Jupiter with whom the god had fallen in love. After initially spurning his advances, Io succumbed to the charms of the god and the two had sex. When Juno found out, she promised vengeance, so Jupiter, disguised his lover from his jealous wife by transforming Io into a heifer (which, probably not coincidentally, was a symbol of Juno). After discovering the ruse, Juno sent Argus, a monster with one hundred eyes, to keep watch over Io. Jupiter responded by sending Mercury to stop Argus; he did so by lulling the monster to sleep and then murdering him. As in the Greek tale, Juno put Argus’s one hundred eyes in the tail of the peacock so that she would always remember her loyal creature. Though Io escaped from Argus, Juno persisted in her pursuit. She transformed herself into a monstrous gadfly and mercilessly bit the heifer. The cow journeyed far and wide to elude Juno—in certain versions, she even found Prometheus chained to a rock. Eventually, her struggles were rewarded when Jupiter transformed her back into her human form. Following these adventures, Io lived happily and had many children. Juno and the Founding in Virgil’s Aeneid According to Virgil’s Aeneid, Juno also played a role in the founding of Rome. The Aeneid focused on the trials of Aeneas, a hero who fought on the losing side during the Trojan War. As the city was being sacked by the Achaeans, Aeneas and his father escaped the city and set out on a journey that would take them across the Mediterranean and back again. According to prophecy, Aeneas was fated to found an Italian city that would serve as the capital of the greatest empire in history—an empire that would also conquer the powerful city-state of Carthage in North Africa. Acting in her role as patron of Carthage, Juno tried to thwart the prophecy and prevent Aeneas from ever reaching Italy. After luring Aeneas to Carthage, Juno arranged for him to meet and fall in love with Dido, the city-state’s enchanting queen. Though the two did indeed fall in love, Aeneas tore himself away and sailed for Italy to fulfill his destiny. Despairing at the loss of her lover, Dido committed suicide. Juno, meanwhile, remained focused on her prey. She roiled the seas and tried to sink Aeneas’ vessel, but Neptune intervened and saw the hero safely to Rome. Juno and the Roman State Religion The Romans honored Juno with many festivals spread across the calendar year. During the Matronalia, the festival held on the first of March (the first day of the lunar year), Juno was celebrated as the archetypal “Mother” that symbolically gave birth to the new year. Her association with the turning of the years, measured through the progression of lunar cycles, likely explained her connection to the moon. The Romans also observed Juno during Caprotinae, a festival held on the nones of Quintilus (later renamed "July" after Julius Caesar). This festival featured slave girls ritualistically beating themselves and the sacrificing of lamb and cattle, among other festivities. She was honored with a festival called the Juno Capitolina on the ides of September, as well as the Juno Moneta on the calends of June. The Juno Regina was held on the calends of October, and, on the calends of February—the last month of the lunar calendar—Juno served as the central figure of the Juno Sospita. It was at this final major festival that Juno closed the annual cycle, ensuring a smooth transition into the next. In recent times, Juno lent her name to a space probe launched in 2011 to investigate the planet Jupiter. Built by Lockheed Martin and operated by NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Juno is currently orbiting the massive planet, examining its magnetic and gravitational fields as well as its composition. Juno’s name was also used in the popular 2007 film Juno, starring Ellen Page and Michael Cera. Though the movie did not invoke the Roman goddess directly, the story centered on the travails of a pregnant teenager and involved themes of youth, motherhood, and child-rearing—all traditional domains of Juno. - Wikipedia contributors. “Juno (mythology).” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(mythology).	<urn:uuid:03b9b582-875d-4839-93a2-fb429e9b9377>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mythopedia.com/roman-mythology/gods/juno/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00554.warc.gz	en	0.980439	2,411	3.78125	4	[ 0.2700176537036896, 0.4268757104873657, 0.13051444292068481, 0.2503390312194824, -0.6539376974105835, -0.3057567775249481, 0.25584518909454346, 0.39334896206855774, 0.3760432302951813, -0.03639449179172516, -0.02225714549422264, -0.4433400332927704, 0.21660727262496948, -0.0124955847859382...	6	The Roman goddess of marriage, home, and family, Juno was a champion of women and protector of the Roman state. She was married to Jupiter, king of all the gods, and served as a part of the divine ruling triumvirate known as the Capitoline Triad. Juno was adapted from the Greek goddess Hera, and her essential characteristics and mythology were nearly identical to her Greek predecessor. Juno was among the first Roman gods and goddesses, and like her counterpart deities was thought to oversee both the private affairs of her worshipers and the affairs of the Roman state. According to the time and place of her worship, she embodied several distinct personae. She was “Mother”, “Midwife”, “Queen”, and “Light Bringer.” She was also considered a moon goddess, likely for her association with the waxing and waning of the celestial body, which in turn symbolized the cycles of growth and decay that defined all of existence. The fluidity of her identity made her one of the most broadly worshiped Roman deities, as is evidenced by the huge number of temples built in her honor and festivals held in her name. Though she remained a beloved figure for centuries, Juno’s importance began to wane with the advent of the Roman Empire in the first century BCE. The name “Juno” is thought to have emerged from a host of words meaning youth, youthfulness, and rejuvenation. The name was widely believed to have been derived from the Latin iuvenis, meaning "youth.” The root of iuvenis was often seen in Latin words such as iunex, meaning “heifer,” or a cow that has not had a calf. It was also apparent in the verb iuvare, meaning “to give aid” or “to succor,” as well as iuvenescere, meaning “to rejuvenate,” or literally, “to make young again.” Both verbs related to Juno’s personae as a mother and rejuvenator, the latter of which was seen in her stewardship over lunar and menstrual cycles. In the ancient world and among the Romans, Juno was seen as a counterpart to the Etruscan goddess, Uni, who was the chief god of the Etruscan people. The Etruscans were a pre-Roman Italian people who built a sophisticated kingdom, the culture of greatly influenced the Romans. The Etruscan-Roman connection, as well as the striking similarity between the goddess’ names, suggested another origin for Juno as a goddess and a name. Juno was known by a number of epithets, each of which showcased a distinct persona of the goddess. For her role in succoring the needy, she was called Juno Sospita, or “Juno the Savior". She was also called Juno Moneta, or “Juno the Warner,” for bringing news of danger and preparing the threatened. She was named Juno Regina or “Queen Juno,” for her role as a head of state and member of the Capitoline Triad (with Jupiter and Minerva), but was also called Juno Opigena, or “Juno the Midwife,” for overseeing childbirth. Finally, she was known as Juno Lucina, or “Juno Who Brings Light,” for bringing light, life, and enlightenment to those who worshipped her. As matron goddess of the Roman pantheon, Juno oversaw all matters related to the health and growth of the Roman state and the people who comprised it. She was particularly associated with the cycles and processes related to women. She blessed marriages, oversaw sexual reproduction, and ensured the safe arrival of children. Her control over the female menstrual cycle—a manifestation of her rejuvenating spirit—was mirrored in the heavens via her control over the waxing and waning of the moon. Thus, rather than actually embodying or actually being the moon, Juno served as the source of cyclical transformations. Juno was a daughter of Saturn, the god of the sky who ruled before Jupiter, and Ops (or Opis), the goddess of the earth and growth. Her brothers were Jupiter, Neptune, god of the sea, and Pluto, god of the underworld and wealth. Her sisters were Ceres, an agricultural goddess who oversaw the growth of cereals (the word “cereal,” in fact, comes from Ceres), and Vesta, the protector goddess of the hearth and home, and a defender of purity, virginity, and maidens. Juno married her brother Jupiter, the king of gods, with whom she ruled the cosmos and, more humbly, the Roman state. They had several children together, including Mars, god of war and patron of Roman arms and armies, Bellona, a goddess of war, and Vulcan, god of fire, metalworking, and the forge. Another of their children was Juventus, a goddess who shared Juno’s association with youth and rejuvenation and oversaw the transition from childhood to adulthood. The Coming of Juno Rather than creating a tradition of mythological narratives themselves, the Romans often borrowed and appropriated the mythology of the Greeks, substituting Roman figures for the previously used Greek deities. In the Romanized version of this mythology, Juno took the part of Hera, the queen mother of the Greek deities. As a result, the mythologies of the two goddesses are largely identical. The story of Juno’s creation, for example, was very similar to Hera’s. In the beginning of time, the cosmos was ruled by a god or Titan known as Caelus. In time, Caelus’s son Saturn overthrew him and took control of the universe for himself. Saturn united with Ops, the goddess of elemental earth, and sired children with her. While the children were still growing in Ops’ womb, Saturn learned of a prophecy that predicted his downfall at the hands of one of his offspring. Not knowing who was to take the role of usurper, Saturn ate his first five children, one of whom was Juno. Ops saved the last child, Jupiter, and substituted a rock in his place. When Saturn ate the rock, he came down with a case of indigestion that ultimately caused him to vomit up his children; Juno, Pluto, Neptune, Ceres, and Vesta were soon free. After combining their strength with that of their younger brother Jupiter, the divine siblings took over the world and divided responsibilities amongst themselves. Juno, the Woman Spurned Eventually, Juno married her brother Jupiter. Though they had children together, their marriage was not a happy one. A notorious womanizer, Jupiter had many affairs. One Roman myth even explained that fog was created as a result of Jupiter trying to conceal his affairs from Juno’s watchful gaze. A jealous goddess, Juno was constantly trying to find and punish those with whom her husband had cheated. In an episode borrowed from Greek mythology, Juno doggedly pursued Io, one of Jupiter’s many lovers. Io was a priestess of Jupiter with whom the god had fallen in love. After initially spurning his advances, Io succumbed to the charms of the god and the two had sex. When Juno found out, she promised vengeance, so Jupiter, disguised his lover from his jealous wife by transforming Io into a heifer (which, probably not coincidentally, was a symbol of Juno). After discovering the ruse, Juno sent Argus, a monster with one hundred eyes, to keep watch over Io. Jupiter responded by sending Mercury to stop Argus; he did so by lulling the monster to sleep and then murdering him. As in the Greek tale, Juno put Argus’s one hundred eyes in the tail of the peacock so that she would always remember her loyal creature. Though Io escaped from Argus, Juno persisted in her pursuit. She transformed herself into a monstrous gadfly and mercilessly bit the heifer. The cow journeyed far and wide to elude Juno—in certain versions, she even found Prometheus chained to a rock. Eventually, her struggles were rewarded when Jupiter transformed her back into her human form. Following these adventures, Io lived happily and had many children. Juno and the Founding in Virgil’s Aeneid According to Virgil’s Aeneid, Juno also played a role in the founding of Rome. The Aeneid focused on the trials of Aeneas, a hero who fought on the losing side during the Trojan War. As the city was being sacked by the Achaeans, Aeneas and his father escaped the city and set out on a journey that would take them across the Mediterranean and back again. According to prophecy, Aeneas was fated to found an Italian city that would serve as the capital of the greatest empire in history—an empire that would also conquer the powerful city-state of Carthage in North Africa. Acting in her role as patron of Carthage, Juno tried to thwart the prophecy and prevent Aeneas from ever reaching Italy. After luring Aeneas to Carthage, Juno arranged for him to meet and fall in love with Dido, the city-state’s enchanting queen. Though the two did indeed fall in love, Aeneas tore himself away and sailed for Italy to fulfill his destiny. Despairing at the loss of her lover, Dido committed suicide. Juno, meanwhile, remained focused on her prey. She roiled the seas and tried to sink Aeneas’ vessel, but Neptune intervened and saw the hero safely to Rome. Juno and the Roman State Religion The Romans honored Juno with many festivals spread across the calendar year. During the Matronalia, the festival held on the first of March (the first day of the lunar year), Juno was celebrated as the archetypal “Mother” that symbolically gave birth to the new year. Her association with the turning of the years, measured through the progression of lunar cycles, likely explained her connection to the moon. The Romans also observed Juno during Caprotinae, a festival held on the nones of Quintilus (later renamed "July" after Julius Caesar). This festival featured slave girls ritualistically beating themselves and the sacrificing of lamb and cattle, among other festivities. She was honored with a festival called the Juno Capitolina on the ides of September, as well as the Juno Moneta on the calends of June. The Juno Regina was held on the calends of October, and, on the calends of February—the last month of the lunar calendar—Juno served as the central figure of the Juno Sospita. It was at this final major festival that Juno closed the annual cycle, ensuring a smooth transition into the next. In recent times, Juno lent her name to a space probe launched in 2011 to investigate the planet Jupiter. Built by Lockheed Martin and operated by NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Juno is currently orbiting the massive planet, examining its magnetic and gravitational fields as well as its composition. Juno’s name was also used in the popular 2007 film Juno, starring Ellen Page and Michael Cera. Though the movie did not invoke the Roman goddess directly, the story centered on the travails of a pregnant teenager and involved themes of youth, motherhood, and child-rearing—all traditional domains of Juno. - Wikipedia contributors. “Juno (mythology).” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(mythology).	2,378	ENGLISH	1

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