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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Elizabeth Englander discusses using Bullying: A Case Study in Ostracism.
This case study can be a useful tool because it has a very clear timeline. So it really lays out the sequence of events, and that can be useful because adults can take students through the sequence of events, and say to them, at what point in the sequence could this have been resolved? What could they have done differently at point, you know, at time two or time three that could have resolved this instead of letting it blow up?
The case study, I think, is also useful because it allows you to see that no one is satisfied with the outcome. There is no real winner in this kind of case. Students, when they are embroiled in that kind of conflict, and particularly in bullying situations, are bent on winning. They're bent on successfully using the situation for themselves. So to show them that there really isn't a happy outcome for anybody, I think, is important.
The other way that I think this case study can be used is because it gives you the perspective of each of the players, it can show students how those perspectives can actually make situations worse rather than helping to end them happily. And I would focus particularly on the fact that the kids involved really didn't talk about-- so much about their parts in the conflict. They talked more about their own victimizations and how that is a normal thing to do. And feeling defensive like that is natural but, you know, I might pose to students something like, if you were talking to this person who was your friend, and they said this to you, what would you say to them that could help them fix the situation, rather than keep it going? | <urn:uuid:49f95616-0aaf-4dc5-ab60-3458f0b44132> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/video/elizabeth-englander-using-ostracism-case-study | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.984969 | 349 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.2914828... | 3 | Elizabeth Englander discusses using Bullying: A Case Study in Ostracism.
This case study can be a useful tool because it has a very clear timeline. So it really lays out the sequence of events, and that can be useful because adults can take students through the sequence of events, and say to them, at what point in the sequence could this have been resolved? What could they have done differently at point, you know, at time two or time three that could have resolved this instead of letting it blow up?
The case study, I think, is also useful because it allows you to see that no one is satisfied with the outcome. There is no real winner in this kind of case. Students, when they are embroiled in that kind of conflict, and particularly in bullying situations, are bent on winning. They're bent on successfully using the situation for themselves. So to show them that there really isn't a happy outcome for anybody, I think, is important.
The other way that I think this case study can be used is because it gives you the perspective of each of the players, it can show students how those perspectives can actually make situations worse rather than helping to end them happily. And I would focus particularly on the fact that the kids involved really didn't talk about-- so much about their parts in the conflict. They talked more about their own victimizations and how that is a normal thing to do. And feeling defensive like that is natural but, you know, I might pose to students something like, if you were talking to this person who was your friend, and they said this to you, what would you say to them that could help them fix the situation, rather than keep it going? | 348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Killing of a 'treasonous' King
As a King, Charles I was disastrous; as a man, he faced his death with courage and dignity. His trial and execution were the first of their kind.
Charles I only became heir when his brother Henry died in 1612. Charles had many admirable personal qualities, but he was painfully shy and insecure. He also lacked the charisma and vision essential for leadership. His stubborn refusal to compromise over power-sharing finally ignited civil war.
Seven years of fighting between Charles’ supporters and Oliver Cromwell’s Parliamentarians claimed the lives of thousands, and ultimately, of the King himself. Charles was convicted of treason and executed on 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall.
Charles was not born to be king. He was the youngest child of James I, known as ‘Baby Charles’.
Charles was born on 19 November 1600 at Dunfermline Castle in Fife, Scotland. He was the second son of James VI of Scotland/James I of England and the youngest of the royal family.
If Charles’ popular and likeable elder brother Henry had not died young of typhoid it is unlikely that England would have been riven by the bloodiest civil war ever known.
Charles was a sickly child, very small (his adult height was only 1.5m) and still could not walk or talk aged two.
He inherited his father’s lack of confidence and a slight speech impediment, which he worked hard to conquer.
When his father succeeded to the English throne in 1603 the family moved to London. Two-year-old Charles spent his first English Christmas at Hampton Court Palace.
Image: Charles I circa 1616, © National Portrait Gallery, London
Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626, aged 25. He had married Henrietta Maria of France the previous year. The royal marriage produced nine children, including future Charles II, and Mary Henrietta, who married William II of Orange.
Image: Charles I with Henrietta Maria, Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018
In private, Charles was gentle and polite, by all accounts a loving father. However, in public the King’s acute shyness made him appear haughty and arrogant.
Charles also did not allow anyone except his wife to sit in his presence. This infuriated his enemies, particularly Parliamentarians.
His lack of empathy and refusal to consider opposing views led to his increasing unpopularity. Determined to maintain absolute power, Charles was out of step with the changing times.
Image: King Charles I by Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628, © National Portrait Gallery, London
Charles inherited his father’s belief in the Divine Right of Kings, a doctrine upheld by the entire Stuart dynasty, one of the most powerful families ever to have ruled Scotland.
They believed that kings were chosen by God to rule, and that only God could overrule them.
Charles also believed that he had the sole right to make laws, so to oppose him was a sin against God.
He genuinely believed that a dictatorship was the only effective form of government.
The magnificent Rubens ceiling painting at the Banqueting House, completed in 1636, was commissioned by Charles to celebrate these divine principles.
In this detail of the main canvas, The Apotheosis of James I, his father is portrayed ascending to heaven in a cloud of glory.
The Royalists made a strong start, and their cavalry remained undefeated until 1644. Gradually the Parliamentarians under military genius Oliver Cromwell began to gain the upper hand in what become the bloodiest war ever fought on English soil.
The Battle of Naseby in June 1645 and the defeat of the Royalist army probably marked the turning point in the war, although fighting dragged on until 1649.
Some families had bitterly divided loyalties, brother fighting brother, but religion cut deeper, with Catholics tending to support the King.
In 1646 Charles was imprisoned by Cromwell and put under house arrest in the old Tudor royal apartments at Hampton Court Palace (pictured), from where he famously escaped. He was soon recaptured and kept prisoner at Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight, where he was well-treated.
But despite many opportunities, Charles refused to repent and seek a negotiated peace. He stubbornly refused to accept defeat or submit to the republican authority.
Charles I was given just three days to put his affairs in order and say goodbye to his family. After the trial he was taken by sedan chair a short distance to his old room at Whitehall Palace. Charles refused to see anyone but his children and his chaplain, Bishop Juxon. The next day the King was moved to St James’s Palace.
Charles spent the day burning papers, praying and saying sad farewells to his two youngest children, Henry Duke of Gloucester, aged 9 and Princess Elizabeth, who was 11.
His wife, Henrietta Maria had fled abroad earlier in the war, and his other children were also in exile.
The King told his two youngest not to grieve, that they should obey their elder brother Charles, the lawful sovereign.
Elizabeth cried hysterically when she realised she should not see her father again, and he hid his own tears to calm her.
Image: Five eldest children of Charles I - Mary, James II, Charles II, Elizabeth and Anne. Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018
The following morning, Tuesday 30 January, the King rose early and dressed for the icy weather, asking for a thicker than normal shirt, so that he wouldn’t shiver, and people wouldn't think he was quaking with fear.
He then retired with Bishop Juxon to pray until a knock came on the door at 10am.
Charles, the Bishop and his attendant Thomas Herbert walked across St James’s Park, the King wrapped in a black cloak, surrounded on all sides by guards.
The King was taken to his bedchamber in Whitehall Palace, to await summons to the scaffold. This came three hours later.
Charles walked across the floor of Banqueting House, beneath the Rubens ceiling painting which 20 years before he had commissioned from Rubens.
A huge crowd had gathered in the bitter weather. But they were held so far away that the King's final short speech was lost in the freezing air. Erected against the Banqueting House in Whitehall, the scaffold was hung round with black cloth.
In the centre of the blackened and sanded floor stood the axe and a lower quartering block of a kind used to dismember traitors. Two men, heavily disguised with masks, stood ready to perform the act.
It is said that Brandon, the official executioner could not be found.
The King, his hair now bound in a white nightcap, took off his cloak and laid down. He told the executioner that he would say a short prayer, and then give a signal that he was ready.
After a little pause, the King stretched out his hand, and the axe fell, the executioner severing his head in one clean blow.
Many watching were aghast, with one witness commenting 'There was such a groan by the thousands then present as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again’.
Image: The Execution of Charles I, © National Galleries of Scotland. By permission of Lord Dalmeny.
When Charles II returned from exile in 1661 public opinion had swung right back behind the monarchy. Many people were heartily sick of the sober restraints of Puritanism.
Oliver Cromwell, who died a disillusioned man in 1658, had failed to create a working Parliament and his incompetent son and heir, Richard, was forced to resign. Rather than endure another Civil War, Parliament invited the late King’s son to return to rule.
Oliver Cromwell's son was known as ‘Tumbledown Dick’.
Under Charles II, the surviving 41 republicans who had signed the death warrant were called to account.
Most fled abroad, or surrendered voluntarily to avoid execution.
The ten who refused to beg forgiveness were tried and sentenced to death.
After Restoration, royalists dug up Oliver Cromwell’s rotting corpse and hanged it at Tyburn.
Image: King Charles II, Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2017
Charles I remains the only English monarch to have been tried and executed for treason.
In the years after his death, the muddle of Parliament, sober life under the Puritans and ultimately failure to establish a functioning government meant people started viewing Charles I differently.
Perhaps Charles I's most important legacy is his fabulous art collection, which now forms the Royal Collection.
The execution of Charles I is remembered every year on 30 January with a service in the Banqueting House.
Image: Bust of King Charles I outside Banqueting House. The inscription reads: 'His majesty King Charles I passed through this hall and out of a window nearly over this tablet to the scaffold in Whitehall where he was beheaded on 30th January 1649'.
Despite his crucial failings as a monarch, Charles was a true patron of the arts. In addition to acquiring a personal collection of some 1,400 paintings and 400 pieces of sculpture, he also patronised and encouraged the leading artists and architects of the day.
This Anthony van Dyck painting at Hampton Court Palace, dated to around 1637, shows Charles I's daughter Princess Mary at the age of five or six.
Join us for a member-only guided tour through the Gardens at Hillsborough Castle and Gardens.
Saturday 22 February 2020
Saturday 22 February at 11.00
Free (advance booking required)
In our home section you will find stylish lifestyle home accessories and furnishings, including cushions, tapestries, ornaments and much more which will add those finishing touches to make your room complete.
Discover books inspired by the palaces in our care, learn about fascinating periods of British history, including our official palace guide books, children's books and more. | <urn:uuid:d3adb359-5593-43f9-8e54-aa68c7c7900e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://staging.hrp.org.uk/banqueting-house/history-and-stories/the-execution-of-charles-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.981232 | 2,114 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.17419740557670... | 1 | Killing of a 'treasonous' King
As a King, Charles I was disastrous; as a man, he faced his death with courage and dignity. His trial and execution were the first of their kind.
Charles I only became heir when his brother Henry died in 1612. Charles had many admirable personal qualities, but he was painfully shy and insecure. He also lacked the charisma and vision essential for leadership. His stubborn refusal to compromise over power-sharing finally ignited civil war.
Seven years of fighting between Charles’ supporters and Oliver Cromwell’s Parliamentarians claimed the lives of thousands, and ultimately, of the King himself. Charles was convicted of treason and executed on 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall.
Charles was not born to be king. He was the youngest child of James I, known as ‘Baby Charles’.
Charles was born on 19 November 1600 at Dunfermline Castle in Fife, Scotland. He was the second son of James VI of Scotland/James I of England and the youngest of the royal family.
If Charles’ popular and likeable elder brother Henry had not died young of typhoid it is unlikely that England would have been riven by the bloodiest civil war ever known.
Charles was a sickly child, very small (his adult height was only 1.5m) and still could not walk or talk aged two.
He inherited his father’s lack of confidence and a slight speech impediment, which he worked hard to conquer.
When his father succeeded to the English throne in 1603 the family moved to London. Two-year-old Charles spent his first English Christmas at Hampton Court Palace.
Image: Charles I circa 1616, © National Portrait Gallery, London
Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626, aged 25. He had married Henrietta Maria of France the previous year. The royal marriage produced nine children, including future Charles II, and Mary Henrietta, who married William II of Orange.
Image: Charles I with Henrietta Maria, Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018
In private, Charles was gentle and polite, by all accounts a loving father. However, in public the King’s acute shyness made him appear haughty and arrogant.
Charles also did not allow anyone except his wife to sit in his presence. This infuriated his enemies, particularly Parliamentarians.
His lack of empathy and refusal to consider opposing views led to his increasing unpopularity. Determined to maintain absolute power, Charles was out of step with the changing times.
Image: King Charles I by Gerrit van Honthorst, 1628, © National Portrait Gallery, London
Charles inherited his father’s belief in the Divine Right of Kings, a doctrine upheld by the entire Stuart dynasty, one of the most powerful families ever to have ruled Scotland.
They believed that kings were chosen by God to rule, and that only God could overrule them.
Charles also believed that he had the sole right to make laws, so to oppose him was a sin against God.
He genuinely believed that a dictatorship was the only effective form of government.
The magnificent Rubens ceiling painting at the Banqueting House, completed in 1636, was commissioned by Charles to celebrate these divine principles.
In this detail of the main canvas, The Apotheosis of James I, his father is portrayed ascending to heaven in a cloud of glory.
The Royalists made a strong start, and their cavalry remained undefeated until 1644. Gradually the Parliamentarians under military genius Oliver Cromwell began to gain the upper hand in what become the bloodiest war ever fought on English soil.
The Battle of Naseby in June 1645 and the defeat of the Royalist army probably marked the turning point in the war, although fighting dragged on until 1649.
Some families had bitterly divided loyalties, brother fighting brother, but religion cut deeper, with Catholics tending to support the King.
In 1646 Charles was imprisoned by Cromwell and put under house arrest in the old Tudor royal apartments at Hampton Court Palace (pictured), from where he famously escaped. He was soon recaptured and kept prisoner at Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight, where he was well-treated.
But despite many opportunities, Charles refused to repent and seek a negotiated peace. He stubbornly refused to accept defeat or submit to the republican authority.
Charles I was given just three days to put his affairs in order and say goodbye to his family. After the trial he was taken by sedan chair a short distance to his old room at Whitehall Palace. Charles refused to see anyone but his children and his chaplain, Bishop Juxon. The next day the King was moved to St James’s Palace.
Charles spent the day burning papers, praying and saying sad farewells to his two youngest children, Henry Duke of Gloucester, aged 9 and Princess Elizabeth, who was 11.
His wife, Henrietta Maria had fled abroad earlier in the war, and his other children were also in exile.
The King told his two youngest not to grieve, that they should obey their elder brother Charles, the lawful sovereign.
Elizabeth cried hysterically when she realised she should not see her father again, and he hid his own tears to calm her.
Image: Five eldest children of Charles I - Mary, James II, Charles II, Elizabeth and Anne. Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2018
The following morning, Tuesday 30 January, the King rose early and dressed for the icy weather, asking for a thicker than normal shirt, so that he wouldn’t shiver, and people wouldn't think he was quaking with fear.
He then retired with Bishop Juxon to pray until a knock came on the door at 10am.
Charles, the Bishop and his attendant Thomas Herbert walked across St James’s Park, the King wrapped in a black cloak, surrounded on all sides by guards.
The King was taken to his bedchamber in Whitehall Palace, to await summons to the scaffold. This came three hours later.
Charles walked across the floor of Banqueting House, beneath the Rubens ceiling painting which 20 years before he had commissioned from Rubens.
A huge crowd had gathered in the bitter weather. But they were held so far away that the King's final short speech was lost in the freezing air. Erected against the Banqueting House in Whitehall, the scaffold was hung round with black cloth.
In the centre of the blackened and sanded floor stood the axe and a lower quartering block of a kind used to dismember traitors. Two men, heavily disguised with masks, stood ready to perform the act.
It is said that Brandon, the official executioner could not be found.
The King, his hair now bound in a white nightcap, took off his cloak and laid down. He told the executioner that he would say a short prayer, and then give a signal that he was ready.
After a little pause, the King stretched out his hand, and the axe fell, the executioner severing his head in one clean blow.
Many watching were aghast, with one witness commenting 'There was such a groan by the thousands then present as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again’.
Image: The Execution of Charles I, © National Galleries of Scotland. By permission of Lord Dalmeny.
When Charles II returned from exile in 1661 public opinion had swung right back behind the monarchy. Many people were heartily sick of the sober restraints of Puritanism.
Oliver Cromwell, who died a disillusioned man in 1658, had failed to create a working Parliament and his incompetent son and heir, Richard, was forced to resign. Rather than endure another Civil War, Parliament invited the late King’s son to return to rule.
Oliver Cromwell's son was known as ‘Tumbledown Dick’.
Under Charles II, the surviving 41 republicans who had signed the death warrant were called to account.
Most fled abroad, or surrendered voluntarily to avoid execution.
The ten who refused to beg forgiveness were tried and sentenced to death.
After Restoration, royalists dug up Oliver Cromwell’s rotting corpse and hanged it at Tyburn.
Image: King Charles II, Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2017
Charles I remains the only English monarch to have been tried and executed for treason.
In the years after his death, the muddle of Parliament, sober life under the Puritans and ultimately failure to establish a functioning government meant people started viewing Charles I differently.
Perhaps Charles I's most important legacy is his fabulous art collection, which now forms the Royal Collection.
The execution of Charles I is remembered every year on 30 January with a service in the Banqueting House.
Image: Bust of King Charles I outside Banqueting House. The inscription reads: 'His majesty King Charles I passed through this hall and out of a window nearly over this tablet to the scaffold in Whitehall where he was beheaded on 30th January 1649'.
Despite his crucial failings as a monarch, Charles was a true patron of the arts. In addition to acquiring a personal collection of some 1,400 paintings and 400 pieces of sculpture, he also patronised and encouraged the leading artists and architects of the day.
This Anthony van Dyck painting at Hampton Court Palace, dated to around 1637, shows Charles I's daughter Princess Mary at the age of five or six.
Join us for a member-only guided tour through the Gardens at Hillsborough Castle and Gardens.
Saturday 22 February 2020
Saturday 22 February at 11.00
Free (advance booking required)
In our home section you will find stylish lifestyle home accessories and furnishings, including cushions, tapestries, ornaments and much more which will add those finishing touches to make your room complete.
Discover books inspired by the palaces in our care, learn about fascinating periods of British history, including our official palace guide books, children's books and more. | 2,127 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to a recent study, getting the recommended amount of physical activity on a regular basic will be able to reduce the chances of cancer risk. This is one of the many studies to show the health benefits of daily exercise but also one of the very few to establish the connection between exercise and cancer. The study is published in the journal called the Journal of Clinical Oncology and is the combined effort of fifteen kinds of researchers who had analyzed the data. This study was based on a huge data pool.
Information from more than 740,000 adults from the United States, Europe and Australia was analyzed as a part of the study, which reaffirmed the notion that exercise is connected to the risk of cancer. People who were taking the recommended amount of physical activity on a continuous basis were found to have a lower risk of cancer when compared to those who were not. Various types of cancers such as colon, breast, kidney, myeloma, liver, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and endometrial were looked for through the analysis of results. It should also be noted that, unlike previous research attempts, this one was quite deeper.
As said earlier, there have been research attempts that created a link between cancer and physical activity. However, authors behind this study had explored the different types of cancers and how different amounts of physical activity had an impact on lowering the risks of cancer. In particular, the authors aimed to find out how much of physical activity was enough to keep the body safe from the risk of the disease. According to experts and the US health officials, adults are expected to get vigorous exercise of at least two and half hours per week. This recommended level now seems to have benefits like these too. | <urn:uuid:afeb6477-6333-4b2f-8206-80e66dfb3bde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://biznewsmedia.com/physical-activity-linked-to-lower-risk-of-cancer-says-study/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.989149 | 346 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2920449674129486... | 3 | According to a recent study, getting the recommended amount of physical activity on a regular basic will be able to reduce the chances of cancer risk. This is one of the many studies to show the health benefits of daily exercise but also one of the very few to establish the connection between exercise and cancer. The study is published in the journal called the Journal of Clinical Oncology and is the combined effort of fifteen kinds of researchers who had analyzed the data. This study was based on a huge data pool.
Information from more than 740,000 adults from the United States, Europe and Australia was analyzed as a part of the study, which reaffirmed the notion that exercise is connected to the risk of cancer. People who were taking the recommended amount of physical activity on a continuous basis were found to have a lower risk of cancer when compared to those who were not. Various types of cancers such as colon, breast, kidney, myeloma, liver, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and endometrial were looked for through the analysis of results. It should also be noted that, unlike previous research attempts, this one was quite deeper.
As said earlier, there have been research attempts that created a link between cancer and physical activity. However, authors behind this study had explored the different types of cancers and how different amounts of physical activity had an impact on lowering the risks of cancer. In particular, the authors aimed to find out how much of physical activity was enough to keep the body safe from the risk of the disease. According to experts and the US health officials, adults are expected to get vigorous exercise of at least two and half hours per week. This recommended level now seems to have benefits like these too. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was an Indian independence activist and the first Prime Minister of India. He was a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He emerged as an eminent leader of the Indian independence movement under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi and served India as a Prime Minister from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in 1964. He has been described by the Amar Chitra Katha as the architect of India. Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru. Pandit Nehru’s deepest desire was to work for the welfare of children and the youth.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a great leader with a vision and he has achieved great things in life because he was driven by his passion for doing incredible things for young people. His enthusiasm to work on the Indian Education system and development of children in India speaks volumes. As an individual, Jawaharlal Nehru’s love for red roses is a well-known fact. He often compared children and flowers, saying that, “Children are like buds in a garden and should be carefully and lovingly nurtured, as they are the future of the nation and the citizens of tomorrow.” He always felt that children are the real pillar of the country.
He was keen on the education and development of the children in the country, Pandit Nehru oversaw the establishment of some of the most prominent educational institution in India. He played a major role in the development of the youth in setting up the All India Institute of Medical Sciences. Apart from his position as a freedom fighter and politician, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru has left behind a legacy of education and growth for the children in our country. Therefore, November 14 is celebrated as Children's Day | <urn:uuid:7ef6d7a7-a5b8-41e5-8952-f093f535505c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.republicworld.com/lifestyle/festivals/childrens-day-is-celebrated-on-jawaharlal-nehrus-birthday-know-why.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.983353 | 363 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.306934773921966... | 2 | Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was an Indian independence activist and the first Prime Minister of India. He was a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He emerged as an eminent leader of the Indian independence movement under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi and served India as a Prime Minister from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in 1964. He has been described by the Amar Chitra Katha as the architect of India. Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru. Pandit Nehru’s deepest desire was to work for the welfare of children and the youth.
Jawaharlal Nehru was a great leader with a vision and he has achieved great things in life because he was driven by his passion for doing incredible things for young people. His enthusiasm to work on the Indian Education system and development of children in India speaks volumes. As an individual, Jawaharlal Nehru’s love for red roses is a well-known fact. He often compared children and flowers, saying that, “Children are like buds in a garden and should be carefully and lovingly nurtured, as they are the future of the nation and the citizens of tomorrow.” He always felt that children are the real pillar of the country.
He was keen on the education and development of the children in the country, Pandit Nehru oversaw the establishment of some of the most prominent educational institution in India. He played a major role in the development of the youth in setting up the All India Institute of Medical Sciences. Apart from his position as a freedom fighter and politician, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru has left behind a legacy of education and growth for the children in our country. Therefore, November 14 is celebrated as Children's Day | 363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Indian dance form can be traced to pre Vedic period i.e. Indus Valley Civilization. It is revealed from a dancing figurine found in the course of excavations at Mohan Jodaro and Harappa, that dance had important place in the social life of the people of those times and they were quite well versed in this art.
Indian people had knowledge of music and dance even during 5000-6000 BC, which is acknowledged by famous historian Fedis also.
The art of dance as practised by Dravids was also of high order and from their life we learn of richness of ‘homogeneity’, ‘vision’ and ‘beauty of innerself’. Dravid women were proficient in dancing and beautiful.
1. Indian dances during Vedic period : During the Vedic age, Indian Dance took a new turn. It was enriched with new emotions and variety of presentation. In the Vedas, which belonged to this age, the word ‘Nritya’ has been mentioned at various places. It is also revealed that the Rishis (Sages-learned men) of this age were well aware of the art of dancing. According to Prof. Alag Retorn, artists of all three types i.e. singers, dancers and instrument players were present during this age. Women dancers used to participate without any hesitation in public performances of music as singers, dancers and instrument players and enjoyed high status in the society. In Brahmins, Upanishads and other Vedic scriptures of this age, Nritya has been described vividly.
We thus see that during Vedic Age, dance was an important social activity. In all festivals and functions, Nritya was an essential performance and was viewed highly.
2. Nritya during Aryan Period : Aryans linked Nritya to Yoga, made it simple to learn and gave it a spiritual meaning. They used practice of dance to purify and strengthen their mental state and capabilities. Aryans believed that dance was a powerful medium for purifying the soul and taking it out of darkness and evil thoughts. They elevated their state of mind through practice of dance.
During this period, Natya Nritya (dance drama) Geet Nritya (dance and song) Roop Nritya (abhinaya and dance) Bhav Nritya (emoting through dance) were developed which enriched and elevated the level and content of dance. Aryans laid great importance on purity and considered purity as beauty. Beauty was however, considered to be mother of Nritya. Nritya was considered as an expression of beauty.
3. Nritya during the period of Ramayana : Nritya was fully developed during the period of Ramayana. It is known from the Valmiki Ramayana that people belonging to both high as well as lower strata of society in this period were skilled in all the three arts of music i.e. singing, dancing and instrument playing. Amsagie has written in his book that musical excellence of the order, the glimpse of which was found in the Ramayana age, was not found in the prior periods.
Rama was also skilled in music, playing of instruments and painting. Ravana, the king of Lanka also used to worship Lord Shiva with song and dance and his wife Mandodari and other women of the palace were proficient in all types of arts.
It can thus be concluded that various types of arts including singing and dancing attained significant progress and improvement during this age.
4. Nritya during the period of Mahabharata: During the Ramayana period, we find that all classes of society had developed interest in Nritya but the art of dancing i.e. Nritya got fully developed during the Mahabharata period. During this period, the number of dancers was very large.
Krishna is the ‘sutradhar’ (around whom the entire Mahabharata developed) and he was the master of the art of dancing. He performed ‘Raas Nritya’ with Gopis (village women) and used to leave everyone spellbound. The great grandson of Krishna, Pradyumna and his wife Usha learnt ‘Lasya’ style of dancing from Goddess Parvati (wife of Lord Shiva) and then propogated it in Dwarika. Similarly, Arjuna learnt the art of dancing from Urvashi, a nymph from heaven and during the period of his banishment when Pandavas were required to live incognito, he transformed himself as Brihnnala, the Eunuch and taught the art of dancing to Uttara, the daughter of King Virat. Thus it can be seen that even the main characters of Mahabharata were quite skilled in the art of dancing.
5. Nritya during Bauddha period: The great war of Mahabharata led to widespread destruction. The ordinary people were scared and the art suffered gradual decline. Buddha, the knowledgeable one, in about2500 BC, preached religious and social reforms and showed the way to Nirvana (relevation) to people.
Buddha encouraged the male as well as female dancers to participate in social functions and when women went for darshan of Buddha, they praised him through the medium of singing and dancing. The art was also used for propogating Buddhism and bringing it closer to common folk.
Lord Buddha, also known as Siddharth in his early life was skilled in various types of arts and artists enjoyed a status in the society.’ Amrapali’ was the famous danseuse of Buddha period that ultimately became his disciple and renounced the world but this reveals that the art of dance developed significantly during this period.
6. Nritya during 3rd Century A.D.: In the closing stages of 3rd Century A.D., the art of dancing underwent revolutionary transformation. This was the period of ‘Nagas’. It was during this age that Muni Bharat, the great master of Music, created ‘Natyashastra’ which is still available.
The peculiarity of this age is that the Naga people used music and dance in the process of worshipping and they raised the art of dance as also other arts beyond the level of sensuality. They built Rangshalas (auditoriums and theatres) at various places to facilitate performances. In this age, expression of bhavas (emotions) through mudras was considered superior.
7. Nritya during 4th Century A.D.: Chandra Gupta II who also assumed the title of Vikramaditya, was son of Emperor Samudra Gupta and ascended the throne in the year 375 AD. During his reign considerable progress was made towards further development of fine arts like music, dance and painting. Emperor Samudra Gupta had established a strong and stable kingdom and due to advancement made by the society in various spheres of life, Gupta period has been referred as the Golden period of Indian history.
In his book “The Essence of Indian Music”, Shri BullDog Ipsa has mentioned “I consider the Gupta period as the Golden period of music only because during this period even the ordinary people had such high level of understanding of literature and fine arts which is not found even today in people who are highly educated and belong to the progressive class.”
During Gupta period, Indian music and dance crossed the frontiers and became popular in foreign countries. From the idols and paintings of this age, it can be summarized that the artists of this period had elevated dance to a form of devotion and they emoted each sentiment in the most beautiful and presentable manner.
The great poet and playwright Kalidasa belonged to this period and his plays prove that drama, dances and music were evolved and established in their classical form. Dances were developed through plays and many famous dancers such as Malavika of Malavikagnimitram and Urvashi, main character of ‘Vikramourvashiyam’ a play by Kalidasa belonged to this period.
8. Dance during Rajput period: Rajput period extended from 687 AD to 1000 AD. During this period, art forms were not practised by masses but became a profession by personal choice. Many of Idols, sculptures, paintings were destroyed by invaders. According to many experts, the tradition of ‘Gharanedari’ took roots during this period as artist started confining their skills to themselves. An author by the name of Ajmat has recorded in his diary that “The Rajput kings of those times loved music with the same intensity as they were brave.” Many musicians found shelter in the courts of the kings and the art progressed under the protection of the kings. Women used to participate in the social festivals during this period.
9. Dance during Moghul period: The period beginning from the reign of Emperor Akbar and upto the end of the rule by Emperor Shahjahen is known as ‘Later Middle Age’. Both the emperors were lover of fine arts. The Dhrupad and Dhamar styles of singing were born during this period and much advancement was made in dance form. It was during this age, that changes were ushered into costume of Kathak but the spirituality of Vedic age began to vanish gradually.
To derive pleasure and entertainment from dance, Bhavas were depicted in a relatively cheap style and gradually dance came to be associated with prostitutes. The Lord was displaced by the King and renowned artistes were made to dance with a cup of wine in their hands for the enjoyment and pleasure of the kings.
In other provinces of India, various styles of dances were, however, developed during this period. In south India, the environment for dancing continued to be classical and spiritual as it was not affected by Muslim culture. The kings in south India established dance schools and bequeathed villages to dance teachers. Various dance Mudras were sculptured on the pillars of the dance schools.
During the period belonging to Vijaynagar Kingdom, Krishnadev Rai had set up a ‘Ganika Nagar’ for the dancers. The dancers used to live here as Devdasis. During this period ‘Bharatnatyam’, ‘Kathakali’, ‘Kuchipudi’ and ‘Yakshagan’ were in full bloom along with Kathak. Around the end of Moghul period, the Nawabi reign came into being in Oudh and the ‘Lucknow Gharana” of Kathak was founded.
10. Dance during European period: The advent of the European races into India resulted into an appreciable influence of Western culture on Indian Culture. Since they had brought rich cultural traditions with them, this age can also be referred as ‘Renessaince of Cultural Consciousness’ as Europeans in their spare time used to listen and watch Indian music and dance and this provided an opportunity for Indian dance and music to evolve on the international scene.
It was during this age that the music began to be taught through institutional medium due to efforts made by Pt. Vishnu Narain Bhatkhande and Pt. Vishnu Digamber Paluskar, who set up music institutions in various provinces of the country.
In this age, literature concerning Indian music was written and many Indians as well as European scholars got attracted towards Indian music and culture and wrote books of high quality.
This age also saw emergence of artists of international repute, notable among them were Gopinath, Reeta Devi, Ragini Devi, Shiv Shankaran Namboodari, Smt. Rukmini Devi Arundel, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Smt. Bela Saraswati, Sri Ram Gopal and Sri Uday Shankar who performed overseas and made Indian classical music and dance internationally recognized. We may thus conclude that during European age, Indian dance was revitalized.
11. Indian Dances post Independence: The country shed the yoke of slavery on 15th August 1947, which led to popular awakening in various spheres including fine arts. As a result Indian dances became popular among masses. In major cites of the country, institutes dedicated to the teaching of dances were set up and dance was introduced as a subject in the schools and universities.
In the post independence period, there have been considerable changes in Indian classical dance styles in regard to presentation, makeup, dress, use of musical instruments, light and sound. Many books have been written in Hindi, English and other languages on Indian dances.
In the year 1954, Sangeet Natak academy was set up by the Central Government, which has made considerable contribution towards preservation and development of traditions concerning music, dance and drama. The academy organizes many programmes, provides financial aid to artists and honours them as well. Now Indian artists go abroad to perform.
Post independence, Indian dances have entered the homes of the common man and the art has achieved a status and recognition in the society. People belonging to all classes feel a sense of pride in learning classical dance.
Our Government has played an active role in encouraging classical dances and as a result, its future appears quite bright. | <urn:uuid:a518cbcc-5343-4318-ac8a-90a5648186fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nadsadhna.com/indian-music/dance-forms/history-of-indian-dance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.985105 | 2,770 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.1173610612... | 1 | History of Indian dance form can be traced to pre Vedic period i.e. Indus Valley Civilization. It is revealed from a dancing figurine found in the course of excavations at Mohan Jodaro and Harappa, that dance had important place in the social life of the people of those times and they were quite well versed in this art.
Indian people had knowledge of music and dance even during 5000-6000 BC, which is acknowledged by famous historian Fedis also.
The art of dance as practised by Dravids was also of high order and from their life we learn of richness of ‘homogeneity’, ‘vision’ and ‘beauty of innerself’. Dravid women were proficient in dancing and beautiful.
1. Indian dances during Vedic period : During the Vedic age, Indian Dance took a new turn. It was enriched with new emotions and variety of presentation. In the Vedas, which belonged to this age, the word ‘Nritya’ has been mentioned at various places. It is also revealed that the Rishis (Sages-learned men) of this age were well aware of the art of dancing. According to Prof. Alag Retorn, artists of all three types i.e. singers, dancers and instrument players were present during this age. Women dancers used to participate without any hesitation in public performances of music as singers, dancers and instrument players and enjoyed high status in the society. In Brahmins, Upanishads and other Vedic scriptures of this age, Nritya has been described vividly.
We thus see that during Vedic Age, dance was an important social activity. In all festivals and functions, Nritya was an essential performance and was viewed highly.
2. Nritya during Aryan Period : Aryans linked Nritya to Yoga, made it simple to learn and gave it a spiritual meaning. They used practice of dance to purify and strengthen their mental state and capabilities. Aryans believed that dance was a powerful medium for purifying the soul and taking it out of darkness and evil thoughts. They elevated their state of mind through practice of dance.
During this period, Natya Nritya (dance drama) Geet Nritya (dance and song) Roop Nritya (abhinaya and dance) Bhav Nritya (emoting through dance) were developed which enriched and elevated the level and content of dance. Aryans laid great importance on purity and considered purity as beauty. Beauty was however, considered to be mother of Nritya. Nritya was considered as an expression of beauty.
3. Nritya during the period of Ramayana : Nritya was fully developed during the period of Ramayana. It is known from the Valmiki Ramayana that people belonging to both high as well as lower strata of society in this period were skilled in all the three arts of music i.e. singing, dancing and instrument playing. Amsagie has written in his book that musical excellence of the order, the glimpse of which was found in the Ramayana age, was not found in the prior periods.
Rama was also skilled in music, playing of instruments and painting. Ravana, the king of Lanka also used to worship Lord Shiva with song and dance and his wife Mandodari and other women of the palace were proficient in all types of arts.
It can thus be concluded that various types of arts including singing and dancing attained significant progress and improvement during this age.
4. Nritya during the period of Mahabharata: During the Ramayana period, we find that all classes of society had developed interest in Nritya but the art of dancing i.e. Nritya got fully developed during the Mahabharata period. During this period, the number of dancers was very large.
Krishna is the ‘sutradhar’ (around whom the entire Mahabharata developed) and he was the master of the art of dancing. He performed ‘Raas Nritya’ with Gopis (village women) and used to leave everyone spellbound. The great grandson of Krishna, Pradyumna and his wife Usha learnt ‘Lasya’ style of dancing from Goddess Parvati (wife of Lord Shiva) and then propogated it in Dwarika. Similarly, Arjuna learnt the art of dancing from Urvashi, a nymph from heaven and during the period of his banishment when Pandavas were required to live incognito, he transformed himself as Brihnnala, the Eunuch and taught the art of dancing to Uttara, the daughter of King Virat. Thus it can be seen that even the main characters of Mahabharata were quite skilled in the art of dancing.
5. Nritya during Bauddha period: The great war of Mahabharata led to widespread destruction. The ordinary people were scared and the art suffered gradual decline. Buddha, the knowledgeable one, in about2500 BC, preached religious and social reforms and showed the way to Nirvana (relevation) to people.
Buddha encouraged the male as well as female dancers to participate in social functions and when women went for darshan of Buddha, they praised him through the medium of singing and dancing. The art was also used for propogating Buddhism and bringing it closer to common folk.
Lord Buddha, also known as Siddharth in his early life was skilled in various types of arts and artists enjoyed a status in the society.’ Amrapali’ was the famous danseuse of Buddha period that ultimately became his disciple and renounced the world but this reveals that the art of dance developed significantly during this period.
6. Nritya during 3rd Century A.D.: In the closing stages of 3rd Century A.D., the art of dancing underwent revolutionary transformation. This was the period of ‘Nagas’. It was during this age that Muni Bharat, the great master of Music, created ‘Natyashastra’ which is still available.
The peculiarity of this age is that the Naga people used music and dance in the process of worshipping and they raised the art of dance as also other arts beyond the level of sensuality. They built Rangshalas (auditoriums and theatres) at various places to facilitate performances. In this age, expression of bhavas (emotions) through mudras was considered superior.
7. Nritya during 4th Century A.D.: Chandra Gupta II who also assumed the title of Vikramaditya, was son of Emperor Samudra Gupta and ascended the throne in the year 375 AD. During his reign considerable progress was made towards further development of fine arts like music, dance and painting. Emperor Samudra Gupta had established a strong and stable kingdom and due to advancement made by the society in various spheres of life, Gupta period has been referred as the Golden period of Indian history.
In his book “The Essence of Indian Music”, Shri BullDog Ipsa has mentioned “I consider the Gupta period as the Golden period of music only because during this period even the ordinary people had such high level of understanding of literature and fine arts which is not found even today in people who are highly educated and belong to the progressive class.”
During Gupta period, Indian music and dance crossed the frontiers and became popular in foreign countries. From the idols and paintings of this age, it can be summarized that the artists of this period had elevated dance to a form of devotion and they emoted each sentiment in the most beautiful and presentable manner.
The great poet and playwright Kalidasa belonged to this period and his plays prove that drama, dances and music were evolved and established in their classical form. Dances were developed through plays and many famous dancers such as Malavika of Malavikagnimitram and Urvashi, main character of ‘Vikramourvashiyam’ a play by Kalidasa belonged to this period.
8. Dance during Rajput period: Rajput period extended from 687 AD to 1000 AD. During this period, art forms were not practised by masses but became a profession by personal choice. Many of Idols, sculptures, paintings were destroyed by invaders. According to many experts, the tradition of ‘Gharanedari’ took roots during this period as artist started confining their skills to themselves. An author by the name of Ajmat has recorded in his diary that “The Rajput kings of those times loved music with the same intensity as they were brave.” Many musicians found shelter in the courts of the kings and the art progressed under the protection of the kings. Women used to participate in the social festivals during this period.
9. Dance during Moghul period: The period beginning from the reign of Emperor Akbar and upto the end of the rule by Emperor Shahjahen is known as ‘Later Middle Age’. Both the emperors were lover of fine arts. The Dhrupad and Dhamar styles of singing were born during this period and much advancement was made in dance form. It was during this age, that changes were ushered into costume of Kathak but the spirituality of Vedic age began to vanish gradually.
To derive pleasure and entertainment from dance, Bhavas were depicted in a relatively cheap style and gradually dance came to be associated with prostitutes. The Lord was displaced by the King and renowned artistes were made to dance with a cup of wine in their hands for the enjoyment and pleasure of the kings.
In other provinces of India, various styles of dances were, however, developed during this period. In south India, the environment for dancing continued to be classical and spiritual as it was not affected by Muslim culture. The kings in south India established dance schools and bequeathed villages to dance teachers. Various dance Mudras were sculptured on the pillars of the dance schools.
During the period belonging to Vijaynagar Kingdom, Krishnadev Rai had set up a ‘Ganika Nagar’ for the dancers. The dancers used to live here as Devdasis. During this period ‘Bharatnatyam’, ‘Kathakali’, ‘Kuchipudi’ and ‘Yakshagan’ were in full bloom along with Kathak. Around the end of Moghul period, the Nawabi reign came into being in Oudh and the ‘Lucknow Gharana” of Kathak was founded.
10. Dance during European period: The advent of the European races into India resulted into an appreciable influence of Western culture on Indian Culture. Since they had brought rich cultural traditions with them, this age can also be referred as ‘Renessaince of Cultural Consciousness’ as Europeans in their spare time used to listen and watch Indian music and dance and this provided an opportunity for Indian dance and music to evolve on the international scene.
It was during this age that the music began to be taught through institutional medium due to efforts made by Pt. Vishnu Narain Bhatkhande and Pt. Vishnu Digamber Paluskar, who set up music institutions in various provinces of the country.
In this age, literature concerning Indian music was written and many Indians as well as European scholars got attracted towards Indian music and culture and wrote books of high quality.
This age also saw emergence of artists of international repute, notable among them were Gopinath, Reeta Devi, Ragini Devi, Shiv Shankaran Namboodari, Smt. Rukmini Devi Arundel, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Smt. Bela Saraswati, Sri Ram Gopal and Sri Uday Shankar who performed overseas and made Indian classical music and dance internationally recognized. We may thus conclude that during European age, Indian dance was revitalized.
11. Indian Dances post Independence: The country shed the yoke of slavery on 15th August 1947, which led to popular awakening in various spheres including fine arts. As a result Indian dances became popular among masses. In major cites of the country, institutes dedicated to the teaching of dances were set up and dance was introduced as a subject in the schools and universities.
In the post independence period, there have been considerable changes in Indian classical dance styles in regard to presentation, makeup, dress, use of musical instruments, light and sound. Many books have been written in Hindi, English and other languages on Indian dances.
In the year 1954, Sangeet Natak academy was set up by the Central Government, which has made considerable contribution towards preservation and development of traditions concerning music, dance and drama. The academy organizes many programmes, provides financial aid to artists and honours them as well. Now Indian artists go abroad to perform.
Post independence, Indian dances have entered the homes of the common man and the art has achieved a status and recognition in the society. People belonging to all classes feel a sense of pride in learning classical dance.
Our Government has played an active role in encouraging classical dances and as a result, its future appears quite bright. | 2,705 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mandatory high school class exposes freshmen to computers, software
Could become a model for other school districts
BUENA VISTA, Va. – Most of us work with computers every day at work or at home. But there is a shortage of people who can code, protect our information and perform other important jobs in cybersecurity.
One school system is preparing students for this in-demand field in a new way.
Computer games are actually teaching students how to code.
"I will need these skills in the long run," said Aniyah McCoy, who was learning the parts of a computer the day we stopped by to take a look at the mandatory course for all Buena Vista freshmen.
"There are so many tech jobs that are unfilled in this country and it's getting worse because kids aren't going into it," said Sue Way, a CTE (Career and Technical Education) instructor who helped develop the course with technology director Donna Frazier.
"We looked at Virginia's vision and the federal CTE vision and all of those were incorporated with our local vision, like what we heard from industry leaders. They were very good about saying, 'This is where the gaps are,'" said Frazier.
'Information Technology Fundamentals' is not a new class for Virginia, but the way Buena Vista is teaching it is. They added to the basic class, packing a lot into one year. This could become the model across the Commonwealth.
"Any skill takes constant exposure to it and constant instruction. If we start them at the beginning of their high school career then they'll have many opportunities to practice the skills and to use them by the time they leave our building," said Frazier.
"Even if they're not thinking of a career in it, they're seeing how it can be used in other fields and that's important. They need to see that," said Way.
Exposing students to it early, allows them to expand their skills and take other classes, too.
"There are going to be kids that love it, there are going to be kids that don't love it but the goal is to get every kid seeing the possibilities," said Way.
"It's definitely teaching me things that I didn't know before and it's showing me things that I'm going to need to know," said McCoy.
Juniors and seniors are taking the class, since they missed it as freshmen. This has worked so well that Buena Vista plans on starting computer science classes in kindergarten through eighth grade too.
Copyright 2019 by WSLS 10 - All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:e3524e48-6fa2-46e0-86ca-2f8986159d47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wsls.com/2019/10/01/mandatory-high-school-class-exposes-freshmen-to-computers-software/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00220.warc.gz | en | 0.980918 | 525 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0131225688... | 1 | Mandatory high school class exposes freshmen to computers, software
Could become a model for other school districts
BUENA VISTA, Va. – Most of us work with computers every day at work or at home. But there is a shortage of people who can code, protect our information and perform other important jobs in cybersecurity.
One school system is preparing students for this in-demand field in a new way.
Computer games are actually teaching students how to code.
"I will need these skills in the long run," said Aniyah McCoy, who was learning the parts of a computer the day we stopped by to take a look at the mandatory course for all Buena Vista freshmen.
"There are so many tech jobs that are unfilled in this country and it's getting worse because kids aren't going into it," said Sue Way, a CTE (Career and Technical Education) instructor who helped develop the course with technology director Donna Frazier.
"We looked at Virginia's vision and the federal CTE vision and all of those were incorporated with our local vision, like what we heard from industry leaders. They were very good about saying, 'This is where the gaps are,'" said Frazier.
'Information Technology Fundamentals' is not a new class for Virginia, but the way Buena Vista is teaching it is. They added to the basic class, packing a lot into one year. This could become the model across the Commonwealth.
"Any skill takes constant exposure to it and constant instruction. If we start them at the beginning of their high school career then they'll have many opportunities to practice the skills and to use them by the time they leave our building," said Frazier.
"Even if they're not thinking of a career in it, they're seeing how it can be used in other fields and that's important. They need to see that," said Way.
Exposing students to it early, allows them to expand their skills and take other classes, too.
"There are going to be kids that love it, there are going to be kids that don't love it but the goal is to get every kid seeing the possibilities," said Way.
"It's definitely teaching me things that I didn't know before and it's showing me things that I'm going to need to know," said McCoy.
Juniors and seniors are taking the class, since they missed it as freshmen. This has worked so well that Buena Vista plans on starting computer science classes in kindergarten through eighth grade too.
Copyright 2019 by WSLS 10 - All rights reserved. | 515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
America or the Americas is a name used to refer to the landmass constituting the continents of North and South America, which form the largest landmass in the Western Hemisphere, and it is also known as the New World. Together with the associated islands, they cover approximately 8% of the total surface area of the Earth. From north to south, America extends to cover a distance of 8,700 miles, and the ecology and climate vary significantly from the arctic tundra in Alaska, Greenland, and northern Canada to tropical rainforests in South and Central America. The first humans to settle in the Americas were from Asia, possibly between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago. It was then followed by a second wave of migration from Asia, and subsequently the last migration of the Inuit people in about 3500 BC. These migrations completed the settlement of the Indigenous people of America. The first non-European to settle in the Americas were the Norse explorers, but later the Spanish exploration led by Christopher Columbus between 1492 and 1522 led to permanent contacts of Europeans which subsequently led to exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas. The Americas host more than 1 billion people and about 2/3 live in the United States, Mexico, and Brazil.
The Origin of the Name America
Amerigo Vespucci, like Christopher Columbus, made his voyage between 1499 and 1502. However, unlike Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci recorded his voyage and his account, which was published around 1503, and was widely read in Europe. It was Vespucci who first realized that West Indies and Brazil were not the easternmost part of Asia, but was a different continent as it had been presumed by Columbus. In his writings, he refers to the new continent as Novus Mundus, a Latin word for New World. After his discovery, the maps were drawn once again, although it was not clear how big or the shape of the New World and most maps at the time were inaccurate and occasionally contradictory. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller who was a German cartographer produced the map of the world and named it the Universal cosmography. His drawing was largely based on the published travel documents of Amerigo Vespucci. At the time, countries were regarded as feminine, and therefore, Waldseemüller adopted a Latinized feminine name of Amerigo for the new continent as “America.” All other cartographers used the name which has remained to this day as America.
Amerigo Vespucci was a navigator and a cartographer who was born in 1454. He was born in the Republic of Florence, which is present-day Italy. He sailed for Portugal between 1501 and 1502, and he managed to demonstrate that West Indies and Brazil were not the easternmost part of Asia as intimated by Columbus. Vespucci showed that it was a different landmass and named it the New World. Ferdinand, the king of Spain in 1508, crowned Vespucci as the principal navigator of Spain and he was commissioned to establish a school for navigators to modernize and standardized navigation practices to be used by the sea captains of Iberia to explore the world. He managed to develop a fairly accurate but simple technique of establishing the latitudes which were later improved by more accurate chronometers. Because of his discoveries, he was granted Spanish citizenship. It is believed that Amerigo Vespucci made four voyages, and later died at his home in Seville, Spain on February 22nd, 1512.
The Theory of Nicaraguan Mountain range
Another theory which was proposed by Thomas Belt in 1874 states that the name America is derived from the Amerrique mountains located in the present-day country of Nicaragua. In the indigenous American language, "Amerrique" was the original name given to the prominent mountain ranges. Similarly, in the Mayan language, the word "Amerrique” refers to a country of strong winds or the land of the wind. It is believed that the indigenous people shared the term with Columbus and his crew members, particularly in the 4th voyage because this is the location where Columbus and his people managed to reach. It is believed that the name quickly spread by oral means throughout different parts of Europe and possibly to cartographers such as Waldseemüller, who used the name in the maps.
It has been suggested that the name America was borrowed from the surname "Amerike" or “ap Meryk” and became widely used in the maps that were common in Britain, although the maps have since been lost. The name Richard ap Meryk was anglicized and became Richard Amerike or Ameryk. He was a rich merchant from Britain and served as a sheriff at Bristol. Many historians have suggested that Amerike owned the ship Matthew which was used by John Cabot in 1497 on his voyage to explore Northern America. The idea that Amerike was the owner or the chief supporter of Cabot has become so popular, particularly in the 21st century. However, historians disagree because there is no evidence showing that America indeed funded the voyage of Cabot in 1497.
Copy of the Original Map
In 2003, the US Library of Congress purchased the only copy of the original map drawn by Martin Waldseemüller in 1507 at the price of $10 million. For more than 350 years the map had been housed in Wolfegg Castle which was built in the 16th century and is located in the Southern part of Germany. The map was originally owned by Johann Schöner who was a cartographer, astronomer, and geographer in the 14th century. The 1507 map was believed to be lost until it was discovered in 1901 in Waldburg-Wolfegg castle. The German Federal government and the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg issued the export license for the unique map so that the United States Library of Congress could obtain it. Currently, the map is displayed in the Library of Congress at the Thomas Jefferson Building. In 2004, the official ceremony was held which was attended by representatives of both governments of the United States and Germany that marked the handing over of the map to the US.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.13575440... | 2 | America or the Americas is a name used to refer to the landmass constituting the continents of North and South America, which form the largest landmass in the Western Hemisphere, and it is also known as the New World. Together with the associated islands, they cover approximately 8% of the total surface area of the Earth. From north to south, America extends to cover a distance of 8,700 miles, and the ecology and climate vary significantly from the arctic tundra in Alaska, Greenland, and northern Canada to tropical rainforests in South and Central America. The first humans to settle in the Americas were from Asia, possibly between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago. It was then followed by a second wave of migration from Asia, and subsequently the last migration of the Inuit people in about 3500 BC. These migrations completed the settlement of the Indigenous people of America. The first non-European to settle in the Americas were the Norse explorers, but later the Spanish exploration led by Christopher Columbus between 1492 and 1522 led to permanent contacts of Europeans which subsequently led to exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas. The Americas host more than 1 billion people and about 2/3 live in the United States, Mexico, and Brazil.
The Origin of the Name America
Amerigo Vespucci, like Christopher Columbus, made his voyage between 1499 and 1502. However, unlike Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci recorded his voyage and his account, which was published around 1503, and was widely read in Europe. It was Vespucci who first realized that West Indies and Brazil were not the easternmost part of Asia, but was a different continent as it had been presumed by Columbus. In his writings, he refers to the new continent as Novus Mundus, a Latin word for New World. After his discovery, the maps were drawn once again, although it was not clear how big or the shape of the New World and most maps at the time were inaccurate and occasionally contradictory. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller who was a German cartographer produced the map of the world and named it the Universal cosmography. His drawing was largely based on the published travel documents of Amerigo Vespucci. At the time, countries were regarded as feminine, and therefore, Waldseemüller adopted a Latinized feminine name of Amerigo for the new continent as “America.” All other cartographers used the name which has remained to this day as America.
Amerigo Vespucci was a navigator and a cartographer who was born in 1454. He was born in the Republic of Florence, which is present-day Italy. He sailed for Portugal between 1501 and 1502, and he managed to demonstrate that West Indies and Brazil were not the easternmost part of Asia as intimated by Columbus. Vespucci showed that it was a different landmass and named it the New World. Ferdinand, the king of Spain in 1508, crowned Vespucci as the principal navigator of Spain and he was commissioned to establish a school for navigators to modernize and standardized navigation practices to be used by the sea captains of Iberia to explore the world. He managed to develop a fairly accurate but simple technique of establishing the latitudes which were later improved by more accurate chronometers. Because of his discoveries, he was granted Spanish citizenship. It is believed that Amerigo Vespucci made four voyages, and later died at his home in Seville, Spain on February 22nd, 1512.
The Theory of Nicaraguan Mountain range
Another theory which was proposed by Thomas Belt in 1874 states that the name America is derived from the Amerrique mountains located in the present-day country of Nicaragua. In the indigenous American language, "Amerrique" was the original name given to the prominent mountain ranges. Similarly, in the Mayan language, the word "Amerrique” refers to a country of strong winds or the land of the wind. It is believed that the indigenous people shared the term with Columbus and his crew members, particularly in the 4th voyage because this is the location where Columbus and his people managed to reach. It is believed that the name quickly spread by oral means throughout different parts of Europe and possibly to cartographers such as Waldseemüller, who used the name in the maps.
It has been suggested that the name America was borrowed from the surname "Amerike" or “ap Meryk” and became widely used in the maps that were common in Britain, although the maps have since been lost. The name Richard ap Meryk was anglicized and became Richard Amerike or Ameryk. He was a rich merchant from Britain and served as a sheriff at Bristol. Many historians have suggested that Amerike owned the ship Matthew which was used by John Cabot in 1497 on his voyage to explore Northern America. The idea that Amerike was the owner or the chief supporter of Cabot has become so popular, particularly in the 21st century. However, historians disagree because there is no evidence showing that America indeed funded the voyage of Cabot in 1497.
Copy of the Original Map
In 2003, the US Library of Congress purchased the only copy of the original map drawn by Martin Waldseemüller in 1507 at the price of $10 million. For more than 350 years the map had been housed in Wolfegg Castle which was built in the 16th century and is located in the Southern part of Germany. The map was originally owned by Johann Schöner who was a cartographer, astronomer, and geographer in the 14th century. The 1507 map was believed to be lost until it was discovered in 1901 in Waldburg-Wolfegg castle. The German Federal government and the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg issued the export license for the unique map so that the United States Library of Congress could obtain it. Currently, the map is displayed in the Library of Congress at the Thomas Jefferson Building. In 2004, the official ceremony was held which was attended by representatives of both governments of the United States and Germany that marked the handing over of the map to the US.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Community History: Historic Civilizations
People have been on the earth to get hundreds of years. They have come together to become the best of the finest. Civilizations were ways to set humans in an arranged group and survive many ways of mother nature. Two cultures were good and made it through for a long time. Historical Mesopotamia was obviously a much different world then Egypt, but the two were prepared in a similar way. That they both manufactured by setting up their government, managing their environment, and their beliefs.
In Mesopotamia the priest was in impose of dividing the maqui berry farmers into organizations to plantation and take care of the land. In Egypt the priests were in charge of making a record of all their pharaohs and marking the main happenings of their reigns. Mesopotamia used the Code of Hammurabi which was laws that concerned daily life, business, medicine, property, and family. It absolutely was based on a great eye intended for an eyesight (revenge) and was to give justice for all those. In Egypt the pharaoh was regarded a our god that reigned over the Egyptians and had complete power that manufactured all the laws and regulations of the area and decisions. This is the two civilizations type of government and was effective for years; some of the people laws are still in present day government.
Egyptians used the Nile Water which offered food and water, farming, and travel of goods. This can help them in their survival for the fact that they were surviving in the middle of a desert. In Mesopotamia, that they developed city-states which were around the Tigris and Euphrates Estuaries and rivers. These streams were a key in their success; they utilized these rivers for food, transportation, as well as plants. The rivers developed Fertile Crescent which allowed farming in Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent were significant it was between desert and anything beyond it cannot be farmed. Utilizing their environment was an important key factor for the survival of such two great civilizations.
As mentioned earlier Egyptians believed...
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0.08018334209918976... | 1 | Community History: Historic Civilizations
People have been on the earth to get hundreds of years. They have come together to become the best of the finest. Civilizations were ways to set humans in an arranged group and survive many ways of mother nature. Two cultures were good and made it through for a long time. Historical Mesopotamia was obviously a much different world then Egypt, but the two were prepared in a similar way. That they both manufactured by setting up their government, managing their environment, and their beliefs.
In Mesopotamia the priest was in impose of dividing the maqui berry farmers into organizations to plantation and take care of the land. In Egypt the priests were in charge of making a record of all their pharaohs and marking the main happenings of their reigns. Mesopotamia used the Code of Hammurabi which was laws that concerned daily life, business, medicine, property, and family. It absolutely was based on a great eye intended for an eyesight (revenge) and was to give justice for all those. In Egypt the pharaoh was regarded a our god that reigned over the Egyptians and had complete power that manufactured all the laws and regulations of the area and decisions. This is the two civilizations type of government and was effective for years; some of the people laws are still in present day government.
Egyptians used the Nile Water which offered food and water, farming, and travel of goods. This can help them in their survival for the fact that they were surviving in the middle of a desert. In Mesopotamia, that they developed city-states which were around the Tigris and Euphrates Estuaries and rivers. These streams were a key in their success; they utilized these rivers for food, transportation, as well as plants. The rivers developed Fertile Crescent which allowed farming in Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent were significant it was between desert and anything beyond it cannot be farmed. Utilizing their environment was an important key factor for the survival of such two great civilizations.
As mentioned earlier Egyptians believed...
THEME 4: NOTICE MAKING AND NOTE ACQUIRING SKILLS If you are able to .. | 447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Harriet Beecher Stowe
The original, squashed down to read in about 25 minutes
(Cleveland, Ohio, 1852)
This book had such a profound effect on attitudes toward slavery in the United States that it is often credited with having contributed to Civil War. Indeed, when when Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe, daughter of a Connecticut preacher, met President Lincoln he said, "Is this the little woman who brought on so great a war?" 'Uncle Tom' was one one of the most successful books ever, selling some 300,000 copies in its first year.
Late in the afternoon of a chilly day in February two gentlemen were sitting over their wine, in a well-furnished parlour in the town of P - - in Kentucky in the midst of an earnest conversation.
"That is the way I should arrange the matter," said Mr. Shelby, the owner of the place. "The fact is, Tom is an uncommon fellow; he is certainly worth that sum anywhere; steady, honest, capable, manages my farm like a clock."
"You mean honest, as niggers go," said Haley.
"You ought to let him cover the whole of the debt. He got religion at a camp-meeting, four years ago, and I've trusted him ever since."
"Some folks don't believe there is pious niggers Shelby," said Haley
"Well, I've got just as much conscience as any man in business can afford to keep," said Haley, "and I'm willing to do anything to 'blige friends; but this yer, ye see, is too hard on a feller, it really is. Haven't you a boy or gal you could thrown in with Tom?"
"Hum! - none that I could well spare; to tell the truth, it's only hard necessity makes me sell at all." Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, remarkably beautiful and engaging, entered with a comic air of assurance which showed he was used to being petted and noticed by his master. "Hulloa, Jim Crow," said Mr. Shelby, snapping a bunch of raisins towards him, "pick that up, now!" The child scampered, with all his little strength after the prize, while his master laughed. "Tell you what," said Haley, "fling in that chap, and I'll settle the business, I will."
At this moment a young woman, obviously the child's mother, came in search of him, and Haley, as soon as she had carried him away, turned to Mr. Shelby in admiration.
"By Jupiter!" said the trader, "there's an article now! You might make your fortune on that one gal in Orleans, any way. What shall I say for her? What'll you take?"
"Mr. Haley, she is not to be sold. I say no, and I mean no," said Mr. Shelby, decidedly.
"Well, you'll let me have the boy, though."
"I would rather not sell him," said Mr. Shelby; "the fact is, I'm a humane man, and I hate to take the boy from his mother, sir."
"Oh, you do? La, yes, I understand perfectly. It is mighty unpleasant getting on with women sometimes. I al'ays hates these yer screechin' times. As I manages business, I generally avoids 'em, sir. Now, what if you get the gal off for a day or so? then the thing's done quietly. It's always best to do the humane thing, sir; that's been my experience." "I'd like to have been able to kick the fellow down the steps," said Mr. Shelby to himself, when the trader had bowed himself out. "And Eliza's child, too! I know I shall have some fuss with the wife about that, and for that matter, about Tom, too! So much for being in debt, heigho!"
The prayer-meeting at Uncle Tom's Cabin had been protracted to a very late hour, and Tom and his worthy helpmeet were not yet asleep, when between twelve and one there was a light tap on the window pane.
"Good Lord! what's that?" said Aunt Chloe, starting up. "My sakes alive, if it aint Lizzy! Get on your clothes, old man, quick. I'm gwine to open the door." And suiting the action to the word, the door flew open, and the light of the candle which Tom had hastily lighted, fell on the face of Eliza. "I'm running away, Uncle Tom and Aunt Chloe - carrying off my child. Master sold him."
"Sold him?" echoed both, holding up their hands in dismay.
"Yes, sold him!" said Eliza firmly. "I crept into the closet by mistress's door to-night, and I heard master tell missus that he had sold my Harry and you, Uncle Tom, both to a trader, and that the man was to take possession to-day."
Slowly, as the meaning of this speech came over Tom, he collapsed on his old chair, and sunk his head on his knees.
"The good Lord have pity on us!" said Aunt Chloe. "What has he done that mas'r should sell him?"
"He hasn't done anything - it isn't for that. I heard Master say there was no choice between selling these two, and selling all, the man was driving him so hard. Master said he was sorry; but, oh! missis! you should have heard her talk! If she ain't a Christian and an angel, there never was one. I'm a wicked girl to leave her so - but then I can't help it, the Lord forgive me, for I can't help doing it."
"Well, old man," said Aunt Chloe, "why don't you go too? Will you wait to be toted down river, where they kill niggers with hard work and starving? There's time for ye; be off with Lizzy, you've got a pass to come and go any time."
Tom slowly raised his head, and sorrowfully said, "No, no: I aint going. Let Eliza go - it's her right. 'Tan't in natur for her to stay, but you heard what she said. If I must be sold, or all the people on the place and everything to go to rack, why let me be sold. Mas'r aint to blame, Chloe; and he'll take care of you and the poor-." Here he turned to the rough trundle-bed full of little woolly heads and fairly broke down.
"And now," said Eliza, "do try, if you can, to get a word to my husband. He told me this afternoon he was going to run away. Tell him why I went, and tell him, I'm going to try and find Canada. Give my love to him, and tell him, if I never see him again - tell him to be as good as he can, and try and meet me in the kingdom of heaven."
A few last words and tears, a few simple adieus and blessings, and she glided noiselessly away.
It is impossible to conceive of a human being more wholly desolate and forlorn than Eliza as she left the only home she had ever known. Her husband's sufferings and danger, and the danger of her child, all blended in her mind, she trembled at every sound, and every quaking leaf quickened her steps. She felt the weight of her boy as if it had been a feather, he was old enough to have walked by her side, but now she strained him to her bosom as she went rapidly forward; and every flutter of fear seemed to increase the supernatural strength that bore her on, while from her pale lips burst forth, in frequent ejaculations, "Lord help me."
Still she went, leaving one familiar object after another, till reddening daylight found her many a long mile, upon the open highway, on the way to the village of T - - upon the Ohio river, when she constrained herself to walk regularly and composedly, quickening the speed of her child, by rolling an apple before him, when the boy would run with all his might after it; this ruse often repeated carried them over many a half-mile.
An hour before sunset she came in sight of the river, which lay between her and liberty. Great cakes of floating ice were swinging heavily to and fro in the turbid waters. Eliza turned into a small public house to ask if there was no ferry boat.
"No, indeed," said the hostess, stopping her cooking as Eliza's sweet, plaintive voice fell on her ear; "the boats has stopped running." Eliza's look of dismay struck her and she said, "Maybe you're wanting to get over? anybody sick? Ye seem mighty anxious."
"I've got a child that's very dangerous," said Eliza, "I never heard of it till last night, and I've walked quite a piece to-day, in hopes to get to the ferry."
"Well, now, that's unlucky" said the woman, her motherly sympathies aroused; "I'm rilly concerned for ye. Solomon!" she called from the window. "I say Sol, is that ar man going to tote them bar'ls over to-night?"
"He said he should try, if 'twas any ways prudent," replied a man's voice.
"There's a man going over to-night, if he durs' to; he'll be in to supper, so you'd better sit down and wait. That's a sweet little fellow" added the woman, offering him a cake.
But the child, wholly exhausted, cried with weariness.
"Take him into this room," said the woman opening into a small bedroom, and Eliza laid the weary boy on the comfortable bed, and held his hands till he was fast asleep. For her there was no rest, the thought of her pursuers urged her on, and she gazed with longing eyes on the swaying waters between her and liberty.
She was standing by the window as Haley and two of Mr. Shelby's servants came riding by. Sam, the foremost, catching sight of her, contrived to have his hat blown off, and uttered a loud and characteristic ejaculation. She drew back and the whole train swept by to the front door. A thousand lives were concentrated in that moment to Eliza. Her room opened by a side door to the river. She caught her child and sprang down the steps. The trader caught a glimpse of her as she disappeared down the bank, and calling loudly to Sam and Andy, was after her like a hound after a deer. Her feet scarce seemed to touch the ground, a moment brought her to the water's edge. Right on behind they came, and nerved with strength such as God gives only to the desperate, with one wild and flying leap, she vaulted sheer over the current by the shore, on to the raft of ice beyond. It was a desperate leap - impossible to anything but madmen and despair. The huge green fragment of ice pitched and creaked as her weight came on it, but she stayed there not a moment. With wild cries and desperate energy she leaped to another and still another cake; stumbling, leaping, slipping, springing upwards again. Her shoes were gone - her stockings cut from her feet - while blood marked every step; but she saw nothing, felt nothing, till dimly she saw the Ohio side, and a man helping her up the bank.
"Yer a brave girl, now, whoever ye are!" said he. Eliza recognised a farmer from near her old home. "Oh, Mr. Symmes! save me! do save me! do hide me!" said Eliza.
"Why, what's this?" said the man, "why, if 'taint Shelby's gal!"
"My child! - this boy - he'd sold him! There is his mas'r," said she, pointing to the Kentucky shore. "Oh, Mr. Symmes, you've got a little boy."
"So I have," said the man, as he roughly but kindly helped her up the bank. "Besides, you're a right brave gal. I'd be glad to do something for you. The best thing I can do is to tell you to go there," pointing to a large white house, standing by itself, "they're kind folks. There's no kind o' danger but they'll help you - they're up to all that sort of thing."
"The Lord bless you!" said Eliza earnestly, and folding her child to her bosom, walked firmly away.
Late that night the fugitives were driven to the house of a man who had once been a considerable shareholder in Kentucky; but, being possessed of a great, honest, just heart, he had witnessed for years with uneasiness the workings of a system equally bad for oppressors and oppressed, and one day bought some land in Ohio, made out free passes for all his people, and settled down to enjoy his conscience. He conveyed Eliza to a Quaker settlement, where by the help of these good friends she was joined by her husband and soon landed in Canada. Free!
An unceremonious kick pushed open the door of Uncle Tom's cabin, and Mr. Haley stood there in very ill humour after his hard riding and ill success.
"Come, ye nigger, ye'r ready. Servant, ma'am!" said he, taking off his hat as he saw Mrs. Shelby, who detained him a few moments. Speaking in an earnest manner, she made him promise to let her know to whom he sold Tom; while Tom rose up meekly, and his wife took the baby in her arms, her tears seeming suddenly turned to sparks of fire, to go with him to the wagon: "Get in," said Haley, and Tom got in, when Haley made fast a heavy pair of shackles round each ankle; a groan of indignation ran round the crowd of servants gathered to bid Tom farewell. Mr. Shelby had gone away on business, hoping all would be over before he returned.
"Give my love to Mas'r George," said Tom earnestly, as he was whirled away, fixing a steady, mournful look to the last on the old place. Tom insensibly won his way far into the confidence of such a man as Mr. Haley, and on the steamboat was permitted to come and go freely where he pleased. Among the passengers was a young gentleman of New Orleans whose little daughter often and often walked mournfully round the place where Haley's gang of men and women were chained. To Tom she appeared almost divine; he half believed he saw one of the angels stepped out of his New Testament, and they soon got on confidential terms. As the steamer drew near New Orleans Mr. St. Clare, carelessly putting the tip of his finger under Tom's chin, said good-humouredly, "Look up, Tom, and see how you like your new master."
It was not in nature to look into that gay, handsome young face without pleasure, and Tom said heartily, "God bless you, Mas'r."
Eva's fancy for him had led her to petition her father that Tom might be her special attendant in her walks and rides. He was called coachman, but his stable duties were a sinecure; struck with his good business capacity, his master confided in him more and more, till gradually all the providing for the family was entrusted to him. Tom regarded his airy young master with an odd mixture of fealty, reverence and fatherly solicitude, and his friendship with Eva grew with the child's growth; but his home yearnings grew so strong that he tried to write a letter - so unsuccessfully that St. Clare offered to write for him, and. Tom had the joy of receiving an answer from Master George, stating that Aunt Chloe had been hired out, at her own request, to a confectioner, and was gaining vast sums of money, all of which was to be laid by for Tom's redemption.
About two years after his coming, Eva began to fail rapidly, and even her father could no longer deceive himself. Eva was about to leave him. It was Tom's greatest joy to carry the frail little form in his arms, up and down, into the veranda, and to him she talked, what she would not distress her father with, of these mysterious intimations which the soul feels ere it leaves its clay for ever. He lay, at last, all night in the veranda ready to rouse at the least call, and at midnight came the message. Earth was passed and earthly pain; so solemn was the triumphant brightness of that face it checked even the sobs of sorrow. A glorious smile, and she said, brokenly, "Oh-love-joy-peace" and passed from death unto life.
Week after week glided by in the St. Clare mansion and the waves of life settled back to their usual flow where that little bark had gone down. St. Clare was in many respects another man; he read his little Eva's Bible seriously and honestly; he thought soberly of his relations to his servants, and he commenced the legal steps necessary to Tom's emancipation as he had promised Eva he would do. But, one evening while Tom was sitting thinking of his home, feeling the muscles of his brawny arms with joy as he thought how he would work to buy his wife and boys; his master was brought home dying. He had interfered in an affray in a cafe and been stabbed.
He reached out and took Tom's hand; he closed his eyes, but still retained his hold; for in the gates of eternity the black hand and the white hold each other with an equal grasp, and softly murmured some words he had been singing that evening - words of entreaty to Infinite Pity.
Mrs. St. Clare decided at once to sell the place and all the servants, except her own personal property, and although she was told of her husband's intention of freeing Tom, he was sold by auction with the rest. His new master, Mr. Simon Legree, came round to review his purchases as they sat in chains on the lower deck of a small mean boat, on their way to his cotton plantation, on the Red River. "I say, all on ye," he said, "look at me - look me right in the eye - straight, now!" stamping his foot. "Now," said he, doubling his great heavy fist, "d'ye see this fist? Heft it," he said, bringing it down on Tom's hand. "Look at these yer bones! Well, I tell ye this yer fist has got as hard as iron knocking down niggers. I don't keep none of yer cussed overseers; I does my own overseeing and I tell ye things is seen to. You won't find no soft spot in me, nowhere. So, now, mind yourselves; for I don't show no mercy!" The women drew in their breath; and the whole gang sat with downcast, dejected faces.
Trailing wearily behind a rude wagon, and over a ruder road, Tom and his associates came to their new home. The whole place looked desolate, everything told of coarse neglect and discomfort. Three or four ferocious looking dogs rushed out and were with difficulty restrained from laying hold of Tom and his companions.
"Ye see what ye'd get!" said Legree. "Ye see what ye'd get if you tried to run off. They'd just as soon chaw one on ye up as eat their supper. So mind yourself. How now, Sambo!" to a ragged fellow, who was officious in his attentions, "How have things been goin' on?"
"Fust rate, mas'r."
"Quimbo," said Legree to another, "ye minded what I tell'd ye?"
"Guess I did, didn't I?"
Legree had trained these two men in savagery as systematically as he had his bulldogs, and they were in admirable keeping with the vile character of the whole place.
Tom's heart sank as he followed Sambo to the quarters. They had a forlorn, brutal air. He had been comforting himself with the thought of a cottage, rude indeed but one which he might keep neat and quiet and read his Bible in out of his labouring hours. They were mere rude sheds with no furniture but a heap of straw, foul with dirt. "Spec there's room for another thar'," said Sambo, "thar's a pretty smart heap o' niggers to each on 'em, now. Sure, I dunno what I's to do with more."
Tom looked in vain, as the weary occupants of the shanties came flocking home, for a companionable face; he saw only sullen, embruted men and feeble, discouraged women; or, those who, treated in every way like brutes, had sunk to their level.
"Thar you!" said Quimbo throwing down a coarse bag containing a peck of corn, "thar, nigger, grab, you won't get no more dis yer week."
Tom was faint for want of food, but moved by the utter weariness of two women, whom he saw trying to grind their corn, he ground for them; and then set about getting his own supper. An expression of kindness came over their hard faces - they mixed his cake for him, and tended the baking, and Tom drew out his Bible by the light of the fire - for he had need of comfort.
Tom saw enough of abuse and misery in his new life to make him sick and weary; but he toiled on with religious patience, committing himself to Him that judgeth righteously. Legree took silent note, and rating him as a first-class hand, made up his mind that Tom must be hardened; he had bought him with a view to making him a sort of overseer, so one night he told him to flog one of the women. Tom begged him not to set him at that. He could not do it, "no way possible." Legree struck him repeatedly with a cowhide. "There," said he stopping to rest, "now will ye tell me ye can't do it?"
"Yes, mas'r," said Tom, wiping the blood from his face. "I'm willin' to work, night and day; but this yer thing I can't feel it right to do; and mas'r, I never shall do it, never!"
Legree looked stupefied - Tom was so respectful - but at last burst forth:
"What, ye blasted black beast! tell me ye don't think it right to do what I tell ye. So ye pretend it's wrong to flog the girl?"
"I think so, mas'r," said Tom. "'Twould be downright cruel, the poor critter's sick and feeble. Mas'r, if you mean to kill me, kill me; but as to my raising my hand against anyone here, I never will - I'll die first." Legree shook with anger. "Here, Sambo! - Quimbo!" he shouted, "give this dog such a breakin' in as he won't get over this month."
The two seized Tom with fiendish exultation, and dragged him unresistingly from the place.
For weeks and months Tom wrestled, in darkness and sorrow - crushing back to his soul the bitter thought that God had forgotten him. One night he sat like one stunned when everything around him seemed to fade, and a vision rose of One crowned with thorns, buffeted and bleeding; and a voice said, "He that overcometh shall sit down with Me on My throne, even as I also overcame, and am set down with My Father upon His throne."
From this time an inviolable peace filled the lowly heart of the oppressed one; life's uttermost woes fell from him unharming.
Scenes of blood and cruelty are shocking to our ear and heart. What man has nerve to do, man has not nerve to hear.
Tom lay dying at last; not suffering, for every nerve was blunted and destroyed; when George Shelby found him, and his voice reached his dying ear.
"Oh, Mas'r George, he ain't done me any real harm: only opened the gate of Heaven for me. Who - who shall separate us from the love of Christ?" and with a smile he fell asleep.
As George knelt by the grave of his poor friend, "Witness, eternal God," said he, "Oh, witness that, from this hour, I will do what one man can to drive out the curse of slavery from my land!"
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BUILT WITH WHIMBERRY | <urn:uuid:ec9fbcac-7056-4d05-a55a-6f55d52a97cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thehundredbooks.com/Uncle_Toms_Cabin.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.984614 | 5,941 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.238993704... | 2 | by Harriet Beecher Stowe
The original, squashed down to read in about 25 minutes
(Cleveland, Ohio, 1852)
This book had such a profound effect on attitudes toward slavery in the United States that it is often credited with having contributed to Civil War. Indeed, when when Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe, daughter of a Connecticut preacher, met President Lincoln he said, "Is this the little woman who brought on so great a war?" 'Uncle Tom' was one one of the most successful books ever, selling some 300,000 copies in its first year.
Late in the afternoon of a chilly day in February two gentlemen were sitting over their wine, in a well-furnished parlour in the town of P - - in Kentucky in the midst of an earnest conversation.
"That is the way I should arrange the matter," said Mr. Shelby, the owner of the place. "The fact is, Tom is an uncommon fellow; he is certainly worth that sum anywhere; steady, honest, capable, manages my farm like a clock."
"You mean honest, as niggers go," said Haley.
"You ought to let him cover the whole of the debt. He got religion at a camp-meeting, four years ago, and I've trusted him ever since."
"Some folks don't believe there is pious niggers Shelby," said Haley
"Well, I've got just as much conscience as any man in business can afford to keep," said Haley, "and I'm willing to do anything to 'blige friends; but this yer, ye see, is too hard on a feller, it really is. Haven't you a boy or gal you could thrown in with Tom?"
"Hum! - none that I could well spare; to tell the truth, it's only hard necessity makes me sell at all." Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, remarkably beautiful and engaging, entered with a comic air of assurance which showed he was used to being petted and noticed by his master. "Hulloa, Jim Crow," said Mr. Shelby, snapping a bunch of raisins towards him, "pick that up, now!" The child scampered, with all his little strength after the prize, while his master laughed. "Tell you what," said Haley, "fling in that chap, and I'll settle the business, I will."
At this moment a young woman, obviously the child's mother, came in search of him, and Haley, as soon as she had carried him away, turned to Mr. Shelby in admiration.
"By Jupiter!" said the trader, "there's an article now! You might make your fortune on that one gal in Orleans, any way. What shall I say for her? What'll you take?"
"Mr. Haley, she is not to be sold. I say no, and I mean no," said Mr. Shelby, decidedly.
"Well, you'll let me have the boy, though."
"I would rather not sell him," said Mr. Shelby; "the fact is, I'm a humane man, and I hate to take the boy from his mother, sir."
"Oh, you do? La, yes, I understand perfectly. It is mighty unpleasant getting on with women sometimes. I al'ays hates these yer screechin' times. As I manages business, I generally avoids 'em, sir. Now, what if you get the gal off for a day or so? then the thing's done quietly. It's always best to do the humane thing, sir; that's been my experience." "I'd like to have been able to kick the fellow down the steps," said Mr. Shelby to himself, when the trader had bowed himself out. "And Eliza's child, too! I know I shall have some fuss with the wife about that, and for that matter, about Tom, too! So much for being in debt, heigho!"
The prayer-meeting at Uncle Tom's Cabin had been protracted to a very late hour, and Tom and his worthy helpmeet were not yet asleep, when between twelve and one there was a light tap on the window pane.
"Good Lord! what's that?" said Aunt Chloe, starting up. "My sakes alive, if it aint Lizzy! Get on your clothes, old man, quick. I'm gwine to open the door." And suiting the action to the word, the door flew open, and the light of the candle which Tom had hastily lighted, fell on the face of Eliza. "I'm running away, Uncle Tom and Aunt Chloe - carrying off my child. Master sold him."
"Sold him?" echoed both, holding up their hands in dismay.
"Yes, sold him!" said Eliza firmly. "I crept into the closet by mistress's door to-night, and I heard master tell missus that he had sold my Harry and you, Uncle Tom, both to a trader, and that the man was to take possession to-day."
Slowly, as the meaning of this speech came over Tom, he collapsed on his old chair, and sunk his head on his knees.
"The good Lord have pity on us!" said Aunt Chloe. "What has he done that mas'r should sell him?"
"He hasn't done anything - it isn't for that. I heard Master say there was no choice between selling these two, and selling all, the man was driving him so hard. Master said he was sorry; but, oh! missis! you should have heard her talk! If she ain't a Christian and an angel, there never was one. I'm a wicked girl to leave her so - but then I can't help it, the Lord forgive me, for I can't help doing it."
"Well, old man," said Aunt Chloe, "why don't you go too? Will you wait to be toted down river, where they kill niggers with hard work and starving? There's time for ye; be off with Lizzy, you've got a pass to come and go any time."
Tom slowly raised his head, and sorrowfully said, "No, no: I aint going. Let Eliza go - it's her right. 'Tan't in natur for her to stay, but you heard what she said. If I must be sold, or all the people on the place and everything to go to rack, why let me be sold. Mas'r aint to blame, Chloe; and he'll take care of you and the poor-." Here he turned to the rough trundle-bed full of little woolly heads and fairly broke down.
"And now," said Eliza, "do try, if you can, to get a word to my husband. He told me this afternoon he was going to run away. Tell him why I went, and tell him, I'm going to try and find Canada. Give my love to him, and tell him, if I never see him again - tell him to be as good as he can, and try and meet me in the kingdom of heaven."
A few last words and tears, a few simple adieus and blessings, and she glided noiselessly away.
It is impossible to conceive of a human being more wholly desolate and forlorn than Eliza as she left the only home she had ever known. Her husband's sufferings and danger, and the danger of her child, all blended in her mind, she trembled at every sound, and every quaking leaf quickened her steps. She felt the weight of her boy as if it had been a feather, he was old enough to have walked by her side, but now she strained him to her bosom as she went rapidly forward; and every flutter of fear seemed to increase the supernatural strength that bore her on, while from her pale lips burst forth, in frequent ejaculations, "Lord help me."
Still she went, leaving one familiar object after another, till reddening daylight found her many a long mile, upon the open highway, on the way to the village of T - - upon the Ohio river, when she constrained herself to walk regularly and composedly, quickening the speed of her child, by rolling an apple before him, when the boy would run with all his might after it; this ruse often repeated carried them over many a half-mile.
An hour before sunset she came in sight of the river, which lay between her and liberty. Great cakes of floating ice were swinging heavily to and fro in the turbid waters. Eliza turned into a small public house to ask if there was no ferry boat.
"No, indeed," said the hostess, stopping her cooking as Eliza's sweet, plaintive voice fell on her ear; "the boats has stopped running." Eliza's look of dismay struck her and she said, "Maybe you're wanting to get over? anybody sick? Ye seem mighty anxious."
"I've got a child that's very dangerous," said Eliza, "I never heard of it till last night, and I've walked quite a piece to-day, in hopes to get to the ferry."
"Well, now, that's unlucky" said the woman, her motherly sympathies aroused; "I'm rilly concerned for ye. Solomon!" she called from the window. "I say Sol, is that ar man going to tote them bar'ls over to-night?"
"He said he should try, if 'twas any ways prudent," replied a man's voice.
"There's a man going over to-night, if he durs' to; he'll be in to supper, so you'd better sit down and wait. That's a sweet little fellow" added the woman, offering him a cake.
But the child, wholly exhausted, cried with weariness.
"Take him into this room," said the woman opening into a small bedroom, and Eliza laid the weary boy on the comfortable bed, and held his hands till he was fast asleep. For her there was no rest, the thought of her pursuers urged her on, and she gazed with longing eyes on the swaying waters between her and liberty.
She was standing by the window as Haley and two of Mr. Shelby's servants came riding by. Sam, the foremost, catching sight of her, contrived to have his hat blown off, and uttered a loud and characteristic ejaculation. She drew back and the whole train swept by to the front door. A thousand lives were concentrated in that moment to Eliza. Her room opened by a side door to the river. She caught her child and sprang down the steps. The trader caught a glimpse of her as she disappeared down the bank, and calling loudly to Sam and Andy, was after her like a hound after a deer. Her feet scarce seemed to touch the ground, a moment brought her to the water's edge. Right on behind they came, and nerved with strength such as God gives only to the desperate, with one wild and flying leap, she vaulted sheer over the current by the shore, on to the raft of ice beyond. It was a desperate leap - impossible to anything but madmen and despair. The huge green fragment of ice pitched and creaked as her weight came on it, but she stayed there not a moment. With wild cries and desperate energy she leaped to another and still another cake; stumbling, leaping, slipping, springing upwards again. Her shoes were gone - her stockings cut from her feet - while blood marked every step; but she saw nothing, felt nothing, till dimly she saw the Ohio side, and a man helping her up the bank.
"Yer a brave girl, now, whoever ye are!" said he. Eliza recognised a farmer from near her old home. "Oh, Mr. Symmes! save me! do save me! do hide me!" said Eliza.
"Why, what's this?" said the man, "why, if 'taint Shelby's gal!"
"My child! - this boy - he'd sold him! There is his mas'r," said she, pointing to the Kentucky shore. "Oh, Mr. Symmes, you've got a little boy."
"So I have," said the man, as he roughly but kindly helped her up the bank. "Besides, you're a right brave gal. I'd be glad to do something for you. The best thing I can do is to tell you to go there," pointing to a large white house, standing by itself, "they're kind folks. There's no kind o' danger but they'll help you - they're up to all that sort of thing."
"The Lord bless you!" said Eliza earnestly, and folding her child to her bosom, walked firmly away.
Late that night the fugitives were driven to the house of a man who had once been a considerable shareholder in Kentucky; but, being possessed of a great, honest, just heart, he had witnessed for years with uneasiness the workings of a system equally bad for oppressors and oppressed, and one day bought some land in Ohio, made out free passes for all his people, and settled down to enjoy his conscience. He conveyed Eliza to a Quaker settlement, where by the help of these good friends she was joined by her husband and soon landed in Canada. Free!
An unceremonious kick pushed open the door of Uncle Tom's cabin, and Mr. Haley stood there in very ill humour after his hard riding and ill success.
"Come, ye nigger, ye'r ready. Servant, ma'am!" said he, taking off his hat as he saw Mrs. Shelby, who detained him a few moments. Speaking in an earnest manner, she made him promise to let her know to whom he sold Tom; while Tom rose up meekly, and his wife took the baby in her arms, her tears seeming suddenly turned to sparks of fire, to go with him to the wagon: "Get in," said Haley, and Tom got in, when Haley made fast a heavy pair of shackles round each ankle; a groan of indignation ran round the crowd of servants gathered to bid Tom farewell. Mr. Shelby had gone away on business, hoping all would be over before he returned.
"Give my love to Mas'r George," said Tom earnestly, as he was whirled away, fixing a steady, mournful look to the last on the old place. Tom insensibly won his way far into the confidence of such a man as Mr. Haley, and on the steamboat was permitted to come and go freely where he pleased. Among the passengers was a young gentleman of New Orleans whose little daughter often and often walked mournfully round the place where Haley's gang of men and women were chained. To Tom she appeared almost divine; he half believed he saw one of the angels stepped out of his New Testament, and they soon got on confidential terms. As the steamer drew near New Orleans Mr. St. Clare, carelessly putting the tip of his finger under Tom's chin, said good-humouredly, "Look up, Tom, and see how you like your new master."
It was not in nature to look into that gay, handsome young face without pleasure, and Tom said heartily, "God bless you, Mas'r."
Eva's fancy for him had led her to petition her father that Tom might be her special attendant in her walks and rides. He was called coachman, but his stable duties were a sinecure; struck with his good business capacity, his master confided in him more and more, till gradually all the providing for the family was entrusted to him. Tom regarded his airy young master with an odd mixture of fealty, reverence and fatherly solicitude, and his friendship with Eva grew with the child's growth; but his home yearnings grew so strong that he tried to write a letter - so unsuccessfully that St. Clare offered to write for him, and. Tom had the joy of receiving an answer from Master George, stating that Aunt Chloe had been hired out, at her own request, to a confectioner, and was gaining vast sums of money, all of which was to be laid by for Tom's redemption.
About two years after his coming, Eva began to fail rapidly, and even her father could no longer deceive himself. Eva was about to leave him. It was Tom's greatest joy to carry the frail little form in his arms, up and down, into the veranda, and to him she talked, what she would not distress her father with, of these mysterious intimations which the soul feels ere it leaves its clay for ever. He lay, at last, all night in the veranda ready to rouse at the least call, and at midnight came the message. Earth was passed and earthly pain; so solemn was the triumphant brightness of that face it checked even the sobs of sorrow. A glorious smile, and she said, brokenly, "Oh-love-joy-peace" and passed from death unto life.
Week after week glided by in the St. Clare mansion and the waves of life settled back to their usual flow where that little bark had gone down. St. Clare was in many respects another man; he read his little Eva's Bible seriously and honestly; he thought soberly of his relations to his servants, and he commenced the legal steps necessary to Tom's emancipation as he had promised Eva he would do. But, one evening while Tom was sitting thinking of his home, feeling the muscles of his brawny arms with joy as he thought how he would work to buy his wife and boys; his master was brought home dying. He had interfered in an affray in a cafe and been stabbed.
He reached out and took Tom's hand; he closed his eyes, but still retained his hold; for in the gates of eternity the black hand and the white hold each other with an equal grasp, and softly murmured some words he had been singing that evening - words of entreaty to Infinite Pity.
Mrs. St. Clare decided at once to sell the place and all the servants, except her own personal property, and although she was told of her husband's intention of freeing Tom, he was sold by auction with the rest. His new master, Mr. Simon Legree, came round to review his purchases as they sat in chains on the lower deck of a small mean boat, on their way to his cotton plantation, on the Red River. "I say, all on ye," he said, "look at me - look me right in the eye - straight, now!" stamping his foot. "Now," said he, doubling his great heavy fist, "d'ye see this fist? Heft it," he said, bringing it down on Tom's hand. "Look at these yer bones! Well, I tell ye this yer fist has got as hard as iron knocking down niggers. I don't keep none of yer cussed overseers; I does my own overseeing and I tell ye things is seen to. You won't find no soft spot in me, nowhere. So, now, mind yourselves; for I don't show no mercy!" The women drew in their breath; and the whole gang sat with downcast, dejected faces.
Trailing wearily behind a rude wagon, and over a ruder road, Tom and his associates came to their new home. The whole place looked desolate, everything told of coarse neglect and discomfort. Three or four ferocious looking dogs rushed out and were with difficulty restrained from laying hold of Tom and his companions.
"Ye see what ye'd get!" said Legree. "Ye see what ye'd get if you tried to run off. They'd just as soon chaw one on ye up as eat their supper. So mind yourself. How now, Sambo!" to a ragged fellow, who was officious in his attentions, "How have things been goin' on?"
"Fust rate, mas'r."
"Quimbo," said Legree to another, "ye minded what I tell'd ye?"
"Guess I did, didn't I?"
Legree had trained these two men in savagery as systematically as he had his bulldogs, and they were in admirable keeping with the vile character of the whole place.
Tom's heart sank as he followed Sambo to the quarters. They had a forlorn, brutal air. He had been comforting himself with the thought of a cottage, rude indeed but one which he might keep neat and quiet and read his Bible in out of his labouring hours. They were mere rude sheds with no furniture but a heap of straw, foul with dirt. "Spec there's room for another thar'," said Sambo, "thar's a pretty smart heap o' niggers to each on 'em, now. Sure, I dunno what I's to do with more."
Tom looked in vain, as the weary occupants of the shanties came flocking home, for a companionable face; he saw only sullen, embruted men and feeble, discouraged women; or, those who, treated in every way like brutes, had sunk to their level.
"Thar you!" said Quimbo throwing down a coarse bag containing a peck of corn, "thar, nigger, grab, you won't get no more dis yer week."
Tom was faint for want of food, but moved by the utter weariness of two women, whom he saw trying to grind their corn, he ground for them; and then set about getting his own supper. An expression of kindness came over their hard faces - they mixed his cake for him, and tended the baking, and Tom drew out his Bible by the light of the fire - for he had need of comfort.
Tom saw enough of abuse and misery in his new life to make him sick and weary; but he toiled on with religious patience, committing himself to Him that judgeth righteously. Legree took silent note, and rating him as a first-class hand, made up his mind that Tom must be hardened; he had bought him with a view to making him a sort of overseer, so one night he told him to flog one of the women. Tom begged him not to set him at that. He could not do it, "no way possible." Legree struck him repeatedly with a cowhide. "There," said he stopping to rest, "now will ye tell me ye can't do it?"
"Yes, mas'r," said Tom, wiping the blood from his face. "I'm willin' to work, night and day; but this yer thing I can't feel it right to do; and mas'r, I never shall do it, never!"
Legree looked stupefied - Tom was so respectful - but at last burst forth:
"What, ye blasted black beast! tell me ye don't think it right to do what I tell ye. So ye pretend it's wrong to flog the girl?"
"I think so, mas'r," said Tom. "'Twould be downright cruel, the poor critter's sick and feeble. Mas'r, if you mean to kill me, kill me; but as to my raising my hand against anyone here, I never will - I'll die first." Legree shook with anger. "Here, Sambo! - Quimbo!" he shouted, "give this dog such a breakin' in as he won't get over this month."
The two seized Tom with fiendish exultation, and dragged him unresistingly from the place.
For weeks and months Tom wrestled, in darkness and sorrow - crushing back to his soul the bitter thought that God had forgotten him. One night he sat like one stunned when everything around him seemed to fade, and a vision rose of One crowned with thorns, buffeted and bleeding; and a voice said, "He that overcometh shall sit down with Me on My throne, even as I also overcame, and am set down with My Father upon His throne."
From this time an inviolable peace filled the lowly heart of the oppressed one; life's uttermost woes fell from him unharming.
Scenes of blood and cruelty are shocking to our ear and heart. What man has nerve to do, man has not nerve to hear.
Tom lay dying at last; not suffering, for every nerve was blunted and destroyed; when George Shelby found him, and his voice reached his dying ear.
"Oh, Mas'r George, he ain't done me any real harm: only opened the gate of Heaven for me. Who - who shall separate us from the love of Christ?" and with a smile he fell asleep.
As George knelt by the grave of his poor friend, "Witness, eternal God," said he, "Oh, witness that, from this hour, I will do what one man can to drive out the curse of slavery from my land!"
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COPYRIGHT and ALL RIGHTS RESERVED: © Glyn Hughes, Monday 16 December 2019
BUILT WITH WHIMBERRY | 5,814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Admiration is kind of a funny theme in "Easter, 1916," in the sense that Yeats seems like he's always on the verge of admiring the people who died in the Irish Uprising. But at the end of the day, he can never seem to take that final step and say, "These people were heroes and I was a coward for not dying with them!" But hey, many people have heard of Yeats, and the fighters Yeats mentions in this poem are all fairly obscure. So in the end, history was pretty good to Yeats.
When he claims that everything has ben "Transformed utterly" (39), Yeats means that the dead fighters have succeeded in making Ireland a better place.
Deep down, Yeats admires the dead fighters because he thinks people will remember them longer than they will remember him.
While he may not be sure about whether he admires the Irish fighters, Yeats can definitely get behind the fact that these people totally sacrificed themselves for something they believed in. In doing so, they show a level of passion and courage that Yeats doesn't seem to have himself. He's content to stand back and write poetry about what's happening around him, and so here we are reading "Easter, 1916."
Ultimately, Yeats thinks that the sacrifice of the Irish fighters was foolish, since all they had to do was wait for the war to be over before Ireland got its independence.
Yeats admires people who sacrifice themselves for a cause because this is something he'd never do.
It might be hard to see at first, but Yeats does have some principles. He doesn't necessarily have the same principles as the people who died in the Easter Uprising, but that doesn't mean he has none of his own. Yeats seems to be more interested in long, long-term historical changes than he is in individual battles, like those that took place during "Easter, 1916." You might not agree with his stand-back-from-history-and-write-poetry-about-it approach to life. But at least the dude's consistent about his beliefs.
Deep down, Yeats questions his own principles as a poet and fears that he might be a coward compared to the people who died in the Easter Uprising.
In this poem, it doesn't look like Yeats has any principles at all. In fact, he can't even explain why he's writing this poem to begin with.
Throughout "Easter, 1916," Yeats has a way of talking about the dead Irish fighters as though they'll be able to live forever because of their sacrifice. But on the other hand, he also recognizes that they're dead and gone, possibly for no good reason. The question of immortality is one of the main places in this poem where you really see Yeats struggling to make sense of what has happened in the Easter Uprising. On the one hand, it showed the heroism of the people who fought and died. On the other hand, it was a strategic nightmare that didn't accomplish anything in the long run.
Yeats doesn't actually believe that the fighters have been immortalized by their bravery. In fact, he clearly says that all we really know for sure is that these people were once alive and now they're dead.
Yeats doesn't believe in immortality at all—not even for his own poetry. In the end, he thinks we'll all be forgotten some day and it'll be as if we never existed. | <urn:uuid:aaa3e61e-a3ba-4ce3-9a6d-be9b83659ddf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/poetry/easter-1916/themes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.99033 | 719 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2417935878038... | 2 | Admiration is kind of a funny theme in "Easter, 1916," in the sense that Yeats seems like he's always on the verge of admiring the people who died in the Irish Uprising. But at the end of the day, he can never seem to take that final step and say, "These people were heroes and I was a coward for not dying with them!" But hey, many people have heard of Yeats, and the fighters Yeats mentions in this poem are all fairly obscure. So in the end, history was pretty good to Yeats.
When he claims that everything has ben "Transformed utterly" (39), Yeats means that the dead fighters have succeeded in making Ireland a better place.
Deep down, Yeats admires the dead fighters because he thinks people will remember them longer than they will remember him.
While he may not be sure about whether he admires the Irish fighters, Yeats can definitely get behind the fact that these people totally sacrificed themselves for something they believed in. In doing so, they show a level of passion and courage that Yeats doesn't seem to have himself. He's content to stand back and write poetry about what's happening around him, and so here we are reading "Easter, 1916."
Ultimately, Yeats thinks that the sacrifice of the Irish fighters was foolish, since all they had to do was wait for the war to be over before Ireland got its independence.
Yeats admires people who sacrifice themselves for a cause because this is something he'd never do.
It might be hard to see at first, but Yeats does have some principles. He doesn't necessarily have the same principles as the people who died in the Easter Uprising, but that doesn't mean he has none of his own. Yeats seems to be more interested in long, long-term historical changes than he is in individual battles, like those that took place during "Easter, 1916." You might not agree with his stand-back-from-history-and-write-poetry-about-it approach to life. But at least the dude's consistent about his beliefs.
Deep down, Yeats questions his own principles as a poet and fears that he might be a coward compared to the people who died in the Easter Uprising.
In this poem, it doesn't look like Yeats has any principles at all. In fact, he can't even explain why he's writing this poem to begin with.
Throughout "Easter, 1916," Yeats has a way of talking about the dead Irish fighters as though they'll be able to live forever because of their sacrifice. But on the other hand, he also recognizes that they're dead and gone, possibly for no good reason. The question of immortality is one of the main places in this poem where you really see Yeats struggling to make sense of what has happened in the Easter Uprising. On the one hand, it showed the heroism of the people who fought and died. On the other hand, it was a strategic nightmare that didn't accomplish anything in the long run.
Yeats doesn't actually believe that the fighters have been immortalized by their bravery. In fact, he clearly says that all we really know for sure is that these people were once alive and now they're dead.
Yeats doesn't believe in immortality at all—not even for his own poetry. In the end, he thinks we'll all be forgotten some day and it'll be as if we never existed. | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Inspired by Alfred Stieglitz’s modern art showings at 291 Gallery in 1913, he made his first expressionistic painting and officially changed his name to Man Ray. Man, representing himself, and Ray represented of a ‘ray of light’ or ‘of the sun.’ 1913 was also when Man Ray married his first wife Adon Lacroix. For seven years Man Ray worked for a publisher of maps and atlases, but continued his artistic vision publishing articles in art journals and exhibiting. He began to take photographs in 1915. Originally, he bought a camera to record his paintings, but as he began taking photographs, he learned to use it as an artistic manner. Art flourished between World War I and II, and Man Ray embraced every available aspect of expressionistic art, including the camera.
Among others, two of the major movements in art during this time were the Dada movement and the Surrealism movement. Not necessarily a theorist himself, he embraced the theories and ideas of thinkers of the day and has been given credit for advancing the theories and art of his time. Subsequently, he was given notice as an avant-garde artist known internationally. Man Ray befriended Marcel Duchamp and Moholy-Nagy and these artists remained friends and colleagues throughout their lives. He helped publish Dada journals including the New York Dada in 1921. Also in 1921, man Ray moved to Paris and made the first of what he called “Rayographs.”
Also known as photograms, these images were produced by placing objects directly onto photographic paper and then exposing them to light. The dadists believed the ordinary could be extraordinary through art and with the photograms reinvented, this fit nicely into their ideas and theories. Robert Hirsch in his book Seizing the Light: A History of Photography writes, “he later characterized his discovery as an unconscious, “automatic” darkroom happening that occurred in his tiny bathroom/darkroom when he placed a small glass funnel, the graduate and the thermometer in the tray on the wetted paper and turned on the light.” Man Ray had created a “photogram” of sorts previous to this when he placed objects on canvas and painted around them. While working with the photogram Man Ray began to move the objects during the exposure to give the image more depth and tonal range. In An American Century of Photography: From Dry Plate to Digital, Keith Davis writes, “their commitment to this process allowed both Man Ray and Moholoy-Nagy to produce images of remarkable originality. As works of art, these cameraless pictures profoundly transform visual experience and contradict our understanding of the codes of representation. Because they are negative images, these prints present a strange inversion of visible reality: light produces darkness, and shadows register as white. The process is at once entirely objective and bafflingly abstract.” He also discovered solarization, and worked with montage, collage, multiple exposures and mirror effects. One admirer referred to Man Ray as the poet of the darkroom.
Man Ray was heavily involved in many aspects of art. In July 1923, Man Ray released one of his films Retour a la raison at the Theatre Michel. A year later he acted in a film entitled Entr’acte, which was directed by Picabia and Rene Clair. He shot his last film in 1937 with Pablo Picasso.
One of his most famous photographs was taken in 1924, Le Violon d’Ingres and is regarded as an excellent example of surrealist art. “Le Violon d’Ingres illustrates an ancient vision of the cellist who holds his anthropomorphic instrument like a woman between his legs. The simple copying of the sound-box apertures on to the back, the framing of the form by the draped fabric below and the turban above, allows the cellist’s dream to become a reality: the surreal transformation is complete” (from Szarkowski’s “Looking at Photographs”).
By 1919, Man Ray had divorced Adon Lacroix. Ten years later he met Lee Miller who became his assistant and eventually his lover. Though best known for his contributions to photographic abstraction, he was also an accomplished portrait and fashion photographer. His commercial work was published in Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar, and Vanity Fair. Among his portrait subjects were famous artists and writers including Picasso, Salvador Dali, and James Joyce. Artistic works were published in the likes of La Revolution surrealiste, The Little Review, Vu and L’Art vivant. Throughout Man Ray’s life he was exhibited around the world. In the chronology of his life there doesn’t seem to be one year that was uneventful for this artist. His work was also published in magazines and books from around the world. Man Ray was also an author of countless articles, including his most famous “Photography is not Art.” The title is a little misleading. Man Ray discusses the reasons why photography is not considered an art. In addition, he writes about the fear painters have that photography will someday be the only art. Similar to Alfred Stieglitz, Man Ray spent most of his life trying to give photography its place in the art world. This article was followed by another entitled, “Photography Can Be Art.” In this one he writes, “some of the most complete and satisfying works of art have been produced when their authors had no idea they were creating a work of art, but were concerned with the expression of an idea.”
In 1946, Man Ray gave a lecture on Surrealism and stated, “the only preparation I made for this was to construct an object that would demonstrate a Surrealist act.” At the conclusion of the lecture the object was auctioned and given to the winner. Also in 1946, after his failed relationship with Lee Miller, he had a double wedding in Beverly Hills and married Juliet Browner with Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning. He received a gold medal from the Venice Foto Biennale in 1961 and is represented in photography collections at the George Eastman House, the Art Institute of Chicago and the International Museum of Photographer. Also in 1961 Man Ray published autobiography entitled Self Portrait. On his 85th birthday there was an exhibition in New York celebrating his life and work. It was entitled Man Ray, Inventor, Painter, Poet. Held at the Cultural Center, organized by Roland Penrose and Mario Amaya, the exhibition featured 224 works by Man Ray. Also in 1974, Andy Warhol devoted a series of paintings to Man Ray. He died in 1976 in Paris. Man Ray is credited with playing a major role in elevating photography into the realm of abstraction and the expressionists movements of his time, and his work continues to impact artists today.
Man Ray wrote in his essay, “Photography Can Be Art,” “a book was once published of twenty photographs by twenty photographers, of the same model. They were as different as twenty paintings of the same model. There was proof, once and for all, of the flexibility of the camera and its validity as an instrument of expression.
Portrait: Self-Portrait with Camera, 1931
Full Screen: Black and White, 1926
Right: Untitled Rayograph, 1922
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0.5014824867248... | 15 | Inspired by Alfred Stieglitz’s modern art showings at 291 Gallery in 1913, he made his first expressionistic painting and officially changed his name to Man Ray. Man, representing himself, and Ray represented of a ‘ray of light’ or ‘of the sun.’ 1913 was also when Man Ray married his first wife Adon Lacroix. For seven years Man Ray worked for a publisher of maps and atlases, but continued his artistic vision publishing articles in art journals and exhibiting. He began to take photographs in 1915. Originally, he bought a camera to record his paintings, but as he began taking photographs, he learned to use it as an artistic manner. Art flourished between World War I and II, and Man Ray embraced every available aspect of expressionistic art, including the camera.
Among others, two of the major movements in art during this time were the Dada movement and the Surrealism movement. Not necessarily a theorist himself, he embraced the theories and ideas of thinkers of the day and has been given credit for advancing the theories and art of his time. Subsequently, he was given notice as an avant-garde artist known internationally. Man Ray befriended Marcel Duchamp and Moholy-Nagy and these artists remained friends and colleagues throughout their lives. He helped publish Dada journals including the New York Dada in 1921. Also in 1921, man Ray moved to Paris and made the first of what he called “Rayographs.”
Also known as photograms, these images were produced by placing objects directly onto photographic paper and then exposing them to light. The dadists believed the ordinary could be extraordinary through art and with the photograms reinvented, this fit nicely into their ideas and theories. Robert Hirsch in his book Seizing the Light: A History of Photography writes, “he later characterized his discovery as an unconscious, “automatic” darkroom happening that occurred in his tiny bathroom/darkroom when he placed a small glass funnel, the graduate and the thermometer in the tray on the wetted paper and turned on the light.” Man Ray had created a “photogram” of sorts previous to this when he placed objects on canvas and painted around them. While working with the photogram Man Ray began to move the objects during the exposure to give the image more depth and tonal range. In An American Century of Photography: From Dry Plate to Digital, Keith Davis writes, “their commitment to this process allowed both Man Ray and Moholoy-Nagy to produce images of remarkable originality. As works of art, these cameraless pictures profoundly transform visual experience and contradict our understanding of the codes of representation. Because they are negative images, these prints present a strange inversion of visible reality: light produces darkness, and shadows register as white. The process is at once entirely objective and bafflingly abstract.” He also discovered solarization, and worked with montage, collage, multiple exposures and mirror effects. One admirer referred to Man Ray as the poet of the darkroom.
Man Ray was heavily involved in many aspects of art. In July 1923, Man Ray released one of his films Retour a la raison at the Theatre Michel. A year later he acted in a film entitled Entr’acte, which was directed by Picabia and Rene Clair. He shot his last film in 1937 with Pablo Picasso.
One of his most famous photographs was taken in 1924, Le Violon d’Ingres and is regarded as an excellent example of surrealist art. “Le Violon d’Ingres illustrates an ancient vision of the cellist who holds his anthropomorphic instrument like a woman between his legs. The simple copying of the sound-box apertures on to the back, the framing of the form by the draped fabric below and the turban above, allows the cellist’s dream to become a reality: the surreal transformation is complete” (from Szarkowski’s “Looking at Photographs”).
By 1919, Man Ray had divorced Adon Lacroix. Ten years later he met Lee Miller who became his assistant and eventually his lover. Though best known for his contributions to photographic abstraction, he was also an accomplished portrait and fashion photographer. His commercial work was published in Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar, and Vanity Fair. Among his portrait subjects were famous artists and writers including Picasso, Salvador Dali, and James Joyce. Artistic works were published in the likes of La Revolution surrealiste, The Little Review, Vu and L’Art vivant. Throughout Man Ray’s life he was exhibited around the world. In the chronology of his life there doesn’t seem to be one year that was uneventful for this artist. His work was also published in magazines and books from around the world. Man Ray was also an author of countless articles, including his most famous “Photography is not Art.” The title is a little misleading. Man Ray discusses the reasons why photography is not considered an art. In addition, he writes about the fear painters have that photography will someday be the only art. Similar to Alfred Stieglitz, Man Ray spent most of his life trying to give photography its place in the art world. This article was followed by another entitled, “Photography Can Be Art.” In this one he writes, “some of the most complete and satisfying works of art have been produced when their authors had no idea they were creating a work of art, but were concerned with the expression of an idea.”
In 1946, Man Ray gave a lecture on Surrealism and stated, “the only preparation I made for this was to construct an object that would demonstrate a Surrealist act.” At the conclusion of the lecture the object was auctioned and given to the winner. Also in 1946, after his failed relationship with Lee Miller, he had a double wedding in Beverly Hills and married Juliet Browner with Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning. He received a gold medal from the Venice Foto Biennale in 1961 and is represented in photography collections at the George Eastman House, the Art Institute of Chicago and the International Museum of Photographer. Also in 1961 Man Ray published autobiography entitled Self Portrait. On his 85th birthday there was an exhibition in New York celebrating his life and work. It was entitled Man Ray, Inventor, Painter, Poet. Held at the Cultural Center, organized by Roland Penrose and Mario Amaya, the exhibition featured 224 works by Man Ray. Also in 1974, Andy Warhol devoted a series of paintings to Man Ray. He died in 1976 in Paris. Man Ray is credited with playing a major role in elevating photography into the realm of abstraction and the expressionists movements of his time, and his work continues to impact artists today.
Man Ray wrote in his essay, “Photography Can Be Art,” “a book was once published of twenty photographs by twenty photographers, of the same model. They were as different as twenty paintings of the same model. There was proof, once and for all, of the flexibility of the camera and its validity as an instrument of expression.
Portrait: Self-Portrait with Camera, 1931
Full Screen: Black and White, 1926
Right: Untitled Rayograph, 1922
Bottom Right: Lee Miller (Solarized), 1929 | 1,546 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We are writing this because we believe that we all should change the way we speak about slavery. The main words we would like to change are “slave,” “slave owner” and “plantation.”
In the case of the word slave, we believe that by calling the enslaved people that, it dehumanizes them and labels them as a commodity, disrespecting those who suffered and putting them in a place where they are remembered as property, not people. By replacing the word slave with enslaved person, you are putting their humanity first, rather than their situation.
As for the term slave owner, we think it enforces the false idea that enslaved people were property to toil for others day and night to bring others wealth and that enslaved people were something to be owned, like an object. By replacing slave owner with enslaver, we don’t promote the ideology of owning other people.
When we think about plantations, we personally reminisce about picnics, skipping through the valley and a nice summer day. Knowing that plantations were not like that in the past and that they were actually places of great torture, we would prefer to call them forced labor camps.
It will be hard to change our vocabulary, but with a conscious effort, we think we can change the way we speak to better suit everybody. It will truly take practice, but that is only because those words are ignorantly embedded in our minds.
— O., Cameron and London
Editor’s note: This letter is one of three we received on this topic from students at a local K-8 school. | <urn:uuid:6b7bbc23-a145-4221-855e-10a6157d0112> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mountainx.com/opinion/letter-change-the-way-we-speak-about-slavery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.980583 | 331 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.065100163221... | 2 | We are writing this because we believe that we all should change the way we speak about slavery. The main words we would like to change are “slave,” “slave owner” and “plantation.”
In the case of the word slave, we believe that by calling the enslaved people that, it dehumanizes them and labels them as a commodity, disrespecting those who suffered and putting them in a place where they are remembered as property, not people. By replacing the word slave with enslaved person, you are putting their humanity first, rather than their situation.
As for the term slave owner, we think it enforces the false idea that enslaved people were property to toil for others day and night to bring others wealth and that enslaved people were something to be owned, like an object. By replacing slave owner with enslaver, we don’t promote the ideology of owning other people.
When we think about plantations, we personally reminisce about picnics, skipping through the valley and a nice summer day. Knowing that plantations were not like that in the past and that they were actually places of great torture, we would prefer to call them forced labor camps.
It will be hard to change our vocabulary, but with a conscious effort, we think we can change the way we speak to better suit everybody. It will truly take practice, but that is only because those words are ignorantly embedded in our minds.
— O., Cameron and London
Editor’s note: This letter is one of three we received on this topic from students at a local K-8 school. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Anning (1799-1847) made several important discoveries as an amateur fossil collector in the first half of the nineteenth century, including a nearly complete skeleton of an Ichthyosaur. Her findings were key to the development paleontology as a scientific discipline in Britain.
Anning was born on May 21, 1799, in Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, the daughter of Richard and Mary Moore Anning. The Annings had nearly ten children, but only Mary and her elder brother Joseph survived to adulthood. On August 19, 1800, Anning narrowly escaped death during a lightening storm. She was one of four people who found shelter under an elm tree in Rack Field near Lyme Regis. Only Anning survived when the tree was struck by lightening. Local legend had it that her intelligence increased significantly after the incident.
Richard Anning made his living as a cabinet maker and carpenter. As a hobby and for extra income, he collected fossils. They were cleaned, polished, and sold to summer tourists. The area in which the Annings lived was rich with fossils. Their hometown, Lyme Regis, was located on the southwest coast of England. About 200 million years earlier, the region had been a sea bottom, where numerous dinosaur remains were fossilized after their death. As sea level fell, these fossils could be found on the beach and above it, especially in the exposed rocky cliffs. Richard Anning was among the first to take advantage of the tourist trade, which increased as Lyme Regis became a summer resort seaside town in the late 1700s. A popular item was what the locals dubbed "curiosities," a coiled shell. Later, it was determined that these shells were ammonites, a type of mollusk that lived in the Jurassic Period.
Richard Anning was not the only townsperson to sell collected fossils, but he did interest his whole family in the enterprise, including daughter Mary. Anning had only a limited education, perhaps only a few years in a parish school, but she learned much about the business and the fossils from her father. She developed extraordinary skills in fossil collecting. Her abilities came in handy when Richard Anning died in 1810, leaving his family destitute and in debt for £120. He had been suffering from consumption and had fallen off a cliff before his death. Her brother Joseph was already working as an apprentice to an upholsterer, so the burden of providing an income for the family fell to Anning and her mother. Anning viewed fossil collecting as their only means of support, except for charity given to the family by their local parish from 1811 until 1815.
In 1811 or 1812, Anning made her first important discovery. Though sources differ on the sequence of events and who was involved, it is clear that Anning was primarily responsible for the finding of a well-preserved, nearly complete skeleton of what came to be called an Ichthysaurus ("fish-lizard"). Some said that her brother Joseph found the skull first, or they found the head together, separate from the rest of the body. Others believed that Anning found the whole fossil on her own. Anning then hired workers to dig out the block in which it was embedded. In any case, the ten-meter (30 feet) long skeleton created a sensation and made Anning famous. She sold it to Henry Hoste Henley, a local collector, for £23. Eventually it made its way to the London Museum of Natural History, and a debate ensued over what to name the creature, a marine reptile with a long body and tail, small limbs, and trim head. It was dubbed Ichthysaurus in 1817.
This discovery was important to science as well as Anning's livelihood. Though life in the Anning family was difficult for the next decade, Anning herself was developing important skills. She became a good observer, who could provide vital information to scientists. She knew the area well and became expert at predicting where fossils might be found after storms. Anning also became adept at removing the fossils without causing ant damage. Though Anning and her mother were the primary fossil hunters, they was often accompanied by her brother or a local friend, Henry De le Beche, who later became a geologist. The family was also aided by Thomas James Birch, who helped them sell many of their fossils before Anning became an adult.
Discovered Complete Plesiosaurus
In 1823, Anning made another important discovery, perhaps her greatest. She found the first complete Plesiosaurus ("near lizard"). This was a reptile that was nine-feet long and lived in the sea. It had a long neck, short tail, small head, and four flippers that were pointed and shaped like paddles. They were very rare, and Anning's discovery led to the creation of a new genus. The specimen was sold to Richard Grenville for about £100, though sources differ and the amount could have been as much as $pound;200. Anning and her mother developed a reputation for being effective negotiators with those who wanted to buy their specimens.
By this time, Anning's contributions and skills were being recognized by those in the field. She had her own retail shop in Lyme Regis. The shop was a tourist attraction that also drew interested scientists. Anning shared her knowledge with both segments of society when they visited Lyme Regis. Many were surprised at the level of her understanding of fossils. Anning also held an extensive correspondence with experts in the field, both in Britain and other countries. Yet, for Anning, this was also a business. She had a shrewd business sense and came to know her market well. She often sought out specialists or museums that paid more for her unusual fossil. With each major discovery, Anning started a bidding war. For example, her second complete Plesiosaurus was sold to the London Natural History Museum for £100.
In 1828, Anning made two major findings. She found the anterior sheath and ink bag of a Belemnosepia, an invertebrate. This was her first finding in invertebrate paleontology. The same year Anning also discovered a Pterodactylus macronyx, British pterosaur ("wing finger"), the first pterodactyl of the Dimorphodon genus. An Oxford University professor named this fossil. The discovery brought Anning even more attention, on a nation-wide level. It was this celebrity that might have prompted her visit to London in 1829, the only recorded leave she took of Lyme Regis. Anning continued to make important discoveries in 1829 and 1830. In the former, she found the fossil of Squaloraja, a fish that seemed to be an evolutionary step between rays and sharks. In 1830, Anning discovered a Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, which was bought for £200 by William Willoughby.
In 1838, Anning's income from her shop began to be supplemented by a grant of £25 per year. This was paid for by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and government funds approved by William Lamb, Lord Melbourne, Britain's prime minister. Later in her life, the Geological Society of London granted Anning an honorary membership. In 1846, the Society also gave her further funds when it was learned that she had developed cancer. That same year the Dorset County Museum named her its first honorary member.
Anning died of breast cancer on March 9, 1847, in Lyme Regis. She never married, and the only immediate family left was her brother and his wife, Amelia. The town of Lyme Regis suffered financial losses after her death because fewer tourists were drawn there without its star attraction. However, the fossils she collected can still be found in museums around the world, including the Natural History Museum in London and Oxford University. Yet Anning's name is essentially unknown. Geologist Hugh Torrens told Gail Vines of New Scientist, "Lord Gnome, who bought Anning's fossil, is honoured-she, as workman and tradesman, is invisible."
Anning's legacy has remained alive over the years. A tongue twister ("she sells seashells by the seashore") was believed to have been written about her. About 15 years after her death, the scientists of the Geological Society of London gave the church in Lyme Regis a stained-glass window in her honor. It depicted the six corporal acts of mercy. By the late twentieth century, the Lyme Regis Museum stood where a home of Anning's once stood. Its primary purpose was preserving Anning's legacy. Scientific historian, Hugh Torrens, wrote this of Anning, "If I could create my own myth about Mary Anning, it would be to equate her with Diana as the hunter."
Chambers Biographical Dictionary, edited by Melanie Parry, Chambers, 1997.
Dictionary of National Biography, supplement volume one, edited by Sidney Lee, Smith, Elder & Co., 1901.
The Europa Biographical Dictionary of British Women, edited by Anne Crawford et al, Europa Publications, 1983.
The Macmillan Dictionary of Women's Biography, second edition, edited by Jennifer Uglow, Macmillan Reference Books, 1989.
Oglivie, Marilyn Bailey, Women in Science: Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1986.
Stille, Darlene R., Extraordinary Women Scientists, Childrens Press, 1995.
Women of Science: Righting the Record, edited by G. Kass-Simon and Patricia Farnes, Indiana University Press, 1990.
Yount, Lisa, A to Z of Women in Science and Math, Facts on File, Inc., 1999.
Antiques & Collecting, September 1994, p. 22.
British Journal for the History of Science, September 1995, p. 257.
New Scientist, September 26, 1992, p. 49. □
Anning, Mary (1799-1847)
Anning, Mary (1799-1847)
Mary Anning, a self-educated fossil hunter and collector, was eventually credited with the first discovery of the plesiosaur.
Anning was born in Lyme Regis in Dorset, England and remained single all her life. Lyme Regis is famous for its Jurassic ammonites and dinosaur remains. Her claim to fame was firmly established when she, along with her brother, found and extracted a complete ichthyosaur skeleton, subsequently sent to a London Museum. At the time she was only 12 years old. Anning also found a nearly complete skeleton of a plesiosaur in 1823, and made her third great discovery in 1828 of the anterior sheath and ink bag of Belemnospia. In 1929, she discovered the fossil fish Squaloraja, thought to be an ancestor of the shark and the ray. Her last major discovery in 1830 was the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, named by Professor William Buckland.
Aning was born to a poor family and taught her initial trade by her father who was killed in an accident when she was 11 years old. However, over the next 35 years Anning knew and became known to most of the famous geologists of the time by collecting and running her fossil shop first with her mother, and then later on her own. Her knowledge of ammonites, dinosaur bones and other marine fossils found on the beach at Lyme Regis gave her fame, but not fortune. Towards the end of her life she was however, granted a government research grant in 1838 to help with her work. Because she was a woman, Anning was never allowed to present her work to the Geological Society of London.
Anning also never published any of her findings. Many of her discoveries are now displayed in museums although her name is rarely mentioned, as most the fossils carry the name of the donator, not the discoverer.
During her lifetime, in 1841 and 1844, Anning had two fossils named after her by Louis Agassiz , the Swiss exponent of the Ice Age theory. After her death, Anning was recognized by the very society that had failed to admit her during her lifetime, the Geological Society of London. She was an accomplished paleontologist, largely self-educated, and a highly intelligent woman even teaching herself French so that she could read Georges Cuvier's work in the original French. Today, scientists recognize Anning as an authority on British dinosaur anatomy.
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0.5735586881637... | 1 | Mary Anning (1799-1847) made several important discoveries as an amateur fossil collector in the first half of the nineteenth century, including a nearly complete skeleton of an Ichthyosaur. Her findings were key to the development paleontology as a scientific discipline in Britain.
Anning was born on May 21, 1799, in Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, the daughter of Richard and Mary Moore Anning. The Annings had nearly ten children, but only Mary and her elder brother Joseph survived to adulthood. On August 19, 1800, Anning narrowly escaped death during a lightening storm. She was one of four people who found shelter under an elm tree in Rack Field near Lyme Regis. Only Anning survived when the tree was struck by lightening. Local legend had it that her intelligence increased significantly after the incident.
Richard Anning made his living as a cabinet maker and carpenter. As a hobby and for extra income, he collected fossils. They were cleaned, polished, and sold to summer tourists. The area in which the Annings lived was rich with fossils. Their hometown, Lyme Regis, was located on the southwest coast of England. About 200 million years earlier, the region had been a sea bottom, where numerous dinosaur remains were fossilized after their death. As sea level fell, these fossils could be found on the beach and above it, especially in the exposed rocky cliffs. Richard Anning was among the first to take advantage of the tourist trade, which increased as Lyme Regis became a summer resort seaside town in the late 1700s. A popular item was what the locals dubbed "curiosities," a coiled shell. Later, it was determined that these shells were ammonites, a type of mollusk that lived in the Jurassic Period.
Richard Anning was not the only townsperson to sell collected fossils, but he did interest his whole family in the enterprise, including daughter Mary. Anning had only a limited education, perhaps only a few years in a parish school, but she learned much about the business and the fossils from her father. She developed extraordinary skills in fossil collecting. Her abilities came in handy when Richard Anning died in 1810, leaving his family destitute and in debt for £120. He had been suffering from consumption and had fallen off a cliff before his death. Her brother Joseph was already working as an apprentice to an upholsterer, so the burden of providing an income for the family fell to Anning and her mother. Anning viewed fossil collecting as their only means of support, except for charity given to the family by their local parish from 1811 until 1815.
In 1811 or 1812, Anning made her first important discovery. Though sources differ on the sequence of events and who was involved, it is clear that Anning was primarily responsible for the finding of a well-preserved, nearly complete skeleton of what came to be called an Ichthysaurus ("fish-lizard"). Some said that her brother Joseph found the skull first, or they found the head together, separate from the rest of the body. Others believed that Anning found the whole fossil on her own. Anning then hired workers to dig out the block in which it was embedded. In any case, the ten-meter (30 feet) long skeleton created a sensation and made Anning famous. She sold it to Henry Hoste Henley, a local collector, for £23. Eventually it made its way to the London Museum of Natural History, and a debate ensued over what to name the creature, a marine reptile with a long body and tail, small limbs, and trim head. It was dubbed Ichthysaurus in 1817.
This discovery was important to science as well as Anning's livelihood. Though life in the Anning family was difficult for the next decade, Anning herself was developing important skills. She became a good observer, who could provide vital information to scientists. She knew the area well and became expert at predicting where fossils might be found after storms. Anning also became adept at removing the fossils without causing ant damage. Though Anning and her mother were the primary fossil hunters, they was often accompanied by her brother or a local friend, Henry De le Beche, who later became a geologist. The family was also aided by Thomas James Birch, who helped them sell many of their fossils before Anning became an adult.
Discovered Complete Plesiosaurus
In 1823, Anning made another important discovery, perhaps her greatest. She found the first complete Plesiosaurus ("near lizard"). This was a reptile that was nine-feet long and lived in the sea. It had a long neck, short tail, small head, and four flippers that were pointed and shaped like paddles. They were very rare, and Anning's discovery led to the creation of a new genus. The specimen was sold to Richard Grenville for about £100, though sources differ and the amount could have been as much as $pound;200. Anning and her mother developed a reputation for being effective negotiators with those who wanted to buy their specimens.
By this time, Anning's contributions and skills were being recognized by those in the field. She had her own retail shop in Lyme Regis. The shop was a tourist attraction that also drew interested scientists. Anning shared her knowledge with both segments of society when they visited Lyme Regis. Many were surprised at the level of her understanding of fossils. Anning also held an extensive correspondence with experts in the field, both in Britain and other countries. Yet, for Anning, this was also a business. She had a shrewd business sense and came to know her market well. She often sought out specialists or museums that paid more for her unusual fossil. With each major discovery, Anning started a bidding war. For example, her second complete Plesiosaurus was sold to the London Natural History Museum for £100.
In 1828, Anning made two major findings. She found the anterior sheath and ink bag of a Belemnosepia, an invertebrate. This was her first finding in invertebrate paleontology. The same year Anning also discovered a Pterodactylus macronyx, British pterosaur ("wing finger"), the first pterodactyl of the Dimorphodon genus. An Oxford University professor named this fossil. The discovery brought Anning even more attention, on a nation-wide level. It was this celebrity that might have prompted her visit to London in 1829, the only recorded leave she took of Lyme Regis. Anning continued to make important discoveries in 1829 and 1830. In the former, she found the fossil of Squaloraja, a fish that seemed to be an evolutionary step between rays and sharks. In 1830, Anning discovered a Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, which was bought for £200 by William Willoughby.
In 1838, Anning's income from her shop began to be supplemented by a grant of £25 per year. This was paid for by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and government funds approved by William Lamb, Lord Melbourne, Britain's prime minister. Later in her life, the Geological Society of London granted Anning an honorary membership. In 1846, the Society also gave her further funds when it was learned that she had developed cancer. That same year the Dorset County Museum named her its first honorary member.
Anning died of breast cancer on March 9, 1847, in Lyme Regis. She never married, and the only immediate family left was her brother and his wife, Amelia. The town of Lyme Regis suffered financial losses after her death because fewer tourists were drawn there without its star attraction. However, the fossils she collected can still be found in museums around the world, including the Natural History Museum in London and Oxford University. Yet Anning's name is essentially unknown. Geologist Hugh Torrens told Gail Vines of New Scientist, "Lord Gnome, who bought Anning's fossil, is honoured-she, as workman and tradesman, is invisible."
Anning's legacy has remained alive over the years. A tongue twister ("she sells seashells by the seashore") was believed to have been written about her. About 15 years after her death, the scientists of the Geological Society of London gave the church in Lyme Regis a stained-glass window in her honor. It depicted the six corporal acts of mercy. By the late twentieth century, the Lyme Regis Museum stood where a home of Anning's once stood. Its primary purpose was preserving Anning's legacy. Scientific historian, Hugh Torrens, wrote this of Anning, "If I could create my own myth about Mary Anning, it would be to equate her with Diana as the hunter."
Chambers Biographical Dictionary, edited by Melanie Parry, Chambers, 1997.
Dictionary of National Biography, supplement volume one, edited by Sidney Lee, Smith, Elder & Co., 1901.
The Europa Biographical Dictionary of British Women, edited by Anne Crawford et al, Europa Publications, 1983.
The Macmillan Dictionary of Women's Biography, second edition, edited by Jennifer Uglow, Macmillan Reference Books, 1989.
Oglivie, Marilyn Bailey, Women in Science: Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1986.
Stille, Darlene R., Extraordinary Women Scientists, Childrens Press, 1995.
Women of Science: Righting the Record, edited by G. Kass-Simon and Patricia Farnes, Indiana University Press, 1990.
Yount, Lisa, A to Z of Women in Science and Math, Facts on File, Inc., 1999.
Antiques & Collecting, September 1994, p. 22.
British Journal for the History of Science, September 1995, p. 257.
New Scientist, September 26, 1992, p. 49. □
Anning, Mary (1799-1847)
Anning, Mary (1799-1847)
Mary Anning, a self-educated fossil hunter and collector, was eventually credited with the first discovery of the plesiosaur.
Anning was born in Lyme Regis in Dorset, England and remained single all her life. Lyme Regis is famous for its Jurassic ammonites and dinosaur remains. Her claim to fame was firmly established when she, along with her brother, found and extracted a complete ichthyosaur skeleton, subsequently sent to a London Museum. At the time she was only 12 years old. Anning also found a nearly complete skeleton of a plesiosaur in 1823, and made her third great discovery in 1828 of the anterior sheath and ink bag of Belemnospia. In 1929, she discovered the fossil fish Squaloraja, thought to be an ancestor of the shark and the ray. Her last major discovery in 1830 was the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, named by Professor William Buckland.
Aning was born to a poor family and taught her initial trade by her father who was killed in an accident when she was 11 years old. However, over the next 35 years Anning knew and became known to most of the famous geologists of the time by collecting and running her fossil shop first with her mother, and then later on her own. Her knowledge of ammonites, dinosaur bones and other marine fossils found on the beach at Lyme Regis gave her fame, but not fortune. Towards the end of her life she was however, granted a government research grant in 1838 to help with her work. Because she was a woman, Anning was never allowed to present her work to the Geological Society of London.
Anning also never published any of her findings. Many of her discoveries are now displayed in museums although her name is rarely mentioned, as most the fossils carry the name of the donator, not the discoverer.
During her lifetime, in 1841 and 1844, Anning had two fossils named after her by Louis Agassiz , the Swiss exponent of the Ice Age theory. After her death, Anning was recognized by the very society that had failed to admit her during her lifetime, the Geological Society of London. She was an accomplished paleontologist, largely self-educated, and a highly intelligent woman even teaching herself French so that she could read Georges Cuvier's work in the original French. Today, scientists recognize Anning as an authority on British dinosaur anatomy.
See also Fossil record; Fossils and fossilization; Jurassic | 2,740 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Wallace was born as a son of a small landowner and a Scottish knight
near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland.
1291: His father Malcolm was killed in a fight with English troops
May 1297: William avenged his father's death with more than 30 men by killing the responsible knight and some of his soldiers. He became a local military leader and the king's enemy.
September 11, 1297: William Wallace and his army defeated the English army under John de Warenne near Stirling. Over 5000 English soldiers were killed.
December 1297: He had become Sir William Wallace
July 22, 1298: Wallace's military reputation was ruined by Edward's 90.000 men strong army near Falkirk. As many as 10.000 Scots may have been killed.
August 5, 1305: Wallace was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. He was taken to London and got the status of a captured soldier.
August 23, 1305: William Wallace was executed in an extremely brutally way. He had never sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward.
Wallace is one of Scotland´s greatest national heroes. He was the leader
of the Scottish resistance forces during the first years of the long and finally
successful struggle to free Scotland from English rule at the end of the 13th
century. Records of Wallace´s life are very irregular and often not
correct. This is why narrations of his heroic actions are speculative. Partly
because he caused such fear in the minds of English people and writers at
the time, they demonised him and his motives.
For obvious reasons the Scottish writers exaggerated a little with their records. That is why there are some differences between the Hollywood film and the historical records.
Wallace was born around 1270, near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland. His father was Sir Malcolm Wallace, a small landowner and a Scottish knight. His mother was the daughter of Sir Hugh Crawford, Sheriff of Ayr. William also had an older brother, called Malcolm. As he was the second son, he did not inherit his father´s titles or land.
There is no real information about W. W´s early life. He is said to have spent his childhood at Dunipace, near Stirling, under the supervision of his uncle. At this time he was trained in the martial arts, including horse - and swordmanship. Chroniclers say that W. was a large, powerful man. He was more than six and a half feet high ( nearly two meters ).
By this time, in 1290, the Scottish nobility at the throne plotted against each other. At the same time English troops, including Welsh and Irish conscripts, worked freely everywhere in Scotland. Civilian life wasn't safe. During this era of lawlessness, W. W´s father was killed in a fight with English troops in 1291. It is probable that his father's death led to Wallace's attitude to fight for his nation's independence. This is a big difference to the Hollywood film, in which his father was killed, when he was a young boy. The release for his attitude was the death of his wife Murron. However, not much is known about Wallace's life during this period. He lived the life of an outlaw, moving constantly to avoid the English and fighting against them with characteristic ferocity. Wallace killed several local rebels and began his systematic attack on the English. In May 1297, with more than 30 men, he took revenge on his father's death by killing the responsible knight and some of his soldiers. By this time Wallace had become a local military leader and the king's enemy.
On September 11, 1297, the English army under John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey confronted W. W. and his army near Stirling. It had been a great victory for the Scottish and W. W. over the English, who lost over 5000 soldiers. William had not only shown that he was a characteristic leader and warrior, but also that he had a lot of tactical military talent. Never before had a Scottish army triumphed over an English army. In October of 1296, Wallace invaded northern England and conquered the counties of Northumberland and Cumberland.
In the same year he had become Sir William Wallace. On July 22, 1298, Edward's 90.000 men strong army attacked a much smaller Scottish force led by Wallace near Falkirk. The English army was at a technological advantage. Consequently the Scottish had no chance to win this battle and as many as 10.000 Scots may have been killed. Wallace's military reputation was destroyed. He was succeeded as guard of the kingdom by Robert the Bruce and Sir John Comyn.
On August 5, 1305 W. was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. In the Hollywood movie, this fact is left out. He was taken to London and got the status of a caught soldier. He had never sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward. On the 23rd of August 1305 he was executed. After William Wallace was beheaded, his body was torn to pieces. His head was impaled and shown to the crowd on the top of the London Bridge. His arms and legs were send to the four cardinal points of Britain. His right arm was impaled at Newcastle, his left arm at Berwick, his right leg at Perth, and the left leg at Aberdeen. Wallace's execution had not the effect Edward might have believed. He thought that he could break the spirit of the Scots, but he was wrong. By executing the popular Scottish military leader so brutally, Edward enforced the Scottish people's wish for freedom.
Today there are several Scottish monuments of their hero: one at Edinburgh Castle, on one side of the entrance; one in Lanark, in a niche above the door of the current church facing High Street; and the most famous, in Stirling, at the National Wallace Monument. William Wallace lives on in the imagination of Scotland.
William Wallace's legendary speech before the battle of Stirling:
fight and you may die.
Run, and you'll live. At least a while.
And dying in your beds many years from now,
would you be willing to trade all the days,
from this day to that, for one chance,
just one chance,
to come back here and tell our enemies
that they may take our lives,
but they'll never take our
Wallace was the greatest hero in Scotland's history. He lived over seven centuries
ago, but he is still a symbol of Scottish independence.
Wallace was born around 1270, probably near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland. His father was Sir Malcolm Wallace, a small landowner and a Scottish knight. William was the second of three sons. He had spent his childhood at Dunipace, near Stirling, under the supervision of his uncle, who was a priest.
His father Malcolm was killed in a fight with English troops in 1291. The death of his father marked the beginning of William's attitude to fight for his nation's independence. Six years later, in May 1297, he avenged his fathers death by killing the responsible sheriff and some of his soldiers. From then on, William Wallace was the undisputed leader of the Scottish fight for independence. By 1297, he controlled much of Scotland. His battles were the stuff of legends. Wallace's army was able to defeat the English army at Stirling Bridge. This great victory drove the English out of Scotland.
On August 5, 1305 William Wallace was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. He was taken to trial in London, where he was convicted of treason against the king and brutally executed.
Like William Wallace,
Robert the Bruce was one of the greatest hero's in Scotland's history. As
the king of Scotland he achieved the almost impossible dream of William Wallace
for Scottish independence.
Robert was born in 1274. His grandfather claimed the throne in 1292 when John Balliol was selected king of Scotland. The Bruce was a popular Lord, who was very uncertain with reference to his changing loyalty. He had first sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward I, but as he saw that Wallace's revolt was successful, he pledged his loyalty back to Scotland.
In 1306, after Wallace's brutal execution, he was crowned king of Scotland. Impressed by William Wallace he was struck with an undying patriotism. As king of Scotland, he was expected to take Wallace's place to fight for freedom. He led several attacks with little success on England. Edward I had defeated most of his armies. After Edward's death The Bruce attacked again.
On 24th June 1314, with an army half the size of the attacking King Edward II, Robert the Bruce defeated the English army at Bannockburn. This was the greatest victory ever in the Scottish history. From this day on, Robert the Bruce was a national hero.
In 1328, The Bruce and Scotland got their wish. The Edinburgh-Northampton treaty gave Scotland the independence.
One year later, on June 7, 1329; King Robert the Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy.
I reigned in England from 1272-1307. Many Englishmen recognized him as a great
king. For obvious reasons the Scottish and Welsh do not really agree with
the English; he was constantly concentrated on subduing Scotland and Wales.
Chroniclers say that he was a handsome man. He was also very tall. Because of his long legs, he got the nickname "Longshanks". He married Eleanor of Castile at an early age. He loved her so much that when she died in 1290 in Wales, he had erected a cross at each site where her body was set down during the journey back to London. Those crosses were called "dear queen" crosses.
It is said that he had a cruel streak. Maybe the death of his wife contributed to this streak. But even though he had such character faults. He was a very strong ruler, who strengthened the authority of the English monarchy. Edward made advantages for England in France and Wales; he tried to subdue Scotland as well, but in Scotland he was not so fortunate like in Wales, where he assigned the royal lands to the future of his son Edward II, who became the first Prince of Wales.
He was still having war against the Scottish when he died in 1307 ( two years after Wallace's execution ). However, his obsession with oppressing the Scottish earned him the nickname "Hammer of the Scots" ( Scotorum malleus ) that someone carved after his death on his tomb.
II, the first Prince of Wales, was a very tragic and weak figure. He inherited
many problems from his father's reign, which were furthered by his weakness
as king, he was betrayed by his nobles, and eventually murdered by his wife
Queen Isabella in 1327. He was born in Wales in 1284. The young prince was
raised under the domination of his mother, before she died in 1290. He suffered
very much on the death of her. He had no surviving brothers and his father
was not often at home. When his father was there, he was known to have vent
his anger on his son. Some chroniclers think that this caused Edward to
become very reliant upon his friends, especially Piers Gaveston ( perhaps
the model for his friend ( lover ) Philip in the film ) and the Despensers.
His father did not like his friends, nor did he trust him. Because of that he had not given him a lot of opportunities to get some experiences in governing. Therefore, he wasn't versed enough, when he started ruling his kingdom. Then he lost the reign over Scotland, when the Scottish triumphed at Bannockburn in 1314. This was a very big defeat to his reputation. After Bannockburn, the English nobles were so angry with Edward, that they started a rebellion against him under the leadership of the earl of Lancaster. Edward and his new friends, the Dispensers, were able to fight back and to win this civil war ( 1321 ). He executed Lancaster for this rebellion.
Despite his success to defend his crown, he continued angering his nobles. His weakness as king was too big. Like shown in the film, Edward II was allegedly homosexual. His lover ( Piers Gaveston ), was
killed by his nobles some years after Edward I's death.
Isabella, also known as "The She-Wolf of France", married Prince
Edward, later Edward II, when she was 16. This marriage was arranged in the
interest of politics by Edward I. That is why they were quite unhappy with
each other. Like seen in the film, Edward II was seemingly homosexual, and
he spent most of his time with Piers Gaveston ( Philip ).
A few years later Isabella did bear her husband a son, the future Edward III, but Edward II's nobles hadn't believed that the child was his. However, Braveheart's representation that William Wallace is Edward III's father is impossible. There is no historical evidence that the Princess and Wallace have ever met. Edward III was born seven years after Wallace's death.
As Edwards ruling problems grew and his nobles were more and more disgusted with him, Isabella further alienated herself from her husband. Eventually she fled to France, taking her son with her. In 1327, when her husband was at his lowest point with his nobles, Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer invaded England and captured Edward. He was hold as prisoner for a few month and then murdered. It is likely, that his wife murdered him. For a time Isabella kept some power after her husband's death. Once her son was crowned Edward III, she sank into the background.
The character of Murron is also based on a true historical figure. Only the name was changed. Her real name was Marion Braidfoot. She was William Wallace's wife. They were married in secret, because William didn't want to share her with an English Lord ( ius prime nocte ). The Sheriff of Lanark murdered her, in order to arrest Wallace, because of his force against the English. In the Hollywood film, Wallace was first shown as a peaceful man, who wanted to have a family. Then he was forced to fight, by killing his wife very brutally. This was the release for his attitude to fight for his nation's independence. In reality he was already fighting against the English when Marion ( Murron ) was murdered. There are almost no other information about Marion Braidfoot.
- 23rd and 24th June 1314
Combatants - King Robert the Bruce of Scotland .v. King Edward II of England
Setting - Bannockburn, - Stirling, Scotland
decisive battle was fought in on the 23rd and 24th of June, 1314, between
the Scots, headed by King Robert the Bruce, and the English, headed by their
King Edward II (Longshanks son). The English were soundly defeated and Edward
barely escaped capture. The film Braveheart gave the impression that the Scots
only decided to fight instead of agreeing to humiliating English terms, at
the last moment. This is not the case. On the contrary, Bruce challenged the
English to meet him by mid-Summersday 1314, or Stirling castle (the last castle
in Scotland still to be garrisoned by English troops) would be taken. The
English marched north, in an attempt to save the castle.....and the rest follows:
Before the Battle, Bruce spent two months training his army. He wanted to make sure his forces were mobile, since immobility had proved the undoing of the Scottish army under Wallace at Falkirk. He organised his horsemen into a light cavalry of about 500 (who faced the 2000 heavily armoured English cavalry). There were 4 Scottish Divisions of foot soldiers, and a few archers from Ettrick Forest. It is claimed that the Camerons, Chisholms, Frasers, Gordons, Grants, Gunns, Mackays, Mackintoshes, Macphersons, Macquarries, Macleans, MacDonalds, MacFarlanes, MacGregors, MacKenzies, Menzies, Munros, Robertsons, Ross, Sinclairs, and Sutherlands were there.
They were determined as patriots to defend the Independence of Scotland under Bruce's great leadership. The fact that the Scottish nobles, knights, landowners and tenant farmers fought on foot together with their men made for a more cohesive force than the English army which was less democratic. Most of the English leaders were in the cavalry, leaving the infantry at a disadvantage. Bruce prepared the battle field by digging rows of camouflaged pits and laying calthrops to maim the cavalry horses.
On the 23rd June, lightly armed Scots numbering 7,000 faced an English army of 20,0000. The battle began. Bruce's army were drawn up in mighty 'shilterns' (like in Braveheart), to stop the cavalry charging at the undefended troops. The day passed without any real gains on either side. Bruce began to realise that he could lose this battle.
Battle of Dunbar
Combatants - Gaurdians of Scotland .v. King Edward I of England (longshanks)
Setting - Dunbar, Scotland
King John Balliol was placed on the throne in 1292. He was a weak King, but he was a King nonetheless, something Scotland hadn't had since 1286. Edward I of England, having already conquered Wales, set his eyes on Scotland. In 1296, he marched North with an army of 30,000 infantry and 5000 cavalry. He invaded Scotland.
He first arrived at Berwick, Scotland's main trading town. He sacked the town, mercilessly killing practically the whole town's population. He then marched to Dunbar and defeated a Scots army sent to meet him. Scotland was now in Edward's hands. He marched to Scone (pro. scoon) and removed the famous 'Stone of Destiny' and removed it to Westminster Abbey, where it remained for 700 years - being returned only recently. He asserted hi domination by touring scotland, removing relics that were special to Scotland, and subduing uprisings. Edinburgh castle was garrisoned with English troops for the first time in it's history.
Combatants - Sir William Wallace (Gaurdian of Scotland) .v. King Edward I of England
Setting - Falkirk, Scotland
Wallace's victory at Stirling, he was knighted and given the title 'Gaurdian
of Scotland'. Edward I, on the other hand, was in Flanders, hoping to secure
new land for the English crown. On hearing of the defeat of his entire northern
army, he headed home.He then marched north with 87,500 troops. Wallace could
only muster about one third of that. When Edward arrived in Kirkliston, he
considered retreating after he saw the lothians had become a desert. However,
two Scottish knights sent a message to him, betrying Wallace's whereabouts.
The following day, Edward's army rode to Falkirk where they attacked the Scots.
The Scottish knights also betrayed Wallace, turning and riding from the field
at the vital moment. Like most of the Scottish nobles, they would rather have
fought for the English where they believed chivalry was best served.
The Scots army suffered severe slaughter. The retreating body of Wallace's men was too small to hold Stirling and had to pass it by. There was little gain in Edward's victory, but he had defeated Wallace. On the banks of the River Forth, Wallace sadly renounced his gaurdianship. He was now an outlaw again.
Battle of Loudon Hill
Combatants - King Robert the Bruce .v. King Edward I of England
Setting - Loudon, Scotland
Wallace's execution in 1305, there was little hope for Scotland. Edward was
making the final plans to merge Scotland into England. Edward was an old man
though, and would not last much longer. In 1306, something happened that tore
the very heart out of Edwards plan's. On the 27th March, 1306, Robert the
Bruce, Earl of Carrick, and claiment to the throne of Scotland, crowned himself
at Scone. As you can imagine, Edward I was outraged and immediatly headed
north to topple King Robert. At Loudon hill, King Robert met his first defeat.
He was now an outlaw, forced to seek shelter wherever he could. Hardly befiting
for a King.
Scotland would have been finished then and there if it wasn't for the greatest stroke of luck ever to happen to Scotland. On 7th July 1307, Edward marched north for the last time, his aim - to seek out Robert the Bruce. Thankfully, as he was just about to cross the border, he collapsed and died. If this hadn't of happened, then it is probable to conclude that Scotland would no have existed today.
Edward was replaced by his much weaker son (Edward II) who had no interest whatsoever of continuing the campaign in Scotland. The army returned home, and King Robert came out of hiding.
Battle of Stirling Bridge
- 11th September 1297
Combatants - William Wallace of Elderslie .v. Earl of Surrey (commander-in-chief of Scotland under Edward I)
Setting - Royal Burgh of Stirling, Scotland
First of all. Forget everything you've seen in Braveheart. Wallace's victory was not in a field, it was over a bridge - Stirling Bridge. This is the real account of what happened at the battle. This is quite a long report, so I've highlighted a few main point if you don't want to read the whole thing.
many of his Barons hostile, Edward was desperately trying to raise an army
to use against France. This situation left him with no troops to send north
against the Scots. He therefore decided to release several of the Scottish
nobles he had been keeping prisoner since Dunbar. Among them were Alexander
Comyn and the Earl of Buchan, who were released on the condition that they
quell the disturbances.
When the nobles arrived north, they found the situation far worse then they had been told. They sent various letters to King Edward expressing their loyalty and hopes of success. In the meantime they actually did nothing and waited to see how matters turned out. They also made no effort to prevent their retainers from joining the rebels.
Wallace and Moray had not been idle. By the end of August they had captured Inverness, Elgin, Nabff, Aberdeen, Irvine, Fife and Dundee. The entire country of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, was in Scottish hands.
Finally, the Earl of Surray, Edwards Viceroy in Scotland, decided he should do something. He was an elderly soldier who had learned over the years that hundreds of foot soldiers could be scattered by just a few mounted knights. He was convinced that with most of the Scottish nobility and therefore their knights either on the sidelines, in prison, or in the service of Edward, that he could wipe out the commoners of Wallace and Moray with ease. Gathering a large host of heavy horse and foot soldiers, he marched towards Sterling, which was they key to crossing the Forth, and therefore, the key to the North.
On hearing of this approach, Moray and Wallace joined forces and moved south to meet him and defend Stirling. Overlooking a loop in the Forth river, which was crossed only by a single bridge, was an abrupt rock called Abbey Craig, from which a small neck of ground led back to give safe retreat. Below the northern end of the bridge was an area of boggey ground almost entirely encircled by the forth. The Scots deployed their men upon the crag.
The English were camped on the south side of the river. As no army of foot soldiers had ever prevailed against a large force of heavy cavalry, they were extremely self confident.
James Stewart and the Earl of Lennox were hovering on the outskirts with a troop of cavalry, uncertain weather to join Moray and Wallace. They didn't feel the Scots had much of a chance and were hesitant to risk their force. In an effort to prevent the annihilation of the countrymen, they approached the the Earl of Surray with the suggestion that they initiate a parlay. The earl agreed but Wallace and Moray refused. Two Dominican friars were then dispatched to Moray and Wallace with offers of generous treatment if they would yield. "Tell your commander", Wallace replied, "that we are not here to make peace but to do battle to defend ourselves and liberate out kingdom. Let them come and we shall prove this in their very beards."
At dawn on September 11, a party of English foot soldiers were sent over the narrow bridge but were recalled because the Earl had overslept. Hugh de Cressingham was fuming with impatience. He urged that no more time be wasted and the earl gave him the order to cross. He arrogantly led his cavalry across the bridge two by two.
When approximately half of his force had crossed the bridge, Wallace and Moray gave the signal to attack. The main force of the Scots fell upon the leading ranks on the causeway that lead from the bridge to the more solid ground some distance from the bridge. A hand picked detachment seized the bridgehead and began to cut away its timbers. Jostled from the causeway, the heavy horses of the armored knights plunged into the deep mire on either side, unable to move or charge, throwing their riders to the ground.
Behind them the rest of the English army was powerless to help as the bridge was now destroyed. A massacre now took place. Hugh de Cressingham was flayed and pieces of his skin were sent throughout the country as tokens of defiance. Legend has it that Wallace had a baldrick made from a large piece of it.
The Earl of Surray had not crossed the bridge, aghast at the carnage, he fled straight to the border. The foot soldiers and the baggage trains were not as fortunate. As they retreated, James Stewart and the Earl of Lennox, who were lurking in the woods on either side until they saw the outcome, fell upon the fleeing groups.
The effect was immediate, for the first time, commoners had defeated mounted knights. The dissenting barons were so shocked that immediately patched up their disagreements with the King.
MEL GIBSON was born in upstate New York and moved with his family to Australia when he was 12 years old. Gibson visited the National Institute of Dramatic Arts at the University of New South Wales in Sydney. His stage appearances include "Death of a Salesman." Gibson was brought to the attention of director George Miller who cast him in "Mad Max," the film that first brought him worldwide recognition. This was followed by the title role in "Tim". Gibson's portrayal of a handicapped young man made him win the Australian Film Institute Best Actor Award. He was further established as an international star by the two hit sequels to "Mad Max" "The Road Warrior" and "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome" along with Peter Weir's "Gallipoli," which brought Gibson a second Australian Best Actor Award. A few years later, Weir and Gibson again collaborated on "The Year of Living Dangerously". Gibson made his American film debut in "The River". He starred in another popular trilogy with the high-grossing "Lethal Weapon" film series. Gibson's other films include "The Bounty", "Mrs. Soffel", "Tequila Sunrise", "Bird on a Wire" and "Air America". When Gibson starred in "Hamlet" directed by Franco Zeffirelli, the film was the first to be produced by Gibson's production company Icon Productions. The role brought him the William Shakespeare Award of the Folger Theatre in Washington, D.C. Icon also produced, with Mel Gibson starring, "Forever Young" and "Maverick.
Real Name: Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson
Profile: Actor, Director, Producer
Birth date: January 3, 1956
Birthplace: Peekskill, NY, USA
Sign: Sun in Capricorn, Moon in Virgo
Education: National Institute of Dramatic Arts, Sydney, Australia
Relations: Wife: Robyn Moore; Children: Hannah, Edward, Christian, William, Louis, Milo
Awards for Braveheart
Academy Awards, USA 1996, Best Director
Academy Awards, USA 1996, Best Picture
Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards, 1996, Best Director
Golden Globes, 1996, Best Director
National Board of Review, 1995, special Achievement in Filmmaking
ShoWest Convention, USA 1996, Director of the Year
SOPHIE MARCEAU was making her starring debut in an English language film after starring in films produced in her native France. Marceau became an actress by chance when she was 13 years old. After being unable to find a holiday job as a young girl, she borrowed money to have Photographs made of herself and found representation at a talent agency. After several months, she was asked to test for the lead role in a film that was to become a big hit and make her a star. The film was "La Boum," which was folowed with "La Boum 2". For the latter film, she received a Cesar award for female revelation of the year. Marceau went on to star with Gerard Depardieu and Catherine Deneuve in "Fort Saganne", which was followed by "Joyeuses Paques" and "Police", again with Depardieu. She has acted in three films directed by Andrzej Zulawski: "L'Amour Braque", "Mes Nuits Sont plus BelIes que Vos Jours" and "La Note Bleue". In 1992 she starred in "La Fille de D'Artagnan" directed by Bertrand Tavernier.
King Edward I
PATRICK McGOOHAN has appeared in such films as "Of Pure Blood", "Brass Target". "Jamaica Inn" (1985), "Baby...Secret of the Lost Legend", "Escape From Alcatraz", "The Man in the Iron Mask", "Silver Streak", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Ice Station Zebra", "The Three Lives of Thomasina", "All Night Long" (1963) and "The Dam Busters". McGoohan was born in New York and lived in Sheffield, England to work in a variety of occupations before becoming a stage manager and then actor. He has appeared in 180 stage productions, including the Orson Welles production of "Moby Dick" in London's West End and Hugh Whitemore's "Pack of Lies" on Broadway. McGoohan became a household name in the United Kingdom when he starred in 96 episodes of "Danger Man" on television (the series were titled "Secret Agent" in the U.S.) and then created and starred in the classic series "The Prisoner", which he executive produced. He also wrote and directed eight of the famous 17 "The Prisoner" episodes. His American television appearances include the series of "Rafferty". He has also written, directed and starred in numerous "Columbo" specials.
CATHERINE McCORMACK made her motion picture acting debut in "Bloody Weekend" directed by Anna Campion. She has appeared on British television in "Inspector Wycliffe" and "Strawberry Vale." Of Scottish ancestry, McCormack was born and raised in Alton, Hampshire, England. She trained at the Oxford School of Drama where she acted in productions of such plays as "The Cherry Orchard," "Arabian Nights" and 'Betrayal."
BRENDAN GLEESON has appeared in "The Snapper", "Far and Away", "The Field" and "Conneely's Choice". His U.K. television appearances include "Love Lies Bleeding", "The Hamster Wheel", "The Bargain Shop", "In The Border Country", "The Treaty" and "Passion Plays." Gleeson was born and raised in Dublin, Ireland. A prolific theatre actor since 1987, Gleeson got a Jacobs Award for "The Treaty" in 1992. Some of his recent stage appearances include "The Man from Clare" and "Juno and the Paycock" at the Gaiety Theatre and "Pilgrims" at the Project Arts Theatre. "Juno and the Paycock" was also staged in Chicago. Gleeson is also a fiddle player and playwrighter whose plays include "Babies and Bathwater," which will be performed by the BBC Radio Belfast.
JAMES COSMO has appeared in "Black Beauty", "The Fool", "Treasure Island", "Highlander", "Assault", "Young Winston", "Virgin Soldiers" and "Battle of Britain". He has appeared in more than 30 U.K. television productions, including a regular role in the hit series "Roughnecks". His other TV appearances include "Sinbin", "House of Elliot", "Between The Lines", "The Window Cleaner", "Saracen", "Sweeney" and "Winners and Losers". Cosmo was born in Scotland and now resides in London.
DAVID O'HARA starred in "Comfort and Joy", "Link", "Fellow Travellers" and "The Bridge". His U.K. television appearances include "Young Man in a Hurry", "The Monocled Mutineer", "Taggart", "Full Stretch" and "Grushko". Although O'Hara was born and brought up in Scotland, his great grandfather was Irish. As a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Stratford-upon Avon, he appeared in "Taming of the Shrew", "Romeo and Juliet" and "Cymbeline".
Robert the Bruce
ANGUS McFADYEN is making his motion picture acting debut in "Braveheart." His U.K. television appearances include "Making Waves", "The Lost Language of Cranes", "Soldier, Soldier", "God of Happiness" and "Care". Raised in France, McFadyen is a graduate of the University of Edinburgh and studied acting at the Central School of Speech and Drama. His theatre credits include "The Tempest, Cloud Nine" and "The lmmortals" for the Edinburgh Fringe Theatre. He is also a play writer whose "1905" was honoured with the 1991 Questors Student Playing Award.
PETER HANLY is making his motion picture debut in "Braveheart". Hanly began acting with the Dublin Youth Theatre and later joined the Theatre Unlimited. Since then, his stage appearances have included "Field Day" at the Hampstead Theatre, "The Breadman" at the Gate Theatre and "The Ash Fire" at the Tricycle Theatre." He has also performed for television and radio in Ireland. His TV appearances include RTE's "The Truth About Claire". | <urn:uuid:78d03d43-f08e-41c3-a6c4-19144b4f7130> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.uni-due.de/~lan500/movies/braveheart/content/williamwallace.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.986946 | 7,345 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.0144649... | 2 | William Wallace was born as a son of a small landowner and a Scottish knight
near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland.
1291: His father Malcolm was killed in a fight with English troops
May 1297: William avenged his father's death with more than 30 men by killing the responsible knight and some of his soldiers. He became a local military leader and the king's enemy.
September 11, 1297: William Wallace and his army defeated the English army under John de Warenne near Stirling. Over 5000 English soldiers were killed.
December 1297: He had become Sir William Wallace
July 22, 1298: Wallace's military reputation was ruined by Edward's 90.000 men strong army near Falkirk. As many as 10.000 Scots may have been killed.
August 5, 1305: Wallace was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. He was taken to London and got the status of a captured soldier.
August 23, 1305: William Wallace was executed in an extremely brutally way. He had never sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward.
Wallace is one of Scotland´s greatest national heroes. He was the leader
of the Scottish resistance forces during the first years of the long and finally
successful struggle to free Scotland from English rule at the end of the 13th
century. Records of Wallace´s life are very irregular and often not
correct. This is why narrations of his heroic actions are speculative. Partly
because he caused such fear in the minds of English people and writers at
the time, they demonised him and his motives.
For obvious reasons the Scottish writers exaggerated a little with their records. That is why there are some differences between the Hollywood film and the historical records.
Wallace was born around 1270, near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland. His father was Sir Malcolm Wallace, a small landowner and a Scottish knight. His mother was the daughter of Sir Hugh Crawford, Sheriff of Ayr. William also had an older brother, called Malcolm. As he was the second son, he did not inherit his father´s titles or land.
There is no real information about W. W´s early life. He is said to have spent his childhood at Dunipace, near Stirling, under the supervision of his uncle. At this time he was trained in the martial arts, including horse - and swordmanship. Chroniclers say that W. was a large, powerful man. He was more than six and a half feet high ( nearly two meters ).
By this time, in 1290, the Scottish nobility at the throne plotted against each other. At the same time English troops, including Welsh and Irish conscripts, worked freely everywhere in Scotland. Civilian life wasn't safe. During this era of lawlessness, W. W´s father was killed in a fight with English troops in 1291. It is probable that his father's death led to Wallace's attitude to fight for his nation's independence. This is a big difference to the Hollywood film, in which his father was killed, when he was a young boy. The release for his attitude was the death of his wife Murron. However, not much is known about Wallace's life during this period. He lived the life of an outlaw, moving constantly to avoid the English and fighting against them with characteristic ferocity. Wallace killed several local rebels and began his systematic attack on the English. In May 1297, with more than 30 men, he took revenge on his father's death by killing the responsible knight and some of his soldiers. By this time Wallace had become a local military leader and the king's enemy.
On September 11, 1297, the English army under John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey confronted W. W. and his army near Stirling. It had been a great victory for the Scottish and W. W. over the English, who lost over 5000 soldiers. William had not only shown that he was a characteristic leader and warrior, but also that he had a lot of tactical military talent. Never before had a Scottish army triumphed over an English army. In October of 1296, Wallace invaded northern England and conquered the counties of Northumberland and Cumberland.
In the same year he had become Sir William Wallace. On July 22, 1298, Edward's 90.000 men strong army attacked a much smaller Scottish force led by Wallace near Falkirk. The English army was at a technological advantage. Consequently the Scottish had no chance to win this battle and as many as 10.000 Scots may have been killed. Wallace's military reputation was destroyed. He was succeeded as guard of the kingdom by Robert the Bruce and Sir John Comyn.
On August 5, 1305 W. was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. In the Hollywood movie, this fact is left out. He was taken to London and got the status of a caught soldier. He had never sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward. On the 23rd of August 1305 he was executed. After William Wallace was beheaded, his body was torn to pieces. His head was impaled and shown to the crowd on the top of the London Bridge. His arms and legs were send to the four cardinal points of Britain. His right arm was impaled at Newcastle, his left arm at Berwick, his right leg at Perth, and the left leg at Aberdeen. Wallace's execution had not the effect Edward might have believed. He thought that he could break the spirit of the Scots, but he was wrong. By executing the popular Scottish military leader so brutally, Edward enforced the Scottish people's wish for freedom.
Today there are several Scottish monuments of their hero: one at Edinburgh Castle, on one side of the entrance; one in Lanark, in a niche above the door of the current church facing High Street; and the most famous, in Stirling, at the National Wallace Monument. William Wallace lives on in the imagination of Scotland.
William Wallace's legendary speech before the battle of Stirling:
fight and you may die.
Run, and you'll live. At least a while.
And dying in your beds many years from now,
would you be willing to trade all the days,
from this day to that, for one chance,
just one chance,
to come back here and tell our enemies
that they may take our lives,
but they'll never take our
Wallace was the greatest hero in Scotland's history. He lived over seven centuries
ago, but he is still a symbol of Scottish independence.
Wallace was born around 1270, probably near Ellerslie, in Ayrshire, Scotland. His father was Sir Malcolm Wallace, a small landowner and a Scottish knight. William was the second of three sons. He had spent his childhood at Dunipace, near Stirling, under the supervision of his uncle, who was a priest.
His father Malcolm was killed in a fight with English troops in 1291. The death of his father marked the beginning of William's attitude to fight for his nation's independence. Six years later, in May 1297, he avenged his fathers death by killing the responsible sheriff and some of his soldiers. From then on, William Wallace was the undisputed leader of the Scottish fight for independence. By 1297, he controlled much of Scotland. His battles were the stuff of legends. Wallace's army was able to defeat the English army at Stirling Bridge. This great victory drove the English out of Scotland.
On August 5, 1305 William Wallace was led by a Scottish knight in service to the English king, and arrested near Glasgow. He was taken to trial in London, where he was convicted of treason against the king and brutally executed.
Like William Wallace,
Robert the Bruce was one of the greatest hero's in Scotland's history. As
the king of Scotland he achieved the almost impossible dream of William Wallace
for Scottish independence.
Robert was born in 1274. His grandfather claimed the throne in 1292 when John Balliol was selected king of Scotland. The Bruce was a popular Lord, who was very uncertain with reference to his changing loyalty. He had first sworn the oath of allegiance to Edward I, but as he saw that Wallace's revolt was successful, he pledged his loyalty back to Scotland.
In 1306, after Wallace's brutal execution, he was crowned king of Scotland. Impressed by William Wallace he was struck with an undying patriotism. As king of Scotland, he was expected to take Wallace's place to fight for freedom. He led several attacks with little success on England. Edward I had defeated most of his armies. After Edward's death The Bruce attacked again.
On 24th June 1314, with an army half the size of the attacking King Edward II, Robert the Bruce defeated the English army at Bannockburn. This was the greatest victory ever in the Scottish history. From this day on, Robert the Bruce was a national hero.
In 1328, The Bruce and Scotland got their wish. The Edinburgh-Northampton treaty gave Scotland the independence.
One year later, on June 7, 1329; King Robert the Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy.
I reigned in England from 1272-1307. Many Englishmen recognized him as a great
king. For obvious reasons the Scottish and Welsh do not really agree with
the English; he was constantly concentrated on subduing Scotland and Wales.
Chroniclers say that he was a handsome man. He was also very tall. Because of his long legs, he got the nickname "Longshanks". He married Eleanor of Castile at an early age. He loved her so much that when she died in 1290 in Wales, he had erected a cross at each site where her body was set down during the journey back to London. Those crosses were called "dear queen" crosses.
It is said that he had a cruel streak. Maybe the death of his wife contributed to this streak. But even though he had such character faults. He was a very strong ruler, who strengthened the authority of the English monarchy. Edward made advantages for England in France and Wales; he tried to subdue Scotland as well, but in Scotland he was not so fortunate like in Wales, where he assigned the royal lands to the future of his son Edward II, who became the first Prince of Wales.
He was still having war against the Scottish when he died in 1307 ( two years after Wallace's execution ). However, his obsession with oppressing the Scottish earned him the nickname "Hammer of the Scots" ( Scotorum malleus ) that someone carved after his death on his tomb.
II, the first Prince of Wales, was a very tragic and weak figure. He inherited
many problems from his father's reign, which were furthered by his weakness
as king, he was betrayed by his nobles, and eventually murdered by his wife
Queen Isabella in 1327. He was born in Wales in 1284. The young prince was
raised under the domination of his mother, before she died in 1290. He suffered
very much on the death of her. He had no surviving brothers and his father
was not often at home. When his father was there, he was known to have vent
his anger on his son. Some chroniclers think that this caused Edward to
become very reliant upon his friends, especially Piers Gaveston ( perhaps
the model for his friend ( lover ) Philip in the film ) and the Despensers.
His father did not like his friends, nor did he trust him. Because of that he had not given him a lot of opportunities to get some experiences in governing. Therefore, he wasn't versed enough, when he started ruling his kingdom. Then he lost the reign over Scotland, when the Scottish triumphed at Bannockburn in 1314. This was a very big defeat to his reputation. After Bannockburn, the English nobles were so angry with Edward, that they started a rebellion against him under the leadership of the earl of Lancaster. Edward and his new friends, the Dispensers, were able to fight back and to win this civil war ( 1321 ). He executed Lancaster for this rebellion.
Despite his success to defend his crown, he continued angering his nobles. His weakness as king was too big. Like shown in the film, Edward II was allegedly homosexual. His lover ( Piers Gaveston ), was
killed by his nobles some years after Edward I's death.
Isabella, also known as "The She-Wolf of France", married Prince
Edward, later Edward II, when she was 16. This marriage was arranged in the
interest of politics by Edward I. That is why they were quite unhappy with
each other. Like seen in the film, Edward II was seemingly homosexual, and
he spent most of his time with Piers Gaveston ( Philip ).
A few years later Isabella did bear her husband a son, the future Edward III, but Edward II's nobles hadn't believed that the child was his. However, Braveheart's representation that William Wallace is Edward III's father is impossible. There is no historical evidence that the Princess and Wallace have ever met. Edward III was born seven years after Wallace's death.
As Edwards ruling problems grew and his nobles were more and more disgusted with him, Isabella further alienated herself from her husband. Eventually she fled to France, taking her son with her. In 1327, when her husband was at his lowest point with his nobles, Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer invaded England and captured Edward. He was hold as prisoner for a few month and then murdered. It is likely, that his wife murdered him. For a time Isabella kept some power after her husband's death. Once her son was crowned Edward III, she sank into the background.
The character of Murron is also based on a true historical figure. Only the name was changed. Her real name was Marion Braidfoot. She was William Wallace's wife. They were married in secret, because William didn't want to share her with an English Lord ( ius prime nocte ). The Sheriff of Lanark murdered her, in order to arrest Wallace, because of his force against the English. In the Hollywood film, Wallace was first shown as a peaceful man, who wanted to have a family. Then he was forced to fight, by killing his wife very brutally. This was the release for his attitude to fight for his nation's independence. In reality he was already fighting against the English when Marion ( Murron ) was murdered. There are almost no other information about Marion Braidfoot.
- 23rd and 24th June 1314
Combatants - King Robert the Bruce of Scotland .v. King Edward II of England
Setting - Bannockburn, - Stirling, Scotland
decisive battle was fought in on the 23rd and 24th of June, 1314, between
the Scots, headed by King Robert the Bruce, and the English, headed by their
King Edward II (Longshanks son). The English were soundly defeated and Edward
barely escaped capture. The film Braveheart gave the impression that the Scots
only decided to fight instead of agreeing to humiliating English terms, at
the last moment. This is not the case. On the contrary, Bruce challenged the
English to meet him by mid-Summersday 1314, or Stirling castle (the last castle
in Scotland still to be garrisoned by English troops) would be taken. The
English marched north, in an attempt to save the castle.....and the rest follows:
Before the Battle, Bruce spent two months training his army. He wanted to make sure his forces were mobile, since immobility had proved the undoing of the Scottish army under Wallace at Falkirk. He organised his horsemen into a light cavalry of about 500 (who faced the 2000 heavily armoured English cavalry). There were 4 Scottish Divisions of foot soldiers, and a few archers from Ettrick Forest. It is claimed that the Camerons, Chisholms, Frasers, Gordons, Grants, Gunns, Mackays, Mackintoshes, Macphersons, Macquarries, Macleans, MacDonalds, MacFarlanes, MacGregors, MacKenzies, Menzies, Munros, Robertsons, Ross, Sinclairs, and Sutherlands were there.
They were determined as patriots to defend the Independence of Scotland under Bruce's great leadership. The fact that the Scottish nobles, knights, landowners and tenant farmers fought on foot together with their men made for a more cohesive force than the English army which was less democratic. Most of the English leaders were in the cavalry, leaving the infantry at a disadvantage. Bruce prepared the battle field by digging rows of camouflaged pits and laying calthrops to maim the cavalry horses.
On the 23rd June, lightly armed Scots numbering 7,000 faced an English army of 20,0000. The battle began. Bruce's army were drawn up in mighty 'shilterns' (like in Braveheart), to stop the cavalry charging at the undefended troops. The day passed without any real gains on either side. Bruce began to realise that he could lose this battle.
Battle of Dunbar
Combatants - Gaurdians of Scotland .v. King Edward I of England (longshanks)
Setting - Dunbar, Scotland
King John Balliol was placed on the throne in 1292. He was a weak King, but he was a King nonetheless, something Scotland hadn't had since 1286. Edward I of England, having already conquered Wales, set his eyes on Scotland. In 1296, he marched North with an army of 30,000 infantry and 5000 cavalry. He invaded Scotland.
He first arrived at Berwick, Scotland's main trading town. He sacked the town, mercilessly killing practically the whole town's population. He then marched to Dunbar and defeated a Scots army sent to meet him. Scotland was now in Edward's hands. He marched to Scone (pro. scoon) and removed the famous 'Stone of Destiny' and removed it to Westminster Abbey, where it remained for 700 years - being returned only recently. He asserted hi domination by touring scotland, removing relics that were special to Scotland, and subduing uprisings. Edinburgh castle was garrisoned with English troops for the first time in it's history.
Combatants - Sir William Wallace (Gaurdian of Scotland) .v. King Edward I of England
Setting - Falkirk, Scotland
Wallace's victory at Stirling, he was knighted and given the title 'Gaurdian
of Scotland'. Edward I, on the other hand, was in Flanders, hoping to secure
new land for the English crown. On hearing of the defeat of his entire northern
army, he headed home.He then marched north with 87,500 troops. Wallace could
only muster about one third of that. When Edward arrived in Kirkliston, he
considered retreating after he saw the lothians had become a desert. However,
two Scottish knights sent a message to him, betrying Wallace's whereabouts.
The following day, Edward's army rode to Falkirk where they attacked the Scots.
The Scottish knights also betrayed Wallace, turning and riding from the field
at the vital moment. Like most of the Scottish nobles, they would rather have
fought for the English where they believed chivalry was best served.
The Scots army suffered severe slaughter. The retreating body of Wallace's men was too small to hold Stirling and had to pass it by. There was little gain in Edward's victory, but he had defeated Wallace. On the banks of the River Forth, Wallace sadly renounced his gaurdianship. He was now an outlaw again.
Battle of Loudon Hill
Combatants - King Robert the Bruce .v. King Edward I of England
Setting - Loudon, Scotland
Wallace's execution in 1305, there was little hope for Scotland. Edward was
making the final plans to merge Scotland into England. Edward was an old man
though, and would not last much longer. In 1306, something happened that tore
the very heart out of Edwards plan's. On the 27th March, 1306, Robert the
Bruce, Earl of Carrick, and claiment to the throne of Scotland, crowned himself
at Scone. As you can imagine, Edward I was outraged and immediatly headed
north to topple King Robert. At Loudon hill, King Robert met his first defeat.
He was now an outlaw, forced to seek shelter wherever he could. Hardly befiting
for a King.
Scotland would have been finished then and there if it wasn't for the greatest stroke of luck ever to happen to Scotland. On 7th July 1307, Edward marched north for the last time, his aim - to seek out Robert the Bruce. Thankfully, as he was just about to cross the border, he collapsed and died. If this hadn't of happened, then it is probable to conclude that Scotland would no have existed today.
Edward was replaced by his much weaker son (Edward II) who had no interest whatsoever of continuing the campaign in Scotland. The army returned home, and King Robert came out of hiding.
Battle of Stirling Bridge
- 11th September 1297
Combatants - William Wallace of Elderslie .v. Earl of Surrey (commander-in-chief of Scotland under Edward I)
Setting - Royal Burgh of Stirling, Scotland
First of all. Forget everything you've seen in Braveheart. Wallace's victory was not in a field, it was over a bridge - Stirling Bridge. This is the real account of what happened at the battle. This is quite a long report, so I've highlighted a few main point if you don't want to read the whole thing.
many of his Barons hostile, Edward was desperately trying to raise an army
to use against France. This situation left him with no troops to send north
against the Scots. He therefore decided to release several of the Scottish
nobles he had been keeping prisoner since Dunbar. Among them were Alexander
Comyn and the Earl of Buchan, who were released on the condition that they
quell the disturbances.
When the nobles arrived north, they found the situation far worse then they had been told. They sent various letters to King Edward expressing their loyalty and hopes of success. In the meantime they actually did nothing and waited to see how matters turned out. They also made no effort to prevent their retainers from joining the rebels.
Wallace and Moray had not been idle. By the end of August they had captured Inverness, Elgin, Nabff, Aberdeen, Irvine, Fife and Dundee. The entire country of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, was in Scottish hands.
Finally, the Earl of Surray, Edwards Viceroy in Scotland, decided he should do something. He was an elderly soldier who had learned over the years that hundreds of foot soldiers could be scattered by just a few mounted knights. He was convinced that with most of the Scottish nobility and therefore their knights either on the sidelines, in prison, or in the service of Edward, that he could wipe out the commoners of Wallace and Moray with ease. Gathering a large host of heavy horse and foot soldiers, he marched towards Sterling, which was they key to crossing the Forth, and therefore, the key to the North.
On hearing of this approach, Moray and Wallace joined forces and moved south to meet him and defend Stirling. Overlooking a loop in the Forth river, which was crossed only by a single bridge, was an abrupt rock called Abbey Craig, from which a small neck of ground led back to give safe retreat. Below the northern end of the bridge was an area of boggey ground almost entirely encircled by the forth. The Scots deployed their men upon the crag.
The English were camped on the south side of the river. As no army of foot soldiers had ever prevailed against a large force of heavy cavalry, they were extremely self confident.
James Stewart and the Earl of Lennox were hovering on the outskirts with a troop of cavalry, uncertain weather to join Moray and Wallace. They didn't feel the Scots had much of a chance and were hesitant to risk their force. In an effort to prevent the annihilation of the countrymen, they approached the the Earl of Surray with the suggestion that they initiate a parlay. The earl agreed but Wallace and Moray refused. Two Dominican friars were then dispatched to Moray and Wallace with offers of generous treatment if they would yield. "Tell your commander", Wallace replied, "that we are not here to make peace but to do battle to defend ourselves and liberate out kingdom. Let them come and we shall prove this in their very beards."
At dawn on September 11, a party of English foot soldiers were sent over the narrow bridge but were recalled because the Earl had overslept. Hugh de Cressingham was fuming with impatience. He urged that no more time be wasted and the earl gave him the order to cross. He arrogantly led his cavalry across the bridge two by two.
When approximately half of his force had crossed the bridge, Wallace and Moray gave the signal to attack. The main force of the Scots fell upon the leading ranks on the causeway that lead from the bridge to the more solid ground some distance from the bridge. A hand picked detachment seized the bridgehead and began to cut away its timbers. Jostled from the causeway, the heavy horses of the armored knights plunged into the deep mire on either side, unable to move or charge, throwing their riders to the ground.
Behind them the rest of the English army was powerless to help as the bridge was now destroyed. A massacre now took place. Hugh de Cressingham was flayed and pieces of his skin were sent throughout the country as tokens of defiance. Legend has it that Wallace had a baldrick made from a large piece of it.
The Earl of Surray had not crossed the bridge, aghast at the carnage, he fled straight to the border. The foot soldiers and the baggage trains were not as fortunate. As they retreated, James Stewart and the Earl of Lennox, who were lurking in the woods on either side until they saw the outcome, fell upon the fleeing groups.
The effect was immediate, for the first time, commoners had defeated mounted knights. The dissenting barons were so shocked that immediately patched up their disagreements with the King.
MEL GIBSON was born in upstate New York and moved with his family to Australia when he was 12 years old. Gibson visited the National Institute of Dramatic Arts at the University of New South Wales in Sydney. His stage appearances include "Death of a Salesman." Gibson was brought to the attention of director George Miller who cast him in "Mad Max," the film that first brought him worldwide recognition. This was followed by the title role in "Tim". Gibson's portrayal of a handicapped young man made him win the Australian Film Institute Best Actor Award. He was further established as an international star by the two hit sequels to "Mad Max" "The Road Warrior" and "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome" along with Peter Weir's "Gallipoli," which brought Gibson a second Australian Best Actor Award. A few years later, Weir and Gibson again collaborated on "The Year of Living Dangerously". Gibson made his American film debut in "The River". He starred in another popular trilogy with the high-grossing "Lethal Weapon" film series. Gibson's other films include "The Bounty", "Mrs. Soffel", "Tequila Sunrise", "Bird on a Wire" and "Air America". When Gibson starred in "Hamlet" directed by Franco Zeffirelli, the film was the first to be produced by Gibson's production company Icon Productions. The role brought him the William Shakespeare Award of the Folger Theatre in Washington, D.C. Icon also produced, with Mel Gibson starring, "Forever Young" and "Maverick.
Real Name: Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson
Profile: Actor, Director, Producer
Birth date: January 3, 1956
Birthplace: Peekskill, NY, USA
Sign: Sun in Capricorn, Moon in Virgo
Education: National Institute of Dramatic Arts, Sydney, Australia
Relations: Wife: Robyn Moore; Children: Hannah, Edward, Christian, William, Louis, Milo
Awards for Braveheart
Academy Awards, USA 1996, Best Director
Academy Awards, USA 1996, Best Picture
Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards, 1996, Best Director
Golden Globes, 1996, Best Director
National Board of Review, 1995, special Achievement in Filmmaking
ShoWest Convention, USA 1996, Director of the Year
SOPHIE MARCEAU was making her starring debut in an English language film after starring in films produced in her native France. Marceau became an actress by chance when she was 13 years old. After being unable to find a holiday job as a young girl, she borrowed money to have Photographs made of herself and found representation at a talent agency. After several months, she was asked to test for the lead role in a film that was to become a big hit and make her a star. The film was "La Boum," which was folowed with "La Boum 2". For the latter film, she received a Cesar award for female revelation of the year. Marceau went on to star with Gerard Depardieu and Catherine Deneuve in "Fort Saganne", which was followed by "Joyeuses Paques" and "Police", again with Depardieu. She has acted in three films directed by Andrzej Zulawski: "L'Amour Braque", "Mes Nuits Sont plus BelIes que Vos Jours" and "La Note Bleue". In 1992 she starred in "La Fille de D'Artagnan" directed by Bertrand Tavernier.
King Edward I
PATRICK McGOOHAN has appeared in such films as "Of Pure Blood", "Brass Target". "Jamaica Inn" (1985), "Baby...Secret of the Lost Legend", "Escape From Alcatraz", "The Man in the Iron Mask", "Silver Streak", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Ice Station Zebra", "The Three Lives of Thomasina", "All Night Long" (1963) and "The Dam Busters". McGoohan was born in New York and lived in Sheffield, England to work in a variety of occupations before becoming a stage manager and then actor. He has appeared in 180 stage productions, including the Orson Welles production of "Moby Dick" in London's West End and Hugh Whitemore's "Pack of Lies" on Broadway. McGoohan became a household name in the United Kingdom when he starred in 96 episodes of "Danger Man" on television (the series were titled "Secret Agent" in the U.S.) and then created and starred in the classic series "The Prisoner", which he executive produced. He also wrote and directed eight of the famous 17 "The Prisoner" episodes. His American television appearances include the series of "Rafferty". He has also written, directed and starred in numerous "Columbo" specials.
CATHERINE McCORMACK made her motion picture acting debut in "Bloody Weekend" directed by Anna Campion. She has appeared on British television in "Inspector Wycliffe" and "Strawberry Vale." Of Scottish ancestry, McCormack was born and raised in Alton, Hampshire, England. She trained at the Oxford School of Drama where she acted in productions of such plays as "The Cherry Orchard," "Arabian Nights" and 'Betrayal."
BRENDAN GLEESON has appeared in "The Snapper", "Far and Away", "The Field" and "Conneely's Choice". His U.K. television appearances include "Love Lies Bleeding", "The Hamster Wheel", "The Bargain Shop", "In The Border Country", "The Treaty" and "Passion Plays." Gleeson was born and raised in Dublin, Ireland. A prolific theatre actor since 1987, Gleeson got a Jacobs Award for "The Treaty" in 1992. Some of his recent stage appearances include "The Man from Clare" and "Juno and the Paycock" at the Gaiety Theatre and "Pilgrims" at the Project Arts Theatre. "Juno and the Paycock" was also staged in Chicago. Gleeson is also a fiddle player and playwrighter whose plays include "Babies and Bathwater," which will be performed by the BBC Radio Belfast.
JAMES COSMO has appeared in "Black Beauty", "The Fool", "Treasure Island", "Highlander", "Assault", "Young Winston", "Virgin Soldiers" and "Battle of Britain". He has appeared in more than 30 U.K. television productions, including a regular role in the hit series "Roughnecks". His other TV appearances include "Sinbin", "House of Elliot", "Between The Lines", "The Window Cleaner", "Saracen", "Sweeney" and "Winners and Losers". Cosmo was born in Scotland and now resides in London.
DAVID O'HARA starred in "Comfort and Joy", "Link", "Fellow Travellers" and "The Bridge". His U.K. television appearances include "Young Man in a Hurry", "The Monocled Mutineer", "Taggart", "Full Stretch" and "Grushko". Although O'Hara was born and brought up in Scotland, his great grandfather was Irish. As a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Stratford-upon Avon, he appeared in "Taming of the Shrew", "Romeo and Juliet" and "Cymbeline".
Robert the Bruce
ANGUS McFADYEN is making his motion picture acting debut in "Braveheart." His U.K. television appearances include "Making Waves", "The Lost Language of Cranes", "Soldier, Soldier", "God of Happiness" and "Care". Raised in France, McFadyen is a graduate of the University of Edinburgh and studied acting at the Central School of Speech and Drama. His theatre credits include "The Tempest, Cloud Nine" and "The lmmortals" for the Edinburgh Fringe Theatre. He is also a play writer whose "1905" was honoured with the 1991 Questors Student Playing Award.
PETER HANLY is making his motion picture debut in "Braveheart". Hanly began acting with the Dublin Youth Theatre and later joined the Theatre Unlimited. Since then, his stage appearances have included "Field Day" at the Hampstead Theatre, "The Breadman" at the Gate Theatre and "The Ash Fire" at the Tricycle Theatre." He has also performed for television and radio in Ireland. His TV appearances include RTE's "The Truth About Claire". | 7,582 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Stratford-upon-Avon Canal is a canal in the south Midlands of England, it was built between 1793 and 1816 and runs for 25.5 miles in total consisting of two sections. The dividing line of the canal is at the Kingswood Junction which allows access to the Grand Union Canal. When a railway company purchased the canal in 1856 it gradually declined and the southern section became un-navigable by 1945 although the northern section was a little better.
The northern section of the canal was the setting for a high-profile campaign organised by the Inland Waterways Association in 1947, this campaign was created to allow the right of navigation under the Tunnel Lane Bridge which required the Great Western Railway to give it up so that it allowed the boats to pass. The actions taken by this campaign saved the section of the canal from closure and the National Trust restored the southern section between 1961 and 1964 after the attempt to close it was over ruled. The canal was reopened by Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother on 1st June 1974. The responsibility of the canal was transferred to British Waterways in 1988.
The Stratford-upon-Avon Canal was formed as part of a network of canals that would allow coal form the Dudley and Stourbridge Canals to reach Oxford and London without having to go through the Birmingham Canals in which the management was seen as overbearing. On March 28th 1793 an Act was passed for the construction of a canal from a junction with Worcester and Birmingham Canal in Kings Norton to Stratford-upon-Avon. The route of this would take it close to the Warwick and Birmingham Canal at Lapworth but the act did not include the direct connection with it or the River Avon at Stratford itself. It was in 1795 when negotiations started to connect the canals and a second act was obtained on May 19th 1795 to allow a connecting link to be built even though there were unfavourable terms imposed on the through traffic by any other company.
Josiah Clowes was the engineer employed for the construction and it began in November 1793 staring at the Kings Norton end of the canal. He also worked on Dudley Canal’s extension and another four canal systems at the same time which gave him the title of the first great tunnel engineer. Josiah Clowes died the following year but the work continued up until the main line reached Hockley Heath in the May of 1796 when it was one mile short of the first lock at Lapworth, as at this point cutting ceased because of a lack of money as the money raised had all been spent. The Dudley Canal extension running through the Lappal Tunnel was opened in early 1798.
With progress being made on the Warwick and Birmingham Canal the company got a third act of parliament on June 21st 1799 and this allowed it the raise more money and included a new route further east near Lapworth which meant that the length of the link connectin Birmingham and Warwick was only 200 yards. When work restarted in 1799 it was under a new engineer called Samuel Porter (who was a former assistant of Josiah Clowes) and he continued as far as the Kingswood Junction which was formally opened on May 24th 1802 and after this cutting again ceased.
The construction only recommenced again in 1812 with the leadership of William James of Stratford who had owned shares in the Company since 1793 and had a wide interest in turnpike roads and railways. Following a tour of the north of England between 1802 and 1804 (a tour he was on when he investigated railways and canals) he expanded his business interests to include coal mining. He became the chairman of the canal Company and in 1813 personally bought the Upper Avon Navigation. William James of Stratford wanted to create a through route between the River Severn and the Midlands so the company got a further act of parliament on May 12th 1815 and this authorised a connection between the canal and the Avon at Stratford-upon-Avon. The canal reach Stratford in June 1816 and the connection with the river was made. The total cost of the canal was around £297.000.
The south section of the canal never saw William James of Stratford’s ambitions as the Upper Avon was too dangerous and prone to flood to be a reliable route through. He had spent £6,000 on the improvements to the Upper Avon locks in 1822 but this drained his funds and he was declared bankrupt not long afterwards.
The traffic on the canals slowly built up although the tolls were low to offset the costs imposed on goods passing through Kingswood Junction to the Warwick and Birmingham Canal. On the south section coal was taken to Stratford where it was sold or taken along the Upper Avon or the Stratford to Morton Tramway.
In the late 1930’s the south section had become derelict but the water supply was maintained and the Great Western Railway (GWR) used it to supply its engine shed in Stratford. In the north section although it was never officially closed the traffic in the canal had virtually ceased by 1939. The section was blocked when the Tunnel Lane lift bridge (bridge no. 2) at Lifford became faulty was replaced by the railway company with a fixed bridge with an insufficient high for boats to pass. Because of this Lord Methuen raised the issue in the House of Lords in 1947 and was assured that the bridge “would be lifted at any time on notice of intended passage being given”
Ton Rolt (an English writer and the biographer) who was a founding member of the Inland Waterways Association announced that he intended to pass under the bridge on May 20th 1947. Despite difficulties because of the state of the canal and the fact that the accompanying boat provided by the GWR got stuck the bridge was reached and it had been jacked up and was resting on heavy timbers. Robert Aickman who was another of the founders of the organisation had organised press coverage and the story was reported in the national newspapers and other members were then encouraged to use the route.
In 1950 the bridge that had become known as Lifford Bridge was replaced with a working swing bridge and the northern section was saved. The bridge has now been removed altogether.
The southern section of the canal was un-navigable by canal boats by the 1950’s as some of the locks could not be operated and a few of the small ponds between the locks were dry. Some problems with a bridge also began the process of restoring the section of the canal. In 1958 Warwickshire County Council sought to obtain the legal abandonment of the canal as they wanted to replace bridge 59 at Wilmcote without the expense of providing passable headroom. The inland Waterways Association and local activists began a campaign against this closure and two canoeists who had used the canal recently produced a dated toll ticket for their journey which was offered as proof that the canal was not disused.
On May 22nd 1959 it was announced that the canal would be restored with the British Transport Commission and National Trust reporting that they had agreed on the terms of a lease where the National Trust would be responsible for the restoration and maintenance of the south section.
The transfer of responsibility took place on September 29th 1960 with the work starting in March 1961. The project was managed by David Hutching who led the way in the use of voluntary labour, which would be used on many subsequent restorations, and assistance was also given by prisoners from Winson Green prison, the Army and the RAF Airfield Construction Branch.
The canal was fully navigable by mid-1964 and Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother officially re-opened it on June 1st 1974. Its restoration was a turning point for the waterways movement in Britain. | <urn:uuid:0972ec21-c795-4cc1-aba0-19de799a00f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://canalandrivertoursblog.wordpress.com/2017/03/23/stratford-upon-avon-cana/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.987735 | 1,596 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.005757868... | 7 | The Stratford-upon-Avon Canal is a canal in the south Midlands of England, it was built between 1793 and 1816 and runs for 25.5 miles in total consisting of two sections. The dividing line of the canal is at the Kingswood Junction which allows access to the Grand Union Canal. When a railway company purchased the canal in 1856 it gradually declined and the southern section became un-navigable by 1945 although the northern section was a little better.
The northern section of the canal was the setting for a high-profile campaign organised by the Inland Waterways Association in 1947, this campaign was created to allow the right of navigation under the Tunnel Lane Bridge which required the Great Western Railway to give it up so that it allowed the boats to pass. The actions taken by this campaign saved the section of the canal from closure and the National Trust restored the southern section between 1961 and 1964 after the attempt to close it was over ruled. The canal was reopened by Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother on 1st June 1974. The responsibility of the canal was transferred to British Waterways in 1988.
The Stratford-upon-Avon Canal was formed as part of a network of canals that would allow coal form the Dudley and Stourbridge Canals to reach Oxford and London without having to go through the Birmingham Canals in which the management was seen as overbearing. On March 28th 1793 an Act was passed for the construction of a canal from a junction with Worcester and Birmingham Canal in Kings Norton to Stratford-upon-Avon. The route of this would take it close to the Warwick and Birmingham Canal at Lapworth but the act did not include the direct connection with it or the River Avon at Stratford itself. It was in 1795 when negotiations started to connect the canals and a second act was obtained on May 19th 1795 to allow a connecting link to be built even though there were unfavourable terms imposed on the through traffic by any other company.
Josiah Clowes was the engineer employed for the construction and it began in November 1793 staring at the Kings Norton end of the canal. He also worked on Dudley Canal’s extension and another four canal systems at the same time which gave him the title of the first great tunnel engineer. Josiah Clowes died the following year but the work continued up until the main line reached Hockley Heath in the May of 1796 when it was one mile short of the first lock at Lapworth, as at this point cutting ceased because of a lack of money as the money raised had all been spent. The Dudley Canal extension running through the Lappal Tunnel was opened in early 1798.
With progress being made on the Warwick and Birmingham Canal the company got a third act of parliament on June 21st 1799 and this allowed it the raise more money and included a new route further east near Lapworth which meant that the length of the link connectin Birmingham and Warwick was only 200 yards. When work restarted in 1799 it was under a new engineer called Samuel Porter (who was a former assistant of Josiah Clowes) and he continued as far as the Kingswood Junction which was formally opened on May 24th 1802 and after this cutting again ceased.
The construction only recommenced again in 1812 with the leadership of William James of Stratford who had owned shares in the Company since 1793 and had a wide interest in turnpike roads and railways. Following a tour of the north of England between 1802 and 1804 (a tour he was on when he investigated railways and canals) he expanded his business interests to include coal mining. He became the chairman of the canal Company and in 1813 personally bought the Upper Avon Navigation. William James of Stratford wanted to create a through route between the River Severn and the Midlands so the company got a further act of parliament on May 12th 1815 and this authorised a connection between the canal and the Avon at Stratford-upon-Avon. The canal reach Stratford in June 1816 and the connection with the river was made. The total cost of the canal was around £297.000.
The south section of the canal never saw William James of Stratford’s ambitions as the Upper Avon was too dangerous and prone to flood to be a reliable route through. He had spent £6,000 on the improvements to the Upper Avon locks in 1822 but this drained his funds and he was declared bankrupt not long afterwards.
The traffic on the canals slowly built up although the tolls were low to offset the costs imposed on goods passing through Kingswood Junction to the Warwick and Birmingham Canal. On the south section coal was taken to Stratford where it was sold or taken along the Upper Avon or the Stratford to Morton Tramway.
In the late 1930’s the south section had become derelict but the water supply was maintained and the Great Western Railway (GWR) used it to supply its engine shed in Stratford. In the north section although it was never officially closed the traffic in the canal had virtually ceased by 1939. The section was blocked when the Tunnel Lane lift bridge (bridge no. 2) at Lifford became faulty was replaced by the railway company with a fixed bridge with an insufficient high for boats to pass. Because of this Lord Methuen raised the issue in the House of Lords in 1947 and was assured that the bridge “would be lifted at any time on notice of intended passage being given”
Ton Rolt (an English writer and the biographer) who was a founding member of the Inland Waterways Association announced that he intended to pass under the bridge on May 20th 1947. Despite difficulties because of the state of the canal and the fact that the accompanying boat provided by the GWR got stuck the bridge was reached and it had been jacked up and was resting on heavy timbers. Robert Aickman who was another of the founders of the organisation had organised press coverage and the story was reported in the national newspapers and other members were then encouraged to use the route.
In 1950 the bridge that had become known as Lifford Bridge was replaced with a working swing bridge and the northern section was saved. The bridge has now been removed altogether.
The southern section of the canal was un-navigable by canal boats by the 1950’s as some of the locks could not be operated and a few of the small ponds between the locks were dry. Some problems with a bridge also began the process of restoring the section of the canal. In 1958 Warwickshire County Council sought to obtain the legal abandonment of the canal as they wanted to replace bridge 59 at Wilmcote without the expense of providing passable headroom. The inland Waterways Association and local activists began a campaign against this closure and two canoeists who had used the canal recently produced a dated toll ticket for their journey which was offered as proof that the canal was not disused.
On May 22nd 1959 it was announced that the canal would be restored with the British Transport Commission and National Trust reporting that they had agreed on the terms of a lease where the National Trust would be responsible for the restoration and maintenance of the south section.
The transfer of responsibility took place on September 29th 1960 with the work starting in March 1961. The project was managed by David Hutching who led the way in the use of voluntary labour, which would be used on many subsequent restorations, and assistance was also given by prisoners from Winson Green prison, the Army and the RAF Airfield Construction Branch.
The canal was fully navigable by mid-1964 and Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother officially re-opened it on June 1st 1974. Its restoration was a turning point for the waterways movement in Britain. | 1,725 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the play "Macbeth," William Shakespeare depicts a thane and his wife who viciously become heads of political power in Scotland through foul behavior and foolish decisions. Throughout the play the couple's personalities change, and diminishes not only their relationship, but their political power as well. There is a vast array of reasons as to why Macbeth falls from power, but the deterioration of their marriage plays an important role. This essay will discuss the reasons as to why the Macbeth's relationship crumbled and how it plays an important role in their political instability. .
The Macbeths' relationship mirrors their political power in many ways, and with any good marriage or kingship, you need to have trust. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth trusted his wife as he did anything she said even if he didn't want to. Furthermore, Duncan alongside his army all trusted Macbeth as he said, "He was a gentleman on whom I built an absolute trust" (Macbeth,I,iv,13-14). However, as the play progressed, Macbeth began to slowly lose trust in his wife, and the people of Scotland began to lose trust in him. Upon the first visit with the witches, the Macbeths' marriage was great, as there was no sign of trust issues, but due to Macbeth's flaw of vaulting ambition, he began to trust the witches, and rely on the weird sisters more so than Lady Macbeth. This mirrors his political power as Macbeth was a brave soldier for whom his counterparts would die, but once again the witches changed that, as he killed Duncan to make the prophecies come true. Macbeth became King but trust was lost, and his fellow soldiers became suspicious of him, even his fellow commander Banquo feared, "Thou play'dst most foully for't" (III,i,3). When Macbeth began to trust the witches and not even converse with his wife, Macbeth started to lose the trust of his nation, dooming him for failure. | <urn:uuid:5eea7122-0c59-4508-a72a-83c5a65f8f3f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/217495.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.992293 | 430 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.235796034336... | 3 | In the play "Macbeth," William Shakespeare depicts a thane and his wife who viciously become heads of political power in Scotland through foul behavior and foolish decisions. Throughout the play the couple's personalities change, and diminishes not only their relationship, but their political power as well. There is a vast array of reasons as to why Macbeth falls from power, but the deterioration of their marriage plays an important role. This essay will discuss the reasons as to why the Macbeth's relationship crumbled and how it plays an important role in their political instability. .
The Macbeths' relationship mirrors their political power in many ways, and with any good marriage or kingship, you need to have trust. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth trusted his wife as he did anything she said even if he didn't want to. Furthermore, Duncan alongside his army all trusted Macbeth as he said, "He was a gentleman on whom I built an absolute trust" (Macbeth,I,iv,13-14). However, as the play progressed, Macbeth began to slowly lose trust in his wife, and the people of Scotland began to lose trust in him. Upon the first visit with the witches, the Macbeths' marriage was great, as there was no sign of trust issues, but due to Macbeth's flaw of vaulting ambition, he began to trust the witches, and rely on the weird sisters more so than Lady Macbeth. This mirrors his political power as Macbeth was a brave soldier for whom his counterparts would die, but once again the witches changed that, as he killed Duncan to make the prophecies come true. Macbeth became King but trust was lost, and his fellow soldiers became suspicious of him, even his fellow commander Banquo feared, "Thou play'dst most foully for't" (III,i,3). When Macbeth began to trust the witches and not even converse with his wife, Macbeth started to lose the trust of his nation, dooming him for failure. | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the time of contrasting and comparing the traits of Othello and Oedipus, it is vital to recognize that it has to be through the means of varied theatrical activities, as it has to be noted that, many productions and interpretations have been issued concerning there plays as they look similar.
Even if they were written by two different writers, both Oedipus and Othello are great people; they end up meeting their own downfall. They also have tragic traits as they eventually kill someone they love. This essay compares and contrasts Othello and Oedipus (Shakespeare 16).
The two actors, Othello and Oedipus are presented as with prominent character trait. Othello in his rein was highly respected general, whose service record could be regarded as impeccable in the Venetian troop. On the other hand, Oedipus was just a newly a pointed king in his community of Thebe.
The two leaders in the two poems were all valued and honored by their subjects in their different territories. The two characters had to overcome several obstacles in a manner that led many of their followers to respect and honor them, and their royal positions (Shakespeare 24 & 167)
Looking at Othello, it can be noticed that, Othello can be considered to be the black member of his society, nevertheless, at the time of the race of Caucasian; he was looked upon by the society as very much superior as compared to other races. Though he was much respected and honored as a general, his people still at other times, he was down looked upon just as a human being (Smith 34). The illustration of such a regard and expression can be seen in the opposition of Desdemona’s father.
In the process of fulfilling the definition of a term tragedy, the main actors in plays have to lead their downfall. The same thing happens to the two actors; Rex Oedipus and Othello. Each one of them has some difficulties in telling what has been the truth in their leadership.
Looking at Othello, he can be considered as a person who can be easily cheated. His main mistake was trusting evil individuals and losing trust to his own wife. He was just easily tricked by the masterminds of Lago, who had the minds of destroying him. They said “They are loves I bear to you” (Dana 234) and he ended believing them. While when he was just about to kill his wife, he was did not belive her when she said that “My lord, you know I love you” ( Dana 234).
After the realization of Othello that he as a king has some troubles in looking at the reality, he was misguided into believing that his own and real spouse has been engaging in extramarital affairs with one of his own trusted lieutenant named Cassio. Othello ended up killing Desdemona, and after getting to know the scheme of Lago, he ended up taking his own life, hence resulting to his downfall.
On the side of Oedipus, his past actions came back haunting him whenever he was. This led to his downfall. This proves that Othello is blind in his senses. This is because, not only ones that Lago had deceived him, and he never opened his eyes to see what was happening. This shows that “He is not observant” (Bradley 23).
In contrast to what was happening to Othello’s present deeds that led to his dismiss. “The protagonist of the tragedy is the son of King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes” (Brunner 176). Earlier before making a step of defeating the Sphinx, on his way, he met and killed a small group of individuals, forgetting that his predecessor, his father, king Laius was also in the group.
At the time he was called upon by the gods to find and ensure that the murder is found and expelled, he gets to know through his own investigation that he was the victim who slayed his own father and that one of his wives is his mother, as he married his mother by the name, Jocasta. “In his investigation although, he was faced with many difficulties in seeing the reality that the prophets provided” (Smith 75). This investigation might have led him take his own life later.
The two of them, had the same character of being prideful, before time came for their downfall. They used to be men who had accomplished many extraordinary things. On top of that, they all had excellent leadership qualities empowered unto them by the Almighty if it can be concluded.
Firstly, looking at Othello, he can be considered as one who had upstanding citizenship qualities and was very much famous due to his military successes (Shakespeare 39). Somehow, he can be considered as holding the mystical traits. This can hold more water by looking at the fact that, he just came from a foreign land that taught him adventure experience that thunderstruck the Venetian community.( Shakespeare, 47-48).
Considering Oedipus, we can conclude that, he was also to an extent a renaissance person. Just like Othello, he was much known because Bradley of his successes in military; on the other hand, his true pride came from his position as a king of Thebe was happen to be wise and confident in his undertakings. Oedipus stated that “I Oedipus whom all men call the great.” (Sophocles line 7).
Every pride of an individual can be looked upon as a catalyst, of an early stage of a downfall, which might happen in different ways. We can see that, being a pride individual, he killed his wife on the reason that, she was not loyal to him at all. In the same connection, Oedipus did not want to let the killers of Laius just go undiscovered. All these let to their downfall.
A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. London: MacMillan and Co., 1919. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2009. (18 Nov 2010) http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/othello/othellobradley2.html
Shakespeare, William. Othello, the Moor of Venice. Ed. David Bevington. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 6th ed. New York: Longman, 2010. 912. Print.
Smith, Shawn. Love, Pity, and Deception In Othello. Papers on Language & Literature 44.1 (2008): 3-51, 49. Master FILE Premier. EBSCOhost. Tarrant County College Library Database, Texas.
Sophocles. Oedipus the King. Trans. Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. X.J. Kennedy, and Dana Gioia . 6th ed. New York: Longman, 2010. 860. Print.
Dana, Gioia. Literature An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry Drama and Writing 6th Ed. New York: X.Y Kennedy.
Brunner, M. King Oedipus Retried. London: Rosenberger & Krausz, 2000. | <urn:uuid:d455e3a6-d5a9-4ffe-977e-fc7381f937a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/compare-and-contrast-the-characters-othello-and-oedipus-the-king/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.987352 | 1,542 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1300877332... | 2 | At the time of contrasting and comparing the traits of Othello and Oedipus, it is vital to recognize that it has to be through the means of varied theatrical activities, as it has to be noted that, many productions and interpretations have been issued concerning there plays as they look similar.
Even if they were written by two different writers, both Oedipus and Othello are great people; they end up meeting their own downfall. They also have tragic traits as they eventually kill someone they love. This essay compares and contrasts Othello and Oedipus (Shakespeare 16).
The two actors, Othello and Oedipus are presented as with prominent character trait. Othello in his rein was highly respected general, whose service record could be regarded as impeccable in the Venetian troop. On the other hand, Oedipus was just a newly a pointed king in his community of Thebe.
The two leaders in the two poems were all valued and honored by their subjects in their different territories. The two characters had to overcome several obstacles in a manner that led many of their followers to respect and honor them, and their royal positions (Shakespeare 24 & 167)
Looking at Othello, it can be noticed that, Othello can be considered to be the black member of his society, nevertheless, at the time of the race of Caucasian; he was looked upon by the society as very much superior as compared to other races. Though he was much respected and honored as a general, his people still at other times, he was down looked upon just as a human being (Smith 34). The illustration of such a regard and expression can be seen in the opposition of Desdemona’s father.
In the process of fulfilling the definition of a term tragedy, the main actors in plays have to lead their downfall. The same thing happens to the two actors; Rex Oedipus and Othello. Each one of them has some difficulties in telling what has been the truth in their leadership.
Looking at Othello, he can be considered as a person who can be easily cheated. His main mistake was trusting evil individuals and losing trust to his own wife. He was just easily tricked by the masterminds of Lago, who had the minds of destroying him. They said “They are loves I bear to you” (Dana 234) and he ended believing them. While when he was just about to kill his wife, he was did not belive her when she said that “My lord, you know I love you” ( Dana 234).
After the realization of Othello that he as a king has some troubles in looking at the reality, he was misguided into believing that his own and real spouse has been engaging in extramarital affairs with one of his own trusted lieutenant named Cassio. Othello ended up killing Desdemona, and after getting to know the scheme of Lago, he ended up taking his own life, hence resulting to his downfall.
On the side of Oedipus, his past actions came back haunting him whenever he was. This led to his downfall. This proves that Othello is blind in his senses. This is because, not only ones that Lago had deceived him, and he never opened his eyes to see what was happening. This shows that “He is not observant” (Bradley 23).
In contrast to what was happening to Othello’s present deeds that led to his dismiss. “The protagonist of the tragedy is the son of King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes” (Brunner 176). Earlier before making a step of defeating the Sphinx, on his way, he met and killed a small group of individuals, forgetting that his predecessor, his father, king Laius was also in the group.
At the time he was called upon by the gods to find and ensure that the murder is found and expelled, he gets to know through his own investigation that he was the victim who slayed his own father and that one of his wives is his mother, as he married his mother by the name, Jocasta. “In his investigation although, he was faced with many difficulties in seeing the reality that the prophets provided” (Smith 75). This investigation might have led him take his own life later.
The two of them, had the same character of being prideful, before time came for their downfall. They used to be men who had accomplished many extraordinary things. On top of that, they all had excellent leadership qualities empowered unto them by the Almighty if it can be concluded.
Firstly, looking at Othello, he can be considered as one who had upstanding citizenship qualities and was very much famous due to his military successes (Shakespeare 39). Somehow, he can be considered as holding the mystical traits. This can hold more water by looking at the fact that, he just came from a foreign land that taught him adventure experience that thunderstruck the Venetian community.( Shakespeare, 47-48).
Considering Oedipus, we can conclude that, he was also to an extent a renaissance person. Just like Othello, he was much known because Bradley of his successes in military; on the other hand, his true pride came from his position as a king of Thebe was happen to be wise and confident in his undertakings. Oedipus stated that “I Oedipus whom all men call the great.” (Sophocles line 7).
Every pride of an individual can be looked upon as a catalyst, of an early stage of a downfall, which might happen in different ways. We can see that, being a pride individual, he killed his wife on the reason that, she was not loyal to him at all. In the same connection, Oedipus did not want to let the killers of Laius just go undiscovered. All these let to their downfall.
A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. London: MacMillan and Co., 1919. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2009. (18 Nov 2010) http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/othello/othellobradley2.html
Shakespeare, William. Othello, the Moor of Venice. Ed. David Bevington. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 6th ed. New York: Longman, 2010. 912. Print.
Smith, Shawn. Love, Pity, and Deception In Othello. Papers on Language & Literature 44.1 (2008): 3-51, 49. Master FILE Premier. EBSCOhost. Tarrant County College Library Database, Texas.
Sophocles. Oedipus the King. Trans. Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. X.J. Kennedy, and Dana Gioia . 6th ed. New York: Longman, 2010. 860. Print.
Dana, Gioia. Literature An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry Drama and Writing 6th Ed. New York: X.Y Kennedy.
Brunner, M. King Oedipus Retried. London: Rosenberger & Krausz, 2000. | 1,560 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today’s the feast of St. Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821), a woman born at the time of the American revolution and a founder of the American Catholic Church.
The United States Catholic Catechism for Adults sees her as an example of a woman in search of God. We find God through Jesus Christ, but also through creation, through human relationships and through various circumstances of our lives.
Elizabeth Seton was a woman who found God in all those ways. As a little girl after her mother’s death she was neglected by her father and at odds with her stepmother, and she found God in the beauties of nature, in the fields around New Rochelle, NY, where she played as a child.
Then, as a young woman, she married a prominent New York business man, William Seton. They had five children and Elizabeth enjoyed a happy married life, lots of friends; she was active in her Episcopal church, Trinity Church, on Wall Street in New York City.
She lived in a new country, in a city inspired by the optimism and principles of the Enlightenment, a movement that saw life as a pursuit of human knowledge and progress, more than as a pursuit of the knowledge of God. Alexander Pope sums up her time in his famous couplet in “An Essay of Man” (“Know then thyself, presume not God to scan/The proper study of mankind is man”)
In a society and a church largely influenced by those values, Elizabeth felt drawn to Jesus Christ, whom she searched for in the scriptures and found in the care of the poor.
Her life changed when her husband’s business failed. When his health also failed, Elizabeth took him to Italy to see if a better climate could revive him. As they arrived in Livorno, Italy, he died in her arms in a cold quarantine station at the Italian port.
Some Italian friends took Elizabeth and her daughter into their home and there she began to think about becoming a Catholic. Her conversion after her return to New York City caused her to lose old friends and left her to face hard times as a widow with small children.
She moved to Baltimore, then Emmitsburg, Maryland, where she opened her first Catholic school and gathered other women to form a religious community. She is one of the great saints and founders of the American Church. She’s also an important witness to the major role women played in establishing the Catholic Church in America.
Her quest for God was many sided, touched by sorrows and joys. She’s a good example of how our relationship with God is formed by creation, by the people around us, and the varied circumstances we face as we go through life and the times in which we live.
People like Mother Seton show how faith grows in us. That’s why the new U.S. Catholic Catechism for Adults sees her as an example of how we find God in real life. More important than books, people tell us what believing means. They’re good catechisms.
Happy Feast Day to all her daughters throughout the world who continue in her spirit. They are following her and their journey isn’t over.
A biography of Mother Seton: http://emmitsburg.net/setonshrine/ | <urn:uuid:41a349ad-31d7-4fdb-ae0c-a2c838f39c37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vhoagland.wordpress.com/category/religion/passionists-religion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.981705 | 687 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.077577650... | 9 | Today’s the feast of St. Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821), a woman born at the time of the American revolution and a founder of the American Catholic Church.
The United States Catholic Catechism for Adults sees her as an example of a woman in search of God. We find God through Jesus Christ, but also through creation, through human relationships and through various circumstances of our lives.
Elizabeth Seton was a woman who found God in all those ways. As a little girl after her mother’s death she was neglected by her father and at odds with her stepmother, and she found God in the beauties of nature, in the fields around New Rochelle, NY, where she played as a child.
Then, as a young woman, she married a prominent New York business man, William Seton. They had five children and Elizabeth enjoyed a happy married life, lots of friends; she was active in her Episcopal church, Trinity Church, on Wall Street in New York City.
She lived in a new country, in a city inspired by the optimism and principles of the Enlightenment, a movement that saw life as a pursuit of human knowledge and progress, more than as a pursuit of the knowledge of God. Alexander Pope sums up her time in his famous couplet in “An Essay of Man” (“Know then thyself, presume not God to scan/The proper study of mankind is man”)
In a society and a church largely influenced by those values, Elizabeth felt drawn to Jesus Christ, whom she searched for in the scriptures and found in the care of the poor.
Her life changed when her husband’s business failed. When his health also failed, Elizabeth took him to Italy to see if a better climate could revive him. As they arrived in Livorno, Italy, he died in her arms in a cold quarantine station at the Italian port.
Some Italian friends took Elizabeth and her daughter into their home and there she began to think about becoming a Catholic. Her conversion after her return to New York City caused her to lose old friends and left her to face hard times as a widow with small children.
She moved to Baltimore, then Emmitsburg, Maryland, where she opened her first Catholic school and gathered other women to form a religious community. She is one of the great saints and founders of the American Church. She’s also an important witness to the major role women played in establishing the Catholic Church in America.
Her quest for God was many sided, touched by sorrows and joys. She’s a good example of how our relationship with God is formed by creation, by the people around us, and the varied circumstances we face as we go through life and the times in which we live.
People like Mother Seton show how faith grows in us. That’s why the new U.S. Catholic Catechism for Adults sees her as an example of how we find God in real life. More important than books, people tell us what believing means. They’re good catechisms.
Happy Feast Day to all her daughters throughout the world who continue in her spirit. They are following her and their journey isn’t over.
A biography of Mother Seton: http://emmitsburg.net/setonshrine/ | 654 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Apple Peeling Experience
One morning outside on the playground, the toddlers were introduced to an old fashioned apple peeler. They were very eager to investigate and take a closer look at this tool, wondering what exactly this mechanism was used for. As the educator held the apple peeler and identified it by its name, pointing out its different parts, which included the base, blade, handle/crank and spiral like drill, the toddlers appeared to become more and more engaged in what was happening. Before they could get a closer hands on experience with the peeler, the educators talked about the safety rules and what the purpose of this tool is used for.
Where do you think the apple should go? The educator asked.
“Right there!” said Ewan pointing to the front of the peeler where the spikes were sticking out.
“Let’s try” said the educator and with a little push the apple’s flesh pierced through the spikes.
“What should we do now that the apple is on the peeler?” asked the educator.
“We turn it now” said Sam reaching out and grasping onto the handle.
The educator smiled and nodded her head in agreement. She then explained further, that the spikes hold and rotates the apple in place, as the handle is being turned. This action or cranking of the handle, causes the apple to rotate around and around. At the same time as the apple is being turned in a circular motion, it is being pushed against a blade that is located on the side of the apple peeler, which peels away the apple’s skin. The toddlers stood anxiously as they watched the educator demonstrate the turning motion of the handle. As the apple was being peeled, the skin of the apple looked very thin almost like spaghetti noodles which Sam described them as being. With that observation in mind, the toddlers were then encouraged to try the thinly cut apple peels and were asked to describe what they tasted like.
Sam, “It’s not a noodle, it’s an apple!” he said laughing.
“Apple!” agreed Jake nodding his head as he finished eating the rest of his apple peel.
“Every part of an apple can be used for many different things. We can cook and bake with them. But they can also be used for making juices or as a food for other animals, like squirrels, raccoons, cows and pigs. We can even paint with apples” said the educator.
Now it was time for the toddlers to have a go at the apple peeler and use their hands and arm muscles to turn the handle. While they waited for their turn we talked about all the delicious foods that we can make with apples.
Ewan shared with his peers that he liked applesauce and it that it was his favourite. Sam agreed and said that he liked applesauce too. They also discussed the different types of apples that we had taste tested the day before. The older toddlers remembered what their preference was, based on the individual apple’s colours.
“I like the green one” said Ewan.
“Red one” said Lia pointing at the apple chart that they had created the day before.
Once all the apples had been peeled, and all the toddlers had the opportunity to work with and manipulate the tool, the apple was removed from the spikes, and the result was a spiral-like slinky form with no core. After the peeling process had finished, we observed that the apple held its shape. Leaving the apple still round like a circle and inside where the core was removed, we saw another smaller circle. All our hard work and elbow grease paid off, we were able to enjoy the delicious and nutritious apple snack. | <urn:uuid:22a91ce5-f187-4a47-9455-ff36084eb84c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlchildcare.org/sjp/sjp-toddler-ls-oct-2019-the-apple-peeling-experience?tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.98483 | 791 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.184644654393... | 1 | The Apple Peeling Experience
One morning outside on the playground, the toddlers were introduced to an old fashioned apple peeler. They were very eager to investigate and take a closer look at this tool, wondering what exactly this mechanism was used for. As the educator held the apple peeler and identified it by its name, pointing out its different parts, which included the base, blade, handle/crank and spiral like drill, the toddlers appeared to become more and more engaged in what was happening. Before they could get a closer hands on experience with the peeler, the educators talked about the safety rules and what the purpose of this tool is used for.
Where do you think the apple should go? The educator asked.
“Right there!” said Ewan pointing to the front of the peeler where the spikes were sticking out.
“Let’s try” said the educator and with a little push the apple’s flesh pierced through the spikes.
“What should we do now that the apple is on the peeler?” asked the educator.
“We turn it now” said Sam reaching out and grasping onto the handle.
The educator smiled and nodded her head in agreement. She then explained further, that the spikes hold and rotates the apple in place, as the handle is being turned. This action or cranking of the handle, causes the apple to rotate around and around. At the same time as the apple is being turned in a circular motion, it is being pushed against a blade that is located on the side of the apple peeler, which peels away the apple’s skin. The toddlers stood anxiously as they watched the educator demonstrate the turning motion of the handle. As the apple was being peeled, the skin of the apple looked very thin almost like spaghetti noodles which Sam described them as being. With that observation in mind, the toddlers were then encouraged to try the thinly cut apple peels and were asked to describe what they tasted like.
Sam, “It’s not a noodle, it’s an apple!” he said laughing.
“Apple!” agreed Jake nodding his head as he finished eating the rest of his apple peel.
“Every part of an apple can be used for many different things. We can cook and bake with them. But they can also be used for making juices or as a food for other animals, like squirrels, raccoons, cows and pigs. We can even paint with apples” said the educator.
Now it was time for the toddlers to have a go at the apple peeler and use their hands and arm muscles to turn the handle. While they waited for their turn we talked about all the delicious foods that we can make with apples.
Ewan shared with his peers that he liked applesauce and it that it was his favourite. Sam agreed and said that he liked applesauce too. They also discussed the different types of apples that we had taste tested the day before. The older toddlers remembered what their preference was, based on the individual apple’s colours.
“I like the green one” said Ewan.
“Red one” said Lia pointing at the apple chart that they had created the day before.
Once all the apples had been peeled, and all the toddlers had the opportunity to work with and manipulate the tool, the apple was removed from the spikes, and the result was a spiral-like slinky form with no core. After the peeling process had finished, we observed that the apple held its shape. Leaving the apple still round like a circle and inside where the core was removed, we saw another smaller circle. All our hard work and elbow grease paid off, we were able to enjoy the delicious and nutritious apple snack. | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the First World War, Hull was a much smaller and densly populated City, than it is today. Most people lived in the City Centre or were crammed around the fish docks of Hessle Road and the warehouses of Wincolmlee. In 1914, Hull’s population was around 300,000 people, a much larger number than now. North of the ‘Avenues’ was open fields. Spring Bank ended at Walton Street and along Willerby Road was open country side. Along Holderness Road, there was not much housing beyond Portobello Street. The present day housing estates of Bransholme, Orchard Park, Greatfield, Longhill, Bilton and Ings Road were then just farms. Over 80% of the 66,090 houses in Hull were classified as ‘working class’ type, with a rent not exceeding £26 per year. Only 28,400 homes were regarded as satisfactory, with adequate light and air circulation and having a yard or garden at the rear with a secondary means of access. Some 21,800 properties, mostly ‘terrace’ type housing were unsatisfactory, built at a high density of 60 houses per acre, compared with an average of 7 houses to the acre for the City as a whole. They included 2,800 ‘slum houses’ which were old, damp, poorly built and situated in congested districts. Tenants invariably shared a single tap and outside toilets, which were situated together in a communal courtyard. Over 98% of Hull people rented their homes rather than owned them. The homes were largely poor and basic, with little choice, but the rents were cheap. People preferred to live near their place of work and not commute long distances. With no Welfare state and few Council houses, people preferred to live in tightly knit communities, where they could support each other or have access to shops and facilities. For the few and wealthy, home ownership outside the city centre, was the most desired and affordable option. Newspapers in 1914, advertise a 3 bed house for sale in Anlaby Park for £415 – £435, and 4 bed houses for between £529 – £550. After the war, a typical 3 bed, semi-detached house, sold for between £540 – £740.
Only 1% of Edwardian’s owned property. Most worked in dark, noisy factories, cut hay in fields, toiled down dirty and dangerous mines; had bones bent by rickets and lungs racked by tuberculosis. Life expectancy then was 49 years for a man and 53 years for a woman, compared with 79 and 82 years today. They lived in back to back tenements or jerry-built terraces, wore cloth caps or bonnets (rather than boaters, bowlers and toppers) and many had never taken a holiday – beyond a day trip to the seaside – in their entire lives.
Poor Housing was one of the major health problems facing the City. In 1914, over 90% of Hull people rented their homes from private landlords and the standard of accommodation was squalid. Many houses were errected with speed on ill-prepared sites to meet the urgent demand for accommodation from a rapidly increasing population. There was almost no accommodation specifically for the elderly, or adapted housing for the disabled and very few homes solely for women. Over 80% of the estimated 66,090 houses in Hull, were of the ‘working class’ type, that is, they were let at a rent, not exceeding £26 per year. A typical “sham” four roomed house, consisting of a living room, scullery, two bedrooms and bath, but without hot water, was rented in 1914, at five shillings and sixpence per week clear.
There were some 21,800 ‘Terrace’ type houses deemed unsatisfactory. Many of them were in the older working class neighbourhoods, and were four or five roomed houses, built in terraces. They led off from the main streets, with between ten to thirty houses in each terrace. They were built at a density of about 60 houses to the acre, compared with an average of 7 to the acre, for the City as a whole. The structural conditions within this group of houses varied considerably. Many had rear external walls, of only four and half inches thickness, whilst a very large number were congested at the rear and had no secondary means of access. There were also about, 2,800 slum houses which were old, poor in structure, had similarly thin walls, and mostly were without a damp-proof course. They were situated generally in narrow ‘courts’, in congested districts and were without adequate light and ventilation. The only water tap was usually located in the area of the court and was shared by all the court inhabitants. The sanitary conveniences were also located within the court area and in many cases had to be shared by the occupants of more than one house. There were about 500 houses in Hull which backed on to factories, and therefore had no through ventilation. By 1919, it was estimated that a total of 5,000 new houses were required to meet the arrears which had accumulated during the war years. A further 2,578 were needed to rehouse people living in unhealthy areas and another 200, to rehouse those living in individually unfit houses, in different parts of the City. There were a large number of insanitary cellar dwellings and kitchens. Filth and dirt, was rife and not only infected living conditions, but transmitted illnesses, far beyond their location, through the agency of flies, water supplies and defective drainage. The collection of dry refuse by Hull Corporation did not begin until 1901 and the building of indoor water closets did not start until 1903. By 1912, only 9,881 or 15% of Hull homes had inside toilets. Many houses lacked a rear entrance and occupants had to carry their ‘night soil’ out through the dwelling. By the outbreak of war, there were approximately 300 registered Lodging Houses. These included the Dockers’ Home in Trippett Street, which could accommodate 77 men, in separate ‘cubicles’, and the Salvation Army Lodging House, in Chapel Lane, with bedrooms for up to 130 men. The largest lodging house was Victoria Mansions, in Great Passage Street, which provided separate ‘cubicles’ for 494 working men and had a restaurant and barber’s shop within the building. Some 597 canal boats were also registered as family accommodation. Over 740 homes were recorded as keeping up to 2,850 pigs. The many docks and ships moored in the City Centre at Queens Gardens, meant many Hull houses were plagued by rats and vermin. Few properties had electricity and the smoke from domestic chimneys, factories and coal fired ships polluted the atmosphere. The lack of natural sunlight produced a serious vitamin ‘D’ deficiency in the general population. While Hull had an overcrowded City Centre, the worst living conditions were to be found in Hull’s dock area. Many working class families were crammed into poorly built court houses, often 12 people to a house and different families sharing the same room. These ‘homes’ were old, damp, with insufficient light and ventilation, without back ways and crowded together.
They were uncomfortably hot in summer, bitterly cold in winter and had no direct water supply. Toilets were inadequate and had to be shared by households in the same street. Rubbish stagnated in unpaved streets. The Eastern Daily News published a report in 1883, which compared the streets off Hessle Road, with the ‘foulest slums in Constantinople’. It reported houses “had no furniture and everywhere animals and humans lived together, with sewage flowing from outdoor privies and forming pools in the street.”
Severe overcrowding and squalid living conditions put Hull’s health at great risk. Outbreaks of diseases, such as small pox, typhus fever, diphtheria and tuberculosis were common. Some, like the Cholera epidemic in Hull in the summer of 1849, lasted 3 months and killed 1,860 out of a population approaching 81,000. Of those who died, 1,738 were recorded as belonging to the ‘labouring classes’ and 40% from the Hessle Road area. By the close of 1871, 23% of Hull children died before the age of one, and 45% died before the age of 12. By 1914, 121 out of the registered 960 Hull births still ended in infant mortality – a rate of 12%. Most children were artificially fed and did not attend infant welfare clinics. They invariably died of diarrhoea, and of ‘rickets’, a disease characterised by poor nutrition, with a softening and deformation of bones. Infant mortality was largely related to improper feeding, poor education, ignorance, negligence and indifference on the part of their guardians. The outbreak of war in 1914 interfered not only with the development of the school health service in Hull, but also with the expansion of services for infants and the pre-school child.
Housing and new Homes for Heroes: There was a severe shortage of housing in Hull. War time conditions had prevented new house building and allowed only the minimum of essential repairs. As a result, the general standard of housing in 1919, was well below that of 1914. It was estimated that in 1919, a total of 5,000 new houses were required in Hull, to meet the arrears over the period of the war. A further 2,578 were needed to rehouse people living in unhealthy areas, and another 200 to rehouse those living in individually, unfit houses, in different parts of Hull. The 1919 (Addison) Housing Act helped established Hull’s first Housing Committee and made the Council the chief provider of new housing. As a start towards meeting this shortage of 7,778 houses, Hull City Council purchased three areas of land on the northern, western and eastern outskirts of the City to errect housing estates. These became known respectively as the Bricknell Avenue, Gipsyville and Preston Road estates and house building began in the 1920’s. On most estates, Council houses were provided with a generous sized garden to encourage tenants to grow their own vegetables, a privet hedge at the front and an apple tree at the back. The interiors varied, some having a parlour, but all with a scullery and bath.
For most new tenants, these new conditions were a huge improvement on their previous slum housing, where they had experienced overcrowding and often were without even basic facilities. The quality of the new housing was generally high. Although some slum clearance took place during the 1920s, much of the emphasis of this period, was to provide new general needs housing, on greenfield sites. The new houses had electricity, inside toilets, fitted baths and front and back gardens. The Council had strict rules for new tenants on housework, house and garden maintenance, children’s behaviour and the keeping of pets.
The 1919 Housing Act, made housing a national responsibility, and local authorities were given the task of developing new housing and rented accommodation where it was needed by working people. The 1919 Housing (Addison) Act (named after Dr. Christopher Addison, the Health Minister) was passed initially as a temporary measure. It was to help meet housing need, when private builders could not meet the demand. It was generally assumed that the private sector would resume responsibility for working class housing once the British economy had recovered. The 1919 Act provided 213,000 new Council homes across the country. Although insufficient to meet the National need, it was a marked increase on the 24,000 ‘social’ homes that existed in 1914.
The most ambitious housing estate, built to reward soldiers and their families after the war was the massive Becontree estate in Dagenham. It was to become the largest council housing estate in the world. Work by the London County Council started on the estate in 1921. Farms were compulsory purchased and by 1932, over 25,000 houses had been built and over 100,000 people had moved to the area. The new houses had gas and electricity, inside toilets, fitted baths and front and back gardens. The estate expanded over the Essex parishes of Barking, Dagenham and Ilford with nearly 27,000 homes in total creating a virtual new town with dwellings for over 30,000 families.
Private House Building
Godfrey Mitchell, a demobbed Royal Engineer Officer, that had served in France, acquired the Wimpey Home Construction business and built many private homes in Hull during the 1930’s. The Woolwich Building Society lent 90% mortgages and allowed people for the first time to buy their homes. After the war, a typical 3 bed semi-detached house sold for between £540-£740. Buyers needed a 5% deposit, with repayments at around 26 shillings a week and buyers were given a Government subsidy of £50 as a further incentive. Most of Hull”s new council estates, provided good quality housing for the better off, working classes, but did not provide a solution for the poorer people in society. Rents were relatively high and subletting was forbidden, so naturally the tenants in the best position to pay were selected. High rents sometimes meant difficulty in paying, as more applicants from unskilled occupations were housed. | <urn:uuid:19815516-24cf-42ff-9b90-08328b2bb3b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ww1hull.com/hull-housing-homes-fit-for-heroes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.987649 | 2,779 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.30174225568771... | 15 | During the First World War, Hull was a much smaller and densly populated City, than it is today. Most people lived in the City Centre or were crammed around the fish docks of Hessle Road and the warehouses of Wincolmlee. In 1914, Hull’s population was around 300,000 people, a much larger number than now. North of the ‘Avenues’ was open fields. Spring Bank ended at Walton Street and along Willerby Road was open country side. Along Holderness Road, there was not much housing beyond Portobello Street. The present day housing estates of Bransholme, Orchard Park, Greatfield, Longhill, Bilton and Ings Road were then just farms. Over 80% of the 66,090 houses in Hull were classified as ‘working class’ type, with a rent not exceeding £26 per year. Only 28,400 homes were regarded as satisfactory, with adequate light and air circulation and having a yard or garden at the rear with a secondary means of access. Some 21,800 properties, mostly ‘terrace’ type housing were unsatisfactory, built at a high density of 60 houses per acre, compared with an average of 7 houses to the acre for the City as a whole. They included 2,800 ‘slum houses’ which were old, damp, poorly built and situated in congested districts. Tenants invariably shared a single tap and outside toilets, which were situated together in a communal courtyard. Over 98% of Hull people rented their homes rather than owned them. The homes were largely poor and basic, with little choice, but the rents were cheap. People preferred to live near their place of work and not commute long distances. With no Welfare state and few Council houses, people preferred to live in tightly knit communities, where they could support each other or have access to shops and facilities. For the few and wealthy, home ownership outside the city centre, was the most desired and affordable option. Newspapers in 1914, advertise a 3 bed house for sale in Anlaby Park for £415 – £435, and 4 bed houses for between £529 – £550. After the war, a typical 3 bed, semi-detached house, sold for between £540 – £740.
Only 1% of Edwardian’s owned property. Most worked in dark, noisy factories, cut hay in fields, toiled down dirty and dangerous mines; had bones bent by rickets and lungs racked by tuberculosis. Life expectancy then was 49 years for a man and 53 years for a woman, compared with 79 and 82 years today. They lived in back to back tenements or jerry-built terraces, wore cloth caps or bonnets (rather than boaters, bowlers and toppers) and many had never taken a holiday – beyond a day trip to the seaside – in their entire lives.
Poor Housing was one of the major health problems facing the City. In 1914, over 90% of Hull people rented their homes from private landlords and the standard of accommodation was squalid. Many houses were errected with speed on ill-prepared sites to meet the urgent demand for accommodation from a rapidly increasing population. There was almost no accommodation specifically for the elderly, or adapted housing for the disabled and very few homes solely for women. Over 80% of the estimated 66,090 houses in Hull, were of the ‘working class’ type, that is, they were let at a rent, not exceeding £26 per year. A typical “sham” four roomed house, consisting of a living room, scullery, two bedrooms and bath, but without hot water, was rented in 1914, at five shillings and sixpence per week clear.
There were some 21,800 ‘Terrace’ type houses deemed unsatisfactory. Many of them were in the older working class neighbourhoods, and were four or five roomed houses, built in terraces. They led off from the main streets, with between ten to thirty houses in each terrace. They were built at a density of about 60 houses to the acre, compared with an average of 7 to the acre, for the City as a whole. The structural conditions within this group of houses varied considerably. Many had rear external walls, of only four and half inches thickness, whilst a very large number were congested at the rear and had no secondary means of access. There were also about, 2,800 slum houses which were old, poor in structure, had similarly thin walls, and mostly were without a damp-proof course. They were situated generally in narrow ‘courts’, in congested districts and were without adequate light and ventilation. The only water tap was usually located in the area of the court and was shared by all the court inhabitants. The sanitary conveniences were also located within the court area and in many cases had to be shared by the occupants of more than one house. There were about 500 houses in Hull which backed on to factories, and therefore had no through ventilation. By 1919, it was estimated that a total of 5,000 new houses were required to meet the arrears which had accumulated during the war years. A further 2,578 were needed to rehouse people living in unhealthy areas and another 200, to rehouse those living in individually unfit houses, in different parts of the City. There were a large number of insanitary cellar dwellings and kitchens. Filth and dirt, was rife and not only infected living conditions, but transmitted illnesses, far beyond their location, through the agency of flies, water supplies and defective drainage. The collection of dry refuse by Hull Corporation did not begin until 1901 and the building of indoor water closets did not start until 1903. By 1912, only 9,881 or 15% of Hull homes had inside toilets. Many houses lacked a rear entrance and occupants had to carry their ‘night soil’ out through the dwelling. By the outbreak of war, there were approximately 300 registered Lodging Houses. These included the Dockers’ Home in Trippett Street, which could accommodate 77 men, in separate ‘cubicles’, and the Salvation Army Lodging House, in Chapel Lane, with bedrooms for up to 130 men. The largest lodging house was Victoria Mansions, in Great Passage Street, which provided separate ‘cubicles’ for 494 working men and had a restaurant and barber’s shop within the building. Some 597 canal boats were also registered as family accommodation. Over 740 homes were recorded as keeping up to 2,850 pigs. The many docks and ships moored in the City Centre at Queens Gardens, meant many Hull houses were plagued by rats and vermin. Few properties had electricity and the smoke from domestic chimneys, factories and coal fired ships polluted the atmosphere. The lack of natural sunlight produced a serious vitamin ‘D’ deficiency in the general population. While Hull had an overcrowded City Centre, the worst living conditions were to be found in Hull’s dock area. Many working class families were crammed into poorly built court houses, often 12 people to a house and different families sharing the same room. These ‘homes’ were old, damp, with insufficient light and ventilation, without back ways and crowded together.
They were uncomfortably hot in summer, bitterly cold in winter and had no direct water supply. Toilets were inadequate and had to be shared by households in the same street. Rubbish stagnated in unpaved streets. The Eastern Daily News published a report in 1883, which compared the streets off Hessle Road, with the ‘foulest slums in Constantinople’. It reported houses “had no furniture and everywhere animals and humans lived together, with sewage flowing from outdoor privies and forming pools in the street.”
Severe overcrowding and squalid living conditions put Hull’s health at great risk. Outbreaks of diseases, such as small pox, typhus fever, diphtheria and tuberculosis were common. Some, like the Cholera epidemic in Hull in the summer of 1849, lasted 3 months and killed 1,860 out of a population approaching 81,000. Of those who died, 1,738 were recorded as belonging to the ‘labouring classes’ and 40% from the Hessle Road area. By the close of 1871, 23% of Hull children died before the age of one, and 45% died before the age of 12. By 1914, 121 out of the registered 960 Hull births still ended in infant mortality – a rate of 12%. Most children were artificially fed and did not attend infant welfare clinics. They invariably died of diarrhoea, and of ‘rickets’, a disease characterised by poor nutrition, with a softening and deformation of bones. Infant mortality was largely related to improper feeding, poor education, ignorance, negligence and indifference on the part of their guardians. The outbreak of war in 1914 interfered not only with the development of the school health service in Hull, but also with the expansion of services for infants and the pre-school child.
Housing and new Homes for Heroes: There was a severe shortage of housing in Hull. War time conditions had prevented new house building and allowed only the minimum of essential repairs. As a result, the general standard of housing in 1919, was well below that of 1914. It was estimated that in 1919, a total of 5,000 new houses were required in Hull, to meet the arrears over the period of the war. A further 2,578 were needed to rehouse people living in unhealthy areas, and another 200 to rehouse those living in individually, unfit houses, in different parts of Hull. The 1919 (Addison) Housing Act helped established Hull’s first Housing Committee and made the Council the chief provider of new housing. As a start towards meeting this shortage of 7,778 houses, Hull City Council purchased three areas of land on the northern, western and eastern outskirts of the City to errect housing estates. These became known respectively as the Bricknell Avenue, Gipsyville and Preston Road estates and house building began in the 1920’s. On most estates, Council houses were provided with a generous sized garden to encourage tenants to grow their own vegetables, a privet hedge at the front and an apple tree at the back. The interiors varied, some having a parlour, but all with a scullery and bath.
For most new tenants, these new conditions were a huge improvement on their previous slum housing, where they had experienced overcrowding and often were without even basic facilities. The quality of the new housing was generally high. Although some slum clearance took place during the 1920s, much of the emphasis of this period, was to provide new general needs housing, on greenfield sites. The new houses had electricity, inside toilets, fitted baths and front and back gardens. The Council had strict rules for new tenants on housework, house and garden maintenance, children’s behaviour and the keeping of pets.
The 1919 Housing Act, made housing a national responsibility, and local authorities were given the task of developing new housing and rented accommodation where it was needed by working people. The 1919 Housing (Addison) Act (named after Dr. Christopher Addison, the Health Minister) was passed initially as a temporary measure. It was to help meet housing need, when private builders could not meet the demand. It was generally assumed that the private sector would resume responsibility for working class housing once the British economy had recovered. The 1919 Act provided 213,000 new Council homes across the country. Although insufficient to meet the National need, it was a marked increase on the 24,000 ‘social’ homes that existed in 1914.
The most ambitious housing estate, built to reward soldiers and their families after the war was the massive Becontree estate in Dagenham. It was to become the largest council housing estate in the world. Work by the London County Council started on the estate in 1921. Farms were compulsory purchased and by 1932, over 25,000 houses had been built and over 100,000 people had moved to the area. The new houses had gas and electricity, inside toilets, fitted baths and front and back gardens. The estate expanded over the Essex parishes of Barking, Dagenham and Ilford with nearly 27,000 homes in total creating a virtual new town with dwellings for over 30,000 families.
Private House Building
Godfrey Mitchell, a demobbed Royal Engineer Officer, that had served in France, acquired the Wimpey Home Construction business and built many private homes in Hull during the 1930’s. The Woolwich Building Society lent 90% mortgages and allowed people for the first time to buy their homes. After the war, a typical 3 bed semi-detached house sold for between £540-£740. Buyers needed a 5% deposit, with repayments at around 26 shillings a week and buyers were given a Government subsidy of £50 as a further incentive. Most of Hull”s new council estates, provided good quality housing for the better off, working classes, but did not provide a solution for the poorer people in society. Rents were relatively high and subletting was forbidden, so naturally the tenants in the best position to pay were selected. High rents sometimes meant difficulty in paying, as more applicants from unskilled occupations were housed. | 2,982 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Frank (Annelies Marie Frank) was a victim of the Holocaust. She became famous after the publication of “The Diary of a Young Girl” which documented her life in hiding during the German Occupation of the Netherlands from 1942 to 1944. Her book is one of the most widely read books in the world and has been used in the production of several films and plays. She was born in Germany but lived in Amsterdam for most of her life, having moved to Netherlands with her family when the Nazis took over Germany. Together with her family, she went to hiding in 1942 as the persecution of the Jewish population increased. From the time of hiding to their arrest, Anne kept a diary and wrote in it regularly. The diary was published into a book which has been translated into over 60 languages.
5. Early Life
Anne was born on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. She was the first born to Edith and Otto Heinrich and to an older sister named Margot. Her family was quite liberal and did not observe all the customs of Judaism. After the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, won the election in 1933, Anne together with her mother and sister went to live with her grandmother, Rosa (Edith’s Mum) in Aachen, while her father remained in Frankfurt. Otto later moved to Amsterdam where he was joined by his wife and children. Anne and her sister were enrolled in separate schools.
Unlike her sister Margot who was interested in arithmetic, Anne had a keen interest in reading and writing. Anne’s friend, Hanneli Goslar, recounted that as a child, Anne would write but would hide her work from others. When Anne and her family went into hiding, she dedicated most of her time to writing. She frequently wrote about her difficult relationship with her mother and with the rest of her family. Her writings also included her feelings, ambitions, and her belief in God. She also wrote on subjects that she felt she could not discuss with anyone.
Anne Frank was born at a time when the Nazis gained control over Germany. Her family, being Jewish, could not move or interact freely with other Germans. Although they sought refuge in the Netherlands, Anne had to go into hiding alongside the rest of her family for two years from 1942 to 1944. In one of her entries, she speaks about the challenges of living in hiding and wishes for the persecution to end so that she could interact with the rest of the world. She could not continue with her schooling although she always hoped that one day she would go back to school and study journalism. Anne did not enjoy her relationship with her mother. On November 7, 1942, she described her contempt towards her mother and concluded by saying “she’s not a mother to me.”
2. Major Contributions
While Anne Frank lived for only 16 years, her writings continue to live on to date. Her diary was published into a book titled “The Diary of a Young Girl” which been translated into over 60 languages and has been the basis for several films and plays. In 1960, the Anne Frank House, which contains some personal items of the occupants of Achterhuis was opened to the public. The house is one of Amsterdam’s top tourist attractions. In 1963, Otto Frank set up the Anne Frank Fonds charitable foundation in Basel which educates young people against racism. The Anne Frank Education Center was opened in 1997 near Frankfurt where people can learn about the history of National Socialism.
1. Death and Legacy
Anne Frank, together with the occupants of the Achterhuis, were arrested on August 4, 1944 by a group of German Policemen. Anne and her family were taken to Auschwitz concentration camp where Otto Frank was separated from his family. Anne was later relocated to Bergen-Belsen where she was briefly reunited with some of her friends. The camp was characterized by several diseases including typhoid and fever in early 1945. The exact date of Anne Frank's death is not known but several dates have been put forward, most commonly between February and April 1945.
Where Was Anne Frank From?
Anne was born on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. She was the first born to Edith and Otto Heinrich and to an older sister named Margot.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
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0.2656236588954... | 2 | Anne Frank (Annelies Marie Frank) was a victim of the Holocaust. She became famous after the publication of “The Diary of a Young Girl” which documented her life in hiding during the German Occupation of the Netherlands from 1942 to 1944. Her book is one of the most widely read books in the world and has been used in the production of several films and plays. She was born in Germany but lived in Amsterdam for most of her life, having moved to Netherlands with her family when the Nazis took over Germany. Together with her family, she went to hiding in 1942 as the persecution of the Jewish population increased. From the time of hiding to their arrest, Anne kept a diary and wrote in it regularly. The diary was published into a book which has been translated into over 60 languages.
5. Early Life
Anne was born on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. She was the first born to Edith and Otto Heinrich and to an older sister named Margot. Her family was quite liberal and did not observe all the customs of Judaism. After the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, won the election in 1933, Anne together with her mother and sister went to live with her grandmother, Rosa (Edith’s Mum) in Aachen, while her father remained in Frankfurt. Otto later moved to Amsterdam where he was joined by his wife and children. Anne and her sister were enrolled in separate schools.
Unlike her sister Margot who was interested in arithmetic, Anne had a keen interest in reading and writing. Anne’s friend, Hanneli Goslar, recounted that as a child, Anne would write but would hide her work from others. When Anne and her family went into hiding, she dedicated most of her time to writing. She frequently wrote about her difficult relationship with her mother and with the rest of her family. Her writings also included her feelings, ambitions, and her belief in God. She also wrote on subjects that she felt she could not discuss with anyone.
Anne Frank was born at a time when the Nazis gained control over Germany. Her family, being Jewish, could not move or interact freely with other Germans. Although they sought refuge in the Netherlands, Anne had to go into hiding alongside the rest of her family for two years from 1942 to 1944. In one of her entries, she speaks about the challenges of living in hiding and wishes for the persecution to end so that she could interact with the rest of the world. She could not continue with her schooling although she always hoped that one day she would go back to school and study journalism. Anne did not enjoy her relationship with her mother. On November 7, 1942, she described her contempt towards her mother and concluded by saying “she’s not a mother to me.”
2. Major Contributions
While Anne Frank lived for only 16 years, her writings continue to live on to date. Her diary was published into a book titled “The Diary of a Young Girl” which been translated into over 60 languages and has been the basis for several films and plays. In 1960, the Anne Frank House, which contains some personal items of the occupants of Achterhuis was opened to the public. The house is one of Amsterdam’s top tourist attractions. In 1963, Otto Frank set up the Anne Frank Fonds charitable foundation in Basel which educates young people against racism. The Anne Frank Education Center was opened in 1997 near Frankfurt where people can learn about the history of National Socialism.
1. Death and Legacy
Anne Frank, together with the occupants of the Achterhuis, were arrested on August 4, 1944 by a group of German Policemen. Anne and her family were taken to Auschwitz concentration camp where Otto Frank was separated from his family. Anne was later relocated to Bergen-Belsen where she was briefly reunited with some of her friends. The camp was characterized by several diseases including typhoid and fever in early 1945. The exact date of Anne Frank's death is not known but several dates have been put forward, most commonly between February and April 1945.
Where Was Anne Frank From?
Anne was born on June 12, 1929, in Frankfurt, Germany. She was the first born to Edith and Otto Heinrich and to an older sister named Margot.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 991 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A universal flu vaccine has been successfully tested on humans with the disease for the first time, it was reported Monday.
The U.K.'s Guardian newspaper said that unlike existing vaccines, this one, which was tested by scientists at Britain's Oxford University, does not need to be changed every year to match the latest strain of the virus.
The Guardian said when a new strain of flu emerges it takes at least four months to develop a new vaccine, during which time people get sick and some die.
U.S. & World
In 1918, a particularly dangerous form of flu developed in Europe and then spread across the world, killing an estimated 50 million people, about 3 percent of the world's population at the time.
Dr. Sarah Gilbert, who led the Oxford research team, told The Guardian using the same vaccine every year would mean protecting against flu would "be more like vaccinating against other diseases like tetanus."
"It would become a routine vaccination that would be manufactured and used all the time at a steady level. We wouldn't have these sudden demands or shortages — all that would stop," she added.
Healthy people infected
The Guardian said Gilbert had infected 22 healthy volunteers with the Wisconsin strain of the H3N2 influenza A virus. Half had been given the new vaccine, the others had not.
"Fewer of the people who were vaccinated got flu than the people who weren't vaccinated," she told the paper.
She also said that T-cells, part of the body's immune system, were more active in those who had been given the vaccine.
"The volunteers we vaccinated had T-cells that were activated, primed and ready to kill," Gilbert said.
"This is the first time anyone's tested if you can boost somebody's T-cell response to flu and, having done that, if it helps protect against getting flu. It's the first time anybody's done that in people," she added.
Adrian Hill, director of the university's Jenner Institute, where the research was carried out, told the paper the trial had showed the vaccine was safe.
The next step, he told the Guardian, was "probably" to combine it with existing flu vaccines, which would give protection against that season's type of the disease and also prime the immune system for future years.
"It may not be 100 percent effective against all strains, but at least if there were a pandemic coming around, it would cover you for any strain," he added.
Traditional flu vaccines work on 70-80 percent of young people, but just 30-40 percent of elderly people.
Hill told the paper that they planned to carry out a trial among elderly people to see if the new vaccine would "hopefully double that."
Mark Fielder, a medical microbiologist at Kingston University in the U.K., told The Guardian the study had "some potentially very exciting findings," saying it might have implications for "infectious disease in a wider context."
Professor Hugh Pennington, former president of the U.K.'s Society of General Microbiology, told msnbc.com that it was an "interesting development," but cautioned it was a "small study."
"I'm just reserving my judgement until they've got a bigger study," he said. "We should wait and see how things develop rather than saying this is the breakthrough we have been waiting for for 100 years."
However, echoing Fielder, Pennington added it could be "very, very interesting" because of the potential implications for other infections as well. | <urn:uuid:b3992b30-f86b-4f40-83da-5e0b5c374a92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/national-international/universal_flu_vaccine_tested_on_humans/1878159/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.985518 | 729 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.23102518916130066... | 1 | A universal flu vaccine has been successfully tested on humans with the disease for the first time, it was reported Monday.
The U.K.'s Guardian newspaper said that unlike existing vaccines, this one, which was tested by scientists at Britain's Oxford University, does not need to be changed every year to match the latest strain of the virus.
The Guardian said when a new strain of flu emerges it takes at least four months to develop a new vaccine, during which time people get sick and some die.
U.S. & World
In 1918, a particularly dangerous form of flu developed in Europe and then spread across the world, killing an estimated 50 million people, about 3 percent of the world's population at the time.
Dr. Sarah Gilbert, who led the Oxford research team, told The Guardian using the same vaccine every year would mean protecting against flu would "be more like vaccinating against other diseases like tetanus."
"It would become a routine vaccination that would be manufactured and used all the time at a steady level. We wouldn't have these sudden demands or shortages — all that would stop," she added.
Healthy people infected
The Guardian said Gilbert had infected 22 healthy volunteers with the Wisconsin strain of the H3N2 influenza A virus. Half had been given the new vaccine, the others had not.
"Fewer of the people who were vaccinated got flu than the people who weren't vaccinated," she told the paper.
She also said that T-cells, part of the body's immune system, were more active in those who had been given the vaccine.
"The volunteers we vaccinated had T-cells that were activated, primed and ready to kill," Gilbert said.
"This is the first time anyone's tested if you can boost somebody's T-cell response to flu and, having done that, if it helps protect against getting flu. It's the first time anybody's done that in people," she added.
Adrian Hill, director of the university's Jenner Institute, where the research was carried out, told the paper the trial had showed the vaccine was safe.
The next step, he told the Guardian, was "probably" to combine it with existing flu vaccines, which would give protection against that season's type of the disease and also prime the immune system for future years.
"It may not be 100 percent effective against all strains, but at least if there were a pandemic coming around, it would cover you for any strain," he added.
Traditional flu vaccines work on 70-80 percent of young people, but just 30-40 percent of elderly people.
Hill told the paper that they planned to carry out a trial among elderly people to see if the new vaccine would "hopefully double that."
Mark Fielder, a medical microbiologist at Kingston University in the U.K., told The Guardian the study had "some potentially very exciting findings," saying it might have implications for "infectious disease in a wider context."
Professor Hugh Pennington, former president of the U.K.'s Society of General Microbiology, told msnbc.com that it was an "interesting development," but cautioned it was a "small study."
"I'm just reserving my judgement until they've got a bigger study," he said. "We should wait and see how things develop rather than saying this is the breakthrough we have been waiting for for 100 years."
However, echoing Fielder, Pennington added it could be "very, very interesting" because of the potential implications for other infections as well. | 722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Created by: hollymaytaylor
- Created on: 18-03-15 20:08
Why was there a revolution in 1905?
The revolution in 1905 is thought to be caused by underlying long-term problems, short-term motives and also major catalysts. However the most important factor was the ever-continuing awful long-term problems that had still yet to be answered.
For many years there had been the same re-occurring long-term problems appearing in Russia, which were yet to be solved. For example; Russia's autocratic system of government. Many were not in favor of this form of ruling the nation, mainly the population who struggled, however the Tsar wanted to keep it this way and was not willing for compromising. The ones who struggled include the peasants, who compromised 80% of the population, they would endure wide spread famines with little help. Not only them would suffer, but also the proletariat would endure low pay, long hours, and poor working conditions. All these problems generated a massive dissatisfaction across the nation. However there still were no signs of Nicholas the II trying to carry out any sort… | <urn:uuid:d761c6fe-dd63-4ce6-bfb5-450f4acf6de1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/why_was_there_a_revolution_in_1905_12_mark | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.986309 | 236 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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- Created on: 18-03-15 20:08
Why was there a revolution in 1905?
The revolution in 1905 is thought to be caused by underlying long-term problems, short-term motives and also major catalysts. However the most important factor was the ever-continuing awful long-term problems that had still yet to be answered.
For many years there had been the same re-occurring long-term problems appearing in Russia, which were yet to be solved. For example; Russia's autocratic system of government. Many were not in favor of this form of ruling the nation, mainly the population who struggled, however the Tsar wanted to keep it this way and was not willing for compromising. The ones who struggled include the peasants, who compromised 80% of the population, they would endure wide spread famines with little help. Not only them would suffer, but also the proletariat would endure low pay, long hours, and poor working conditions. All these problems generated a massive dissatisfaction across the nation. However there still were no signs of Nicholas the II trying to carry out any sort… | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Langston Hughes?
Langston Hughes published his first poem in 1921. He attended Columbia University, but left after one year to travel. A leading light of the Harlem Renaissance, Hughes published his first book in 1926. He went on to write countless works of poetry, prose and plays, as well as a popular column for the Chicago Defender.
James Mercer Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902, in Joplin, Missouri. His parents, James Hughes and Carrie Langston, separated soon after his birth, and his father moved to Mexico.
While Hughes’ mother moved around during his youth, Hughes was raised primarily by his maternal grandmother, Mary, until she died in his early teens. From that point, he went to live with his mother, and they moved to several cities before eventually settling in Cleveland, Ohio.
It was during this time that Hughes first began to write poetry, and one of his teachers introduced him to the poetry of Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman, both of whom Hughes would later cite as primary influences.
Hughes was also a regular contributor to his school's literary magazine and frequently submitted to other poetry magazines, although they would ultimately reject his work.
Hughes graduated from high school in 1920 and spent the following year in Mexico with his father. Around this time, Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" was published in The Crisis magazine and was highly praised.
In 1921 Hughes returned to the United States and enrolled at Columbia University where he studied briefly, and during which time he quickly became a part of Harlem's burgeoning cultural movement, what is commonly known as the Harlem Renaissance.
But Hughes dropped out of Columbia in 1922 and worked various odd jobs around New York for the following year, before signing on as a steward on a freighter that took him to Africa and Spain. He left the ship in 1924 and lived for a brief time in Paris, where he continued to develop and publish his poetry.
Poems and Other Works
'The Weary Blues'
In November 1924, Hughes returned to the United States and worked various jobs. In 1925, he was working as a busboy in a Washington, D.C. hotel restaurant when he met American poet Vachel Lindsay. Hughes showed some of his poems to Lindsay, who was impressed enough to use his connections to promote Hughes’ poetry and ultimately bring it to a wider audience.
In 1925, Hughes’ poem “The Weary Blues” won first prize in the Opportunity magazine literary competition, and Hughes also received a scholarship to attend Lincoln University, in Pennsylvania.
While studying at Lincoln, Hughes poetry came to the attention of novelist and critic Carl Van Vechten, who used his connections to help get Hughes’ first book of poetry, The Weary Blues, published by Knopf in 1926. The book had popular appeal and established both his poetic style and his commitment to black themes and heritage.
Hughes was also among the first to use jazz rhythms and dialect to depict the life of urban blacks in his work. He published a second volume of poetry, Fine Clothes to the Jew, in 1927.
'Not Without Laughter'
After his graduation from Lincoln in 1929, Hughes published his first novel, Not Without Laughter. The book was commercially successful enough to convince Hughes that he could make a living as a writer.
During the 1930s, Hughes would frequently travel the United States on lecture tours, and also abroad to the Soviet Union, Japan, and Haiti. He continued to write and publish poetry and prose during this time, and in 1934 he published his first collection of short stories, The Ways of White Folks.
'Let America Be America Again'
In July 1936 he published one of his most celebrated poems, "Let America Be America Again" in Esquire, which examined the unrealized hopes and dreams of the country's lower class and disadvantaged, expressing a sense of hope that the American Dream would one day arrive.
Hughes would later revise and republish "Let America Be America Again" in a small anthology of poems called A New Song.
In 1937, he served as a war correspondent for several American newspapers during the Spanish Civil War.
'Simple' & More
In 1940, Hughes' autobiography up to age 28, The Big Sea, was published.
Also around this time, Hughes began contributing a column to the Chicago Defender, for which he created a comic character named Jesse B. Semple, better known as "Simple," a black Everyman that Hughes used to further explore urban, working-class black themes, and to address racial issues. The columns were highly successful, and "Simple" would later be the focus of several of Hughes' books and plays.
In the late 1940s, Hughes contributed the lyrics for a Broadway musical titled Street Scene, which featured music by Kurt Weill. The success of the musical would earn Hughes enough money that he was finally able to buy a house in Harlem. Around this time, he also taught creative writing at Atlanta University (today Clark Atlanta University) and was a guest lecturer at a university in Chicago for several months.
Over the next two decades, Hughes would continue his prolific output. In 1949 he wrote a play that inspired the opera Troubled Island and published yet another anthology of work, The Poetry of the Negro.
'A Dream Deferred'
In 1951 Hughes published one of his most celebrated poems, "Harlem (What happens to a dream deferred?')," discussing how the American Dream falls short for African Americans:
What happens to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore—
And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over—
Like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags
Like a heavy load.
Or does it explode?
During the 1950s and 1960s, he published countless other works, including several books in his "Simple" series, English translations of the poetry of Federico García Lorca and Gabriela Mistral, another anthology of his own poetry, and the second installment of his autobiography, I Wonder as I Wander.
Literary scholars have debated Hughes' sexuality for years, with many claiming the writer was gay and included a number of coded references to male lovers in his poems (as did Walt Whitman, a major influence on Hughes).
Hughes never married, nor was he romantically linked to any of the women in his life. And several of Hughes' friends and traveling companions were known or believed to be gay, including Zell Ingram, Gilbert Price and Ferdinand Smith.
Other biographers have refuted these claims, but because of Hughes' secrecy and the era's homophobia surrounding openly gay men, there is no concrete evidence of Hughes' sexuality.
Death and Legacy
On May 22, 1967, Hughes died from complications of prostate cancer. A tribute to his poetry, his funeral contained little in the way of spoken eulogy, but was filled with jazz and blues music.
Hughes' ashes were interred beneath the entrance of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem. The inscription marking the spot features a line from Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers." It reads: "My soul has grown deep like the rivers."
Hughes' Harlem home, on East 127th Street, received New York City Landmark status in 1981 and was added to the National Register of Places in 1982. Volumes of his work continue to be published and translated throughout the world.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:07d2a7e5-1f4d-4b59-b759-13ee734f7239> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/writer/langston-hughes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.985655 | 1,582 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.30939656496047974... | 3 | Who Was Langston Hughes?
Langston Hughes published his first poem in 1921. He attended Columbia University, but left after one year to travel. A leading light of the Harlem Renaissance, Hughes published his first book in 1926. He went on to write countless works of poetry, prose and plays, as well as a popular column for the Chicago Defender.
James Mercer Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902, in Joplin, Missouri. His parents, James Hughes and Carrie Langston, separated soon after his birth, and his father moved to Mexico.
While Hughes’ mother moved around during his youth, Hughes was raised primarily by his maternal grandmother, Mary, until she died in his early teens. From that point, he went to live with his mother, and they moved to several cities before eventually settling in Cleveland, Ohio.
It was during this time that Hughes first began to write poetry, and one of his teachers introduced him to the poetry of Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman, both of whom Hughes would later cite as primary influences.
Hughes was also a regular contributor to his school's literary magazine and frequently submitted to other poetry magazines, although they would ultimately reject his work.
Hughes graduated from high school in 1920 and spent the following year in Mexico with his father. Around this time, Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" was published in The Crisis magazine and was highly praised.
In 1921 Hughes returned to the United States and enrolled at Columbia University where he studied briefly, and during which time he quickly became a part of Harlem's burgeoning cultural movement, what is commonly known as the Harlem Renaissance.
But Hughes dropped out of Columbia in 1922 and worked various odd jobs around New York for the following year, before signing on as a steward on a freighter that took him to Africa and Spain. He left the ship in 1924 and lived for a brief time in Paris, where he continued to develop and publish his poetry.
Poems and Other Works
'The Weary Blues'
In November 1924, Hughes returned to the United States and worked various jobs. In 1925, he was working as a busboy in a Washington, D.C. hotel restaurant when he met American poet Vachel Lindsay. Hughes showed some of his poems to Lindsay, who was impressed enough to use his connections to promote Hughes’ poetry and ultimately bring it to a wider audience.
In 1925, Hughes’ poem “The Weary Blues” won first prize in the Opportunity magazine literary competition, and Hughes also received a scholarship to attend Lincoln University, in Pennsylvania.
While studying at Lincoln, Hughes poetry came to the attention of novelist and critic Carl Van Vechten, who used his connections to help get Hughes’ first book of poetry, The Weary Blues, published by Knopf in 1926. The book had popular appeal and established both his poetic style and his commitment to black themes and heritage.
Hughes was also among the first to use jazz rhythms and dialect to depict the life of urban blacks in his work. He published a second volume of poetry, Fine Clothes to the Jew, in 1927.
'Not Without Laughter'
After his graduation from Lincoln in 1929, Hughes published his first novel, Not Without Laughter. The book was commercially successful enough to convince Hughes that he could make a living as a writer.
During the 1930s, Hughes would frequently travel the United States on lecture tours, and also abroad to the Soviet Union, Japan, and Haiti. He continued to write and publish poetry and prose during this time, and in 1934 he published his first collection of short stories, The Ways of White Folks.
'Let America Be America Again'
In July 1936 he published one of his most celebrated poems, "Let America Be America Again" in Esquire, which examined the unrealized hopes and dreams of the country's lower class and disadvantaged, expressing a sense of hope that the American Dream would one day arrive.
Hughes would later revise and republish "Let America Be America Again" in a small anthology of poems called A New Song.
In 1937, he served as a war correspondent for several American newspapers during the Spanish Civil War.
'Simple' & More
In 1940, Hughes' autobiography up to age 28, The Big Sea, was published.
Also around this time, Hughes began contributing a column to the Chicago Defender, for which he created a comic character named Jesse B. Semple, better known as "Simple," a black Everyman that Hughes used to further explore urban, working-class black themes, and to address racial issues. The columns were highly successful, and "Simple" would later be the focus of several of Hughes' books and plays.
In the late 1940s, Hughes contributed the lyrics for a Broadway musical titled Street Scene, which featured music by Kurt Weill. The success of the musical would earn Hughes enough money that he was finally able to buy a house in Harlem. Around this time, he also taught creative writing at Atlanta University (today Clark Atlanta University) and was a guest lecturer at a university in Chicago for several months.
Over the next two decades, Hughes would continue his prolific output. In 1949 he wrote a play that inspired the opera Troubled Island and published yet another anthology of work, The Poetry of the Negro.
'A Dream Deferred'
In 1951 Hughes published one of his most celebrated poems, "Harlem (What happens to a dream deferred?')," discussing how the American Dream falls short for African Americans:
What happens to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore—
And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over—
Like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags
Like a heavy load.
Or does it explode?
During the 1950s and 1960s, he published countless other works, including several books in his "Simple" series, English translations of the poetry of Federico García Lorca and Gabriela Mistral, another anthology of his own poetry, and the second installment of his autobiography, I Wonder as I Wander.
Literary scholars have debated Hughes' sexuality for years, with many claiming the writer was gay and included a number of coded references to male lovers in his poems (as did Walt Whitman, a major influence on Hughes).
Hughes never married, nor was he romantically linked to any of the women in his life. And several of Hughes' friends and traveling companions were known or believed to be gay, including Zell Ingram, Gilbert Price and Ferdinand Smith.
Other biographers have refuted these claims, but because of Hughes' secrecy and the era's homophobia surrounding openly gay men, there is no concrete evidence of Hughes' sexuality.
Death and Legacy
On May 22, 1967, Hughes died from complications of prostate cancer. A tribute to his poetry, his funeral contained little in the way of spoken eulogy, but was filled with jazz and blues music.
Hughes' ashes were interred beneath the entrance of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem. The inscription marking the spot features a line from Hughes' poem "The Negro Speaks of Rivers." It reads: "My soul has grown deep like the rivers."
Hughes' Harlem home, on East 127th Street, received New York City Landmark status in 1981 and was added to the National Register of Places in 1982. Volumes of his work continue to be published and translated throughout the world.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,641 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A team of Early Years teachers from Southwood School and I attended a mRLC workshop facilitated by Carole Fullerton titled: Using Good Questions as a Gateway to Mathematical Understanding in Diverse Classrooms.
One aspect of the workshop had Carole Fullerton leading a group of Grade 1 and Grade 2 students through a rich problem solving experience and the context of the lesson was connected to this picture book titled One is a Snail, Ten is a Crab by April Sayre and Jeff Sayre.
Carole designed the lesson with the following 3 part structure:
- Connecting to the Math
- Doing the Math
- Debrief the Math
Part 1: Connecting to the Math
Before Carole launched into the lesson, she clearly stated what the students would be doing during their time together, she stated they would be: Looking at pictures, reading a story and solving a problem. Carole started the lesson off with showing them quick images of a few different ten frames and asked the students:
- How many red squares do you see?
- How do you know there is 6?
- How many more do you need to make 10?
These ten frames were used to get the students thinking about numbers and using the visual of ten frames to support their thinking about the different numbers.
After working with a few ten frames, she started to read the story to the students. As she was reading, she would pause and ask questions: What do you see? What do you think will come on the next page? Why do you think that? She also modelled for the students that when we are doing math, it is helpful to record our thinking with quick sketches, this was to support the work the students would be doing later in the lesson. The book is a counting by feet book where 1 is a snail, 2 is a person, 3 is a snail and a person, 4 is a dog ect. Students were quick to share different combinations they figured would make 5. She stopped reading the book once we got to the page 10, this was an instructional decision that supports the idea that we can mathematize specific sections of the book or use one page from a book to use as a context for exploration. Carole then proposed the following question to the students:
There were 10 feet on the beach. What creatures could there be?
Part 2: Doing the Math:
Students were provided with different maniplatives to explore a solution to the question. After the students solved the problem one way with the use of the manipulatives, they were provided with whiteboards where they could record their thinking and different combinations to make 10 feet using pictures, numbers and symbols. This is an open ended problem where many different solutions can be offered by the students and also provides opportunities to create extensions for students who were in need of a challenge. For example, I went back to the beach the next day and saw 17 feet, what creatures might have I seen? While the students were exploring the task, Carole walked around with sticky notes which indicated which students responses she wanted to be shared with the class during part 3 of the lesson. She was looking specifically for students who created solutions that had 2 parts, 3 parts and 4 parts in their representations.
Part 3: Debrief the Math
After the students had enough time to explore different possibilities to the question, Carole gathered them back together and invited the students she had selected to share what solutions they had discovered. She prompted the students with these questions: What do you notice? Do you agree with what you see? Why does this make sense? How are the representations the same? How are they different?
The Southwood teachers and I have had the opportunity to try this lesson with Grade 1 students and here is feedback from one of the teachers:
- The importance of being intentional with the type of manipulatives offered and being ready and willing to swap out a material that wasn’t working for a student
- I was pleasantly surprised by their excitement to find more than one solution (second time around).
- I found it beneficial to have the students create a solution with maniplatives first and then using a non permanent surface to record their thinking.
- After we reflected on how the lesson went, I was inspired to live in the story context for longer than the initial problem solving experience. Ie. I went to the farm, how which animals did I see etc.
A variety of learning experiences can be designed by using one picture book as the context. The book used in this lesson can be used for future lessons, for example, changing the number of feet that are explored, creating other open ended problems to explore that may include subtraction. This is an engaging and meaningful way to have students construct an understanding of mathematical concepts by communicating and representing their thinking using manipulatives and other representations.
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0.62388283... | 3 | A team of Early Years teachers from Southwood School and I attended a mRLC workshop facilitated by Carole Fullerton titled: Using Good Questions as a Gateway to Mathematical Understanding in Diverse Classrooms.
One aspect of the workshop had Carole Fullerton leading a group of Grade 1 and Grade 2 students through a rich problem solving experience and the context of the lesson was connected to this picture book titled One is a Snail, Ten is a Crab by April Sayre and Jeff Sayre.
Carole designed the lesson with the following 3 part structure:
- Connecting to the Math
- Doing the Math
- Debrief the Math
Part 1: Connecting to the Math
Before Carole launched into the lesson, she clearly stated what the students would be doing during their time together, she stated they would be: Looking at pictures, reading a story and solving a problem. Carole started the lesson off with showing them quick images of a few different ten frames and asked the students:
- How many red squares do you see?
- How do you know there is 6?
- How many more do you need to make 10?
These ten frames were used to get the students thinking about numbers and using the visual of ten frames to support their thinking about the different numbers.
After working with a few ten frames, she started to read the story to the students. As she was reading, she would pause and ask questions: What do you see? What do you think will come on the next page? Why do you think that? She also modelled for the students that when we are doing math, it is helpful to record our thinking with quick sketches, this was to support the work the students would be doing later in the lesson. The book is a counting by feet book where 1 is a snail, 2 is a person, 3 is a snail and a person, 4 is a dog ect. Students were quick to share different combinations they figured would make 5. She stopped reading the book once we got to the page 10, this was an instructional decision that supports the idea that we can mathematize specific sections of the book or use one page from a book to use as a context for exploration. Carole then proposed the following question to the students:
There were 10 feet on the beach. What creatures could there be?
Part 2: Doing the Math:
Students were provided with different maniplatives to explore a solution to the question. After the students solved the problem one way with the use of the manipulatives, they were provided with whiteboards where they could record their thinking and different combinations to make 10 feet using pictures, numbers and symbols. This is an open ended problem where many different solutions can be offered by the students and also provides opportunities to create extensions for students who were in need of a challenge. For example, I went back to the beach the next day and saw 17 feet, what creatures might have I seen? While the students were exploring the task, Carole walked around with sticky notes which indicated which students responses she wanted to be shared with the class during part 3 of the lesson. She was looking specifically for students who created solutions that had 2 parts, 3 parts and 4 parts in their representations.
Part 3: Debrief the Math
After the students had enough time to explore different possibilities to the question, Carole gathered them back together and invited the students she had selected to share what solutions they had discovered. She prompted the students with these questions: What do you notice? Do you agree with what you see? Why does this make sense? How are the representations the same? How are they different?
The Southwood teachers and I have had the opportunity to try this lesson with Grade 1 students and here is feedback from one of the teachers:
- The importance of being intentional with the type of manipulatives offered and being ready and willing to swap out a material that wasn’t working for a student
- I was pleasantly surprised by their excitement to find more than one solution (second time around).
- I found it beneficial to have the students create a solution with maniplatives first and then using a non permanent surface to record their thinking.
- After we reflected on how the lesson went, I was inspired to live in the story context for longer than the initial problem solving experience. Ie. I went to the farm, how which animals did I see etc.
A variety of learning experiences can be designed by using one picture book as the context. The book used in this lesson can be used for future lessons, for example, changing the number of feet that are explored, creating other open ended problems to explore that may include subtraction. This is an engaging and meaningful way to have students construct an understanding of mathematical concepts by communicating and representing their thinking using manipulatives and other representations.
For more resources from Carole Fullerton click on this link. | 1,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This video talked about the ancient study of astronomy. It mention three main components of our understanding today on the study of space. The three cultures were Babylon, Mayan and ancient Greek. Even though there have been many discoveries over the years these are the base ones.
The Babylons invented one of the first calendars. It was a mathematical model that could record giant astronomical events and now you may recall them as things to record time.
The Mayans were interested in horoscopes as well as the Babylons.The Mayans had documents on their space study but unfortunately they were burnt by the Spanish conquistadors.
A Greek astronomer in Rome called Tallemy, discovered the Ptolemaic system. That was his most famous discovery. It stated that Earth was in the center of the universe. Later on this statement was proven to be incorrect. Also Hipparticus ( who was considered to be the world’s most famous astronomer) recorded many stars and invented the procession of the equinoxes. Which is the term for the earth wobbling around its axis.
What caused the Spanish conquistadors to burn the Mayans’ studies?
What made Tallemy think that the earth was in the center of the universe?
I learnt that we take a lot of things for granted , such as calendars but if these three cultures didn’t discover these things we probably wouldn’t even know what day it is.
Group members: Me, Bridget, Declan, Ethan and Emma
Literacy Circles Book Review
The title of this book is: The Giver
The author of this book is: Lois Lowry
The genre of this book is: Fiction that is set in the future
Summary: This book is about a small community that has very strict laws and punishments. This book tells the story of a boy called Jonas. Jonas is given the role of the receiver of memory. Throughout this book he learns what life used to be like. How you could see colours and how you could do whatever you want whenever you want within reason. But when you are training to become the receiver of memory you have to follow certain rules. You will no longer be able to share your dreams or socialise as much as you used to. I guess with every opportunity comes a price.
Positives and negatives of this book: A negative in my opinion was that at times it became boring because of unnecessary details. A positive in my opinion was that it did have a meaningful side to it.
Audience recommendations: I would recommend this book to people who take what they have for granted.
The day I found out that Jack was sick in hospital with heart problems and Nan was “losing her marbles” made my heart break. And that day very day was today, 5 minuets ago. It reminded me of a time when I couldn’t imagine my family without me. Well the truth was it was about to become a reality. Iv’e only seen my Nan twice in my life. And Iv’e only seen Jack once. What happens if Nan forgets me? How long will Jack stay in hospital for? Will the ever get better?
This book is about a girl called Candice Phee and how she is assigned to write a report about her life from A-Z. (A paragraph on each letter.) But knowing Candice she writes more than two pages on each letter. During this journey you find out that Candice has a lot of problems in her life. It’s mainly about her family. For example: Her mum has depression, she has cancer and she lost a child. Her dad has apparently been robed, his brother stole his million dollar idea and he lost a child. As you can see there are a lot of complications in Candice’s life. she wants everyone to be happy and she’s not selfish at all.
The voice of my TEACHER continued to ring in my head. Why was I thinking about school? Oh, right. It’s because my TEACHER is treating me like a six year old. She gives me “TRICKY” work. You know just because I might of had special needs when I was younger it doesn’t mean that you can give 10+10 equations to solve when I’m in year nine. But that night I did something I would never usually do. I wrote a mature, complicated story that caused me to think out side the box. It said:
The MAUVE sunrise woke me from my forever sleep. It was as if ALLIGATOR was chasing me because my heart was racing and thumping louder than it ever has before. I CLIMBED up to the top of the tree and there was my death waiting for me.
I stood there. Lost. My life has gone down the drain. I have nothing. Flames flash through my mind. The smell of burnt ash continues to follow me where ever I go. The image of the body dropping dead in front of my eyes sticks to me like glue. At that very moment I was confused, scared and furious. I didn’t know what had gotten into me. I didn’t know what to do.
The sound of sirens came down the corner. I ran. What else could I do? The red and blue flashing lights weren’t that far behind me. As I ran down the side of the river I saw a glimpse of my reflection. In the reflection there was a monster, a monster in the mirror. I used to be loved. But now I have nothing. There’s no point to life. There will never be a place for me.
The crackling of the leaves scared me each time I moved. It came up to the point where I collapsed into the cold, hard ground. It wasn’t long until bugs acted as my blanket.
As the sun rose the next morning I finally began to realise what I’ve done and why I did it. I guess it was in the heat of the moment that I just cracked. It started off with my mother telling me how to live my life. You see I’m now twenty-three and I guess my mother just had to learn how to let go. She had me when she was seventeen and I think I took her life away from her. My grandmother would always tell me stories about how my mother was a party person and how she would always push Nan’s buttons. I know now that I definitely went too far when I struck that match and threw it into the carpet. I ran and left my mother behind. I’m confused about my life, and I have nowhere to go. My grandmother died a week ago due to a major stroke, I never got to meet my father or grandfather and now here I am. Alone.
The sound of a gunshot broke the (for what seemed like) forever silence. And then another, and another. There was a sequence of gunshots until I cried. “Wait! Can you just come into the light so I can see the face of my killer?” The figure took two slow steps, then came to a halt.
“I’m the killer am I? You’re the one who killed Maria, my ex-wife!”
“Your ex-wife? She’s my mother!” Suddenly the figure dropped the gun and stepped into the light. He had the same sparkle in his hazel brown eyes. “You left my mother when you found out that she was pregnant with me! And now you’ll pay.” I took a knife from my back pocket and stabbed it into his stomach. Blood dripped down his leg and he collapsed to the ground.
I ran. I ran to be free. I’ve done things that have changed my life forever. I can’t turn back now. I can only move forward. | <urn:uuid:833d1c92-2263-4c63-acc8-ef5e6f9805d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://eloisej2016.global2.vic.edu.au/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.984111 | 1,657 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.33986708521... | 1 | This video talked about the ancient study of astronomy. It mention three main components of our understanding today on the study of space. The three cultures were Babylon, Mayan and ancient Greek. Even though there have been many discoveries over the years these are the base ones.
The Babylons invented one of the first calendars. It was a mathematical model that could record giant astronomical events and now you may recall them as things to record time.
The Mayans were interested in horoscopes as well as the Babylons.The Mayans had documents on their space study but unfortunately they were burnt by the Spanish conquistadors.
A Greek astronomer in Rome called Tallemy, discovered the Ptolemaic system. That was his most famous discovery. It stated that Earth was in the center of the universe. Later on this statement was proven to be incorrect. Also Hipparticus ( who was considered to be the world’s most famous astronomer) recorded many stars and invented the procession of the equinoxes. Which is the term for the earth wobbling around its axis.
What caused the Spanish conquistadors to burn the Mayans’ studies?
What made Tallemy think that the earth was in the center of the universe?
I learnt that we take a lot of things for granted , such as calendars but if these three cultures didn’t discover these things we probably wouldn’t even know what day it is.
Group members: Me, Bridget, Declan, Ethan and Emma
Literacy Circles Book Review
The title of this book is: The Giver
The author of this book is: Lois Lowry
The genre of this book is: Fiction that is set in the future
Summary: This book is about a small community that has very strict laws and punishments. This book tells the story of a boy called Jonas. Jonas is given the role of the receiver of memory. Throughout this book he learns what life used to be like. How you could see colours and how you could do whatever you want whenever you want within reason. But when you are training to become the receiver of memory you have to follow certain rules. You will no longer be able to share your dreams or socialise as much as you used to. I guess with every opportunity comes a price.
Positives and negatives of this book: A negative in my opinion was that at times it became boring because of unnecessary details. A positive in my opinion was that it did have a meaningful side to it.
Audience recommendations: I would recommend this book to people who take what they have for granted.
The day I found out that Jack was sick in hospital with heart problems and Nan was “losing her marbles” made my heart break. And that day very day was today, 5 minuets ago. It reminded me of a time when I couldn’t imagine my family without me. Well the truth was it was about to become a reality. Iv’e only seen my Nan twice in my life. And Iv’e only seen Jack once. What happens if Nan forgets me? How long will Jack stay in hospital for? Will the ever get better?
This book is about a girl called Candice Phee and how she is assigned to write a report about her life from A-Z. (A paragraph on each letter.) But knowing Candice she writes more than two pages on each letter. During this journey you find out that Candice has a lot of problems in her life. It’s mainly about her family. For example: Her mum has depression, she has cancer and she lost a child. Her dad has apparently been robed, his brother stole his million dollar idea and he lost a child. As you can see there are a lot of complications in Candice’s life. she wants everyone to be happy and she’s not selfish at all.
The voice of my TEACHER continued to ring in my head. Why was I thinking about school? Oh, right. It’s because my TEACHER is treating me like a six year old. She gives me “TRICKY” work. You know just because I might of had special needs when I was younger it doesn’t mean that you can give 10+10 equations to solve when I’m in year nine. But that night I did something I would never usually do. I wrote a mature, complicated story that caused me to think out side the box. It said:
The MAUVE sunrise woke me from my forever sleep. It was as if ALLIGATOR was chasing me because my heart was racing and thumping louder than it ever has before. I CLIMBED up to the top of the tree and there was my death waiting for me.
I stood there. Lost. My life has gone down the drain. I have nothing. Flames flash through my mind. The smell of burnt ash continues to follow me where ever I go. The image of the body dropping dead in front of my eyes sticks to me like glue. At that very moment I was confused, scared and furious. I didn’t know what had gotten into me. I didn’t know what to do.
The sound of sirens came down the corner. I ran. What else could I do? The red and blue flashing lights weren’t that far behind me. As I ran down the side of the river I saw a glimpse of my reflection. In the reflection there was a monster, a monster in the mirror. I used to be loved. But now I have nothing. There’s no point to life. There will never be a place for me.
The crackling of the leaves scared me each time I moved. It came up to the point where I collapsed into the cold, hard ground. It wasn’t long until bugs acted as my blanket.
As the sun rose the next morning I finally began to realise what I’ve done and why I did it. I guess it was in the heat of the moment that I just cracked. It started off with my mother telling me how to live my life. You see I’m now twenty-three and I guess my mother just had to learn how to let go. She had me when she was seventeen and I think I took her life away from her. My grandmother would always tell me stories about how my mother was a party person and how she would always push Nan’s buttons. I know now that I definitely went too far when I struck that match and threw it into the carpet. I ran and left my mother behind. I’m confused about my life, and I have nowhere to go. My grandmother died a week ago due to a major stroke, I never got to meet my father or grandfather and now here I am. Alone.
The sound of a gunshot broke the (for what seemed like) forever silence. And then another, and another. There was a sequence of gunshots until I cried. “Wait! Can you just come into the light so I can see the face of my killer?” The figure took two slow steps, then came to a halt.
“I’m the killer am I? You’re the one who killed Maria, my ex-wife!”
“Your ex-wife? She’s my mother!” Suddenly the figure dropped the gun and stepped into the light. He had the same sparkle in his hazel brown eyes. “You left my mother when you found out that she was pregnant with me! And now you’ll pay.” I took a knife from my back pocket and stabbed it into his stomach. Blood dripped down his leg and he collapsed to the ground.
I ran. I ran to be free. I’ve done things that have changed my life forever. I can’t turn back now. I can only move forward. | 1,560 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scripture Reference: Nehemiah 1-8
Suggested Emphasis: Continue to do what is right even if people try to stop us.
After nearly one hundred years back in Jerusalem, the city walls were still in ruins. Nehemiah was the cupbearer to King Artaxerxes. He asked the king for help and went to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls. The neighbouring countries complained and threatened Nehemiah, trying to distract him, but he kept to his purpose and finished the job.
In 445 B.C. when Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, Jewish exiles from Babylonia had been there for nearly one hundred years. Some improvements in the city had been made. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a new temple had been built. Under the leadership of the scribe, Ezra, the Law of Moses had been brought back into force. But the walls and gates of the city were much as the Babylonians had left them after sacking the city in 586 B.C.
Nehemiah’s moonlight inspection around the city’s south end confirmed what he had been told earlier by his brother Hanani: no one yet had assumed the leadership in repairing Jerusalem’s defences. Taking advantage of his position as an official in the Persian court, Nehemiah had asked King Artaxerxes I for permission to return to his homeland and for help in rebuilding Jerusalem’s walls. Artaxerxes granted these requests.
The Jews in Jerusalem readily agreed to cooperate with Nehemiah’s plan. But some others were not so pleased by it. The leader of the opposition was Sanballat, governor of Samaria (north of Judah). Sanballat’s main allies were Tobiah, governor of Ammon (east of Judah), and Geshem, leader of a league of Arab tribes that had occupied Moab and Edom (southeast of Judah).
Virtually surrounding Judah, these enemies did not ridicule Judah to be humorous. Their mocking was meant to threaten. They knew that rebuilt walls around Jerusalem might signal a rise in Judah’s military might – and a danger to themselves.
Nehemiah’s purpose for rebuilding the walls was not primarily to end the city’s vulnerability. He wanted to end the disgrace to God caused by the holy city’s being partly in disrepair. Even though opposition to the rebuilding intensified, the Jews persevered. And in a remarkably short period, by early October 445 B.C., they made the defences whole again. Their success brought honour to God in the eyes of the very people who had been their opponents.
After the walls were completed Nehemiah encouraged the people to settle in the city. Finally, all of the people assembled and Ezra read the word of the Lord as they stood and listened. Many people wept at this sacred occasion but Nehemiah told them to celebrate and enjoy. “Do not grieve, for the joy of the Lord is your strength” (Nehemiah 8:10).
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
Play a version of “red light/green light. Tell the children that you will call out the name of a good activity (something that makes God happy). When you hold up the green light (a circle of green paper) they are to act out the good thing. When you hold up the red light (a circle of red paper) they are to “freeze” and stop doing the good thing until you hold the green light up again. “Good things” might include things like sweeping the floor to help mom, washing the dishes, picking flowers for someone, writing a note of encouragement on the computer, etc. After a few rounds talk about the fact that God likes us to do good things but sometimes people try to stop us. It’s like they are the red light.
Nehemiah was a Jew but he did not live in Jerusalem. He lived in Persia where he worked in the palace. Nehemiah had a very important job. He was the cupbearer for the king. Sometimes bad people put poison in the king’s drinking cup. Nehemiah’s job was to always taste the drink first to make sure there was no poison
Even though Nehemiah had never been to Jerusalem he really wanted to go. His brother had been to Jerusalem and had told Nehemiah all about it. Nehemiah’s brother said that even though the temple had been built in Jerusalem there was something very important still missing. The big wall that used to surround Jerusalem still needed to be fixed. It was falling down and crumbled.
Nehemiah went to the king and told him that he would like to go to Jerusalem and repair the city walls. The king liked Nehemiah so he gave him permission to go. The king gave Nehemiah a letter to show all of the Jews and all of the neighbours around Jerusalem. The letter said that Nehemiah was in charge of the walls. The king also sent some marching soldiers and some soldiers on horses along with Nehemiah.
When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem he made a special trip around the city to have a look at the walls. He wanted to see things himself without anyone else around, so he went alone at night. He rode a horse all around the walls and saw everything that needed to be fixed.
Soon Nehemiah organised everyone to work on the wall. The Jews wanted the have a wall around their city so lots of people volunteered to help. At first everyone worked very hard but soon their work was interrupted. Neighbours from other cities came and started bothering the workers. They made fun of them and said that they did not know how to build walls. But the workers did not stop. Nehemiah kept praying that God would help them keep on doing the right thing even if people made fun of them.
Next the neighbours decided to attack the workers to make them stop. When Nehemiah heard about that plan he started making sure that there were always guards (all day and all night) to protect the workers when they were busy at the walls.
Even some of the Jews made the workers want to stop rebuilding the walls. Some of the rich Jews started cheating some of the poor Jews. The workers wanted to stop and help the poor people. But Nehemiah called all of the cheaters together and told them that they had to give back the money. Soon everyone got back to work.
When the neighbours saw that the wall was getting taller every day, they decided to try to hurt Nehemiah. They sent him messages telling him to meet them alone, outside of the town. Nehemiah told them that he would not stop working on the walls.
No matter what people did to try to stop Nehemiah, he just kept on working. He knew it was the right thing to do. Finally, the wall was finished. Nehemiah had never stopped doing the right thing – even when people tried to stop him.
All of the Jews had a special day of celebration. Ezra, the priest, stood on a high wooden platform and read from the Book of the Law of God. As soon as he began reading, the people all stood up to show respect for the word of God. Ezra read from the law from sunrise until noon. Everyone was thankful to God and what he had done for them.
- Who was the cupbearer to the king? Nehemiah
- What part of Jerusalem did Nehemiah rebuild? The city walls
- Why did the neighbours make fun of the workers? To try to get them to stop working on the city walls.
What did Ezra stand on a platform and do from sunrise until noon? He read out loud from the Law of God
- Oh Be Careful Song
- I’m in the Lord’s Army Song
- Books of the Old Testament Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Bring wooden blocks to class to build/rebuild the walls surrounding Jerusalem. Older children could use a deck of cards to build their walls.
- Write situations on cards (or tell non-readers) and let the children draw cards and act out the situations using their own ending. They could try both good and bad endings and let the others guess which it is. Example situation: “the new girl in class drops all of her books in front of everyone. You begin to help her pick them up and then everyone laughs at you and tells you to stop being friends with a ‘loser’. The child that draws that card can call on others to help him/her act it out.
- Use bible encyclopaedias and commentaries to learn about city walls.
- Sing “The Joy of the Lord is Your Strength” & The Books of the Old Testament.
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Nehemiah’s Prayer and Reviewing of the Wall (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-rebuilding and completion of the wall (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Ezra reads the law (Calvary Curriculum)
- Chart: Chronology of Judah’s Return at http://www.biblecharts.org/ | <urn:uuid:d4e5d90b-2871-43b6-aeba-f0a9f9209616> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://missionbibleclass.org/old-testament/part2/kingdom-ends-captivity-return-prophets/return-to-jerusalem-rebuilding-the-walls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.980609 | 2,009 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.199017494916... | 7 | Scripture Reference: Nehemiah 1-8
Suggested Emphasis: Continue to do what is right even if people try to stop us.
After nearly one hundred years back in Jerusalem, the city walls were still in ruins. Nehemiah was the cupbearer to King Artaxerxes. He asked the king for help and went to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls. The neighbouring countries complained and threatened Nehemiah, trying to distract him, but he kept to his purpose and finished the job.
In 445 B.C. when Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, Jewish exiles from Babylonia had been there for nearly one hundred years. Some improvements in the city had been made. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a new temple had been built. Under the leadership of the scribe, Ezra, the Law of Moses had been brought back into force. But the walls and gates of the city were much as the Babylonians had left them after sacking the city in 586 B.C.
Nehemiah’s moonlight inspection around the city’s south end confirmed what he had been told earlier by his brother Hanani: no one yet had assumed the leadership in repairing Jerusalem’s defences. Taking advantage of his position as an official in the Persian court, Nehemiah had asked King Artaxerxes I for permission to return to his homeland and for help in rebuilding Jerusalem’s walls. Artaxerxes granted these requests.
The Jews in Jerusalem readily agreed to cooperate with Nehemiah’s plan. But some others were not so pleased by it. The leader of the opposition was Sanballat, governor of Samaria (north of Judah). Sanballat’s main allies were Tobiah, governor of Ammon (east of Judah), and Geshem, leader of a league of Arab tribes that had occupied Moab and Edom (southeast of Judah).
Virtually surrounding Judah, these enemies did not ridicule Judah to be humorous. Their mocking was meant to threaten. They knew that rebuilt walls around Jerusalem might signal a rise in Judah’s military might – and a danger to themselves.
Nehemiah’s purpose for rebuilding the walls was not primarily to end the city’s vulnerability. He wanted to end the disgrace to God caused by the holy city’s being partly in disrepair. Even though opposition to the rebuilding intensified, the Jews persevered. And in a remarkably short period, by early October 445 B.C., they made the defences whole again. Their success brought honour to God in the eyes of the very people who had been their opponents.
After the walls were completed Nehemiah encouraged the people to settle in the city. Finally, all of the people assembled and Ezra read the word of the Lord as they stood and listened. Many people wept at this sacred occasion but Nehemiah told them to celebrate and enjoy. “Do not grieve, for the joy of the Lord is your strength” (Nehemiah 8:10).
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
Play a version of “red light/green light. Tell the children that you will call out the name of a good activity (something that makes God happy). When you hold up the green light (a circle of green paper) they are to act out the good thing. When you hold up the red light (a circle of red paper) they are to “freeze” and stop doing the good thing until you hold the green light up again. “Good things” might include things like sweeping the floor to help mom, washing the dishes, picking flowers for someone, writing a note of encouragement on the computer, etc. After a few rounds talk about the fact that God likes us to do good things but sometimes people try to stop us. It’s like they are the red light.
Nehemiah was a Jew but he did not live in Jerusalem. He lived in Persia where he worked in the palace. Nehemiah had a very important job. He was the cupbearer for the king. Sometimes bad people put poison in the king’s drinking cup. Nehemiah’s job was to always taste the drink first to make sure there was no poison
Even though Nehemiah had never been to Jerusalem he really wanted to go. His brother had been to Jerusalem and had told Nehemiah all about it. Nehemiah’s brother said that even though the temple had been built in Jerusalem there was something very important still missing. The big wall that used to surround Jerusalem still needed to be fixed. It was falling down and crumbled.
Nehemiah went to the king and told him that he would like to go to Jerusalem and repair the city walls. The king liked Nehemiah so he gave him permission to go. The king gave Nehemiah a letter to show all of the Jews and all of the neighbours around Jerusalem. The letter said that Nehemiah was in charge of the walls. The king also sent some marching soldiers and some soldiers on horses along with Nehemiah.
When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem he made a special trip around the city to have a look at the walls. He wanted to see things himself without anyone else around, so he went alone at night. He rode a horse all around the walls and saw everything that needed to be fixed.
Soon Nehemiah organised everyone to work on the wall. The Jews wanted the have a wall around their city so lots of people volunteered to help. At first everyone worked very hard but soon their work was interrupted. Neighbours from other cities came and started bothering the workers. They made fun of them and said that they did not know how to build walls. But the workers did not stop. Nehemiah kept praying that God would help them keep on doing the right thing even if people made fun of them.
Next the neighbours decided to attack the workers to make them stop. When Nehemiah heard about that plan he started making sure that there were always guards (all day and all night) to protect the workers when they were busy at the walls.
Even some of the Jews made the workers want to stop rebuilding the walls. Some of the rich Jews started cheating some of the poor Jews. The workers wanted to stop and help the poor people. But Nehemiah called all of the cheaters together and told them that they had to give back the money. Soon everyone got back to work.
When the neighbours saw that the wall was getting taller every day, they decided to try to hurt Nehemiah. They sent him messages telling him to meet them alone, outside of the town. Nehemiah told them that he would not stop working on the walls.
No matter what people did to try to stop Nehemiah, he just kept on working. He knew it was the right thing to do. Finally, the wall was finished. Nehemiah had never stopped doing the right thing – even when people tried to stop him.
All of the Jews had a special day of celebration. Ezra, the priest, stood on a high wooden platform and read from the Book of the Law of God. As soon as he began reading, the people all stood up to show respect for the word of God. Ezra read from the law from sunrise until noon. Everyone was thankful to God and what he had done for them.
- Who was the cupbearer to the king? Nehemiah
- What part of Jerusalem did Nehemiah rebuild? The city walls
- Why did the neighbours make fun of the workers? To try to get them to stop working on the city walls.
What did Ezra stand on a platform and do from sunrise until noon? He read out loud from the Law of God
- Oh Be Careful Song
- I’m in the Lord’s Army Song
- Books of the Old Testament Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Bring wooden blocks to class to build/rebuild the walls surrounding Jerusalem. Older children could use a deck of cards to build their walls.
- Write situations on cards (or tell non-readers) and let the children draw cards and act out the situations using their own ending. They could try both good and bad endings and let the others guess which it is. Example situation: “the new girl in class drops all of her books in front of everyone. You begin to help her pick them up and then everyone laughs at you and tells you to stop being friends with a ‘loser’. The child that draws that card can call on others to help him/her act it out.
- Use bible encyclopaedias and commentaries to learn about city walls.
- Sing “The Joy of the Lord is Your Strength” & The Books of the Old Testament.
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Nehemiah’s Prayer and Reviewing of the Wall (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-rebuilding and completion of the wall (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Ezra reads the law (Calvary Curriculum)
- Chart: Chronology of Judah’s Return at http://www.biblecharts.org/ | 1,888 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jackie Robinson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Jackie Robinson was the first African American to play in the Major League Baseball league in the 1940s. This happened after years of racial separation within the sport in the US.
Jackie Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, in the Cairo City of Georgia, USA. His original name was Jack Roosevelt Robinson. Born in a family of sharecroppers, Robinson grew up with his four other siblings under the care of their single mother. In 1920 they moved to Pasadena in California after their father abandoned the family.
Robinson enrolled at the Washington Junior High School graduating in 1935. He studied at the John Muir High School, and later went to Pasadena Junior College. In 1939 he joined the University of California in Los Angeles or UCLA. He did not complete his degree studies. In 1940 he abandoned his studies for a government job at Atascadero, California.
In 1941 he joined the American football league in Honolulu as a semi-professional player. He cut short his career after the entry of the US into WW2.
Robinson enlisted into the US Army in 1942. In January 1943 Robinson became a second lieutenant of the US Army. In July 1944 he came face to face with the racial upheaval in the army. He was commanded to sit at the back of a bus, to give way for another white officer’s wife at the front. Robinson refused to obey the order, terming it racist. In August 1944 the court-martial exonerated him of the multiple charges. Robinson was honorably discharged in November 1944.
In his military career, he never engaged in combat. When his unit was deployed for combat, Robinson remained behind to face his court-martial proceedings. Still, in the army, he served as the army athletics team coach after his acquittal from the court charges.
Soon after leaving the army, he joined a Negro professional baseball league. In 1946 he joined the Montreal Royals. This was a white only team. As the feeder team to the Brooklyn Dodgers, Robinson got the opportunity to scale up the ladder into the major league. With the support of the team’s president, Robinson managed to steer away from the racial prejudice he faced at the start of his career. He got racial slurs from his teammates and the white crowds on the field. On the extreme part, his family got threatened with racial instigated violence. He was promoted to the Brooklyn Dodgers first team in 1947. He became the first Negro player to grace the white Major League Baseball since the turn of the century.
In the wake of the racial intimidation form all sectors, Robinson became the Rookie of the Year in 1947. After proving his worth on the field, Robinson silenced most of his critics. In 1949 he became the league’s Most Valuable Player. He continued playing impressive seasons for the Dodgers until 1955. After a trophy drought for four seasons, Robinson helped his team win the 1955 World Series title. Dodgers celebrated the victory over their arch-rivals the New York Yankees. In 1956 he moved to the New York Giants baseball team. In 1957 he retired from the game at the end of the season after a decade long career.
Robinson continued his fight for racial equality in the business world. He promoted the black-owned businesses through the formation of the Freedom Bank. This was an African American privately owned commercial bank.
In politics, he joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or NAACP. He became a board member up to 1967. He used his celebrity status to fight for the greater integration of the black players in the segregated sports in American leagues.
He was also a vocal figure in the fight against drugs in the American youth. Robinson lost one of his sons due to drug abuse related issues.
He got married to Rachel Robinson while still a student at the UCLA. They had three children in their union.
After a fight with failing health, Robinson died on October 24, 1972, of a cardiac arrest in Connecticut. He was buried at the Cypress Hills Cemetery in New York.
Rachel Robinson started the Jackie Robinson foundation soon after his death. The US Postal Service released a stamp bearing his portrait. Several parks and streets in the US are named after him. Former US President Bill Clinton posthumously honored him in a somber ceremony in New York. The Major Baseball League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed Jackie Robinson Award. | <urn:uuid:fc177920-aa9e-4701-b145-8e7617c9e767> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/jackie-robinson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.982957 | 915 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.17494836449623108,... | 9 | Jackie Robinson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Jackie Robinson was the first African American to play in the Major League Baseball league in the 1940s. This happened after years of racial separation within the sport in the US.
Jackie Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, in the Cairo City of Georgia, USA. His original name was Jack Roosevelt Robinson. Born in a family of sharecroppers, Robinson grew up with his four other siblings under the care of their single mother. In 1920 they moved to Pasadena in California after their father abandoned the family.
Robinson enrolled at the Washington Junior High School graduating in 1935. He studied at the John Muir High School, and later went to Pasadena Junior College. In 1939 he joined the University of California in Los Angeles or UCLA. He did not complete his degree studies. In 1940 he abandoned his studies for a government job at Atascadero, California.
In 1941 he joined the American football league in Honolulu as a semi-professional player. He cut short his career after the entry of the US into WW2.
Robinson enlisted into the US Army in 1942. In January 1943 Robinson became a second lieutenant of the US Army. In July 1944 he came face to face with the racial upheaval in the army. He was commanded to sit at the back of a bus, to give way for another white officer’s wife at the front. Robinson refused to obey the order, terming it racist. In August 1944 the court-martial exonerated him of the multiple charges. Robinson was honorably discharged in November 1944.
In his military career, he never engaged in combat. When his unit was deployed for combat, Robinson remained behind to face his court-martial proceedings. Still, in the army, he served as the army athletics team coach after his acquittal from the court charges.
Soon after leaving the army, he joined a Negro professional baseball league. In 1946 he joined the Montreal Royals. This was a white only team. As the feeder team to the Brooklyn Dodgers, Robinson got the opportunity to scale up the ladder into the major league. With the support of the team’s president, Robinson managed to steer away from the racial prejudice he faced at the start of his career. He got racial slurs from his teammates and the white crowds on the field. On the extreme part, his family got threatened with racial instigated violence. He was promoted to the Brooklyn Dodgers first team in 1947. He became the first Negro player to grace the white Major League Baseball since the turn of the century.
In the wake of the racial intimidation form all sectors, Robinson became the Rookie of the Year in 1947. After proving his worth on the field, Robinson silenced most of his critics. In 1949 he became the league’s Most Valuable Player. He continued playing impressive seasons for the Dodgers until 1955. After a trophy drought for four seasons, Robinson helped his team win the 1955 World Series title. Dodgers celebrated the victory over their arch-rivals the New York Yankees. In 1956 he moved to the New York Giants baseball team. In 1957 he retired from the game at the end of the season after a decade long career.
Robinson continued his fight for racial equality in the business world. He promoted the black-owned businesses through the formation of the Freedom Bank. This was an African American privately owned commercial bank.
In politics, he joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or NAACP. He became a board member up to 1967. He used his celebrity status to fight for the greater integration of the black players in the segregated sports in American leagues.
He was also a vocal figure in the fight against drugs in the American youth. Robinson lost one of his sons due to drug abuse related issues.
He got married to Rachel Robinson while still a student at the UCLA. They had three children in their union.
After a fight with failing health, Robinson died on October 24, 1972, of a cardiac arrest in Connecticut. He was buried at the Cypress Hills Cemetery in New York.
Rachel Robinson started the Jackie Robinson foundation soon after his death. The US Postal Service released a stamp bearing his portrait. Several parks and streets in the US are named after him. Former US President Bill Clinton posthumously honored him in a somber ceremony in New York. The Major Baseball League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed Jackie Robinson Award. | 981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Debbie has begun presenting letters at circle. Each day, we see the letter, hear what sound that letter makes, practice sky writing the letter and find words that begin with that letter sound. This exposes the children to letters and their purpose as well as gets them excited about letter lessons with the sandpaper letters.
Debbie shared the letter “m” at circle. Voices called out “M!” Many children made an “mm” or “ma” sound. One friend was called on to identify the letter; he promptly made the sound. Debbie clarified, “That is the sound this letter makes, but what is its name?” Another friend waved their hand frantically in the air. Debbie called on that friend, but before she even finished saying his name he was calling out “M! It’s m!” She laughed and said he was absolutely right. Everyone stood up and traced a giant lowercase m in the air. Children raised their hands and offered words that began with m. Two friends in the class have names that begin with m, siblings with names that begin with m, and even the word mom. The circle was abuzz with the hum of “mmm”. | <urn:uuid:55956f61-71d6-4415-a921-ce26225f7be0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pinegrovecenter.com/single-post/2017/10/26/Pre-Primary-A-Letter-A-Day%E2%80%A6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.980451 | 256 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.20611087977886... | 4 | Debbie has begun presenting letters at circle. Each day, we see the letter, hear what sound that letter makes, practice sky writing the letter and find words that begin with that letter sound. This exposes the children to letters and their purpose as well as gets them excited about letter lessons with the sandpaper letters.
Debbie shared the letter “m” at circle. Voices called out “M!” Many children made an “mm” or “ma” sound. One friend was called on to identify the letter; he promptly made the sound. Debbie clarified, “That is the sound this letter makes, but what is its name?” Another friend waved their hand frantically in the air. Debbie called on that friend, but before she even finished saying his name he was calling out “M! It’s m!” She laughed and said he was absolutely right. Everyone stood up and traced a giant lowercase m in the air. Children raised their hands and offered words that began with m. Two friends in the class have names that begin with m, siblings with names that begin with m, and even the word mom. The circle was abuzz with the hum of “mmm”. | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In William Golding's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies, a group of British schoolboys are stranded on a deserted island after a plane crash. Two of the boys are excluded and ostracised from the group. These two boys, Piggy and Simon, are different from the other boys for two reasons. Firstly, they both suffer from a disability (in Simon's case, epilepsy. In Piggy's case, asthma, myopia, and he is overweight). Secondly, both boys are wise beyond their years and show maturity for their age. Additionally, they are kinder and possess more morality than the others. The boys' exclusion speaks volumes about society's attitudes towards disabled people, those who know more than the average person, and people who are different to the majority.
First of all, both Piggy and Simon are disabled. Piggy is near-sighted and wears thick glasses, he is overweight and he has asthma. Asthma is often associated with the stereotype of the nonathletic nerd (which actually fits Piggy quite well). Because of his asthma, Piggy cannot blow the conch, and he finds it very difficult to keep up with the other, healthier boys. None of the other boys attempt to help him keep up or slow down with him. This shows how the world does not seem to care about those with disabilities, and the world is made much harder for them, just like living on the island is harder for poor little Piggy. Although it is not stated outright in the text, it is assumed that Simon is epileptic. If we want to get specific, Simon probably has temporal lobe epilepsy. This is evidenced by his fainting spells, common in epilepsy patients. After his Lord of the Flies hallucination he has a seizure-like event, with Golding writing that "Simon's head wobbled" and "his eyes were half-closed", which are common things that happen during seizures. This has almost definitely happened to Simon before, as he mentions, "one of his times is coming on". | <urn:uuid:7e111171-eced-4443-b4c4-0096596525c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/216133.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.982114 | 415 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.74727857112884... | 6 | In William Golding's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies, a group of British schoolboys are stranded on a deserted island after a plane crash. Two of the boys are excluded and ostracised from the group. These two boys, Piggy and Simon, are different from the other boys for two reasons. Firstly, they both suffer from a disability (in Simon's case, epilepsy. In Piggy's case, asthma, myopia, and he is overweight). Secondly, both boys are wise beyond their years and show maturity for their age. Additionally, they are kinder and possess more morality than the others. The boys' exclusion speaks volumes about society's attitudes towards disabled people, those who know more than the average person, and people who are different to the majority.
First of all, both Piggy and Simon are disabled. Piggy is near-sighted and wears thick glasses, he is overweight and he has asthma. Asthma is often associated with the stereotype of the nonathletic nerd (which actually fits Piggy quite well). Because of his asthma, Piggy cannot blow the conch, and he finds it very difficult to keep up with the other, healthier boys. None of the other boys attempt to help him keep up or slow down with him. This shows how the world does not seem to care about those with disabilities, and the world is made much harder for them, just like living on the island is harder for poor little Piggy. Although it is not stated outright in the text, it is assumed that Simon is epileptic. If we want to get specific, Simon probably has temporal lobe epilepsy. This is evidenced by his fainting spells, common in epilepsy patients. After his Lord of the Flies hallucination he has a seizure-like event, with Golding writing that "Simon's head wobbled" and "his eyes were half-closed", which are common things that happen during seizures. This has almost definitely happened to Simon before, as he mentions, "one of his times is coming on". | 416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1 Kings 3:3-28
Suggested Emphasis: Learn to be wise.
Memory Verse: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” Psalm 111:10a
After David’s death, his son, Solomon, became king. The Lord appeared to Solomon in a dream and told him to ask for anything he wanted. Solomon did not ask for selfish things but instead, he asked for wisdom so he could be a good king for the people. God granted Solomon his request. He judged many cases such as the time two women claimed that they were the mother of a baby. When Solomon said he would cut the baby in two so each woman would have an equal share. To save the baby, the real mother said that the other woman could have the baby. By this Solomon knew who the real mother was. These types of judgment and the great Proverbs that Solomon wrote made him famous for his wisdom.
The books of Chronicles record many of the same events that are found in the books of Samuel and the Kings. All of these books cover the time of the United Kingdom (when all of Israel was united and operated as one kingdom) and the Divided Kingdom (when Israel was divided into two parts – Israel and Judah – and operated as two kingdoms). 1 Chronicles 1 is a parallel passage to part of today’s story.
- Solomon Becomes King (1 Kings 2:10-12)
- Solomon Asks God for Wisdom (I Kings 3:5-15)
- Solomon Makes A Wise Decision for Two Women (1 Kings 3:16-28)
- A Description of Solomon’s Wisdom (1 Kings 4:29-34)
David was King for forty years. His rule was, for the most part, wise and just. An excellent military leader, he conquered the city of Jerusalem and made it his capital. When he died, his son Solomon inherited a powerful empire. The ancient tabernacle had been moved to Gibeon, a few miles northwest of Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 1:3). Early in his reign Solomon went there to offer a great sacrifice to the Lord.
Solomon’s dream was not like most of ours. Although he was asleep, God actually talked with him. He told Solomon to ask for anything he wanted.
Solomon began by showing that he was thankful for all God had done for David, Solomon’s father. God had kept him safe through many dangers, had made him king of Israel, had helped him defeat his enemies and build a great empire, and had given him a son, Solomon, to take his place as king.
As king, Solomon was to guide and direct a whole nation – more people than he could count. He knew he could not rule them well without help from God.
This was Solomon’s greatest wish. He wanted the knowledge and wisdom to rule his people well, to know what was right and what was wrong.
The Lord was pleased because Solomon was not selfish. He was thinking of the people. If Solomon had been thinking of himself, he might have asked to be allowed to live and rule a long time. He had inherited wealth from his father, but rich people often want more riches. And kings generally wish destruction upon their enemies. However, Solomon wanted what was good for his people. They needed a king wise enough to rule justly.
Solomon got what he asked for. He was wiser than anyone before or after. Thousands of years have passed, and still he is thought of as the wisest man who ever lived.
Solomon got even more than he asked. In riches as well as wisdom he “was greater … than all the other kings of the earth” (1 Kings 10:23). “The whole world” honoured him by coming to hear his wisdom and bringing costly gifts (1 Kings 10:24-25). Read more about his wealth in 1 Kings 10:14-29.
God also offered a long life – for which Solomon had not asked – but there was a condition with this promise. Solomon was to obey God’s laws as David had done. In later years, Solomon became careless (1 Kings 11:1-10). His life may have been shortened, and yet he lived to rule for forty years (11:42). In his time, the kingdom of Israel was richer and more powerful than it had been at any time before or has been since.
Although it is not covered in today’s story, it is unfortunate to note that Solomon’s wisdom did not keep him from sinning in later life. It seems that his 700 wives and 300 concubines led him astray in his old age (1 Kings 11:1-13).
Someone has said that wisdom is the ability to know how, when and where to put knowledge into action.
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
“If the Lord came to you in a dream and told you that you could have anything that you want, what would you ask for?” (Let the children answer) “Today we are going to learn about a man that could have asked for anything he wanted. He was the king of a country. What do you think he asked for? Let’s listen to the story and find out who he was and what he asked for.”
David was very old. He had been king of Israel for forty years. He had been a good king who tried to serve God. Even when he made mistakes, David was always sorry and tried to do better. The Lord knew that David had a good heart.
David was about to die. He told his son Solomon to be the new king.
“Always follow the Lord, Solomon. Obey His commands,” David told his son. And then David died.
When Solomon became king he prayed to God and said, “Oh, Lord, I want to be a good king. I want to serve the people and help them. Please give me a wise heart so that I can always tell the difference between right and wrong. Help me to be a wise king for the people.”
God answered Solomon’s prayer. Solomon became known everywhere as a very wise ruler. He was also very rich and famous. People came from everywhere to talk to Wise King Solomon. They would tell Solomon their problems and he would give them wise advice to help them.
Once, there were two women who lived in the same house. Each woman had a baby of her own and at night the babies would sleep in the same bed with their mothers.
One night while the women were sleeping the first woman accidently rolled over on top of her baby. Sadly, her baby died.
The woman wanted a baby so much that she decided to take someone else’s baby. She quietly snuck into the second woman’s room and switched the babies. When the second mother woke up she found the dead baby beside her in the bed. At first she thought it was her baby that was dead but then she realized that she had been tricked. She wanted her baby back!
The two women went to king Solomon. The second woman told him what had happened.
She said, “It is my baby, I want my baby back!”
The other mother said, “No! It is MY baby. You can’t have it!”
Everyone looked at Solomon. How could he ever know which woman the baby belonged to? But remember, God gave Solomon special wisdom.
Because Solomon was wise he had an idea for finding out the truth. He ordered one of his servants to bring him a sword. Then Solomon said, “I order that the baby be cut in half with this sword.”
The first woman said, “Okay, that’s fair. The baby should be cut in half. That way neither of us will have more than the other.”
But the other woman looked very sad. “No, do not cut the baby in half! I love the baby too much to see it hurt. I would rather the other woman have my baby. I do not want my baby to die.”
Solomon had done a very wise thing. Now he knew which one of these was the real mother and which was not. A mother loves her baby very much and would never want it hurt. Solomon gave the baby to its true mother.
Everyone saw that Solomon really was wise. Everyone knew that God had given him special wisdom.
Ways to Tell the Story:
This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion.
Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods.
Click here to download the slideshow or click here to download the pictures to print. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson.
- Which son of David’s became king after David died? Solomon
- Who came to Solomon in a dream? The Lord
- What did Solomon ask the Lord to give him? Wisdom so he could be a good king
- When two women were fighting over a baby, why did Solomon say the baby should be cut in half? So that he could find out who the real mother was
- God is Listening When We Pray (Song) English/Cubuano
- Books of the Old Testament Song
- Read Your Bible, Pray Every Day Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Choose some favourite Proverbs and read them in class.
- Read 1 Chronicles 28:9 and discuss David’s advice to his son, Solomon.
- Discuss James 1:5 and then pray.
- Set up a courtroom scene and act out the story of the two women. You could use a crown and a doll as props.
- (Costumed Bible Characters) A little play-acting is often a fun way to tell the story or review what has been learned. Here are some ways you might use the idea:
- After telling the story guide the children in dressing up in costumes and acting it out.
- Or, you can dress up in a simple costume to act the part of one of the Bible characters. As you begin to speak “get into character” as if you were actually the person in the story visiting the class today to tell them what has happened to you.
- Or, later in the class session, as a review, the teacher can also use the same method to ask the children review questions as if you are one of the characters in the story talking to the children.
- Make a poster of a Proverb. Decorate it with paints.
- Draw a large crown and write “SOLOMON” on it. Write words on the crown that describe Solomon (wise, dream, son of David, son of Bathsheba, etc.). Add to this next week.
- Make a scroll. Click here for instructions. Write this verse on it: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” Psalm 111:10a, NIV
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Solomon made king (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Solomon asks God for wisdom (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets- Solomon’s wisdom judging between two mothers (Calvary Curriculum)
- Craft: Instructions for a simple paper crown at http://www.dltk-kids.com/
- Craft: Doorknob hanger from http://www.sundayschoolcrafts.net/
- Worksheets: There are a number of Old Testament worksheets on the following link. You will need to scroll down quite far to “Samuel/Kings/Chronicles Sunday School Worksheets” and then scroll down to the next one- “King Solomon”. The link is http://www.squidoo.com/
- Online activities and games at http://gardenofpraise.com/ | <urn:uuid:f4185f40-3b29-423a-bb14-c72984387faf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://missionbibleclass.org/old-testament/part2/united-kingdom/wise-king-solomon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.983663 | 2,655 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Suggested Emphasis: Learn to be wise.
Memory Verse: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” Psalm 111:10a
After David’s death, his son, Solomon, became king. The Lord appeared to Solomon in a dream and told him to ask for anything he wanted. Solomon did not ask for selfish things but instead, he asked for wisdom so he could be a good king for the people. God granted Solomon his request. He judged many cases such as the time two women claimed that they were the mother of a baby. When Solomon said he would cut the baby in two so each woman would have an equal share. To save the baby, the real mother said that the other woman could have the baby. By this Solomon knew who the real mother was. These types of judgment and the great Proverbs that Solomon wrote made him famous for his wisdom.
The books of Chronicles record many of the same events that are found in the books of Samuel and the Kings. All of these books cover the time of the United Kingdom (when all of Israel was united and operated as one kingdom) and the Divided Kingdom (when Israel was divided into two parts – Israel and Judah – and operated as two kingdoms). 1 Chronicles 1 is a parallel passage to part of today’s story.
- Solomon Becomes King (1 Kings 2:10-12)
- Solomon Asks God for Wisdom (I Kings 3:5-15)
- Solomon Makes A Wise Decision for Two Women (1 Kings 3:16-28)
- A Description of Solomon’s Wisdom (1 Kings 4:29-34)
David was King for forty years. His rule was, for the most part, wise and just. An excellent military leader, he conquered the city of Jerusalem and made it his capital. When he died, his son Solomon inherited a powerful empire. The ancient tabernacle had been moved to Gibeon, a few miles northwest of Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 1:3). Early in his reign Solomon went there to offer a great sacrifice to the Lord.
Solomon’s dream was not like most of ours. Although he was asleep, God actually talked with him. He told Solomon to ask for anything he wanted.
Solomon began by showing that he was thankful for all God had done for David, Solomon’s father. God had kept him safe through many dangers, had made him king of Israel, had helped him defeat his enemies and build a great empire, and had given him a son, Solomon, to take his place as king.
As king, Solomon was to guide and direct a whole nation – more people than he could count. He knew he could not rule them well without help from God.
This was Solomon’s greatest wish. He wanted the knowledge and wisdom to rule his people well, to know what was right and what was wrong.
The Lord was pleased because Solomon was not selfish. He was thinking of the people. If Solomon had been thinking of himself, he might have asked to be allowed to live and rule a long time. He had inherited wealth from his father, but rich people often want more riches. And kings generally wish destruction upon their enemies. However, Solomon wanted what was good for his people. They needed a king wise enough to rule justly.
Solomon got what he asked for. He was wiser than anyone before or after. Thousands of years have passed, and still he is thought of as the wisest man who ever lived.
Solomon got even more than he asked. In riches as well as wisdom he “was greater … than all the other kings of the earth” (1 Kings 10:23). “The whole world” honoured him by coming to hear his wisdom and bringing costly gifts (1 Kings 10:24-25). Read more about his wealth in 1 Kings 10:14-29.
God also offered a long life – for which Solomon had not asked – but there was a condition with this promise. Solomon was to obey God’s laws as David had done. In later years, Solomon became careless (1 Kings 11:1-10). His life may have been shortened, and yet he lived to rule for forty years (11:42). In his time, the kingdom of Israel was richer and more powerful than it had been at any time before or has been since.
Although it is not covered in today’s story, it is unfortunate to note that Solomon’s wisdom did not keep him from sinning in later life. It seems that his 700 wives and 300 concubines led him astray in his old age (1 Kings 11:1-13).
Someone has said that wisdom is the ability to know how, when and where to put knowledge into action.
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
“If the Lord came to you in a dream and told you that you could have anything that you want, what would you ask for?” (Let the children answer) “Today we are going to learn about a man that could have asked for anything he wanted. He was the king of a country. What do you think he asked for? Let’s listen to the story and find out who he was and what he asked for.”
David was very old. He had been king of Israel for forty years. He had been a good king who tried to serve God. Even when he made mistakes, David was always sorry and tried to do better. The Lord knew that David had a good heart.
David was about to die. He told his son Solomon to be the new king.
“Always follow the Lord, Solomon. Obey His commands,” David told his son. And then David died.
When Solomon became king he prayed to God and said, “Oh, Lord, I want to be a good king. I want to serve the people and help them. Please give me a wise heart so that I can always tell the difference between right and wrong. Help me to be a wise king for the people.”
God answered Solomon’s prayer. Solomon became known everywhere as a very wise ruler. He was also very rich and famous. People came from everywhere to talk to Wise King Solomon. They would tell Solomon their problems and he would give them wise advice to help them.
Once, there were two women who lived in the same house. Each woman had a baby of her own and at night the babies would sleep in the same bed with their mothers.
One night while the women were sleeping the first woman accidently rolled over on top of her baby. Sadly, her baby died.
The woman wanted a baby so much that she decided to take someone else’s baby. She quietly snuck into the second woman’s room and switched the babies. When the second mother woke up she found the dead baby beside her in the bed. At first she thought it was her baby that was dead but then she realized that she had been tricked. She wanted her baby back!
The two women went to king Solomon. The second woman told him what had happened.
She said, “It is my baby, I want my baby back!”
The other mother said, “No! It is MY baby. You can’t have it!”
Everyone looked at Solomon. How could he ever know which woman the baby belonged to? But remember, God gave Solomon special wisdom.
Because Solomon was wise he had an idea for finding out the truth. He ordered one of his servants to bring him a sword. Then Solomon said, “I order that the baby be cut in half with this sword.”
The first woman said, “Okay, that’s fair. The baby should be cut in half. That way neither of us will have more than the other.”
But the other woman looked very sad. “No, do not cut the baby in half! I love the baby too much to see it hurt. I would rather the other woman have my baby. I do not want my baby to die.”
Solomon had done a very wise thing. Now he knew which one of these was the real mother and which was not. A mother loves her baby very much and would never want it hurt. Solomon gave the baby to its true mother.
Everyone saw that Solomon really was wise. Everyone knew that God had given him special wisdom.
Ways to Tell the Story:
This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion.
Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods.
Click here to download the slideshow or click here to download the pictures to print. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson.
- Which son of David’s became king after David died? Solomon
- Who came to Solomon in a dream? The Lord
- What did Solomon ask the Lord to give him? Wisdom so he could be a good king
- When two women were fighting over a baby, why did Solomon say the baby should be cut in half? So that he could find out who the real mother was
- God is Listening When We Pray (Song) English/Cubuano
- Books of the Old Testament Song
- Read Your Bible, Pray Every Day Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Choose some favourite Proverbs and read them in class.
- Read 1 Chronicles 28:9 and discuss David’s advice to his son, Solomon.
- Discuss James 1:5 and then pray.
- Set up a courtroom scene and act out the story of the two women. You could use a crown and a doll as props.
- (Costumed Bible Characters) A little play-acting is often a fun way to tell the story or review what has been learned. Here are some ways you might use the idea:
- After telling the story guide the children in dressing up in costumes and acting it out.
- Or, you can dress up in a simple costume to act the part of one of the Bible characters. As you begin to speak “get into character” as if you were actually the person in the story visiting the class today to tell them what has happened to you.
- Or, later in the class session, as a review, the teacher can also use the same method to ask the children review questions as if you are one of the characters in the story talking to the children.
- Make a poster of a Proverb. Decorate it with paints.
- Draw a large crown and write “SOLOMON” on it. Write words on the crown that describe Solomon (wise, dream, son of David, son of Bathsheba, etc.). Add to this next week.
- Make a scroll. Click here for instructions. Write this verse on it: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” Psalm 111:10a, NIV
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Solomon made king (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets-Solomon asks God for wisdom (Calvary Curriculum)
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets- Solomon’s wisdom judging between two mothers (Calvary Curriculum)
- Craft: Instructions for a simple paper crown at http://www.dltk-kids.com/
- Craft: Doorknob hanger from http://www.sundayschoolcrafts.net/
- Worksheets: There are a number of Old Testament worksheets on the following link. You will need to scroll down quite far to “Samuel/Kings/Chronicles Sunday School Worksheets” and then scroll down to the next one- “King Solomon”. The link is http://www.squidoo.com/
- Online activities and games at http://gardenofpraise.com/ | 2,531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is widely considered to be the ultimate Renaissance man. He dabbled in everything from astronomy to art to paleontology. Though only 15 or so of his paintings still exist, he’s called one of the greatest painters of all time. “The Last Supper” and “Mona Lisa” are arguably the most famous. However, he was also an inventor, though many of his ideas did not come into being during his lifetime. He was truly ahead of his time. Here are five of the most amazing da Vinci inventions:
A diving suit
While working in Venice, da Vinci drew a design of a diving suit that could be used during war. By wearing the suit underwater, soldiers could cut holes into the hulls of enemy ships. The suit would have been made of leather, with a jacket, pants, and mask with glass goggles. The wearer would breathe from air stored in a bulge in the jacket, while there was also a storage unit for urine and pockets for various tools. The suit was never made, however, and it wasn’t until the early 18th-century that inventors developed a pressure-proof diving suit for salvage work.
Many da Vinci inventions focus on flight. The man was determined to figure out how to fly or at least get close. Da Vinci designed the first parachute which consisted of a pyramid-shaped wooden structure with a cloth that would slow a person down as he plummeted to the ground. In 2000, skydiver Adrian Nichols build a prototype from da Vinci’s sketches and actually tested it by jumping from a hot air balloon. Experts said it wouldn’t work, but da Vinci’s design held up. Nichols floated down for almost a mile and a half.
A flying machine
Also known as the “Ornithopter,” da Vinci sketched a machine he hoped would give humans the ability to fly. To get the machine going, the pilot would lay down and pedal a crank attached to a rod-and-pulley. In response, the pair of wings would flap. While designed after the flight of birds and bats, experts believe the machine probably wouldn’t work very well. Da Vinci himself tested a flying machine in January of 1496, but it was unsuccessful.
Armored war tank
Da Vinci designed quite a few inventions meant for war. When employed by the Duke of Milan, da Vinci sketched a war machine with 36 guns. If it had been built, it would have been a terrifying sight on the battlefield. Interestingly enough, the diagram actually shows that the gears would make the front and back wheels move in opposite directions. Many historians believe da Vinici drew this on purpose, so if anyone else got their hands on the design and tried to replicate it, it wouldn’t work. Only da Vinci would know how to make it.
Not all da Vinci inventions were about war or flying. He actually designed a humanoid robot knight powered by gears, wheels, and cables. Based on drawings by da Vinci and an Italian scholar, the robot supposedly could sit, open and close its mouth, and lift its visor. The theory is that a noble family commissioned the robot for a party or exhibit. For five years, engineer and roboticist Mark Rosheim studied the sketches and other resources, recreating the robot in 2002. It was able to wave and walk. Rosheim went on to design robotic tech for NASA and the Department of Defense, often returning to da Vinci for inspiration.
Did you know that da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” hides a musical secret? And that a 1490 painting might include a UFO? Click here to read about hidden meanings in famous artwork. | <urn:uuid:cd3f42dd-a839-445d-a3b1-f578ece169c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gildshire.com/five-of-the-most-amazing-leonardo-da-vinci-inventions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.980462 | 792 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.3879194259... | 8 | Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is widely considered to be the ultimate Renaissance man. He dabbled in everything from astronomy to art to paleontology. Though only 15 or so of his paintings still exist, he’s called one of the greatest painters of all time. “The Last Supper” and “Mona Lisa” are arguably the most famous. However, he was also an inventor, though many of his ideas did not come into being during his lifetime. He was truly ahead of his time. Here are five of the most amazing da Vinci inventions:
A diving suit
While working in Venice, da Vinci drew a design of a diving suit that could be used during war. By wearing the suit underwater, soldiers could cut holes into the hulls of enemy ships. The suit would have been made of leather, with a jacket, pants, and mask with glass goggles. The wearer would breathe from air stored in a bulge in the jacket, while there was also a storage unit for urine and pockets for various tools. The suit was never made, however, and it wasn’t until the early 18th-century that inventors developed a pressure-proof diving suit for salvage work.
Many da Vinci inventions focus on flight. The man was determined to figure out how to fly or at least get close. Da Vinci designed the first parachute which consisted of a pyramid-shaped wooden structure with a cloth that would slow a person down as he plummeted to the ground. In 2000, skydiver Adrian Nichols build a prototype from da Vinci’s sketches and actually tested it by jumping from a hot air balloon. Experts said it wouldn’t work, but da Vinci’s design held up. Nichols floated down for almost a mile and a half.
A flying machine
Also known as the “Ornithopter,” da Vinci sketched a machine he hoped would give humans the ability to fly. To get the machine going, the pilot would lay down and pedal a crank attached to a rod-and-pulley. In response, the pair of wings would flap. While designed after the flight of birds and bats, experts believe the machine probably wouldn’t work very well. Da Vinci himself tested a flying machine in January of 1496, but it was unsuccessful.
Armored war tank
Da Vinci designed quite a few inventions meant for war. When employed by the Duke of Milan, da Vinci sketched a war machine with 36 guns. If it had been built, it would have been a terrifying sight on the battlefield. Interestingly enough, the diagram actually shows that the gears would make the front and back wheels move in opposite directions. Many historians believe da Vinici drew this on purpose, so if anyone else got their hands on the design and tried to replicate it, it wouldn’t work. Only da Vinci would know how to make it.
Not all da Vinci inventions were about war or flying. He actually designed a humanoid robot knight powered by gears, wheels, and cables. Based on drawings by da Vinci and an Italian scholar, the robot supposedly could sit, open and close its mouth, and lift its visor. The theory is that a noble family commissioned the robot for a party or exhibit. For five years, engineer and roboticist Mark Rosheim studied the sketches and other resources, recreating the robot in 2002. It was able to wave and walk. Rosheim went on to design robotic tech for NASA and the Department of Defense, often returning to da Vinci for inspiration.
Did you know that da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” hides a musical secret? And that a 1490 painting might include a UFO? Click here to read about hidden meanings in famous artwork. | 764 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Spitball, End Of A Baseball Era
One hundred years ago, Major League Baseball took steps to outlaw the controversial spitball. Some pitchers and owners thought they couldn’t win games without it, while others welcomed the decision as a way to sanitize the game and boost home runs in the Deadball Era. The final resolution was a happy medium that banned the use of artificial substances to alter the flight of a ball, but still allowed a select number of veteran pitchers to continue throwing the spitball until their retirement.
On February 9, 1920, a group of major league baseball executives who made up the rules committee came together to ban not just the spitball, but any delivery off the mound in which the surface of the ball was changed. Used by some hurlers in the 19th century, the spitball, as its name suggests, was a pitch in which a portion of the ball was dampened with saliva, gel, mud, or even scuffed, to change its behavior in the air. The spitball thrived after 1900 and was partly responsible for the low scoring games that were associated with the ‘Deadball Era’. Thrown in the same motion as a fastball, the doctored projectile created an inequality of air friction, which if launched correctly, sunk the ball at the plate. The result was that batters topped the ball on the swing, generating more grounders than flyballs and leading to fewer home runs and lower game scores.
Pitchers developed their spitball techniques because it won matches. The only two American League hurlers to win 40 games in a single season were both spitballers: Jack Chesbro of the New York Highlanders (1904) and Ed Walsh of the Chicago White Sox (1908). But for baseball team owners, gate receipts at the ballpark was the main goal. They were looking for more excitement on the field to draw in the crowds. There were other reasons cited to discontinue the spitball: it was unsanitary, hard to control, difficult to field, stressful on a pitcher’s arm, and even too dangerous. But these points were either minor, or simply rejected. The main argument for eliminating the freak deliveries was to inject more dynamism into a hit-and-run sport that was dominated by small ball tactics.
One of the events that was falsely attributed to the end of the spitball era was the death of Cleveland Indians’ shortstop, Ray Chapman. The only baseball player in history to be killed while on the field, Chapman was beaned at the plate on August 16, 1920 in a game against the New York Yankees. Hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays, he was rushed to the hospital where he died hours later. The official ban of the spitball had already been in place for six months and Chapman was most likely struck by a fastball. Witnesses described that he didn’t move to avoid the missile, which means that he probably couldn’t see the ball in the twilight of the late afternoon. A spitball would have also dropped to his shins or calves. Nevertheless, the tragedy did lead MLB to establish a rule requiring umpires to replace dirty balls. The batting helmet wouldn’t be made a requirement until the late 1950s.
It was Babe Ruth and his 29 electrifying home runs in 1919 that enthralled fans and helped lead team owners to implement rule changes to increase game scores and out-of-the-park launches. Another idea that was floated at the time but wasn’t adopted was punishing the intentional walk by advancing players that were already on-base. Team owners knew that fans hated the intentional walk, especially when players like Ruth were at the plate. The decision to outlaw the spitball was led by Charles Griffith, owner and Manager of the Washington Nationals. Other members of the committee that supported the decision were Bill Veeck of the Chicago Cubs, Barney Dreyfus of the Pittsburgh Pirates, and Connie Mack of the Philadelphia Athletics. Professional baseball then had 8 teams in each league and it was decided that the 1920 season would be the last year in which spitballers were permitted to hurl their crafty weapon.
The American League allowed each of its clubs to utilize just 2 designated spitball pitchers; the National League rejected the limit and kept it open for the 1920 season. But some pitchers and managers were concerned about the new regulation that came down fast and hard and without a sunset clause. Spitballer Burleigh Grimes of the Brooklyn Robins rightfully argued that he spent over a decade perfecting his wet throw and had little else in his pitching arsenal. Others contended that it would be difficult, if not impossible, for veteran spitballers to switch to the curveball since it uses different muscle motions they never developed. Managers were equally worried about replacing talent that would suddenly be lost. Stan Coveleski, star pitcher of the Cleveland Indians squad that won the World Series in 1920, was a career spitballer who would have seen his future ruined.
In the Fall of 1920, six teams in the National League voted to recommend that certain pitchers be allowed to use the spitball for the remainder of their careers. The American League agreed to the proposal and the new rule went into effect in the Spring of 1921. A total of seventeen pitchers were selected for exemption and grandfathered for the rest of their playing days, 8 from the NL and 9 from the AL. Burleigh Grimes was the last of the career wet hurlers, throwing MLB’s last legal spitball in 1934 with the St. Louis Cardinals. Grimes’ retirement was preceded by that of Jack Quinn (1933) and Red Faber (1933). All three spitballers were World Series champs.
Since its ban almost a century ago, there have been isolated initiatives to reinstate the spitball when cheatings on the mound were discovered, or when the game’s offense was believed to have exploded in hits and home runs. However, those proposals were always voted down by wide margins and the spitball remains a relic of baseball’s rich history.
FOOTBALL January 24, 2010 The Indianapolis Colts defeat the New York Jets 30-17 at the AFC championship, while the New Orleans Saints beat the Minnesota Vikings 31-28 in overtime for the NFC title. Two weeks later, led by their quarterback Drew Brees, the Saints would overtake the Colts 31-17 at Super Bowl XLIV in Miami Gardens, Miami. To date, it was the Saints’ first and last championship title.
BASKETBALL January 19, 2000 Retired hoops super star Michael Jordan returns to the NBA to join the Washington Wizards as part owner and President of basketball operations. A year and half later, the 6x NBA champion hit the court for the Wizards as a player, though he lasted only 60 games due to a torn knee cartilage. His managerial position with the team was terminated after posting a mixed record.
BOXING January 15, 1990 Gerry Cooney is knocked out by George Foreman in the 2nd round of a non-title heavyweight fight. It was Cooney’s last bout in a pro career that began in 1977. The NYC-born pugilist who was known for his left hook and imposing 6’6” frame fought twice for the heavyweight title but lost both times to Larry Holmes and Michael Spinks. He retired with a 31-28-3 record.
OLYMPICS January 20, 1980 In response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December of 1979, Jimmy Carter announces a U.S. boycott of the Olympics in Moscow. 65 other nations decided to follow the American example, while 80 countries did send their athletes to the Games. Four years later, the USSR countered the U.S. by boycotting the 1984 Olympics that were held in Los Angeles. | <urn:uuid:bc3726aa-42fd-4962-a2d5-7d3a189899af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sportshistoryweekly.com/stories/spitball-baseball-mlb-burleigh-grimes-deadball-era-babe-ruth,778 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.981708 | 1,609 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.045... | 1 | The Spitball, End Of A Baseball Era
One hundred years ago, Major League Baseball took steps to outlaw the controversial spitball. Some pitchers and owners thought they couldn’t win games without it, while others welcomed the decision as a way to sanitize the game and boost home runs in the Deadball Era. The final resolution was a happy medium that banned the use of artificial substances to alter the flight of a ball, but still allowed a select number of veteran pitchers to continue throwing the spitball until their retirement.
On February 9, 1920, a group of major league baseball executives who made up the rules committee came together to ban not just the spitball, but any delivery off the mound in which the surface of the ball was changed. Used by some hurlers in the 19th century, the spitball, as its name suggests, was a pitch in which a portion of the ball was dampened with saliva, gel, mud, or even scuffed, to change its behavior in the air. The spitball thrived after 1900 and was partly responsible for the low scoring games that were associated with the ‘Deadball Era’. Thrown in the same motion as a fastball, the doctored projectile created an inequality of air friction, which if launched correctly, sunk the ball at the plate. The result was that batters topped the ball on the swing, generating more grounders than flyballs and leading to fewer home runs and lower game scores.
Pitchers developed their spitball techniques because it won matches. The only two American League hurlers to win 40 games in a single season were both spitballers: Jack Chesbro of the New York Highlanders (1904) and Ed Walsh of the Chicago White Sox (1908). But for baseball team owners, gate receipts at the ballpark was the main goal. They were looking for more excitement on the field to draw in the crowds. There were other reasons cited to discontinue the spitball: it was unsanitary, hard to control, difficult to field, stressful on a pitcher’s arm, and even too dangerous. But these points were either minor, or simply rejected. The main argument for eliminating the freak deliveries was to inject more dynamism into a hit-and-run sport that was dominated by small ball tactics.
One of the events that was falsely attributed to the end of the spitball era was the death of Cleveland Indians’ shortstop, Ray Chapman. The only baseball player in history to be killed while on the field, Chapman was beaned at the plate on August 16, 1920 in a game against the New York Yankees. Hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays, he was rushed to the hospital where he died hours later. The official ban of the spitball had already been in place for six months and Chapman was most likely struck by a fastball. Witnesses described that he didn’t move to avoid the missile, which means that he probably couldn’t see the ball in the twilight of the late afternoon. A spitball would have also dropped to his shins or calves. Nevertheless, the tragedy did lead MLB to establish a rule requiring umpires to replace dirty balls. The batting helmet wouldn’t be made a requirement until the late 1950s.
It was Babe Ruth and his 29 electrifying home runs in 1919 that enthralled fans and helped lead team owners to implement rule changes to increase game scores and out-of-the-park launches. Another idea that was floated at the time but wasn’t adopted was punishing the intentional walk by advancing players that were already on-base. Team owners knew that fans hated the intentional walk, especially when players like Ruth were at the plate. The decision to outlaw the spitball was led by Charles Griffith, owner and Manager of the Washington Nationals. Other members of the committee that supported the decision were Bill Veeck of the Chicago Cubs, Barney Dreyfus of the Pittsburgh Pirates, and Connie Mack of the Philadelphia Athletics. Professional baseball then had 8 teams in each league and it was decided that the 1920 season would be the last year in which spitballers were permitted to hurl their crafty weapon.
The American League allowed each of its clubs to utilize just 2 designated spitball pitchers; the National League rejected the limit and kept it open for the 1920 season. But some pitchers and managers were concerned about the new regulation that came down fast and hard and without a sunset clause. Spitballer Burleigh Grimes of the Brooklyn Robins rightfully argued that he spent over a decade perfecting his wet throw and had little else in his pitching arsenal. Others contended that it would be difficult, if not impossible, for veteran spitballers to switch to the curveball since it uses different muscle motions they never developed. Managers were equally worried about replacing talent that would suddenly be lost. Stan Coveleski, star pitcher of the Cleveland Indians squad that won the World Series in 1920, was a career spitballer who would have seen his future ruined.
In the Fall of 1920, six teams in the National League voted to recommend that certain pitchers be allowed to use the spitball for the remainder of their careers. The American League agreed to the proposal and the new rule went into effect in the Spring of 1921. A total of seventeen pitchers were selected for exemption and grandfathered for the rest of their playing days, 8 from the NL and 9 from the AL. Burleigh Grimes was the last of the career wet hurlers, throwing MLB’s last legal spitball in 1934 with the St. Louis Cardinals. Grimes’ retirement was preceded by that of Jack Quinn (1933) and Red Faber (1933). All three spitballers were World Series champs.
Since its ban almost a century ago, there have been isolated initiatives to reinstate the spitball when cheatings on the mound were discovered, or when the game’s offense was believed to have exploded in hits and home runs. However, those proposals were always voted down by wide margins and the spitball remains a relic of baseball’s rich history.
FOOTBALL January 24, 2010 The Indianapolis Colts defeat the New York Jets 30-17 at the AFC championship, while the New Orleans Saints beat the Minnesota Vikings 31-28 in overtime for the NFC title. Two weeks later, led by their quarterback Drew Brees, the Saints would overtake the Colts 31-17 at Super Bowl XLIV in Miami Gardens, Miami. To date, it was the Saints’ first and last championship title.
BASKETBALL January 19, 2000 Retired hoops super star Michael Jordan returns to the NBA to join the Washington Wizards as part owner and President of basketball operations. A year and half later, the 6x NBA champion hit the court for the Wizards as a player, though he lasted only 60 games due to a torn knee cartilage. His managerial position with the team was terminated after posting a mixed record.
BOXING January 15, 1990 Gerry Cooney is knocked out by George Foreman in the 2nd round of a non-title heavyweight fight. It was Cooney’s last bout in a pro career that began in 1977. The NYC-born pugilist who was known for his left hook and imposing 6’6” frame fought twice for the heavyweight title but lost both times to Larry Holmes and Michael Spinks. He retired with a 31-28-3 record.
OLYMPICS January 20, 1980 In response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December of 1979, Jimmy Carter announces a U.S. boycott of the Olympics in Moscow. 65 other nations decided to follow the American example, while 80 countries did send their athletes to the Games. Four years later, the USSR countered the U.S. by boycotting the 1984 Olympics that were held in Los Angeles. | 1,680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mussolini’s road to a dictatorship took much longer than Hitler’s in 1933. Hitler was appointed chancellor on January 30th 1933. By April 1st 1933, his power was such that, after the Enabling Act, Hitler could only be seen as the dictator of Nazi Germany regardless of Hindenburg’s presidency. Mussolini’s public posturing and boasts did not guarantee loyalty in Italy – hence why it was so important for him to establish a relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. He only gained what could be described as dictatorial powers after the Lateran Treaty whereby he could guarantee loyalty from those Catholics who may well have not been supporters of the fascist state in Italy.
Mussolini took years to achieve what could be defined as a dictatorship. He achieved some semblance of power after the March on Rome in 1922 when he was appointed Prime Minister of Italy. But his government contained a mixture of men with different political beliefs – similar to Hitler’s position in January 1933.
But his time in power almost collapsed after the murder of Matteotti when great anger gripped Italy. If he had been a true dictator in 1922, then such an uproar would never have happened as his enemies and the Italian people in general would have been cowed into submission.
Mussolini started his time in power by buying support from both the working class and the industrial bosses.
The workers were promised an eight hour day while an enquiry into the profits made by the industrialists during World War One was dropped. The rich benefited from a reduction in death duties – now, under Mussolini, more of what someone had earned during their lifetime, went to their family and not the government. To get support from the Roman Catholic Church, religious education was made compulsory in all elementary schools.
These policies can be seen as an attempt to ‘buy’ support. As an example, in 1933 Hitler introduced workers holidays into Germany (similar to a bank holiday). This was very popular. He then almost immediately banned trade unions which protected workers rights. Any protests over this were banned as a result of the Enabling Act – Hitler did not bargain with anyone. Mussolini was not in a position whereby he could assert his authority and it is probable that the extent of his dictatorial powers never did equal those acquired by Hitler.
Mussolini had never intended to share power with the liberals who were in the government. He introduced a Fascist Grand Council which would decide policy for Italy without consulting the non-fascists in the government first.
In February 1923, Mussolini and the Fascist Grand Council introduced the Acerbo Law. This law changed election results. Now if one party got just 25% (or more) of the votes cast in an election, they would get 66%of the seats in parliament.
When it came for Parliament to vote on the Acerbo Law, many politicians agreed to a law that would almost certainly end their political careers if they were not fascists. Why did they do this?
The gallery in the hall in which the politicians voted was filled with armed fascist thugs who had a good view of anybody who spoke out against the law. The threat was clear and real. If you voted for the law, you would be fine. If you did not, then you were certainly in danger from fascist thugs.
Mussolini did say in the spring of 1924 that “a good beating did not hurt anyone.”
Mussolini as he wished to be seen – in military uniform and a formidable figure
Hitler used very similar tactics when the vote for the Enabling Act was taken at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin – SA thugs gathered outside the Opera House while the SS lined the corridors to the main hall where the voting was to take place. Again, the threat was clear to any politician who was brave enough to protest against the law.
In the March election that followed the Acerbo Law, the Fascist Party got 65% of the votes cast and, therefore, easily got the 2/3rds of parliamentary seats – a clear majority. That people were intimidated into voting for the Fascists or that the Fascists took ballot papers from those who might have voted against Mussolini were brushed aside. The Fascists who were elected were bound to support Mussolini. In this sense, the Acerbo Law was an important move to dictatorship in Italy.
However, unlike Hitler, even after the Acerbo Law was passed, Mussolini still faced open criticism in Italy. The fear element that Hitler had created in Nazi Germany by April 1933, was still not in place in Italy.
Blackshirt thugs did beat up critics but that did not stop Giacomo Matteotti from publicly condemning Mussolini. Matteotti was murdered almost certainly by fascists and Mussolini was held responsible for this. There was overwhelming public outrage at the murder as Matteotti was Italy’s leading socialist Member of Parliament. Newspapers and wall posters condemned Mussolini and in the summer of 1924 there was a real possibility that Mussolini would have to resign.
A number of non-fascist politicians walked out of Parliament in protest at the murder. This gesture only served to play into Mussolini’s hands as it got rid of more parliamentary opposition. The protestors – named the Aventine protestors – appealed to the king, Victor Emmanuel, to dismiss Mussolini but the king disliked the protestors more than Mussolini because they lent towards republicanism and he refused to take action.
With this royal support, Mussolini felt strong enough to take on his opponents. Any critics of Mussolini were beaten up and newspapers that were not supportive of the Fascists were shut down. In January 1925, Mussolini said the following:
|“I declare….in front of the Italian people……that I alone assume the political, moral and historic responsibility for everything that has happened. Italy wants peace and quiet, work and calm. I will give these things with love if possible and with force if necessary.”|
After surviving the Matteotti affair, Mussolini slowly introduced the classic features of a dictatorship. But this was now nearly three years after the March on Rome.
In November 1926, all rival political parties and opposition newspapers were banned in Italy.
In 1927, a secret police force was set up called the OVRA and it was lead by Arturo Bocchini. The death penalty was reintroduced for “serious political offences”. By 1940, the OVRA had arrested 4000 suspects but only 10 people from 1927 to 1940 were ever sentenced to death – much smaller than in Nazi Germany.
Mussolini also changed Italy’s constitution. He introduced a diarchy. This is a system whereby a country has two political heads. In Italy’s case, it was Mussolini and the king, Victor Emmanuel. This system put Mussolini in charge of Italy simply because Victor Emmanuel was not the strongest of men and rarely felt able to assert himself. Though he disliked Mussolini bypassing him at every opportunity, he did little to challenge this.
Mussolini appointed members to the Fascist Grand Council and from 1928, the Grand Council had to be consulted on all constitutional issues. As Mussolini appointed people onto the Council, logic would dictate that those people would do what Mussolini wished them to do.
The electoral system was changed again in 1928. Mussolini said after the change:
“Any possibility of choice is eliminated…..I never dreamed of a chamber like yours.”
Workers and employers unions (now known as corporations) were entitled to draw up the names of 1000 people they wanted considered for parliament. The Grand Council selected 400 of these names i.e. people they would approve of. The list of 400 names was presented to the electorate for approval. They could only vote for or against the whole list – not the individual candidates. In 1929, 90% of the electorate voted for the list and in 1934, this figure had increased to 97%. However, all those on the list were Grand Council approved so they were no more than ‘lap dogs’ for Mussolini with no real political power. In 1939, Parliament was simply abolished.
The power of the Fascists was even felt at regional and local level where mayors, who had been very powerful at a local level, were replaced by magistrates appointed in Rome and answerable to Rome alone.
- Italy and Germany 1936 to 1940 After the rebuff Italy experienced after her invasion of Abyssinia, the only choice of allies left for Mussolini was…
- After the rebuff Italy experienced after her invasion of Abyssinia, the only choice of allies left for Mussolini was Germany and Franco's Spain. In July…
- Italy's foreign policy under Benito Mussolini had to be robust to show the world how powerful Italy was under his leadership. As leader of Italy,… | <urn:uuid:5ea89a07-cf85-44b1-9fd5-757216463232> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/italy-1900-to-1939/mussolinis-dictatorship/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.988581 | 1,810 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Mussolini’s road to a dictatorship took much longer than Hitler’s in 1933. Hitler was appointed chancellor on January 30th 1933. By April 1st 1933, his power was such that, after the Enabling Act, Hitler could only be seen as the dictator of Nazi Germany regardless of Hindenburg’s presidency. Mussolini’s public posturing and boasts did not guarantee loyalty in Italy – hence why it was so important for him to establish a relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. He only gained what could be described as dictatorial powers after the Lateran Treaty whereby he could guarantee loyalty from those Catholics who may well have not been supporters of the fascist state in Italy.
Mussolini took years to achieve what could be defined as a dictatorship. He achieved some semblance of power after the March on Rome in 1922 when he was appointed Prime Minister of Italy. But his government contained a mixture of men with different political beliefs – similar to Hitler’s position in January 1933.
But his time in power almost collapsed after the murder of Matteotti when great anger gripped Italy. If he had been a true dictator in 1922, then such an uproar would never have happened as his enemies and the Italian people in general would have been cowed into submission.
Mussolini started his time in power by buying support from both the working class and the industrial bosses.
The workers were promised an eight hour day while an enquiry into the profits made by the industrialists during World War One was dropped. The rich benefited from a reduction in death duties – now, under Mussolini, more of what someone had earned during their lifetime, went to their family and not the government. To get support from the Roman Catholic Church, religious education was made compulsory in all elementary schools.
These policies can be seen as an attempt to ‘buy’ support. As an example, in 1933 Hitler introduced workers holidays into Germany (similar to a bank holiday). This was very popular. He then almost immediately banned trade unions which protected workers rights. Any protests over this were banned as a result of the Enabling Act – Hitler did not bargain with anyone. Mussolini was not in a position whereby he could assert his authority and it is probable that the extent of his dictatorial powers never did equal those acquired by Hitler.
Mussolini had never intended to share power with the liberals who were in the government. He introduced a Fascist Grand Council which would decide policy for Italy without consulting the non-fascists in the government first.
In February 1923, Mussolini and the Fascist Grand Council introduced the Acerbo Law. This law changed election results. Now if one party got just 25% (or more) of the votes cast in an election, they would get 66%of the seats in parliament.
When it came for Parliament to vote on the Acerbo Law, many politicians agreed to a law that would almost certainly end their political careers if they were not fascists. Why did they do this?
The gallery in the hall in which the politicians voted was filled with armed fascist thugs who had a good view of anybody who spoke out against the law. The threat was clear and real. If you voted for the law, you would be fine. If you did not, then you were certainly in danger from fascist thugs.
Mussolini did say in the spring of 1924 that “a good beating did not hurt anyone.”
Mussolini as he wished to be seen – in military uniform and a formidable figure
Hitler used very similar tactics when the vote for the Enabling Act was taken at the Kroll Opera House in Berlin – SA thugs gathered outside the Opera House while the SS lined the corridors to the main hall where the voting was to take place. Again, the threat was clear to any politician who was brave enough to protest against the law.
In the March election that followed the Acerbo Law, the Fascist Party got 65% of the votes cast and, therefore, easily got the 2/3rds of parliamentary seats – a clear majority. That people were intimidated into voting for the Fascists or that the Fascists took ballot papers from those who might have voted against Mussolini were brushed aside. The Fascists who were elected were bound to support Mussolini. In this sense, the Acerbo Law was an important move to dictatorship in Italy.
However, unlike Hitler, even after the Acerbo Law was passed, Mussolini still faced open criticism in Italy. The fear element that Hitler had created in Nazi Germany by April 1933, was still not in place in Italy.
Blackshirt thugs did beat up critics but that did not stop Giacomo Matteotti from publicly condemning Mussolini. Matteotti was murdered almost certainly by fascists and Mussolini was held responsible for this. There was overwhelming public outrage at the murder as Matteotti was Italy’s leading socialist Member of Parliament. Newspapers and wall posters condemned Mussolini and in the summer of 1924 there was a real possibility that Mussolini would have to resign.
A number of non-fascist politicians walked out of Parliament in protest at the murder. This gesture only served to play into Mussolini’s hands as it got rid of more parliamentary opposition. The protestors – named the Aventine protestors – appealed to the king, Victor Emmanuel, to dismiss Mussolini but the king disliked the protestors more than Mussolini because they lent towards republicanism and he refused to take action.
With this royal support, Mussolini felt strong enough to take on his opponents. Any critics of Mussolini were beaten up and newspapers that were not supportive of the Fascists were shut down. In January 1925, Mussolini said the following:
|“I declare….in front of the Italian people……that I alone assume the political, moral and historic responsibility for everything that has happened. Italy wants peace and quiet, work and calm. I will give these things with love if possible and with force if necessary.”|
After surviving the Matteotti affair, Mussolini slowly introduced the classic features of a dictatorship. But this was now nearly three years after the March on Rome.
In November 1926, all rival political parties and opposition newspapers were banned in Italy.
In 1927, a secret police force was set up called the OVRA and it was lead by Arturo Bocchini. The death penalty was reintroduced for “serious political offences”. By 1940, the OVRA had arrested 4000 suspects but only 10 people from 1927 to 1940 were ever sentenced to death – much smaller than in Nazi Germany.
Mussolini also changed Italy’s constitution. He introduced a diarchy. This is a system whereby a country has two political heads. In Italy’s case, it was Mussolini and the king, Victor Emmanuel. This system put Mussolini in charge of Italy simply because Victor Emmanuel was not the strongest of men and rarely felt able to assert himself. Though he disliked Mussolini bypassing him at every opportunity, he did little to challenge this.
Mussolini appointed members to the Fascist Grand Council and from 1928, the Grand Council had to be consulted on all constitutional issues. As Mussolini appointed people onto the Council, logic would dictate that those people would do what Mussolini wished them to do.
The electoral system was changed again in 1928. Mussolini said after the change:
“Any possibility of choice is eliminated…..I never dreamed of a chamber like yours.”
Workers and employers unions (now known as corporations) were entitled to draw up the names of 1000 people they wanted considered for parliament. The Grand Council selected 400 of these names i.e. people they would approve of. The list of 400 names was presented to the electorate for approval. They could only vote for or against the whole list – not the individual candidates. In 1929, 90% of the electorate voted for the list and in 1934, this figure had increased to 97%. However, all those on the list were Grand Council approved so they were no more than ‘lap dogs’ for Mussolini with no real political power. In 1939, Parliament was simply abolished.
The power of the Fascists was even felt at regional and local level where mayors, who had been very powerful at a local level, were replaced by magistrates appointed in Rome and answerable to Rome alone.
- Italy and Germany 1936 to 1940 After the rebuff Italy experienced after her invasion of Abyssinia, the only choice of allies left for Mussolini was…
- After the rebuff Italy experienced after her invasion of Abyssinia, the only choice of allies left for Mussolini was Germany and Franco's Spain. In July…
- Italy's foreign policy under Benito Mussolini had to be robust to show the world how powerful Italy was under his leadership. As leader of Italy,… | 1,874 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Belligerents and Participants
The larger empires of Europe had fought for control over the Flemish lowlands for centuries. After the wars between Napoleonic France and Hapsburg Austria, the European powers agreed to put their claims aside and set up this small region as an independent kingdom in 1837, with the status of a neutral, unaligned to any other nation.
Belgium would have liked to remain neutral in World War One but geography was not on its side. When Prussia seized the Provinces of Alsace and Loraine as a consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, these new territories acted as a protective buffer to the Rhineland. While the natural features of the new border helped protect Prussia from French aggression, it also made it very difficult for Germany to attack France in 1914. This task was made even more difficult by the massive fortifications the French had built in the region, especially around the choke point at Verdun.
Believing it could not successfully fight a two front war at once; Germany planned to temporarily hold off the Russians in the East until their armies in the West could win a quick victory over France. This strategy required speed, which could not be accomplished by battering their way through French fortifications. The only path to victory lay through the lowlands of Belgium, and so a request was made to let German armies pass without molestation through its countryside to France. The problem was that Belgium was far less neutral than she seemed. Military agreements had been made in secret with both Great Britain and France that most government officials were not even aware of. Plans had already been drawn for British and French troops to come to Belgium’s aid should her border be violated. When Britain insisted that Belgium deny the Germans free passage, King Albert obliged them by refusing the Kaisers request. The next day on August 4th, 1914 German armies crossed their border.
Though the leaders of Belgium could read a map as well as anyone else, internal bickering prevented an adequate defensive policy from being adapted for years. Belgium was a densely populated nation yet its army remained relatively small in comparison, and only began to be enlarged as war neared. They primarily relied on an extensive system of fortifications built along the German border to slow down an invasion until help arrived from Great Britain and France. Unfortunately they miscalculated; between the poor deployment of their troops, slow and uncoordinated efforts by the British and French to reinforce them, and the massive use of heavy artillery by the Germans, their fortified cities fell rapidly.
By the end of October all of Belgium except for a small corner of Flanders was under German control. The Belgian government moved into exile at Le Havre, France but they no longer had a country to govern. Those that could fled, many winding up in England by way of Antwerp. These included large numbers of civilians, many of whom would enlist in the Belgian army and return to fight. Britain however would hold a large refugee population for the remainder of the conflict.
The secret agreements Belgium made with Britain and France allowed it to concentrate its defensive works to meet an invasion from Germany. While their main defensive efforts on the Meuse River at Liege were some of the most extensive in all of Europe, they did not want to spend the money required to upgrade their antiquated system when it became susceptible to bombardment by the latest guns. Once the Germans finally made an organized attack, these fortifications quickly fell. With some experience behind them, the Belgian forts at Namur fared even worse.
The siege and fall of the Belgian forts were depicted as great victories on numerous German postcards. It is difficult however to find Allied cards referencing these actions in any way, which is not unusual when a nation suffers a painful defeat. Even so some publishers felt the need to depict the Belgian army in action. On the filedpost card above, the defeat at Liege is not only presented as a heroic defense, the Belgian Revolution is evoked to enhance patriotic enthusiasm from an historic event when current victories are lacking.
One of the great myths of the propaganda war is the heroic defense of poor little little Belgium, and how it greatly slowed the German advance so it could eventually be thrown back at the Marne. While the Germans had to stop and fight, they were moving far faster than anyone thought possible while the Allies were moving slower than expected. Most of the Kingdom was overrun before Allied reinforcements were ready to help. Without positive news to present, many Allied publishers just produced generic cards promoting heroic myths.
Even through Great Britain was the official guarantor of Belgian neutrality, a number of French publishers portrayed their own army as the savior of the kingdom. Most of their troops however were involved in attempts to reclaim Alsace and Lorraine early in the conflict. While success may have threatened any German advance into Belgium, the Battle of thee Frontiers was a major French defeat. Troops sent to Belgium came too late and were to few to have any significant effect on the German advance. The British Expeditionary Force would play an ever increasing role on this front.
When the sluice gates of the Yser at Nieuport were opened to stop the German advance through Flanders, the lowlands were flooded for miles. Specially trained sappers were assigned to this task to make sure that the flood waters were deep enough to become an effectual barrier to infantry while not too deep to allow for the passage of boats. The Germans never really understood what had happened, which prevented them from draining the lowlands. After some initial fighting, this front would remain quiet for the duration of the War. This did not mean that postcard publishers stopped depicting this front. The flooding itself was a curiosity that made this landscape stand out from the rest, and so it drew attention. Many cards were made that capture the quiet desolation of this place, but they rarely capture the deplorable living conditions the soldiers were forced to live in. Many men on this front would die from Typhus.
While the flooding of the Yser basin is often touted as an ingenious move that saved the last remnants of the kingdom, it did not go as smoothly as it might have. Belgium was an ethnically divided Kingdom with most soldiers being drawn from the Dutch speaking Flemish peasants, while the officer class came from the French speaking Walloons. Many Flemish soldiers resented the flooding of these valuable lands that had been made productive by their own hands, and were now being destroyed on the orders of Walloons who were perceived as outsiders. These feelings of alienation only grew stronger as the War progressed, making the management of the Belgian army ever more difficult. By 1917 Flemish soldiers within the Belgian army had secretly organized into a nationalist movement, the Frontpartij (The Front), and they began to make demands. This ethnic divide would play an important role in Belgian politics in postwar years.
Long seated cultural and religious hatreds combined with fears of partisan warfare and the greenness of German troops all came together to produce a deadly and destructive mixture when the invasion of Belgium began. War had freed these soldiers of normal social norms that made it possible for them to act harshly in reaction to their fears whether they were real or imagined. Confusion often led to panic and many innocent civilians were massacred by the invading troops as punishment for crimes they did not commit. This sometimes devolved further into bloodlust and the destruction of cultural icons. While not planned, German officers often looked the other way at atrocities because the fear they put in the Belgian people made them reluctant to interfere with the German advance toward France. Belgium’s policy of only maintaining a small army meant that when the Germans quickly overran their country, many able bodied men were left behind the advancing battle lines and this raised real concerns. This situation was further confused by the newest Belgian recruits in the civic guards who were not issued uniforms but only wore a shoulder medallion or badge.
The German army only saw their actions in military terms; where civilians were completely expendable to their aims. This also made them blind to the consequences, which was providing the Allies with a great deal of ammunition to use against them in the propaganda war. These atrocities plus many more imagined were all rolled up into the story of the rape of Belgium. Its success in swaying public opinion surprised the Germans, and they then took more control over the behavior of their troops. The propaganda war, caring nothing for truth would be unrelenting. By early 1915 the German governor of occupied Belgium forbid the mailing of any postcard that depicted destruction within the kingdom, but they had already acquired the label of Barbarians for the duration of the War.
It did not take long for the myth of German barbarity to become set in the public’s mind, and this provided fertile ground for the tremendous amount of propaganda cards that followed. All sorts of horrendous fictional acts attributed to Germans continued to be produced for the duration of the war for the public was now ready to believe sensational story above the truth. When the same sorts of atrocities became repetitious, artists resorted to depicting them through allegory. These types of cards were especially common in France where their vitriol knew no bounds. Postcards depicting German transgressions played a major role in stirring up hatred for the enemy, so much so that they helped make any notions of a negotiated peace unpalatable.
While the Allies concentrated on depicting fictional atrocities, they often missed the real tragedies affecting the Belgian people. By the autumn of 1915 Belgian civilians began being conscripted for labor in the industrial Ruhr. This situation grew worse after Ludendorff took control over the German economy and deportations increased to fill the arms factories of Krupp. Belgians had just become an expendable resource to keep the War going. Those left behind faced shortages of food and fuel that brought great suffering and sometimes death. Some cards were published that deal with this less dramatic aspect of the War but they are rare. The great amount of propaganda produced that portrayed Germans as barbaric monsters had a detrimental effect on the truth after the War. When it became easier to see these representations as exaggerations, they all began to be viewed through this colored lens and many real atrocities were temporarily forgotten. Even today it is sometimes difficult to separate truth from fiction.
(See From Iberia to Syria dated August 30, 2010, in the archive of the website’s Blog section for more information on this subject)
The violation of Belgian neutrality and the rape of Belgium that followed greatly influenced public opinion in other neutral nations. Many of those who had been pro-German suddenly turned against them. Recruiting efforts were boosted from those outraged at the news. The propaganda war managed to create a Belgium that was perceived as an innocent victim suffering at the hands of a brutal bully. Every act against them was turned into a war against civilization while their own horrific crimes in the Congo were completely forgotten. The postcards of many nations were harnessed for this propaganda war to great effect, while the inept German efforts to counter it were largely ignored.
During World War One armies had grown to a tremendous size and supplying them with food became a perpetual problem. By the time German troops were fighting in northern France their supply lines back to Germany were stretched thin and it was easier to take resources directly from Belgium. Consumption was so great that it led to starvation among Belgian civilians, but charitable efforts to relieve this situation ran into political obstacles. While Germany thought it the fault of the British for enacting a naval blockade of foodstuffs, the British felt it was the responsibility of the German occupiers to supply food and they should take the consequences of not being able to deliver it. Despite these strong positions, Herbert Hoover, at the urging of the American ambassador to Britain, Walter Hines Page, managed to negotiate through them to form the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Britain reluctantly agreed to let the Commission’s ships pass through the blockade, and the Germans agreed to let the food be solely distributed to Belgian and French civilians as it was considered the property of the American ambassador to Belgium, Brand Whitlock. The program seldom worked smoothly but it saved millions of lives.
In the years of the Great War nearly all the belligerents were monarchies, and as such many postcards were produced portraying royal families. Many of those depicting King Albert I of Belgium are different in that he was obliged to take personal command of the Belgian army and fought with it at the front in the siege of Antwerp and on the Yser. By December 1914 he made it clear to the Allies that he would not allow Belgian troops to be used in the kinds of offensive operations that had already wasted the lives of so many soldiers. As the War grew more destructive, he secretly tried to negotiate a peace deal but this ended in failure because both sides thought they could achieve a military victory without compromise. There are numerous postcards of King Albert in posing in uniform as well as more active scenes of him surveying the fighting or talking to soldiers in the trenches.
Many postcards of King Albert’s family were also produced but these aren’t the typical posed scenes in palaces or at ceremonial events. His wife Queen Elizabeth became a nurse, and there are cards that show her in uniform while serving in this capacity. His son Prince Leopold also fought in the Belgian army as a private early in the War. In a kingdom where class divisions were further divided by ethnicity, it was important for this type of propaganda to show that the royal family thought it was no better than any ordinary citizen.
Even after most of their country was occupied, Belgian troops continued to fight alongside the British in Flanders but they were only involved in minor engagements after the winter of 1914/15. By this time the British and the French had no faith in the Belgian army, and King Albert did not want them assisting in major Allied offensives. While there are postcards to be found showing Belgian soldiers manning the trench lines around Nieuport, their numbers declined as the front grew more quiet.
Most of the fighting that took place in Belgium was performed by the British Expeditionary Force centered at Ypres. With so little of Belgium left in Allied hands they refused to give it up despite very aggressive German attempts to take it. The salient just became a killing field in three major battles with nothing of real importance gained. Despite the nearly constant action on this front, relatively few Allied postcards picture it. Those cards that do exist were largely British or French made depicting British troops early in the War.
Belgians also fought against German colonial forces in East Africa. There are a number of military themed photo-based postcards from the Belgian Congo but they do not tend to display combat situations. They are not always easy to tie to events in World War One. Belgium employed armored cars in their defense and even sent a small armored car expeditionary force to Russia that was deployed in Galicia. While cards of these vehicles in Belgium are common, it is difficult to find cards of those deployed in Galicia. Most of the real photo cards of armored cars from Russia do not seem to be captioned.
At the end of September 1918 the Allies launched a general offensive along the entire western Front. General Foch appointed King Albert to lead Army Group Flanders, which consisted of the Belgian army supported by British and French divisions. They broke through the German lines pushing toward Liege, but when German reinforcements arrived in early October the Allied attacks came to an end. Within fifteen days of the Armistice being signed, King Albert and his army were able to make a triumphal return into Brussels and reoccupy their entire former Kingdom.
Though never officially one of the Allied nations, Belgium was given a seat at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. There King Albert warned against destabilizing the Central Powers but the Allies were not interested in what he had to say. Despite this stance, Belgium made a land grab for all it could get. The Versailles Treaty would cede the German Cantons of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, but they did not succeed in annexing Luxembourg or provinces in southern Holland. They were also given trusteeship over Burundi and Rwanda when German East Africa was carved up despite their history of crimes in the Congo.
While the Americans did not fight in Belgium, they played a huge role in providing food relief while under German occupation that kept millions alive. Some publishers saw felt that this combined with overall participation of the United States in the War was the reason for their liberation. This attitude was widely expressed on postcards at the expense of their British ally. Once the War ended Belgium finally broke their 1837 defensive pact with Great Britain, which terminated their official status as a neutral nation.
Manneken Pis (Little Pee Man) is a small bronze statue adorning a public fountain in Brussels. Designed by Hieronymus Duquesnoy the Elder in the 17th century, it has survived many disasters and has come to symbolize the city. The statue was already a popular tourist attraction before the Great War and was captured on many postcards. Its irreverent but lighthearted spirit carried it onto many comic cards produced during the War years, only now the tone was a lot more bitter. Sometimes the statue’s flow of piss was used to symbolize the flooding of the Yser River that halted the German advance through Belgium.
Although Belgium had a strong publishing industry along with many fine illustrators, it found itself under German occupation soon after the War broke out. The vast majority of postcards depicting the early fighting in Belgium would be produced by German publishers. There are some scenes of combat published by “Notre Pays” in Brussels and by CAP for the Society of Friends for the Army Museum in Paris but both these artist drawn series were published after the War.
Max Albert Carlier was a painter who primarily produced floral still lives and interior scenes in the classic Dutch style. In the postwar years he provided illustrations for textbooks published by Librarie Istra. A number of his fine line illustrations from Histoire de France were placed on oversized postcards for publicity. These include subjects pertaining to the First World War.
Coin de Westende is typical of the strange situation most Belgian publishers were put in once their kingdom was largely overrun by the German army. Once producing souvenirs for those visiting the shore near Neiport, they switched to military related postcards after the invasion. They were then forced to move as the Germans advance, and eventually came to publish cards again from Tilburg in Holland. Most of their cards seem to deal with the Belgian army on the Yser.
The London View Company was a British publisher that captured many of the War’s early events and its soldiers. While these cards captured a number of fronts, many of their cards were dedicated to picturing the Belgian Army. A small Belgian flag usually appears in the corner of these cards with the letters L.V.C. contained within. Most are captioned in both English and French.
Armand Massonet was an academically trained painter who served two roles in the Belgian Army during the First World War. One was as a stretcher-bearer, and the other was as an official war artist. He produced many sketches near the front lines that often depicted medical services. A number of his illustrations were used on charity postcards to raise funds for the Belgian Red Cross. While serving at the front, he also published the art and literary paper, Le Claque à Fond.
Alfred Ost worked out of the Flemish town of Mechelen since 1902, but as a pacifist he fled with his family to neutral Holland in October 1914. There he first took up residence in Sluis, but moved to Amsterdam in early 1915 where he found a job with the printer Jan Kotting. Ost also designed numerous posters and postcards for the benefit of charities dealing with refugees and prisoners of war. These cards do not present military themes but views of Amsterdam in his highly graphic style. He returned to Belgium in 1919 after the Great War ended.
Another large publisher from Brussels was Photo Belge who produced some of the best postcards on Belgium’s involvement in the Great War. There are highly dramatic scenes of the Belgian army in combat during the early months of the War, as well as scenes of documented and generic atrocities. These cards were printed just after the War in 1919.
Reldian of Brussels published a large number of photo-based postcards in collotype depicting soldiers of the Belgian Army during World War One. These tend to be posed shots or scenes behind the battlefront. They are a commemorative set produced in the postwar years.
A large monochrome set of drawings depicting fierce scenes of combat were reproduced as real photo postcards by an unknown Canadian publisher. Most of these cards seem to capture scenes of Belgians, British, and French forces fighting in Flanders early in the War.
After the fall of Antwerp in October 1914, Alfred Bastien fled to Britain where he enlisted in the Belgian army. After being sent to the battlefront at Nieuport he was made an official war artist and captured scenes along the Yser through 1915. With the support of King Albert and Queen Elizabeth, Bastien and Leon Huygens founded an Art Section within the Belgian Army in 1916 to document the warfront. Eventually twenty-six artists in exile would be included in this group. Many of the images they would produce wound up on charity card sets published by the Asiles des Soldats Invalides Belges in London. Bastien continued to sketch on the front and was attached to the Canadians in September 1917. In addition to a series of postcards depicting the Belgian army, his nervous looking line drawings were used in the Illustrated War News.
Although Alfred Bastian began planning a great panorama to capture the fighting along the Yser in 1914, this 377 foot work was not completed until 1926. The finished piece is an artists conception rather than a single moment in time for it depicts a number of different events from a multitude of viewpoints. Installed at Ostend, the Panorama de l’Yser became a very popular attraction with locals and tourists, which created a demand for postcards. Many cards sets in black & white as well as color where produced for years. The painting was heavily damaged during a British air raid in 1940, and deteriorated further after being exposed to the elements. It is still undergoing restoration.
Albert Delstanche was primarily known for his series on Flemish legends. This narrative style was reflected in the charity postcards he illustrated though they manifest in two distinct sets. One shows black & white images of Bruges, reproduced to take on the look of a wood engraving. In his other work he presents us with haunting landscapes, filled with bombed out ruins and refugees.
Andre Lynen had been known for his paintings of the coast at Neiport and Ostend. He was inducted into the Belgian army in 1916 where he continued to create watercolors of the flooded region around the Yser. These tend to be benign scenes from behind the front or of distant fighting.
The Walloon painter, Pierre Paulus also illustrated charity cards. His images also focus on relief workers but they are far more expressive in both style and content, often depicting the wounded and the dead. He was drafted into the Belgian Army in 1916 where he served as an official artist documenting the front line for the Art Section.
Michel Sterckmans was a modernist painter who put his talents to work in depicting the devastation left behind by the German army in Belgium.
James Thiriar also illustrated cards for the Invalid Asylums for Belgian Solders. His line and wash drawings typically portray the quiet moments of relief workers. He had been wounded early in the War while serving in the civil guard, but continued work with the Survey Department as a mapmaker. In 1916 he was transferred to the Arts Section where he produced many more illustrations of the front line that found their way into magazines and onto postcards.
Maurice Wagemans was a landscape painter who captured many scenes of the coast. During the War he used his brushy style to depict the soldiers of the Belgian army in their various uniforms. These paintings were used to illustrate charity cards.
Many cards depicting Belgian troops involved in the early fighting were published in Great Britain. This was to help satisfy the public’s general thirst for war news, but it probably also catered to the large amount of Belgian refugees who had fled to England. Raphael Tuck & Sons was one of these publishers that issued numerous photo-based cards depicting the Belgian army in combat. Some of these situations appear to be real while others are obviously posed. | <urn:uuid:a28fabc7-df0b-44c0-adef-16395f747cec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.metropostcard.com/war7b-belgium.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.9848 | 5,077 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.41596397757530... | 2 | |Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact|
Belligerents and Participants
The larger empires of Europe had fought for control over the Flemish lowlands for centuries. After the wars between Napoleonic France and Hapsburg Austria, the European powers agreed to put their claims aside and set up this small region as an independent kingdom in 1837, with the status of a neutral, unaligned to any other nation.
Belgium would have liked to remain neutral in World War One but geography was not on its side. When Prussia seized the Provinces of Alsace and Loraine as a consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, these new territories acted as a protective buffer to the Rhineland. While the natural features of the new border helped protect Prussia from French aggression, it also made it very difficult for Germany to attack France in 1914. This task was made even more difficult by the massive fortifications the French had built in the region, especially around the choke point at Verdun.
Believing it could not successfully fight a two front war at once; Germany planned to temporarily hold off the Russians in the East until their armies in the West could win a quick victory over France. This strategy required speed, which could not be accomplished by battering their way through French fortifications. The only path to victory lay through the lowlands of Belgium, and so a request was made to let German armies pass without molestation through its countryside to France. The problem was that Belgium was far less neutral than she seemed. Military agreements had been made in secret with both Great Britain and France that most government officials were not even aware of. Plans had already been drawn for British and French troops to come to Belgium’s aid should her border be violated. When Britain insisted that Belgium deny the Germans free passage, King Albert obliged them by refusing the Kaisers request. The next day on August 4th, 1914 German armies crossed their border.
Though the leaders of Belgium could read a map as well as anyone else, internal bickering prevented an adequate defensive policy from being adapted for years. Belgium was a densely populated nation yet its army remained relatively small in comparison, and only began to be enlarged as war neared. They primarily relied on an extensive system of fortifications built along the German border to slow down an invasion until help arrived from Great Britain and France. Unfortunately they miscalculated; between the poor deployment of their troops, slow and uncoordinated efforts by the British and French to reinforce them, and the massive use of heavy artillery by the Germans, their fortified cities fell rapidly.
By the end of October all of Belgium except for a small corner of Flanders was under German control. The Belgian government moved into exile at Le Havre, France but they no longer had a country to govern. Those that could fled, many winding up in England by way of Antwerp. These included large numbers of civilians, many of whom would enlist in the Belgian army and return to fight. Britain however would hold a large refugee population for the remainder of the conflict.
The secret agreements Belgium made with Britain and France allowed it to concentrate its defensive works to meet an invasion from Germany. While their main defensive efforts on the Meuse River at Liege were some of the most extensive in all of Europe, they did not want to spend the money required to upgrade their antiquated system when it became susceptible to bombardment by the latest guns. Once the Germans finally made an organized attack, these fortifications quickly fell. With some experience behind them, the Belgian forts at Namur fared even worse.
The siege and fall of the Belgian forts were depicted as great victories on numerous German postcards. It is difficult however to find Allied cards referencing these actions in any way, which is not unusual when a nation suffers a painful defeat. Even so some publishers felt the need to depict the Belgian army in action. On the filedpost card above, the defeat at Liege is not only presented as a heroic defense, the Belgian Revolution is evoked to enhance patriotic enthusiasm from an historic event when current victories are lacking.
One of the great myths of the propaganda war is the heroic defense of poor little little Belgium, and how it greatly slowed the German advance so it could eventually be thrown back at the Marne. While the Germans had to stop and fight, they were moving far faster than anyone thought possible while the Allies were moving slower than expected. Most of the Kingdom was overrun before Allied reinforcements were ready to help. Without positive news to present, many Allied publishers just produced generic cards promoting heroic myths.
Even through Great Britain was the official guarantor of Belgian neutrality, a number of French publishers portrayed their own army as the savior of the kingdom. Most of their troops however were involved in attempts to reclaim Alsace and Lorraine early in the conflict. While success may have threatened any German advance into Belgium, the Battle of thee Frontiers was a major French defeat. Troops sent to Belgium came too late and were to few to have any significant effect on the German advance. The British Expeditionary Force would play an ever increasing role on this front.
When the sluice gates of the Yser at Nieuport were opened to stop the German advance through Flanders, the lowlands were flooded for miles. Specially trained sappers were assigned to this task to make sure that the flood waters were deep enough to become an effectual barrier to infantry while not too deep to allow for the passage of boats. The Germans never really understood what had happened, which prevented them from draining the lowlands. After some initial fighting, this front would remain quiet for the duration of the War. This did not mean that postcard publishers stopped depicting this front. The flooding itself was a curiosity that made this landscape stand out from the rest, and so it drew attention. Many cards were made that capture the quiet desolation of this place, but they rarely capture the deplorable living conditions the soldiers were forced to live in. Many men on this front would die from Typhus.
While the flooding of the Yser basin is often touted as an ingenious move that saved the last remnants of the kingdom, it did not go as smoothly as it might have. Belgium was an ethnically divided Kingdom with most soldiers being drawn from the Dutch speaking Flemish peasants, while the officer class came from the French speaking Walloons. Many Flemish soldiers resented the flooding of these valuable lands that had been made productive by their own hands, and were now being destroyed on the orders of Walloons who were perceived as outsiders. These feelings of alienation only grew stronger as the War progressed, making the management of the Belgian army ever more difficult. By 1917 Flemish soldiers within the Belgian army had secretly organized into a nationalist movement, the Frontpartij (The Front), and they began to make demands. This ethnic divide would play an important role in Belgian politics in postwar years.
Long seated cultural and religious hatreds combined with fears of partisan warfare and the greenness of German troops all came together to produce a deadly and destructive mixture when the invasion of Belgium began. War had freed these soldiers of normal social norms that made it possible for them to act harshly in reaction to their fears whether they were real or imagined. Confusion often led to panic and many innocent civilians were massacred by the invading troops as punishment for crimes they did not commit. This sometimes devolved further into bloodlust and the destruction of cultural icons. While not planned, German officers often looked the other way at atrocities because the fear they put in the Belgian people made them reluctant to interfere with the German advance toward France. Belgium’s policy of only maintaining a small army meant that when the Germans quickly overran their country, many able bodied men were left behind the advancing battle lines and this raised real concerns. This situation was further confused by the newest Belgian recruits in the civic guards who were not issued uniforms but only wore a shoulder medallion or badge.
The German army only saw their actions in military terms; where civilians were completely expendable to their aims. This also made them blind to the consequences, which was providing the Allies with a great deal of ammunition to use against them in the propaganda war. These atrocities plus many more imagined were all rolled up into the story of the rape of Belgium. Its success in swaying public opinion surprised the Germans, and they then took more control over the behavior of their troops. The propaganda war, caring nothing for truth would be unrelenting. By early 1915 the German governor of occupied Belgium forbid the mailing of any postcard that depicted destruction within the kingdom, but they had already acquired the label of Barbarians for the duration of the War.
It did not take long for the myth of German barbarity to become set in the public’s mind, and this provided fertile ground for the tremendous amount of propaganda cards that followed. All sorts of horrendous fictional acts attributed to Germans continued to be produced for the duration of the war for the public was now ready to believe sensational story above the truth. When the same sorts of atrocities became repetitious, artists resorted to depicting them through allegory. These types of cards were especially common in France where their vitriol knew no bounds. Postcards depicting German transgressions played a major role in stirring up hatred for the enemy, so much so that they helped make any notions of a negotiated peace unpalatable.
While the Allies concentrated on depicting fictional atrocities, they often missed the real tragedies affecting the Belgian people. By the autumn of 1915 Belgian civilians began being conscripted for labor in the industrial Ruhr. This situation grew worse after Ludendorff took control over the German economy and deportations increased to fill the arms factories of Krupp. Belgians had just become an expendable resource to keep the War going. Those left behind faced shortages of food and fuel that brought great suffering and sometimes death. Some cards were published that deal with this less dramatic aspect of the War but they are rare. The great amount of propaganda produced that portrayed Germans as barbaric monsters had a detrimental effect on the truth after the War. When it became easier to see these representations as exaggerations, they all began to be viewed through this colored lens and many real atrocities were temporarily forgotten. Even today it is sometimes difficult to separate truth from fiction.
(See From Iberia to Syria dated August 30, 2010, in the archive of the website’s Blog section for more information on this subject)
The violation of Belgian neutrality and the rape of Belgium that followed greatly influenced public opinion in other neutral nations. Many of those who had been pro-German suddenly turned against them. Recruiting efforts were boosted from those outraged at the news. The propaganda war managed to create a Belgium that was perceived as an innocent victim suffering at the hands of a brutal bully. Every act against them was turned into a war against civilization while their own horrific crimes in the Congo were completely forgotten. The postcards of many nations were harnessed for this propaganda war to great effect, while the inept German efforts to counter it were largely ignored.
During World War One armies had grown to a tremendous size and supplying them with food became a perpetual problem. By the time German troops were fighting in northern France their supply lines back to Germany were stretched thin and it was easier to take resources directly from Belgium. Consumption was so great that it led to starvation among Belgian civilians, but charitable efforts to relieve this situation ran into political obstacles. While Germany thought it the fault of the British for enacting a naval blockade of foodstuffs, the British felt it was the responsibility of the German occupiers to supply food and they should take the consequences of not being able to deliver it. Despite these strong positions, Herbert Hoover, at the urging of the American ambassador to Britain, Walter Hines Page, managed to negotiate through them to form the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Britain reluctantly agreed to let the Commission’s ships pass through the blockade, and the Germans agreed to let the food be solely distributed to Belgian and French civilians as it was considered the property of the American ambassador to Belgium, Brand Whitlock. The program seldom worked smoothly but it saved millions of lives.
In the years of the Great War nearly all the belligerents were monarchies, and as such many postcards were produced portraying royal families. Many of those depicting King Albert I of Belgium are different in that he was obliged to take personal command of the Belgian army and fought with it at the front in the siege of Antwerp and on the Yser. By December 1914 he made it clear to the Allies that he would not allow Belgian troops to be used in the kinds of offensive operations that had already wasted the lives of so many soldiers. As the War grew more destructive, he secretly tried to negotiate a peace deal but this ended in failure because both sides thought they could achieve a military victory without compromise. There are numerous postcards of King Albert in posing in uniform as well as more active scenes of him surveying the fighting or talking to soldiers in the trenches.
Many postcards of King Albert’s family were also produced but these aren’t the typical posed scenes in palaces or at ceremonial events. His wife Queen Elizabeth became a nurse, and there are cards that show her in uniform while serving in this capacity. His son Prince Leopold also fought in the Belgian army as a private early in the War. In a kingdom where class divisions were further divided by ethnicity, it was important for this type of propaganda to show that the royal family thought it was no better than any ordinary citizen.
Even after most of their country was occupied, Belgian troops continued to fight alongside the British in Flanders but they were only involved in minor engagements after the winter of 1914/15. By this time the British and the French had no faith in the Belgian army, and King Albert did not want them assisting in major Allied offensives. While there are postcards to be found showing Belgian soldiers manning the trench lines around Nieuport, their numbers declined as the front grew more quiet.
Most of the fighting that took place in Belgium was performed by the British Expeditionary Force centered at Ypres. With so little of Belgium left in Allied hands they refused to give it up despite very aggressive German attempts to take it. The salient just became a killing field in three major battles with nothing of real importance gained. Despite the nearly constant action on this front, relatively few Allied postcards picture it. Those cards that do exist were largely British or French made depicting British troops early in the War.
Belgians also fought against German colonial forces in East Africa. There are a number of military themed photo-based postcards from the Belgian Congo but they do not tend to display combat situations. They are not always easy to tie to events in World War One. Belgium employed armored cars in their defense and even sent a small armored car expeditionary force to Russia that was deployed in Galicia. While cards of these vehicles in Belgium are common, it is difficult to find cards of those deployed in Galicia. Most of the real photo cards of armored cars from Russia do not seem to be captioned.
At the end of September 1918 the Allies launched a general offensive along the entire western Front. General Foch appointed King Albert to lead Army Group Flanders, which consisted of the Belgian army supported by British and French divisions. They broke through the German lines pushing toward Liege, but when German reinforcements arrived in early October the Allied attacks came to an end. Within fifteen days of the Armistice being signed, King Albert and his army were able to make a triumphal return into Brussels and reoccupy their entire former Kingdom.
Though never officially one of the Allied nations, Belgium was given a seat at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. There King Albert warned against destabilizing the Central Powers but the Allies were not interested in what he had to say. Despite this stance, Belgium made a land grab for all it could get. The Versailles Treaty would cede the German Cantons of Eupen-Malmedy to Belgium, but they did not succeed in annexing Luxembourg or provinces in southern Holland. They were also given trusteeship over Burundi and Rwanda when German East Africa was carved up despite their history of crimes in the Congo.
While the Americans did not fight in Belgium, they played a huge role in providing food relief while under German occupation that kept millions alive. Some publishers saw felt that this combined with overall participation of the United States in the War was the reason for their liberation. This attitude was widely expressed on postcards at the expense of their British ally. Once the War ended Belgium finally broke their 1837 defensive pact with Great Britain, which terminated their official status as a neutral nation.
Manneken Pis (Little Pee Man) is a small bronze statue adorning a public fountain in Brussels. Designed by Hieronymus Duquesnoy the Elder in the 17th century, it has survived many disasters and has come to symbolize the city. The statue was already a popular tourist attraction before the Great War and was captured on many postcards. Its irreverent but lighthearted spirit carried it onto many comic cards produced during the War years, only now the tone was a lot more bitter. Sometimes the statue’s flow of piss was used to symbolize the flooding of the Yser River that halted the German advance through Belgium.
Although Belgium had a strong publishing industry along with many fine illustrators, it found itself under German occupation soon after the War broke out. The vast majority of postcards depicting the early fighting in Belgium would be produced by German publishers. There are some scenes of combat published by “Notre Pays” in Brussels and by CAP for the Society of Friends for the Army Museum in Paris but both these artist drawn series were published after the War.
Max Albert Carlier was a painter who primarily produced floral still lives and interior scenes in the classic Dutch style. In the postwar years he provided illustrations for textbooks published by Librarie Istra. A number of his fine line illustrations from Histoire de France were placed on oversized postcards for publicity. These include subjects pertaining to the First World War.
Coin de Westende is typical of the strange situation most Belgian publishers were put in once their kingdom was largely overrun by the German army. Once producing souvenirs for those visiting the shore near Neiport, they switched to military related postcards after the invasion. They were then forced to move as the Germans advance, and eventually came to publish cards again from Tilburg in Holland. Most of their cards seem to deal with the Belgian army on the Yser.
The London View Company was a British publisher that captured many of the War’s early events and its soldiers. While these cards captured a number of fronts, many of their cards were dedicated to picturing the Belgian Army. A small Belgian flag usually appears in the corner of these cards with the letters L.V.C. contained within. Most are captioned in both English and French.
Armand Massonet was an academically trained painter who served two roles in the Belgian Army during the First World War. One was as a stretcher-bearer, and the other was as an official war artist. He produced many sketches near the front lines that often depicted medical services. A number of his illustrations were used on charity postcards to raise funds for the Belgian Red Cross. While serving at the front, he also published the art and literary paper, Le Claque à Fond.
Alfred Ost worked out of the Flemish town of Mechelen since 1902, but as a pacifist he fled with his family to neutral Holland in October 1914. There he first took up residence in Sluis, but moved to Amsterdam in early 1915 where he found a job with the printer Jan Kotting. Ost also designed numerous posters and postcards for the benefit of charities dealing with refugees and prisoners of war. These cards do not present military themes but views of Amsterdam in his highly graphic style. He returned to Belgium in 1919 after the Great War ended.
Another large publisher from Brussels was Photo Belge who produced some of the best postcards on Belgium’s involvement in the Great War. There are highly dramatic scenes of the Belgian army in combat during the early months of the War, as well as scenes of documented and generic atrocities. These cards were printed just after the War in 1919.
Reldian of Brussels published a large number of photo-based postcards in collotype depicting soldiers of the Belgian Army during World War One. These tend to be posed shots or scenes behind the battlefront. They are a commemorative set produced in the postwar years.
A large monochrome set of drawings depicting fierce scenes of combat were reproduced as real photo postcards by an unknown Canadian publisher. Most of these cards seem to capture scenes of Belgians, British, and French forces fighting in Flanders early in the War.
After the fall of Antwerp in October 1914, Alfred Bastien fled to Britain where he enlisted in the Belgian army. After being sent to the battlefront at Nieuport he was made an official war artist and captured scenes along the Yser through 1915. With the support of King Albert and Queen Elizabeth, Bastien and Leon Huygens founded an Art Section within the Belgian Army in 1916 to document the warfront. Eventually twenty-six artists in exile would be included in this group. Many of the images they would produce wound up on charity card sets published by the Asiles des Soldats Invalides Belges in London. Bastien continued to sketch on the front and was attached to the Canadians in September 1917. In addition to a series of postcards depicting the Belgian army, his nervous looking line drawings were used in the Illustrated War News.
Although Alfred Bastian began planning a great panorama to capture the fighting along the Yser in 1914, this 377 foot work was not completed until 1926. The finished piece is an artists conception rather than a single moment in time for it depicts a number of different events from a multitude of viewpoints. Installed at Ostend, the Panorama de l’Yser became a very popular attraction with locals and tourists, which created a demand for postcards. Many cards sets in black & white as well as color where produced for years. The painting was heavily damaged during a British air raid in 1940, and deteriorated further after being exposed to the elements. It is still undergoing restoration.
Albert Delstanche was primarily known for his series on Flemish legends. This narrative style was reflected in the charity postcards he illustrated though they manifest in two distinct sets. One shows black & white images of Bruges, reproduced to take on the look of a wood engraving. In his other work he presents us with haunting landscapes, filled with bombed out ruins and refugees.
Andre Lynen had been known for his paintings of the coast at Neiport and Ostend. He was inducted into the Belgian army in 1916 where he continued to create watercolors of the flooded region around the Yser. These tend to be benign scenes from behind the front or of distant fighting.
The Walloon painter, Pierre Paulus also illustrated charity cards. His images also focus on relief workers but they are far more expressive in both style and content, often depicting the wounded and the dead. He was drafted into the Belgian Army in 1916 where he served as an official artist documenting the front line for the Art Section.
Michel Sterckmans was a modernist painter who put his talents to work in depicting the devastation left behind by the German army in Belgium.
James Thiriar also illustrated cards for the Invalid Asylums for Belgian Solders. His line and wash drawings typically portray the quiet moments of relief workers. He had been wounded early in the War while serving in the civil guard, but continued work with the Survey Department as a mapmaker. In 1916 he was transferred to the Arts Section where he produced many more illustrations of the front line that found their way into magazines and onto postcards.
Maurice Wagemans was a landscape painter who captured many scenes of the coast. During the War he used his brushy style to depict the soldiers of the Belgian army in their various uniforms. These paintings were used to illustrate charity cards.
Many cards depicting Belgian troops involved in the early fighting were published in Great Britain. This was to help satisfy the public’s general thirst for war news, but it probably also catered to the large amount of Belgian refugees who had fled to England. Raphael Tuck & Sons was one of these publishers that issued numerous photo-based cards depicting the Belgian army in combat. Some of these situations appear to be real while others are obviously posed. | 5,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (316 words)
During the reign of the 18th Dynasty, Akhenaton had made his kingdom very wealthy and powerful, but at the same time he also changed art in his time period which became known as the Amarna Period. Art in the Amarna period was very different from the stiff and unemotional art from the earlier Egyptian dynasties. Akhenaton was very influential on the art; it seemed that he wanted the art to convey real life taking place. Even though portrayal of Akhenaton himself seems exaggerated it seems more life-like then the earlier art, all Pharaohs seemed to look exactly the same with the same body and the same stance.
Amarna art shows Akhenaton with a very elongated face, full lips, cat-like eyes and a pudgy stomach. All of the other pieces would show the pharaohs looking very strong and tough, they would never have emotion shown on their face and they were always very stiff, most of the time with their hands in their fists down by their sides.
It was the first time a ruler had been rendered with such a girlish figure and not seeming all that powerful. Other pieces of art during the Amarna period such as Akhenaten, His Wife Nefertiti, and Their Children show them all engaging together.
Earlier pieces of Egyptian art don’t convey relationships within the families, there are pieces of art with the pharaohs and their wives but most of the time they are very stiff and only standing next to each other, with no hint that they even like each other. The portrait bust, Nefertiti, is also shown very life-like; her features make her described as the most beautiful women in the world. All of the interaction and flow make this art very distinctive for all Egyptian art. The Amarna period has art that well be recognized forever for the style it uses and the emotion and interaction it conveys.
Cite this page
Akhenaton and Amarna Art. (2017, Mar 05). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/akhenaton-and-amarna-art-essay | <urn:uuid:7681c146-1442-4a8e-bda3-3d3002f21110> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/akhenaton-and-amarna-art-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.981751 | 448 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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During the reign of the 18th Dynasty, Akhenaton had made his kingdom very wealthy and powerful, but at the same time he also changed art in his time period which became known as the Amarna Period. Art in the Amarna period was very different from the stiff and unemotional art from the earlier Egyptian dynasties. Akhenaton was very influential on the art; it seemed that he wanted the art to convey real life taking place. Even though portrayal of Akhenaton himself seems exaggerated it seems more life-like then the earlier art, all Pharaohs seemed to look exactly the same with the same body and the same stance.
Amarna art shows Akhenaton with a very elongated face, full lips, cat-like eyes and a pudgy stomach. All of the other pieces would show the pharaohs looking very strong and tough, they would never have emotion shown on their face and they were always very stiff, most of the time with their hands in their fists down by their sides.
It was the first time a ruler had been rendered with such a girlish figure and not seeming all that powerful. Other pieces of art during the Amarna period such as Akhenaten, His Wife Nefertiti, and Their Children show them all engaging together.
Earlier pieces of Egyptian art don’t convey relationships within the families, there are pieces of art with the pharaohs and their wives but most of the time they are very stiff and only standing next to each other, with no hint that they even like each other. The portrait bust, Nefertiti, is also shown very life-like; her features make her described as the most beautiful women in the world. All of the interaction and flow make this art very distinctive for all Egyptian art. The Amarna period has art that well be recognized forever for the style it uses and the emotion and interaction it conveys.
Cite this page
Akhenaton and Amarna Art. (2017, Mar 05). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/akhenaton-and-amarna-art-essay | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Margaret Fuller Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Early Years and Education
Sarah Margaret Fuller was born 23rd May 1810, to Timothy and Margaret Fuller. She was born in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, in the United States. Her father was a Congressman. Her father taught her to read and write at a very early age, and he gave her a solid education, generally saved for boys during the era. Fuller was banned from reading typical female articles at the time like love stories and etiquette books.
In 1815, her younger brother was born, but by that time Fuller was being taught Latin and was able to do simple translations of Virgil. Her second brother was born in 1817. Around the same time, her father was elected to the United States Congress, and over the next eight years, he spent roughly half of each year in Washington, D.C.
In 1819, Margaret Fuller began her studies at the Port School in Cambridgeport, and in 1821 and 1822, she attended the Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies. In 1824, she was sent away to the School for Young Ladies in Groton. After two miserable years, she returned home. Fuller realized by this stage that she didn’t fit in with other girls her age, and conceded she was not born to what was the “normal” woman’s lot in life.
By the time Margaret Fuller reached her mid-30s, she had built a reputation for being the best-read person in New England. She was a very keen reader, and Fuller used her academic knowledge to provide tutoring. She wanted a career in journalism and translation (having taught herself several languages), and her first published article was in November 1834 in the North American Review.
It was around this time that her father’s law firm collapsed, and the family moved to a farm in Groton.
In 1835, Fuller was asked to contribute to two different periodicals. Later that year she fell very ill, with a strong migraine and a fever that lasted nine days. While she was sick, her father died from cholera. Fuller was deeply affected by her father’s death, and to make matters worse, he didn’t have a will. Two of her uncles took control of his estate, including property and finances, and Fuller and her family had to rely on them to live.
In 1836, Margaret Fuller took up a teaching position at Bronson Alcott’s Temple School in Boston where she stayed for 12 months. She then moved to teach at the Greene Street School in Rhode Island, where she was paid a very high salary for the period of $1,000 per year. Fuller and her family sold their farm and moved to Massachusetts.
In 1839, Margaret Fuller began attending discussions at the Peabody’s home in Boston. She helped educate the women in different subjects like the fine arts, history, and literature, amongst others. The conversations were also attended by significant women’s rights movement members of the period.
In 1839, Fuller was also asked by Ralph Waldo Emerson to become an editor for his transcendentalist journal, The Dial. She worked as editor between 1840 and 1842, and due to the position, was considered one of the most important people in the transcendental movement.
She travelled to several cities in 1843, spending time with different Native American tribes, and wrote a book about her experiences called Summer on the Lakes, which was published in 1844. Fuller became the first woman allowed to use the library at Harvard College, which she used to do her research.
In 1844, Margaret Fuller left The Dial. The reason was two-fold. She was disappointed that the subscription list was getting smaller, but she was also ill at the time.
Fuller moved to New York and joined the New York Tribune where she worked as a literary critic. In 1846, she became the first female editor for the publication. Fuller was with the paper for four years, and she published over 250 columns. Her topics, while covering subjects like art and literature, also covered other areas such as women’s rights and what slaves had to go through.
Margaret Fuller went to England and Italy as the first female foreign correspondent for the New York Tribune. She filed several reports back to the U.S. Fuller also met world-famous people such as Giuseppe Mazzini, and Italian revolutionary, Giovanni Angelo Ossoli. She moved in with Ossoli in Florence, but it has never been sure whether they were married or not.
In 1849 Fuller and Ossoli supported the revolution for the Roman Republic, but when the rebellion was unsuccessful, they decided to move to the U.S.
Activism and Causes
Margaret Fuller was an advocate of feminism, and she believed women were entitled to an education. She also felt that once women had equal educational rights, they could then work towards equal political rights as well. She wanted women to work at careers they wanted rather than what was expected, and that they should not be dependent on their husbands.
She also spoke out about the unjust treatment of the Native Americans, and the poverty and homelessness of people, particularly in New York. She also spoke out strongly in support of African-Americans and was very anti-slavery.
Margaret Fuller moved in with Ossoli in 1847, and in 1848 they had a son. Up until that time the couple had not spoken about their relationship, but after their son, Angelino became very ill, Fuller wrote to her mother and explained everything. Her mother was fully supportive, even though she knew her daughter wasn’t married.
When the couple sailed back to the U.S. with their son, the ship hit a sandbar when it was less than 100 yards from Fire Island in New York. It was 19th July 1850. Many passengers and crew members abandoned ship. The bodies of Fuller and Ossoli were never found. Angelino’s body washed up on shore.
It wasn’t long after her death that Margaret Fuller's importance began to fade. Although women that followed later called her an inspiration, interestingly her contemporaries during her lifetime were quite critical of her.
More People From Massachusetts
John Singleton Copley
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William Lloyd Garrison | <urn:uuid:fd173a33-a5c3-4329-be33-497757e6bc9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/margaret-fuller/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.990772 | 1,321 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.50354164838... | 1 | Margaret Fuller Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Early Years and Education
Sarah Margaret Fuller was born 23rd May 1810, to Timothy and Margaret Fuller. She was born in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, in the United States. Her father was a Congressman. Her father taught her to read and write at a very early age, and he gave her a solid education, generally saved for boys during the era. Fuller was banned from reading typical female articles at the time like love stories and etiquette books.
In 1815, her younger brother was born, but by that time Fuller was being taught Latin and was able to do simple translations of Virgil. Her second brother was born in 1817. Around the same time, her father was elected to the United States Congress, and over the next eight years, he spent roughly half of each year in Washington, D.C.
In 1819, Margaret Fuller began her studies at the Port School in Cambridgeport, and in 1821 and 1822, she attended the Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies. In 1824, she was sent away to the School for Young Ladies in Groton. After two miserable years, she returned home. Fuller realized by this stage that she didn’t fit in with other girls her age, and conceded she was not born to what was the “normal” woman’s lot in life.
By the time Margaret Fuller reached her mid-30s, she had built a reputation for being the best-read person in New England. She was a very keen reader, and Fuller used her academic knowledge to provide tutoring. She wanted a career in journalism and translation (having taught herself several languages), and her first published article was in November 1834 in the North American Review.
It was around this time that her father’s law firm collapsed, and the family moved to a farm in Groton.
In 1835, Fuller was asked to contribute to two different periodicals. Later that year she fell very ill, with a strong migraine and a fever that lasted nine days. While she was sick, her father died from cholera. Fuller was deeply affected by her father’s death, and to make matters worse, he didn’t have a will. Two of her uncles took control of his estate, including property and finances, and Fuller and her family had to rely on them to live.
In 1836, Margaret Fuller took up a teaching position at Bronson Alcott’s Temple School in Boston where she stayed for 12 months. She then moved to teach at the Greene Street School in Rhode Island, where she was paid a very high salary for the period of $1,000 per year. Fuller and her family sold their farm and moved to Massachusetts.
In 1839, Margaret Fuller began attending discussions at the Peabody’s home in Boston. She helped educate the women in different subjects like the fine arts, history, and literature, amongst others. The conversations were also attended by significant women’s rights movement members of the period.
In 1839, Fuller was also asked by Ralph Waldo Emerson to become an editor for his transcendentalist journal, The Dial. She worked as editor between 1840 and 1842, and due to the position, was considered one of the most important people in the transcendental movement.
She travelled to several cities in 1843, spending time with different Native American tribes, and wrote a book about her experiences called Summer on the Lakes, which was published in 1844. Fuller became the first woman allowed to use the library at Harvard College, which she used to do her research.
In 1844, Margaret Fuller left The Dial. The reason was two-fold. She was disappointed that the subscription list was getting smaller, but she was also ill at the time.
Fuller moved to New York and joined the New York Tribune where she worked as a literary critic. In 1846, she became the first female editor for the publication. Fuller was with the paper for four years, and she published over 250 columns. Her topics, while covering subjects like art and literature, also covered other areas such as women’s rights and what slaves had to go through.
Margaret Fuller went to England and Italy as the first female foreign correspondent for the New York Tribune. She filed several reports back to the U.S. Fuller also met world-famous people such as Giuseppe Mazzini, and Italian revolutionary, Giovanni Angelo Ossoli. She moved in with Ossoli in Florence, but it has never been sure whether they were married or not.
In 1849 Fuller and Ossoli supported the revolution for the Roman Republic, but when the rebellion was unsuccessful, they decided to move to the U.S.
Activism and Causes
Margaret Fuller was an advocate of feminism, and she believed women were entitled to an education. She also felt that once women had equal educational rights, they could then work towards equal political rights as well. She wanted women to work at careers they wanted rather than what was expected, and that they should not be dependent on their husbands.
She also spoke out about the unjust treatment of the Native Americans, and the poverty and homelessness of people, particularly in New York. She also spoke out strongly in support of African-Americans and was very anti-slavery.
Margaret Fuller moved in with Ossoli in 1847, and in 1848 they had a son. Up until that time the couple had not spoken about their relationship, but after their son, Angelino became very ill, Fuller wrote to her mother and explained everything. Her mother was fully supportive, even though she knew her daughter wasn’t married.
When the couple sailed back to the U.S. with their son, the ship hit a sandbar when it was less than 100 yards from Fire Island in New York. It was 19th July 1850. Many passengers and crew members abandoned ship. The bodies of Fuller and Ossoli were never found. Angelino’s body washed up on shore.
It wasn’t long after her death that Margaret Fuller's importance began to fade. Although women that followed later called her an inspiration, interestingly her contemporaries during her lifetime were quite critical of her.
More People From Massachusetts
John Singleton Copley
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William Lloyd Garrison | 1,349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Catholic chapel in the sixteenth century and term
Research from Term Paper:
Catholic Church in the 16th century and explain what factors/Social circumstances exacerbated the unrest associated with the Protestant Reformation.
Only $13.90 / page
Review types of information.
There are several politics, economic and religious factors that resulted in the Protestant Reformation. Though it did not take place until the sixteenth century, it had its origins in the fourteenth century.
What were a number of the arguments directed against the Catholic Church in the sixteenth hundred years?
The causes of the truly great religious revolt of the 16th century may be traced backside as early as the fourteenth century. First, the doctrine from the Church ongoing its training course in several parts of Europe, wholly uninterruptedly. The unhappy conditions that been around were mainly due to municipal and profane influences or to the physical exercise of specialist by ecclesiastics in city spheres. Slowly but surely, in many areas of Europe, political and social conditions hampered the reformatory activities from the Church plus the forces of heresy and schism started to take maintain and were no longer held in check by the harmonious action of the ecclesiastical and civil authorities.
Additionally it is important to remember that the local clergy were very intertwined inside the secular existence and had personal and worldly interests and also religious. Many ecclesiastics were chiefly interested in their salary and how to increase it, gain greater electric power.
In addition , Britain was a far away and separated country as well as for years had an uncomfortable relationship with the Catholic Church. The adoption of Protestantism was a politically rather then religiously enthusiastic move. Wedding of Henry VIII to his brother’s ex-wife, Catherine of Aragon, was regarded as an act of incest. When Holly finally determines to divorce her since there is no guy heir and marry Bea Boleyn, this individual seeks a papal dispensation. But in in an attempt to marry her he needs another papal dispensation and this would deal church rules. The Pope refuses; Henry marries Bea Boleyn and is excommunicated constitute the church by Pope.
That was possibly the key politics factor that led to the reformation. But the Catholic House of worship had different weaknesses: competing popes in Rome, Avignon and other areas; there were doubtful rituals and practices such as worshiping the saints, conducting pilgrimages and celebrating mass. Couple that | <urn:uuid:e33cdb17-ee27-41f6-9d6f-ca801375ce1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mabuty.com/catholic-chapel-in-the-sixteenth-century-and-term/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.981358 | 498 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.007404149044... | 2 | Catholic chapel in the sixteenth century and term
Research from Term Paper:
Catholic Church in the 16th century and explain what factors/Social circumstances exacerbated the unrest associated with the Protestant Reformation.
Only $13.90 / page
Review types of information.
There are several politics, economic and religious factors that resulted in the Protestant Reformation. Though it did not take place until the sixteenth century, it had its origins in the fourteenth century.
What were a number of the arguments directed against the Catholic Church in the sixteenth hundred years?
The causes of the truly great religious revolt of the 16th century may be traced backside as early as the fourteenth century. First, the doctrine from the Church ongoing its training course in several parts of Europe, wholly uninterruptedly. The unhappy conditions that been around were mainly due to municipal and profane influences or to the physical exercise of specialist by ecclesiastics in city spheres. Slowly but surely, in many areas of Europe, political and social conditions hampered the reformatory activities from the Church plus the forces of heresy and schism started to take maintain and were no longer held in check by the harmonious action of the ecclesiastical and civil authorities.
Additionally it is important to remember that the local clergy were very intertwined inside the secular existence and had personal and worldly interests and also religious. Many ecclesiastics were chiefly interested in their salary and how to increase it, gain greater electric power.
In addition , Britain was a far away and separated country as well as for years had an uncomfortable relationship with the Catholic Church. The adoption of Protestantism was a politically rather then religiously enthusiastic move. Wedding of Henry VIII to his brother’s ex-wife, Catherine of Aragon, was regarded as an act of incest. When Holly finally determines to divorce her since there is no guy heir and marry Bea Boleyn, this individual seeks a papal dispensation. But in in an attempt to marry her he needs another papal dispensation and this would deal church rules. The Pope refuses; Henry marries Bea Boleyn and is excommunicated constitute the church by Pope.
That was possibly the key politics factor that led to the reformation. But the Catholic House of worship had different weaknesses: competing popes in Rome, Avignon and other areas; there were doubtful rituals and practices such as worshiping the saints, conducting pilgrimages and celebrating mass. Couple that | 499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Horse Racing in Atlantis is an unexpected reference by Plato (Critias, 117c). It should be pointed out that his reference is, it would appear to be to horse racing as opposed to chariot racing, both of which were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 638 BC, and later were avidly followed in the Roman Empire. It is worth mentioning here that Paul Cartledge, professor of Greek History at Cambridge University informs us that at Olympia and other Greek locations, both the running and horse racing tracks were straight where laps were up and back. This would seem to suggest a foreign source for the Atlantis story rather than it being a concoction of Plato’s.
Originally horses were hunted for food and their hides. Our knowledge at present is that the horse was first domesticated in central Asia around 4500 BC. A major study published in May 2018(e) has reinforced this ‘steppe theory’ and importantly has shown how the spread of horse domestication went hand-in-hand with the proliferation of Indo-European languages.
Marsha A. Levine, a leading expert in this field, has pointed out that the earliest existing evidence for the use of the horse, as a means of transport is around 2000 BC, with the Sintashta chariot burials. Sintashta was in the steppes east of the Urals. However, there is evidence that horses were used for riding as early as 4000 BC. This is based on the type of bit wear found on the molars of excavated remains. On the other hand these early horses were much smaller than their modern successors and in the view of some were too small for riding and so must have been driven. Our knowledge of the prehistoric horse is still developing and subject to considerable debate. A number of researchers have argued for a very early date for the domestication of the horse including the archaeologist, Evan Hadingham, who points to evidence which indicates the existence of this domestication as early as the Upper Palaeolithic.
The latest evidence for domestication of the horse as early as 3500 BC has come from studies carried out in Kazakhstan(a)(c). However, this is put in the shade by the discovery of the 9,000 year-old al-Maqar civilisation in Arabia where evidence for domestication is pushed back to late Neolithic period(b).
A recent paper now offers evidence that equine dentistry was practiced as early as 1150 BC in northern Mongolia(f).
There is a record that in 1,340 BC a remarkable Mitanni called Kikkuli was enticed by the Hittite king Suppililuma to become his horse manager. After training the Hittite horses to a high degree, they were instrumental in wiping out the Mitanni.
In the case of Plato’s Atlantis tale we have not only the horse racing to consider but also the considerable number of chariots referred to. It should be borne in mind that war chariots were only of use in open and reasonably flat terrain. Effective chariots were dependent on spoked wheels, which were not invented until around 2000 BC. This could be a clue to the origin of the Atlantis story.
There is also reference to a statue in the Temple of Poseidon, the god of horses, of a chariot drawn by six winged horses. (Why would such chariots require wheels?)
Even more bizarre, is Plato’s description of horse baths (Critias 117b), a facility that was highly unlikely around 9600 BC. Furthermore, if we take Plato’s text at face value, all these references to horses clearly rules out America as the location of Atlantis, as horses were not found there until imported by the Spaniards.
An interesting website dealing with the relationship of humans with the horse is available(d).
(d) See: Archive 2370 | <urn:uuid:486a8fa5-7d76-48b6-932c-41d37308803a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://atlantipedia.ie/samples/horse-racing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.983242 | 794 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.64986896514892... | 3 | Horse Racing in Atlantis is an unexpected reference by Plato (Critias, 117c). It should be pointed out that his reference is, it would appear to be to horse racing as opposed to chariot racing, both of which were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 638 BC, and later were avidly followed in the Roman Empire. It is worth mentioning here that Paul Cartledge, professor of Greek History at Cambridge University informs us that at Olympia and other Greek locations, both the running and horse racing tracks were straight where laps were up and back. This would seem to suggest a foreign source for the Atlantis story rather than it being a concoction of Plato’s.
Originally horses were hunted for food and their hides. Our knowledge at present is that the horse was first domesticated in central Asia around 4500 BC. A major study published in May 2018(e) has reinforced this ‘steppe theory’ and importantly has shown how the spread of horse domestication went hand-in-hand with the proliferation of Indo-European languages.
Marsha A. Levine, a leading expert in this field, has pointed out that the earliest existing evidence for the use of the horse, as a means of transport is around 2000 BC, with the Sintashta chariot burials. Sintashta was in the steppes east of the Urals. However, there is evidence that horses were used for riding as early as 4000 BC. This is based on the type of bit wear found on the molars of excavated remains. On the other hand these early horses were much smaller than their modern successors and in the view of some were too small for riding and so must have been driven. Our knowledge of the prehistoric horse is still developing and subject to considerable debate. A number of researchers have argued for a very early date for the domestication of the horse including the archaeologist, Evan Hadingham, who points to evidence which indicates the existence of this domestication as early as the Upper Palaeolithic.
The latest evidence for domestication of the horse as early as 3500 BC has come from studies carried out in Kazakhstan(a)(c). However, this is put in the shade by the discovery of the 9,000 year-old al-Maqar civilisation in Arabia where evidence for domestication is pushed back to late Neolithic period(b).
A recent paper now offers evidence that equine dentistry was practiced as early as 1150 BC in northern Mongolia(f).
There is a record that in 1,340 BC a remarkable Mitanni called Kikkuli was enticed by the Hittite king Suppililuma to become his horse manager. After training the Hittite horses to a high degree, they were instrumental in wiping out the Mitanni.
In the case of Plato’s Atlantis tale we have not only the horse racing to consider but also the considerable number of chariots referred to. It should be borne in mind that war chariots were only of use in open and reasonably flat terrain. Effective chariots were dependent on spoked wheels, which were not invented until around 2000 BC. This could be a clue to the origin of the Atlantis story.
There is also reference to a statue in the Temple of Poseidon, the god of horses, of a chariot drawn by six winged horses. (Why would such chariots require wheels?)
Even more bizarre, is Plato’s description of horse baths (Critias 117b), a facility that was highly unlikely around 9600 BC. Furthermore, if we take Plato’s text at face value, all these references to horses clearly rules out America as the location of Atlantis, as horses were not found there until imported by the Spaniards.
An interesting website dealing with the relationship of humans with the horse is available(d).
(d) See: Archive 2370 | 815 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Date(s):||1865 to 1890|
|Tag(s):||African American, Black Schools|
|Course:||“HIS 240 African-American History I,” Rollins College|
|Rating:||5 (3 votes)|
In the spring of 1865, slavery successfully ended in the United States when the Confederate army surrendered. All slaves in the Confederacy were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation set by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, which said that slaves in Confederate-held areas were free. Slaves in the border states and Union controlled parts of the South were freed on December 6, 1865, by the Thirteenth Amendment. Between 1861 and 1865, about four million black slaves were freed.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the education of African Americans was not a main concern in the United States. The South had strict laws against educating African Americans to protect slavery. The North however did have schools for African Americans but they were inferior to white schools. The buildings were crowded, the teachers were not as experienced and there were not as many courses offered in the curriculum. In the South, most of the education that took place with in churches. By 1834, many Sunday schools had reading as part of the course; this was because they had to be able to read the Bible in order to be a good Christian.
In a picture from 1890, it shows the first school for African Americans built in Winter Park, FL. There are thirty-five colored children and two colored men standing outside a building that appears to be quite small. The boys are dressed in a clean shirts and pants and the girls are wearing clean dresses. Although the conditions of the building were still inferior to the white, it was a huge step for African American education progress in the South.
The nineteenth century was an important period for African American education in the country. The beginning of the century saw little to no schooling available to African Americans and in the end there was the assimilation of public schools. Education for African Americans was not even close to being equal to what the white children was offered. But education was in progress and free public education was a major accomplishment for African Americans. | <urn:uuid:ce8f24f2-c8c2-4b5e-8b70-1b04d45f459c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4892 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00106.warc.gz | en | 0.98762 | 445 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.056310974061489105,
-0.10919276624917984,
0.31796985864... | 3 | |Date(s):||1865 to 1890|
|Tag(s):||African American, Black Schools|
|Course:||“HIS 240 African-American History I,” Rollins College|
|Rating:||5 (3 votes)|
In the spring of 1865, slavery successfully ended in the United States when the Confederate army surrendered. All slaves in the Confederacy were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation set by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, which said that slaves in Confederate-held areas were free. Slaves in the border states and Union controlled parts of the South were freed on December 6, 1865, by the Thirteenth Amendment. Between 1861 and 1865, about four million black slaves were freed.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the education of African Americans was not a main concern in the United States. The South had strict laws against educating African Americans to protect slavery. The North however did have schools for African Americans but they were inferior to white schools. The buildings were crowded, the teachers were not as experienced and there were not as many courses offered in the curriculum. In the South, most of the education that took place with in churches. By 1834, many Sunday schools had reading as part of the course; this was because they had to be able to read the Bible in order to be a good Christian.
In a picture from 1890, it shows the first school for African Americans built in Winter Park, FL. There are thirty-five colored children and two colored men standing outside a building that appears to be quite small. The boys are dressed in a clean shirts and pants and the girls are wearing clean dresses. Although the conditions of the building were still inferior to the white, it was a huge step for African American education progress in the South.
The nineteenth century was an important period for African American education in the country. The beginning of the century saw little to no schooling available to African Americans and in the end there was the assimilation of public schools. Education for African Americans was not even close to being equal to what the white children was offered. But education was in progress and free public education was a major accomplishment for African Americans. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are two ways to convey the message of a person, or the words spoken by a person to another person.
Suppose your friend whose name is John tells you in school, “I will give you a pen”. You come home and you want to tell your brother what your friend told you. There are two ways to tell him.
Direct speech: John said, “I will give you a pen”.
Indirect Speech: John said that he would give me a pen.
In direct speech the original words of a person are narrated (no change is made) and are enclosed in quotation mark. While in indirect speech some changes are made in original words of the person because these words have been uttered in the past so the tense will change accordingly and pronoun may also be changed accordingly. In indirect speech the statement of the person is not enclosed in quotation marks, the word “that” may be used before the statement to show that it is indirect speech. Indirect speech is also called reported speech because reported speech refers to the second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person.
Reporting verb: The verb in the first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they said, she says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called the reporting verb.
Examples. In all of the following example the reporting verb is “said”.
He said, “I work in a factory” (Direct speech)
He said that he worked in a factory. (Indirect speech)
They said, “we are going to cinema” (Direct speech)
They said that they were going to cinema. (Indirect speech)
Reported Speech. The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported speech. For example, a sentence of indirect speech is, He said that he worked in a factory. In this sentence the second part “he worked in a factory” is called reported speech and that is why the indirect speech as a whole can also be called reported speech.
Fundamental rules for Indirect Speech.
Reported speech is not enclosed in quotation marks.
Use of word “that”: The word “that” is used as a conjunction between the reporting verb and reported speech.
Change in pronoun: The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change.
Change in time: Time is changed according to certain rules like now to then, today to that day, tomorrow to next day and yesterday to previous day.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy today”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy that day.
Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to past tense the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported speech will not change.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed)
Direct speech: He says, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he is happy. (Tense of reported speech didn’t change)
Table for change in tense of reported speech for all TENSES
TENSE CHANGE IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Present simple tense into Past simple
Present Continuous tense into Past continuous
Present Perfect tense into Past perfect
Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous
Past simple into Past Perfect
Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect into Past Perfect
Future simple, will into would
Future Continuous, will be into would be
Future Perfect, will have into would have
Today changes to that day/the same day
Tomorrow changes to the next day/the following day
Yesterday changes to the day before/the previous day
Next week/month/year changes to the following week/month/year
Last week/month/year changes to the previous week/month/year
Now/just changes to then
Ago changes to before
Here changes to there
This changes to that.
Complete the following sentences in reported speech:
John said, "I love this town."
"Do you like soccer ?" He asked me.
He asked me
"I can't drive a lorry," he said.
"Be nice to your brother," he said.
He asked me
"Don't be nasty," he said.
He urged me
"Don't waste your money" she said.
She told the boys
"What have you decided to do?" she asked him.
She asked him
"I always wake up early," he said.
"You should revise your lessons," he said.
He advised the students
"Where have you been?" he asked me.
He wanted to know
Change the speech in the following sentences.
Ravi said, “I am fond of tea.”
He said that it may rain that day.
The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.
He said, “When we lived in Bombay, we often went to beach.”
He said to me,” I will come again soon.”
I told her that she was a brave girl.
He said, “You are an honest man.”
Miss Jyoti said to me, “Put these pencil shavings in the dustbin.”
Ali said, “I will watch a horror movie tonight.”
The girl said that she had to go to Delhi the next day.
Shyama said, “The teacher left an hour ago.”
Manish said that he was busy then.
Doctor said to a patient, "Change your life style and eating habits".
She said to her neighbour, "Please take care of my son, will you?
The young lady said, "Alas! my husband is no more." | <urn:uuid:f9abdc64-2663-42dd-87cc-a520bd1de4c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studiestoday.com/useful-resources-english-cbse-class-8-english-reported-speech-concepts-and-exercise-241418.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.980175 | 1,317 | 4.625 | 5 | [
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-0.0843782126... | 3 | There are two ways to convey the message of a person, or the words spoken by a person to another person.
Suppose your friend whose name is John tells you in school, “I will give you a pen”. You come home and you want to tell your brother what your friend told you. There are two ways to tell him.
Direct speech: John said, “I will give you a pen”.
Indirect Speech: John said that he would give me a pen.
In direct speech the original words of a person are narrated (no change is made) and are enclosed in quotation mark. While in indirect speech some changes are made in original words of the person because these words have been uttered in the past so the tense will change accordingly and pronoun may also be changed accordingly. In indirect speech the statement of the person is not enclosed in quotation marks, the word “that” may be used before the statement to show that it is indirect speech. Indirect speech is also called reported speech because reported speech refers to the second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person.
Reporting verb: The verb in the first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they said, she says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called the reporting verb.
Examples. In all of the following example the reporting verb is “said”.
He said, “I work in a factory” (Direct speech)
He said that he worked in a factory. (Indirect speech)
They said, “we are going to cinema” (Direct speech)
They said that they were going to cinema. (Indirect speech)
Reported Speech. The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported speech. For example, a sentence of indirect speech is, He said that he worked in a factory. In this sentence the second part “he worked in a factory” is called reported speech and that is why the indirect speech as a whole can also be called reported speech.
Fundamental rules for Indirect Speech.
Reported speech is not enclosed in quotation marks.
Use of word “that”: The word “that” is used as a conjunction between the reporting verb and reported speech.
Change in pronoun: The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change.
Change in time: Time is changed according to certain rules like now to then, today to that day, tomorrow to next day and yesterday to previous day.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy today”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy that day.
Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to past tense the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported speech will not change.
Direct speech: He said, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed)
Direct speech: He says, “I am happy”
Indirect Speech: He said that he is happy. (Tense of reported speech didn’t change)
Table for change in tense of reported speech for all TENSES
TENSE CHANGE IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Present simple tense into Past simple
Present Continuous tense into Past continuous
Present Perfect tense into Past perfect
Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous
Past simple into Past Perfect
Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect into Past Perfect
Future simple, will into would
Future Continuous, will be into would be
Future Perfect, will have into would have
Today changes to that day/the same day
Tomorrow changes to the next day/the following day
Yesterday changes to the day before/the previous day
Next week/month/year changes to the following week/month/year
Last week/month/year changes to the previous week/month/year
Now/just changes to then
Ago changes to before
Here changes to there
This changes to that.
Complete the following sentences in reported speech:
John said, "I love this town."
"Do you like soccer ?" He asked me.
He asked me
"I can't drive a lorry," he said.
"Be nice to your brother," he said.
He asked me
"Don't be nasty," he said.
He urged me
"Don't waste your money" she said.
She told the boys
"What have you decided to do?" she asked him.
She asked him
"I always wake up early," he said.
"You should revise your lessons," he said.
He advised the students
"Where have you been?" he asked me.
He wanted to know
Change the speech in the following sentences.
Ravi said, “I am fond of tea.”
He said that it may rain that day.
The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.
He said, “When we lived in Bombay, we often went to beach.”
He said to me,” I will come again soon.”
I told her that she was a brave girl.
He said, “You are an honest man.”
Miss Jyoti said to me, “Put these pencil shavings in the dustbin.”
Ali said, “I will watch a horror movie tonight.”
The girl said that she had to go to Delhi the next day.
Shyama said, “The teacher left an hour ago.”
Manish said that he was busy then.
Doctor said to a patient, "Change your life style and eating habits".
She said to her neighbour, "Please take care of my son, will you?
The young lady said, "Alas! my husband is no more." | 1,200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are six important periods in the development of the United States Juvenile Justice system. The initial process has early ties dating back to the nineteenth century. The earliest attempt to control juvenile activity was during The Puritan Period from 1646 until 1824. The Massachusetts Stubborn Child Law was passed in 1646. The Puritans during the period regarded children as evil and put responsibility on the home to develop and increase youths. If the parents were failing, the young could, then be subject to the force. (Cole, Smith, DeJong).
During the period, children at the age of five were treated either as little adults or property. A seven-year-old baby would be sentenced in criminal courts. At 1648 in Massachusetts the person who cursed his biological parents would be put to death. The second point is The Refuge period from 1824 to 1899. Juvenile crime started to become right alongside American cities.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Juvenile Justice History" essay for you
In order to see the current position of juvenile offenders in the court system, particularly those tried as adults, it is essential to see the progress from which the juvenile justice originated. Up until the early nineteenth century, juveniles were heard in the same courts as every other offender. There was no difference between criminals, regardless of age. It seemed the only thing society worried about was that the crime was committed and that they took in custody the individual responsible.
In the period since the founding of the juvenile court, juvenile justice policies have developed amid the contradiction between the goals of punishment and rehabilitation of young offenders. The point and use of juvenile justice has undergone significant change in the last century. Juvenile justice systems were originally formed to protect youth from the adult systems of justice and to provide discretion in decision making involving youths so that juvenile justice actors would make decisions that were in the best interest of the children.
From the 1960s through the 1980s there was debate about morals and effectiveness that surrounded the juvenile courts. During this era, there was a rise in attention to and speculation about juvenile delinquency, as well as concern about the court system itself, concerning social issues. There were harsher punishments during this era. Also, there was more of a focus on the due process of juveniles and their legal counsel in court. Racial discrimination, gender disparities, and discrimination towards children with mental and learning disabilities was prevalent. Authorities still recommended jarring punishments for the most serious of crimes. Needless to say, Americans were beginning to fear a generation of youths at this point where crime was rising. The government was finally beginning to see the need for harsher policies and punishments for juvenile crime. Even though the juvenile courts in the United States were becoming more popular, they still had their issues to deal with and overcome.
In the start of the 21st century, the juvenile justice system has reached a great intersection with regard to its work, and the future of the juvenile court is in dispute. But to talk about juvenile justice without thinking about the larger economic, social, and cultural environment would be foolish. We will only skim the surface of new trends, but even a cursory look at the present and immediate future indicates that there are significant issues that must be included when considering the kind of juvenile justice system that the United States needs. The juvenile justice system has its origins in the beginning of this century, when the mistreatment of juveniles turned into the focus of the Progressive Movement. By 1925, almost every government had adopted laws allowing for individual juvenile proceedings that focused on prevention and rehabilitation, rather than revenge and punishment. The underlying assumption of the original juvenile system, and one that continues to prevail, was that juveniles were generally more amenable to rehabilitation that adult criminals.
Due to the harsher punishments placed in the 1980s, in the mid 90’s, juvenile crime began to decline. Schools and political forces adopted their zero tolerance policies for youths and debated that rehab was not as effective as harsher punishments. At this time, more juveniles were beginning to be tried as adults in criminal courts; however, others gave this power to judges or prosecutors according to their discretion, on a case-by-case basis (Shoemaker, 2018).
The system for juveniles goes back hundreds of years, no matter what it was called. Overall, I am not sure that youths who ended up in the juvenile justice system were better or worse compared to earlier periods. Perspective can go either way. The system is flawed because there is no perfect solution. Do I believe that it helps more than it harms? Yes, in the sense that these youths are being housed, fed, and educated. They are given the tools needed to make their future successful. The only question is will they use them to do so. It is ultimately up to them and their perspective or outlook on life whether or not they will the hand life dealt to them and make either lemons or lemonade from their past.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+! | <urn:uuid:8cea47ec-43c1-41e8-9159-734d76a2e895> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/juvenile-justice-history-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.981319 | 1,027 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2459411621093... | 1 | There are six important periods in the development of the United States Juvenile Justice system. The initial process has early ties dating back to the nineteenth century. The earliest attempt to control juvenile activity was during The Puritan Period from 1646 until 1824. The Massachusetts Stubborn Child Law was passed in 1646. The Puritans during the period regarded children as evil and put responsibility on the home to develop and increase youths. If the parents were failing, the young could, then be subject to the force. (Cole, Smith, DeJong).
During the period, children at the age of five were treated either as little adults or property. A seven-year-old baby would be sentenced in criminal courts. At 1648 in Massachusetts the person who cursed his biological parents would be put to death. The second point is The Refuge period from 1824 to 1899. Juvenile crime started to become right alongside American cities.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Juvenile Justice History" essay for you
In order to see the current position of juvenile offenders in the court system, particularly those tried as adults, it is essential to see the progress from which the juvenile justice originated. Up until the early nineteenth century, juveniles were heard in the same courts as every other offender. There was no difference between criminals, regardless of age. It seemed the only thing society worried about was that the crime was committed and that they took in custody the individual responsible.
In the period since the founding of the juvenile court, juvenile justice policies have developed amid the contradiction between the goals of punishment and rehabilitation of young offenders. The point and use of juvenile justice has undergone significant change in the last century. Juvenile justice systems were originally formed to protect youth from the adult systems of justice and to provide discretion in decision making involving youths so that juvenile justice actors would make decisions that were in the best interest of the children.
From the 1960s through the 1980s there was debate about morals and effectiveness that surrounded the juvenile courts. During this era, there was a rise in attention to and speculation about juvenile delinquency, as well as concern about the court system itself, concerning social issues. There were harsher punishments during this era. Also, there was more of a focus on the due process of juveniles and their legal counsel in court. Racial discrimination, gender disparities, and discrimination towards children with mental and learning disabilities was prevalent. Authorities still recommended jarring punishments for the most serious of crimes. Needless to say, Americans were beginning to fear a generation of youths at this point where crime was rising. The government was finally beginning to see the need for harsher policies and punishments for juvenile crime. Even though the juvenile courts in the United States were becoming more popular, they still had their issues to deal with and overcome.
In the start of the 21st century, the juvenile justice system has reached a great intersection with regard to its work, and the future of the juvenile court is in dispute. But to talk about juvenile justice without thinking about the larger economic, social, and cultural environment would be foolish. We will only skim the surface of new trends, but even a cursory look at the present and immediate future indicates that there are significant issues that must be included when considering the kind of juvenile justice system that the United States needs. The juvenile justice system has its origins in the beginning of this century, when the mistreatment of juveniles turned into the focus of the Progressive Movement. By 1925, almost every government had adopted laws allowing for individual juvenile proceedings that focused on prevention and rehabilitation, rather than revenge and punishment. The underlying assumption of the original juvenile system, and one that continues to prevail, was that juveniles were generally more amenable to rehabilitation that adult criminals.
Due to the harsher punishments placed in the 1980s, in the mid 90’s, juvenile crime began to decline. Schools and political forces adopted their zero tolerance policies for youths and debated that rehab was not as effective as harsher punishments. At this time, more juveniles were beginning to be tried as adults in criminal courts; however, others gave this power to judges or prosecutors according to their discretion, on a case-by-case basis (Shoemaker, 2018).
The system for juveniles goes back hundreds of years, no matter what it was called. Overall, I am not sure that youths who ended up in the juvenile justice system were better or worse compared to earlier periods. Perspective can go either way. The system is flawed because there is no perfect solution. Do I believe that it helps more than it harms? Yes, in the sense that these youths are being housed, fed, and educated. They are given the tools needed to make their future successful. The only question is will they use them to do so. It is ultimately up to them and their perspective or outlook on life whether or not they will the hand life dealt to them and make either lemons or lemonade from their past.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+! | 1,066 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Crusades Essay Research Paper In the
The Crusades Essay, Research Paper In the beginning of the thirteenth century most people were Roman Catholic. The church was the center of life and it was very important to them to pilgrimage to the Holy Lands. By 1212 Christians were not allowed into the Holy Lands. The Moslems controlled those lands and would not let them in. The crusades were a series of wars, that were fought in order to attain control over the Holy Lands. Some of the crusades were successful and some of them were not successful. The first crusade was led by Pope Urban then second in 1096. It took the over two years to reach the Holy Lands. They had started with over six-hundred thousand men and by the time they reached the Holy Lands they were down to a mere twenty-five thousand men. This was a successful crusade, and they gained control over the Holy Lands for fifty years. The Second Crusade took place in 1145 and was led by Louis the Seventh of France . However, this crusade ended up being unsuccessful because everything just fell apart for them. The Third Crusade had many important leaders that started out. King Richard, the lionhearted, Phil Augustas, and Fredrick Barbossa all helped lead it. However, only King Richard reached the Holy Lands. The other two unfortunately drowned. King Richard managed to get a treaty with the Moslems to have a safe passage through the Holy Lands. The Children’s crusade took place in 1212, when a twelve year old boy had a vision that Jesus called him to have a crusade. Thirty-thousand children went, only a few adults went with them. Many of the children died. When they got to Italy the ships captains sold them into slavery. The crusades were very important for many reasons. It brought forth new ideas, words, and products. Commerce then came from the new products, and money and coins developed from commerce. There was decline of feudalism and they gained new knowledge about medicine. There was also a growth of towns and of the middle class. | <urn:uuid:f7fbded7-d4ab-4c82-b29f-30837701847e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://referat.ru/referat/the-crusades-essay-research-paper-in-the-460909 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.990948 | 424 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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The Crusades Essay, Research Paper In the beginning of the thirteenth century most people were Roman Catholic. The church was the center of life and it was very important to them to pilgrimage to the Holy Lands. By 1212 Christians were not allowed into the Holy Lands. The Moslems controlled those lands and would not let them in. The crusades were a series of wars, that were fought in order to attain control over the Holy Lands. Some of the crusades were successful and some of them were not successful. The first crusade was led by Pope Urban then second in 1096. It took the over two years to reach the Holy Lands. They had started with over six-hundred thousand men and by the time they reached the Holy Lands they were down to a mere twenty-five thousand men. This was a successful crusade, and they gained control over the Holy Lands for fifty years. The Second Crusade took place in 1145 and was led by Louis the Seventh of France . However, this crusade ended up being unsuccessful because everything just fell apart for them. The Third Crusade had many important leaders that started out. King Richard, the lionhearted, Phil Augustas, and Fredrick Barbossa all helped lead it. However, only King Richard reached the Holy Lands. The other two unfortunately drowned. King Richard managed to get a treaty with the Moslems to have a safe passage through the Holy Lands. The Children’s crusade took place in 1212, when a twelve year old boy had a vision that Jesus called him to have a crusade. Thirty-thousand children went, only a few adults went with them. Many of the children died. When they got to Italy the ships captains sold them into slavery. The crusades were very important for many reasons. It brought forth new ideas, words, and products. Commerce then came from the new products, and money and coins developed from commerce. There was decline of feudalism and they gained new knowledge about medicine. There was also a growth of towns and of the middle class. | 437 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Templars, writes Dan Jones at the start of his gripping history, had many irons in many fires. They “helped finance wars, loaned money to pay kings’ ransoms, subcontracted the financial managements of royal governments, collected taxes, built castles, ran cities, raised armies, interfered in trade disputes, engaged in private wars against other military orders, carried out political assassinations and even helped make men kings”. Among other things.
The Templars were a military order, founded two decades after the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem in 1099. The following years were precarious for the new overlords, who had to work out how to run and manage new domains in unfamiliar territory, as well as having to deal with near-constant military pressure from the Muslims they had displaced. One contemporary pilgrim talks of enemies “awake day and night, always looking for someone to attack”.
Finding a way to protect the cities and towns that had been captured, and the routes that connected them, was not just a major concern; the future of Christian control of the Holy Land depended on it. In 1120, a new order was formed specifically for the “defence of Jerusalem and the protection of pilgrims”.
It was known as “the Poor Knighthood of the Temple” – a reference to Temple Mount and the Dome of the Rock. Those who joined as knights and sergeants became known as Templars, famous for the red cross emblazoned on their tunics.
Over the next two centuries, they flourished. While individual members committed to lives of penury, the Templar order also became breathtakingly wealthy. Jones tells their story with energy and verve, regaling readers with well-chosen details and anecdotes that highlight “the rise and spectacular fall of God’s Holy Warriors”.
The Templars became poster boys of the early Middle Ages, famed for their piety and their military prowess. It was an intoxicating combination. “Monasticism was exploding in popularity” in Europe in the 12th century, writes Jones, which meant there was a near-limitless supply of those drawn by the promise of serving God with arms.
One of the attractions of the Templars was the strict regime. “Robes should be without finery and without any show of pride,” read one of the order’s rules. Bridles, stirrups and spurs had to be plain: gold and silver ornamentation and detailing were forbidden. So too were pointy shoes and shoelaces, “for it is well-known and manifest that these abominable things belong to pagans”. Templars were told to steer clear of women, whose “embraces” have led “men to perish many times”. It was also recommended that lights be left on at night to avoid men getting up to mischief with each other and being led “into wickedness”.
The success of the Templars owed much to their ability to raise money from wealthy benefactors in Europe. The simplicity of their lifestyles and the importance of their mission proved compelling, with vineyards, revenues from market stalls and whole estates soon being left to the order. By the middle of the 12th century, in England alone, they owned property in Oxfordshire, Hertfordshire, Essex, Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, Berkshire and Sussex.
They also won the backing of powerful clerics such as Bernard of Clairvaux, whom Jones calls “a champion of monastic reform, a renowned scholar, a bombastic and tireless letter writer, a brilliant preacher and early patron and founding father of the Knights Templar”. Three successive pontiffs in the 1130s and 1140s made grants that gave the order extraordinary privileges, including exemption from tithes and the ability to appoint their own priests.
Success bred success. The more powerful and wealthy the Templars became, the more men queued up to join. Their coffers swelled, to the point that one visitor marvelled that “a single shot from a crossbow would hardly reach the far end” of their stables in Jerusalem, “either in length or breadth”. They built a church in their complex “of magnificent size”. Not everyone was thrilled. The rulers of Jerusalem found the Templars’ independence difficult and often a distraction.
Others, like the influential John of Salisbury, grumbled about the difference between appearance and reality. Templars claimed to be holier than thou, he said; yet when “they convene in their lairs late at night, after speaking of virtue by day they shake their hips in nocturnal folly and exertion”. They were detested by Muslim commanders such as Saladin, who was riled by the fact that they “never give up their hostility and … have no use as slaves”. After crushing the Christian armies at the Horns of Hattin in 1187, which paved the way to the fall of Jerusalem, Saladin had all members of military orders, including Templars, executed.
Even then, refilling the ranks did not take long. Finding young men willing to serve was never difficult – even when the Christians were finally driven out of the Holy Land in 1291. By 1306, nearly 80 per cent of the order had taken their vows within the previous 15 years – an astonishing sign of the attraction and the resilience of the Templars, whose recruits joined from as far away as Aragón, Cyprus and Armenia.
There had long been signs, though, that an accident was waiting to happen. Having many irons in many fires breeds suspicion and resentment. By the early 14th century, Philip IV, King of France (described by one contemporary as having the demeanour of a useless owl), decided that the Templars were a threat that had to be dealt with, as he had done previously with Jews, who were summarily expelled from his lands and forbidden from taking any possessions with them. In the autumn of 1307, Templars across France were rounded up.
Terrible charges were levelled, including multiple heresies involving the denial of Christ and spitting on the cross, as well as accusations of bizarre rituals and sodomy. Confessions extracted by torture were used as proof of guilt. Although some, including the Pope, had been unsure of whether to go along with the persecutions, a snowball effect saw Templars being rounded up across Europe – and all suffering the same fate. At the Council of Vienne in 1312, the Pope declared the formal suppression of the order, and the sanction of excommunication on anyone who wore the trademark habit or even dared to “presume to behave as a Templar”. The last master of the order, James of Molay, was burnt at the stake outside Notre Dame in Paris two years later. And that was that.
As Jones notes, “over the past two hundred years the Templars have provided rich material for cranks, conspiracy theorists and fantasists”. He does not engage with these, though the more far-fetched get a brief mention at the end of this snappy, well-paced book. The author’s ambition, he says, is to tell the story of the Templars in a straightforward way and “to write a book that will entertain as well as inform”. He has done precisely that.
Peter Frankopan's The Silk Roads is published by Bloomsbury | <urn:uuid:272dc11e-aa68-4942-ab3a-5fd7df22ed77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/forget-da-vinci-code-real-reason-fall-knights-templar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.980717 | 1,563 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1622153818... | 2 | The Templars, writes Dan Jones at the start of his gripping history, had many irons in many fires. They “helped finance wars, loaned money to pay kings’ ransoms, subcontracted the financial managements of royal governments, collected taxes, built castles, ran cities, raised armies, interfered in trade disputes, engaged in private wars against other military orders, carried out political assassinations and even helped make men kings”. Among other things.
The Templars were a military order, founded two decades after the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem in 1099. The following years were precarious for the new overlords, who had to work out how to run and manage new domains in unfamiliar territory, as well as having to deal with near-constant military pressure from the Muslims they had displaced. One contemporary pilgrim talks of enemies “awake day and night, always looking for someone to attack”.
Finding a way to protect the cities and towns that had been captured, and the routes that connected them, was not just a major concern; the future of Christian control of the Holy Land depended on it. In 1120, a new order was formed specifically for the “defence of Jerusalem and the protection of pilgrims”.
It was known as “the Poor Knighthood of the Temple” – a reference to Temple Mount and the Dome of the Rock. Those who joined as knights and sergeants became known as Templars, famous for the red cross emblazoned on their tunics.
Over the next two centuries, they flourished. While individual members committed to lives of penury, the Templar order also became breathtakingly wealthy. Jones tells their story with energy and verve, regaling readers with well-chosen details and anecdotes that highlight “the rise and spectacular fall of God’s Holy Warriors”.
The Templars became poster boys of the early Middle Ages, famed for their piety and their military prowess. It was an intoxicating combination. “Monasticism was exploding in popularity” in Europe in the 12th century, writes Jones, which meant there was a near-limitless supply of those drawn by the promise of serving God with arms.
One of the attractions of the Templars was the strict regime. “Robes should be without finery and without any show of pride,” read one of the order’s rules. Bridles, stirrups and spurs had to be plain: gold and silver ornamentation and detailing were forbidden. So too were pointy shoes and shoelaces, “for it is well-known and manifest that these abominable things belong to pagans”. Templars were told to steer clear of women, whose “embraces” have led “men to perish many times”. It was also recommended that lights be left on at night to avoid men getting up to mischief with each other and being led “into wickedness”.
The success of the Templars owed much to their ability to raise money from wealthy benefactors in Europe. The simplicity of their lifestyles and the importance of their mission proved compelling, with vineyards, revenues from market stalls and whole estates soon being left to the order. By the middle of the 12th century, in England alone, they owned property in Oxfordshire, Hertfordshire, Essex, Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, Berkshire and Sussex.
They also won the backing of powerful clerics such as Bernard of Clairvaux, whom Jones calls “a champion of monastic reform, a renowned scholar, a bombastic and tireless letter writer, a brilliant preacher and early patron and founding father of the Knights Templar”. Three successive pontiffs in the 1130s and 1140s made grants that gave the order extraordinary privileges, including exemption from tithes and the ability to appoint their own priests.
Success bred success. The more powerful and wealthy the Templars became, the more men queued up to join. Their coffers swelled, to the point that one visitor marvelled that “a single shot from a crossbow would hardly reach the far end” of their stables in Jerusalem, “either in length or breadth”. They built a church in their complex “of magnificent size”. Not everyone was thrilled. The rulers of Jerusalem found the Templars’ independence difficult and often a distraction.
Others, like the influential John of Salisbury, grumbled about the difference between appearance and reality. Templars claimed to be holier than thou, he said; yet when “they convene in their lairs late at night, after speaking of virtue by day they shake their hips in nocturnal folly and exertion”. They were detested by Muslim commanders such as Saladin, who was riled by the fact that they “never give up their hostility and … have no use as slaves”. After crushing the Christian armies at the Horns of Hattin in 1187, which paved the way to the fall of Jerusalem, Saladin had all members of military orders, including Templars, executed.
Even then, refilling the ranks did not take long. Finding young men willing to serve was never difficult – even when the Christians were finally driven out of the Holy Land in 1291. By 1306, nearly 80 per cent of the order had taken their vows within the previous 15 years – an astonishing sign of the attraction and the resilience of the Templars, whose recruits joined from as far away as Aragón, Cyprus and Armenia.
There had long been signs, though, that an accident was waiting to happen. Having many irons in many fires breeds suspicion and resentment. By the early 14th century, Philip IV, King of France (described by one contemporary as having the demeanour of a useless owl), decided that the Templars were a threat that had to be dealt with, as he had done previously with Jews, who were summarily expelled from his lands and forbidden from taking any possessions with them. In the autumn of 1307, Templars across France were rounded up.
Terrible charges were levelled, including multiple heresies involving the denial of Christ and spitting on the cross, as well as accusations of bizarre rituals and sodomy. Confessions extracted by torture were used as proof of guilt. Although some, including the Pope, had been unsure of whether to go along with the persecutions, a snowball effect saw Templars being rounded up across Europe – and all suffering the same fate. At the Council of Vienne in 1312, the Pope declared the formal suppression of the order, and the sanction of excommunication on anyone who wore the trademark habit or even dared to “presume to behave as a Templar”. The last master of the order, James of Molay, was burnt at the stake outside Notre Dame in Paris two years later. And that was that.
As Jones notes, “over the past two hundred years the Templars have provided rich material for cranks, conspiracy theorists and fantasists”. He does not engage with these, though the more far-fetched get a brief mention at the end of this snappy, well-paced book. The author’s ambition, he says, is to tell the story of the Templars in a straightforward way and “to write a book that will entertain as well as inform”. He has done precisely that.
Peter Frankopan's The Silk Roads is published by Bloomsbury | 1,526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1700 through 1899
The history of the Alachua First United Methodist Church spans back to 1739 in London when John Wesley convened the first annual conference of people who called themselves Methodists.
Soon after the 1773 founding of the Georgia colony, John Wesley and his brother Charles traveled there from London hoping to convert the Indians to Methodism and to further the gospel among the colonists. Later, many other missionaries arrived in America.
Florida was under Spanish rule until February 22, 1819, when Spain and the United States signed a treaty that ceded Florida to the United States. On February 21, 1821, the treaty was ratified and the American flag was raised at the Forts in Pensacola and St. Augustine. Florida was then under military control of the United States Congress and on March 3, 1822, the Florida Territorial Government was formed.
Methodism in Florida emerged at about the same time. It began in Florida as an offshoot of the missionary work in Georgia where the Wesley brothers, George Whitfield, and others had been working earlier trying to serve the colonists and convert the Indians.
In 1821 John J. Triggs was sent as a missionary to a new mission called Alapaha. This mission extended from South Georgia into Florida and embraced parts of northern Florida as well as the southeast area of Alabama. By the year 1822 the gospel was preached by Methodist Circuit Riders in Florida over a large area-extending east and west of the Suwannee River.
In 1823, John Slade was sent as junior preacher to serve at Mr. Triggs’ mission. He was among the first preachers to bring the gospel to the Florida territory. Because of his great success as a missionary and pioneer, Mr. Slade has been called the Father of Methodism in Florida. In 1823 or 24 John Jerry was sent to the St. Augustine area and the bounds of his preaching extended west to Newnansville and Micanopy.
Four missions were established in this Northeast section of Florida and one of those was known as Dell, named after Maxey Dell, one of the early settlers in the area. Dell is accepted as having been the oldest of the four missions established in this section of Florida.
Because there was no Church in the settlement, Maxey Dell offered his home as a meeting place when the Circuit Riders came to the community. For that reason his home became known as Dell’s Meeting House. Early mail and post office records show that settlers were actually living in the area long before 1820 when it was known as Dell’s Courthouse. For many years before Florida became a state this settlement was the only town of importance in this area of Florida.
From the diary of Isaac Boring in 1828 we offer this quote:
“On September 7, 1828, the Conference was closed and the appointments were read. I was appointed to the St. Augustine and Alachua Missions. I was much astonished and hurt at the appointment. I hope it will be for the Glory of God. I am informed that I am to receive fifty dollars from the missionary society for my support. On the 13th of September I rode to Dell’s Meeting House and found 2 persons. We prayed together and I went home with Brother Dell and his wife, who were the only two persons present”
On February 28, 1824, an Act of Congress declared that a road was to be built 25 feet wide from St. Augustine to Pensacola—the two most important towns in Florida. John Bellamy was commissioned to build this road—the Bellamy Road—and he did so using his own slaves and mules. One of the branch-roads leading off of Bellamy Road was Alligator Road, which connected to Lake City then headed east to Cow Ford, later known as Jacksonville. The Bellamy Road followed an old Indian trail known as Ray’s Trail and, soon after Florida became a territory, the Bellamy Road was constructed alongside the log church that settlers had built earlier. With the assurance of protection from the United States Government scattered settlers—many from neighboring states—converged on the Newnansville area. They were lured, doubtlessly, by the advantages and beauties of the rolling, wooded countryside. After this influx, Newnansville—said to be Florida’ oldest inland town—was definitively established.
On November 15, 1828, the Territorial Legislature of Florida changed the name of the community from Dell to Newnansville and established Newnansville as the county seat of Alachua County. It was named after Colonel Daniel Newnan of the Georgia Militia who had led Federal troops to fight the Seminole Indians in this area. Newnan’s Lake, located east of Gainesville, also was named after this Colonel. Court was held in a small log house until the year 1852. Alachua County originally embraced what is now known as Marion, Levy, Sumter, Hernando, Gilchrist, and Hillsborough counties.
The United States Government erected Fort Gilleland at Newnansville in 1835. Scattered settlers banded together and took refuge within the walls of the fort at the outbreak of the Great Indian War.
From the Diary of Reverend R. H. Howren:
“On one occasion, while holding a meeting near Newnansville, we were surrounded by 75 Indian warriors who withdrew without interfering with us at all. We learned afterward that their intention was to make an attack on us, but seeing such an unusual stir among the people, they became alarmed and fled. During one of our night services, they climbed into the pines around the house intending to fire upon us, not being able to do so from the ground, owing to the stockade. Fortunately, we heard the signal given for firing and ran into the body of the house and escaped. Later, with the old flint-and-steel guns at their side, the men of the households would, safety permitting, venture out into the open fields again.”
Methodism had grown sturdy enough by 1825 that a new district was formed and named the Tallahassee District after the new capital of the territory. Population rapidly flowed into the Territory and the fertility of the soil and the good climate were two of the assets of the growing population. People usually settled in neighborhoods for mutual protection and for educational and religious purposes. Indians were scattered all over the region and were very hostile to the white settlers for encroaching on their land, but the settlers had no intention of giving up the fertile land to the Indians to use as hunting grounds.
The best available record telling us about early Methodists’ work in Florida comes from John C. Ley. Ley visited Newnansville about every two weeks to get mail. He points out that the Methodist Church was always the center of activity in the community and was served by regular circuit riders and the occasional local preacher up through 1845.
From the diary of Isaac Boring in 1829:
“In a state of Revival, Methodism began to take on a new look and life, and the people were no longer satisfied with the old log church and they began to complain and call for a new and more modem church building. Fortunately, the local pioneer-preacher, Maxey Dell, owned a sawmill and he generously furnished the trees and sawed them into boards and framing that were used in the construction of the Newnansville Church.... The new church was divided in half by a railing that ran down through the center of the church, separating the men from the women.... An outside stairway led up to a balcony where there was seating for the Negro attendants and they had to enter and leave the building by way of the outside stairs”
Few churches were erected in Florida before 1840 and the itinerant clergymen continued to hold worship services in homes, barn stables, brush arbors, and courthouses. Indian difficulties and a financial panic in 1837 resulted in a slowing of Florida’s population growth at this time.
The Territorial Legislature called for a Constitutional Convention in the small, Gulf-coast town of St. Joseph and delegates at the convention eagerly argued for Florida’s statehood. Meanwhile, Methodists argued that if Florida was to become a state then they should break away from the Georgia Conference and form their own conference. On February 6, 1845, the Florida Conference of the United Methodist Church was born in Tallahassee and divided into four districts—Newnansville, Quincy, Tallahassee, and St. Mary’s. After considering the issue in 1843, the United States Congress admitted Florida into the Union on March 3, 1845, as the 27th state.
In the year 1865 the new Newnansville Church was completed and service began. It was in this same year that a decision was made to move the Courthouse from Newnansville to Gainesville. The church moved ahead but another event triggered the demise of the old settlement—the coming of the railroad to the area. The Santa Fe and Western Railroad came through the present city limits of Alachua in 1882, missing Newnansville village by one and one- half miles. A railroad station was erected and it originally was called Newnansville but later was changed to Alachua, which the Postmaster had begun using. Alachua is believed to have come from an old Indian word meaning the big jug without a bottom.
During the years 1887-1888 Reverend T. J. Phillips came as the new pastor to the Newnansville Church. The old, wood-frame church was in bad need of repairs and valued at only $250. In 1897 Charles Inman was assigned to the Newnansville Church district, which included the churches at Spring Hill, Lacrosse, and St. Johns. Reverend Inman found a nucleus of the Newnansville members now living in Alachua. These members were insistent on organizing an Alachua mission. The question of building a new church at Alachua and abandoning the Newnansville church became an issue. Those members who had moved to Alachua supported building a facility in Alachua while those who remained in Newnansville opposed the idea.
Charles Inman, a preacher of great stature and personality, settled the issue at a Revival where a building committee of 3 men was selected and plans were begun for a new church building in Alachua. The building was completed in 1897 at a cost of $1800. While the new church was under construction a Sunday School was established with Mr. L. N. Pierce serving as Superintendent.
1900 through the present day
Before the new church was completed the Sunday school met in the first public school house located on South Main Street. Today, the Alltel Telephone building occupies that site. During the next 12 years the new Church in Alachua did more for community growth and development than had been done during the previous 50 years.
On a December Sunday in 1910 Rev. Charles Matheson preached his last sermon before moving to another charge. This service is also remembered as the last one held in the old Alachua Church because fire would break out the following week and completely destroy both the church and parsonage buildings. Before the burning embers had cooled subscriptions were offered and $1200 was pledged toward new buildings. A new parsonage was completed in 1911 using pledge-money and a few hundred dollars of insurance money.
Without a house of worship the Methodists held services in the Baptist Church, which was generously opened to them. Rev. H. J. Haeflinger came to serve the charge in 1912 and during his 3 years as minister the new and present church building was completed at a cost of $7000. Bishop Morrison dedicated the new building in 1912 and presided at the cornerstone laying. Rev Haeflinger also organized churches in Gracy and Haile.
One of the outstanding accomplishments during his Alachua ministry was the organizing of a Boy Scout Troop sponsored by the Alachua Methodist Church. The troop was led by W. T. Robarts, the local undertaker, who also taught a Sunday School class of 12 —18 year-old boys. On January 12, 1912, Mr. Robarts, Rev. Haeflinger, and 13 boys from the Wesley Sunday School class met at the parsonage marking the first meeting of the first Boy Scout troop in the area. An upstairs room of the new church was allocated for the Scouts’ meeting room. When the new church was finished a stained glass window in that room read THE WESLEY SCOUTS. This window currently is located in the upstairs room in the sanctuary. The original organizing document is now in the possession of Alachua Boy Scout Troop 88 and is displayed in their scout hut.
The church thrived with E. K. Denton as pastor. In 1915, E. A. Spencer organized the first youth fellowship, known as the
Epworth League, and served as its first President. Rev. K. Hollister followed Rev. Denton and served the church for four years. S. I. Hendrix replaced him in 1920. Community charity work was badly needed at that time and was a hallmark of the Hendrix pastorate. During the next 15 years the church continued to grow under different ministers and the Sunday School expanded and set new records with Mr. Spencer as Superintendent.
Reverend E. M. Rooks served from 1929 to 1930 and led the church’s advancement in many directions. The church trustees were empowered to borrow money—not to exceed $5000—for the purpose of building a Sunday School annex.
When Rev. T. C. Osteen arrived in 1934 he found a critical shortage of Sunday School classrooms and soon started an addition project. A second floor was added to the sanctuary and divided into several classrooms. A church member and carpenter, Mr. Huggins, led the men of the church in the construction project.
In 1946, during the ministry of J. W. Rogers, a memorial gift of an electric organ and chimes was given in memory of Mrs. H. V. Hawkins by one of her sons. This was the first of many gifts that enhanced the beauty and facilities of the sanctuary.
A church conference was called on May 23, 1951 at the home of Carl Doke in Bland. At that conference the members voted to close the Bland Church, discontinue services, and move the membership to the Alachua Methodist Church. This was the last time an Alachua pastor would serve as minister of an outlying church. W. M. Irwin was the minister at this time.
In 1954 construction started on a new Church School Educational Building and Fellowship Hall during the ministry of Rev. W. R. Howell. This was completed in 1957 during Marvin Thompson’s ministry.
Three men have gone forth from the Alachua Methodist Church into the ministry. In 1958 Robert “Pete” Hines was admitted to the Florida Conference. In 1951 Kenneth Traxier was admitted to the Florida Conference and immediately entered a missionary college in Tennessee where he and his wife prepared for the mission field. The Methodist Conference sent him first to a small town in Brazil then to the new capital, Brasilia, where he organized and built a new church. Though not born in Alachua, Lewis Leigh attended the University of Florida and frequently visited Alachua where he courted and eventually married a local girl. He then attended Emory University’s Candler school of Theology and, upon completion of his studies, was admitted to the Florida Conference where he served in many churches before his retirement. These men are still living.
During the four years of ministry under Allan R. Stuart, which began in 1960, a number of memorial gifts were given to the Church. Offering plates, a communion-service set, altar paraments, and a new piano were among the gifts received. A complete renovation of the sanctuary was undertaken during Robert A. Shelley’s 1964- 1967 ministry. The carpet, pew cushions, and drapes were replaced, the interior was painted, and a central heating-and-air-conditioning system was installed.
The Hines family gave a brass cross and brass candleholders for the Communion Table and donated a sound-system for the sanctuary. Other gifts included a Baptismal Font, new sanctuary lights, a lighted cross and prayer bench, and a Sanctuary Lamp with an altar Bible and Bible stand. Later, during the Williamson ministry, the church received a set of Carillon Chimes given in memory of Mr. and Mrs. E. S. Traxler by their family. During Herman Boyette’s ministry Mr. and Mrs. E. A. Spencer’s children donated—in memory of their parents—the current sanctuary-piano.
This church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1972 during Bently Williamson’s tenure. On Saturday, October 14, the Newnansville Festival and Parade was held. All participants were dressed in 1820’s costumes and the activities centered on those enjoyed by the settlers of that era. The celebration concluded Sunday with an afternoon service at Newnansville Cemetery—the site of the original church. A memorial stone marker was unveiled identifying this as the birthplace of Methodism in Florida.
In 1973 the old frame-house parsonage, which was built in 1911, was sold and Rev. Boyette moved into a new, brick parsonage built for $65,000. During Dave Herman’s ministry the sanctuary was renovated and the 1934 second-floor addition was removed and the annex was restored to its original form. Following a two-year stay by Irvin Price, Rev. George Lutz took over as pastor in 1983. Especially noticeable during Rev. Lutz’s pastorate was the increase in activities and interest of the youth of the church.
1984 marked the 200th year of Methodism in America and the 162nd year of Methodism in the Alachua area. The October 21, Homecoming day celebration featured the Hines brothers as guest speakers, both former members of the church. A building committee was formed on May 17, 1987, and plans emerged for a new fellowship hall, kitchen, and pastor’s office. Construction began in June 1989 and completed in January 1990 at a cost of $403,615. During this time a house and lot adjoining the church were purchased and converted into additional parking spaces. The addition of the Fellowship Hall and Nursery was part of a total renovation program that included the restoration of the historic Sanctuary, the addition of Sunday School space, and the expansion of other facilities.
Taking part in the special Consecration Service held on March 4,1990 were Dr. Jimmy Jones—Gainesville District Superintendent, Dr. M. McCoy Gibbs, Rev. George Lutz, and members of the Building Committee. This event featured the Consecration of the new facilities, the Laying of a Cornerstone, the Placing of a Time Capsule, a covered dish luncheon in the new Fellowship Hall, and a Witness Revival and Celebration. Note that Rev. George Lutz served as pastor for eight years, longer than any pastor in the church’s history. No previous pastor had served for more than four years.
In 1996 the Rev. Ken Kleckner, III was appointed to FUMC. It would be the first of his ten years as the pastor. During his ministry the congregation grew and a youth and children’s director, Jeff VanValey, was added to the church staff in 2000. With this addition the church continued to grow and a Youth Building was added. Yearly missions, such as the Appalachian Service Project and Pumpkin Patch were begun. Under Rev. Kleckner’s leadership the stained glass windows in the sanctuary were refurbished and the adjoining property and a house were purchased for the youth director (the Register property).
We celebrated our 175th anniversary as a church at our homecoming celebration on October 12, 1997. Reverend Cornelius Henderson, Bishop of the Florida Conference, brought us our Homecoming Message. This date marked the 175th year since the founding of the original Newnansville Church and special recognition was given to the long-time members of the Church.
In 1990’s the church continued to grow through the acquisition of adjacent properties and increased its mission field to include a youth minister, along with annual missions such as the Appalachian Service Project and the Pumpkin Patch.
In 2020, we will celebrate 197 years of serving the people of Alachua at our Homecoming Celebration in November.
We HOPE you would like to become involved! Please come see us during our 8:30 or 11 AM worship services, Wednesday night dinners and/or Sunday School classes at 9:30! | <urn:uuid:3c6ca2d9-ad47-46ac-a42d-4d230c59ef65> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fumcalachua.org/our-rich-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.983423 | 4,309 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.25424665... | 12 | 1700 through 1899
The history of the Alachua First United Methodist Church spans back to 1739 in London when John Wesley convened the first annual conference of people who called themselves Methodists.
Soon after the 1773 founding of the Georgia colony, John Wesley and his brother Charles traveled there from London hoping to convert the Indians to Methodism and to further the gospel among the colonists. Later, many other missionaries arrived in America.
Florida was under Spanish rule until February 22, 1819, when Spain and the United States signed a treaty that ceded Florida to the United States. On February 21, 1821, the treaty was ratified and the American flag was raised at the Forts in Pensacola and St. Augustine. Florida was then under military control of the United States Congress and on March 3, 1822, the Florida Territorial Government was formed.
Methodism in Florida emerged at about the same time. It began in Florida as an offshoot of the missionary work in Georgia where the Wesley brothers, George Whitfield, and others had been working earlier trying to serve the colonists and convert the Indians.
In 1821 John J. Triggs was sent as a missionary to a new mission called Alapaha. This mission extended from South Georgia into Florida and embraced parts of northern Florida as well as the southeast area of Alabama. By the year 1822 the gospel was preached by Methodist Circuit Riders in Florida over a large area-extending east and west of the Suwannee River.
In 1823, John Slade was sent as junior preacher to serve at Mr. Triggs’ mission. He was among the first preachers to bring the gospel to the Florida territory. Because of his great success as a missionary and pioneer, Mr. Slade has been called the Father of Methodism in Florida. In 1823 or 24 John Jerry was sent to the St. Augustine area and the bounds of his preaching extended west to Newnansville and Micanopy.
Four missions were established in this Northeast section of Florida and one of those was known as Dell, named after Maxey Dell, one of the early settlers in the area. Dell is accepted as having been the oldest of the four missions established in this section of Florida.
Because there was no Church in the settlement, Maxey Dell offered his home as a meeting place when the Circuit Riders came to the community. For that reason his home became known as Dell’s Meeting House. Early mail and post office records show that settlers were actually living in the area long before 1820 when it was known as Dell’s Courthouse. For many years before Florida became a state this settlement was the only town of importance in this area of Florida.
From the diary of Isaac Boring in 1828 we offer this quote:
“On September 7, 1828, the Conference was closed and the appointments were read. I was appointed to the St. Augustine and Alachua Missions. I was much astonished and hurt at the appointment. I hope it will be for the Glory of God. I am informed that I am to receive fifty dollars from the missionary society for my support. On the 13th of September I rode to Dell’s Meeting House and found 2 persons. We prayed together and I went home with Brother Dell and his wife, who were the only two persons present”
On February 28, 1824, an Act of Congress declared that a road was to be built 25 feet wide from St. Augustine to Pensacola—the two most important towns in Florida. John Bellamy was commissioned to build this road—the Bellamy Road—and he did so using his own slaves and mules. One of the branch-roads leading off of Bellamy Road was Alligator Road, which connected to Lake City then headed east to Cow Ford, later known as Jacksonville. The Bellamy Road followed an old Indian trail known as Ray’s Trail and, soon after Florida became a territory, the Bellamy Road was constructed alongside the log church that settlers had built earlier. With the assurance of protection from the United States Government scattered settlers—many from neighboring states—converged on the Newnansville area. They were lured, doubtlessly, by the advantages and beauties of the rolling, wooded countryside. After this influx, Newnansville—said to be Florida’ oldest inland town—was definitively established.
On November 15, 1828, the Territorial Legislature of Florida changed the name of the community from Dell to Newnansville and established Newnansville as the county seat of Alachua County. It was named after Colonel Daniel Newnan of the Georgia Militia who had led Federal troops to fight the Seminole Indians in this area. Newnan’s Lake, located east of Gainesville, also was named after this Colonel. Court was held in a small log house until the year 1852. Alachua County originally embraced what is now known as Marion, Levy, Sumter, Hernando, Gilchrist, and Hillsborough counties.
The United States Government erected Fort Gilleland at Newnansville in 1835. Scattered settlers banded together and took refuge within the walls of the fort at the outbreak of the Great Indian War.
From the Diary of Reverend R. H. Howren:
“On one occasion, while holding a meeting near Newnansville, we were surrounded by 75 Indian warriors who withdrew without interfering with us at all. We learned afterward that their intention was to make an attack on us, but seeing such an unusual stir among the people, they became alarmed and fled. During one of our night services, they climbed into the pines around the house intending to fire upon us, not being able to do so from the ground, owing to the stockade. Fortunately, we heard the signal given for firing and ran into the body of the house and escaped. Later, with the old flint-and-steel guns at their side, the men of the households would, safety permitting, venture out into the open fields again.”
Methodism had grown sturdy enough by 1825 that a new district was formed and named the Tallahassee District after the new capital of the territory. Population rapidly flowed into the Territory and the fertility of the soil and the good climate were two of the assets of the growing population. People usually settled in neighborhoods for mutual protection and for educational and religious purposes. Indians were scattered all over the region and were very hostile to the white settlers for encroaching on their land, but the settlers had no intention of giving up the fertile land to the Indians to use as hunting grounds.
The best available record telling us about early Methodists’ work in Florida comes from John C. Ley. Ley visited Newnansville about every two weeks to get mail. He points out that the Methodist Church was always the center of activity in the community and was served by regular circuit riders and the occasional local preacher up through 1845.
From the diary of Isaac Boring in 1829:
“In a state of Revival, Methodism began to take on a new look and life, and the people were no longer satisfied with the old log church and they began to complain and call for a new and more modem church building. Fortunately, the local pioneer-preacher, Maxey Dell, owned a sawmill and he generously furnished the trees and sawed them into boards and framing that were used in the construction of the Newnansville Church.... The new church was divided in half by a railing that ran down through the center of the church, separating the men from the women.... An outside stairway led up to a balcony where there was seating for the Negro attendants and they had to enter and leave the building by way of the outside stairs”
Few churches were erected in Florida before 1840 and the itinerant clergymen continued to hold worship services in homes, barn stables, brush arbors, and courthouses. Indian difficulties and a financial panic in 1837 resulted in a slowing of Florida’s population growth at this time.
The Territorial Legislature called for a Constitutional Convention in the small, Gulf-coast town of St. Joseph and delegates at the convention eagerly argued for Florida’s statehood. Meanwhile, Methodists argued that if Florida was to become a state then they should break away from the Georgia Conference and form their own conference. On February 6, 1845, the Florida Conference of the United Methodist Church was born in Tallahassee and divided into four districts—Newnansville, Quincy, Tallahassee, and St. Mary’s. After considering the issue in 1843, the United States Congress admitted Florida into the Union on March 3, 1845, as the 27th state.
In the year 1865 the new Newnansville Church was completed and service began. It was in this same year that a decision was made to move the Courthouse from Newnansville to Gainesville. The church moved ahead but another event triggered the demise of the old settlement—the coming of the railroad to the area. The Santa Fe and Western Railroad came through the present city limits of Alachua in 1882, missing Newnansville village by one and one- half miles. A railroad station was erected and it originally was called Newnansville but later was changed to Alachua, which the Postmaster had begun using. Alachua is believed to have come from an old Indian word meaning the big jug without a bottom.
During the years 1887-1888 Reverend T. J. Phillips came as the new pastor to the Newnansville Church. The old, wood-frame church was in bad need of repairs and valued at only $250. In 1897 Charles Inman was assigned to the Newnansville Church district, which included the churches at Spring Hill, Lacrosse, and St. Johns. Reverend Inman found a nucleus of the Newnansville members now living in Alachua. These members were insistent on organizing an Alachua mission. The question of building a new church at Alachua and abandoning the Newnansville church became an issue. Those members who had moved to Alachua supported building a facility in Alachua while those who remained in Newnansville opposed the idea.
Charles Inman, a preacher of great stature and personality, settled the issue at a Revival where a building committee of 3 men was selected and plans were begun for a new church building in Alachua. The building was completed in 1897 at a cost of $1800. While the new church was under construction a Sunday School was established with Mr. L. N. Pierce serving as Superintendent.
1900 through the present day
Before the new church was completed the Sunday school met in the first public school house located on South Main Street. Today, the Alltel Telephone building occupies that site. During the next 12 years the new Church in Alachua did more for community growth and development than had been done during the previous 50 years.
On a December Sunday in 1910 Rev. Charles Matheson preached his last sermon before moving to another charge. This service is also remembered as the last one held in the old Alachua Church because fire would break out the following week and completely destroy both the church and parsonage buildings. Before the burning embers had cooled subscriptions were offered and $1200 was pledged toward new buildings. A new parsonage was completed in 1911 using pledge-money and a few hundred dollars of insurance money.
Without a house of worship the Methodists held services in the Baptist Church, which was generously opened to them. Rev. H. J. Haeflinger came to serve the charge in 1912 and during his 3 years as minister the new and present church building was completed at a cost of $7000. Bishop Morrison dedicated the new building in 1912 and presided at the cornerstone laying. Rev Haeflinger also organized churches in Gracy and Haile.
One of the outstanding accomplishments during his Alachua ministry was the organizing of a Boy Scout Troop sponsored by the Alachua Methodist Church. The troop was led by W. T. Robarts, the local undertaker, who also taught a Sunday School class of 12 —18 year-old boys. On January 12, 1912, Mr. Robarts, Rev. Haeflinger, and 13 boys from the Wesley Sunday School class met at the parsonage marking the first meeting of the first Boy Scout troop in the area. An upstairs room of the new church was allocated for the Scouts’ meeting room. When the new church was finished a stained glass window in that room read THE WESLEY SCOUTS. This window currently is located in the upstairs room in the sanctuary. The original organizing document is now in the possession of Alachua Boy Scout Troop 88 and is displayed in their scout hut.
The church thrived with E. K. Denton as pastor. In 1915, E. A. Spencer organized the first youth fellowship, known as the
Epworth League, and served as its first President. Rev. K. Hollister followed Rev. Denton and served the church for four years. S. I. Hendrix replaced him in 1920. Community charity work was badly needed at that time and was a hallmark of the Hendrix pastorate. During the next 15 years the church continued to grow under different ministers and the Sunday School expanded and set new records with Mr. Spencer as Superintendent.
Reverend E. M. Rooks served from 1929 to 1930 and led the church’s advancement in many directions. The church trustees were empowered to borrow money—not to exceed $5000—for the purpose of building a Sunday School annex.
When Rev. T. C. Osteen arrived in 1934 he found a critical shortage of Sunday School classrooms and soon started an addition project. A second floor was added to the sanctuary and divided into several classrooms. A church member and carpenter, Mr. Huggins, led the men of the church in the construction project.
In 1946, during the ministry of J. W. Rogers, a memorial gift of an electric organ and chimes was given in memory of Mrs. H. V. Hawkins by one of her sons. This was the first of many gifts that enhanced the beauty and facilities of the sanctuary.
A church conference was called on May 23, 1951 at the home of Carl Doke in Bland. At that conference the members voted to close the Bland Church, discontinue services, and move the membership to the Alachua Methodist Church. This was the last time an Alachua pastor would serve as minister of an outlying church. W. M. Irwin was the minister at this time.
In 1954 construction started on a new Church School Educational Building and Fellowship Hall during the ministry of Rev. W. R. Howell. This was completed in 1957 during Marvin Thompson’s ministry.
Three men have gone forth from the Alachua Methodist Church into the ministry. In 1958 Robert “Pete” Hines was admitted to the Florida Conference. In 1951 Kenneth Traxier was admitted to the Florida Conference and immediately entered a missionary college in Tennessee where he and his wife prepared for the mission field. The Methodist Conference sent him first to a small town in Brazil then to the new capital, Brasilia, where he organized and built a new church. Though not born in Alachua, Lewis Leigh attended the University of Florida and frequently visited Alachua where he courted and eventually married a local girl. He then attended Emory University’s Candler school of Theology and, upon completion of his studies, was admitted to the Florida Conference where he served in many churches before his retirement. These men are still living.
During the four years of ministry under Allan R. Stuart, which began in 1960, a number of memorial gifts were given to the Church. Offering plates, a communion-service set, altar paraments, and a new piano were among the gifts received. A complete renovation of the sanctuary was undertaken during Robert A. Shelley’s 1964- 1967 ministry. The carpet, pew cushions, and drapes were replaced, the interior was painted, and a central heating-and-air-conditioning system was installed.
The Hines family gave a brass cross and brass candleholders for the Communion Table and donated a sound-system for the sanctuary. Other gifts included a Baptismal Font, new sanctuary lights, a lighted cross and prayer bench, and a Sanctuary Lamp with an altar Bible and Bible stand. Later, during the Williamson ministry, the church received a set of Carillon Chimes given in memory of Mr. and Mrs. E. S. Traxler by their family. During Herman Boyette’s ministry Mr. and Mrs. E. A. Spencer’s children donated—in memory of their parents—the current sanctuary-piano.
This church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1972 during Bently Williamson’s tenure. On Saturday, October 14, the Newnansville Festival and Parade was held. All participants were dressed in 1820’s costumes and the activities centered on those enjoyed by the settlers of that era. The celebration concluded Sunday with an afternoon service at Newnansville Cemetery—the site of the original church. A memorial stone marker was unveiled identifying this as the birthplace of Methodism in Florida.
In 1973 the old frame-house parsonage, which was built in 1911, was sold and Rev. Boyette moved into a new, brick parsonage built for $65,000. During Dave Herman’s ministry the sanctuary was renovated and the 1934 second-floor addition was removed and the annex was restored to its original form. Following a two-year stay by Irvin Price, Rev. George Lutz took over as pastor in 1983. Especially noticeable during Rev. Lutz’s pastorate was the increase in activities and interest of the youth of the church.
1984 marked the 200th year of Methodism in America and the 162nd year of Methodism in the Alachua area. The October 21, Homecoming day celebration featured the Hines brothers as guest speakers, both former members of the church. A building committee was formed on May 17, 1987, and plans emerged for a new fellowship hall, kitchen, and pastor’s office. Construction began in June 1989 and completed in January 1990 at a cost of $403,615. During this time a house and lot adjoining the church were purchased and converted into additional parking spaces. The addition of the Fellowship Hall and Nursery was part of a total renovation program that included the restoration of the historic Sanctuary, the addition of Sunday School space, and the expansion of other facilities.
Taking part in the special Consecration Service held on March 4,1990 were Dr. Jimmy Jones—Gainesville District Superintendent, Dr. M. McCoy Gibbs, Rev. George Lutz, and members of the Building Committee. This event featured the Consecration of the new facilities, the Laying of a Cornerstone, the Placing of a Time Capsule, a covered dish luncheon in the new Fellowship Hall, and a Witness Revival and Celebration. Note that Rev. George Lutz served as pastor for eight years, longer than any pastor in the church’s history. No previous pastor had served for more than four years.
In 1996 the Rev. Ken Kleckner, III was appointed to FUMC. It would be the first of his ten years as the pastor. During his ministry the congregation grew and a youth and children’s director, Jeff VanValey, was added to the church staff in 2000. With this addition the church continued to grow and a Youth Building was added. Yearly missions, such as the Appalachian Service Project and Pumpkin Patch were begun. Under Rev. Kleckner’s leadership the stained glass windows in the sanctuary were refurbished and the adjoining property and a house were purchased for the youth director (the Register property).
We celebrated our 175th anniversary as a church at our homecoming celebration on October 12, 1997. Reverend Cornelius Henderson, Bishop of the Florida Conference, brought us our Homecoming Message. This date marked the 175th year since the founding of the original Newnansville Church and special recognition was given to the long-time members of the Church.
In 1990’s the church continued to grow through the acquisition of adjacent properties and increased its mission field to include a youth minister, along with annual missions such as the Appalachian Service Project and the Pumpkin Patch.
In 2020, we will celebrate 197 years of serving the people of Alachua at our Homecoming Celebration in November.
We HOPE you would like to become involved! Please come see us during our 8:30 or 11 AM worship services, Wednesday night dinners and/or Sunday School classes at 9:30! | 4,527 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (426 words)
Betrayal is an act of disloyalty, treachery, violating trust, or breaching confidence. Betrayal is a reoccurring action in the tragic Shakespeare play, Hamlet. Many of the characters deceive one another as well as deny their own feelings, betraying themselves. The secrecy and dishonesty of Shakespeare’s characters show that the actions of humans do not always equate to their appearances in society. The interpersonal and person acts of deception in Hamlet contribute to Shakespeare’s theme of the duel nature of humanity.
The most obvious act of betrayal in Hamlet is the murder of King Hamlet by his brother, Claudius. Shortly after the murder, Claudius marries Gertrude, the queen. This could be seen as an added betrayal on Gertrude’s part as well as Claudius’s. They quickly move on from the death of their husband/brother and do not mourn an adequate amount of time. To the public, the newly married couple appears happy and in control. In reality, they are both dealing with the guilt of their immoral actions as well as how their actions have affected Hamlet, who appears to have gone mad following the death of his father.
Hamlet’s plot to act as though he is mad causes him to deceive and harm his family members and peers, primarily Ophelia. By denying his love for Ophelia, he leaves her confused and broken hearted. She didn’t understand why the man she loved was now acting as though he was disgusted by her and as if he never cared for her at all. Hamlet’s hasty actions continue when he abruptly murders Polonius, Ophelia’s father. This drives Ophelia into madness. Hamlet truly loves Ophelia, but she will never know because of his deceptive processes.
When Hamlet denies his feelings for Ophelia he also betrays himself. He denies himself happiness and causes himself more pain than necessary. He focuses more on how he should appear to the public than on his own feelings. Hamlet also betrays his own feelings when he hesitates to avenge his father’s death. He does not accomplish what he wanted because he overthinks and overanalyzes. If he is wrong about his belief that Claudius killed his
father, he would look terrible in the public eye. But in the process to become certain, he misses an opportunity to avenge his father.
In conclusion, the characters in Hamlet are deceptive and dishonest. They portray the duel nature of humanity, to appear one way to the public and an entirely different way in private affairs. The characters’ acts of betrayal represent how they act out of the view of society.
Cite this page
Betrayal in Hamlet. (2016, Oct 17). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/betrayal-in-hamlet-2-essay | <urn:uuid:362a8a55-6422-4ef6-85c7-78cc85741a91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/betrayal-in-hamlet-2-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.98052 | 621 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.1457188... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (426 words)
Betrayal is an act of disloyalty, treachery, violating trust, or breaching confidence. Betrayal is a reoccurring action in the tragic Shakespeare play, Hamlet. Many of the characters deceive one another as well as deny their own feelings, betraying themselves. The secrecy and dishonesty of Shakespeare’s characters show that the actions of humans do not always equate to their appearances in society. The interpersonal and person acts of deception in Hamlet contribute to Shakespeare’s theme of the duel nature of humanity.
The most obvious act of betrayal in Hamlet is the murder of King Hamlet by his brother, Claudius. Shortly after the murder, Claudius marries Gertrude, the queen. This could be seen as an added betrayal on Gertrude’s part as well as Claudius’s. They quickly move on from the death of their husband/brother and do not mourn an adequate amount of time. To the public, the newly married couple appears happy and in control. In reality, they are both dealing with the guilt of their immoral actions as well as how their actions have affected Hamlet, who appears to have gone mad following the death of his father.
Hamlet’s plot to act as though he is mad causes him to deceive and harm his family members and peers, primarily Ophelia. By denying his love for Ophelia, he leaves her confused and broken hearted. She didn’t understand why the man she loved was now acting as though he was disgusted by her and as if he never cared for her at all. Hamlet’s hasty actions continue when he abruptly murders Polonius, Ophelia’s father. This drives Ophelia into madness. Hamlet truly loves Ophelia, but she will never know because of his deceptive processes.
When Hamlet denies his feelings for Ophelia he also betrays himself. He denies himself happiness and causes himself more pain than necessary. He focuses more on how he should appear to the public than on his own feelings. Hamlet also betrays his own feelings when he hesitates to avenge his father’s death. He does not accomplish what he wanted because he overthinks and overanalyzes. If he is wrong about his belief that Claudius killed his
father, he would look terrible in the public eye. But in the process to become certain, he misses an opportunity to avenge his father.
In conclusion, the characters in Hamlet are deceptive and dishonest. They portray the duel nature of humanity, to appear one way to the public and an entirely different way in private affairs. The characters’ acts of betrayal represent how they act out of the view of society.
Cite this page
Betrayal in Hamlet. (2016, Oct 17). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/betrayal-in-hamlet-2-essay | 602 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has the following intelligences; Linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Linguistic intelligence is about getting to master many languages and being good with words to express one. Spatial intelligence enables individuals to control and create pictures or images in the mind with the intention of solving problematic situations. Garners says that children who have impaired eyesight also have spatial intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence is about how one makes a connection with the numbers and also logic. It involves inductive reasoning and the thinking behind this intelligence is based on mathematics and science. Musical intelligence is about how an individual makes a connection to music (Gardner, 1983).
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Interpersonal intelligence is about the ability to socialize with individuals, this way people can be able to understand other people’s feelings and even be able to learn the intentions that other people have regarding various things. Intrapersonal intelligence is about reflecting on oneself by being able to define our feelings. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is about the physical experience of the body. It shows that there is a co-ordination between the mind and the movements of the body. The above intelligences work together when used in collaboration with one another. These intelligences are based on cultural and biological foundations. In the classroom context the teacher needs to know how to integrate the intelligences because they are of importance.
I would choose the linguistic intelligence because it is used to measure or base how the student will be successful in developing their skills. Academic performance is based on the language in which the exams are set and hence a high understanding of the language is commanded. Linguistic intelligence minds the language that people speak and write. Languages studied are used to achieve goals that people set in life. With linguistic intelligence individuals are in a position to express their ideas using poems and even through sarcasm to pass a message to the society. Studying languages enhances the capacity to remember information vividly and apply it adequately. Some of the persons who are known to have a high intelligence as far as languages are concerned are lawyers, writers and poets among others (Baker and Kolb, 2005).
Some of the models involved in the multiple intelligence theory are multimodal, arts-based, intelligence based and developmentally-based model among others .The developmentally-based model is best for developing the linguistic intelligence. I would have chosen this model because it helps the student to have knowledge of the languages in depth and also because it gives students the choice of selecting the language that they are interested in. The instructions for using this model are suitable for the students.
My personal philosophy of education is all about learning. It is the way I feel as a student. School is a way of life that each one of us has to be part of come what may. I used to find the classes so boring and a complete waste of time. My teachers were not very interesting and that is why I found school to be boring. Teaching is a profession that should be respected because teachers mould us into better persons in life. I sometimes wished that teachers would allow us to suggest methods that we found best for us. The paper will talk about the role of the teacher and student in learning.
My decision to become a teacher stemmed from the need to correct where I saw my teachers go wrong in terms of methods of teaching. Teachers are supposed to make classes interesting so that students can gain an interest. Teachers are expected to be in a position of being emulated and I would like to be a role model to my students. This way I would be in a good position to pass enthusiasm to my students so that they can have an environment that is conducive. I intend to become a better teacher by attending trainings so that I can gain experience about teaching. I would like to have a positive impact on my students.
Students spend a lot of time at school with peers and hence teachers have the responsibility to know the students well and know their capabilities too. Education should not be based on passing exams. Education is about facts in life that students need to know so that they can adapt easily in the society. Education has the purpose of educating students so that they can be able to have opportunities in life that will allow them to be successful. Some of the factors of education include being able to follow laid down rules, being punctual and being able to socialize so that people can accommodate each other. The most important factor is responsibility. Being responsible helps to shape other values that can be acquired irrespective of the different backgrounds that people come from. Education is a right and it should be exercised. Success is defined to be the life after school.
Schools are in existent for the reason of transforming students and to show progress that they are making with their life. Schools create an understanding of the universe because in school the things taught are uniform for everyone. For example, some of the rules taught on subjects do not change they are the same for everyone. Schools help students to explore the world. Some people think that being in school is a waste of time because they say that some of the hings that they learn will never be applicable in their lives after school. It seems to be waste a time when one is in school but not after school. I used to think the same too until I started applying some of the things that I thought were a waste of time. Besides parents do not have time to teach their children some things since they have studied and specialized in something else. That is where the teacher comes in.
I would like to base my teaching on realism so that my students can have taste of life as it is and how they think it is. Living in reality is the basis of self discovery. Realism is inclusive of all life aspects which involve science, mathematics, and ethics among other aspects. Realism is about acknowledging the existence of facts about life. John Locke who was a philosopher from Britain advocated for liberalism. He wanted individual to always search for the truth. This is because some of the opinions that people have on issues are not the true. Liberalism is about gaining freedom and equality in the various societies that we live. When one is living on facts he or she knows her rights well. One being able to know his or her right gives room for one exercise his or her freedom. I would like to use liberalism to show my students that they have the power to become anything that they want to. I would present facts for them and let them think about the direction that they want to choose after advising them accordingly. Liberalism makes student to become innovative and creative.
Being able to know facts moulds the intelligence of students and gives them motivation to want to know more about life. I realized that liberalism helps student to mould their careers. I would use liberalism because it gives them the insight that all people are the same and hence achieving what they want to become is not a hard task. I would teach them to respect their fellow classmates, teachers, their parents and the society in general. I find this combination okay with me and would recommend other teachers to apply the same. However knowing that, the methods of teaching are not the same, teachers are at freedom to teach using their own methods that they find suitable. Liberalism is very powerful and it makes students to become confident with them.
The role of teachers is to enable students to gain learning skills which are reading, writing, speaking and listening. The teacher is responsible for helping students to develop their culture. The teacher should be in a position to give motivation to the students towards better performance in the studies. Students can be very brilliant, but fail to perform due to lack of motivation. The teacher also needs to show love and affection to the students so that there can be an understanding between the two. This way, students learn to gain trust on their teachers and can hence be able to open up and share problems with the teacher.
A Prospective teacher should be able to participate in activities that are organized in the societies in a way that is positive so that the students can emulate him or her, prospective teachers should be prepared for impropriate behaviors of the students. The teacher should be prepared by being respectful and become a role model; he or she should be in a position to care for the students in the right way. Students do not enjoy lessons of teachers who show them totalitarian behavior (Smith, 2002).
An ideal curriculum is one that allows students to put into application the knowledge that they are taught, to provide solutions to problems. The ideal curriculum should also provide a surrounding that is convenient for students to learn together. It should also allow students to socialize with their peers and even teachers so that they can learn the interests of other people. At last it should be capable of allowing students to criticize issues they see that need to be addressed.
Students should be taught about the various religions that exist in the world. This is because some of the characters and values are acquired from religion. For example, the Christian community is the largest in the world. However children follow the religion that parents are following and can only change that when they grow up if they want to. Religion sometimes boils down to ethics even though no one has ever defined what ethics is. Marxism stated that ethics were used by the classes that were ruling in order to oppress the class of the people who were working. However every religion has its own ethics and that is what defines the characters of the people. Students should also be taught professionalism so that they can approach life with caution.
I would include character education during the English lessons during the literature classes, when analyzing characters. There I would get a chance to tell them the consequences of some characters, that people acquire I would also teach them the impact of some behaviors that people have in the society. In every literature that people read there are ethical issues that emerge. I would also hold discussions in class about characters exhibited by people or actors in the contexts. This way I would ensure that they will participate in class and speak their mind out. Most of all I would teach my students the various cultures that exist in our society. Cultures are very important because they ensure that students fit well in the society and also define the characters of the students.
I would choose the strategy of interactive strategy. This strategy involves having debates, having numerous discussions, brainstorming on questions and learning using groups. Learning using groups promotes tteamwork. I would ensure that students are paired in different groups for every assignment that I give in class. Groups would enable my students to share information and take lead in role playing. Debates help in class, by enabling my students to interact deeply with the curriculum that is in place. Debates also help apply facts and the implications of some issues happening in the society. Groups help students to take risks especially when they are given role of group leaders. Being able to take risks makes them better decision makers.
A teacher knows that his or her students have learned by assessing them by using Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT). They give a feedback to the teacher that is brief about the progress that the students have made. The Classroom Assessment Technique helps to create a rapport between the students and the teacher. They give the impression to the students that their teacher cares about how much they progress in their learning. If they score very well then it shows that the learning is okay and that the teaching methods the teacher is using are okay. However if they do not perform well the teacher knows that the teaching techniques that he or she is using are not effective.
The process of learning cannot be complete without the students. Hence it is important for the students to participate in class in the context of answering questions in class when the teacher asks. Students should also do homework given in order to make the learning process easy. Students should learn to explore the world by doing further reading. This way they are able to practice their skills of learning. Students should be able to learn some of the things on their own because the teacher only teaches the basics to education that will enable the students to teach themselves by being able to integrate what the teachers have taught them. I hope to teach the students the English language so that they can be able to understand the content that they are taught in other subjects. English helps students to analyze books and assignments that are given to them in other subjects. It helps them to be creative because it is a language and hence students are required to first interpret information by a language (Fielstein and Phelps, 2000).
Most of the students have confirmed that they do not like going to school and hence most of them possess intrinsic motivation. Most students perform well in order to get rewards of better grades in their results. However, even if they are intrinsically motivated, this is not an indication that they will not get internal motivation to learn. The reward of good grades motivates them to do better in tasks that are to be given in future because they know that they can perform better than they thought. I like to motivate my students and turn boring topics into interesting ones by teaching with the sense of humor attached to the subject. Students are very gifted and it is the role of the teacher to help them realize their gifts.
Race and genders are the two risk factors. If there was a student who was of a different race from the rest and especially girl, I would ensure that I show concern to her so that she can gain trust in me and be able to share some of the problems that she is facing. Since I would like teach my students about realism and equality I would intervene by teaching them to treat each other fairly and tell to understand that people come from different backgrounds. I would make sure that any students who happened to treat her unfairly made an apology to her. I would make her a group leader so that she can bond with the other students.
Being a teacher is a wonderful experience. I feel pleasured when I meet with my teachers because I am proud of what they made me become. My personal philosophy changes every moment am taking my course in education, it is an interesting journey I must admit. This is because as a teacher i am supposed to be updated with the current occurrence in the universe of technology so that I can be good at teaching my students in the classroom. This way I can create a connection of the students to education. Teaching becomes complicated as they continue to learn because they cannot seem to make an interest out of education. I would choose to have positive expectation from my students and to show them that I believe in them that they can be successful.
The teacher sets the pace for the students and hence they learn as much as the teacher expects. That is why are encouraged to take their work seriously so that they can shape the future of a country. Research carried out show those countries that have a low rate of educated person’s remains backward. Technology has become a very big part of learning. It has to be used in the right manner to bring out good results. Also students enjoy using online activities such as keyboard chatting to exercise their skills.
This way online activities help them to do further research on their courses and homework given to them would encourage my students to explore the world using the internet because it has so much work that is educative. This is because nowadays many people are opting to learn online. This is especially for those who want to further their education. However I encourage face to face teaching because it is more interactive and students get to learn so much and the understanding of the content is very high.
A good education is the best gift that children can acquire from their parents and the state and they need a good teacher for this. All in all education is broad and has to be integrated effectively with the daily occurrences.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:aa64978b-ace8-4190-820a-584a8cc15dd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/philosophy/philosophy-of-education.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.981721 | 3,262 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.3507288098335266... | 1 | Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has the following intelligences; Linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Linguistic intelligence is about getting to master many languages and being good with words to express one. Spatial intelligence enables individuals to control and create pictures or images in the mind with the intention of solving problematic situations. Garners says that children who have impaired eyesight also have spatial intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence is about how one makes a connection with the numbers and also logic. It involves inductive reasoning and the thinking behind this intelligence is based on mathematics and science. Musical intelligence is about how an individual makes a connection to music (Gardner, 1983).
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Interpersonal intelligence is about the ability to socialize with individuals, this way people can be able to understand other people’s feelings and even be able to learn the intentions that other people have regarding various things. Intrapersonal intelligence is about reflecting on oneself by being able to define our feelings. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is about the physical experience of the body. It shows that there is a co-ordination between the mind and the movements of the body. The above intelligences work together when used in collaboration with one another. These intelligences are based on cultural and biological foundations. In the classroom context the teacher needs to know how to integrate the intelligences because they are of importance.
I would choose the linguistic intelligence because it is used to measure or base how the student will be successful in developing their skills. Academic performance is based on the language in which the exams are set and hence a high understanding of the language is commanded. Linguistic intelligence minds the language that people speak and write. Languages studied are used to achieve goals that people set in life. With linguistic intelligence individuals are in a position to express their ideas using poems and even through sarcasm to pass a message to the society. Studying languages enhances the capacity to remember information vividly and apply it adequately. Some of the persons who are known to have a high intelligence as far as languages are concerned are lawyers, writers and poets among others (Baker and Kolb, 2005).
Some of the models involved in the multiple intelligence theory are multimodal, arts-based, intelligence based and developmentally-based model among others .The developmentally-based model is best for developing the linguistic intelligence. I would have chosen this model because it helps the student to have knowledge of the languages in depth and also because it gives students the choice of selecting the language that they are interested in. The instructions for using this model are suitable for the students.
My personal philosophy of education is all about learning. It is the way I feel as a student. School is a way of life that each one of us has to be part of come what may. I used to find the classes so boring and a complete waste of time. My teachers were not very interesting and that is why I found school to be boring. Teaching is a profession that should be respected because teachers mould us into better persons in life. I sometimes wished that teachers would allow us to suggest methods that we found best for us. The paper will talk about the role of the teacher and student in learning.
My decision to become a teacher stemmed from the need to correct where I saw my teachers go wrong in terms of methods of teaching. Teachers are supposed to make classes interesting so that students can gain an interest. Teachers are expected to be in a position of being emulated and I would like to be a role model to my students. This way I would be in a good position to pass enthusiasm to my students so that they can have an environment that is conducive. I intend to become a better teacher by attending trainings so that I can gain experience about teaching. I would like to have a positive impact on my students.
Students spend a lot of time at school with peers and hence teachers have the responsibility to know the students well and know their capabilities too. Education should not be based on passing exams. Education is about facts in life that students need to know so that they can adapt easily in the society. Education has the purpose of educating students so that they can be able to have opportunities in life that will allow them to be successful. Some of the factors of education include being able to follow laid down rules, being punctual and being able to socialize so that people can accommodate each other. The most important factor is responsibility. Being responsible helps to shape other values that can be acquired irrespective of the different backgrounds that people come from. Education is a right and it should be exercised. Success is defined to be the life after school.
Schools are in existent for the reason of transforming students and to show progress that they are making with their life. Schools create an understanding of the universe because in school the things taught are uniform for everyone. For example, some of the rules taught on subjects do not change they are the same for everyone. Schools help students to explore the world. Some people think that being in school is a waste of time because they say that some of the hings that they learn will never be applicable in their lives after school. It seems to be waste a time when one is in school but not after school. I used to think the same too until I started applying some of the things that I thought were a waste of time. Besides parents do not have time to teach their children some things since they have studied and specialized in something else. That is where the teacher comes in.
I would like to base my teaching on realism so that my students can have taste of life as it is and how they think it is. Living in reality is the basis of self discovery. Realism is inclusive of all life aspects which involve science, mathematics, and ethics among other aspects. Realism is about acknowledging the existence of facts about life. John Locke who was a philosopher from Britain advocated for liberalism. He wanted individual to always search for the truth. This is because some of the opinions that people have on issues are not the true. Liberalism is about gaining freedom and equality in the various societies that we live. When one is living on facts he or she knows her rights well. One being able to know his or her right gives room for one exercise his or her freedom. I would like to use liberalism to show my students that they have the power to become anything that they want to. I would present facts for them and let them think about the direction that they want to choose after advising them accordingly. Liberalism makes student to become innovative and creative.
Being able to know facts moulds the intelligence of students and gives them motivation to want to know more about life. I realized that liberalism helps student to mould their careers. I would use liberalism because it gives them the insight that all people are the same and hence achieving what they want to become is not a hard task. I would teach them to respect their fellow classmates, teachers, their parents and the society in general. I find this combination okay with me and would recommend other teachers to apply the same. However knowing that, the methods of teaching are not the same, teachers are at freedom to teach using their own methods that they find suitable. Liberalism is very powerful and it makes students to become confident with them.
The role of teachers is to enable students to gain learning skills which are reading, writing, speaking and listening. The teacher is responsible for helping students to develop their culture. The teacher should be in a position to give motivation to the students towards better performance in the studies. Students can be very brilliant, but fail to perform due to lack of motivation. The teacher also needs to show love and affection to the students so that there can be an understanding between the two. This way, students learn to gain trust on their teachers and can hence be able to open up and share problems with the teacher.
A Prospective teacher should be able to participate in activities that are organized in the societies in a way that is positive so that the students can emulate him or her, prospective teachers should be prepared for impropriate behaviors of the students. The teacher should be prepared by being respectful and become a role model; he or she should be in a position to care for the students in the right way. Students do not enjoy lessons of teachers who show them totalitarian behavior (Smith, 2002).
An ideal curriculum is one that allows students to put into application the knowledge that they are taught, to provide solutions to problems. The ideal curriculum should also provide a surrounding that is convenient for students to learn together. It should also allow students to socialize with their peers and even teachers so that they can learn the interests of other people. At last it should be capable of allowing students to criticize issues they see that need to be addressed.
Students should be taught about the various religions that exist in the world. This is because some of the characters and values are acquired from religion. For example, the Christian community is the largest in the world. However children follow the religion that parents are following and can only change that when they grow up if they want to. Religion sometimes boils down to ethics even though no one has ever defined what ethics is. Marxism stated that ethics were used by the classes that were ruling in order to oppress the class of the people who were working. However every religion has its own ethics and that is what defines the characters of the people. Students should also be taught professionalism so that they can approach life with caution.
I would include character education during the English lessons during the literature classes, when analyzing characters. There I would get a chance to tell them the consequences of some characters, that people acquire I would also teach them the impact of some behaviors that people have in the society. In every literature that people read there are ethical issues that emerge. I would also hold discussions in class about characters exhibited by people or actors in the contexts. This way I would ensure that they will participate in class and speak their mind out. Most of all I would teach my students the various cultures that exist in our society. Cultures are very important because they ensure that students fit well in the society and also define the characters of the students.
I would choose the strategy of interactive strategy. This strategy involves having debates, having numerous discussions, brainstorming on questions and learning using groups. Learning using groups promotes tteamwork. I would ensure that students are paired in different groups for every assignment that I give in class. Groups would enable my students to share information and take lead in role playing. Debates help in class, by enabling my students to interact deeply with the curriculum that is in place. Debates also help apply facts and the implications of some issues happening in the society. Groups help students to take risks especially when they are given role of group leaders. Being able to take risks makes them better decision makers.
A teacher knows that his or her students have learned by assessing them by using Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT). They give a feedback to the teacher that is brief about the progress that the students have made. The Classroom Assessment Technique helps to create a rapport between the students and the teacher. They give the impression to the students that their teacher cares about how much they progress in their learning. If they score very well then it shows that the learning is okay and that the teaching methods the teacher is using are okay. However if they do not perform well the teacher knows that the teaching techniques that he or she is using are not effective.
The process of learning cannot be complete without the students. Hence it is important for the students to participate in class in the context of answering questions in class when the teacher asks. Students should also do homework given in order to make the learning process easy. Students should learn to explore the world by doing further reading. This way they are able to practice their skills of learning. Students should be able to learn some of the things on their own because the teacher only teaches the basics to education that will enable the students to teach themselves by being able to integrate what the teachers have taught them. I hope to teach the students the English language so that they can be able to understand the content that they are taught in other subjects. English helps students to analyze books and assignments that are given to them in other subjects. It helps them to be creative because it is a language and hence students are required to first interpret information by a language (Fielstein and Phelps, 2000).
Most of the students have confirmed that they do not like going to school and hence most of them possess intrinsic motivation. Most students perform well in order to get rewards of better grades in their results. However, even if they are intrinsically motivated, this is not an indication that they will not get internal motivation to learn. The reward of good grades motivates them to do better in tasks that are to be given in future because they know that they can perform better than they thought. I like to motivate my students and turn boring topics into interesting ones by teaching with the sense of humor attached to the subject. Students are very gifted and it is the role of the teacher to help them realize their gifts.
Race and genders are the two risk factors. If there was a student who was of a different race from the rest and especially girl, I would ensure that I show concern to her so that she can gain trust in me and be able to share some of the problems that she is facing. Since I would like teach my students about realism and equality I would intervene by teaching them to treat each other fairly and tell to understand that people come from different backgrounds. I would make sure that any students who happened to treat her unfairly made an apology to her. I would make her a group leader so that she can bond with the other students.
Being a teacher is a wonderful experience. I feel pleasured when I meet with my teachers because I am proud of what they made me become. My personal philosophy changes every moment am taking my course in education, it is an interesting journey I must admit. This is because as a teacher i am supposed to be updated with the current occurrence in the universe of technology so that I can be good at teaching my students in the classroom. This way I can create a connection of the students to education. Teaching becomes complicated as they continue to learn because they cannot seem to make an interest out of education. I would choose to have positive expectation from my students and to show them that I believe in them that they can be successful.
The teacher sets the pace for the students and hence they learn as much as the teacher expects. That is why are encouraged to take their work seriously so that they can shape the future of a country. Research carried out show those countries that have a low rate of educated person’s remains backward. Technology has become a very big part of learning. It has to be used in the right manner to bring out good results. Also students enjoy using online activities such as keyboard chatting to exercise their skills.
This way online activities help them to do further research on their courses and homework given to them would encourage my students to explore the world using the internet because it has so much work that is educative. This is because nowadays many people are opting to learn online. This is especially for those who want to further their education. However I encourage face to face teaching because it is more interactive and students get to learn so much and the understanding of the content is very high.
A good education is the best gift that children can acquire from their parents and the state and they need a good teacher for this. All in all education is broad and has to be integrated effectively with the daily occurrences.
Most popular orders | 3,236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did Harriet Beecher Stowe really start the Civil War in 1852? Probably not. But she did force people to think about the evil and immoral nature of slavery with the publication of her novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly.
Stowe, born in Litchfield, Conn., and her husband Calvin Ellis Stowe, from Natick, Mass., were ardent abolitionists and supporters of the Underground Railroad. With the passage by Congress in 1850 of the fugitive slave act, states were ordered to assist in returning escaped slaves to southern slave-owners. Officials who didn’t arrest suspected runaways were subject to fines, as were citizens helping the escapees. Special commissioners were empowered to police the law and due process was eliminated for slaves captured in the North.
The act was designed to stop the flow of escaped slaves into Canada. Canada gained popularity as a safe haven for slaves following the Revolution when the British assisted slaves who had fought for them in fleeing to Canada rather than face re-enslavement following the loss of the war.
The law only further stoked the anger of abolitionists, and prompted Stowe to pick up her pen. Barely five-feet tall, Stowe began writing Uncle Tom’s Cabin, largely at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Me. where her husband was teaching. It started as a serial in a magazine, but soon publisher John P. Jewett of Boston approached Stowe about publishing it as a book. Initially doubtful about its potential, Stowe nevertheless agreed to publication and following publication on March 20, 1852, sales skyrocketed both in the U.S. and Britain.
More than 300,000 copies of the book were sold in its first year in the U.S., with even greater sales in Britain. After several years it went out of print, finding a new audience when it was reprinted during the Civil War.
The story most often associated with the book today is that Abraham Lincoln, when introduced to Stowe in Washington, D.C., in 1862 said, “So this is the little lady who started this Great War.”
While scholars find it doubtful that Lincoln actually said that, there is no doubt that the little woman from Connecticut did much to stir popular opinion and prodded the American conscience on the issue of slavery. | <urn:uuid:a5c87714-60c2-44aa-a1e0-50d3d88ce2e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/harriet-beecher-stowe-little-lady-started-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.982589 | 480 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.27160429954528... | 5 | Did Harriet Beecher Stowe really start the Civil War in 1852? Probably not. But she did force people to think about the evil and immoral nature of slavery with the publication of her novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly.
Stowe, born in Litchfield, Conn., and her husband Calvin Ellis Stowe, from Natick, Mass., were ardent abolitionists and supporters of the Underground Railroad. With the passage by Congress in 1850 of the fugitive slave act, states were ordered to assist in returning escaped slaves to southern slave-owners. Officials who didn’t arrest suspected runaways were subject to fines, as were citizens helping the escapees. Special commissioners were empowered to police the law and due process was eliminated for slaves captured in the North.
The act was designed to stop the flow of escaped slaves into Canada. Canada gained popularity as a safe haven for slaves following the Revolution when the British assisted slaves who had fought for them in fleeing to Canada rather than face re-enslavement following the loss of the war.
The law only further stoked the anger of abolitionists, and prompted Stowe to pick up her pen. Barely five-feet tall, Stowe began writing Uncle Tom’s Cabin, largely at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Me. where her husband was teaching. It started as a serial in a magazine, but soon publisher John P. Jewett of Boston approached Stowe about publishing it as a book. Initially doubtful about its potential, Stowe nevertheless agreed to publication and following publication on March 20, 1852, sales skyrocketed both in the U.S. and Britain.
More than 300,000 copies of the book were sold in its first year in the U.S., with even greater sales in Britain. After several years it went out of print, finding a new audience when it was reprinted during the Civil War.
The story most often associated with the book today is that Abraham Lincoln, when introduced to Stowe in Washington, D.C., in 1862 said, “So this is the little lady who started this Great War.”
While scholars find it doubtful that Lincoln actually said that, there is no doubt that the little woman from Connecticut did much to stir popular opinion and prodded the American conscience on the issue of slavery. | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elizabeth and her sons lived in what is now Hood County. They built two small log cabins on their land, what would later become the early frontier settlement of Acton. The site of the cabin where Elizabeth resided is marked by a Texas Centennial Marker, which were the first markers erected in Texas.2
After her death on January 31, 1860, Elizabeth was laid to rest in the Acton Cemetery dressed in widow's black that she had been wearing since learning of Crockett's death in 1836. In 1911, the state placed the monument to honor the pioneer mother.3 The monument is located near the center of Acton Cemetery. At the site, visitors can find the statue of Elizabeth Crockett, as well as an interpretive sign that gives further information regarding her life. | <urn:uuid:3f1686c4-2ef0-4404-bf5c-45144aa3404a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/27334 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.988465 | 162 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.060385294258594... | 2 | Elizabeth and her sons lived in what is now Hood County. They built two small log cabins on their land, what would later become the early frontier settlement of Acton. The site of the cabin where Elizabeth resided is marked by a Texas Centennial Marker, which were the first markers erected in Texas.2
After her death on January 31, 1860, Elizabeth was laid to rest in the Acton Cemetery dressed in widow's black that she had been wearing since learning of Crockett's death in 1836. In 1911, the state placed the monument to honor the pioneer mother.3 The monument is located near the center of Acton Cemetery. At the site, visitors can find the statue of Elizabeth Crockett, as well as an interpretive sign that gives further information regarding her life. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History Of Cricket
It was introduced to the west indies by colonists and to india by british east india company mariners.
History of cricket. A brief history of cricket when was cricket first played. This games origins can be traced to the 16th century. A stick and a ball of sheeps wool were the first play equipment in cricket. Cricket was first recorded in 16th century england.
Most probably its name was derived from the old english cryce which means stick and in its rude form resembled the 13th century game known as club ball. This gate consisted of two uprights and a crossbar resting on the slotted tops. The crossbar was called a bail and the entire gate a wicket. The origins of cricket lie somewhere in the dark ages probably after the roman empire almost certainly before the normans invaded england and almost certainly somewhere in northern europe.
In 1706 william goldwyn published the first description of the game. The history of cricket. Having originated in south east england it became the countrys national sport in the 18th century and has developed globally in the 19th and 20th centuries. International matches have been played since 1844 and test cricket began retrospectively recognised in 1877.
The fastest ball. He wrote that two teams were first seen carrying their curving bats to the venue choosing a pitch and arguing over the rules. Cricket was introduced to north america via the english colonies as early as the 17th century and in the 18th century it arrived in other parts of the globe. Cricket was popular and widely documented in england during the 1700s.
Edward iii banned a game similar to cricket in 1369 pila baculorea or club ball as it was known as he saw it as being a distraction to his war effort. Cricket was first played in the sheep grazing lands of south east england. Cricket history is particularly murky and vague as to the exact origins of the game it is believed to have been born in england in the late middle ages. Cricket had started as a childs game.
A very brief history of cricket early days. The sport of cricket has a known history beginning in the late 16th century. Cricket is believed to have begun possibly as early as the 13th century as a game in which country boys bowled at a tree stump or at the hurdle gate into a sheep pen. | <urn:uuid:b46472e3-cdc6-4819-8b07-32626cf9a182> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thecricketanalyst.com/history-of-cricket.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.990151 | 489 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.269859522581... | 1 | History Of Cricket
It was introduced to the west indies by colonists and to india by british east india company mariners.
History of cricket. A brief history of cricket when was cricket first played. This games origins can be traced to the 16th century. A stick and a ball of sheeps wool were the first play equipment in cricket. Cricket was first recorded in 16th century england.
Most probably its name was derived from the old english cryce which means stick and in its rude form resembled the 13th century game known as club ball. This gate consisted of two uprights and a crossbar resting on the slotted tops. The crossbar was called a bail and the entire gate a wicket. The origins of cricket lie somewhere in the dark ages probably after the roman empire almost certainly before the normans invaded england and almost certainly somewhere in northern europe.
In 1706 william goldwyn published the first description of the game. The history of cricket. Having originated in south east england it became the countrys national sport in the 18th century and has developed globally in the 19th and 20th centuries. International matches have been played since 1844 and test cricket began retrospectively recognised in 1877.
The fastest ball. He wrote that two teams were first seen carrying their curving bats to the venue choosing a pitch and arguing over the rules. Cricket was introduced to north america via the english colonies as early as the 17th century and in the 18th century it arrived in other parts of the globe. Cricket was popular and widely documented in england during the 1700s.
Edward iii banned a game similar to cricket in 1369 pila baculorea or club ball as it was known as he saw it as being a distraction to his war effort. Cricket was first played in the sheep grazing lands of south east england. Cricket history is particularly murky and vague as to the exact origins of the game it is believed to have been born in england in the late middle ages. Cricket had started as a childs game.
A very brief history of cricket early days. The sport of cricket has a known history beginning in the late 16th century. Cricket is believed to have begun possibly as early as the 13th century as a game in which country boys bowled at a tree stump or at the hurdle gate into a sheep pen. | 511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In any project on Alexander the Great, primary sources can catapult the quality of such an academic endeavor across multiple grade levels. What are a handful of solid primary sources on Alexander the Great? Read on for more.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 7:50 am ad1c9bdddf
ALEXANDER THE GREAT PRIMARY SOURCES
Primary Source 1
Alexander Tames Bucephalus by Plutarch
There came a day when Philoneicus the Thessalian brought Philip (Alexander's father) a horse named Bucephalus. The king and his friends went down to the plain to watch the horse's trials, and concluded that he was wild and unmanageable, for he would allow no one to mount him. The king became angry at being offered such a vicious animal unbroken, and ordered it to be led away. But Alexander, who was standing close by, remarked, "What a horse they are losing, and all because they don't know how to handle him, or dare not try!"... Alexander went quickly up to Bucephalus, took hold of his bridle, and turned him towards the sun, for he had noticed that the horse was shying at the sight of his own shadow, as it fell in front of him and constantly moved whenever he did. He ran alongside the animal for a little way, calming him down by stroking him, and then, when he saw he was full of spirit and courage, he quietly threw aside his cloak with a light spring vaulted safely on to his back... Finally, when he saw that the horse was free of his fears and impatient to show his speed, he gave him his head and urged him forward.
At First Philip and his friends held their breath until they saw Alexander reach the end of his gallop, turn in full control, and ride back triumphant. Thereupon the rest of the company broke into loud applause, while his father, we are told, actually wept for joy, and when Alexander had dismounted he kissed him and said, "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedonia is too small ...
This solution discusses primary sources for Alexander the Great. | <urn:uuid:e9682d43-4fb0-4282-b732-4da4aa69cbc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brainmass.com/history/grecian-military-combat-war/primary-sources-for-alexander-the-great-597345 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.986282 | 458 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.000748232... | 1 | In any project on Alexander the Great, primary sources can catapult the quality of such an academic endeavor across multiple grade levels. What are a handful of solid primary sources on Alexander the Great? Read on for more.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 7:50 am ad1c9bdddf
ALEXANDER THE GREAT PRIMARY SOURCES
Primary Source 1
Alexander Tames Bucephalus by Plutarch
There came a day when Philoneicus the Thessalian brought Philip (Alexander's father) a horse named Bucephalus. The king and his friends went down to the plain to watch the horse's trials, and concluded that he was wild and unmanageable, for he would allow no one to mount him. The king became angry at being offered such a vicious animal unbroken, and ordered it to be led away. But Alexander, who was standing close by, remarked, "What a horse they are losing, and all because they don't know how to handle him, or dare not try!"... Alexander went quickly up to Bucephalus, took hold of his bridle, and turned him towards the sun, for he had noticed that the horse was shying at the sight of his own shadow, as it fell in front of him and constantly moved whenever he did. He ran alongside the animal for a little way, calming him down by stroking him, and then, when he saw he was full of spirit and courage, he quietly threw aside his cloak with a light spring vaulted safely on to his back... Finally, when he saw that the horse was free of his fears and impatient to show his speed, he gave him his head and urged him forward.
At First Philip and his friends held their breath until they saw Alexander reach the end of his gallop, turn in full control, and ride back triumphant. Thereupon the rest of the company broke into loud applause, while his father, we are told, actually wept for joy, and when Alexander had dismounted he kissed him and said, "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedonia is too small ...
This solution discusses primary sources for Alexander the Great. | 461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the play Hamlet, Hamlet is described as daring, brave, loyal, and intelligent, but he is consumed by his own thoughts. Hamlets inability to act on his fathers murder, his mothers marriage, and his uncle assuming of the thrown are all evidence that Hamlet doesnt know what is going on in his own life.
Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder, demands the ghost in (Act I, Scene 5, line 23). The fact that his own uncle could kill his father leaves Hamlet crazy and confused. Although Hamlet knows something is wrong in Denmark, he begins to question everything that the ghost has told him. When something is needed to be done, Hamlet is to busy thinking about his problems. An example of this is when Hamlet has his knife over the head of Claudius, and is prepared to murder him. He talks himself out of it. Instead, Hamlet writes a play in which the actors play out the same story that the ghost told Hamlet. His plan is to study Claudiuss reaction to the play to determine his guilt. Even after Hamlet decides his uncle is guilty, he doesnt do anything.This would have been a great time to confront Claudius, but Hamlet seems more interested in taking credit for what he did instead of seeking revenge.Order now
Throughout the play Hamlet is deeply hurt by his mothers decision to remarry his uncle. As Hamlet says, Frailty thy name is woman, her actions cause Hamlet to curse women all together (Act 1, Scene 2, Line 146). In the first Act, Claudius and Gertrude question Hamlets depression. They push Hamlet to accept his fathers death and move on with his life. While Hamlet should admit his hatred of their marriage, he hides his feeling. While Hamlet is holding back his feelings, he becomes more angered at their attempts to calm him. Gertrude is also aware of Hamlets feelings for Ophelia and uses this as an excuse for Hamlets actions. Hamlet has plenty of time to confess the cause of his madness. Unfortunately, Hamlet allows his mother to think he is madly in love rather than tell the truth. After Hamlet delivers his play and sees guilt in his uncle, Gertrude sends for Hamlet. Instead of hurting his mother, he insists on her to tell him the truth. If Hamlet wouldnt have taken so long, her confession could have taken place earlier in the play. This could save him from a great deal of pain and leave his thoughts for other problems.
Hamlets biggest obstacle in getting even with his fathers murder is Claudius being crowned king. With Claudius being in such a powerful position, Hamlet has to be careful with what he does. Hamlet not only has to kill his fathers murderer, but the king as well. The church was against the wedding from the start and would side with Hamlet.
Instead of Hamlet disapproving his mothers wedding and the crowning of his uncle, he was silent.During the play, Claudius yells, “Give me some light. Away” and Hamlet was sure of his uncles guilt (Act III, Scene 2, Line 152). This was the perfect time for Hamlet to face Claudius. The king was in a venerable state and could have been easily dethroned. Unfortunately, Hamlet decides to speak to his mother instead, thus putting Hamlet in an emotional state of mind and giving Claudius time to re-think his options.
Although Hamlet seemed to be superior in all other characteristics, his one flaw cost him his life.Without doubt, it cost the lives of many others as well. If Hamlet could have taken immediate action, many deaths could have been avoided. Although Hamlet succeeds in his quest for revenge, his procrastination proves to be his flaw in every event. | <urn:uuid:c8e27155-a5fd-43b7-9866-50daebc6d922> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/hamlets-problem-essay-68638/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.993034 | 795 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2561012506484... | 3 | In the play Hamlet, Hamlet is described as daring, brave, loyal, and intelligent, but he is consumed by his own thoughts. Hamlets inability to act on his fathers murder, his mothers marriage, and his uncle assuming of the thrown are all evidence that Hamlet doesnt know what is going on in his own life.
Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder, demands the ghost in (Act I, Scene 5, line 23). The fact that his own uncle could kill his father leaves Hamlet crazy and confused. Although Hamlet knows something is wrong in Denmark, he begins to question everything that the ghost has told him. When something is needed to be done, Hamlet is to busy thinking about his problems. An example of this is when Hamlet has his knife over the head of Claudius, and is prepared to murder him. He talks himself out of it. Instead, Hamlet writes a play in which the actors play out the same story that the ghost told Hamlet. His plan is to study Claudiuss reaction to the play to determine his guilt. Even after Hamlet decides his uncle is guilty, he doesnt do anything.This would have been a great time to confront Claudius, but Hamlet seems more interested in taking credit for what he did instead of seeking revenge.Order now
Throughout the play Hamlet is deeply hurt by his mothers decision to remarry his uncle. As Hamlet says, Frailty thy name is woman, her actions cause Hamlet to curse women all together (Act 1, Scene 2, Line 146). In the first Act, Claudius and Gertrude question Hamlets depression. They push Hamlet to accept his fathers death and move on with his life. While Hamlet should admit his hatred of their marriage, he hides his feeling. While Hamlet is holding back his feelings, he becomes more angered at their attempts to calm him. Gertrude is also aware of Hamlets feelings for Ophelia and uses this as an excuse for Hamlets actions. Hamlet has plenty of time to confess the cause of his madness. Unfortunately, Hamlet allows his mother to think he is madly in love rather than tell the truth. After Hamlet delivers his play and sees guilt in his uncle, Gertrude sends for Hamlet. Instead of hurting his mother, he insists on her to tell him the truth. If Hamlet wouldnt have taken so long, her confession could have taken place earlier in the play. This could save him from a great deal of pain and leave his thoughts for other problems.
Hamlets biggest obstacle in getting even with his fathers murder is Claudius being crowned king. With Claudius being in such a powerful position, Hamlet has to be careful with what he does. Hamlet not only has to kill his fathers murderer, but the king as well. The church was against the wedding from the start and would side with Hamlet.
Instead of Hamlet disapproving his mothers wedding and the crowning of his uncle, he was silent.During the play, Claudius yells, “Give me some light. Away” and Hamlet was sure of his uncles guilt (Act III, Scene 2, Line 152). This was the perfect time for Hamlet to face Claudius. The king was in a venerable state and could have been easily dethroned. Unfortunately, Hamlet decides to speak to his mother instead, thus putting Hamlet in an emotional state of mind and giving Claudius time to re-think his options.
Although Hamlet seemed to be superior in all other characteristics, his one flaw cost him his life.Without doubt, it cost the lives of many others as well. If Hamlet could have taken immediate action, many deaths could have been avoided. Although Hamlet succeeds in his quest for revenge, his procrastination proves to be his flaw in every event. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Epiphany or Three Kings Day is January 6 and as the Twelfth Night officially ends the Christmas season. It is often celebrated on the nearest Sunday between January 2 and January 8.
It is a day to celebrate the baptism of Jesus and the arrival of The Magi (Three Kings or Wise Men). In the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated from Christmas Eve to January 6. And Epiphany Day was a major celebration well into the mid 19th century when its importance diminished. The Catholic Church no longer requires January 6 to be celebrated as a solemnity on that exact day and celebrates it on the Sunday that follows it. Some Protestant churches celebrate the Epiphany season from January 6 till Ash Wednesday. Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 19 as they follow the Julian calendar.
In many Spanish speaking countries, Dia de los Reyes (Three Kings’ Day)is celebrated with special foods and gatherings. Many European countries have their own unique observances as well. Children often gets treats or presents on this day. In Italy, La Befana flies through the night on January 5 on a broomstick to deliver gifts to good kids and give coal to the bad ones.
So who were the Three Kings? There is a lot of debate on this. Some doubt they existed and some consider it a pious fantasy. Much of what is called the Three Kings today are embellishments that have been added over time. The Gospel of Matthew, the earliest source of the story, is quite simple and only refers to them as Magi from the east. Nor does it say there were only three but three gifts were given. And it is possible they were actually Nabataeans, a trading people that lived in northern Arabia to the Southern Levant whose capital is known as Petra today. Dwight Longnecker in his book Mystery of the Magi examines this evidence. Worth reading if you want to learn more about who these Magi might really have been.
Traditionally there are 12 days of Christmas beginning on Christmas Day (December 25) and ending on Epiphany Day (Little Christmas/Three Kings or Wise Men Day) on January 6. Customs vary by country but almost always there are special activities, foods, and in opening of presents as well.
The celebration of Twelfth Night came about in medieval and Tudor England when Candlemas originally ended the Christmas season. A special cake was prepared with a bean and pea hidden inside. The man who found the pea in his slice of cake became king for the night while the woman who found a pea became Queen for the night. Christmas carols and feasting would also take place. A special punch for Christmas, wassail, was often drunk on that night but also during the entire season as well.
Since Twelfth Night is about the impending arrival of the Three Kings, the statues of them would appear in the crib or the following day in countries such as Ireland. Christmas decorations would start to be taken down as well and certainly by the end of Epiphany Day. Edible portions of wreaths (fruits or nuts) would be consumed as part of a feast as well. The famous Shakespeare play Twelfth Night was written as entertainment for the holiday.
Twelfth Night is considered secular by Christian denominations and not a required day of observance. The following day, Epiphany Day, is a solemnity and observed by attendance in church.
Epiphany Day occurs on 6 January and marks the end of the Christmas season except for Orthodox Christians who follow the Julian calendar. In England it is celebrated as the Twelfth Night (remember the song the Twelve Days of Christmas?). Many cultures celebrate it with special foods and it is considered unlucky by many to leave Christmas decorations up after the Epiphany. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates it on 6 Jan but not as a day of obligation. Usually it is celebrated in a Sunday mass that falls before or just after the date (2-8 January). | <urn:uuid:3a473f40-353b-4283-8496-78eac7325fbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://titanicnewschannel.com/blog/tag/epiphany-of-the-lord/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.980133 | 795 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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-0.0086903749033... | 1 | Epiphany or Three Kings Day is January 6 and as the Twelfth Night officially ends the Christmas season. It is often celebrated on the nearest Sunday between January 2 and January 8.
It is a day to celebrate the baptism of Jesus and the arrival of The Magi (Three Kings or Wise Men). In the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated from Christmas Eve to January 6. And Epiphany Day was a major celebration well into the mid 19th century when its importance diminished. The Catholic Church no longer requires January 6 to be celebrated as a solemnity on that exact day and celebrates it on the Sunday that follows it. Some Protestant churches celebrate the Epiphany season from January 6 till Ash Wednesday. Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 19 as they follow the Julian calendar.
In many Spanish speaking countries, Dia de los Reyes (Three Kings’ Day)is celebrated with special foods and gatherings. Many European countries have their own unique observances as well. Children often gets treats or presents on this day. In Italy, La Befana flies through the night on January 5 on a broomstick to deliver gifts to good kids and give coal to the bad ones.
So who were the Three Kings? There is a lot of debate on this. Some doubt they existed and some consider it a pious fantasy. Much of what is called the Three Kings today are embellishments that have been added over time. The Gospel of Matthew, the earliest source of the story, is quite simple and only refers to them as Magi from the east. Nor does it say there were only three but three gifts were given. And it is possible they were actually Nabataeans, a trading people that lived in northern Arabia to the Southern Levant whose capital is known as Petra today. Dwight Longnecker in his book Mystery of the Magi examines this evidence. Worth reading if you want to learn more about who these Magi might really have been.
Traditionally there are 12 days of Christmas beginning on Christmas Day (December 25) and ending on Epiphany Day (Little Christmas/Three Kings or Wise Men Day) on January 6. Customs vary by country but almost always there are special activities, foods, and in opening of presents as well.
The celebration of Twelfth Night came about in medieval and Tudor England when Candlemas originally ended the Christmas season. A special cake was prepared with a bean and pea hidden inside. The man who found the pea in his slice of cake became king for the night while the woman who found a pea became Queen for the night. Christmas carols and feasting would also take place. A special punch for Christmas, wassail, was often drunk on that night but also during the entire season as well.
Since Twelfth Night is about the impending arrival of the Three Kings, the statues of them would appear in the crib or the following day in countries such as Ireland. Christmas decorations would start to be taken down as well and certainly by the end of Epiphany Day. Edible portions of wreaths (fruits or nuts) would be consumed as part of a feast as well. The famous Shakespeare play Twelfth Night was written as entertainment for the holiday.
Twelfth Night is considered secular by Christian denominations and not a required day of observance. The following day, Epiphany Day, is a solemnity and observed by attendance in church.
Epiphany Day occurs on 6 January and marks the end of the Christmas season except for Orthodox Christians who follow the Julian calendar. In England it is celebrated as the Twelfth Night (remember the song the Twelve Days of Christmas?). Many cultures celebrate it with special foods and it is considered unlucky by many to leave Christmas decorations up after the Epiphany. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates it on 6 Jan but not as a day of obligation. Usually it is celebrated in a Sunday mass that falls before or just after the date (2-8 January). | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History and Culture of wine
So who first invented wine? It is probably more to the point to ask who first discovered wine? It is not difficult to make it. On the outside skin of the grape is the yeast and on the inside is the sweet juice: mix them together, leave it for a few days for the yeast to ferment the sugar and turn it into alcohol, and the result is wine. All you really need are grapes. One claimant for first place is Noah. According to Genesis chapter 9, verses 20-21: ‘And Noah began to be a husbandman, and he planted a vineyard: And he drank of the wine, and was drunken’. So for Christians and Jews, at least historically, it was Noah. For the ancient Greeks, the discovery of wine by men was the gift of Dionysos, the god of wine, the avatar who burst out of Thrace – or perhaps Phrygia – and brought the knowledge of wine to Attica. Certainly, the vine was widely cultivated in Greece and Grecian areas by the early Bronze Age – both Homer and Hesiod make it clear that wine was an essential part of life – and clay tablets dating from the late Bronze Age, about 1200 BC, connect Dionysos with wine.
Noah and his sons winemaking
Another candidate is the legendary, or mythical, Persian King Jamshíd, a great lover of grapes. One day it was discovered that a jar of them had spoiled, and it was taken to a warehouse and labelled ‘poison’. Not long after, a very depressed lady of his harem went to find the jar. According to one source, he had banished her from his kingdom; according to another, she was plagued with horrendous migraines. In any case, having lost the will to live, she found the jar and drank deeply, after which she fell into a deep and healing sleep. She went back to the King and revealed what she had found: he and his court drank it with pleasure, and she was welcomed back into the harem. This Persian legend has some plausibility. By the use of micro-chemical techniques on archaeological residues in some of the earliest wine jars known, which were found at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros Mountains of north-western Iran, it has become clear that wine was being produced in the highlands of Persia in the Neolithic Period from about 5400 BC.
The primary competitor, and probably the winner, is the Transcaucasus. This could be in what is now Georgia, but was once ancient Armenia, which once included much of eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The vine was indigenous to the Armenian valleys, having established itself there over a million years ago, with petrified grape pips found at several Neolithic sites; there have also been found vessels dating back to 7000 BC, and special pruning knives dating back to between 3000 and 2000 BC. Georgia was always my favourite as the home of an old and pervasive wine culture, because when Christianity arrived in Georgia in the fourth century, the first cross was made of vines. But today’s Armenia has recently pulled ahead, in particular if you are of a technological bent. Recently discovered, in the Areni-1 cave complex near Armenia’s southern border with Iran – and outside a tiny village still known for its wine-making activities – is the world’s oldest known winery. The site includes grape seeds, withered grape vines, remains of pressed grapes, a rudimentary wine press, a clay vat apparently used for fermentation, wine-soaked pieces of pots and a cup and drinking bowl. From the grapes to the glass: what more evidence does one need? | <urn:uuid:3e6d39a9-161e-4541-a6f5-15c3eb1b009e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.winebehindthelabel.org/team-blogs/kathleens-blog/invented-discovered-wine-history-culture-wine-noah-ancient-greeks-persians | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.985256 | 769 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.17952421307563... | 5 | The History and Culture of wine
So who first invented wine? It is probably more to the point to ask who first discovered wine? It is not difficult to make it. On the outside skin of the grape is the yeast and on the inside is the sweet juice: mix them together, leave it for a few days for the yeast to ferment the sugar and turn it into alcohol, and the result is wine. All you really need are grapes. One claimant for first place is Noah. According to Genesis chapter 9, verses 20-21: ‘And Noah began to be a husbandman, and he planted a vineyard: And he drank of the wine, and was drunken’. So for Christians and Jews, at least historically, it was Noah. For the ancient Greeks, the discovery of wine by men was the gift of Dionysos, the god of wine, the avatar who burst out of Thrace – or perhaps Phrygia – and brought the knowledge of wine to Attica. Certainly, the vine was widely cultivated in Greece and Grecian areas by the early Bronze Age – both Homer and Hesiod make it clear that wine was an essential part of life – and clay tablets dating from the late Bronze Age, about 1200 BC, connect Dionysos with wine.
Noah and his sons winemaking
Another candidate is the legendary, or mythical, Persian King Jamshíd, a great lover of grapes. One day it was discovered that a jar of them had spoiled, and it was taken to a warehouse and labelled ‘poison’. Not long after, a very depressed lady of his harem went to find the jar. According to one source, he had banished her from his kingdom; according to another, she was plagued with horrendous migraines. In any case, having lost the will to live, she found the jar and drank deeply, after which she fell into a deep and healing sleep. She went back to the King and revealed what she had found: he and his court drank it with pleasure, and she was welcomed back into the harem. This Persian legend has some plausibility. By the use of micro-chemical techniques on archaeological residues in some of the earliest wine jars known, which were found at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros Mountains of north-western Iran, it has become clear that wine was being produced in the highlands of Persia in the Neolithic Period from about 5400 BC.
The primary competitor, and probably the winner, is the Transcaucasus. This could be in what is now Georgia, but was once ancient Armenia, which once included much of eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The vine was indigenous to the Armenian valleys, having established itself there over a million years ago, with petrified grape pips found at several Neolithic sites; there have also been found vessels dating back to 7000 BC, and special pruning knives dating back to between 3000 and 2000 BC. Georgia was always my favourite as the home of an old and pervasive wine culture, because when Christianity arrived in Georgia in the fourth century, the first cross was made of vines. But today’s Armenia has recently pulled ahead, in particular if you are of a technological bent. Recently discovered, in the Areni-1 cave complex near Armenia’s southern border with Iran – and outside a tiny village still known for its wine-making activities – is the world’s oldest known winery. The site includes grape seeds, withered grape vines, remains of pressed grapes, a rudimentary wine press, a clay vat apparently used for fermentation, wine-soaked pieces of pots and a cup and drinking bowl. From the grapes to the glass: what more evidence does one need? | 778 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born on February 27, 1902, in Salinas, California, John Ernst Steinbeck is one of the world’s most popular authors. Steinbeck’s American classics depict portraits of the conditions of human life, struggles and triumphs. He is commonly known for his novels The Grapes of Wrath, East of Eden, and novella Of Mice and Men. “He was an intellectual, passionately interested in his odd little inventions, in jazz, in politics, in philosophy, history, and myth” (“John Steinbeck, American Writer”). John Steinbeck experienced several struggles and rejections in order to be successful and have his books published the way he wanted them to. Steinbeck experienced an interesting life full of stories, controversy, adventure, love, and loss. John Ernst
…show more content…
He also traveled throughout the Salinas Valley and studied marine life in Monterey Bay. He used many of his experiences for matieral in his later novels” (Shillinglaw). Steinbeck attended Stanford University in 1919, but he only signed up for literature and writing courses, which eventually led to Steinbeck leaving without earning a degree. The future famous author attempted newspaper reporting and construction work in New York City after parting Stanford, but he soon become uninterested and returned home (Shillinglaw).
Steinbeck wrote several drafts in the late 1920s for his first novel about a pirate, The Cup of Gold, which was published in 1929 but not well received. He also met his first wife, Carol Henning, while he was writing The Cup of Gold (Shillinglaw). “They wed in January 1930 and during the great depression they lived in a cottage owned by Steinbeck’s father. His family gave him free housing, free paper and from 1928 loans that enabled him to give up a warehouse job in San Francisco and focus on his writing” (“John Steinbeck Biography”). Steinbeck’s first novels were Cup of Gold, The Pastures of Heaven, and To a God Unknown. His first three novels were unsuccessful and his first critical success did not come until he published Tortilla Flat in 1935 (“Biography of John Steinbeck”). Tortilla Flat was a humorous story of Mexican-American’s lives and it won the California Commonwealth | <urn:uuid:073eaa30-b386-4f6e-bbf9-c74838490974> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/john-steinbeck/PKCLA62NAJ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.981458 | 482 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.230607524514... | 1 | Born on February 27, 1902, in Salinas, California, John Ernst Steinbeck is one of the world’s most popular authors. Steinbeck’s American classics depict portraits of the conditions of human life, struggles and triumphs. He is commonly known for his novels The Grapes of Wrath, East of Eden, and novella Of Mice and Men. “He was an intellectual, passionately interested in his odd little inventions, in jazz, in politics, in philosophy, history, and myth” (“John Steinbeck, American Writer”). John Steinbeck experienced several struggles and rejections in order to be successful and have his books published the way he wanted them to. Steinbeck experienced an interesting life full of stories, controversy, adventure, love, and loss. John Ernst
…show more content…
He also traveled throughout the Salinas Valley and studied marine life in Monterey Bay. He used many of his experiences for matieral in his later novels” (Shillinglaw). Steinbeck attended Stanford University in 1919, but he only signed up for literature and writing courses, which eventually led to Steinbeck leaving without earning a degree. The future famous author attempted newspaper reporting and construction work in New York City after parting Stanford, but he soon become uninterested and returned home (Shillinglaw).
Steinbeck wrote several drafts in the late 1920s for his first novel about a pirate, The Cup of Gold, which was published in 1929 but not well received. He also met his first wife, Carol Henning, while he was writing The Cup of Gold (Shillinglaw). “They wed in January 1930 and during the great depression they lived in a cottage owned by Steinbeck’s father. His family gave him free housing, free paper and from 1928 loans that enabled him to give up a warehouse job in San Francisco and focus on his writing” (“John Steinbeck Biography”). Steinbeck’s first novels were Cup of Gold, The Pastures of Heaven, and To a God Unknown. His first three novels were unsuccessful and his first critical success did not come until he published Tortilla Flat in 1935 (“Biography of John Steinbeck”). Tortilla Flat was a humorous story of Mexican-American’s lives and it won the California Commonwealth | 479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ignacy Domeyko Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Ignacy Domeyko was born on July 31, 1802. He was a scientist and very important and vital contributions to anthropology and ethnography. Domeyko has contributed a lot to the world of science and knowledge.
Ignacy Domeyko was born on July 31, 1802, in Nesvizh, Russian Empire. Domeyko was born to Anatoli Hipolit Domeyko who was the President of the local land court and Karolina Domeyko nee Ancut. His father died when Domeyko was only seven years old, and he was therefore raised by his uncles. Domeyko attended a school in Szcsucin.
In 1816, Domeyko joined Imperial University of Vilna where he studied mathematics and physics. In 1819, he joined Philomaths which was a secret organization that promoted Polish culture and independence. In 1822, Domeyko obtained his Master’s Degree in Philosophy. In 1823, the secret organization he was a member of was discovered thus he was put to trial, sentenced and imprisoned in a local monastery. In 1824, Domeyko was released on house arrest. In 1830, Ignacy Domeyko became a member of an armed rebellion against Russia. In 1831, Domeyko was sent into exile in France due to his participation in the rebellion.
In 1837, he graduated with a Degree in Engineering. He later got a mining job in France. The following year he immigrated to Chile where he got a job as a professor at a mining college known as ‘Coquimbo.’ Domeyko also started working as a ethnographer and meteorologist. In 1844, he travelled to Auracania. The following year he published his book ‘Auracania and Its Inhabitants’.
In 1846, Domeyko moved to Valparaiso. In 1847, he was appointed as professor at the University of Chile located in Santiago. Domeyko was later appointed by the government of Chile to reform the whole of the educational system in Chile. In 1849, he became a citizen of Chile. In 1852, his reforms to the education system in Chile were implemented. In 1867, Domeyko became a rector at the University of Chile a position that he held for sixteen years. In 1884, Ignacy Domeyko returned to his homeland and the toured Paris, Berlin, Naples and Rome. In 1888, he returned to Chile.
In 1850, Ignacy Domeyko married Enriqueta Sotomayor Guzman with whom he had four children, Anna, Hernan , Kazimierz and Henryk. Domeyko died on January 23, 1889, in Santiago, Chile. He was given a state duneral.
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Zhores Ivanovich Alferov | <urn:uuid:3447f22f-5faa-4478-b001-d5ae16f1ebf3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/ignacy-domeyko/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.986226 | 627 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Ignacy Domeyko was born on July 31, 1802. He was a scientist and very important and vital contributions to anthropology and ethnography. Domeyko has contributed a lot to the world of science and knowledge.
Ignacy Domeyko was born on July 31, 1802, in Nesvizh, Russian Empire. Domeyko was born to Anatoli Hipolit Domeyko who was the President of the local land court and Karolina Domeyko nee Ancut. His father died when Domeyko was only seven years old, and he was therefore raised by his uncles. Domeyko attended a school in Szcsucin.
In 1816, Domeyko joined Imperial University of Vilna where he studied mathematics and physics. In 1819, he joined Philomaths which was a secret organization that promoted Polish culture and independence. In 1822, Domeyko obtained his Master’s Degree in Philosophy. In 1823, the secret organization he was a member of was discovered thus he was put to trial, sentenced and imprisoned in a local monastery. In 1824, Domeyko was released on house arrest. In 1830, Ignacy Domeyko became a member of an armed rebellion against Russia. In 1831, Domeyko was sent into exile in France due to his participation in the rebellion.
In 1837, he graduated with a Degree in Engineering. He later got a mining job in France. The following year he immigrated to Chile where he got a job as a professor at a mining college known as ‘Coquimbo.’ Domeyko also started working as a ethnographer and meteorologist. In 1844, he travelled to Auracania. The following year he published his book ‘Auracania and Its Inhabitants’.
In 1846, Domeyko moved to Valparaiso. In 1847, he was appointed as professor at the University of Chile located in Santiago. Domeyko was later appointed by the government of Chile to reform the whole of the educational system in Chile. In 1849, he became a citizen of Chile. In 1852, his reforms to the education system in Chile were implemented. In 1867, Domeyko became a rector at the University of Chile a position that he held for sixteen years. In 1884, Ignacy Domeyko returned to his homeland and the toured Paris, Berlin, Naples and Rome. In 1888, he returned to Chile.
In 1850, Ignacy Domeyko married Enriqueta Sotomayor Guzman with whom he had four children, Anna, Hernan , Kazimierz and Henryk. Domeyko died on January 23, 1889, in Santiago, Chile. He was given a state duneral.
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Zhores Ivanovich Alferov | 676 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A variety of animals played a significant role in the lives of ancient Egyptians. In fact, some of the domesticated animals that we know today have their origins in ancient Egypt. The most well-known of these is the pet cat. Lions and cheetahs were exotic pets and symbols of royalty. Animals that were much feared like the crocodiles and hippos were revered and worshiped to save oneself from the wrath of these animals. The venomous cobra was believed to protect the King from evil while the ibis was thought to patronise the wise scribes living in Egypt. In the article below, we take a look at the most sacred animals of ancient Egyptian times.
Cats are perhaps the most sacred of all Ancient Egyptian animals. Ancient Egyptians revered felines, and it was common for most households to have a pet cat. It was believed that cats were descendants of Bast, the goddess of moonlight and fertility. Cats were often depicted in paintings, sitting on the laps of their owners or below the chair where their owner was sitting. Cats also helped keep stored grains safe from rodents and snakes. Notably, the punishment for killing a cat in ancient Egypt was very severe.
The cobra was highly feared and revered by the ancient Egyptians. It was used as a symbol of royalty and representations of this deadly snake would adorn the brows of various kings. The cobra was believed to be the protector of the king and was referred to as the Uraeus.
The Egyptians associated the ibis bird to Thoth, the Egyptian God of wisdom and writing. Thoth has a human body and an ibis’s head. He was believed to patronise the wise scribes who handled the administration of Egypt.
Cattle were very important in the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians. Milk, meat, horns, and hide were obtained from cattle and they were a prized possession of the people in the region. Leather obtained from cattle was used to make shoes, shields, chair seats, etc. Their dung served as a source of biofuel.
Sheep served a large number of purposes in ancient Egypt. They were used to extract meat, milk, wool, and skin. Rams also played an important role in the religion of ancient Egypt. Rams were associated with the two Egyptian Gods, Amun and Khnum and also regarded as symbols of fertility. Bodies of rams were often mummified and decorated and ram-headed sphinxes flanked the entrance to Amun’s temple at Thebes.
Dogs were man’s best friend even in ancient Egypt. Many families kept dogs as pets and gave them loving names. Dogs were also used for hunting and as guard dogs. The mummified remains of dogs have also been discovered by Egyptologists. These dogs were probably pets of the royal household.
Egyptians worshipped the jackal as the jackal God Anubis, the Egyptian God associated with afterlife and mummification. In ancient Egypt, jackals would wander in the deserts and approach towns and villages for opportunistic feeding. These creatures were also sighted in the cemeteries from where they came to be associated with the dead.
6. Scarab Beetle
Among the ancient Egyptian animals, the scarab beetle occupies a special position. The scarab beetle exhibits a unique habit of collecting animal dung, rolling it into a ball, and laying its eggs on the ball so that when the larvae hatch, they can immediately access food. The Egyptians associated this nature of the beetle with the sun in the sky. As per the ancient Egyptians, the scarab beetle or Khepri would renew the sun each day and then roll it above the horizon, carrying it through the other world to renew it again the next day.
5. The Big Cats
The big cats like the lion and the cheetah were also animals in ancient Egypt that served as symbols of power and royalty. They were often kept as pets in royal households. The skin of these beasts were also highly prized and they were hunted for the same.
4. Beasts Of Burden
Ancient Egyptians used donkeys as the primary beasts of burden. Donkeys were also used for plowing fields and trampling over seeds to bury them in the soil. Camels and horses were used as beasts of burden from the Late Period. Elephants were used for a brief period of time but lack of sufficient grazing land discouraged this practice.
Horses were introduced into Egypt relatively late at about 1500 BC. In the beginning, horses were rare and due to their novelty were regarded as status symbols. Horses were utilised for pulling chariots and in war. They were also used for ceremonies and for hunting purposes. The wealthy and influential kept horses in grand stables and fed high quality fodder and were also given individual names.
The hippopotamus was a much feared as well as a revered beast in ancient Egypt and thus is mentioned in this list of animals of ancient Egypt. They frequently damaged boats on the Nile River and also attacked people near the banks of the river. Thus, to save themselves from the wrath of the hippopotamus, the Egyptians worshipped the animal in the form of an Egyptian Goddess, Tauret. The name meaning “she who is great” is represented in the form of a female pregnant hippopotamus with female human breasts and the back of a Nile crocodile. Tauret is also regarded as the Goddess of fertility.
Crocodiles were highly revered by the ancient Egyptians. The Nile crocodiles were giant and aggressive animals and would claim the lives of many people in ancient Egypt. Hence, the crocodile was given a divine status by these people in the hope that worshipping the crocodile God would keep them safe and secure from crocodile attacks. The Egyptian deity associated with the Nile crocodile was Sobek, represented either in the form of a crocodile or as a human with a crocodile head.
What Animals Were Pets in Ancient Egypt?
Some of the most sacred animals in Ancient Egyptian culture included cats, cobras, cattle, and rams.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
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0.15720537304878235,... | 2 | A variety of animals played a significant role in the lives of ancient Egyptians. In fact, some of the domesticated animals that we know today have their origins in ancient Egypt. The most well-known of these is the pet cat. Lions and cheetahs were exotic pets and symbols of royalty. Animals that were much feared like the crocodiles and hippos were revered and worshiped to save oneself from the wrath of these animals. The venomous cobra was believed to protect the King from evil while the ibis was thought to patronise the wise scribes living in Egypt. In the article below, we take a look at the most sacred animals of ancient Egyptian times.
Cats are perhaps the most sacred of all Ancient Egyptian animals. Ancient Egyptians revered felines, and it was common for most households to have a pet cat. It was believed that cats were descendants of Bast, the goddess of moonlight and fertility. Cats were often depicted in paintings, sitting on the laps of their owners or below the chair where their owner was sitting. Cats also helped keep stored grains safe from rodents and snakes. Notably, the punishment for killing a cat in ancient Egypt was very severe.
The cobra was highly feared and revered by the ancient Egyptians. It was used as a symbol of royalty and representations of this deadly snake would adorn the brows of various kings. The cobra was believed to be the protector of the king and was referred to as the Uraeus.
The Egyptians associated the ibis bird to Thoth, the Egyptian God of wisdom and writing. Thoth has a human body and an ibis’s head. He was believed to patronise the wise scribes who handled the administration of Egypt.
Cattle were very important in the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians. Milk, meat, horns, and hide were obtained from cattle and they were a prized possession of the people in the region. Leather obtained from cattle was used to make shoes, shields, chair seats, etc. Their dung served as a source of biofuel.
Sheep served a large number of purposes in ancient Egypt. They were used to extract meat, milk, wool, and skin. Rams also played an important role in the religion of ancient Egypt. Rams were associated with the two Egyptian Gods, Amun and Khnum and also regarded as symbols of fertility. Bodies of rams were often mummified and decorated and ram-headed sphinxes flanked the entrance to Amun’s temple at Thebes.
Dogs were man’s best friend even in ancient Egypt. Many families kept dogs as pets and gave them loving names. Dogs were also used for hunting and as guard dogs. The mummified remains of dogs have also been discovered by Egyptologists. These dogs were probably pets of the royal household.
Egyptians worshipped the jackal as the jackal God Anubis, the Egyptian God associated with afterlife and mummification. In ancient Egypt, jackals would wander in the deserts and approach towns and villages for opportunistic feeding. These creatures were also sighted in the cemeteries from where they came to be associated with the dead.
6. Scarab Beetle
Among the ancient Egyptian animals, the scarab beetle occupies a special position. The scarab beetle exhibits a unique habit of collecting animal dung, rolling it into a ball, and laying its eggs on the ball so that when the larvae hatch, they can immediately access food. The Egyptians associated this nature of the beetle with the sun in the sky. As per the ancient Egyptians, the scarab beetle or Khepri would renew the sun each day and then roll it above the horizon, carrying it through the other world to renew it again the next day.
5. The Big Cats
The big cats like the lion and the cheetah were also animals in ancient Egypt that served as symbols of power and royalty. They were often kept as pets in royal households. The skin of these beasts were also highly prized and they were hunted for the same.
4. Beasts Of Burden
Ancient Egyptians used donkeys as the primary beasts of burden. Donkeys were also used for plowing fields and trampling over seeds to bury them in the soil. Camels and horses were used as beasts of burden from the Late Period. Elephants were used for a brief period of time but lack of sufficient grazing land discouraged this practice.
Horses were introduced into Egypt relatively late at about 1500 BC. In the beginning, horses were rare and due to their novelty were regarded as status symbols. Horses were utilised for pulling chariots and in war. They were also used for ceremonies and for hunting purposes. The wealthy and influential kept horses in grand stables and fed high quality fodder and were also given individual names.
The hippopotamus was a much feared as well as a revered beast in ancient Egypt and thus is mentioned in this list of animals of ancient Egypt. They frequently damaged boats on the Nile River and also attacked people near the banks of the river. Thus, to save themselves from the wrath of the hippopotamus, the Egyptians worshipped the animal in the form of an Egyptian Goddess, Tauret. The name meaning “she who is great” is represented in the form of a female pregnant hippopotamus with female human breasts and the back of a Nile crocodile. Tauret is also regarded as the Goddess of fertility.
Crocodiles were highly revered by the ancient Egyptians. The Nile crocodiles were giant and aggressive animals and would claim the lives of many people in ancient Egypt. Hence, the crocodile was given a divine status by these people in the hope that worshipping the crocodile God would keep them safe and secure from crocodile attacks. The Egyptian deity associated with the Nile crocodile was Sobek, represented either in the form of a crocodile or as a human with a crocodile head.
What Animals Were Pets in Ancient Egypt?
Some of the most sacred animals in Ancient Egyptian culture included cats, cobras, cattle, and rams.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Which is the most suitable option here? We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. The decision was based on the idea that segregated schools are likely to ___________.
Change Image Delete
A. Cause members of a minority to feel socially inferior. B. Experience the unneccessary administrative problems. C. Place excessive burdens on school transportation. D. Require unfair increases in school taxes.
The start of integration began in 1896 when the case of Plessy v. Ferguson was heard by the Supreme Court. They stated that segregation was appropriate because it was considered to be “separate but equal.” Over time, this case was overturned in 1954. For Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, it reached the Supreme Court in which it stated that it was unconstitutional for public schools to be segregated based on the color of skin.
Integration of schools was required for all public schools. There were several reasons for this to take place. One is that more money was spent on certain schools than others. Another reason is because people attending one school would feel inferior compared to others who were attending another school. | <urn:uuid:73b62769-87be-43cb-9b40-989de293eb4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/556133/thefollowing-quotation-supreme-decision-answer-following-que?utm_source=quiz_topic_page&utm_medium=discuss_button_click&utm_campaign=quiz_topic_page_discuss_button_click | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.989122 | 247 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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Change Image Delete
A. Cause members of a minority to feel socially inferior. B. Experience the unneccessary administrative problems. C. Place excessive burdens on school transportation. D. Require unfair increases in school taxes.
The start of integration began in 1896 when the case of Plessy v. Ferguson was heard by the Supreme Court. They stated that segregation was appropriate because it was considered to be “separate but equal.” Over time, this case was overturned in 1954. For Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, it reached the Supreme Court in which it stated that it was unconstitutional for public schools to be segregated based on the color of skin.
Integration of schools was required for all public schools. There were several reasons for this to take place. One is that more money was spent on certain schools than others. Another reason is because people attending one school would feel inferior compared to others who were attending another school. | 247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alluvial gold was discovered in Bendigo Creek in 1851. Victoria Hill was used as a hideout for bushrangers until reef gold mining took leases along the hill in 1854. Small open cut & shallow shaft leases were amalgamated into large, deep operations. The last was overcome by water in 1910 while attempting to sink beyond 5,000’ (1,500 m). Approximately 500,000 oz of gold was won from Victoria Hill, valued at over $1,000,000,000 today.
The rocks at Victoria Hill are the same as those that make up the majority of central Victoria. These rocks were deposited at the bottom of the ocean (turbidites) approximately 475 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. Rocks of this age around the world from the Early Ordovician were known as Bendigonian until recently. | <urn:uuid:8dd66540-7d2f-4499-b29e-7b115ec2312a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aigjournal.aig.org.au/victoria-hill-mining-reserve-geological-heritage-guide/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.985102 | 176 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0... | 13 | Alluvial gold was discovered in Bendigo Creek in 1851. Victoria Hill was used as a hideout for bushrangers until reef gold mining took leases along the hill in 1854. Small open cut & shallow shaft leases were amalgamated into large, deep operations. The last was overcome by water in 1910 while attempting to sink beyond 5,000’ (1,500 m). Approximately 500,000 oz of gold was won from Victoria Hill, valued at over $1,000,000,000 today.
The rocks at Victoria Hill are the same as those that make up the majority of central Victoria. These rocks were deposited at the bottom of the ocean (turbidites) approximately 475 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. Rocks of this age around the world from the Early Ordovician were known as Bendigonian until recently. | 203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
So this weeks workshop was a little different to sitting in the MacLab or a lecture theatre, but its purpose was to build on the ‘effective communicator’ aspect but in other environments. Your role as a primary school teacher isn’t only about engaging with children but also having a good rapport with adults too.
Den Building Activity
Using the natural resources around us and minimal resources we had the task of creating a den in 45 minutes.
This is our creation River Shack…
Group and Leadership
- Was there a group leader?
Although we did not appoint a group leader i felt that a couple of our team members took that role upon themselves.
- If informal how did you know? What are the actions that marked them as a leader?
They directed everyone different tasks to get on with, and seemed to take control of how we were building this den, however they did also listen to everyone’s ideas.
- How did this impact on the rest of the group e.g. was there some underlying resentment/ did anyone feel excluded?
I feel like they were more involved than others, however nobody was excluded and everyone’s ideas were listened to.
- What was the most challenging thing for you about working in this group?
It was hard to keep 100% focus on the task as i was trying to get to know the people I was working with.
- How clearly did you think the group explained to you?
I think that all was explained well and clearly and we all knew what had to be done to create our den.
- What made this clear?
At the start we collected all of our resources we wanted to use and stood looking at everything deciding what was the best idea as we had to consider the size we had to make it and the best structure to hold everyone inside.
- What stage of the 5P’s may have been missed out?
I feel that all stages of the 5p’s were met, however I felt the presentation part could have been communicated better.
- What was the impact of the environment on your communication?
I felt that everyone in our group shared and listened to everyone’s ideas, so nobody was excluded, we also all had to help physically build the den. Apart from the odd screams when a wasp or spider appeared by our den we communicated well as a team.
- What changes did you make when explaining to others that you might not have considered in a typical classroom?
As everyone was not all together due to some members of our team dealing with negotiating side of the task it was harder to get everyone together to share ideas and things had to be repeated more than once.
- How challenging was it so speak above the sounds in the environment? How can we make this communication easier on both speaker and listener?
As everyone was off doing their own thing it was difficult to gather everyone together and get people to listen as things had to be repeated more than once on some occasions. It was not very difficult as the area we decided to build the den was quite excluded, far away from the other dens.
- When listening, did the environment distract you? How can we overcome this?
I think yes as there was dog walkers close by and wasps flying around so made it hard to not get distracted and keep focused. I think that a way to overcome this is to keep eye contact with the speaker as you are solely focused on them and not your surroundings.
Our negotiation was to swap one of our team members for another groups, and we were unfortunately unsuccessful. I believe this was due to everyone being so focused on building the dens and getting to know their own team members and the fact that no-one from our team really wanted to leave. | <urn:uuid:09d179a4-90dd-4c2a-9250-35f66d0a27cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/katiemorrisepdp/2018/09/30/22/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.991879 | 773 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.413174539804... | 1 | So this weeks workshop was a little different to sitting in the MacLab or a lecture theatre, but its purpose was to build on the ‘effective communicator’ aspect but in other environments. Your role as a primary school teacher isn’t only about engaging with children but also having a good rapport with adults too.
Den Building Activity
Using the natural resources around us and minimal resources we had the task of creating a den in 45 minutes.
This is our creation River Shack…
Group and Leadership
- Was there a group leader?
Although we did not appoint a group leader i felt that a couple of our team members took that role upon themselves.
- If informal how did you know? What are the actions that marked them as a leader?
They directed everyone different tasks to get on with, and seemed to take control of how we were building this den, however they did also listen to everyone’s ideas.
- How did this impact on the rest of the group e.g. was there some underlying resentment/ did anyone feel excluded?
I feel like they were more involved than others, however nobody was excluded and everyone’s ideas were listened to.
- What was the most challenging thing for you about working in this group?
It was hard to keep 100% focus on the task as i was trying to get to know the people I was working with.
- How clearly did you think the group explained to you?
I think that all was explained well and clearly and we all knew what had to be done to create our den.
- What made this clear?
At the start we collected all of our resources we wanted to use and stood looking at everything deciding what was the best idea as we had to consider the size we had to make it and the best structure to hold everyone inside.
- What stage of the 5P’s may have been missed out?
I feel that all stages of the 5p’s were met, however I felt the presentation part could have been communicated better.
- What was the impact of the environment on your communication?
I felt that everyone in our group shared and listened to everyone’s ideas, so nobody was excluded, we also all had to help physically build the den. Apart from the odd screams when a wasp or spider appeared by our den we communicated well as a team.
- What changes did you make when explaining to others that you might not have considered in a typical classroom?
As everyone was not all together due to some members of our team dealing with negotiating side of the task it was harder to get everyone together to share ideas and things had to be repeated more than once.
- How challenging was it so speak above the sounds in the environment? How can we make this communication easier on both speaker and listener?
As everyone was off doing their own thing it was difficult to gather everyone together and get people to listen as things had to be repeated more than once on some occasions. It was not very difficult as the area we decided to build the den was quite excluded, far away from the other dens.
- When listening, did the environment distract you? How can we overcome this?
I think yes as there was dog walkers close by and wasps flying around so made it hard to not get distracted and keep focused. I think that a way to overcome this is to keep eye contact with the speaker as you are solely focused on them and not your surroundings.
Our negotiation was to swap one of our team members for another groups, and we were unfortunately unsuccessful. I believe this was due to everyone being so focused on building the dens and getting to know their own team members and the fact that no-one from our team really wanted to leave. | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Scioto River flooded Circleville during the 1959 flood.
Rains of 3 to 6 inches fell on snow covered frozen ground, producing the most destructive flooding in Ohio since March 1913. All streams reached flood stage from January 21 to 24, killing 16 people, forcing 49,000 from their homes, and causing extensive damage to homes, businesses, roads, and bridges. Classic winter flood conditions existed across Ohio during January 1959. Soil frozen a foot deep was overlain by a snow cover. A band of heavy rain fell across central Ohio on the headwaters of many of the state's largest rivers, causing the snow to melt and, with frozen ground, nearly all of the water poured into streams.
On many streams, the flood levels of January 1959 were the highest since March 1913 and the second or third highest on record. The streets of Mansfield were under four feet of water and industries were closed by floodwaters in Youngstown and Canton. Columbus was the most severely affected of Ohio's major cities, with many streets flooded, 100 homes badly damaged, and 3200 evacuees cared for at Red Cross shelters. One-third of Chillicothe was flooded when the Scioto River broke through a levee of sandbags. High water and ice jams on the Sandusky River flooded Upper Sandusky, Tiffin, and Fremont. Deaths and damage were much less than in the March 1913 flood because the January 1959 flood was less intense, flood-control reservoirs were built after 1913, and there was better communication of warnings, organized rescue work, and more adequate design of bridges and other structures. | <urn:uuid:4530dbfe-9bbd-43a1-b0e5-f870fcaa8c09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ohiohistorycentral.org/index.php?title=1959_Ohio_Statewide_Flood&oldid=21023 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.98361 | 326 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2676969468593... | 3 | The Scioto River flooded Circleville during the 1959 flood.
Rains of 3 to 6 inches fell on snow covered frozen ground, producing the most destructive flooding in Ohio since March 1913. All streams reached flood stage from January 21 to 24, killing 16 people, forcing 49,000 from their homes, and causing extensive damage to homes, businesses, roads, and bridges. Classic winter flood conditions existed across Ohio during January 1959. Soil frozen a foot deep was overlain by a snow cover. A band of heavy rain fell across central Ohio on the headwaters of many of the state's largest rivers, causing the snow to melt and, with frozen ground, nearly all of the water poured into streams.
On many streams, the flood levels of January 1959 were the highest since March 1913 and the second or third highest on record. The streets of Mansfield were under four feet of water and industries were closed by floodwaters in Youngstown and Canton. Columbus was the most severely affected of Ohio's major cities, with many streets flooded, 100 homes badly damaged, and 3200 evacuees cared for at Red Cross shelters. One-third of Chillicothe was flooded when the Scioto River broke through a levee of sandbags. High water and ice jams on the Sandusky River flooded Upper Sandusky, Tiffin, and Fremont. Deaths and damage were much less than in the March 1913 flood because the January 1959 flood was less intense, flood-control reservoirs were built after 1913, and there was better communication of warnings, organized rescue work, and more adequate design of bridges and other structures. | 374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Celtic invasion of Europe began in Italy, and then spread to Greece and Spain. Discover how the Celts became so synonymous with terror and intimidation, that they were hired as mercenaries around the Mediterranean, and explore aspects of Celtic culture that remain mysteries to this day.
The “Barbarians” Invade Greece
Although the first people to write about the Celts were Greeks, these writers were not based in Greece, but rather in the Greek colonies of the western Mediterranean, such as Massalia. It was only many years after the dramatic events in Rome in 390 B.C. that the first Celts encroached on the territory of Greece itself.
The Greeks may not have invented the concept of the barbarian—many cultures have an aversion towards foreigners—but the Greeks did invent the word “barbarian.”
Our word “barbarian” comes from Greek encounters with other peoples. The Greeks thought that non-Greek speech sounded like “bar, bar, bar.”
In response, they named a person who spoke a language other than Greek a “barbaros.” The Romans then adopted the word—though to them it was someone who spoke anything other than Greek or Latin.
This is a transcript from the video series The Celtic World. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus.
What happened between the Celts and the Greeks? In the early 3rd century B.C., large groups of barbarians swept into Greece from the north.
These groups took advantage of the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, who had died in 323 B.C. In 281 B.C., a group of people known to the Greeks as the Galatae, and later as the Galatians, defeated the Macedonian king Ptolemy.
The Galatae then split into two main groups. One group, under a leader named Brennus, headed south in 279 B.C. towards the temple at Delphi, a tempting target because it functioned as a large bank.
Allegedly, the Greek gods, especially Pan, intervened to foil the attack by inducing panic among the invaders, who then retreated in great disorder. In shame, Brennus committed suicide, and according to one report, he took his own life by drinking undiluted wine.
The Greeks had had a lucky escape, and thus was the end of the threat by one of the two groups of Celts.
Learn more about Julius Caesar’s wars against Celtic-controlled Gaul
The Galatians as Fierce Mercenaries
The other group of Galatians headed into central Turkey, where they founded their own state. What occurred next is a fascinating side note to the main story of the Celts.
The Galatians wound up in Turkey by invitation. At that time, present-day Turkey was divided up into many smaller states that were often at war with one another.
The ruler of one of these states, the kingdom of Bithynia, invited the Galatians to serve as mercenaries. Incidentally, this phenomenon was by no means an isolated one.
Reports exist of bands of Celtic mercenaries in other parts of the classical world, including in Egypt—where they were referred to as “wild Celts”—and in Macedonia.
The Galatians in Bithynia didn’t manage to defeat the king’s enemies, but they were successful in carving out a stronghold for themselves in the interior of Turkey, where they made their living as bandits.
They had a devilish reputation and were known for sacrificing their victims. People would kill themselves rather than face capture by the Galatians.
These were good people to have inside the tent rather than outside. Various rulers hired them as mercenaries over the years, including the people who were resisting Rome’s eventual conquest of Turkey.
Defeating the Galatians
Given the reputation of the Galatians as fierce warriors, it’s no wonder that when armies did manage to defeat the Galatians, it was considered especially notable.
Evidence for this exists in a remarkable statue that is usually called The Dying Gaul, though it should be called The Dying Galatian. The statue is a Roman copy of a Hellenistic original from the 3rd century B.C.
The work was probably commissioned by the king of Pergamon to commemorate his victory over the Galatians. The figure of the dying Galatian has a torque around his neck, a characteristic kind of necklace made of twisted wire.
The Galatian warrior is also displayed completely naked, which matches the description that Julius Caesar inherited from the ancient writer Poseidonius. Not everyone was impressed by the Celtic preference for going into battle unclothed.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who lived at the time of Caesar, was dismissive of the Galatians: “Our enemies fight naked. What injury could their long hair, their fierce looks, their clashing arms do us? These are mere symbols of barbarian boastfulness.”
The Galatians did win most of the time, however, and they carried on as a mercenary state up until the Romans conquered the region. In fact, the Galatians backed the Romans against their main opponent: the kingdom of Pontus.
As a reward for their support, the Romans allowed the Galatians to maintain their autonomy as a sort of micro-kingdom within Roman-ruled Anatolia.
One group of Galatians eventually embraced a different path and converted to Christianity. These are the Galatians to whom the Apostle Paul directed one of his famous epistles.
The Galatians were eventually absorbed into the larger Greco-Roman world, but the Galatian language, which was related to Gaulish, survived for hundreds of years thereafter. For many centuries, there was a Celtic language being spoken in central Turkey.
The Celts in Spain: A Complicated Subject
The story of Celtic identity in Spain is a complicated matter. The Romans referred to some of the inhabitants of Iberia as “Celts,” to others as “Iberians,” and to still others as “Celtiberians,” which implies some mixture of Celtic and Iberian.
These designations can be roughly plotted on a map, but the results are puzzling, particularly if you want to believe in the theory that the Celts began in Central Europe before spreading outwards in all directions.
The problem is that the map of Iberia is a patchwork, with Celts, Iberians, and Celtiberians jumbled together. What is certain is there was a large group of Iberians located in the east of the peninsula, and their language was not Celtic.
Historians are not completely sure which of these peoples were Celts. Some scholars argue that the Tartessian language, seen in the inscriptions which came to light in the 1990s in the southwest of Iberia, represents an even earlier form of the Celtic language than the Lepontic language found in northern Italy.
Researchers know that one of the languages spoken in northwestern Spain, called Gallaecian, was Celtic. The Gallaecian language is one of the glaring problems with the theory that Celtic language and culture started in Central Europe and spread outwards.
If the theory were correct, how did the language bypass the Iberians in eastern Spain to get to the northwestern part of the peninsula? Scholars are still fighting this one out.
Another curious fact is that the art style associated with the Celts of Central Europe barely made it to Iberia. It’s strange to have people speaking a Celtic language but not producing “Celtic” art.
The Iberian evidence is one of the best indications that the pieces of the old Celtic hypothesis do not fit together as neatly as we think they do.
One initially puzzling habit in which the Celtiberians indulged was rinsing their teeth with urine. Surprisingly, urea is so good at cleaning teeth that some special dental health chewing gums today include it as an ingredient.
The various Celtic groups in Spain, among others, gave the Romans a terrible time. It took well into the 1st century B.C. before they were entirely subdued.
Generally, what did the classical world make of the Celts? They certainly feared them, but they did not necessarily regard the Celts as a monolithic threat.
Other classical societies instead understood the Celts for what they were: a group of tribes living in various widely separated locations, who rarely if ever cooperated effectively with one another.
Contemporaries of the Celts tended to write about them mostly as military opponents or as barbarian curiosities.
Later, more information on the Celts emerged, broadening our view. Some aspects of the picture painted by the classical authors are confirmed, but the art and artifacts of the Celts demonstrate that they were more sophisticated than classical commentators were prepared to admit.
Common Questions About Celtic Invasions
While it is generally thought that the Celts arrived in Ireland around 500 B.C.E., it’s not clear that Ireland was invaded. It seems rather that the Celts migrated over the years and took over with a superior culture. | <urn:uuid:7d5ae53e-8faf-49b4-a732-a151d016baf7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/celtic-invasion-subduing-greece-and-spain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.980092 | 1,937 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.147280037403106... | 2 | The Celtic invasion of Europe began in Italy, and then spread to Greece and Spain. Discover how the Celts became so synonymous with terror and intimidation, that they were hired as mercenaries around the Mediterranean, and explore aspects of Celtic culture that remain mysteries to this day.
The “Barbarians” Invade Greece
Although the first people to write about the Celts were Greeks, these writers were not based in Greece, but rather in the Greek colonies of the western Mediterranean, such as Massalia. It was only many years after the dramatic events in Rome in 390 B.C. that the first Celts encroached on the territory of Greece itself.
The Greeks may not have invented the concept of the barbarian—many cultures have an aversion towards foreigners—but the Greeks did invent the word “barbarian.”
Our word “barbarian” comes from Greek encounters with other peoples. The Greeks thought that non-Greek speech sounded like “bar, bar, bar.”
In response, they named a person who spoke a language other than Greek a “barbaros.” The Romans then adopted the word—though to them it was someone who spoke anything other than Greek or Latin.
This is a transcript from the video series The Celtic World. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus.
What happened between the Celts and the Greeks? In the early 3rd century B.C., large groups of barbarians swept into Greece from the north.
These groups took advantage of the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, who had died in 323 B.C. In 281 B.C., a group of people known to the Greeks as the Galatae, and later as the Galatians, defeated the Macedonian king Ptolemy.
The Galatae then split into two main groups. One group, under a leader named Brennus, headed south in 279 B.C. towards the temple at Delphi, a tempting target because it functioned as a large bank.
Allegedly, the Greek gods, especially Pan, intervened to foil the attack by inducing panic among the invaders, who then retreated in great disorder. In shame, Brennus committed suicide, and according to one report, he took his own life by drinking undiluted wine.
The Greeks had had a lucky escape, and thus was the end of the threat by one of the two groups of Celts.
Learn more about Julius Caesar’s wars against Celtic-controlled Gaul
The Galatians as Fierce Mercenaries
The other group of Galatians headed into central Turkey, where they founded their own state. What occurred next is a fascinating side note to the main story of the Celts.
The Galatians wound up in Turkey by invitation. At that time, present-day Turkey was divided up into many smaller states that were often at war with one another.
The ruler of one of these states, the kingdom of Bithynia, invited the Galatians to serve as mercenaries. Incidentally, this phenomenon was by no means an isolated one.
Reports exist of bands of Celtic mercenaries in other parts of the classical world, including in Egypt—where they were referred to as “wild Celts”—and in Macedonia.
The Galatians in Bithynia didn’t manage to defeat the king’s enemies, but they were successful in carving out a stronghold for themselves in the interior of Turkey, where they made their living as bandits.
They had a devilish reputation and were known for sacrificing their victims. People would kill themselves rather than face capture by the Galatians.
These were good people to have inside the tent rather than outside. Various rulers hired them as mercenaries over the years, including the people who were resisting Rome’s eventual conquest of Turkey.
Defeating the Galatians
Given the reputation of the Galatians as fierce warriors, it’s no wonder that when armies did manage to defeat the Galatians, it was considered especially notable.
Evidence for this exists in a remarkable statue that is usually called The Dying Gaul, though it should be called The Dying Galatian. The statue is a Roman copy of a Hellenistic original from the 3rd century B.C.
The work was probably commissioned by the king of Pergamon to commemorate his victory over the Galatians. The figure of the dying Galatian has a torque around his neck, a characteristic kind of necklace made of twisted wire.
The Galatian warrior is also displayed completely naked, which matches the description that Julius Caesar inherited from the ancient writer Poseidonius. Not everyone was impressed by the Celtic preference for going into battle unclothed.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who lived at the time of Caesar, was dismissive of the Galatians: “Our enemies fight naked. What injury could their long hair, their fierce looks, their clashing arms do us? These are mere symbols of barbarian boastfulness.”
The Galatians did win most of the time, however, and they carried on as a mercenary state up until the Romans conquered the region. In fact, the Galatians backed the Romans against their main opponent: the kingdom of Pontus.
As a reward for their support, the Romans allowed the Galatians to maintain their autonomy as a sort of micro-kingdom within Roman-ruled Anatolia.
One group of Galatians eventually embraced a different path and converted to Christianity. These are the Galatians to whom the Apostle Paul directed one of his famous epistles.
The Galatians were eventually absorbed into the larger Greco-Roman world, but the Galatian language, which was related to Gaulish, survived for hundreds of years thereafter. For many centuries, there was a Celtic language being spoken in central Turkey.
The Celts in Spain: A Complicated Subject
The story of Celtic identity in Spain is a complicated matter. The Romans referred to some of the inhabitants of Iberia as “Celts,” to others as “Iberians,” and to still others as “Celtiberians,” which implies some mixture of Celtic and Iberian.
These designations can be roughly plotted on a map, but the results are puzzling, particularly if you want to believe in the theory that the Celts began in Central Europe before spreading outwards in all directions.
The problem is that the map of Iberia is a patchwork, with Celts, Iberians, and Celtiberians jumbled together. What is certain is there was a large group of Iberians located in the east of the peninsula, and their language was not Celtic.
Historians are not completely sure which of these peoples were Celts. Some scholars argue that the Tartessian language, seen in the inscriptions which came to light in the 1990s in the southwest of Iberia, represents an even earlier form of the Celtic language than the Lepontic language found in northern Italy.
Researchers know that one of the languages spoken in northwestern Spain, called Gallaecian, was Celtic. The Gallaecian language is one of the glaring problems with the theory that Celtic language and culture started in Central Europe and spread outwards.
If the theory were correct, how did the language bypass the Iberians in eastern Spain to get to the northwestern part of the peninsula? Scholars are still fighting this one out.
Another curious fact is that the art style associated with the Celts of Central Europe barely made it to Iberia. It’s strange to have people speaking a Celtic language but not producing “Celtic” art.
The Iberian evidence is one of the best indications that the pieces of the old Celtic hypothesis do not fit together as neatly as we think they do.
One initially puzzling habit in which the Celtiberians indulged was rinsing their teeth with urine. Surprisingly, urea is so good at cleaning teeth that some special dental health chewing gums today include it as an ingredient.
The various Celtic groups in Spain, among others, gave the Romans a terrible time. It took well into the 1st century B.C. before they were entirely subdued.
Generally, what did the classical world make of the Celts? They certainly feared them, but they did not necessarily regard the Celts as a monolithic threat.
Other classical societies instead understood the Celts for what they were: a group of tribes living in various widely separated locations, who rarely if ever cooperated effectively with one another.
Contemporaries of the Celts tended to write about them mostly as military opponents or as barbarian curiosities.
Later, more information on the Celts emerged, broadening our view. Some aspects of the picture painted by the classical authors are confirmed, but the art and artifacts of the Celts demonstrate that they were more sophisticated than classical commentators were prepared to admit.
Common Questions About Celtic Invasions
While it is generally thought that the Celts arrived in Ireland around 500 B.C.E., it’s not clear that Ireland was invaded. It seems rather that the Celts migrated over the years and took over with a superior culture. | 1,869 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Helen Fairchild, Reflection in Nursing
Helen Fairchild had a very short career as a nurse, but she became one of the most famous nurses in history because of her many letters describing combat nursing during World War I. Her down-to-earth letters made wartime nursing come alive in a way that has never been equaled.
Early Life and Education of Helen Fairchild
Helen was born in Milton, Pennsylvania on November 21, 1885. In 1913, she graduated from Pennsylvania Hospital with a degree in nursing. She had a history of indigestion and abdominal pain for many years but persevered with her work. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Helen, along with 63 other Pennsylvania nurses, volunteered for the American Expeditionary Force that cared for wounded soldiers overseas.
After a very rough eight-day passage by ship, the nurses arrived in Liverpool, England, in May 1917. In letters to her mother, Helen described the journey and the heavy, drab uniforms that they were required to wear at all times while in England.
After a short time in England, the nurses were sent to the British Base Hospital No. 10 in France. It was later known as Pennsylvania Base Hospital No. 10 because it was staffed by the 64 Pennsylvania nurses. As soon as they arrived at the 2,000-bed hospital, they were deluged with a very large number of extremely ill soldiers who had been poisoned by mustard gas. Each day brought more newly wounded and poisoned soldiers.
The nurses lived in unheated huts with few comforts. They worked 14-hour days and were given one-half day off a week. Fairchild praised the efforts of the Red Cross and the YMCA. She wrote that they would not be able to function without their supplies.
In July, Helen was transferred from the base hospital to a casualty clearing area, closer to the front lines. When she went there, she only expected to stay a few days but ended up staying much longer. The living and nursing conditions were almost unbearable. She was on the operating team and waded through mud to get to the operating room. There, she and the other nurses stood in mud higher than their shoes. It was reported that the odor was terrible, and not only did the nurses pass instruments and sponges, but they inserted drains and closed wounds while the doctors went on to their next patients.
The nurses lived in unheated tents and they had no linens for the beds. Helen wrote that she wore woolen clothing with two pairs of stockings and relied on hot water bottles to keep warm. The meals often were just tea, bread and jam.
Night bombing of casualty area was frequent. The tents had iron sides and hinged sections of iron on the floors and the nurses dug shallow holes and covered themselves with the iron when they were being shelled. It was here that Helen was exposed to mustard gas that may have played a role in her final illness and death. There is an undocumented report that she gave her gas mask to a soldier.
By October 1917, Helen was back at the base hospital. In November, she had tonsillitis from which she recovered, but after that, her stomach pain returned. She was ill enough to be off duty. The doctors tried medication and diet, but nothing seemed to improve her condition. Just after Christmas, she began vomiting all of her food, and a barium x-ray revealed that she had a large gastric ulcer that involved the pyloric valve. Surgery was performed on January 13, but she soon became jaundiced and died from acute liver failure on January 18, 1918, at the age of 32. The cause of death is listed as chloroform poisoning following a lengthy anesthesia, although there are those who think that mustard gas poisoning and poor working conditions might have been contributing factors. She is buried in France at the Somme American Cemetery and Memorial.
Helen Fairchild's Nursing Legacy
Helen Fairchild was a dedicated young nurse who put the welfare of others above her own. She, as well as so many other nurses, endured severe hardships to care for the soldiers who were fighting for American freedom. Her many letters to her family document the conditions the nurses faced as they carried out their duties with grace and dignity. Her honest words elevated the status of military nurses everywhere.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Helen Fairchild
During her time in France, Helen wrote 100 pages of letters. Her niece, Nelle Fairchild Rote, collected the family letters, a selection of which was published in the November 1997 issue of the Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine.
- Women in the United States Military: An Annotated Bibliography (Routledge Research Guides to American Military Studies)
- Information about Philadelphia’s Nursing Mural that includes Helen Fairchild
- Some of the letters and several documents
- Rote, Nelle Fairchild Hefty, Nurse Helen Fairchild, World War I | <urn:uuid:7d502ba2-e0da-449e-8fa3-68eb35d10c4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nursing-theory.org/famous-nurses/Helen-Fairchild.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.989433 | 1,026 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4683246612... | 15 | Helen Fairchild, Reflection in Nursing
Helen Fairchild had a very short career as a nurse, but she became one of the most famous nurses in history because of her many letters describing combat nursing during World War I. Her down-to-earth letters made wartime nursing come alive in a way that has never been equaled.
Early Life and Education of Helen Fairchild
Helen was born in Milton, Pennsylvania on November 21, 1885. In 1913, she graduated from Pennsylvania Hospital with a degree in nursing. She had a history of indigestion and abdominal pain for many years but persevered with her work. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Helen, along with 63 other Pennsylvania nurses, volunteered for the American Expeditionary Force that cared for wounded soldiers overseas.
After a very rough eight-day passage by ship, the nurses arrived in Liverpool, England, in May 1917. In letters to her mother, Helen described the journey and the heavy, drab uniforms that they were required to wear at all times while in England.
After a short time in England, the nurses were sent to the British Base Hospital No. 10 in France. It was later known as Pennsylvania Base Hospital No. 10 because it was staffed by the 64 Pennsylvania nurses. As soon as they arrived at the 2,000-bed hospital, they were deluged with a very large number of extremely ill soldiers who had been poisoned by mustard gas. Each day brought more newly wounded and poisoned soldiers.
The nurses lived in unheated huts with few comforts. They worked 14-hour days and were given one-half day off a week. Fairchild praised the efforts of the Red Cross and the YMCA. She wrote that they would not be able to function without their supplies.
In July, Helen was transferred from the base hospital to a casualty clearing area, closer to the front lines. When she went there, she only expected to stay a few days but ended up staying much longer. The living and nursing conditions were almost unbearable. She was on the operating team and waded through mud to get to the operating room. There, she and the other nurses stood in mud higher than their shoes. It was reported that the odor was terrible, and not only did the nurses pass instruments and sponges, but they inserted drains and closed wounds while the doctors went on to their next patients.
The nurses lived in unheated tents and they had no linens for the beds. Helen wrote that she wore woolen clothing with two pairs of stockings and relied on hot water bottles to keep warm. The meals often were just tea, bread and jam.
Night bombing of casualty area was frequent. The tents had iron sides and hinged sections of iron on the floors and the nurses dug shallow holes and covered themselves with the iron when they were being shelled. It was here that Helen was exposed to mustard gas that may have played a role in her final illness and death. There is an undocumented report that she gave her gas mask to a soldier.
By October 1917, Helen was back at the base hospital. In November, she had tonsillitis from which she recovered, but after that, her stomach pain returned. She was ill enough to be off duty. The doctors tried medication and diet, but nothing seemed to improve her condition. Just after Christmas, she began vomiting all of her food, and a barium x-ray revealed that she had a large gastric ulcer that involved the pyloric valve. Surgery was performed on January 13, but she soon became jaundiced and died from acute liver failure on January 18, 1918, at the age of 32. The cause of death is listed as chloroform poisoning following a lengthy anesthesia, although there are those who think that mustard gas poisoning and poor working conditions might have been contributing factors. She is buried in France at the Somme American Cemetery and Memorial.
Helen Fairchild's Nursing Legacy
Helen Fairchild was a dedicated young nurse who put the welfare of others above her own. She, as well as so many other nurses, endured severe hardships to care for the soldiers who were fighting for American freedom. Her many letters to her family document the conditions the nurses faced as they carried out their duties with grace and dignity. Her honest words elevated the status of military nurses everywhere.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Helen Fairchild
During her time in France, Helen wrote 100 pages of letters. Her niece, Nelle Fairchild Rote, collected the family letters, a selection of which was published in the November 1997 issue of the Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine.
- Women in the United States Military: An Annotated Bibliography (Routledge Research Guides to American Military Studies)
- Information about Philadelphia’s Nursing Mural that includes Helen Fairchild
- Some of the letters and several documents
- Rote, Nelle Fairchild Hefty, Nurse Helen Fairchild, World War I | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Josef Mengele (German:[ˈjoːzɛf ˈmɛŋələ]; 16 March 1911–7 February 1979) was a German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and physician in Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele was a notorious member of the team of doctors responsible for the selection of victims to be killed in the gas chambers and for performing deadly human experiments on prisoners. Arrivals deemed able to work were admitted into the camp, and those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed in the gas chambers. Mengele left Auschwitz on 17 January 1945, shortly before the arrival of the liberating Red Army troops. After the war, he fled to South America, where he evaded capture for the rest of his life.
Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine from Munich University and began a career as a researcher. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the SS in 1938. Initially assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, he transferred to the concentration camp service in early 1943 and was assigned to Auschwitz. There he saw the opportunity to conduct genetic research on human subjects. His subsequent experiments, focusing primarily on twins, had no regard for the health or safety of the victims. | <urn:uuid:46184bc0-2879-49a9-abaf-0bede4f2166f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ro.wn.com/Biography_Josef_Mengele_Medical_Madman_Of_Auschwitz | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.98186 | 262 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.5953596830368042... | 3 | Josef Mengele (German:[ˈjoːzɛf ˈmɛŋələ]; 16 March 1911–7 February 1979) was a German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and physician in Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. Mengele was a notorious member of the team of doctors responsible for the selection of victims to be killed in the gas chambers and for performing deadly human experiments on prisoners. Arrivals deemed able to work were admitted into the camp, and those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed in the gas chambers. Mengele left Auschwitz on 17 January 1945, shortly before the arrival of the liberating Red Army troops. After the war, he fled to South America, where he evaded capture for the rest of his life.
Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine from Munich University and began a career as a researcher. He joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the SS in 1938. Initially assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, he transferred to the concentration camp service in early 1943 and was assigned to Auschwitz. There he saw the opportunity to conduct genetic research on human subjects. His subsequent experiments, focusing primarily on twins, had no regard for the health or safety of the victims. | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Japanese Relocation Centers
During World War II, nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were under lock and key
by Ricco Villanueva Siasoco and Shmuel Ross
For More Information
National Park Service:
"...I remember my mother wrapping
"Two weeks after his twenty-fifth birthday, Ichiro got off a bus at Second and Main in Seattle. He had been gone four years, two in camp and two in prison.
Walking down the street that autumn morning with a small, black suitcase, he felt like an intruder in a world to which he had no claim. It was just enough that he should feel this way, for, of his own free will, he had stood before the judge and said that he would not go in the army. At the time there was no other choice for him. That was when he was twenty-three, a man of twenty-three. Now, two years older, he was even more of a man."
On February 19, 1942, soon after the beginning of World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. The evacuation order commenced the round-up of 120,000 Americans of Japanese heritage to one of 10 internment camps—officially called "relocation centers"—in California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas.
Why Were the Camps Established?
Roosevelt's executive order was fueled by anti-Japanese sentiment among farmers who competed against Japanese labor, politicians who sided with anti-Japanese constituencies, and the general public, whose frenzy was heightened by the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor. More than two-thirds of the Japanese who were interned in the spring of 1942 were citizens of the United States.
Similar Orders in Canada
In Canada, similar evacuation orders were established. Nearly 23,000 Nikkei, or Canadians of Japanese descent, were sent to camps in British Columbia. It was the greatest mass movement in the history of Canada.
Though families were generally kept together in the United States, Canada sent male evacuees to work in road camps or on sugar beet projects. Women and children Nikkei were forced to move to six inner British Columbia towns.
Conditions in the U.S. Camps
The U.S. internment camps were overcrowded and provided poor living conditions. According to a 1943 report published by the War Relocation Authority (the administering agency), Japanese Americans were housed in "tarpaper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." Coal was hard to come by, and internees slept under as many blankets as they were alloted. Food was rationed out at an expense of 48 cents per internee, and served by fellow internees in a mess hall of 250-300 people.
Leadership positions within the camps were only offered to the Nisei, or American-born, Japanese. The older generation, or the Issei, were forced to watch as the government promoted their children and ignored them.
Eventually the government allowed internees to leave the concentration camps if they enlisted in the U.S. Army. This offer was not well received. Only 1,200 internees chose to do so.
Legal Challenges to Internment
Two important legal cases were brought against the United States concerning the internment. The landmark cases were Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). The defendants argued their fifth amendment rights were violated by the U.S. government because of their ancestry. In both cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the U.S. government.
Closure of the Camps
In 1944, two and a half years after signing Executive Order 9066, fourth-term President Franklin D. Roosevelt rescinded the order. The last internment camp was closed by the end of 1945.
Government Apologies and Reparations
Forced into confinement by the United States, 5,766 Nisei ultimately renounced their American citizenship. In 1968, nearly two dozen years after the camps were closed, the government began reparations to Japanese Americans for property they had lost.
In 1988, the U.S. Congress passed legislation which awarded formal payments of $20,000 each to the surviving internees—60,000 in all. This same year, formal apologies were also issued by the government of Canada to Japanese Canadian survivors, who were each repaid the sum of $21,000 Canadian dollars.
Other Groups in the Camps
While Japanese-Americans comprised the overwhelming majority of those in the camps, thousands of Americans of German, Italian, and other European descent were also forced to relocate there. Many more were classified as "enemy aliens" and subject to increased restrictions. | <urn:uuid:d2fa55e6-af32-49bc-be4a-58c13c3c92fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.infoplease.com/history/apa-heritage/japanese-relocation-centers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.982805 | 983 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.6504212617874146... | 1 | Japanese Relocation Centers
During World War II, nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were under lock and key
by Ricco Villanueva Siasoco and Shmuel Ross
For More Information
National Park Service:
"...I remember my mother wrapping
"Two weeks after his twenty-fifth birthday, Ichiro got off a bus at Second and Main in Seattle. He had been gone four years, two in camp and two in prison.
Walking down the street that autumn morning with a small, black suitcase, he felt like an intruder in a world to which he had no claim. It was just enough that he should feel this way, for, of his own free will, he had stood before the judge and said that he would not go in the army. At the time there was no other choice for him. That was when he was twenty-three, a man of twenty-three. Now, two years older, he was even more of a man."
On February 19, 1942, soon after the beginning of World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. The evacuation order commenced the round-up of 120,000 Americans of Japanese heritage to one of 10 internment camps—officially called "relocation centers"—in California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas.
Why Were the Camps Established?
Roosevelt's executive order was fueled by anti-Japanese sentiment among farmers who competed against Japanese labor, politicians who sided with anti-Japanese constituencies, and the general public, whose frenzy was heightened by the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor. More than two-thirds of the Japanese who were interned in the spring of 1942 were citizens of the United States.
Similar Orders in Canada
In Canada, similar evacuation orders were established. Nearly 23,000 Nikkei, or Canadians of Japanese descent, were sent to camps in British Columbia. It was the greatest mass movement in the history of Canada.
Though families were generally kept together in the United States, Canada sent male evacuees to work in road camps or on sugar beet projects. Women and children Nikkei were forced to move to six inner British Columbia towns.
Conditions in the U.S. Camps
The U.S. internment camps were overcrowded and provided poor living conditions. According to a 1943 report published by the War Relocation Authority (the administering agency), Japanese Americans were housed in "tarpaper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." Coal was hard to come by, and internees slept under as many blankets as they were alloted. Food was rationed out at an expense of 48 cents per internee, and served by fellow internees in a mess hall of 250-300 people.
Leadership positions within the camps were only offered to the Nisei, or American-born, Japanese. The older generation, or the Issei, were forced to watch as the government promoted their children and ignored them.
Eventually the government allowed internees to leave the concentration camps if they enlisted in the U.S. Army. This offer was not well received. Only 1,200 internees chose to do so.
Legal Challenges to Internment
Two important legal cases were brought against the United States concerning the internment. The landmark cases were Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). The defendants argued their fifth amendment rights were violated by the U.S. government because of their ancestry. In both cases, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the U.S. government.
Closure of the Camps
In 1944, two and a half years after signing Executive Order 9066, fourth-term President Franklin D. Roosevelt rescinded the order. The last internment camp was closed by the end of 1945.
Government Apologies and Reparations
Forced into confinement by the United States, 5,766 Nisei ultimately renounced their American citizenship. In 1968, nearly two dozen years after the camps were closed, the government began reparations to Japanese Americans for property they had lost.
In 1988, the U.S. Congress passed legislation which awarded formal payments of $20,000 each to the surviving internees—60,000 in all. This same year, formal apologies were also issued by the government of Canada to Japanese Canadian survivors, who were each repaid the sum of $21,000 Canadian dollars.
Other Groups in the Camps
While Japanese-Americans comprised the overwhelming majority of those in the camps, thousands of Americans of German, Italian, and other European descent were also forced to relocate there. Many more were classified as "enemy aliens" and subject to increased restrictions. | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the Jewish world, there were/will be meetings to commemorate “Kristallnacht,” – or the night of the broken glass – from November 9 to 10, 1938.That night, most synagogues throughout Germany, Austria and the by then annexed Czechoslovakian Sudetenland were set alight, thousands of Jewish businesses were destroyed and almost 30,000 Jewish men sent off to concentration camps.The writer is a resident of Jerusalem and host of the radio show Walter’s World.The trigger for these atrocities can be found in the events of a few years earlier. During 1938 the Polish authorities were concerned about the German annexation of Austria in March of that year and also about the increased persecution of German and Austrian Jews. It was not their welfare that concerned them, but they feared that the many Polish nationals among them would either want to or be forced to return to Poland. So in mid-October the Polish government issued a de-nationalization law which annulled the citizenship of Poles living abroad for more than five years, unless before the end of the month they received a special stamp into their passports from the Polish Consulates.Not surprisingly, Jews were refused this facility.German policy at the time was not yet the mass extermination of Jews, but to get them out of Germany; so when the Nazi regime learned that Polish officials would not stamp the passports of Jews, thereby making all of them stateless, without any nationality and hence without passports, they were concerned about their having to remain in Germany.Gestapo Chief Heinrich Himmler ordered that all Polish Jews be immediately and forcefully repatriated to Poland.It was during the small hours of October 28, 1938, when about 20,000 men, women and children had to respond to the dreaded knock on the door. They were arrested, permitted to hurriedly pack just one suitcase and with an allowance of just 10 marks per adult transported to the Polish border in sealed trains.When the Poles became aware of this, they closed the border. “No more Jews” was the order. With Polish machine guns facing them and German bayonets behind them, these Jews were stranded in no-man’s land.Jewish welfare organizations were allowed to hastily erect some shelter. The circumstances were grim and food was short, while the Poles and Germans argued for two or three days. Eventually the Poles were forced to accept this by now dejected, hungry and tired mass of people.The largest number were interned in Zbaszyn, a small Polish border town, before some months later being moved to the Warsaw Ghetto. My own father was among them, but I was fortunate to have been away on the day of the arrests, and so escaped almost certain death. At the time I was at a Jewish school in another town; had I been at home, I too would have shared the same fate, because the Gestapo asked my mother where I was and she told them that I had gone out and she did not know where to. She herself was not arrested on that occasion but at a different time, and fortunately survived the concentration camps and so was able to relate the events to me.A 17-year-old German-born Polish Jew, Hershel Grynspan, who lived illegally in Paris, received a postcard from his family telling him of their deportation and desperate plight. He became so enraged that he called at the German Embassy in Paris, asked for the ambassador, and when taken to Ernst vom Rath, a third secretary, he drew a pistol and shot him. Vom Rath died of his wounds on November 7.This was the trigger for the “spontaneous” pogroms three days later known as “Kristallnacht.”It is documented that plans for such an outrage had been planned in great detail and that Himmler only waited for a suitable moment to implement them.When Hershel Grynspan was arrested by French police he protested: “Being a Jew is not a crime; I am not a dog, I have a right to exist on this earth; wherever I have been I have been hounded like an animal.”There are conflicting reports about his fate, but it can be safely assumed that he did not survive the war.Let us never forget the brave Hershel Grynspan z”l. | <urn:uuid:bf3a348d-bdbe-4bd1-99e6-2d54b11e1382> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Reminiscences-of-Kristallnacht | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.98935 | 890 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.62324935197830... | 1 | Throughout the Jewish world, there were/will be meetings to commemorate “Kristallnacht,” – or the night of the broken glass – from November 9 to 10, 1938.That night, most synagogues throughout Germany, Austria and the by then annexed Czechoslovakian Sudetenland were set alight, thousands of Jewish businesses were destroyed and almost 30,000 Jewish men sent off to concentration camps.The writer is a resident of Jerusalem and host of the radio show Walter’s World.The trigger for these atrocities can be found in the events of a few years earlier. During 1938 the Polish authorities were concerned about the German annexation of Austria in March of that year and also about the increased persecution of German and Austrian Jews. It was not their welfare that concerned them, but they feared that the many Polish nationals among them would either want to or be forced to return to Poland. So in mid-October the Polish government issued a de-nationalization law which annulled the citizenship of Poles living abroad for more than five years, unless before the end of the month they received a special stamp into their passports from the Polish Consulates.Not surprisingly, Jews were refused this facility.German policy at the time was not yet the mass extermination of Jews, but to get them out of Germany; so when the Nazi regime learned that Polish officials would not stamp the passports of Jews, thereby making all of them stateless, without any nationality and hence without passports, they were concerned about their having to remain in Germany.Gestapo Chief Heinrich Himmler ordered that all Polish Jews be immediately and forcefully repatriated to Poland.It was during the small hours of October 28, 1938, when about 20,000 men, women and children had to respond to the dreaded knock on the door. They were arrested, permitted to hurriedly pack just one suitcase and with an allowance of just 10 marks per adult transported to the Polish border in sealed trains.When the Poles became aware of this, they closed the border. “No more Jews” was the order. With Polish machine guns facing them and German bayonets behind them, these Jews were stranded in no-man’s land.Jewish welfare organizations were allowed to hastily erect some shelter. The circumstances were grim and food was short, while the Poles and Germans argued for two or three days. Eventually the Poles were forced to accept this by now dejected, hungry and tired mass of people.The largest number were interned in Zbaszyn, a small Polish border town, before some months later being moved to the Warsaw Ghetto. My own father was among them, but I was fortunate to have been away on the day of the arrests, and so escaped almost certain death. At the time I was at a Jewish school in another town; had I been at home, I too would have shared the same fate, because the Gestapo asked my mother where I was and she told them that I had gone out and she did not know where to. She herself was not arrested on that occasion but at a different time, and fortunately survived the concentration camps and so was able to relate the events to me.A 17-year-old German-born Polish Jew, Hershel Grynspan, who lived illegally in Paris, received a postcard from his family telling him of their deportation and desperate plight. He became so enraged that he called at the German Embassy in Paris, asked for the ambassador, and when taken to Ernst vom Rath, a third secretary, he drew a pistol and shot him. Vom Rath died of his wounds on November 7.This was the trigger for the “spontaneous” pogroms three days later known as “Kristallnacht.”It is documented that plans for such an outrage had been planned in great detail and that Himmler only waited for a suitable moment to implement them.When Hershel Grynspan was arrested by French police he protested: “Being a Jew is not a crime; I am not a dog, I have a right to exist on this earth; wherever I have been I have been hounded like an animal.”There are conflicting reports about his fate, but it can be safely assumed that he did not survive the war.Let us never forget the brave Hershel Grynspan z”l. | 891 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Closing By: Sheila Tolley
There is no evidence for this date. So then, who decided that Jesus’ birth would be celebrated on that date? The early Christian church did not celebrate Jesus’ birth. It wasn’t until A.D. 440 that the church officially proclaimed December 25 as the birth of Christ. This was not based on any religious evidence but on a pagan feast. Saturnalia was a tradition inherited by the Roman pagans from an earlier Babylonian priesthood. December 25 was used as a celebration of the birthday of the sun god. It was observed near the winter solstice.
The apostles in the Bible predicted that some Christians would adopt pagan beliefs to enable them to make their religion more palatable to the pagans around them. Therefore, some scholars think the church chose the date of this pagan celebration to interest them in Christianity. The pagans were already used to celebrating on this date.
The Bible itself tells us that December 25 is an unlikely date for His birth. Palestine is very cold in December. It was much too cold to ask everyone to travel to the city of their fathers to register for taxes. Also the shepherds were in the fields (Luke 2:8-12). Shepherds were not in the fields in the winter time. They are in the fields early in March until early October. This would place Jesus’ birth in the spring or early fall. It is also known that Jesus lived for 33.5 years and died at the feast of the Passover, which is at Easter time. He must therefore have been born six months the other side of Easter – making the date around the September/October time frames.
Other evidence that December 25 is the wrong date for the birth of Jesus comes from early writings. Iranaeus, born about a century after Jesus, notes that Jesus was born in the 41st year of the reign of Augustus. Since Augustus began his reign in the autumn of 43 B.C., this appears to substantiate the birth of Jesus as the autumn of 2 B.C. Eusebius (A.D. 264-340), the “Father of Church History,” ascribes it to the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus and the 28th from the subjection of Egypt on the death of Anthony and Cleopatra. The 42nd year of Augustus ran from the autumn of 2 B.C. to the autumn of 1 B.C. The subjugation of Egypt into the Roman Empire occurred in the autumn of 30 B.C. The 28th year extended from the autumn of 3 B.C. to the autumn of 2 B.C. The only date that would meet both of these constraints would be the autumn of 2 B.C.
John the Baptist also helps us determine that December 25 is not the birth of Jesus. Elizabeth, John’s mother, was a cousin of Mary. John began his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar. The minimum age for the ministry was 30. As Augustus died on August 19, A.D. 14, that was the accession year for Tiberius. If John was born on April 19-20, 2 B.C., his 30th birthday would have been April 19-20, A.D. 29, or the 15th year of Tiberius. This seems to confirm the 2 B.C. date, and, since John was 5 months older, this also confirms an autumn birth date for Jesus.
Another interesting fact comes from Elizabeth herself. She hid herself for 5 months and then the Angel Gabriel announced to Mary both Elizabeth’s condition and that Mary would also bear a son who would be called Jesus. Mary went “with haste” to visit Elizabeth, who was then in the first week of her 6th month, or the 4th week of Dec., 3 B.C. If Jesus was born 280 days later it would place his birth on Sept. 29, 2 B.C. Some scholars interpret the 6 months to be in line with the Hebrew calendar or the August-September time frame. Since Mary’s pregnancy commenced a little before the sixth month around July, Jesus would be born somewhere around March-June. But does it matter if Jesus was born on the spring, the fall, or on December 25? Does it matter, theologically, when Jesus was born? What do you think, does it matter what day we celebrate His birth?
In my humble opinion, it absolutely does not matter when Jesus was born. The celebration should be THAT Jesus was born and THAT Jesus died for our sins.
Christ has basically been eradicated from the Christmas season nowadays. He has been traded for in-store fights on Black Friday Specials to get the cheaper gifts, along with, a couple days off work or a week out of school. I am sure Walmart, Dollar General and China are very appreciative for our New and Improved Plastic Christmas Season.
Give it a few more years and Christmas will be celebrated on the third Monday in December. After all, I remember when February 22 was a holiday on my calendar called George Washington’s Birthday. It is now called President’s Day and celebrated on the third Monday in February. | <urn:uuid:f64c266d-1aca-40c5-a240-93f2666db002> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tolleystopics.com/2020/01/02/was-jesus-born-on-december-25/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.983517 | 1,077 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.29779988527297974... | 2 | Closing By: Sheila Tolley
There is no evidence for this date. So then, who decided that Jesus’ birth would be celebrated on that date? The early Christian church did not celebrate Jesus’ birth. It wasn’t until A.D. 440 that the church officially proclaimed December 25 as the birth of Christ. This was not based on any religious evidence but on a pagan feast. Saturnalia was a tradition inherited by the Roman pagans from an earlier Babylonian priesthood. December 25 was used as a celebration of the birthday of the sun god. It was observed near the winter solstice.
The apostles in the Bible predicted that some Christians would adopt pagan beliefs to enable them to make their religion more palatable to the pagans around them. Therefore, some scholars think the church chose the date of this pagan celebration to interest them in Christianity. The pagans were already used to celebrating on this date.
The Bible itself tells us that December 25 is an unlikely date for His birth. Palestine is very cold in December. It was much too cold to ask everyone to travel to the city of their fathers to register for taxes. Also the shepherds were in the fields (Luke 2:8-12). Shepherds were not in the fields in the winter time. They are in the fields early in March until early October. This would place Jesus’ birth in the spring or early fall. It is also known that Jesus lived for 33.5 years and died at the feast of the Passover, which is at Easter time. He must therefore have been born six months the other side of Easter – making the date around the September/October time frames.
Other evidence that December 25 is the wrong date for the birth of Jesus comes from early writings. Iranaeus, born about a century after Jesus, notes that Jesus was born in the 41st year of the reign of Augustus. Since Augustus began his reign in the autumn of 43 B.C., this appears to substantiate the birth of Jesus as the autumn of 2 B.C. Eusebius (A.D. 264-340), the “Father of Church History,” ascribes it to the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus and the 28th from the subjection of Egypt on the death of Anthony and Cleopatra. The 42nd year of Augustus ran from the autumn of 2 B.C. to the autumn of 1 B.C. The subjugation of Egypt into the Roman Empire occurred in the autumn of 30 B.C. The 28th year extended from the autumn of 3 B.C. to the autumn of 2 B.C. The only date that would meet both of these constraints would be the autumn of 2 B.C.
John the Baptist also helps us determine that December 25 is not the birth of Jesus. Elizabeth, John’s mother, was a cousin of Mary. John began his ministry in the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar. The minimum age for the ministry was 30. As Augustus died on August 19, A.D. 14, that was the accession year for Tiberius. If John was born on April 19-20, 2 B.C., his 30th birthday would have been April 19-20, A.D. 29, or the 15th year of Tiberius. This seems to confirm the 2 B.C. date, and, since John was 5 months older, this also confirms an autumn birth date for Jesus.
Another interesting fact comes from Elizabeth herself. She hid herself for 5 months and then the Angel Gabriel announced to Mary both Elizabeth’s condition and that Mary would also bear a son who would be called Jesus. Mary went “with haste” to visit Elizabeth, who was then in the first week of her 6th month, or the 4th week of Dec., 3 B.C. If Jesus was born 280 days later it would place his birth on Sept. 29, 2 B.C. Some scholars interpret the 6 months to be in line with the Hebrew calendar or the August-September time frame. Since Mary’s pregnancy commenced a little before the sixth month around July, Jesus would be born somewhere around March-June. But does it matter if Jesus was born on the spring, the fall, or on December 25? Does it matter, theologically, when Jesus was born? What do you think, does it matter what day we celebrate His birth?
In my humble opinion, it absolutely does not matter when Jesus was born. The celebration should be THAT Jesus was born and THAT Jesus died for our sins.
Christ has basically been eradicated from the Christmas season nowadays. He has been traded for in-store fights on Black Friday Specials to get the cheaper gifts, along with, a couple days off work or a week out of school. I am sure Walmart, Dollar General and China are very appreciative for our New and Improved Plastic Christmas Season.
Give it a few more years and Christmas will be celebrated on the third Monday in December. After all, I remember when February 22 was a holiday on my calendar called George Washington’s Birthday. It is now called President’s Day and celebrated on the third Monday in February. | 1,118 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Civil War food came in many shapes and sizes. Suppose you’re a Civil War soldier and you’ve marched all day in the grueling heat.
You’re exhausted, but you have one more duty before you can retire to your tent to dream of better days; you have to cook your dinner.
Civil War soldiers never had the luxury of standing in a mess line waiting for army cooks to dish out the chow.
How Did Soldiers Get Food in the Civil War
Civil War food for both Union and Confederate soldiers was provided by their respective Commissary Departments, but the daily rations were given to the soldiers uncooked.
Civil War Generals and other officers had the luxury of a cook, however the vast majority of soldiers gathered in small groups each evening to prepare their own food.
They called these groups “messes” and referred to others in the group as “messmates”. Messmates took turns watching the meals they cooked. Food in the Civil War was cooked over an open campfire in a cast iron skillet or kettle or occasionally on a spit.
If they had the time, soldiers tried to devise ways of making their dull diet a little more varied, occasionally catching wild game or picking wild berries.
Food during the Civil War was not high quality and did not taste good. Confederate soldiers usually didn’t receive much food at all especially as the war dragged on. Union troops were well fed but the food was not that much better than what the Confederates were eating.
Without Civil War food and water an army soon disintegrates into nothing more than a lot of starving people with no energy or will to fight. If a general has no food he has no army.
What Kind of Food Did They Eat During the Civil War
Civil War food supplied to soldiers of both sides was plain and monotonous. Since rations had to be transported long distances, the commissary departments relied on foods that could be preserved, so the primary ingredients available to soldiers were salted meat and canned goods.
Civil War Food Hardtack
During battles and when food was scarce a Union soldier’s primary source of substance often came from hardtack.
Hardtack is basically bread, it’s three inches long and half an inch thick. Soldiers would often soften hardtack up by soaking it in water or coffee in order to make it easier to bite into. Hardtack is probably the most well known Civil War food.
Even if you know nothing about the American Civil War you’ve probably heard of hardtack.
What Was the Food Like During the Civil War
There were plenty of other Civil War food options a soldier typically had.
Salt pork was given to soldiers during the war. It was a stinky kind of blue extra salty meat, with hair, skin, dirt, and other junk left on it. It was however, a soldiers main supply of protein.
Letters from Civil War soldiers contain numerous references to bacon, but historians believe that the term bacon was used for all salt and smoked pork, not just the strips of meat that we now call “bacon”. Salted beef and jerky were also given to the soldiers.
Many ate salt beef only out of necessity. This was especially true for the Confederates. Salt beef was basically all of the very worst parts of a cow that you could think of. Parts included organs, neck and shanks, but the basic meat was pork.
Civil War soldiers were also given rice, potatoes, onions, molasses, and other non-perishable or slow to perish items, but hardtack (or cornmeal) and salt meat were favored because they were both easy to ship and easy to carry on a march or into battle.
Civil War Food Rations
Soldiers were given Civil War food rations in three-day allotments; before a march or battle, they cooked their raw food so that they could carry it with them. A canvas haversack with a removable lining was used to carry Civil War food on the move.
Although soldiers removed the lining and washed it when they had a chance, the haversacks soon smelled of old meat. Sometimes the salted meat given to the soldiers was past its prime, so they nicknamed it “salt horse”.
Naturally soldiers grew tired of this monotony. In Union camps, sutlers (civilian merchants) sold items like canned fruit, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Confederate soldiers did not usually have sutlers stores. They were forced to rely on the generosity of local farmers for occasional treats such as fruit.
If you are interested in reading about or trying some authentic Civil War food recipes the Civil War Recipes: Receipts from the Pages of Godey’s Lady’s Book has the original recipes for a wide variety of food that people actually ate during the time of the Civil War.
Of course you might need something to cook all this wonderful food you create. The Lodge Deep Camp Dutch Oven will do that job perfectly.
Foraging For Food
Civil War soldiers did occasionally have fresh meat to eat. They did this by taking cattle, pigs, and sheep.
Armies would have entire herds following them while they were on campaign. When in enemy territory, soldiers frequently helped themselves to chickens, fruit, vegetables, and other items from local farms and households, considering these the spoils of war.
Commanders might reprimand soldiers for such acts, but this seldom stopped a hungry man from seeking extra food. During Sherman’s march from Atlanta to the sea, Union soldiers feasted on captured cattle, hogs, vegetables and fruit and destroyed anything they could not carry.
Civil War Food Shortages
The Union never really had any problems with food shortages. The Union had a robust transportation network which could supply their troops with everything they needed throughout the entire war.
There were occasions when Union troops didn’t receive supplies for one reason or another but typically Union troops had no trouble with food shortages.
The Confederacy was the complete opposite. The south always had food shortages during the war which only became worse the longer the war lasted. Civil War food rations in the south were given to the most important people first.
Politicians and other leaders ate first, followed by soldiers, civilians, slaves and finally captured Union soldiers located throughout the south in various Civil War prison camps received whatever food was left.
Despite their high priority to receive food Confederate soldiers often went without. The poor condition of the Confederate railroad network and overall bad transportation system meant any food that was produced had a hard time finding it’s way to the army or anyone else.
The Union blockade of southern ports also restricted any food and other supplies the Confederacy desperately needed just to survive.
When times were thin soldiers sometimes resorted to eating their horses and mules. In extreme desperation, rats were consumed. As the war continued food shortages in the Confederacy became so bad for civilians that it led to food riots throughout many southern cities.
Fruits and Vegetables
Corn was really only available when things were going well for a particular side. The same goes for beans, as they could not be consumed uncooked or improperly cooked.
This would result in very bad stomach situations. Peas were plentiful in supply and could be eaten as a meal in times of desperation. When there were no peas around, potatoes and rice would suffice. Fresh fruits were really important to have in good supply.
Civil War Disease
Lack of fresh fruits could cause sickness and disease. One example is Scurvy which is a horrible disease that resulted in tooth loss, receding gums, night blindness, rotting lips, jaws, and cheeks, and even internal hemorrhaging.
Civil War medicine was not very advanced during the Civil War, however Scurvy was easily prevented by simply eating oranges.
Volunteer nurses and the volunteers who collected supplies back home for the soldiers tried to alleviate their monotonous diet by collecting fresh fruits and vegetables for them.
Although these items were not easy to send into the field, they were supplied in abundance to sick and wounded soldiers in northern hospitals. Southern hospital workers also did there best to get fresh food for their patients, despite wartime food shortages.
Fruit was a favorite treat for ill soldiers; Abraham Lincoln often brought gifts of fresh fruit to the soldiers at the Washington army hospital, as did poet Walt Whitman who volunteered at the hospital. Baked goods were another treat for sick soldiers.
It was not uncommon for volunteer nurses to stay up late at night baking for their sick and wounded soldiers. Gingerbread was considered nourishing and easy to digest; it was often given as a comfort Civil War food to hospital patients.
The men in the war loved their coffee, and drank it whenever possible. Coffee was a treasured beverage during the war. Soldiers soon recognized it’s properties to keep them awake after many hours of weary duty.
Raw green coffee beans were given to Union soldiers who roasted them in a pan over an open fire. Confederates frequently had to use coffee substitutes, such as chicory or roasted acorns.
Soldiers Traded With Each Other
During lulls in the fighting Confederate and Union soldiers would often meet up with each other and trade items.
Confederates usually traded tobacco with Union soldiers who gave them coffee beans in return. Of course these trade deals had to be made in secret since fraternizing with the enemy was punishable on both sides.
Civil war food was extremely important during the war but it was far from a balanced diet. Not surprisingly, a poor diet along with unsanitary conditions contributed to a high disease rate among soldiers on both sides.
If we went back in time to the Civil War we would enjoy some of the familiar foods of today like gingerbread and coffee that the soldiers enjoyed. However we would also find some of the food like hardtack or salted beef rather unappetizing. | <urn:uuid:23680257-d4ea-45ca-ac60-ceff84458a7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.civilwaracademy.com/civil-war-food | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.984136 | 2,056 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.16570192575454712... | 4 | Civil War food came in many shapes and sizes. Suppose you’re a Civil War soldier and you’ve marched all day in the grueling heat.
You’re exhausted, but you have one more duty before you can retire to your tent to dream of better days; you have to cook your dinner.
Civil War soldiers never had the luxury of standing in a mess line waiting for army cooks to dish out the chow.
How Did Soldiers Get Food in the Civil War
Civil War food for both Union and Confederate soldiers was provided by their respective Commissary Departments, but the daily rations were given to the soldiers uncooked.
Civil War Generals and other officers had the luxury of a cook, however the vast majority of soldiers gathered in small groups each evening to prepare their own food.
They called these groups “messes” and referred to others in the group as “messmates”. Messmates took turns watching the meals they cooked. Food in the Civil War was cooked over an open campfire in a cast iron skillet or kettle or occasionally on a spit.
If they had the time, soldiers tried to devise ways of making their dull diet a little more varied, occasionally catching wild game or picking wild berries.
Food during the Civil War was not high quality and did not taste good. Confederate soldiers usually didn’t receive much food at all especially as the war dragged on. Union troops were well fed but the food was not that much better than what the Confederates were eating.
Without Civil War food and water an army soon disintegrates into nothing more than a lot of starving people with no energy or will to fight. If a general has no food he has no army.
What Kind of Food Did They Eat During the Civil War
Civil War food supplied to soldiers of both sides was plain and monotonous. Since rations had to be transported long distances, the commissary departments relied on foods that could be preserved, so the primary ingredients available to soldiers were salted meat and canned goods.
Civil War Food Hardtack
During battles and when food was scarce a Union soldier’s primary source of substance often came from hardtack.
Hardtack is basically bread, it’s three inches long and half an inch thick. Soldiers would often soften hardtack up by soaking it in water or coffee in order to make it easier to bite into. Hardtack is probably the most well known Civil War food.
Even if you know nothing about the American Civil War you’ve probably heard of hardtack.
What Was the Food Like During the Civil War
There were plenty of other Civil War food options a soldier typically had.
Salt pork was given to soldiers during the war. It was a stinky kind of blue extra salty meat, with hair, skin, dirt, and other junk left on it. It was however, a soldiers main supply of protein.
Letters from Civil War soldiers contain numerous references to bacon, but historians believe that the term bacon was used for all salt and smoked pork, not just the strips of meat that we now call “bacon”. Salted beef and jerky were also given to the soldiers.
Many ate salt beef only out of necessity. This was especially true for the Confederates. Salt beef was basically all of the very worst parts of a cow that you could think of. Parts included organs, neck and shanks, but the basic meat was pork.
Civil War soldiers were also given rice, potatoes, onions, molasses, and other non-perishable or slow to perish items, but hardtack (or cornmeal) and salt meat were favored because they were both easy to ship and easy to carry on a march or into battle.
Civil War Food Rations
Soldiers were given Civil War food rations in three-day allotments; before a march or battle, they cooked their raw food so that they could carry it with them. A canvas haversack with a removable lining was used to carry Civil War food on the move.
Although soldiers removed the lining and washed it when they had a chance, the haversacks soon smelled of old meat. Sometimes the salted meat given to the soldiers was past its prime, so they nicknamed it “salt horse”.
Naturally soldiers grew tired of this monotony. In Union camps, sutlers (civilian merchants) sold items like canned fruit, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Confederate soldiers did not usually have sutlers stores. They were forced to rely on the generosity of local farmers for occasional treats such as fruit.
If you are interested in reading about or trying some authentic Civil War food recipes the Civil War Recipes: Receipts from the Pages of Godey’s Lady’s Book has the original recipes for a wide variety of food that people actually ate during the time of the Civil War.
Of course you might need something to cook all this wonderful food you create. The Lodge Deep Camp Dutch Oven will do that job perfectly.
Foraging For Food
Civil War soldiers did occasionally have fresh meat to eat. They did this by taking cattle, pigs, and sheep.
Armies would have entire herds following them while they were on campaign. When in enemy territory, soldiers frequently helped themselves to chickens, fruit, vegetables, and other items from local farms and households, considering these the spoils of war.
Commanders might reprimand soldiers for such acts, but this seldom stopped a hungry man from seeking extra food. During Sherman’s march from Atlanta to the sea, Union soldiers feasted on captured cattle, hogs, vegetables and fruit and destroyed anything they could not carry.
Civil War Food Shortages
The Union never really had any problems with food shortages. The Union had a robust transportation network which could supply their troops with everything they needed throughout the entire war.
There were occasions when Union troops didn’t receive supplies for one reason or another but typically Union troops had no trouble with food shortages.
The Confederacy was the complete opposite. The south always had food shortages during the war which only became worse the longer the war lasted. Civil War food rations in the south were given to the most important people first.
Politicians and other leaders ate first, followed by soldiers, civilians, slaves and finally captured Union soldiers located throughout the south in various Civil War prison camps received whatever food was left.
Despite their high priority to receive food Confederate soldiers often went without. The poor condition of the Confederate railroad network and overall bad transportation system meant any food that was produced had a hard time finding it’s way to the army or anyone else.
The Union blockade of southern ports also restricted any food and other supplies the Confederacy desperately needed just to survive.
When times were thin soldiers sometimes resorted to eating their horses and mules. In extreme desperation, rats were consumed. As the war continued food shortages in the Confederacy became so bad for civilians that it led to food riots throughout many southern cities.
Fruits and Vegetables
Corn was really only available when things were going well for a particular side. The same goes for beans, as they could not be consumed uncooked or improperly cooked.
This would result in very bad stomach situations. Peas were plentiful in supply and could be eaten as a meal in times of desperation. When there were no peas around, potatoes and rice would suffice. Fresh fruits were really important to have in good supply.
Civil War Disease
Lack of fresh fruits could cause sickness and disease. One example is Scurvy which is a horrible disease that resulted in tooth loss, receding gums, night blindness, rotting lips, jaws, and cheeks, and even internal hemorrhaging.
Civil War medicine was not very advanced during the Civil War, however Scurvy was easily prevented by simply eating oranges.
Volunteer nurses and the volunteers who collected supplies back home for the soldiers tried to alleviate their monotonous diet by collecting fresh fruits and vegetables for them.
Although these items were not easy to send into the field, they were supplied in abundance to sick and wounded soldiers in northern hospitals. Southern hospital workers also did there best to get fresh food for their patients, despite wartime food shortages.
Fruit was a favorite treat for ill soldiers; Abraham Lincoln often brought gifts of fresh fruit to the soldiers at the Washington army hospital, as did poet Walt Whitman who volunteered at the hospital. Baked goods were another treat for sick soldiers.
It was not uncommon for volunteer nurses to stay up late at night baking for their sick and wounded soldiers. Gingerbread was considered nourishing and easy to digest; it was often given as a comfort Civil War food to hospital patients.
The men in the war loved their coffee, and drank it whenever possible. Coffee was a treasured beverage during the war. Soldiers soon recognized it’s properties to keep them awake after many hours of weary duty.
Raw green coffee beans were given to Union soldiers who roasted them in a pan over an open fire. Confederates frequently had to use coffee substitutes, such as chicory or roasted acorns.
Soldiers Traded With Each Other
During lulls in the fighting Confederate and Union soldiers would often meet up with each other and trade items.
Confederates usually traded tobacco with Union soldiers who gave them coffee beans in return. Of course these trade deals had to be made in secret since fraternizing with the enemy was punishable on both sides.
Civil war food was extremely important during the war but it was far from a balanced diet. Not surprisingly, a poor diet along with unsanitary conditions contributed to a high disease rate among soldiers on both sides.
If we went back in time to the Civil War we would enjoy some of the familiar foods of today like gingerbread and coffee that the soldiers enjoyed. However we would also find some of the food like hardtack or salted beef rather unappetizing. | 1,973 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The sound of the spoon banging on the tin plate roused the men in the darkness of a cold Maine winter morning. Most of the men jumped out of the common bed they all shared. They also shared a common long blanket and the lice that were present in most logging camps. Everyone quickly dressed and prepared for another day in the woods to fulfill their quota of the timber that was in high demand in the lumber mills. Some men raced to the ice-cold outhouse; others sat at the long hand made table where they ate their meals. The menu was the same as everyday. Beans and pork, biscuits, and tea. They ate this meal three times a day. This camp was lucky. They had a good cook and he would sometimes serve them molasses cookies or cake. He even cooked some venison, partridge, or rabbit when someone was lucky enough to shoot something. This was part of the life of a logger in mid 1800s.
The camp had been built the year before and was the same as all wood camps. Camps were usually 15 to 20 feet long and 15 feet wide. The walls were made of logs that were notched so they would fit together. The log walls were chinked with moss to seal the cracks and keep out the cold. A floor was made of logs that had been roughly hewed flat to make walking easier. The roof was made of long and hand split pieces of cedar, spruce or pine. Sometimes they were covered with fir boughs to keep ice jams from forming and dripping inside. The winter snow made these structures quite cozy. One long bed was constructed down one wall and a long table with a bench seat was constructed along the opposite wall. A dingle was built on each end of the building. Dingles were attachments to main structure. One dingle was for the cook to store the winter's food supplies and another one to store the wood necessary to heat the camp. Animals had their own structure and these were called hovels. Food supplies usually consisted of molasses, flour, pork, and beans. Saleratus and cream of tarter were used in the biscuit and cake making process. Two large stoves situated on each end of the camp kept the camp warm. One stove was also used by the cook for his simple cooking needs. The stoves were a huge improvement over the open fires that were used in the older camps. At that time, a rough chimney went through the roof but the camp remained smoky most of the time as one can imagine. The cook and his cookees (assistants) had their own section at one end of the camp for sleeping and to perform their duties feeding the men. The beans were cooked in the ground outside and the cookees were responsible to keep that fire going. Most cooks demanded complete silence during meal times.
After their breakfast, the men trudged off to the work site in below zero weather arriving about sunup. Walking distance depended on the chance of wood the men were given. As time went on, the wood closest to the streams and camp was cut and the available wood was further into the woods, sometimes miles. A crew consisted of five or six men. There were two "choppers who faced each other and worked on cutting down the same tree. There was a "knotter" who limbed the trees as they were felled. There was a "swamper" who cut down the brush and cleared other obstacles so the crew could work easier. The "teamster" and "yard roller" brought the logs and trees to an area where they were piled to await spring. At the end of winter the logs were transported to the stream and then sent on their journey to the mills. All men helped with the log drive. The men worked until the cookee arrived with lunch. More beans, cold biscuits, and tea. A fire was built to warm up their food and tea. After lunch, work continued until it was time to return to camp. They would arrive back about dark which is four or five o’clock in the Maine winter. After another huge meal of beans, hot biscuits, and tea, the men would relax for a few hours playing cards, telling tales, knitting mittens and socks, or maybe smoking a pipe. Rough chairs were sometimes built at the end of the bunk for this purpose. Sometimes they were referred to as "deacon chairs". Bedtime came early so they would be ready for another day of cutting wood.
This schedule was followed everyday except Sunday. Sunday was a day to rest and to relax. The bed was covered with fresh fir boughs to help cushion their sleep and probably help ward off the smell. Some men knitted or went out hunting or trapping. Others collected spruce gum or carved items. Clothes had to be mended and boots had to be greased to remain waterproof. Life in the camps was pretty monotonous for the men who stayed there. Not all men could stand the life and left. Getting hurt in the woods could prove fatal because the man would have to be carted quite a distance to get medical help. There was an old saying in the woods. There were three work crews. "The ones working, the ones leaving, and the ones coming to take the place of those leaving".
Life changed and conditions got better over the years for the lumberjacks. Food continually improved and more variation was included in the menu. Horses replaced oxen and eventually skidders replaced horses. Chainsaws replaced axes and saws and eventually feller bunchers and "cut to length" processors replaced most of the chainsaw crews. Log drives became a thing of the past when trucks started to haul the timber to market. Now men get into heated and air conditioned machines. They listen to music and watch their GPS as they cut the wood. Darkness is not an obstacle due to the lights on these machines. Working hours have increased as a result of this innovation. The camps are changing and the old logging camps may be a thing of the past soon. A few camps still have cooks who prepare food and this food is very good and diversified. Many loggers live bachelor style and have to cook their own food. Today’s loggers are all carrying on the logging tradition in Maine and other states.
I miss the sound of crews working in the woods. When I was younger, you could step outside in the morning and hear the sound of skidders working somewhere out in the woods. The sound of a large Timber Jack or John Deere skidder carries a long ways in the quiet of an early morning. The camps where the skidder crews used to stay employed eight to twelve crews. One crew normally consisted of one skidder operator and one chopper or chainsaw operator. The skidder operator also carried a chainsaw and would help the chopper get the next twitch ready if necessary. This was hard and dangerous work. As we all learn in life, things change and we have to adapt to the new conditions and ways of doing things. I guess it is for the better. It is certainly safer.
Some of the information gained to write this article was inspired from the writings of David C. Smith (Life in the Woods) and Henry David Thoreau (The Maine Woods). I very seldom paraphrase the writings of authors. I read the information multiple times and then write articles in my own words and style. I give credit when and where credit is due.
Photos courtesy of US Forest Service. | <urn:uuid:ceb4643c-a558-415b-a60e-b84caea6d775> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.maineforestry.net/single-post/2015/09/06/A-Loggers-Life-in-the-Maine-Woods | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.987944 | 1,543 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.1195539310... | 3 | The sound of the spoon banging on the tin plate roused the men in the darkness of a cold Maine winter morning. Most of the men jumped out of the common bed they all shared. They also shared a common long blanket and the lice that were present in most logging camps. Everyone quickly dressed and prepared for another day in the woods to fulfill their quota of the timber that was in high demand in the lumber mills. Some men raced to the ice-cold outhouse; others sat at the long hand made table where they ate their meals. The menu was the same as everyday. Beans and pork, biscuits, and tea. They ate this meal three times a day. This camp was lucky. They had a good cook and he would sometimes serve them molasses cookies or cake. He even cooked some venison, partridge, or rabbit when someone was lucky enough to shoot something. This was part of the life of a logger in mid 1800s.
The camp had been built the year before and was the same as all wood camps. Camps were usually 15 to 20 feet long and 15 feet wide. The walls were made of logs that were notched so they would fit together. The log walls were chinked with moss to seal the cracks and keep out the cold. A floor was made of logs that had been roughly hewed flat to make walking easier. The roof was made of long and hand split pieces of cedar, spruce or pine. Sometimes they were covered with fir boughs to keep ice jams from forming and dripping inside. The winter snow made these structures quite cozy. One long bed was constructed down one wall and a long table with a bench seat was constructed along the opposite wall. A dingle was built on each end of the building. Dingles were attachments to main structure. One dingle was for the cook to store the winter's food supplies and another one to store the wood necessary to heat the camp. Animals had their own structure and these were called hovels. Food supplies usually consisted of molasses, flour, pork, and beans. Saleratus and cream of tarter were used in the biscuit and cake making process. Two large stoves situated on each end of the camp kept the camp warm. One stove was also used by the cook for his simple cooking needs. The stoves were a huge improvement over the open fires that were used in the older camps. At that time, a rough chimney went through the roof but the camp remained smoky most of the time as one can imagine. The cook and his cookees (assistants) had their own section at one end of the camp for sleeping and to perform their duties feeding the men. The beans were cooked in the ground outside and the cookees were responsible to keep that fire going. Most cooks demanded complete silence during meal times.
After their breakfast, the men trudged off to the work site in below zero weather arriving about sunup. Walking distance depended on the chance of wood the men were given. As time went on, the wood closest to the streams and camp was cut and the available wood was further into the woods, sometimes miles. A crew consisted of five or six men. There were two "choppers who faced each other and worked on cutting down the same tree. There was a "knotter" who limbed the trees as they were felled. There was a "swamper" who cut down the brush and cleared other obstacles so the crew could work easier. The "teamster" and "yard roller" brought the logs and trees to an area where they were piled to await spring. At the end of winter the logs were transported to the stream and then sent on their journey to the mills. All men helped with the log drive. The men worked until the cookee arrived with lunch. More beans, cold biscuits, and tea. A fire was built to warm up their food and tea. After lunch, work continued until it was time to return to camp. They would arrive back about dark which is four or five o’clock in the Maine winter. After another huge meal of beans, hot biscuits, and tea, the men would relax for a few hours playing cards, telling tales, knitting mittens and socks, or maybe smoking a pipe. Rough chairs were sometimes built at the end of the bunk for this purpose. Sometimes they were referred to as "deacon chairs". Bedtime came early so they would be ready for another day of cutting wood.
This schedule was followed everyday except Sunday. Sunday was a day to rest and to relax. The bed was covered with fresh fir boughs to help cushion their sleep and probably help ward off the smell. Some men knitted or went out hunting or trapping. Others collected spruce gum or carved items. Clothes had to be mended and boots had to be greased to remain waterproof. Life in the camps was pretty monotonous for the men who stayed there. Not all men could stand the life and left. Getting hurt in the woods could prove fatal because the man would have to be carted quite a distance to get medical help. There was an old saying in the woods. There were three work crews. "The ones working, the ones leaving, and the ones coming to take the place of those leaving".
Life changed and conditions got better over the years for the lumberjacks. Food continually improved and more variation was included in the menu. Horses replaced oxen and eventually skidders replaced horses. Chainsaws replaced axes and saws and eventually feller bunchers and "cut to length" processors replaced most of the chainsaw crews. Log drives became a thing of the past when trucks started to haul the timber to market. Now men get into heated and air conditioned machines. They listen to music and watch their GPS as they cut the wood. Darkness is not an obstacle due to the lights on these machines. Working hours have increased as a result of this innovation. The camps are changing and the old logging camps may be a thing of the past soon. A few camps still have cooks who prepare food and this food is very good and diversified. Many loggers live bachelor style and have to cook their own food. Today’s loggers are all carrying on the logging tradition in Maine and other states.
I miss the sound of crews working in the woods. When I was younger, you could step outside in the morning and hear the sound of skidders working somewhere out in the woods. The sound of a large Timber Jack or John Deere skidder carries a long ways in the quiet of an early morning. The camps where the skidder crews used to stay employed eight to twelve crews. One crew normally consisted of one skidder operator and one chopper or chainsaw operator. The skidder operator also carried a chainsaw and would help the chopper get the next twitch ready if necessary. This was hard and dangerous work. As we all learn in life, things change and we have to adapt to the new conditions and ways of doing things. I guess it is for the better. It is certainly safer.
Some of the information gained to write this article was inspired from the writings of David C. Smith (Life in the Woods) and Henry David Thoreau (The Maine Woods). I very seldom paraphrase the writings of authors. I read the information multiple times and then write articles in my own words and style. I give credit when and where credit is due.
Photos courtesy of US Forest Service. | 1,538 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looking back at 19th century America, modern day culture has constructed a belief that the Victorians were straitlaced and sexually in the dark.
They have demanded their position in the community, openly exercising their rights, and thus are acknowledged as significant members in society.
However, this was not the case a century ago. The period of the mid-nineteenth century until the dawn of the twentieth century witnessed a patriarchal male society and female dependence, with women struggling to attain social equality. Women were solely controlled by the society crafted by men and expected to act as a feminine ideal of that period.
There are certain rules imposed and standards implemented that women must follow. They are expected to comply with these ideals set by the society and, as a result, opportunities are limited to them and their importance in the society are abbreviated.
Women were considered physically weaker yet morally superior to men, which meant that they were best suited to the domestic sphere. It was clear that the contribution of women in the society was limited and solely controlled under patriarchal authority.
They were excluded from the public sphere and forbidden to get involved with politics, legal, or economic affairs as men dominated all decisions about those matters. The domestic sphere was a cultural expression of the female world.
Their fashions, etiquette, domestic furnishings, social engagements, religious devotion and charitable activity all served to delineate a universe within which women could Female repression of the 19th century their power Abrams.
Women were not allowed to do labor-intensive work, as they were considered to be physically weak. Women ran the household, undertaking domestic work and childcare themselves, as well as supervising the servants employed to cook, clean, and run daily errands.
At times, women were not allowed to go outside the house for any reason unless it was approved by their husbands.
The increased interest in their social class position drove women to start a movement redefining their traditional roles in the society. This has been seen particularly through literature, when women began to vindicate their rights through writings.
The women writers also challenged the patriarchal society and the view that marriage and motherhood were the only careers best suitable for women.
Some of the most prominent female writers of their time include Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Jamaica Kincaid, Marge Piercy and Adrienne Rich, who were praised by both female and male readers, and continue to influence the current generation.
Born on July 3, in Hartford, Connecticut, Gilman was a successful lecturer and intellectual. Aside from being known as a famous writer, Gilman was also regarded as a feminist. She is confined in a temporary house her husband procured, which John believes necessary for her fast recovery.
|Women's Literature in the 19th Century: Overviews | torosgazete.com||This brings us neatly into the subject of Victorian sexuality, which has been a continuing topic of debate and fascination.|
|When Did Slavery Start?||Settlers were taming the west, once-captive blacks were no longer enslaved, and the role of women in society was undergoing a metamorphosis.|
|ELAINE SHOWALTER (ESSAY DATE 1977)||Visit Website In the 17th and 18th centuries, black slaves worked mainly on the tobacco, rice and indigo plantations of the southern coast, from the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Maryland and Virginia south to Georgia.|
|19th Century Gender Roles for Women | Oviatt Library||Will is a senior majoring in Guitar Performance.|
Afraid of being caught, she keeps her journal in secret. Even the room in which she is staying appears to be a nursery. John denied her freedom. He makes all the decisions for her and isolates her from the things she cares about, a clear illustration of male dominance in the marriage.
This also suggests that John is more concerned with the cultural norms in society than his wife, which was commonplace in a marriage during that era. She analyzes the incomprehensible pattern in the wallpaper and becomes obsessed; she concludes that there is a women creeping around behind the wallpaper.
In an effort to free the woman trapped in the second layer, she starts peeling off the wallpaper. As the narrator works to continue, she finally reveals the identity of the women and ultimately loses her sense of individuality.
The narrator allows herself to become free only by confronting her fears of what society and her husband would think of her. In the end, she achieved her independence by trading her sanity for freedom.
Born as Elaine Potter Richardson in St. As an accepted standard in the society, marriage and motherhood are viewed as the most suitable occupation for women. The story starts with what seem to be a long list of practical instructions to the girl. Guidelines in doing common household tasks such as washing clothes, cooking pumpkin fritters, and how to sweep the whole house and yard are imparted to the unnamed daughter.Nov 12, · By the midth century, America’s westward expansion and the abolition movement provoked a great debate over slavery that would tear the nation apart in the bloody Civil War.
Women's roles in the Nineteenth Century Dickinson, Chopin, and Gilman. America in the mid to late nineteenth century was full of potential. Settlers were taming the west, once-captive blacks were no longer enslaved, and the role of women in society was undergoing a metamorphosis.
Marring this progress, however, was a hard, cold reality. Sexual repression is often seen as the In the 19th century women were often considered to be suffering from psychological problems simply by nature of their femininity. This view of intrinsic female insanity meant “women outnumbered men in Victorian.
Foucault pointed out that, far from being silenced, sex was spoken everywhere in the 19th century in a wide range of contexts including the law, medicine, religion, education. Much academic and popular work since has considered the many ways in which Victorians did experience and speak of desire.
Oppression of Women in 19th Century Literature In the stories “The Jewelry” by Guy de Maupassant, “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin, and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the female characters are unequal and less important than the men in society.
Female sexual experiences play an important role in their development of the impact that sexual repression and abuse can have in the development of certain psychological symptoms. In the 19th century women were often considered to be suffering. | <urn:uuid:34a35ec2-d10c-402d-b172-4e7f08f9d67f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://videsahaze.torosgazete.com/female-repression-of-the-19th-century-8874nj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.981362 | 1,344 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.2014237046... | 1 | Looking back at 19th century America, modern day culture has constructed a belief that the Victorians were straitlaced and sexually in the dark.
They have demanded their position in the community, openly exercising their rights, and thus are acknowledged as significant members in society.
However, this was not the case a century ago. The period of the mid-nineteenth century until the dawn of the twentieth century witnessed a patriarchal male society and female dependence, with women struggling to attain social equality. Women were solely controlled by the society crafted by men and expected to act as a feminine ideal of that period.
There are certain rules imposed and standards implemented that women must follow. They are expected to comply with these ideals set by the society and, as a result, opportunities are limited to them and their importance in the society are abbreviated.
Women were considered physically weaker yet morally superior to men, which meant that they were best suited to the domestic sphere. It was clear that the contribution of women in the society was limited and solely controlled under patriarchal authority.
They were excluded from the public sphere and forbidden to get involved with politics, legal, or economic affairs as men dominated all decisions about those matters. The domestic sphere was a cultural expression of the female world.
Their fashions, etiquette, domestic furnishings, social engagements, religious devotion and charitable activity all served to delineate a universe within which women could Female repression of the 19th century their power Abrams.
Women were not allowed to do labor-intensive work, as they were considered to be physically weak. Women ran the household, undertaking domestic work and childcare themselves, as well as supervising the servants employed to cook, clean, and run daily errands.
At times, women were not allowed to go outside the house for any reason unless it was approved by their husbands.
The increased interest in their social class position drove women to start a movement redefining their traditional roles in the society. This has been seen particularly through literature, when women began to vindicate their rights through writings.
The women writers also challenged the patriarchal society and the view that marriage and motherhood were the only careers best suitable for women.
Some of the most prominent female writers of their time include Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Jamaica Kincaid, Marge Piercy and Adrienne Rich, who were praised by both female and male readers, and continue to influence the current generation.
Born on July 3, in Hartford, Connecticut, Gilman was a successful lecturer and intellectual. Aside from being known as a famous writer, Gilman was also regarded as a feminist. She is confined in a temporary house her husband procured, which John believes necessary for her fast recovery.
|Women's Literature in the 19th Century: Overviews | torosgazete.com||This brings us neatly into the subject of Victorian sexuality, which has been a continuing topic of debate and fascination.|
|When Did Slavery Start?||Settlers were taming the west, once-captive blacks were no longer enslaved, and the role of women in society was undergoing a metamorphosis.|
|ELAINE SHOWALTER (ESSAY DATE 1977)||Visit Website In the 17th and 18th centuries, black slaves worked mainly on the tobacco, rice and indigo plantations of the southern coast, from the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Maryland and Virginia south to Georgia.|
|19th Century Gender Roles for Women | Oviatt Library||Will is a senior majoring in Guitar Performance.|
Afraid of being caught, she keeps her journal in secret. Even the room in which she is staying appears to be a nursery. John denied her freedom. He makes all the decisions for her and isolates her from the things she cares about, a clear illustration of male dominance in the marriage.
This also suggests that John is more concerned with the cultural norms in society than his wife, which was commonplace in a marriage during that era. She analyzes the incomprehensible pattern in the wallpaper and becomes obsessed; she concludes that there is a women creeping around behind the wallpaper.
In an effort to free the woman trapped in the second layer, she starts peeling off the wallpaper. As the narrator works to continue, she finally reveals the identity of the women and ultimately loses her sense of individuality.
The narrator allows herself to become free only by confronting her fears of what society and her husband would think of her. In the end, she achieved her independence by trading her sanity for freedom.
Born as Elaine Potter Richardson in St. As an accepted standard in the society, marriage and motherhood are viewed as the most suitable occupation for women. The story starts with what seem to be a long list of practical instructions to the girl. Guidelines in doing common household tasks such as washing clothes, cooking pumpkin fritters, and how to sweep the whole house and yard are imparted to the unnamed daughter.Nov 12, · By the midth century, America’s westward expansion and the abolition movement provoked a great debate over slavery that would tear the nation apart in the bloody Civil War.
Women's roles in the Nineteenth Century Dickinson, Chopin, and Gilman. America in the mid to late nineteenth century was full of potential. Settlers were taming the west, once-captive blacks were no longer enslaved, and the role of women in society was undergoing a metamorphosis.
Marring this progress, however, was a hard, cold reality. Sexual repression is often seen as the In the 19th century women were often considered to be suffering from psychological problems simply by nature of their femininity. This view of intrinsic female insanity meant “women outnumbered men in Victorian.
Foucault pointed out that, far from being silenced, sex was spoken everywhere in the 19th century in a wide range of contexts including the law, medicine, religion, education. Much academic and popular work since has considered the many ways in which Victorians did experience and speak of desire.
Oppression of Women in 19th Century Literature In the stories “The Jewelry” by Guy de Maupassant, “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin, and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the female characters are unequal and less important than the men in society.
Female sexual experiences play an important role in their development of the impact that sexual repression and abuse can have in the development of certain psychological symptoms. In the 19th century women were often considered to be suffering. | 1,333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The altar where you will burn animals as gifts
1 The workers built the altar where Israelites would burn animals as gifts. They made it out of acacia wood. It was 1¼ metres high and the top was square. The top was 2¼ metres long and 2¼ metres wide. 2 They made a horn at each corner. The four horns and the altar were all one whole piece. Then they covered the altar with bronze. 3 They made all its tools out of bronze. They made pots to remove the ashes. They made spades, dishes and forks for the meat. They made buckets out of metal, to carry the fire.
4 They made a net out of bronze and they fixed it under the altar. It was between the top and the ground. 5 They made rings out of bronze to hold the sticks for the four corners of the net. 6 They made the sticks out of acacia wood and they covered them with bronze. 7 They put the sticks into the rings on each side of the altar, to carry it. The altar was empty because the workers made it with boards.
8 Then they made a very large dish for water from bronze. And they made a special piece of bronze for the pot to stand on. They used the bronze from many small mirrors to make these things. The women who were servants at the Tent of Meeting gave these mirrors.
9 The next thing that they made was the yard. The south side of the yard was 46 metres long. It had curtains that they had made from good linen. 10 For these curtains, there were 20 sticks and 20 pieces of bronze with holes in them. They put the sticks in the holes. There were also small pieces of silver and rings on the sticks. These were to fasten the curtains. 11 The north side of the yard was also 46 metres long. It also had curtains with sticks, and things to fasten them, each one to the other.
12 The west end of the yard was 23 metres wide. It had curtains with 10 sticks that they put into 10 pieces of bronze. On the sticks were silver pieces and rings. 13 The east end of the yard looked towards the sunrise and it was 23 metres wide. 14 The workers made curtains, 7 metres long. They hung these on one side of the open space in front of the yard. They hung the curtains on three sticks that they put on three pieces of bronze. 15 On the other side of the open space they did the same thing. 16 They made all the curtains round the yard out of good linen.
17 All the sticks stood on heavy pieces of bronze. All the pieces of metal and the rings on the sticks were silver. They covered the tops of the sticks with silver too. So all the sticks in the yard had silver rings.
18 The curtain at the open space of the yard was blue, purple, red and soft white material. A person who could do wise work with cloth made the curtain. It was 9 metres long and 2¼ metres wide. The curtains of the yard were also 2¼ metres wide. 19 The curtain had four sticks that the workers put on four pieces of bronze. On the sticks were pieces of silver and rings. And they covered the tops of the sticks with silver. 20 They made small, sharp pieces of bronze to fix the tabernacle and the yard to the ground.
The workers used these materials
21 The workers used these amounts of materials when they made the tabernacle of witness. Moses commanded Ithamar, son of Aaron the priest, to write down these amounts. And Ithamar caused the Levites to write them down. 22 Bezalel, the son of Uri and grandson of Hur, made everything that the Lord commanded Moses. Bezalel was from the big family of Judah and Oholiab worked with him. 23 Oholiab was the son of Ahisamach, from the big family of Dan. He was a very clever worker who could draw good plans. He also made beautiful pictures on cloth, with blue, purple and red materials, as well as good linen.
24 The workers used 994 kilos of gold to do all the work of the Holy Place. This gold was offered as a gift by the Israelites.
25 All those Israelites that Moses had counted had given gifts of silver. They had given about 3,600 kilos of silver. 26 Each person who was 20 years old or more had given about 6 grams. Moses had counted the people and there were 603 550 men.
27 The workers used much of the silver to make the bases for the Holy Place and for the curtains. They needed 34 kilos of silver to make each base. 28 Then they used the silver that they had not used before. With this, they made the pieces and the rings to fasten the curtains to the sticks. They also used this silver to cover the tops of the sticks.
29 The amount of bronze that the Israelites gave was about 2,500 kilos. 30 The workers used it to make the bases for the open space in the Tent of Meeting. They also used the bronze to make the bronze altar, the net and all the tools. 31 They made the bases for the yard that was round the Tent of Meeting and for its open space. They made the small sharp pieces of metal to fix the tabernacle and the yard to the ground. They made all these things out of bronze that the Israelites had given. | <urn:uuid:b4ee04ce-c59e-4ac4-a744-ce37904cc6bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/exodus/38/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.98925 | 1,126 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1866146922... | 5 | The altar where you will burn animals as gifts
1 The workers built the altar where Israelites would burn animals as gifts. They made it out of acacia wood. It was 1¼ metres high and the top was square. The top was 2¼ metres long and 2¼ metres wide. 2 They made a horn at each corner. The four horns and the altar were all one whole piece. Then they covered the altar with bronze. 3 They made all its tools out of bronze. They made pots to remove the ashes. They made spades, dishes and forks for the meat. They made buckets out of metal, to carry the fire.
4 They made a net out of bronze and they fixed it under the altar. It was between the top and the ground. 5 They made rings out of bronze to hold the sticks for the four corners of the net. 6 They made the sticks out of acacia wood and they covered them with bronze. 7 They put the sticks into the rings on each side of the altar, to carry it. The altar was empty because the workers made it with boards.
8 Then they made a very large dish for water from bronze. And they made a special piece of bronze for the pot to stand on. They used the bronze from many small mirrors to make these things. The women who were servants at the Tent of Meeting gave these mirrors.
9 The next thing that they made was the yard. The south side of the yard was 46 metres long. It had curtains that they had made from good linen. 10 For these curtains, there were 20 sticks and 20 pieces of bronze with holes in them. They put the sticks in the holes. There were also small pieces of silver and rings on the sticks. These were to fasten the curtains. 11 The north side of the yard was also 46 metres long. It also had curtains with sticks, and things to fasten them, each one to the other.
12 The west end of the yard was 23 metres wide. It had curtains with 10 sticks that they put into 10 pieces of bronze. On the sticks were silver pieces and rings. 13 The east end of the yard looked towards the sunrise and it was 23 metres wide. 14 The workers made curtains, 7 metres long. They hung these on one side of the open space in front of the yard. They hung the curtains on three sticks that they put on three pieces of bronze. 15 On the other side of the open space they did the same thing. 16 They made all the curtains round the yard out of good linen.
17 All the sticks stood on heavy pieces of bronze. All the pieces of metal and the rings on the sticks were silver. They covered the tops of the sticks with silver too. So all the sticks in the yard had silver rings.
18 The curtain at the open space of the yard was blue, purple, red and soft white material. A person who could do wise work with cloth made the curtain. It was 9 metres long and 2¼ metres wide. The curtains of the yard were also 2¼ metres wide. 19 The curtain had four sticks that the workers put on four pieces of bronze. On the sticks were pieces of silver and rings. And they covered the tops of the sticks with silver. 20 They made small, sharp pieces of bronze to fix the tabernacle and the yard to the ground.
The workers used these materials
21 The workers used these amounts of materials when they made the tabernacle of witness. Moses commanded Ithamar, son of Aaron the priest, to write down these amounts. And Ithamar caused the Levites to write them down. 22 Bezalel, the son of Uri and grandson of Hur, made everything that the Lord commanded Moses. Bezalel was from the big family of Judah and Oholiab worked with him. 23 Oholiab was the son of Ahisamach, from the big family of Dan. He was a very clever worker who could draw good plans. He also made beautiful pictures on cloth, with blue, purple and red materials, as well as good linen.
24 The workers used 994 kilos of gold to do all the work of the Holy Place. This gold was offered as a gift by the Israelites.
25 All those Israelites that Moses had counted had given gifts of silver. They had given about 3,600 kilos of silver. 26 Each person who was 20 years old or more had given about 6 grams. Moses had counted the people and there were 603 550 men.
27 The workers used much of the silver to make the bases for the Holy Place and for the curtains. They needed 34 kilos of silver to make each base. 28 Then they used the silver that they had not used before. With this, they made the pieces and the rings to fasten the curtains to the sticks. They also used this silver to cover the tops of the sticks.
29 The amount of bronze that the Israelites gave was about 2,500 kilos. 30 The workers used it to make the bases for the open space in the Tent of Meeting. They also used the bronze to make the bronze altar, the net and all the tools. 31 They made the bases for the yard that was round the Tent of Meeting and for its open space. They made the small sharp pieces of metal to fix the tabernacle and the yard to the ground. They made all these things out of bronze that the Israelites had given. | 1,191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even within the context of the unimaginable atrocities committed during Pol Pot’s rule, Cambodia’s Chinese community endured some of the greatest losses under the ultra-communist regime.
Out of a population of 430,000 ethnic Chinese inside the country when the Khmer Rouge took power in 1975, historians say about half had perished by the time the regime was overthrown less than four years later—dead from disease, hunger, exhaustion or execution.
“Democratic Kampuchea was the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia,” prominent academic Ben Kiernan writes in his book, “The Pol Pot Regime.”
The deaths, by proportion, were higher even than the 36 percent of the 250,000 ethnic Cham Muslims and 21 percent of Cambodia’s native Khmer who lost their lives during the regime, according to prevailing estimates.
Yet a question persists: Was it genocide?
Motives For Murder
The reasons for the loss of so many Chinese lives at the hands of the regime is still debated among historians and academics.
Some argue that a disproportionate number of Chinese died because they were seen as urbanites, and therefore enemies of the revolution. Others contend that the group was directly targeted because of their ethnicity.
The tragedies that befell the Chinese during Democratic Kampuchea have been omitted from the genocide charges at the Khmer Rouge tribunal, where the regime’s second-in-command Nuon Chea and head of state Khieu Samphan are on trial.
While dozens of witnesses have taken the stand to recount tales of massacres and desecration of culture of Cham Muslims and ethnic Vietnamese, the horrors the Chinese faced have gone almost completely undocumented at the tribunal.
But 81-year-old Kang Heng remembers.
While trudging through another grueling day of labor in the rice paddies of Kampot province during the Khmer Rouge years, Ms. Heng witnessed soldiers tying up a group of her neighbors, mostly Chinese-Cambodians, and marching them away.
“I saw some people led away for reeducation. I didn’t see them killed, but I saw them tied up and taken away,” Ms. Heng recalled during an interview at a Phnom Penh restaurant last month.
She never saw the villagers again.
While sympathetic to their fates, Ms. Heng, whose grandparents were half Chinese, doesn’t believe the villagers were singled out because of their ethnic background. Many Chinese were targeted because they were wealthy, she said, and therefore seen as oppressors of the peasantry.
“The group of Chinese were killed because they were rich before the regime,” she said. “It wasn’t because of their ethnicity.”
Ms. Heng thinks she survived because she worked especially hard in the fields and because her family only ran a small rural shop before 1975. But the Khmer Rouge were capricious, she admitted, and her sister was murdered by a local cadre who “randomly accused her” of a crime.
China was the Khmer Rouge’s strongest ally. Chairman Mao Zedong and his successors sent large numbers of Chinese technical advisers to assist the Pol Pot regime. Ideologically, there were clear similarities between the disastrous agrarian socialist experiments inflicted on both countries, and the Khmer Rouge are often referred to as “ultra-Maoist.”
This appeared, however, to do few favors for the ethnic Chinese living inside the country. No one argues that thousands upon thousands of them died during the Khmer Rouge years. Rather, the main issue of contention by those seeking justice for the dead is whether the regime actively targeted the group because of their ethnicity or their social circumstances.
Were they purged because of their clan or because they were urbanites—representative of a wealthy, educated class and therefore enemies of the revolution? The distinction matters greatly in any legal discussion of genocide, yet even the experts disagree.
To many, the term genocide is synonymous with mass murder. The U.N. Genocide Convention, however, defines the crime as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.” Economic and political purges are not covered by the convention because Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin had those removed from the convention’s final draft in 1948.
Chan Sambath, a Sino-Khmer academic whose mother was murdered by the Khmer Rouge and has since researched the treatment of the Chinese during the regime, remembered his people being singled out by cadres in Kompong Chhnang province as a young child.
“They sent us to child camps and they distinguished Chinese children, Cambodian children and Vietnamese children,” Mr. Sambath said last month in Phnom Penh. “They treated us different from the others—less food, more hours to work. They would say, ‘You are Chinese. You used to have a full fridge of food and now it’s time for you.”
Mr. Sambath believes they were targeted because of their status as urbanites, and that many died as they struggled with a life of hard labor after being uprooted from the city.
“A lot of Chinese at that time didn’t know how to speak Khmer very well. It was very hard to beg people for food. Even though everyone is ‘equal,’ they don’t understand you because your Khmer is not clear, right?” he said.
“They killed them because their class was different. They killed them because they were urban. They killed them because they wanted to retaliate,” he said. “They hated that the Chinese controlled all economics at that time. Lastly, the Chinese were a little bit stubborn and they did not really work as hard as the farmers and other ethnics like Cham or Vietnamese.”
Mr. Sambath’s theory—the Chinese were targeted because they were wealthy and educated—is often supported by Khmer Rouge academics.
In his book about Pol Pot, Mr. Kiernan writes that there was “no noticeable racialist vendetta against people of Chinese origin,” but that the group was targeted as they were perceived as “the archetypal city dwellers.”
Elizabeth Becker, a veteran U.S. reporter who interviewed Pol Pot and authored “When The War Was Over,” said the Chinese were targeted due to their socioeconomic status prior to the revolution.
“The ethnic Chinese were condemned as ‘imperialists,’ as members of the old ‘comprador class’ in party rhetoric. Informally, they were condemned as ‘chalk face’ or ‘white face,’” Ms. Becker said in an email.
“Members of the Chinese minority had been envied and feared for their business prowess in the ‘old society’ and largely lived within their own section of Phnom Penh, the Chinese quartier. Many barely spoke Khmer. After 1975, they were thrown out of the city and sent to the countryside. Many were killed off right away,” she added.
But others contend that focusing on social or economic divisions leads to a facile explanation for treatment of the Chinese. Penny Edwards, a British historian and professor at the University of California at Berkeley, said she had gathered during her research clear examples of Chinese being targeted purely for their membership in an ethnic group.
She specifically cited the account of 29 families who were buried alive in what was then Kompong Cham province.
“The stories I heard in the 1990s gave me grounds to believe that a disproportionate number of Chinese, across a social spectrum, including rural and urban Chinese, had been targeted for punishment and execution because of the expression of ‘ethnical’ and ‘racial’ membership of a group through such markers as Chinese language use,” Ms. Edwards said in an email.
“The worst story I heard was of 29 Chinese who were rounded up and buried alive in Chhup, in the grounds of a colonial villa. I heard it from people who had witnessed it, and who we interviewed independently of each other in Chhup,” she said.
“The massacre was triggered by two Khmer Rouge cadres overhearing two elderly Chinese women talking Chinese to each other,” she added.
Ms. Edwards said the branding of the country’s Chinese as wealthy urbanites in trying to explain why they were targeted has perpetuated the same stereotype that led to the Chinese being targeted during Democratic Kampuchea.
“Immediately after the DK, respected journalists and scholars made sweeping statements to the effect that Chinese died in greater numbers because (a) they were targeted on class grounds and (b) they were more likely to die because they were soft-skinned city people who were not used to rough treatment and peasant labor,” Ms. Edwards said.
“Those statements contain their own inbuilt prejudices about Chinese in Southeast Asia, and recycle the stereotypes which I believe led to the disproportionate targeting of Chinese: namely, that all Chinese were wealthy. Once those statements were published they gained their own narrative traction, and were seldom questioned.”
The complexity of the situation was compounded even further, the historian said, by campaigns by Mao Zedong’s officials to target Chinese who had lived overseas and returned home.
“The Khmer Rouge leadership might have picked up on this when they visited China in the early 1970s, and oral history and survivor memoirs indicate that some Chinese technical experts posted to Cambodia by the Chinese government in the Khmer Rouge period also brought those perspectives and prejudices with them,” she said.
In weighing whether the ethnic Chinese population in Cambodia were victims of genocide, answering the question of why they died in such high numbers is beside the point, some argue. Mr. Kiernan writes that the treatment of the Chinese “could be construed as genocide,” despite his belief that they were targeted on class and economic grounds.
Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, who also founded the Cambodian Genocide Project in 1981, said debates over why the Chinese were targeted could have muddied efforts to prosecute anyone for their murders.
“Prosecutors would have to prove that the Chinese were killed because of their race to prove charges of genocide against Chinese people by the Khmer Rouge leaders. So the other two reasons they were killed (Marxist economic class enemy doctrine, and because they were urbanites) would actually complicate the prosecution, and ironically could be used by the defense to counter charges of genocide,” Mr. Stanton said.
“Cham and Vietnamese lived in rural areas. They were not landowners or merchants. So neither of the other two reasons why Chinese were targeted applies to them. That makes it easier to prove that they were persecuted and killed because of their religion, ethnicity, race, and nationality,” he said.
Craig Etcheson, a prominent researcher who served as chief of investigations in the Office of the Co-Prosecutors at the Khmer Rouge tribunal, said he believed the Chinese were perceived as “class enemies” and rejected the suggestion that their treatment amounted to genocide.
“I do not think there is a good case to be made that the ethnic Chinese were targeted for genocide,” Mr. Etcheson said in an email. “The Cham and the Vietnamese were targeted because of who they were; the Chinese were targeted because of what they were perceived to be: shopkeepers, merchants, and bankers.”
Identifying the distinction between motive and intent is something “that a lot of people don’t get,” Mr. Etcheson said.
“I think what we’ve got here is that the Chinese weren’t targeted because they were Chinese, but because they were bourgeoisie, and hence an economic group, which is not among the types of groups protected under the genocide convention. If you were a poor Chinese peasant, you would not have been targeted.”
Mr. Sambath, the Sino-Khmer academic, who now splits his time between Phnom Penh and Canada, believes the tribunal dodged the Chinese question. The court—plagued with accusations of political interference—likely did so because of the increasingly close ties between the governments of Cambodia and China, he said.
“They don’t want to bring that issue to the court, this is my opinion. The Cambodian government, they might bring that issue and it might hurt the Chinese more because there is a very close relationship between Cambodia and China,” Mr. Sambath said.
“Why did the Cambodian people not want to protect Chinese or why did the Chinese not protect Chinese in Cambodia? They don’t want to bring that issue to the public.”
(Additional reporting by Chhorn Phearun)
© 2016, All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:a9659b9c-3003-4f09-a717-1f3a2ac39fff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://english.cambodiadaily.com/features/unpunished-purge-118960/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.986126 | 2,716 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.6208904981613159,... | 3 | Even within the context of the unimaginable atrocities committed during Pol Pot’s rule, Cambodia’s Chinese community endured some of the greatest losses under the ultra-communist regime.
Out of a population of 430,000 ethnic Chinese inside the country when the Khmer Rouge took power in 1975, historians say about half had perished by the time the regime was overthrown less than four years later—dead from disease, hunger, exhaustion or execution.
“Democratic Kampuchea was the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia,” prominent academic Ben Kiernan writes in his book, “The Pol Pot Regime.”
The deaths, by proportion, were higher even than the 36 percent of the 250,000 ethnic Cham Muslims and 21 percent of Cambodia’s native Khmer who lost their lives during the regime, according to prevailing estimates.
Yet a question persists: Was it genocide?
Motives For Murder
The reasons for the loss of so many Chinese lives at the hands of the regime is still debated among historians and academics.
Some argue that a disproportionate number of Chinese died because they were seen as urbanites, and therefore enemies of the revolution. Others contend that the group was directly targeted because of their ethnicity.
The tragedies that befell the Chinese during Democratic Kampuchea have been omitted from the genocide charges at the Khmer Rouge tribunal, where the regime’s second-in-command Nuon Chea and head of state Khieu Samphan are on trial.
While dozens of witnesses have taken the stand to recount tales of massacres and desecration of culture of Cham Muslims and ethnic Vietnamese, the horrors the Chinese faced have gone almost completely undocumented at the tribunal.
But 81-year-old Kang Heng remembers.
While trudging through another grueling day of labor in the rice paddies of Kampot province during the Khmer Rouge years, Ms. Heng witnessed soldiers tying up a group of her neighbors, mostly Chinese-Cambodians, and marching them away.
“I saw some people led away for reeducation. I didn’t see them killed, but I saw them tied up and taken away,” Ms. Heng recalled during an interview at a Phnom Penh restaurant last month.
She never saw the villagers again.
While sympathetic to their fates, Ms. Heng, whose grandparents were half Chinese, doesn’t believe the villagers were singled out because of their ethnic background. Many Chinese were targeted because they were wealthy, she said, and therefore seen as oppressors of the peasantry.
“The group of Chinese were killed because they were rich before the regime,” she said. “It wasn’t because of their ethnicity.”
Ms. Heng thinks she survived because she worked especially hard in the fields and because her family only ran a small rural shop before 1975. But the Khmer Rouge were capricious, she admitted, and her sister was murdered by a local cadre who “randomly accused her” of a crime.
China was the Khmer Rouge’s strongest ally. Chairman Mao Zedong and his successors sent large numbers of Chinese technical advisers to assist the Pol Pot regime. Ideologically, there were clear similarities between the disastrous agrarian socialist experiments inflicted on both countries, and the Khmer Rouge are often referred to as “ultra-Maoist.”
This appeared, however, to do few favors for the ethnic Chinese living inside the country. No one argues that thousands upon thousands of them died during the Khmer Rouge years. Rather, the main issue of contention by those seeking justice for the dead is whether the regime actively targeted the group because of their ethnicity or their social circumstances.
Were they purged because of their clan or because they were urbanites—representative of a wealthy, educated class and therefore enemies of the revolution? The distinction matters greatly in any legal discussion of genocide, yet even the experts disagree.
To many, the term genocide is synonymous with mass murder. The U.N. Genocide Convention, however, defines the crime as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.” Economic and political purges are not covered by the convention because Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin had those removed from the convention’s final draft in 1948.
Chan Sambath, a Sino-Khmer academic whose mother was murdered by the Khmer Rouge and has since researched the treatment of the Chinese during the regime, remembered his people being singled out by cadres in Kompong Chhnang province as a young child.
“They sent us to child camps and they distinguished Chinese children, Cambodian children and Vietnamese children,” Mr. Sambath said last month in Phnom Penh. “They treated us different from the others—less food, more hours to work. They would say, ‘You are Chinese. You used to have a full fridge of food and now it’s time for you.”
Mr. Sambath believes they were targeted because of their status as urbanites, and that many died as they struggled with a life of hard labor after being uprooted from the city.
“A lot of Chinese at that time didn’t know how to speak Khmer very well. It was very hard to beg people for food. Even though everyone is ‘equal,’ they don’t understand you because your Khmer is not clear, right?” he said.
“They killed them because their class was different. They killed them because they were urban. They killed them because they wanted to retaliate,” he said. “They hated that the Chinese controlled all economics at that time. Lastly, the Chinese were a little bit stubborn and they did not really work as hard as the farmers and other ethnics like Cham or Vietnamese.”
Mr. Sambath’s theory—the Chinese were targeted because they were wealthy and educated—is often supported by Khmer Rouge academics.
In his book about Pol Pot, Mr. Kiernan writes that there was “no noticeable racialist vendetta against people of Chinese origin,” but that the group was targeted as they were perceived as “the archetypal city dwellers.”
Elizabeth Becker, a veteran U.S. reporter who interviewed Pol Pot and authored “When The War Was Over,” said the Chinese were targeted due to their socioeconomic status prior to the revolution.
“The ethnic Chinese were condemned as ‘imperialists,’ as members of the old ‘comprador class’ in party rhetoric. Informally, they were condemned as ‘chalk face’ or ‘white face,’” Ms. Becker said in an email.
“Members of the Chinese minority had been envied and feared for their business prowess in the ‘old society’ and largely lived within their own section of Phnom Penh, the Chinese quartier. Many barely spoke Khmer. After 1975, they were thrown out of the city and sent to the countryside. Many were killed off right away,” she added.
But others contend that focusing on social or economic divisions leads to a facile explanation for treatment of the Chinese. Penny Edwards, a British historian and professor at the University of California at Berkeley, said she had gathered during her research clear examples of Chinese being targeted purely for their membership in an ethnic group.
She specifically cited the account of 29 families who were buried alive in what was then Kompong Cham province.
“The stories I heard in the 1990s gave me grounds to believe that a disproportionate number of Chinese, across a social spectrum, including rural and urban Chinese, had been targeted for punishment and execution because of the expression of ‘ethnical’ and ‘racial’ membership of a group through such markers as Chinese language use,” Ms. Edwards said in an email.
“The worst story I heard was of 29 Chinese who were rounded up and buried alive in Chhup, in the grounds of a colonial villa. I heard it from people who had witnessed it, and who we interviewed independently of each other in Chhup,” she said.
“The massacre was triggered by two Khmer Rouge cadres overhearing two elderly Chinese women talking Chinese to each other,” she added.
Ms. Edwards said the branding of the country’s Chinese as wealthy urbanites in trying to explain why they were targeted has perpetuated the same stereotype that led to the Chinese being targeted during Democratic Kampuchea.
“Immediately after the DK, respected journalists and scholars made sweeping statements to the effect that Chinese died in greater numbers because (a) they were targeted on class grounds and (b) they were more likely to die because they were soft-skinned city people who were not used to rough treatment and peasant labor,” Ms. Edwards said.
“Those statements contain their own inbuilt prejudices about Chinese in Southeast Asia, and recycle the stereotypes which I believe led to the disproportionate targeting of Chinese: namely, that all Chinese were wealthy. Once those statements were published they gained their own narrative traction, and were seldom questioned.”
The complexity of the situation was compounded even further, the historian said, by campaigns by Mao Zedong’s officials to target Chinese who had lived overseas and returned home.
“The Khmer Rouge leadership might have picked up on this when they visited China in the early 1970s, and oral history and survivor memoirs indicate that some Chinese technical experts posted to Cambodia by the Chinese government in the Khmer Rouge period also brought those perspectives and prejudices with them,” she said.
In weighing whether the ethnic Chinese population in Cambodia were victims of genocide, answering the question of why they died in such high numbers is beside the point, some argue. Mr. Kiernan writes that the treatment of the Chinese “could be construed as genocide,” despite his belief that they were targeted on class and economic grounds.
Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, who also founded the Cambodian Genocide Project in 1981, said debates over why the Chinese were targeted could have muddied efforts to prosecute anyone for their murders.
“Prosecutors would have to prove that the Chinese were killed because of their race to prove charges of genocide against Chinese people by the Khmer Rouge leaders. So the other two reasons they were killed (Marxist economic class enemy doctrine, and because they were urbanites) would actually complicate the prosecution, and ironically could be used by the defense to counter charges of genocide,” Mr. Stanton said.
“Cham and Vietnamese lived in rural areas. They were not landowners or merchants. So neither of the other two reasons why Chinese were targeted applies to them. That makes it easier to prove that they were persecuted and killed because of their religion, ethnicity, race, and nationality,” he said.
Craig Etcheson, a prominent researcher who served as chief of investigations in the Office of the Co-Prosecutors at the Khmer Rouge tribunal, said he believed the Chinese were perceived as “class enemies” and rejected the suggestion that their treatment amounted to genocide.
“I do not think there is a good case to be made that the ethnic Chinese were targeted for genocide,” Mr. Etcheson said in an email. “The Cham and the Vietnamese were targeted because of who they were; the Chinese were targeted because of what they were perceived to be: shopkeepers, merchants, and bankers.”
Identifying the distinction between motive and intent is something “that a lot of people don’t get,” Mr. Etcheson said.
“I think what we’ve got here is that the Chinese weren’t targeted because they were Chinese, but because they were bourgeoisie, and hence an economic group, which is not among the types of groups protected under the genocide convention. If you were a poor Chinese peasant, you would not have been targeted.”
Mr. Sambath, the Sino-Khmer academic, who now splits his time between Phnom Penh and Canada, believes the tribunal dodged the Chinese question. The court—plagued with accusations of political interference—likely did so because of the increasingly close ties between the governments of Cambodia and China, he said.
“They don’t want to bring that issue to the court, this is my opinion. The Cambodian government, they might bring that issue and it might hurt the Chinese more because there is a very close relationship between Cambodia and China,” Mr. Sambath said.
“Why did the Cambodian people not want to protect Chinese or why did the Chinese not protect Chinese in Cambodia? They don’t want to bring that issue to the public.”
(Additional reporting by Chhorn Phearun)
© 2016, All rights reserved. | 2,549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Picts are a group of people who lived in Northern Britain during the Roman times and the traditional Arthur period. The Picts were some of the very first settlers of Scotland. There are myths that tell of their lineage, being apparently descended from the Celtic goddess “Brighid”. The first king of Scotland, Kenneth I, was a descendant from this line, and his mother was a Pictish queen. The beginnings of this ancient civilization dates back to 312, the first record consisting of a list of kings. The first recorded king of the Picts was called Vipoig, ruling from 312 to 342.
Fighting the Romans
For the Romans, who at the time controlled much of Britain, the Picts were nothing more than a group of savages who fought naked and with little weaponry, but time proved their fearsome prowess. The Roman Empire tried to enter their territory countless times, but the Picts fought back the greatest military force the world had ever known, and won every time. They were the only people that Rome’s legions couldn’t conquer.
The Romans where accustomed to win when they started their invasions to Britain. There was no powerful civilization they came into contact with that wasn’t conquered. The Roman legions were feared; nobody had ever encountered such formidable enemies. But the Romans had never faced an enemy like this group. They were simply expecting another victory (and an easy one, as they thought of the Picts as land-people who simply lived in small communities, farmed, fished, with little to no knowledge about battles). At first, the Picts retreated when the Romans started fighting, so they thought that their troops proved their mastery. Nonetheless, such victory was no more than a flight of fancy. The Picts returned out of the woods when the Romans were setting a camp, so they were caught unaware and were massacred by the Picts. They used the same treachery over and over: they gave the Romans a false sense of security, only to strike at them when their guard was down. They would lure the Roman cavalry away from their infantry, and a second squad would massacre them.
Their History and Origin
The Picts were invading Britain during the time of the Roman withdrawal. The legend says that Vortigern invited the Saxons to oppose them. Monmouth says that the Picts opposed Arthur and that he might had them wiped out. Bede says that Picts arrived after the Britons, coming from what today would be Ukraine. Monmouth says that the Picts’ immigration happened under King Sodric’s ruling. They have been linked to the Basques of Spain, and believed to be Goths during the 18th century. Another theory claims that they came from Norway or Scandinavia. Even though they spoke Celt, it’s not very clear if they were closely related to other Celtic people. Apparently, no written record is really left of them and not even their neighbors seemed to socialize with them, as they didn’t even mention them. That’s why the Romans were the first ones to ever talk about the Picts.
Characteristics of the Picts
The name of “Picts” came from the Romans who observed them. Apparently, “Pict” is a derivation of “the painted” or “the tattooed”, in reference of the blue tattoos that covered the Picts’ bodies. The Roman sources tell that they shaved every part of the body, except for the head and upper lip. The only clothing they wore were iron chains around their waists and throats, as iron was considered (by them) to be more valuable than gold. Picts also used them to carry their weaponry. Otherwise, their bodies were tattooed from head to toe with designs, drawings of animals, and simply-colored tattoos. They were, in fact, so beautiful that the Romans thought they didn’t dress in order to show their tattoos off.
Still, the Picts might have been wronged as a civilization. Far from the primitive people of popular culture, they built a sophisticated culture that surpassed the Anglo-Saxons in many aspects. Some recent studies show an important archaeological discovery in Scotland, a Pictish monastery at the peninsula of Easter Ross (Portmahomack), that shows how capable of great art and architecture they really were. Said monastery, apparently centered on a church that was the house of 150 workers and monks, was similar to the religious center of St. Columba at Iona, and they might have made gospel books of the likes of the Book of Kells and religious artifacts too. Some architectural historians discovered that the Picts built the monastery using the proportions of “the Golden Section” (a name given to a mathematical principle during the Renaissance). It can also be appreciated in Notre Dame Cathedral and the Egyptian Pyramids. Such techniques were seen as too advanced for the Picts, but this proves their real capabilities.
The Decline of the Picts
The monastery met with a major fire in the 9th century were many sculptures were shattered, implying that it was sacked by the Vikings during their intent of territory expansions in Scotland. The site was still occupied but the monastic evidence vanished. The Picts (who were slowly converted to Christianity) and Scots through their shared religion joined forces against a mutual enemy, thus creating the Kingdom of Scotland.
Despite their fearless warrior culture and advanced constitution, they more or less vanished during the 10th century. During that time, Scotland became controlled by the Scots, (who were Irish Gaels), and the Picts’ language was replaced by Gaelic, losing their cultural identity in the process. Their kingdom was completely transformed into “The Kingdom of Alba” and that’s where the traces of their culture were lost (more or less during 1100). Martin Carver, professor of archaeology says that “The Picts have always been an attractive lost people, they are one of the most interesting lost peoples of Europe. The big question is what happened to them, and did they ever really make a kingdom of their own?” The feral Picts that the Roman Empire couldn’t conquer simply faded and left little to no trace of their existence.
Jason is the editor-in-chief of ArthurLegends.com and the primary author of the Arthurian Shared Universe. He has a deep love of British history and mythology, especially relating to Celtic and Arthurian traditions (obviously). He spends most of his days in made-up worlds. | <urn:uuid:73aef454-46fe-4f40-85e4-ffe6a9617700> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.arthurlegends.com/the-picts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.988083 | 1,349 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.552585840... | 4 | The Picts are a group of people who lived in Northern Britain during the Roman times and the traditional Arthur period. The Picts were some of the very first settlers of Scotland. There are myths that tell of their lineage, being apparently descended from the Celtic goddess “Brighid”. The first king of Scotland, Kenneth I, was a descendant from this line, and his mother was a Pictish queen. The beginnings of this ancient civilization dates back to 312, the first record consisting of a list of kings. The first recorded king of the Picts was called Vipoig, ruling from 312 to 342.
Fighting the Romans
For the Romans, who at the time controlled much of Britain, the Picts were nothing more than a group of savages who fought naked and with little weaponry, but time proved their fearsome prowess. The Roman Empire tried to enter their territory countless times, but the Picts fought back the greatest military force the world had ever known, and won every time. They were the only people that Rome’s legions couldn’t conquer.
The Romans where accustomed to win when they started their invasions to Britain. There was no powerful civilization they came into contact with that wasn’t conquered. The Roman legions were feared; nobody had ever encountered such formidable enemies. But the Romans had never faced an enemy like this group. They were simply expecting another victory (and an easy one, as they thought of the Picts as land-people who simply lived in small communities, farmed, fished, with little to no knowledge about battles). At first, the Picts retreated when the Romans started fighting, so they thought that their troops proved their mastery. Nonetheless, such victory was no more than a flight of fancy. The Picts returned out of the woods when the Romans were setting a camp, so they were caught unaware and were massacred by the Picts. They used the same treachery over and over: they gave the Romans a false sense of security, only to strike at them when their guard was down. They would lure the Roman cavalry away from their infantry, and a second squad would massacre them.
Their History and Origin
The Picts were invading Britain during the time of the Roman withdrawal. The legend says that Vortigern invited the Saxons to oppose them. Monmouth says that the Picts opposed Arthur and that he might had them wiped out. Bede says that Picts arrived after the Britons, coming from what today would be Ukraine. Monmouth says that the Picts’ immigration happened under King Sodric’s ruling. They have been linked to the Basques of Spain, and believed to be Goths during the 18th century. Another theory claims that they came from Norway or Scandinavia. Even though they spoke Celt, it’s not very clear if they were closely related to other Celtic people. Apparently, no written record is really left of them and not even their neighbors seemed to socialize with them, as they didn’t even mention them. That’s why the Romans were the first ones to ever talk about the Picts.
Characteristics of the Picts
The name of “Picts” came from the Romans who observed them. Apparently, “Pict” is a derivation of “the painted” or “the tattooed”, in reference of the blue tattoos that covered the Picts’ bodies. The Roman sources tell that they shaved every part of the body, except for the head and upper lip. The only clothing they wore were iron chains around their waists and throats, as iron was considered (by them) to be more valuable than gold. Picts also used them to carry their weaponry. Otherwise, their bodies were tattooed from head to toe with designs, drawings of animals, and simply-colored tattoos. They were, in fact, so beautiful that the Romans thought they didn’t dress in order to show their tattoos off.
Still, the Picts might have been wronged as a civilization. Far from the primitive people of popular culture, they built a sophisticated culture that surpassed the Anglo-Saxons in many aspects. Some recent studies show an important archaeological discovery in Scotland, a Pictish monastery at the peninsula of Easter Ross (Portmahomack), that shows how capable of great art and architecture they really were. Said monastery, apparently centered on a church that was the house of 150 workers and monks, was similar to the religious center of St. Columba at Iona, and they might have made gospel books of the likes of the Book of Kells and religious artifacts too. Some architectural historians discovered that the Picts built the monastery using the proportions of “the Golden Section” (a name given to a mathematical principle during the Renaissance). It can also be appreciated in Notre Dame Cathedral and the Egyptian Pyramids. Such techniques were seen as too advanced for the Picts, but this proves their real capabilities.
The Decline of the Picts
The monastery met with a major fire in the 9th century were many sculptures were shattered, implying that it was sacked by the Vikings during their intent of territory expansions in Scotland. The site was still occupied but the monastic evidence vanished. The Picts (who were slowly converted to Christianity) and Scots through their shared religion joined forces against a mutual enemy, thus creating the Kingdom of Scotland.
Despite their fearless warrior culture and advanced constitution, they more or less vanished during the 10th century. During that time, Scotland became controlled by the Scots, (who were Irish Gaels), and the Picts’ language was replaced by Gaelic, losing their cultural identity in the process. Their kingdom was completely transformed into “The Kingdom of Alba” and that’s where the traces of their culture were lost (more or less during 1100). Martin Carver, professor of archaeology says that “The Picts have always been an attractive lost people, they are one of the most interesting lost peoples of Europe. The big question is what happened to them, and did they ever really make a kingdom of their own?” The feral Picts that the Roman Empire couldn’t conquer simply faded and left little to no trace of their existence.
Jason is the editor-in-chief of ArthurLegends.com and the primary author of the Arthurian Shared Universe. He has a deep love of British history and mythology, especially relating to Celtic and Arthurian traditions (obviously). He spends most of his days in made-up worlds. | 1,324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Of all the officers and ranks of the ancient Roman Army, the centurion is probably the most famous. When did centurions first appear, how were they chosen and how many were there and who was at their command?
Legends tells us that Romulus led the first army of Rome in the mid-8th century BC. His army was made up of 3000 men, with 30 centurions each commanding a 100 man infantry troop. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), however, the Romans actually adopted the centurion rank from the Etruscans. The Etruscan civilisation flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd century BC. It was renounced for its mineral resources and was a major Mediterranean trading power. Dionysius stated that it was the Etruscan king of Rome, Servius Tullius (c. 579-534 BC) who incorporated the centurion system into the Roman army. By the late 6th century BC, the Roman army had two legions, each made up of 3000 heavy hoplite infantry, 1200 light infantry and 300 cavalry. As it was conquered by Rome in the 3rd century, Etruscan culture was either ruthlessly obliterated, or assimilated.
Centurions were chosen from the army ranks after experience on the battlefield and valour shown. They had a key role in maintaining order and ensuring military success. They commanded units of around 100 legionaries, known as a maniple (Latin manipulus, meaning a handful). Each maniple had its own military insignia, or standard, also called a maniple. Although it varied over time, 60 groups of maniples made up a legion of around 6000. The most senior centurion in each legion was the primus pilus, who had a seat on the military council. Centurions bravely took their position in the front line of their troops during battle, which meant they had a high fatality rate.
The Roman army became more professional over time and centurions were no longer chosen from the lower plebian class and, by the 1st century BC, were from the higher equestrian class. Centurions were promoted from the ranks, elected or chosen by the Senate, and in some cases even appointed by the Emperor of Rome. They also had more administrative duties, so had to have appropriate education. Senior centurions rose to the higher ranks and even became members of the Senate. The centurion mentioned most often in Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars is P. Sextius Baculus, who saved Caesar’s life on the battlefield. This is just one of many experienced veterans, who commanded fear and respect from both Romans and enemy troops.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | <urn:uuid:b5bf0c38-9aea-47c4-8934-13beb0b42b98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/ancient-treasures/014-centurions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.987649 | 575 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.083542041480541... | 12 | Of all the officers and ranks of the ancient Roman Army, the centurion is probably the most famous. When did centurions first appear, how were they chosen and how many were there and who was at their command?
Legends tells us that Romulus led the first army of Rome in the mid-8th century BC. His army was made up of 3000 men, with 30 centurions each commanding a 100 man infantry troop. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), however, the Romans actually adopted the centurion rank from the Etruscans. The Etruscan civilisation flourished in central Italy between the 8th and 3rd century BC. It was renounced for its mineral resources and was a major Mediterranean trading power. Dionysius stated that it was the Etruscan king of Rome, Servius Tullius (c. 579-534 BC) who incorporated the centurion system into the Roman army. By the late 6th century BC, the Roman army had two legions, each made up of 3000 heavy hoplite infantry, 1200 light infantry and 300 cavalry. As it was conquered by Rome in the 3rd century, Etruscan culture was either ruthlessly obliterated, or assimilated.
Centurions were chosen from the army ranks after experience on the battlefield and valour shown. They had a key role in maintaining order and ensuring military success. They commanded units of around 100 legionaries, known as a maniple (Latin manipulus, meaning a handful). Each maniple had its own military insignia, or standard, also called a maniple. Although it varied over time, 60 groups of maniples made up a legion of around 6000. The most senior centurion in each legion was the primus pilus, who had a seat on the military council. Centurions bravely took their position in the front line of their troops during battle, which meant they had a high fatality rate.
The Roman army became more professional over time and centurions were no longer chosen from the lower plebian class and, by the 1st century BC, were from the higher equestrian class. Centurions were promoted from the ranks, elected or chosen by the Senate, and in some cases even appointed by the Emperor of Rome. They also had more administrative duties, so had to have appropriate education. Senior centurions rose to the higher ranks and even became members of the Senate. The centurion mentioned most often in Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars is P. Sextius Baculus, who saved Caesar’s life on the battlefield. This is just one of many experienced veterans, who commanded fear and respect from both Romans and enemy troops.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The town walls of Ziębice (initially, probably until the destruction by the Mongols in 1241 called Sambice, later after the location of around 1250 called Munsterberck) were built at the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. For the first time they were mentioned in 1336, so it is uncertain whether the town was protected by stone fortifications as early as 1280, during the unsuccessful siege by Bolko of Jawor and Brandenburg army, whether wood-earth fortifications were still providing protection at that time. If the defensive walls were erected a little later, after the reign of Henry IV Probus, it could have been built during the short reign of Bolko I of Świdnica, to whom tradition also attributes the construction of the castle. A little later, around 1388, the town was surrounded by a second moat.
In 1428, the defensive walls were seriously damaged during the Hussite invasion. In the following years of the 15th century they were rebuilt in connection with the spread of artillery and as a result of damages caused by the Hussites. Prince Charles I carried out a thorough renovation of fortifications in the first half of the 16th century.
In the first half of the 17th century during the Thirty Years’ War, medieval fortifications lost their importance as a result of rapid military progress. Despite this, until the eighteenth century they played a role in obstructing the entrance to the town, especially tramps, deserters and robbers. In 1780, at the order of Frederick II, the town moat was filled in, and the area thus obtained was designated for gardens. The reason for this decision was probably malaria, the appearance of which drew attention to the swampy and dirty habitats of mosquitoes, which were in neglected moats. The demolition of the city walls began in the years 1819-1850, when all the gates were destroyed except Paczków Gate, saved by the city council, which indicated its good condition.
The fortification ring was founded on a plan similar to an oval. It was slightly varied in terms of height: the main hill in the south-eastern part was occupied by a church, from where the area gently slanted towards the market and further north. An important element was the small Oława River flowing along the north-west edge of the town. Inside, the entire ring of fortifications was surrounded by a underwall street, which facilitated the movement of defenders at the time of danger.
The height of the defensive wall, built of unworked stones, reached about 10-12 meters. In the upper part it was crowned with a wall-walk for defenders, protected by a breastwork with a battlement, and naxt a covered porch. The wall was also reinforced with numerous, quite regularly spaced around the entire perimeter and slightly higher semicircular half-towers (open from the town side). The outer defense zone was provided by a moat, doubled since around 1388.
Access to Ziębice was ensured by four gates: Wrocław Gate from the west, Castle Gate from the north, Nysa Gate directed to the east, Paczków Gate from the south and Weaving wicket pierced at the end of the 15th or 16th century, also known as the Mill Gate. The gates were located on the extension of the two main axes of the town intersecting in the middle, on the market place. The Wrocław-PaczkPaczków route ran through them, as well as the road from Nysa to Niemcza with a branch to Ząbkowice. Gate passages were placed in gatehouses, which did not differ significantly in size, but were equipped with simple foregates since the 15th or 16th century.
Today, the best preserved fragments of fortifications are located in the south-east and east of the town, but they are unfortunately significantly reduced compared to their original form. The upper part of the fortifications with loop holes and the breastwork has not survived anywhere. However, the Paczków Gate is visible, built at the end of the 13th century, but rebuilt at the end of the 15th century.
Przyłęcki M., Mury obronne miast Dolnego Śląska, Wrocław 1970.
Zlat M., Ziębice, Warszawa 1967. | <urn:uuid:40bb8c1e-e199-4bbc-a339-e97bafff2429> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/ziebice-city-defensive-walls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.985676 | 935 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.38437134027481... | 1 | The town walls of Ziębice (initially, probably until the destruction by the Mongols in 1241 called Sambice, later after the location of around 1250 called Munsterberck) were built at the turn of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. For the first time they were mentioned in 1336, so it is uncertain whether the town was protected by stone fortifications as early as 1280, during the unsuccessful siege by Bolko of Jawor and Brandenburg army, whether wood-earth fortifications were still providing protection at that time. If the defensive walls were erected a little later, after the reign of Henry IV Probus, it could have been built during the short reign of Bolko I of Świdnica, to whom tradition also attributes the construction of the castle. A little later, around 1388, the town was surrounded by a second moat.
In 1428, the defensive walls were seriously damaged during the Hussite invasion. In the following years of the 15th century they were rebuilt in connection with the spread of artillery and as a result of damages caused by the Hussites. Prince Charles I carried out a thorough renovation of fortifications in the first half of the 16th century.
In the first half of the 17th century during the Thirty Years’ War, medieval fortifications lost their importance as a result of rapid military progress. Despite this, until the eighteenth century they played a role in obstructing the entrance to the town, especially tramps, deserters and robbers. In 1780, at the order of Frederick II, the town moat was filled in, and the area thus obtained was designated for gardens. The reason for this decision was probably malaria, the appearance of which drew attention to the swampy and dirty habitats of mosquitoes, which were in neglected moats. The demolition of the city walls began in the years 1819-1850, when all the gates were destroyed except Paczków Gate, saved by the city council, which indicated its good condition.
The fortification ring was founded on a plan similar to an oval. It was slightly varied in terms of height: the main hill in the south-eastern part was occupied by a church, from where the area gently slanted towards the market and further north. An important element was the small Oława River flowing along the north-west edge of the town. Inside, the entire ring of fortifications was surrounded by a underwall street, which facilitated the movement of defenders at the time of danger.
The height of the defensive wall, built of unworked stones, reached about 10-12 meters. In the upper part it was crowned with a wall-walk for defenders, protected by a breastwork with a battlement, and naxt a covered porch. The wall was also reinforced with numerous, quite regularly spaced around the entire perimeter and slightly higher semicircular half-towers (open from the town side). The outer defense zone was provided by a moat, doubled since around 1388.
Access to Ziębice was ensured by four gates: Wrocław Gate from the west, Castle Gate from the north, Nysa Gate directed to the east, Paczków Gate from the south and Weaving wicket pierced at the end of the 15th or 16th century, also known as the Mill Gate. The gates were located on the extension of the two main axes of the town intersecting in the middle, on the market place. The Wrocław-PaczkPaczków route ran through them, as well as the road from Nysa to Niemcza with a branch to Ząbkowice. Gate passages were placed in gatehouses, which did not differ significantly in size, but were equipped with simple foregates since the 15th or 16th century.
Today, the best preserved fragments of fortifications are located in the south-east and east of the town, but they are unfortunately significantly reduced compared to their original form. The upper part of the fortifications with loop holes and the breastwork has not survived anywhere. However, the Paczków Gate is visible, built at the end of the 13th century, but rebuilt at the end of the 15th century.
Przyłęcki M., Mury obronne miast Dolnego Śląska, Wrocław 1970.
Zlat M., Ziębice, Warszawa 1967. | 953 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Division of Labor
Smith explores the significance of the division of labor using his example of the pin factory.
The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.
The effects of the division of labour, in the general business of society, will be more easily understood by considering in what manner it operates in some particular manufactures. It is commonly supposed to be carried furthest in some very trifling ones; not perhaps that it really is carried further in them than in others of more importance: but in those trifling manufactures which are destined to supply the small wants of but a small number of people, the whole number of workmen must necessarily be small; and those employed in every different branch of the work can often be collected into the same workhouse, and placed at once under the view of the spectator. In those great manufactures, on the contrary, which are destined to supply the great wants of the great body of the people, every different branch of the work employs so great a number of workmen that it is impossible to collect them all into the same workhouse. We can seldom see more, at one time, than those employed in one single branch. Though in such manufactures, therefore, the work may really be divided into a much greater number of parts than in those of a more trifling nature, the division is not near so obvious, and has accordingly been much less observed.
To take an example, therefore, from a very trifling manufacture; but one in which the division of labour has been very often taken notice of, the trade of the pin-maker; a workman not educated to this business (which the division of labour has rendered a distinct trade), nor acquainted with the use of the machinery employed in it (to the invention of which the same division of labour has probably given occasion), could scarce, perhaps, with his utmost industry, make one pin in a day, and certainly could not make twenty. But in the way in which this business is now carried on, not only the whole work is a peculiar trade, but it is divided into a number of branches, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar trades. One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving, the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day; that is, certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the four thousand eight hundredth part of what they are at present capable of performing, in consequence of a proper division and combination of their different operations.
This great increase of the quantity of work which, in consequence of the division of labour, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances; first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of the time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another; and lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work of many.
First, the improvement of the dexterity of the workman necessarily increases the quantity of the work he can perform; and the division of labour, by reducing every man’s business to some one simple operation, and by making this operation the sole employment of his life, necessarily increased very much dexterity of the workman. A common smith, who, though accustomed to handle the hammer, has never been used to make nails, if upon some particular occasion he is obliged to attempt it, will scarce, I am assured, be able to make above two or three hundred nails in a day, and those too very bad ones. A smith who has been accustomed to make nails, but whose sole or principal business has not been that of a nailer, can seldom with his utmost diligence make more than eight hundred or a thousand nails in a day. I have seen several boys under twenty years of age who had never exercised any other trade but that of making nails, and who, when they exerted themselves, could make, each of them, upwards of two thousand three hundred nails in a day. The making of a nail, however, is by no means one of the simplest operations. The same person blows the bellows, stirs or mends the fire as there is occasion, heats the iron, and forges every part of the nail: in forging the head too he is obliged to change his tools. The different operations into which the making of a pin, or of a metal button, is subdivided, are all of them much more simple, and the dexterity of the person, of whose life it has been the sole business to perform them, is usually much greater. The rapidity with which some of the operations of those manufacturers are performed, exceeds what the human hand could, by those who had never seen them, be supposed capable of acquiring.
Secondly, the advantage which is gained by saving the time commonly lost in passing from one sort of work to another is much greater than we should at first view be apt to imagine it. It is impossible to pass very quickly from one kind of work to another that is carried on in a different place and with quite different tools. A country weaver, who cultivates a small farm, must lose a good deal of time in passing from his loom to the field, and from the field to his loom. When the two trades can be carried on in the same workhouse, the loss of time is no doubt much less. It is even in this case, however, very considerable. A man commonly saunters a little in turning his hand from one sort of employment to another. When he first begins the new work he is seldom very keen and hearty; his mind, as they say, does not go to it, and for some time he rather trifles than applies to good purpose. The habit of sauntering and of indolent careless application, which is naturally, or rather necessarily acquired by every country workman who is obliged to change his work and his tools every half hour, and to apply his hand in twenty different ways almost every day of his life, renders him almost always slothful and lazy, and incapable of any vigorous application even on the most pressing occasions. Independent, therefore, of his deficiency in point of dexterity, this cause alone must always reduce considerably the quantity of work which he is capable of performing.
Thirdly, and lastly, everybody must be sensible how much labour is facilitated and abridged by the application of proper machinery. It is unnecessary to give any example. I shall only observe, therefore, that the invention of all those machines by which labour is so much facilitated and abridged seems to have been originally owing to the division of labour. Men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of attaining any object when the whole attention of their minds is directed towards that single object than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things. But in consequence of the division of labour, the whole of every man’s attention comes naturally to be directed towards some one very simple object. It is naturally to be expected, therefore, that some one or other of those who are employed in each particular branch of labour should soon find out easier and readier methods of performing their own particular work, wherever the nature of it admits of such improvement. A great part of the machines made use of in those manufactures in which labour is most subdivided, were originally the inventions of common workmen, who, being each of them employed in some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts towards finding out easier and readier methods of performing it. Whoever has been much accustomed to visit such manufactures must frequently have been shown very pretty machines, which were the inventions of such workmen in order to facilitate and quicken their particular part of the work. In the first fire-engines, a boy was constantly employed to open and shut alternately the communication between the boiler and the cylinder, according as the piston either ascended or descended. One of those boys, who loved to play with his companions, observed that, by tying a string from the handle of the valve which opened this communication to another part of the machine, the valve would open and shut without his assistance, and leave him at liberty to divert himself with his playfellows. One of the greatest improvements that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the discovery of a boy who wanted to save his own labour.
All the improvements in machinery, however, have by no means been the inventions of those who had occasion to use the machines. Many improvements have been made by the ingenuity of the makers of the machines, when to make them became the business of a peculiar trade; and some by that of those who are called philosophers or men of speculation, whose trade it is not to do anything, but to observe everything; and who, upon that account, are often capable of combining together the powers of the most distant and dissimilar objects. In the progress of society, philosophy or speculation becomes, like every other employment, the principal or sole trade and occupation of a particular class of citizens. Like every other employment too, it is subdivided into a great number of different branches, each of which affords occupation to a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and this subdivision of employment in philosophy, as well as in every other business, improves dexterity, and saves time. Each individual becomes more expert in his own peculiar branch, more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it.
It is the great multiplication of the productions of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labour, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of the society.
(Excerpted from An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations) | <urn:uuid:9e712909-543a-4533-8c0c-dfae8ef691c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/division-labor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.98247 | 2,437 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0630084946751594... | 1 | The Division of Labor
Smith explores the significance of the division of labor using his example of the pin factory.
The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.
The effects of the division of labour, in the general business of society, will be more easily understood by considering in what manner it operates in some particular manufactures. It is commonly supposed to be carried furthest in some very trifling ones; not perhaps that it really is carried further in them than in others of more importance: but in those trifling manufactures which are destined to supply the small wants of but a small number of people, the whole number of workmen must necessarily be small; and those employed in every different branch of the work can often be collected into the same workhouse, and placed at once under the view of the spectator. In those great manufactures, on the contrary, which are destined to supply the great wants of the great body of the people, every different branch of the work employs so great a number of workmen that it is impossible to collect them all into the same workhouse. We can seldom see more, at one time, than those employed in one single branch. Though in such manufactures, therefore, the work may really be divided into a much greater number of parts than in those of a more trifling nature, the division is not near so obvious, and has accordingly been much less observed.
To take an example, therefore, from a very trifling manufacture; but one in which the division of labour has been very often taken notice of, the trade of the pin-maker; a workman not educated to this business (which the division of labour has rendered a distinct trade), nor acquainted with the use of the machinery employed in it (to the invention of which the same division of labour has probably given occasion), could scarce, perhaps, with his utmost industry, make one pin in a day, and certainly could not make twenty. But in the way in which this business is now carried on, not only the whole work is a peculiar trade, but it is divided into a number of branches, of which the greater part are likewise peculiar trades. One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving, the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them. I have seen a small manufactory of this kind where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations. But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size. Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day; that is, certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the four thousand eight hundredth part of what they are at present capable of performing, in consequence of a proper division and combination of their different operations.
This great increase of the quantity of work which, in consequence of the division of labour, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances; first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of the time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another; and lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work of many.
First, the improvement of the dexterity of the workman necessarily increases the quantity of the work he can perform; and the division of labour, by reducing every man’s business to some one simple operation, and by making this operation the sole employment of his life, necessarily increased very much dexterity of the workman. A common smith, who, though accustomed to handle the hammer, has never been used to make nails, if upon some particular occasion he is obliged to attempt it, will scarce, I am assured, be able to make above two or three hundred nails in a day, and those too very bad ones. A smith who has been accustomed to make nails, but whose sole or principal business has not been that of a nailer, can seldom with his utmost diligence make more than eight hundred or a thousand nails in a day. I have seen several boys under twenty years of age who had never exercised any other trade but that of making nails, and who, when they exerted themselves, could make, each of them, upwards of two thousand three hundred nails in a day. The making of a nail, however, is by no means one of the simplest operations. The same person blows the bellows, stirs or mends the fire as there is occasion, heats the iron, and forges every part of the nail: in forging the head too he is obliged to change his tools. The different operations into which the making of a pin, or of a metal button, is subdivided, are all of them much more simple, and the dexterity of the person, of whose life it has been the sole business to perform them, is usually much greater. The rapidity with which some of the operations of those manufacturers are performed, exceeds what the human hand could, by those who had never seen them, be supposed capable of acquiring.
Secondly, the advantage which is gained by saving the time commonly lost in passing from one sort of work to another is much greater than we should at first view be apt to imagine it. It is impossible to pass very quickly from one kind of work to another that is carried on in a different place and with quite different tools. A country weaver, who cultivates a small farm, must lose a good deal of time in passing from his loom to the field, and from the field to his loom. When the two trades can be carried on in the same workhouse, the loss of time is no doubt much less. It is even in this case, however, very considerable. A man commonly saunters a little in turning his hand from one sort of employment to another. When he first begins the new work he is seldom very keen and hearty; his mind, as they say, does not go to it, and for some time he rather trifles than applies to good purpose. The habit of sauntering and of indolent careless application, which is naturally, or rather necessarily acquired by every country workman who is obliged to change his work and his tools every half hour, and to apply his hand in twenty different ways almost every day of his life, renders him almost always slothful and lazy, and incapable of any vigorous application even on the most pressing occasions. Independent, therefore, of his deficiency in point of dexterity, this cause alone must always reduce considerably the quantity of work which he is capable of performing.
Thirdly, and lastly, everybody must be sensible how much labour is facilitated and abridged by the application of proper machinery. It is unnecessary to give any example. I shall only observe, therefore, that the invention of all those machines by which labour is so much facilitated and abridged seems to have been originally owing to the division of labour. Men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of attaining any object when the whole attention of their minds is directed towards that single object than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things. But in consequence of the division of labour, the whole of every man’s attention comes naturally to be directed towards some one very simple object. It is naturally to be expected, therefore, that some one or other of those who are employed in each particular branch of labour should soon find out easier and readier methods of performing their own particular work, wherever the nature of it admits of such improvement. A great part of the machines made use of in those manufactures in which labour is most subdivided, were originally the inventions of common workmen, who, being each of them employed in some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts towards finding out easier and readier methods of performing it. Whoever has been much accustomed to visit such manufactures must frequently have been shown very pretty machines, which were the inventions of such workmen in order to facilitate and quicken their particular part of the work. In the first fire-engines, a boy was constantly employed to open and shut alternately the communication between the boiler and the cylinder, according as the piston either ascended or descended. One of those boys, who loved to play with his companions, observed that, by tying a string from the handle of the valve which opened this communication to another part of the machine, the valve would open and shut without his assistance, and leave him at liberty to divert himself with his playfellows. One of the greatest improvements that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the discovery of a boy who wanted to save his own labour.
All the improvements in machinery, however, have by no means been the inventions of those who had occasion to use the machines. Many improvements have been made by the ingenuity of the makers of the machines, when to make them became the business of a peculiar trade; and some by that of those who are called philosophers or men of speculation, whose trade it is not to do anything, but to observe everything; and who, upon that account, are often capable of combining together the powers of the most distant and dissimilar objects. In the progress of society, philosophy or speculation becomes, like every other employment, the principal or sole trade and occupation of a particular class of citizens. Like every other employment too, it is subdivided into a great number of different branches, each of which affords occupation to a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and this subdivision of employment in philosophy, as well as in every other business, improves dexterity, and saves time. Each individual becomes more expert in his own peculiar branch, more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it.
It is the great multiplication of the productions of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labour, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opulence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of the society.
(Excerpted from An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations) | 2,433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2. Stealing the Enigma was a priority for British Intelligence and Fleming
In early 1940, Fleming conceived of a plan to steal a German Enigma machine, which he described in another memo to Admiral Godfrey. Fleming’s plan called for a volunteer crew of fluent German speakers “crashing” a German bomber into the British Channel. The crew, after being rescued by a German E-boat, was to be trained to overpower their rescuers and bring the E-boat (or U-Boat, if such was the rescuing vessel) back to Britain, with its Enigma machine intact. Fleming described the plan in detail to the codebreakers at Bletchley Park, including Alan Turing, who strongly supported its execution.
Churchill liked the idea as well, unsurprisingly, since he was always eager to endorse similar adventurous undertakings. But the idea was never seriously considered for execution. The RAF and the Admiralty objected because there was no way of ensuring the rescue would be undertaken by an E-boat, U-boat, or any other vessel equipped with an Enigma machine. There was no way of ensuring the crew would be rescued at all. Fleming argued the German speaking crew could radio their superiors that they were in trouble prior to ditching the airplane, but that produced identification problems. The plan was quietly dropped. | <urn:uuid:f90227de-1dfa-45a5-bb42-3a467af2eb60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/the-birth-of-the-james-bond-and-chitty-chitty-bang-bang-franchise/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.982207 | 273 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.15006761252880096,
0.12540045380... | 2 | 2. Stealing the Enigma was a priority for British Intelligence and Fleming
In early 1940, Fleming conceived of a plan to steal a German Enigma machine, which he described in another memo to Admiral Godfrey. Fleming’s plan called for a volunteer crew of fluent German speakers “crashing” a German bomber into the British Channel. The crew, after being rescued by a German E-boat, was to be trained to overpower their rescuers and bring the E-boat (or U-Boat, if such was the rescuing vessel) back to Britain, with its Enigma machine intact. Fleming described the plan in detail to the codebreakers at Bletchley Park, including Alan Turing, who strongly supported its execution.
Churchill liked the idea as well, unsurprisingly, since he was always eager to endorse similar adventurous undertakings. But the idea was never seriously considered for execution. The RAF and the Admiralty objected because there was no way of ensuring the rescue would be undertaken by an E-boat, U-boat, or any other vessel equipped with an Enigma machine. There was no way of ensuring the crew would be rescued at all. Fleming argued the German speaking crew could radio their superiors that they were in trouble prior to ditching the airplane, but that produced identification problems. The plan was quietly dropped. | 277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The great ‘Egg War’ of California
- Following the California Gold Rush, eggs became scarce in the state.
- The Farallon Islands off the coast of San Francisco provided an alternative, however — murre eggs.
- Although a perilous journey, tensions grew between “eggers” and the government, almost leading to insurrection.
Often when people become accustomed to a certain commodity, and that commodity becomes scarce, it leads to conflict. Tea, opium, and spices are just a few of the many examples where losing access to a product, whether it’s because of unstable trade agreements, or simply the consequence of dwindling resources has led to an all-out war.
In the mid-1800s, a scarcity of eggs during the California Gold Rush led to a series of events that historians imaginatively refer to as the “Egg War.”
It all began on Jan. 24, 1848, when a man named James W. Marshall struck gold at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma, California. This led to the largest gold rush in US history, which brought approximately 300,000 people to California in the span of just a few years. San Francisco, in particular, grew at an astounding rate.
It had a population of around 1,000 people at the beginning of 1848, but before 1850 rolled around, that number had exploded to a whopping 25,000. Naturally, these people all needed to eat, but farmers in the area were having a hard time keeping up with demand.
Chicken eggs were so highly sought after that the cost for one egg rose to $1.00. Even by today’s standards, that’s pretty expensive for an egg, but back then it was the equivalent of around $30.00, which is just ludicrous. Because of this, people began to seek alternative sources of protein, and they soon found what they were looking for.
About 25 miles off the coast of San Francisco lies the Farallones, a small group of islands that together cover just over 200 acres. Although hardscrabble and minute, these islands were visited by hundreds of thousands of seabirds every year, mostly murres, who would lay their eggs along its craggy shores. Murre eggs have an unusual appearance.
They are much larger and pointier than chicken eggs and tend to feature squiggly black lines, dots, and smudges across a background that can range from pure white to dark turquoise. They look more like someone’s contemporary Easter egg project than a naturally occurring pattern.
Despite their unusual and varied appearance, murre eggs are very much edible, and thus their golden centers became almost as enticing as actual gold to local entrepreneurs
The doctor is in
The first such business enthusiast was a man named Doc Robinson. Robinson was an aspiring actor and Yale graduate from Maine.
Arriving at San Francisco in 1849, he quickly realized that getting a hold of some eggs would fetch him a pretty penny, so he and his brother-in-law decided to sail across to the Farallon Islands in search of something to sell.
Upon their arrival, the brothers loaded their boat up with as many eggs as they could carry. They lost half their clutch on the rough journey back, however, and Robinson earned enough money to open a pharmacy in San Francisco, thus earning the nickname “Doc.”
Even though they had found a lucrative source of income, the pair only ever made one trip to the Farallones, being put off by how dangerous it was.
While Robinson would go on to become a well-known actor and satirist in San Francisco, until dying of a fever in 1856, others who were more willing to risk their lives took up the mantle.
Throughout the 1850s, hordes of “eggers” looking to gather murre eggs would journey out to the Farallon Islands. In 1851, a few of these eggers started a company, which would become the Pacific Egg Co., and they claimed to have exclusive rights to the islands.
Not your typical egg hunt
Collecting eggs from the Farallon Islands was a dangerous affair. Getting there could be a challenge in itself. It involved navigating potentially turbulent waters, often in very small boats.
It was difficult to find a spot to get these boats ashore, and moving around the island was made treacherous by the slick coating of bird feces covering the ground. The topography of the islands wasn’t exactly inviting either; after all, their name comes from the Spanish word farallón meaning “steep rock” or “cliff.”
On top of all this, the murres didn’t take too kindly to having their future offspring stolen for food, and would often swirl and attack the men as they gathered the eggs.
When the eggers showed up in May each year, they would spend the first day smashing every murre egg they could find. That way, when they returned, they could be sure every egg was fresh.
The men wore clothes with specially designed pockets to make it easier for them to gather and carry eggs. By 1854, more than 500,000 eggs were being collected from the islands each year.
Although the Pacific Egg Company still claimed exclusive rights to the island, groups of rival eggers were granted access to the island by the United States Government. This often led to conflicts around the island during the summer months, as various factions vied for their piece of the murre egg pie.
Shedding some light on the situation
During this time, a lighthouse was also being built on the islands in response to the massive increase in ships stopping at San Francisco.
Lighthouse workers were often bullied by the boisterous crews of eggers. To make matters more complicated, in 1859, the government appropriated the island for use of its lighthouse.
As a professor of history, political science, and spatial sciences at the University of Southern California, Philip J. Ethington, points out, the complications didn’t end there.
There was also “Extreme instability in the state, not only due to the civil war of the ’60s but in 1863 there was a biblical drought. It was just horrific: It killed 100,000 cattle. There was also a plague of locusts, and there was even a smallpox epidemic,” said Ethington.
The drought, Ethington continued, followed a period of extreme flooding, which was equally devastating.
In 1863, a breaking point in the rising tensions surrounding the Farallones was reached. A group of armed fishermen tried and failed multiple times to overrun the island, but each time they were arrested by what would later become the US Coast Guard.
Eventually, the fishermen were able to circumvent their blockers and attempted to make land.
Employees of the Pacific Egg Company, who had the advantage of being on the island already, managed to fight them off, but not before one of them was killed. Five of the fishermen were wounded, and one died of his injuries a few days later.
Who won the Egg War?
The confrontation spurred the US government to grant the Pacific Egg Company a monopoly over the Farallon islands, although this turned out to be the beginning of the end. In the following years, the company made more and more unreasonable demands.
They called for the removal of the fog horn, a crucial safety measure, and banned the lighthouse keepers from gathering eggs to feed themselves. In 1979, they leased to another company, allowing them to hunt seals and sea lions to make oil.
In 1881, the US military removed them from the island.
Not long after, large swathes of chicken farms were established in the nearby city of Petaluma. The murre egg industry was already suffering, due to the bird populations having been completely decimated, and with the new chicken industry driving egg prices down once more, it was no longer worthwhile to collect murre eggs.
Today, the Farallon Islands are closed to the public. They are part of a National Wildlife Refuge and are visited only by researchers.
Even more than a century later, the seabird populations are still only a quarter of what they were before the 1850s. In the end, there were no clear winners in the California Egg War, but it’s fair to say the birds who found themselves in the middle of all this would be counted among the losers. | <urn:uuid:075a2674-1dc3-4701-93e6-9bbaa9323c0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/the-great-egg-war-of-california/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.983116 | 1,754 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.584468543529... | 8 | The great ‘Egg War’ of California
- Following the California Gold Rush, eggs became scarce in the state.
- The Farallon Islands off the coast of San Francisco provided an alternative, however — murre eggs.
- Although a perilous journey, tensions grew between “eggers” and the government, almost leading to insurrection.
Often when people become accustomed to a certain commodity, and that commodity becomes scarce, it leads to conflict. Tea, opium, and spices are just a few of the many examples where losing access to a product, whether it’s because of unstable trade agreements, or simply the consequence of dwindling resources has led to an all-out war.
In the mid-1800s, a scarcity of eggs during the California Gold Rush led to a series of events that historians imaginatively refer to as the “Egg War.”
It all began on Jan. 24, 1848, when a man named James W. Marshall struck gold at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma, California. This led to the largest gold rush in US history, which brought approximately 300,000 people to California in the span of just a few years. San Francisco, in particular, grew at an astounding rate.
It had a population of around 1,000 people at the beginning of 1848, but before 1850 rolled around, that number had exploded to a whopping 25,000. Naturally, these people all needed to eat, but farmers in the area were having a hard time keeping up with demand.
Chicken eggs were so highly sought after that the cost for one egg rose to $1.00. Even by today’s standards, that’s pretty expensive for an egg, but back then it was the equivalent of around $30.00, which is just ludicrous. Because of this, people began to seek alternative sources of protein, and they soon found what they were looking for.
About 25 miles off the coast of San Francisco lies the Farallones, a small group of islands that together cover just over 200 acres. Although hardscrabble and minute, these islands were visited by hundreds of thousands of seabirds every year, mostly murres, who would lay their eggs along its craggy shores. Murre eggs have an unusual appearance.
They are much larger and pointier than chicken eggs and tend to feature squiggly black lines, dots, and smudges across a background that can range from pure white to dark turquoise. They look more like someone’s contemporary Easter egg project than a naturally occurring pattern.
Despite their unusual and varied appearance, murre eggs are very much edible, and thus their golden centers became almost as enticing as actual gold to local entrepreneurs
The doctor is in
The first such business enthusiast was a man named Doc Robinson. Robinson was an aspiring actor and Yale graduate from Maine.
Arriving at San Francisco in 1849, he quickly realized that getting a hold of some eggs would fetch him a pretty penny, so he and his brother-in-law decided to sail across to the Farallon Islands in search of something to sell.
Upon their arrival, the brothers loaded their boat up with as many eggs as they could carry. They lost half their clutch on the rough journey back, however, and Robinson earned enough money to open a pharmacy in San Francisco, thus earning the nickname “Doc.”
Even though they had found a lucrative source of income, the pair only ever made one trip to the Farallones, being put off by how dangerous it was.
While Robinson would go on to become a well-known actor and satirist in San Francisco, until dying of a fever in 1856, others who were more willing to risk their lives took up the mantle.
Throughout the 1850s, hordes of “eggers” looking to gather murre eggs would journey out to the Farallon Islands. In 1851, a few of these eggers started a company, which would become the Pacific Egg Co., and they claimed to have exclusive rights to the islands.
Not your typical egg hunt
Collecting eggs from the Farallon Islands was a dangerous affair. Getting there could be a challenge in itself. It involved navigating potentially turbulent waters, often in very small boats.
It was difficult to find a spot to get these boats ashore, and moving around the island was made treacherous by the slick coating of bird feces covering the ground. The topography of the islands wasn’t exactly inviting either; after all, their name comes from the Spanish word farallón meaning “steep rock” or “cliff.”
On top of all this, the murres didn’t take too kindly to having their future offspring stolen for food, and would often swirl and attack the men as they gathered the eggs.
When the eggers showed up in May each year, they would spend the first day smashing every murre egg they could find. That way, when they returned, they could be sure every egg was fresh.
The men wore clothes with specially designed pockets to make it easier for them to gather and carry eggs. By 1854, more than 500,000 eggs were being collected from the islands each year.
Although the Pacific Egg Company still claimed exclusive rights to the island, groups of rival eggers were granted access to the island by the United States Government. This often led to conflicts around the island during the summer months, as various factions vied for their piece of the murre egg pie.
Shedding some light on the situation
During this time, a lighthouse was also being built on the islands in response to the massive increase in ships stopping at San Francisco.
Lighthouse workers were often bullied by the boisterous crews of eggers. To make matters more complicated, in 1859, the government appropriated the island for use of its lighthouse.
As a professor of history, political science, and spatial sciences at the University of Southern California, Philip J. Ethington, points out, the complications didn’t end there.
There was also “Extreme instability in the state, not only due to the civil war of the ’60s but in 1863 there was a biblical drought. It was just horrific: It killed 100,000 cattle. There was also a plague of locusts, and there was even a smallpox epidemic,” said Ethington.
The drought, Ethington continued, followed a period of extreme flooding, which was equally devastating.
In 1863, a breaking point in the rising tensions surrounding the Farallones was reached. A group of armed fishermen tried and failed multiple times to overrun the island, but each time they were arrested by what would later become the US Coast Guard.
Eventually, the fishermen were able to circumvent their blockers and attempted to make land.
Employees of the Pacific Egg Company, who had the advantage of being on the island already, managed to fight them off, but not before one of them was killed. Five of the fishermen were wounded, and one died of his injuries a few days later.
Who won the Egg War?
The confrontation spurred the US government to grant the Pacific Egg Company a monopoly over the Farallon islands, although this turned out to be the beginning of the end. In the following years, the company made more and more unreasonable demands.
They called for the removal of the fog horn, a crucial safety measure, and banned the lighthouse keepers from gathering eggs to feed themselves. In 1979, they leased to another company, allowing them to hunt seals and sea lions to make oil.
In 1881, the US military removed them from the island.
Not long after, large swathes of chicken farms were established in the nearby city of Petaluma. The murre egg industry was already suffering, due to the bird populations having been completely decimated, and with the new chicken industry driving egg prices down once more, it was no longer worthwhile to collect murre eggs.
Today, the Farallon Islands are closed to the public. They are part of a National Wildlife Refuge and are visited only by researchers.
Even more than a century later, the seabird populations are still only a quarter of what they were before the 1850s. In the end, there were no clear winners in the California Egg War, but it’s fair to say the birds who found themselves in the middle of all this would be counted among the losers. | 1,763 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albrecht Dürer was born on 21 May 1471 in Nürnberg, Germany. He was the third child of the family with 18 children. His father had emigrated from Hungary in 1455 to Germany. After his school years, Dürer started to work in 1484 in his father's jewelry store. From his father learned the basics of jewelry, drawing, and art. His outstanding talent in drawing soon emerged.
After receiving basic education from his father, At the age of 15, he started to work in the studio of Michael Wolgemut. Wolgemut was a famous painter and book illustrator of the time. He had a big painting workshop in Nuremberg. He was an apprentice alongside Wolgemut until 1489. He made oil painting portraits of his mother Barbara Dürer and his father Albrecht Dürer who had his first major work in 1490.
Dürer has gone on a long research trip to expand his horizons and gain experience. Almost four years were far from Nuremberg. He traveled to Germany, Switzerland and various regions of France. One of his goals in this trip was to visit the workshop of Martin Schongauer, the most important painter and engraver in northern Europe, and take his advice. But this meeting could not be realized due to the unexpected death of the artist. Despite his great sorrow, he went to Schangauer's atelier. He spoke with his brothers, who were painters and copper engravers.
After four years of long travel, he returned to Nuremberg in 1494. At 23 he married Agnes Fery, the daughter of a rich copper master of copper. In the same year, he made his first trip to Italy.
Dürer went to Italy through the Alps and made watercolor paintings during the trip. These works would be considered as the first landscape studies in western art. His first visit to Venice, where he first met the Italian Renaissance, was on this trip. The artistic environment of Italy, especially Venice, made a big impression on him.
In 1495 Dürer returned to Nuremberg from Italy and opened his own studio. The Italian influence was clearly seen in his works reflecting the northern tradition for five years The first works Dürer produced in his atelier were mostly religious wood carving prints.
In 1496, he became acquainted with Frederick Elector of Saxony, also known as Frederick the Wise, which had a significant impact on his life. In his official visit to Friedrich Nürnberg, he had clearly expressed his admiration for Dürer and ordered his castle in Wittenberg and a series of paintings for the church in the region. This event was the beginning of a long-lasting friendship between one of the most powerful, influential figures in German politics with long-lasting art patronage and the artist. The support of Frederick the Wise was very effective for the young and developing Dürer's art life.
Dürer, in 1497, "The Dresden Altarpiece“ altar board; In 1498, on the order of the Paumgartner family, he produced "Paumgartner Altar". Dürer included the most iconographic descriptions in his wood engraving works. In the same year, he produced the "Apocalypse" series, which included sixteen different wood engravings and the famous work "The Four Riders of the Apocalypse". The work was Dürer's first big illustration series, and he had achieved great success in the year it was published.
At the end of the 1490s, a new orientation was seen in Dürer's style. He put out an entirely original figurative model. During these years of change, he began to take orders more often than noblemen. "Portrait of Oswolt Krel" and some self-portraits appeared during this period. He made his work "The Four Witches", where he painted four women, one of the first plates. The portrait he painted from his waist updated in 1498 came to the fore among these self-portraits. Dürer was one of the first artists to make his own portrait in the history of western painting.
Dürer produced works with copper engravings at the time, although his works were focused on wooden prints and altar panels. The first years of the 1500s were a period of great development in the style of drawing. In 1502 he made the engraving of Nemesis. The third engraving, which he signed by writing his full name, was work of "Adam and Eve" which was dated 1504.
In early 1506, Dürer traveled to Italy for the second time. He stayed in Venice for a long time. Here he returned to oil painting. The engravings made by Dürer during this period also gained great popularity and started to be copied. He received great admiration among the German merchants living in Venice and received an order to make the altar ''Feast of the Rose Garlands''. Italy paved the way for Dürer to reach an artistic environment, exchange ideas with his contemporaries and develop his perspective knowledge. This travel also was a time when he focuses on his human body.
In the spring of 1507, after the second Italian period, he returned to Nuremberg. Developing friendly relations with the leading artists of the period, Dürer remained in Germany until 1520. He was now a well-known artist from all over Europe. He was also more cultured and richer. In 1509, he had his own house for the first time. In these years he was at the height of his creative power. In 1508, he did the works of "The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand" and "The Adoration of the Trinity". The copper engraving was the most important technique Dürer used to express himself and continued to use it throughout his life.
In Dürer's life after 1512, there was another patron. I. Maximilian. Roman Emperor Maximilian I, known as the Last Knight, visited Nuremberg. He asked Dürer to enter his service. Dürer accepts the proposal and starts working as a painter of the palace. During this period he revealed his three famous works with copper engraving. These were the engravings of "Knight, Death and the Devil" in 1513 and the engravings of 1514 in "Melencolia I" and "St Jerome in his Study". He worked in his service for about seven years until the death of Roman Emperor Maximilian. He had portrayed him a year before the Emperor's death.
Dürer, who was at the height of his artistic maturity, was interested in artistic types as some craftsmanship that might be unusual for him in addition to painting and engraving. He planned the Seiren and the dragon-shaped candlesticks. He did stunning things with gold. These studies now show the style of the 40-year-old artist with different techniques, revealing his versatility and having fun at the same time. In addition to his portraits, Madonna and the Child reconsidered Jesus' work throughout his artistic life. From the Altar boards to the smallest engravings, there were many pictures of Madonna that he had drawn or worked in his 40 years of artistic life.
Dürer went to the Netherlands to attend the throne of Charles V in 1520, and to escape the plague that had begun in Nuremberg, according to others. Here, he worked as a court painter for Charles V. He saw many cities such as Brussels and Cologne. In 1521, he returned to Nuremberg with a diary he wrote during his travels. He continued to work on religious-themed engravings.
In the last years of his life, Dürer made few paintings and made portraits of his friends. He also focused his research on the theories he developed on mathematics-geometry-perspective. In these areas, he turned to articles and writings. In 1524, he published his story of the Family in which he explained his details in detail, and in 1525 his writings on geometry. In 1527, he wrote an article about the fortress and building walls that could withstand firearms. His article about human body proportions and symmetry was published in 1528.
Dürer, who completed scientific research articles and "The Four Holy Men", was now 57 years old. His last trip negatively affected his health. The disease put the artist in bed. He died on April 6, 1528.
Çev:Demir, F., (2004). Artbook Dürer Alman Rönesansı'nın Büyük Ustası, Birinci Baskı, Dost Kitabevi, Ankara.
Yetkin, S.K., (2007). Büyük Ressamlar, Birinci Baskı, Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara.
Lunday, E., (2013). Büyük Sanatçıların Gizli Hayatları, Beşinci Baskı, Domingo Yayınevi, İstanbul.
Çev:Kadıoğlu, B., (2011). Albrecht Dürer, Birinci Baskı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul.
Gombrich, E.H., (2002). Sanatın Öyküsü, Üçüncü Baskı, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul.
Farthing, S., (2014). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü, İkinci Baskı, Hayalperest Yayınevi, İstanbul.
Labno, J., (2014). Rönesans Ayrıntıda Sanat, İkinci Basım, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul.
-----------., (2007). Albrecht Dürer, Birinci Baskı, Boyut Yayın Grubu, , İstanbul.
1471 He was born in Nuremberg, Germany.
1484 He started working in his father's goldsmith's workshop. He made his first self-portrait.
1486 He started as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut's atelier - the foremost painter of the period in Nuremberg.
1490 He made his father's portrait as his first oil painting. After his apprenticeship, he traveled for four years, covering Germany, Switzerland, and France.
1493 When he was in Strasbourg, he made his first oil painting self-portrait.
1494 When he returned to Germany, he married Agnes Frey and a few months later made his first trip to Italy.
1495 He returned to Germany with a series of watercolor paintings and opened his own studio.
1498 He produced the "Apocalypse" series, which included sixteen different wood engravings and the famous work "The Four Riders of the Apocalypse". He painted the second oil painting self-portrait.
1500 He painted the third and last oil painting self-portrait. 1502 His Father Albrecht Dürer died.
1504 He made "Adam and Eve" one of the most famous engravings. This painting was also the only picture of the present, written without shortening the name of Dürer.
1506 He made a second trip to Italy at the beginning of the year.
1507 He turned to Nuremberg as a renaissance artist contemplating, investigating and questioning.
1509 He bought his house in Tiergörtnertor in Nuremberg.
1512 He began to work as the court painter of the Roman Emperor Maximilian I.
1513 He lost his mother Barbara Dürer. He made "Knight, Death and the Devil", one of the three most important engravings.
1514 He completed the other two of the three most important engravings: "Melencolia I" and "St Jerome in his Study"
1515 He made the wooden edition called the famous "Rhinoceros". He made without seeing the animal itself, only by reading about it and looking at a simple draft.
1519 He painted the portrait of the Roman emperor Maximilian I, shortly before his death.
1520 He went to the Netherlands.
1521 He turned to Nümberg and began to grapple with malaria he had probably caught during his last trip to the Netherlands. He focused his studies on religion-themed engravings and his theories on the mathematical-geometry-perspective triangle.
1525 A geometry and perspective book on "Measuring the Line, Planes and Objects" was published in Nuremberg in 1525. This book was the first adult mathematical book in the German language.
1527 His second book "On the Defense of the Land, the Palace, and the Cities" was published.
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0.413043856620... | 7 | Albrecht Dürer was born on 21 May 1471 in Nürnberg, Germany. He was the third child of the family with 18 children. His father had emigrated from Hungary in 1455 to Germany. After his school years, Dürer started to work in 1484 in his father's jewelry store. From his father learned the basics of jewelry, drawing, and art. His outstanding talent in drawing soon emerged.
After receiving basic education from his father, At the age of 15, he started to work in the studio of Michael Wolgemut. Wolgemut was a famous painter and book illustrator of the time. He had a big painting workshop in Nuremberg. He was an apprentice alongside Wolgemut until 1489. He made oil painting portraits of his mother Barbara Dürer and his father Albrecht Dürer who had his first major work in 1490.
Dürer has gone on a long research trip to expand his horizons and gain experience. Almost four years were far from Nuremberg. He traveled to Germany, Switzerland and various regions of France. One of his goals in this trip was to visit the workshop of Martin Schongauer, the most important painter and engraver in northern Europe, and take his advice. But this meeting could not be realized due to the unexpected death of the artist. Despite his great sorrow, he went to Schangauer's atelier. He spoke with his brothers, who were painters and copper engravers.
After four years of long travel, he returned to Nuremberg in 1494. At 23 he married Agnes Fery, the daughter of a rich copper master of copper. In the same year, he made his first trip to Italy.
Dürer went to Italy through the Alps and made watercolor paintings during the trip. These works would be considered as the first landscape studies in western art. His first visit to Venice, where he first met the Italian Renaissance, was on this trip. The artistic environment of Italy, especially Venice, made a big impression on him.
In 1495 Dürer returned to Nuremberg from Italy and opened his own studio. The Italian influence was clearly seen in his works reflecting the northern tradition for five years The first works Dürer produced in his atelier were mostly religious wood carving prints.
In 1496, he became acquainted with Frederick Elector of Saxony, also known as Frederick the Wise, which had a significant impact on his life. In his official visit to Friedrich Nürnberg, he had clearly expressed his admiration for Dürer and ordered his castle in Wittenberg and a series of paintings for the church in the region. This event was the beginning of a long-lasting friendship between one of the most powerful, influential figures in German politics with long-lasting art patronage and the artist. The support of Frederick the Wise was very effective for the young and developing Dürer's art life.
Dürer, in 1497, "The Dresden Altarpiece“ altar board; In 1498, on the order of the Paumgartner family, he produced "Paumgartner Altar". Dürer included the most iconographic descriptions in his wood engraving works. In the same year, he produced the "Apocalypse" series, which included sixteen different wood engravings and the famous work "The Four Riders of the Apocalypse". The work was Dürer's first big illustration series, and he had achieved great success in the year it was published.
At the end of the 1490s, a new orientation was seen in Dürer's style. He put out an entirely original figurative model. During these years of change, he began to take orders more often than noblemen. "Portrait of Oswolt Krel" and some self-portraits appeared during this period. He made his work "The Four Witches", where he painted four women, one of the first plates. The portrait he painted from his waist updated in 1498 came to the fore among these self-portraits. Dürer was one of the first artists to make his own portrait in the history of western painting.
Dürer produced works with copper engravings at the time, although his works were focused on wooden prints and altar panels. The first years of the 1500s were a period of great development in the style of drawing. In 1502 he made the engraving of Nemesis. The third engraving, which he signed by writing his full name, was work of "Adam and Eve" which was dated 1504.
In early 1506, Dürer traveled to Italy for the second time. He stayed in Venice for a long time. Here he returned to oil painting. The engravings made by Dürer during this period also gained great popularity and started to be copied. He received great admiration among the German merchants living in Venice and received an order to make the altar ''Feast of the Rose Garlands''. Italy paved the way for Dürer to reach an artistic environment, exchange ideas with his contemporaries and develop his perspective knowledge. This travel also was a time when he focuses on his human body.
In the spring of 1507, after the second Italian period, he returned to Nuremberg. Developing friendly relations with the leading artists of the period, Dürer remained in Germany until 1520. He was now a well-known artist from all over Europe. He was also more cultured and richer. In 1509, he had his own house for the first time. In these years he was at the height of his creative power. In 1508, he did the works of "The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand" and "The Adoration of the Trinity". The copper engraving was the most important technique Dürer used to express himself and continued to use it throughout his life.
In Dürer's life after 1512, there was another patron. I. Maximilian. Roman Emperor Maximilian I, known as the Last Knight, visited Nuremberg. He asked Dürer to enter his service. Dürer accepts the proposal and starts working as a painter of the palace. During this period he revealed his three famous works with copper engraving. These were the engravings of "Knight, Death and the Devil" in 1513 and the engravings of 1514 in "Melencolia I" and "St Jerome in his Study". He worked in his service for about seven years until the death of Roman Emperor Maximilian. He had portrayed him a year before the Emperor's death.
Dürer, who was at the height of his artistic maturity, was interested in artistic types as some craftsmanship that might be unusual for him in addition to painting and engraving. He planned the Seiren and the dragon-shaped candlesticks. He did stunning things with gold. These studies now show the style of the 40-year-old artist with different techniques, revealing his versatility and having fun at the same time. In addition to his portraits, Madonna and the Child reconsidered Jesus' work throughout his artistic life. From the Altar boards to the smallest engravings, there were many pictures of Madonna that he had drawn or worked in his 40 years of artistic life.
Dürer went to the Netherlands to attend the throne of Charles V in 1520, and to escape the plague that had begun in Nuremberg, according to others. Here, he worked as a court painter for Charles V. He saw many cities such as Brussels and Cologne. In 1521, he returned to Nuremberg with a diary he wrote during his travels. He continued to work on religious-themed engravings.
In the last years of his life, Dürer made few paintings and made portraits of his friends. He also focused his research on the theories he developed on mathematics-geometry-perspective. In these areas, he turned to articles and writings. In 1524, he published his story of the Family in which he explained his details in detail, and in 1525 his writings on geometry. In 1527, he wrote an article about the fortress and building walls that could withstand firearms. His article about human body proportions and symmetry was published in 1528.
Dürer, who completed scientific research articles and "The Four Holy Men", was now 57 years old. His last trip negatively affected his health. The disease put the artist in bed. He died on April 6, 1528.
Çev:Demir, F., (2004). Artbook Dürer Alman Rönesansı'nın Büyük Ustası, Birinci Baskı, Dost Kitabevi, Ankara.
Yetkin, S.K., (2007). Büyük Ressamlar, Birinci Baskı, Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara.
Lunday, E., (2013). Büyük Sanatçıların Gizli Hayatları, Beşinci Baskı, Domingo Yayınevi, İstanbul.
Çev:Kadıoğlu, B., (2011). Albrecht Dürer, Birinci Baskı, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul.
Gombrich, E.H., (2002). Sanatın Öyküsü, Üçüncü Baskı, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul.
Farthing, S., (2014). Sanatın Tüm Öyküsü, İkinci Baskı, Hayalperest Yayınevi, İstanbul.
Labno, J., (2014). Rönesans Ayrıntıda Sanat, İkinci Basım, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul.
-----------., (2007). Albrecht Dürer, Birinci Baskı, Boyut Yayın Grubu, , İstanbul.
1471 He was born in Nuremberg, Germany.
1484 He started working in his father's goldsmith's workshop. He made his first self-portrait.
1486 He started as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut's atelier - the foremost painter of the period in Nuremberg.
1490 He made his father's portrait as his first oil painting. After his apprenticeship, he traveled for four years, covering Germany, Switzerland, and France.
1493 When he was in Strasbourg, he made his first oil painting self-portrait.
1494 When he returned to Germany, he married Agnes Frey and a few months later made his first trip to Italy.
1495 He returned to Germany with a series of watercolor paintings and opened his own studio.
1498 He produced the "Apocalypse" series, which included sixteen different wood engravings and the famous work "The Four Riders of the Apocalypse". He painted the second oil painting self-portrait.
1500 He painted the third and last oil painting self-portrait. 1502 His Father Albrecht Dürer died.
1504 He made "Adam and Eve" one of the most famous engravings. This painting was also the only picture of the present, written without shortening the name of Dürer.
1506 He made a second trip to Italy at the beginning of the year.
1507 He turned to Nuremberg as a renaissance artist contemplating, investigating and questioning.
1509 He bought his house in Tiergörtnertor in Nuremberg.
1512 He began to work as the court painter of the Roman Emperor Maximilian I.
1513 He lost his mother Barbara Dürer. He made "Knight, Death and the Devil", one of the three most important engravings.
1514 He completed the other two of the three most important engravings: "Melencolia I" and "St Jerome in his Study"
1515 He made the wooden edition called the famous "Rhinoceros". He made without seeing the animal itself, only by reading about it and looking at a simple draft.
1519 He painted the portrait of the Roman emperor Maximilian I, shortly before his death.
1520 He went to the Netherlands.
1521 He turned to Nümberg and began to grapple with malaria he had probably caught during his last trip to the Netherlands. He focused his studies on religion-themed engravings and his theories on the mathematical-geometry-perspective triangle.
1525 A geometry and perspective book on "Measuring the Line, Planes and Objects" was published in Nuremberg in 1525. This book was the first adult mathematical book in the German language.
1527 His second book "On the Defense of the Land, the Palace, and the Cities" was published.
1528 Albrecht Dürer died in Nürnberg on 6 April. | 2,780 | ENGLISH | 1 |
4.1: The Estates: The Geocentrism of Class Systems
France was the largest country in western Europe, both in terms of land and in terms of population. In order for one king to control all that territory and all those people, he needed to exert immense power and authority. As we’ve seen with social contract theory, as long as citizens feel they are getting some rights, they will abide by the social contract, no matter how unfair it might be in some respects.
In the 18th century, however, the population of France continued to grow as the economy became worse and worse. The costly defeat of the French and Indian War meant that France lost massive amounts of territory and, also, was massively in debt. The “perfect storm” for revolution was in place when a 20-year-old king, Louis XVI, took the throne with an unpopular foreign wife, the Austrian Marie Antoinette. The economy was in shambles and, by the late 1780s, the majority of the population was suffering from starvation as France experienced some of the coldest winters on record.
What did the French monarchy do to provide for its people? Very little. Marie Antoinette, known as “Madame Deficit,” was seen as the cause of the problem: while her citizens were suffering, she spent more and more on luxuries. However, much of this blame was due to the fact that Marie was from the Austrian monarchy (a traditional enemy of France). The real cause for much of the country’s troubles was the very ineffective leadership of Marie’s husband, Louis XVI. A particularly-bad blunder of the king was aiding the Americans in the American Revolution (in the hopes of getting some revenge on Britain and perhaps some territory in the Americas as well). After the war ended in 1783, France was even more in debt. France had supported Enlightenment ideals in the Americas while completely disregarding them at home…
France relied on a Dark Ages class system which, like geocentrism, was sorely in need of improvement by the time of the Enlightenment era. French society was composed of three class brackets, called Estates. As the Estates were originally developed during the spiritual medieval period, the First Estate was actually the Church and not the king. Church officials in France controlled much of the country’s wealth and land, but had to pay very little in taxes. The Second Estate, technically below the authority of the Church though really more powerful, was the nobility. These lords and ladies controlled the wealth of France, and paid no taxes at all. By modern calculations, the First Estate was approximately 1% of the population, and the Second Estate 2%. The Third Estate was therefore the vast majority of the population, yet had to pay a 50% tax rate.
The bigger problem than this was that all members of the Second Estate were born into the upper-class, inheriting wealth and titles from their parents. Therefore, the only way to “break out” of the Third Estate was to become a clergyperson and, therefore, become unable to pass one’s wealth to the next generation. The Estates System kept the Third Estate down, with little hope of improving one family’s condition and with little opportunity to voice complaints to the government.
The Estates-General was a congress that was called, at certain times, to resolve a crisis in France. By 1789, the over-spending of the monarchy, the food shortages, and the debt of the government made Louis call on the Estates-General. For the first time in over a century, the Estates-General met at the palace of Versailles outside of Paris. At last, the Third Estate had a chance to complain about the very unfair system.
However, the Third Estate, though it was 97% of the population, only had 33% of the vote in the Estates-General: all three estates received equal representation. If the First and Second Estate outvoted the Third, there was nothing for it to do… except revolt.
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0.465414583683... | 14 | 4.1: The Estates: The Geocentrism of Class Systems
France was the largest country in western Europe, both in terms of land and in terms of population. In order for one king to control all that territory and all those people, he needed to exert immense power and authority. As we’ve seen with social contract theory, as long as citizens feel they are getting some rights, they will abide by the social contract, no matter how unfair it might be in some respects.
In the 18th century, however, the population of France continued to grow as the economy became worse and worse. The costly defeat of the French and Indian War meant that France lost massive amounts of territory and, also, was massively in debt. The “perfect storm” for revolution was in place when a 20-year-old king, Louis XVI, took the throne with an unpopular foreign wife, the Austrian Marie Antoinette. The economy was in shambles and, by the late 1780s, the majority of the population was suffering from starvation as France experienced some of the coldest winters on record.
What did the French monarchy do to provide for its people? Very little. Marie Antoinette, known as “Madame Deficit,” was seen as the cause of the problem: while her citizens were suffering, she spent more and more on luxuries. However, much of this blame was due to the fact that Marie was from the Austrian monarchy (a traditional enemy of France). The real cause for much of the country’s troubles was the very ineffective leadership of Marie’s husband, Louis XVI. A particularly-bad blunder of the king was aiding the Americans in the American Revolution (in the hopes of getting some revenge on Britain and perhaps some territory in the Americas as well). After the war ended in 1783, France was even more in debt. France had supported Enlightenment ideals in the Americas while completely disregarding them at home…
France relied on a Dark Ages class system which, like geocentrism, was sorely in need of improvement by the time of the Enlightenment era. French society was composed of three class brackets, called Estates. As the Estates were originally developed during the spiritual medieval period, the First Estate was actually the Church and not the king. Church officials in France controlled much of the country’s wealth and land, but had to pay very little in taxes. The Second Estate, technically below the authority of the Church though really more powerful, was the nobility. These lords and ladies controlled the wealth of France, and paid no taxes at all. By modern calculations, the First Estate was approximately 1% of the population, and the Second Estate 2%. The Third Estate was therefore the vast majority of the population, yet had to pay a 50% tax rate.
The bigger problem than this was that all members of the Second Estate were born into the upper-class, inheriting wealth and titles from their parents. Therefore, the only way to “break out” of the Third Estate was to become a clergyperson and, therefore, become unable to pass one’s wealth to the next generation. The Estates System kept the Third Estate down, with little hope of improving one family’s condition and with little opportunity to voice complaints to the government.
The Estates-General was a congress that was called, at certain times, to resolve a crisis in France. By 1789, the over-spending of the monarchy, the food shortages, and the debt of the government made Louis call on the Estates-General. For the first time in over a century, the Estates-General met at the palace of Versailles outside of Paris. At last, the Third Estate had a chance to complain about the very unfair system.
However, the Third Estate, though it was 97% of the population, only had 33% of the vote in the Estates-General: all three estates received equal representation. If the First and Second Estate outvoted the Third, there was nothing for it to do… except revolt.
[Estates—classes in traditional French society, in place since the Middle Ages: the Church was the First Estate, the nobility was the Second, and everybody else was the Third] | 863 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The North-West Rebellion (also known as the Saskatchewan Rebellion, Second Riel Rebellion, or the North-West Resistance) was a violent, brief, and unsuccessful insurgency against the government of Canada in 1885. The insurgency was led by Louis Riel of the Métis people and other Aboriginal allies in what is presently Alberta and Saskatchewan of Canada.
Background to the Rebellion
Before the North-West Rebellion, there was the Red River Rebellion that was also led by Riel between 1869 and 1870. After the Red River Rebellion, many of the Métis people left Manitoba to go and from settlements elsewhere in the Fort Carlton region. Some of the settlements they formed included Duck Lake, Fish Creek, Batoche, and others close to the South Saskatchewan River. After a survey was done in 1882, 36 families found that their land had been sold to the Prince Albert Colonization Company by the Canadian government.
Without proper title deeds, other families were also scared. This fear was what led them to appeal to Louis Riel to return from his hiding in the United States after the end of the Red River Rebellion. The people were hoping that Riel would appeal to the Canadian government on their behalf. In 1885, Gabriel Dumont and others set up a provisional government of the newly formed Saskatchewan in the hopes that it would have the same influence on the Canadian government like it had during the Red River Rebellion.
The alliance between the Métis and the aboriginals was one of chance. The Métis and the aboriginals were in constant conflict over who had rights of hunting the bison. When the aboriginals started their own fight, it so happened that the Métis were also in conflict with the Canadian government. The main cause of the rebellion was that the people felt that the Canadian government had failed in protecting their rights, land, and survival. This belief and the dwindling bison population was what led to the Métis and aboriginals rising up.
Second Riel Rebellion
Initially, the movement was a peaceful one. However, when Riel took over, he decided to make it a military movement with a strong religious background which led to the alienation of the religious parties. In his force, Riel had a few hundred Métis people with the Aboriginals making up a smaller number.
Unfortunately, at the time of the rebellion, the railway line had been almost completed thus making transportation of troops by the Canadian government easier and faster. In addition, Riel lacked the backing of other tribes and the English settlers. Further, a local armed force called the North-West Mounted Police had been created to quell the rebellion.
The group had a few notable victories such as at Fish Creek, Duck Lake, and at Cut Knife. However, their defeat at the Siege of Batoche brought about the end of the rebellion. Riel was arrested, convicted of treason by the Canadian government, and eventually hanged by the Canadian government despite pleas by many people.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:277a61cc-fcb8-4334-abd8-a8bf0edd83ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-was-the-north-west-rebellion.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.98454 | 682 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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-0.29431986808776... | 3 | The North-West Rebellion (also known as the Saskatchewan Rebellion, Second Riel Rebellion, or the North-West Resistance) was a violent, brief, and unsuccessful insurgency against the government of Canada in 1885. The insurgency was led by Louis Riel of the Métis people and other Aboriginal allies in what is presently Alberta and Saskatchewan of Canada.
Background to the Rebellion
Before the North-West Rebellion, there was the Red River Rebellion that was also led by Riel between 1869 and 1870. After the Red River Rebellion, many of the Métis people left Manitoba to go and from settlements elsewhere in the Fort Carlton region. Some of the settlements they formed included Duck Lake, Fish Creek, Batoche, and others close to the South Saskatchewan River. After a survey was done in 1882, 36 families found that their land had been sold to the Prince Albert Colonization Company by the Canadian government.
Without proper title deeds, other families were also scared. This fear was what led them to appeal to Louis Riel to return from his hiding in the United States after the end of the Red River Rebellion. The people were hoping that Riel would appeal to the Canadian government on their behalf. In 1885, Gabriel Dumont and others set up a provisional government of the newly formed Saskatchewan in the hopes that it would have the same influence on the Canadian government like it had during the Red River Rebellion.
The alliance between the Métis and the aboriginals was one of chance. The Métis and the aboriginals were in constant conflict over who had rights of hunting the bison. When the aboriginals started their own fight, it so happened that the Métis were also in conflict with the Canadian government. The main cause of the rebellion was that the people felt that the Canadian government had failed in protecting their rights, land, and survival. This belief and the dwindling bison population was what led to the Métis and aboriginals rising up.
Second Riel Rebellion
Initially, the movement was a peaceful one. However, when Riel took over, he decided to make it a military movement with a strong religious background which led to the alienation of the religious parties. In his force, Riel had a few hundred Métis people with the Aboriginals making up a smaller number.
Unfortunately, at the time of the rebellion, the railway line had been almost completed thus making transportation of troops by the Canadian government easier and faster. In addition, Riel lacked the backing of other tribes and the English settlers. Further, a local armed force called the North-West Mounted Police had been created to quell the rebellion.
The group had a few notable victories such as at Fish Creek, Duck Lake, and at Cut Knife. However, their defeat at the Siege of Batoche brought about the end of the rebellion. Riel was arrested, convicted of treason by the Canadian government, and eventually hanged by the Canadian government despite pleas by many people.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presentation on theme: "THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION Many of the leaders of the Revolution believed that a stronger national government was need. The first meeting was held in."— Presentation transcript:
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION Many of the leaders of the Revolution believed that a stronger national government was need. The first meeting was held in Annapolis in September of 1786 which was not well attended. Another meeting was called for the following spring (May 1787) to be held in Philadelphia in which they would consider ways to fix the Articles of Confederation.
WHY THEY WERE THERE Many delegates came to the meeting convinced that the Articles were so bad that they needed to create a new plan of government James Madison had already drafted a plan for a new government before arriving at the Convention. As the Convention started the Virginia delegation, led by Edmund Randolph, presented to the convention the plan that Madison had drawn up. Four months later as the convention adjourned they had written a new constitution.
THE VIRGINIA PLAN This plan proposed by Madison called for a strong national government organized into 3 governmental branches. This government would have the power to make and enforce its own laws Collect its own taxes Each citizen would be governed by two governments which would get their power from the people The existence of two governments each given a certain amount of authority over the people this is called federalism.
MAKE UP OF THE CONVENTION Congress only gave the delegates of the convention the power to amend the Articles. 55 delegates attended the convention. May 1787 the delegates elected George Washington president of the convention. The delegates decided from the start to ignore their instructions to amend the Articles and instead voted to write a new Constitution Appointed a committee to draw up rules for the meeting They decided that what was said in the convention would be a secret. They believed the best constitution required a free exchange of ideas they believed that if delegates were afraid their debate would become public they would not express their real opinions They believed the new constitution would have a better chance of being accepted if people did not know about the arguments that went on while it was being written. Each state would only have one vote They agreed that a member could not be absent from the convention without permission if it deprived a state its vote Made it possible to reconsider issues freely No decision had to be permanent until the work was all done.
VIRGINIA PLAN CONT. The fist branch of government was the legislative branch It was to be made up of two houses House of Representatives which would be elected directly by the people of each state Senate which would be elected by the members of the House of Reps from a list of nominated people by the state legislatures The number of representatives in both houses of the legislature would be based on the population of each state. Larger populated states would have more representatives Powers given to the legislature Make all laws that the states could not make (regulating trade between states) Supreme power on all matters The power to veto state laws that it considered to be in violation of the national constitution Call on the armed forces against a state to enforce the laws passed by congress
EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL BRANCHES Congress would elect the people to serve in the executive and judicial branches The executive could veto acts of the legislature but that veto could be overridden by the legislature
REACTION TO THE VIRGINA PLAN The small states were worried that the Convention was creating a constitution in which the states would be represented in the legislature based on population. Why? The smaller states believed that they would always be outvoted by the larger states As a result the smaller states proposed their own plan for a new constitution led by William Paterson of New Jersey. This plan only amend the Articles
NEW JERSEY PLAN Legislative Branch 1 house congress with equal representation for each state 1 vote The national government given the power to tax imports and a stamp tax to raise money for it operation The power to collect money from the states if they refused to pay Congress would be given the power to regulate trade among the states and other nations The laws and treaties made by congress would be the supreme law of the land. No state could make laws that were contrary to them Executive Branch Made up of several people appointed by Congress They would have the power to administer national laws, appoint other executive officials and direct the military Judicial Branch A supreme court would be appointed by the executive branch Power to decide cases involving treaties, trade among the states or other nations, and collection of taxes.
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0.420921236276626... | 2 | Presentation on theme: "THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION Many of the leaders of the Revolution believed that a stronger national government was need. The first meeting was held in."— Presentation transcript:
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION Many of the leaders of the Revolution believed that a stronger national government was need. The first meeting was held in Annapolis in September of 1786 which was not well attended. Another meeting was called for the following spring (May 1787) to be held in Philadelphia in which they would consider ways to fix the Articles of Confederation.
WHY THEY WERE THERE Many delegates came to the meeting convinced that the Articles were so bad that they needed to create a new plan of government James Madison had already drafted a plan for a new government before arriving at the Convention. As the Convention started the Virginia delegation, led by Edmund Randolph, presented to the convention the plan that Madison had drawn up. Four months later as the convention adjourned they had written a new constitution.
THE VIRGINIA PLAN This plan proposed by Madison called for a strong national government organized into 3 governmental branches. This government would have the power to make and enforce its own laws Collect its own taxes Each citizen would be governed by two governments which would get their power from the people The existence of two governments each given a certain amount of authority over the people this is called federalism.
MAKE UP OF THE CONVENTION Congress only gave the delegates of the convention the power to amend the Articles. 55 delegates attended the convention. May 1787 the delegates elected George Washington president of the convention. The delegates decided from the start to ignore their instructions to amend the Articles and instead voted to write a new Constitution Appointed a committee to draw up rules for the meeting They decided that what was said in the convention would be a secret. They believed the best constitution required a free exchange of ideas they believed that if delegates were afraid their debate would become public they would not express their real opinions They believed the new constitution would have a better chance of being accepted if people did not know about the arguments that went on while it was being written. Each state would only have one vote They agreed that a member could not be absent from the convention without permission if it deprived a state its vote Made it possible to reconsider issues freely No decision had to be permanent until the work was all done.
VIRGINIA PLAN CONT. The fist branch of government was the legislative branch It was to be made up of two houses House of Representatives which would be elected directly by the people of each state Senate which would be elected by the members of the House of Reps from a list of nominated people by the state legislatures The number of representatives in both houses of the legislature would be based on the population of each state. Larger populated states would have more representatives Powers given to the legislature Make all laws that the states could not make (regulating trade between states) Supreme power on all matters The power to veto state laws that it considered to be in violation of the national constitution Call on the armed forces against a state to enforce the laws passed by congress
EXECUTIVE & JUDICIAL BRANCHES Congress would elect the people to serve in the executive and judicial branches The executive could veto acts of the legislature but that veto could be overridden by the legislature
REACTION TO THE VIRGINA PLAN The small states were worried that the Convention was creating a constitution in which the states would be represented in the legislature based on population. Why? The smaller states believed that they would always be outvoted by the larger states As a result the smaller states proposed their own plan for a new constitution led by William Paterson of New Jersey. This plan only amend the Articles
NEW JERSEY PLAN Legislative Branch 1 house congress with equal representation for each state 1 vote The national government given the power to tax imports and a stamp tax to raise money for it operation The power to collect money from the states if they refused to pay Congress would be given the power to regulate trade among the states and other nations The laws and treaties made by congress would be the supreme law of the land. No state could make laws that were contrary to them Executive Branch Made up of several people appointed by Congress They would have the power to administer national laws, appoint other executive officials and direct the military Judicial Branch A supreme court would be appointed by the executive branch Power to decide cases involving treaties, trade among the states or other nations, and collection of taxes.
GREAT COMPROMISE CONNECTICUT COMPROMISE A special committee was formed to draw up a plan to solve the problems that divided the delegates. House of Reps would be elected by the people on the basis of each states population Senate each state would have equal representation 2 The House of Reps. Would have the power to develop all bills for taxing and government spending The Senate was limited to either accepting or rejecting these bills but they could not change them this is later changed to allow the senate to amend tax bills and to develop appropriation bills | 1,023 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to a new book, drinking alcohol may have saved our ancient ancestors from going extinct. The book, titled “Humans and alcohol: a long and social affair”, (which will be available on January 5, 2020) was written by Professor Robin Dunbar from the University of Oxford and Dr. Kim Hockings from the University of Exeter. They discuss the relationship that humans (ancient and modern) have seemingly always had with alcohol.
The book describes how millions of years ago, our ancient ancestors needed to develop a tolerance to alcohol in order to survive. Finding food was often a hard job as monkeys and apes fought over the fruit. Interestingly enough, monkeys were able to digest unripe fruit, while apes (and eventually early humans) had a more difficult time.
The perfect food source was ripe fruit, but when it was overripe it couldn’t be eaten because of the alcohol it produced after it fell to the ground and started fermenting. In fact, neither monkeys nor apes could eat it although it still contained very important calories. Eventually, though, one group of apes did evolve enough so they were able to tolerate the alcohol in the overripe fruit, allowing them to survive and avoid extinction. The group of apes evolved over many thousands of years, became bipedal, started communicating with their own languages, and even started farming – the process of evolution.
“Even today we see great apes eating fermented fruit and even drinking palm wine produced by humans,” noted Hockings, adding, “It’s hard to be certain of why they do this, and this reflects the complex history of our own relationship with alcohol.”
An interesting point that Hockings made was that there is only about 1-4% alcohol in fallen fruit which is equivalent to a very weak beer and many people today consume more alcohol than that. “As with other substances like salt and sugar, the problem may not be the substance itself but the concentrations we now have access to.”
The book also discusses how alcohol has developed a bad reputation in today’s society, although the authors say that it’s as much of an important part of human culture today as it was millions of years ago. “Alcohol has played an important role in how humans have used feasting to create and maintain their relationships,” Dunbar noted, adding that alcohol has been a huge part in how humans over the years have socialized. “Increasingly, alcohol is viewed as a medical issue, but alcohol abuse is only a small part of a much wider social pattern of alcohol use by humans.”
Is it just me or is anyone else still imagining a bunch of drunken apes dancing around? | <urn:uuid:30674884-6342-45a1-9d75-ea8659ab461e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/12/alcohol-helped-save-our-ancient-ancestors-from-extinction/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.981203 | 566 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.0784957110... | 11 | According to a new book, drinking alcohol may have saved our ancient ancestors from going extinct. The book, titled “Humans and alcohol: a long and social affair”, (which will be available on January 5, 2020) was written by Professor Robin Dunbar from the University of Oxford and Dr. Kim Hockings from the University of Exeter. They discuss the relationship that humans (ancient and modern) have seemingly always had with alcohol.
The book describes how millions of years ago, our ancient ancestors needed to develop a tolerance to alcohol in order to survive. Finding food was often a hard job as monkeys and apes fought over the fruit. Interestingly enough, monkeys were able to digest unripe fruit, while apes (and eventually early humans) had a more difficult time.
The perfect food source was ripe fruit, but when it was overripe it couldn’t be eaten because of the alcohol it produced after it fell to the ground and started fermenting. In fact, neither monkeys nor apes could eat it although it still contained very important calories. Eventually, though, one group of apes did evolve enough so they were able to tolerate the alcohol in the overripe fruit, allowing them to survive and avoid extinction. The group of apes evolved over many thousands of years, became bipedal, started communicating with their own languages, and even started farming – the process of evolution.
“Even today we see great apes eating fermented fruit and even drinking palm wine produced by humans,” noted Hockings, adding, “It’s hard to be certain of why they do this, and this reflects the complex history of our own relationship with alcohol.”
An interesting point that Hockings made was that there is only about 1-4% alcohol in fallen fruit which is equivalent to a very weak beer and many people today consume more alcohol than that. “As with other substances like salt and sugar, the problem may not be the substance itself but the concentrations we now have access to.”
The book also discusses how alcohol has developed a bad reputation in today’s society, although the authors say that it’s as much of an important part of human culture today as it was millions of years ago. “Alcohol has played an important role in how humans have used feasting to create and maintain their relationships,” Dunbar noted, adding that alcohol has been a huge part in how humans over the years have socialized. “Increasingly, alcohol is viewed as a medical issue, but alcohol abuse is only a small part of a much wider social pattern of alcohol use by humans.”
Is it just me or is anyone else still imagining a bunch of drunken apes dancing around? | 542 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Bradford (1589/90 - May 9, 1657) was a leader of the Pilgrim settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, and became Governor of the Plymouth Colony.
He was the son of William Bradford and his wife Alice Hanson, and was baptised on March 19, 1589/90 in Austerfield, Yorkshire. At an early age he was attracted to the primitive congregational church in nearby Scrooby. By 1607 he was a committed member of what was termed a separatist church, since they wanted to separate from the Church of England. When James I began to persecute separatists in 1608 he fled to the Netherlands along with many members of the congregation. They went first to Amsterdam before settling at Leiden. He married his first wife Dorothy May (1597 - December 7, 1620) on December 10, 1613 in Amsterdam. While at Leiden he supported himself as a fustian weaver.
Shifting alignments of the European powers caused the Dutch government fear approaching war with catholic Spain and to become allied with James I. Pressure and even attacks on the separatists increased in the Netherlands. Their congregation's leader, John Robinson, supported the emerging idea of starting a colony. Bradford was in the midst of this venture from the beginning. They wanted to remain Englishmen, yet get far enough away from the church and the government to have some chance of living in peace. Arrangements were made, and William with his wife Dorothy sailed for America in 1620 from Leiden, aboard the Mayflower. She died in Cape Cod Bay, near Provincetown.
The first winter in the new colony was a terrible experience. Half the colonists perished, including the colony's leader, John Carver. Bradford was selected as his replacement in the spring of 1621. From this point his story is linked with the history of the Plymouth Colony.
William Bradford's second wife, Alice Carpenter, came to Plymouth on the Anne in July 1623, and married Governor Bradford on August 14, 1623 at Plymouth. They had three children, William, Mercy, and Joseph. Alice also helped to raise John, the son of his first marriage. William Bradford died at Plymouth and was interred at Plymouth Burial Hill.
Bradford kept a detailed journal for many years. Large parts of this were published as Of Plymouth Plantation, and republished a number of times. (It is currently in print as ISBN 0075542811.) George Morton merged parts of it with the journal of Edward Winslow to publish Mourt's Relation to give an account of the early days of the Pilgrim settlements.
Bradford's history at the Pilgrim Museum | <urn:uuid:b76a8786-8aba-473d-acfd-c98859f85d76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.infomutt.com/w/wi/william_bradford__1590_1657_.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.983167 | 546 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.3940552175... | 3 | William Bradford (1589/90 - May 9, 1657) was a leader of the Pilgrim settlers of the Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, and became Governor of the Plymouth Colony.
He was the son of William Bradford and his wife Alice Hanson, and was baptised on March 19, 1589/90 in Austerfield, Yorkshire. At an early age he was attracted to the primitive congregational church in nearby Scrooby. By 1607 he was a committed member of what was termed a separatist church, since they wanted to separate from the Church of England. When James I began to persecute separatists in 1608 he fled to the Netherlands along with many members of the congregation. They went first to Amsterdam before settling at Leiden. He married his first wife Dorothy May (1597 - December 7, 1620) on December 10, 1613 in Amsterdam. While at Leiden he supported himself as a fustian weaver.
Shifting alignments of the European powers caused the Dutch government fear approaching war with catholic Spain and to become allied with James I. Pressure and even attacks on the separatists increased in the Netherlands. Their congregation's leader, John Robinson, supported the emerging idea of starting a colony. Bradford was in the midst of this venture from the beginning. They wanted to remain Englishmen, yet get far enough away from the church and the government to have some chance of living in peace. Arrangements were made, and William with his wife Dorothy sailed for America in 1620 from Leiden, aboard the Mayflower. She died in Cape Cod Bay, near Provincetown.
The first winter in the new colony was a terrible experience. Half the colonists perished, including the colony's leader, John Carver. Bradford was selected as his replacement in the spring of 1621. From this point his story is linked with the history of the Plymouth Colony.
William Bradford's second wife, Alice Carpenter, came to Plymouth on the Anne in July 1623, and married Governor Bradford on August 14, 1623 at Plymouth. They had three children, William, Mercy, and Joseph. Alice also helped to raise John, the son of his first marriage. William Bradford died at Plymouth and was interred at Plymouth Burial Hill.
Bradford kept a detailed journal for many years. Large parts of this were published as Of Plymouth Plantation, and republished a number of times. (It is currently in print as ISBN 0075542811.) George Morton merged parts of it with the journal of Edward Winslow to publish Mourt's Relation to give an account of the early days of the Pilgrim settlements.
Bradford's history at the Pilgrim Museum | 594 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brigid, along with The Dagda was the first born of the Children of Danu and as such is a fitting symbol of Imbolc, which possibly comes from the Old Irish i mbolc meaning "in the belly", and refers to the pregnancy of ewes. Imbolc is celebrated traditionally from sunset on 31 January to 1 February, since the day started at sunset. The alignment of some ancient monuments, such as the Mound of the Hostages on the Hill of Tara, indicate that Imbolc has been celebrated in Ireland for possibly 12,000 years. The inner chamber is aligned with the rising sun of both Imbolc and Samhain.
In Gaelic Ireland, Imbolc was the feis or festival marking the beginning of spring, during which great feasts were held. Celebrations involved lighting a hearth fire at home, candles or a bonfire. This lighting of candles and fires represented the return of warmth as the sun slowly increased in strength.
Sacred wells were visited at Imbolc, and participants would pray for health while walking sunwise around the well, representing the womb of Danu, who is connected with sacred water. Sacrificial offerings, such as coins were placed in the well and clooties (small pieces of cloth from old clothing) are dipped in the water. They are then tied to a branch of a sacred tree in honour of Bile, the great oak. Water from the well was drawn from the well and participants would later use this to sprinkle and bless the home, family members, livestock and fields.
In recent times, Imbolc is celebrated by Irish Christians as Saint Brigid’s Day, but the festival is based on Brigid in her role as a fertility goddess. On Imbolc Eve, Brigid visits deserving households and blesses them. Brigid represents the transition from the dark season of winter into spring and her presence was very welcome at this time of year. Families would have a special meal on Imbolc Eve, including included food such as colcannon (mashed potatoes with kale or cabbage), dumplings and barmbrack (round bread). Some of the food and drink would be set aside for Brigid.
Brigid was invited into the home and a bed be made for her. A family member, representing Brigid, would circle the home three times carrying rushes and knock on the door requesting to be let in. On the third knock they are welcomed in, the meal is had, and the rushes are then strewn on the floor as a bed for Brigid. A white wand, usually made of birch, would be set by the bed, representing the wand Brigid uses to make the vegetation grow again. The following morning a Brídeóg (a doll like representation of Brigid made from reeds and clad in bits of cloth, shells and flowers) would be paraded around the community by young women.
Leave a comment
Comments will be approved before showing up. | <urn:uuid:bb39794e-d1ee-481a-bdfa-db36a55d0c17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/celtic-mythology-basics/10-imbolc-brigids-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.984471 | 619 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.07574296742... | 9 | Brigid, along with The Dagda was the first born of the Children of Danu and as such is a fitting symbol of Imbolc, which possibly comes from the Old Irish i mbolc meaning "in the belly", and refers to the pregnancy of ewes. Imbolc is celebrated traditionally from sunset on 31 January to 1 February, since the day started at sunset. The alignment of some ancient monuments, such as the Mound of the Hostages on the Hill of Tara, indicate that Imbolc has been celebrated in Ireland for possibly 12,000 years. The inner chamber is aligned with the rising sun of both Imbolc and Samhain.
In Gaelic Ireland, Imbolc was the feis or festival marking the beginning of spring, during which great feasts were held. Celebrations involved lighting a hearth fire at home, candles or a bonfire. This lighting of candles and fires represented the return of warmth as the sun slowly increased in strength.
Sacred wells were visited at Imbolc, and participants would pray for health while walking sunwise around the well, representing the womb of Danu, who is connected with sacred water. Sacrificial offerings, such as coins were placed in the well and clooties (small pieces of cloth from old clothing) are dipped in the water. They are then tied to a branch of a sacred tree in honour of Bile, the great oak. Water from the well was drawn from the well and participants would later use this to sprinkle and bless the home, family members, livestock and fields.
In recent times, Imbolc is celebrated by Irish Christians as Saint Brigid’s Day, but the festival is based on Brigid in her role as a fertility goddess. On Imbolc Eve, Brigid visits deserving households and blesses them. Brigid represents the transition from the dark season of winter into spring and her presence was very welcome at this time of year. Families would have a special meal on Imbolc Eve, including included food such as colcannon (mashed potatoes with kale or cabbage), dumplings and barmbrack (round bread). Some of the food and drink would be set aside for Brigid.
Brigid was invited into the home and a bed be made for her. A family member, representing Brigid, would circle the home three times carrying rushes and knock on the door requesting to be let in. On the third knock they are welcomed in, the meal is had, and the rushes are then strewn on the floor as a bed for Brigid. A white wand, usually made of birch, would be set by the bed, representing the wand Brigid uses to make the vegetation grow again. The following morning a Brídeóg (a doll like representation of Brigid made from reeds and clad in bits of cloth, shells and flowers) would be paraded around the community by young women.
Leave a comment
Comments will be approved before showing up. | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Orwell had actually composed his unique “Animal Farm” in order to alert his readers for many reasons. In lots of parts of the novel, George Orwell clearly represented how ignorance was a very big part regarding why the animals were so easily controlled. This In theory, lead to the conflicted problems the animals had about equality.
In particularly, equality was the key Concept of the relation between the Russian Revolution and Animal Farm. Appropriately, George Orwell had expressed completely how power can probably be corruptive. Most significantly, it showed the guaranteed danger of a naive working class.
Among main ideas one can gain from George Orwell is that the readers can be taught that they ought to be self-aware and not be ignorant as it probably can be made the most of, regularly. Forthrightly, the animals allowed themselves to be utilized and treated in this method. In other words, lack of knowledge can be easily fixed and frustratingly enough, they did almost nothing to fix this. As a result, the animals were quickly deceived and controlled. For example, Boxer, who represented the devoted and working class of the attempt communism In the Soviet Union, had unquestionably been benefited from.
Because of having the inability or objection to question the authority and puzzling out the Implications of various possible actions to avoid the result that had taken place, Fighter preferred to draw a blind eye and repeated the words “Napoleon Is always right” (Chapter V). In addition, the pigs had the upper hand and might for that reason manage him, and the other animals efficiently with no issue whatsoever. This is likewise the moral of why George Orwell wrote Animal Farm as a fable. Animal Farm demonstrates how by being naive and oblivious can be used versus and in turn suffer to the complete degree of eyeing capitalized on.
The common animals of Animal Farm had actually fought for equality, however easier stated than done, it was proved that the result was not what they wanted. At the start of the unique when Old Major (based upon both Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin) had actually offered his remarkable speech that had affected the other animals to begin “minimalism,” he had had developed a number of the 7 Rules. George Orwell had actually utilized this chance to show the role of propaganda and how It might easily control individuals. Coincidently, Squealer had the position of propaganda and hush George Orwell represents this through Squealer’s control of the 7 rules.
Two of which were really significant throughout the book. The phrase, “Four legs great, two legs bad” (Chapter Ill) explained the clear line in between humans and animals despite the reality that not all animals utilize four legs. George Orwell had actually utilized this commandment to show how the upper-class abuses language to manage the lower-class. It was observed that this certain guideline remained in fact efficient initially but quickly turned into absolutely nothing more than a basic opinion s by the end of the novel, the phrase had altered to “Four legs good, 2 legs much better” (Chapter X). Namely, this expression displayed the overall bias prospective of the animals.
Likewise, another rule “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equivalent than others” (Chapter X), showed the apparent unfairness of the pigs and the other animals. This was the repercussion of the animal’s Ignorance as they did not take in the idea that the original rule, “All animals are corruption on Animal Farm. All in all, thinking about Animal farm as an allegory, the develop showed that this kind of inequality was also apparent throughout the Russian Revolution as an effect of having Joseph Stalin (Napoleon) and Leon Trotsky (Snowball) as the leaders.
George Orwell had clearly revealed that power certainly damages throughout the novel. Certainly, the pigs were provided outright power and in return damaged the ultimate strategy of minimalism the animals, consisting of Old Major, originally aims. Although, the management did have a positive result in the beginning, having driven the guys away and all of the animals were interacting for the moon great. The pigs started to make use of and abuse the position of authority they had over the other animals, where a rivalry was formed.
Ironically enough, the pigs advanced and on, and quickly enough they were starting to resemble the habits of the males the animals had actually repelled. This recommended that George Orwell did in truth alert the readers that power can without a doubt be corruptive. As George Orwell composed Animal Farm as a political satire and as a third prospective, the caution was expressed very straightforwardly in contrast to what the actual animals were hinging. Apart from that, the pigs’ manipulation of the other animals symbolized the windmill.
This is because while the animals worked a remarkable amount on the windmill despite the reality for the need of their own food and comfort, the pigs were the only ones who had gained in that entire duration. They were the ones that were not taking part and made the cash and therefore, their power, in particularly Napoleon, broadened like nothing other. To put it in an allegorical perspective, as Russia lagged in the Industrial Revolution, the big tasks that were carried out in Soviet Russia was what the windmill represented.
Another example of the amount of power Napoleon had was when he had sold his most faithful companion for alcohol. This was rather a problem because prior to being carted off, Boxer served as the force that held Animal Farm together, and with Boxer’s absence, it represented that Animal Farm was no longer “equal,” and that Napoleon held complete authority. Overall, out of the variety of reasons why George Orwell had actually written Animal Farm, it is believed that the book can be considered as a caution for numerous reasons.
Clear as a bell, the novel demonstrated that if one is oblivious it can undoubtedly be benefited from and be used against. It was likewise demonstrated that the concept of equality is most definitely harder to achieve than it is to imagine which it was certainly not successful throughout Animal Farm as the leaders were not clear-minded from the outcome of power. This is since George Orwell effectively proved that a good deal of power can really be dreadfully corruptive. In conclusion, George Orwell composed Animal Farm as a warning. Bibliography: Sparseness. Com– Animal Farm | <urn:uuid:22d8aeff-1378-4ae6-a6f1-9420205347eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/animal-farm-the-morals-of-the-novel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.984166 | 1,297 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.168015331029891... | 1 | George Orwell had actually composed his unique “Animal Farm” in order to alert his readers for many reasons. In lots of parts of the novel, George Orwell clearly represented how ignorance was a very big part regarding why the animals were so easily controlled. This In theory, lead to the conflicted problems the animals had about equality.
In particularly, equality was the key Concept of the relation between the Russian Revolution and Animal Farm. Appropriately, George Orwell had expressed completely how power can probably be corruptive. Most significantly, it showed the guaranteed danger of a naive working class.
Among main ideas one can gain from George Orwell is that the readers can be taught that they ought to be self-aware and not be ignorant as it probably can be made the most of, regularly. Forthrightly, the animals allowed themselves to be utilized and treated in this method. In other words, lack of knowledge can be easily fixed and frustratingly enough, they did almost nothing to fix this. As a result, the animals were quickly deceived and controlled. For example, Boxer, who represented the devoted and working class of the attempt communism In the Soviet Union, had unquestionably been benefited from.
Because of having the inability or objection to question the authority and puzzling out the Implications of various possible actions to avoid the result that had taken place, Fighter preferred to draw a blind eye and repeated the words “Napoleon Is always right” (Chapter V). In addition, the pigs had the upper hand and might for that reason manage him, and the other animals efficiently with no issue whatsoever. This is likewise the moral of why George Orwell wrote Animal Farm as a fable. Animal Farm demonstrates how by being naive and oblivious can be used versus and in turn suffer to the complete degree of eyeing capitalized on.
The common animals of Animal Farm had actually fought for equality, however easier stated than done, it was proved that the result was not what they wanted. At the start of the unique when Old Major (based upon both Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin) had actually offered his remarkable speech that had affected the other animals to begin “minimalism,” he had had developed a number of the 7 Rules. George Orwell had actually utilized this chance to show the role of propaganda and how It might easily control individuals. Coincidently, Squealer had the position of propaganda and hush George Orwell represents this through Squealer’s control of the 7 rules.
Two of which were really significant throughout the book. The phrase, “Four legs great, two legs bad” (Chapter Ill) explained the clear line in between humans and animals despite the reality that not all animals utilize four legs. George Orwell had actually utilized this commandment to show how the upper-class abuses language to manage the lower-class. It was observed that this certain guideline remained in fact efficient initially but quickly turned into absolutely nothing more than a basic opinion s by the end of the novel, the phrase had altered to “Four legs good, 2 legs much better” (Chapter X). Namely, this expression displayed the overall bias prospective of the animals.
Likewise, another rule “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equivalent than others” (Chapter X), showed the apparent unfairness of the pigs and the other animals. This was the repercussion of the animal’s Ignorance as they did not take in the idea that the original rule, “All animals are corruption on Animal Farm. All in all, thinking about Animal farm as an allegory, the develop showed that this kind of inequality was also apparent throughout the Russian Revolution as an effect of having Joseph Stalin (Napoleon) and Leon Trotsky (Snowball) as the leaders.
George Orwell had clearly revealed that power certainly damages throughout the novel. Certainly, the pigs were provided outright power and in return damaged the ultimate strategy of minimalism the animals, consisting of Old Major, originally aims. Although, the management did have a positive result in the beginning, having driven the guys away and all of the animals were interacting for the moon great. The pigs started to make use of and abuse the position of authority they had over the other animals, where a rivalry was formed.
Ironically enough, the pigs advanced and on, and quickly enough they were starting to resemble the habits of the males the animals had actually repelled. This recommended that George Orwell did in truth alert the readers that power can without a doubt be corruptive. As George Orwell composed Animal Farm as a political satire and as a third prospective, the caution was expressed very straightforwardly in contrast to what the actual animals were hinging. Apart from that, the pigs’ manipulation of the other animals symbolized the windmill.
This is because while the animals worked a remarkable amount on the windmill despite the reality for the need of their own food and comfort, the pigs were the only ones who had gained in that entire duration. They were the ones that were not taking part and made the cash and therefore, their power, in particularly Napoleon, broadened like nothing other. To put it in an allegorical perspective, as Russia lagged in the Industrial Revolution, the big tasks that were carried out in Soviet Russia was what the windmill represented.
Another example of the amount of power Napoleon had was when he had sold his most faithful companion for alcohol. This was rather a problem because prior to being carted off, Boxer served as the force that held Animal Farm together, and with Boxer’s absence, it represented that Animal Farm was no longer “equal,” and that Napoleon held complete authority. Overall, out of the variety of reasons why George Orwell had actually written Animal Farm, it is believed that the book can be considered as a caution for numerous reasons.
Clear as a bell, the novel demonstrated that if one is oblivious it can undoubtedly be benefited from and be used against. It was likewise demonstrated that the concept of equality is most definitely harder to achieve than it is to imagine which it was certainly not successful throughout Animal Farm as the leaders were not clear-minded from the outcome of power. This is since George Orwell effectively proved that a good deal of power can really be dreadfully corruptive. In conclusion, George Orwell composed Animal Farm as a warning. Bibliography: Sparseness. Com– Animal Farm | 1,268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
beside it in these regions a royal palace, but as often the temple towers over the palace. This presence of the temple is equally true of the Phœnician cities and of the Greek and Roman as they arise. The palace of Cnossos, with its signs of comfort and pleasure-seeking, and the kindred cities of the Ægean peoples, include religious shrines, but in Crete there are also temples standing apart from the palatial city-households. All over the ancient civilized world we find them; wherever primitive civilization set its foot in Africa, Europe, or western Asia, a temple arose, and where the civilization is most ancient, in Egypt and in Sumer, there the temple is most in evidence. When Hanno reached what he thought was the most westerly point of Africa, he set up a temple to Hercules. We have, in fact, come now to a new stage in the history of mankind, the temple stage.
In all these temples there was a shrine; dominating the shrine there was commonly a great figure, usually of some monstrous half-animal form, before which stood an altar for sacrifices. This figure was either regarded as the god or as the image or symbol of the god, for whose worship the temple existed. And connected with the temple there were a number, and often a considerable number, of priests or priestesses, and temple servants, generally wearing a distinctive costume and forming an important part of the city population. They belonged to no household, as did the simple priest of the primitive Aryan; they made up a new kind of household of their own. They were a caste and a class apart, attracting intelligent recruits from the general population.
The primary duty of this priesthood was concerned with the worship of and the sacrifices to the god of the temple. And these things were done, not at any time, but at particular times and seasons. There had come into the life of man with his herding and agriculture a sense of a difference between the parts of the year and of a difference between day and day. Men were beginning to work—and to need days of rest. The temple, by its festivals, kept count. The temple in the ancient city was like the clock and calendar upon a writing-desk. | <urn:uuid:f88e1342-1c00-4d62-bc67-10babf831b61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/258 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.981299 | 466 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3576864600181579... | 1 | beside it in these regions a royal palace, but as often the temple towers over the palace. This presence of the temple is equally true of the Phœnician cities and of the Greek and Roman as they arise. The palace of Cnossos, with its signs of comfort and pleasure-seeking, and the kindred cities of the Ægean peoples, include religious shrines, but in Crete there are also temples standing apart from the palatial city-households. All over the ancient civilized world we find them; wherever primitive civilization set its foot in Africa, Europe, or western Asia, a temple arose, and where the civilization is most ancient, in Egypt and in Sumer, there the temple is most in evidence. When Hanno reached what he thought was the most westerly point of Africa, he set up a temple to Hercules. We have, in fact, come now to a new stage in the history of mankind, the temple stage.
In all these temples there was a shrine; dominating the shrine there was commonly a great figure, usually of some monstrous half-animal form, before which stood an altar for sacrifices. This figure was either regarded as the god or as the image or symbol of the god, for whose worship the temple existed. And connected with the temple there were a number, and often a considerable number, of priests or priestesses, and temple servants, generally wearing a distinctive costume and forming an important part of the city population. They belonged to no household, as did the simple priest of the primitive Aryan; they made up a new kind of household of their own. They were a caste and a class apart, attracting intelligent recruits from the general population.
The primary duty of this priesthood was concerned with the worship of and the sacrifices to the god of the temple. And these things were done, not at any time, but at particular times and seasons. There had come into the life of man with his herding and agriculture a sense of a difference between the parts of the year and of a difference between day and day. Men were beginning to work—and to need days of rest. The temple, by its festivals, kept count. The temple in the ancient city was like the clock and calendar upon a writing-desk. | 459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pontormo, who was born as Jacopo Carucci, was an Italian painter who went on to become one of the leading lights of the Florentine Renaissance of the 16th century and created frescoes as well as paintings across Italy that brought about a dramatic shift in the art of the era. One of the most important things to point out with regards to Pontormo is the fact that after he was orphaned he learnt the craft from the masters of the era like Leonardo da Vinci and Piero di Cosimo that immediately gave him an in depth understanding of the artist’s mind. Pontormo’s work displayed the sort of vision that was unique and in addition to that, his work was famous for the expressions of the figures, pose as well as the fact that the figures often seemed to float. Pontormo also came in direct contact with the Medici family and even worked on a fresco at one of the houses belonging to the family. Many of his paintings are lost or damaged but the many more which are housed in museums and churches at different parts of the world can still give people a glimpse into the neurotic genius of Pontormo.
- Jacopo Carucci, who later came to be known as Jacopo Pontormo or just Pontormo was born on May 24, 1494 in a place called Pontorme near Empoli in Italy. His father, Bartolomeo di Jacopo di Martino Carucci, was a painter by profession and his mother’s name was Alessandra di Pasquale di Zanobi.Pontormo was orphaned at an early age as per the accounts of his biographer Giorgio Vasari. Although not a lot is known whether Pontormo received any formal education or not; his biographer has stated that he apprenticed as a painter under the guidance of the great Leonardo da Vinci, Mariotto Albertinelli and Piero di Cosimo.In 1512, at the age of 18, Pontormo started as an apprentice under the guidance of the painter Andrew del Sarto and according to most art experts, Sarto seems to have had the most telling influence on his works as a painter. The 1518 altarpiece Pontormo did at the San Michele Visdomini in Florence is often cited as an example of this influence. Pontormo had also travelled to Rome in order to have a look at Michelangelo’s work.Recommended Lists:
- Pontormo primarily worked in and around the city of Florence, where the painters and artists had the patronage of the House of Medici. One of his earliest works was the ‘Visitation of the Virgin and St. Elisabeth’ which took two years to complete and was completed in 1516. The figures painted in the fresco became his discernible style.By the time the year 1519 came along, Pontormo’s name had spread far and wide as a painter of rare gifts who had perfected the art of depicting the agitated emotions in the paintings. In the same year, he started working on the fresco at the country Villa of the Medici located at Caiano. It ended three years later and was appreciated by the powers that be.Pontormo had to leave Florence in the year 1522 when the plague spread across the city and the painter made his way to Certose di Galluzzo. He painted frescos at the Carthusian monastery.In 1528, Pontormo created his greatest ever work when he painted the altarpiece at the Capponi Chapel in Florence and the canvas titled ‘The Deposition from the Cross’ remains one of his most famous pieces of work that survives to the present day.Although lots of paintings done by Pontormo have been damaged, plenty survive and are housed at different museums and galleries in Italy and parts of Europe. Pontormo is known to have shrunk away from public life in the last 10 years of his life but his last great work was the frescoes of San Lorenzo, Florence. The work remained unfinished and partly damaged, however it showed the profound influence Michelangelo had on his mind.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Major Works
- Pontormo is rightly regarded as one of the significant painters of the Florentine Renaissance and although many of his works have been damaged or lost; a significant number of them survive. The most important work of his career was certainly ‘The Deposition from the Cross’ at the Capponi Chapel in Florence.Personal Life & Legacy
- The details of his personal life and whether he had a wife or ever had a relationship are unknown.Pontormo died at the age of 62 on January 2, 1557 in Florence.
How To CiteArticle Title- Pontormo BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/pontormo-6794.phpLast Updated- November 13, 2017
People Also Viewed | <urn:uuid:e8a9a375-4fc4-4054-a6ce-3ce6339dc4a9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/pontormo-6794.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.987374 | 1,048 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.5580329298... | 1 | Pontormo, who was born as Jacopo Carucci, was an Italian painter who went on to become one of the leading lights of the Florentine Renaissance of the 16th century and created frescoes as well as paintings across Italy that brought about a dramatic shift in the art of the era. One of the most important things to point out with regards to Pontormo is the fact that after he was orphaned he learnt the craft from the masters of the era like Leonardo da Vinci and Piero di Cosimo that immediately gave him an in depth understanding of the artist’s mind. Pontormo’s work displayed the sort of vision that was unique and in addition to that, his work was famous for the expressions of the figures, pose as well as the fact that the figures often seemed to float. Pontormo also came in direct contact with the Medici family and even worked on a fresco at one of the houses belonging to the family. Many of his paintings are lost or damaged but the many more which are housed in museums and churches at different parts of the world can still give people a glimpse into the neurotic genius of Pontormo.
- Jacopo Carucci, who later came to be known as Jacopo Pontormo or just Pontormo was born on May 24, 1494 in a place called Pontorme near Empoli in Italy. His father, Bartolomeo di Jacopo di Martino Carucci, was a painter by profession and his mother’s name was Alessandra di Pasquale di Zanobi.Pontormo was orphaned at an early age as per the accounts of his biographer Giorgio Vasari. Although not a lot is known whether Pontormo received any formal education or not; his biographer has stated that he apprenticed as a painter under the guidance of the great Leonardo da Vinci, Mariotto Albertinelli and Piero di Cosimo.In 1512, at the age of 18, Pontormo started as an apprentice under the guidance of the painter Andrew del Sarto and according to most art experts, Sarto seems to have had the most telling influence on his works as a painter. The 1518 altarpiece Pontormo did at the San Michele Visdomini in Florence is often cited as an example of this influence. Pontormo had also travelled to Rome in order to have a look at Michelangelo’s work.Recommended Lists:
- Pontormo primarily worked in and around the city of Florence, where the painters and artists had the patronage of the House of Medici. One of his earliest works was the ‘Visitation of the Virgin and St. Elisabeth’ which took two years to complete and was completed in 1516. The figures painted in the fresco became his discernible style.By the time the year 1519 came along, Pontormo’s name had spread far and wide as a painter of rare gifts who had perfected the art of depicting the agitated emotions in the paintings. In the same year, he started working on the fresco at the country Villa of the Medici located at Caiano. It ended three years later and was appreciated by the powers that be.Pontormo had to leave Florence in the year 1522 when the plague spread across the city and the painter made his way to Certose di Galluzzo. He painted frescos at the Carthusian monastery.In 1528, Pontormo created his greatest ever work when he painted the altarpiece at the Capponi Chapel in Florence and the canvas titled ‘The Deposition from the Cross’ remains one of his most famous pieces of work that survives to the present day.Although lots of paintings done by Pontormo have been damaged, plenty survive and are housed at different museums and galleries in Italy and parts of Europe. Pontormo is known to have shrunk away from public life in the last 10 years of his life but his last great work was the frescoes of San Lorenzo, Florence. The work remained unfinished and partly damaged, however it showed the profound influence Michelangelo had on his mind.Recommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:Major Works
- Pontormo is rightly regarded as one of the significant painters of the Florentine Renaissance and although many of his works have been damaged or lost; a significant number of them survive. The most important work of his career was certainly ‘The Deposition from the Cross’ at the Capponi Chapel in Florence.Personal Life & Legacy
- The details of his personal life and whether he had a wife or ever had a relationship are unknown.Pontormo died at the age of 62 on January 2, 1557 in Florence.
How To CiteArticle Title- Pontormo BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/pontormo-6794.phpLast Updated- November 13, 2017
People Also Viewed | 1,051 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who learns faster?
Do children learn more quickly than adults?
Small children seem to learn very quickly, while adults sometimes appear to lose the ability to pick up new subject such as languages, music, games, or computer programs. In this essay, I will discuss whether children or adults make the best learners.
It is undoubtedly true that children seem to learn very quickly. In just a few years, they can learn how to play a musical instrument, speak one or even two new languages, and deal with many subjects at school. They even have time for sports and hobbies, and become experts in their favorite pastimes. However, how much of this is social pressure and how much is genetic? I am convinced that while children’s brains have a natural ability to absorb new information as part of their developmental growth, much of their achievement is because of social pressure. Schools force them to take many subjects. Parents force them to practice new sports or to learn music. Even their playmates force them to become better at computer games or to read Harry Potter novels faster. In summary, children may enjoy learning, but their environment also is a big motivating factor.
Adults on the other hand are supposed to be poor learners. However, I disagree with people who say that adults cannot learn quickly. Adults have many skills that compensate for the decline in the ability of the brain to grasp and remember new material. They can organize their learning by setting times for reading or practice. They can build on skills and experiences they know already. Adults usually cannot learn to do ballet or to play the violin, but even despite these physical challenges, their motivation can often be higher than a child’s. Unfortunately, society does not encourage many adults to learn. People are busy with families and work, and some adults may feel that further learning is pointless, since they have already achieved many goals at work or in their personal life.
In conclusion, I feel that we cannot generalize about children or adults being better learners. It depends on the situation and the motivation of the person, and the level of enthusiasm he or she has for learning.
What do you want to do now?
- Read more topics! | <urn:uuid:e1c68eb3-dce5-42e1-81d1-b52e9d3448eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://writefix.com/?page_id=1875 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.982328 | 444 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.355874985456... | 2 | Who learns faster?
Do children learn more quickly than adults?
Small children seem to learn very quickly, while adults sometimes appear to lose the ability to pick up new subject such as languages, music, games, or computer programs. In this essay, I will discuss whether children or adults make the best learners.
It is undoubtedly true that children seem to learn very quickly. In just a few years, they can learn how to play a musical instrument, speak one or even two new languages, and deal with many subjects at school. They even have time for sports and hobbies, and become experts in their favorite pastimes. However, how much of this is social pressure and how much is genetic? I am convinced that while children’s brains have a natural ability to absorb new information as part of their developmental growth, much of their achievement is because of social pressure. Schools force them to take many subjects. Parents force them to practice new sports or to learn music. Even their playmates force them to become better at computer games or to read Harry Potter novels faster. In summary, children may enjoy learning, but their environment also is a big motivating factor.
Adults on the other hand are supposed to be poor learners. However, I disagree with people who say that adults cannot learn quickly. Adults have many skills that compensate for the decline in the ability of the brain to grasp and remember new material. They can organize their learning by setting times for reading or practice. They can build on skills and experiences they know already. Adults usually cannot learn to do ballet or to play the violin, but even despite these physical challenges, their motivation can often be higher than a child’s. Unfortunately, society does not encourage many adults to learn. People are busy with families and work, and some adults may feel that further learning is pointless, since they have already achieved many goals at work or in their personal life.
In conclusion, I feel that we cannot generalize about children or adults being better learners. It depends on the situation and the motivation of the person, and the level of enthusiasm he or she has for learning.
What do you want to do now?
- Read more topics! | 432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A casinghead gasoline explosion that occurred September 27, 1915, at Ardmore, Oklahoma, was the deadliest and most destructive of any up to that time. Casinghead gasoline, or natural gasoline, is collected from natural gas at the casinghead of an oil or gas well. Casinghead gasoline production held an important place in Oklahoma's early petroleum development, and by 1913 forty natural gasoline plants existed. Placing the gas under high pressure converts the gasoline in it to a liquid state, but this extremely volatile substance must stay at around 50F or it will expand and change back to a gaseous state. The product was generally shipped to refineries by rail.
On September 26, 1915, a railroad car carrying casinghead gasoline arrived in Ardmoreat the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway depot. There the car was left until it could be taken to a nearby refinery. The next day the temperature quickly rose, activating the car's pop-off valve, designed to release gas pressure. Gas began to pour out and into the low-lying areas of downtown Ardmore. The train conductor refused to move the car because of a fire at a nearby asphaltum plant. The Ardmore Refining Company then sent a representative, who removed the dome from the top of the car, filling the air with gas and vapors. At 2:20 p.m. on September 27 an explosion, triggered by an unidentified source, destroyed most of downtown Ardmore.
Many people were injured, and forty-three people were killed. A district grand jury and a local coroner's jury found the Santa Fe Railway at fault. Citizens formed a committee that took claims and then presented them to the railroad officials. More than seventeen hundred claims were filed, and $1.25 million was paid.
The attorney responsible for the settlement of these claims was a native of Clinton County. His name was Samuel Thomas Bledsoe.
Samuel Thomas Bledsoe was born in Clinton County on May 12, 1868, the son of Elijah and Ottilla G. Snow Bledsoe. After attending some school in Clinton County, he was enrolled in a private school at Jamestown, Kentucky, and later, the Southern Normal School and Business College at Bowling Green. He also studied law under the direction of Tom Brown of Brown and Bliss, Sherman, Texas, who later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas. Bledsoe attended the University of Texas in 1888 and 1889. He taught school in Clinton County in 1885 and in Cumberland County in 1886. He moved to Grayson County, Texas in 1887. In 1890, he was admitted to the practice of law at Sherman, Texas. On May 1, 1890, he moved to Ardmore, Indian Territory, and began practice of law there. And, on July, 1912, was appointed General Attorney of the Santa Fe at Oklahoma City.
Although there was grave doubt of the Santa Fe's responsibility for damage resulting from the explosion, that Company on Bledsoe's recommendation offered to assume liability to all claimants who would agree to submit their claims to arbitration by a Committee of Ardmore citizens to be selected by the Mayor of Ardmore in case they were unable to agree with the Company as to the amount to be paid. Notwithstanding there were many hundred claims, only one suit was filed, the claimant recovering much less than he had been offered.
Samuel Thomas Bledsoe died on March 8, 1939 at Chicago, Illinois.
*From Chronicles of Oklahoma - Vol. 17, No. 2, June 1939 - Samuel Thomas Bledsoe, by M.L. Lyles.
"But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | <urn:uuid:e6a41cd6-ec2a-4887-a8b4-16406462994c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.randyspecktacular.com/2011/08/samuel-thomas-bledsoe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.982433 | 887 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.34757345... | 1 | A casinghead gasoline explosion that occurred September 27, 1915, at Ardmore, Oklahoma, was the deadliest and most destructive of any up to that time. Casinghead gasoline, or natural gasoline, is collected from natural gas at the casinghead of an oil or gas well. Casinghead gasoline production held an important place in Oklahoma's early petroleum development, and by 1913 forty natural gasoline plants existed. Placing the gas under high pressure converts the gasoline in it to a liquid state, but this extremely volatile substance must stay at around 50F or it will expand and change back to a gaseous state. The product was generally shipped to refineries by rail.
On September 26, 1915, a railroad car carrying casinghead gasoline arrived in Ardmoreat the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway depot. There the car was left until it could be taken to a nearby refinery. The next day the temperature quickly rose, activating the car's pop-off valve, designed to release gas pressure. Gas began to pour out and into the low-lying areas of downtown Ardmore. The train conductor refused to move the car because of a fire at a nearby asphaltum plant. The Ardmore Refining Company then sent a representative, who removed the dome from the top of the car, filling the air with gas and vapors. At 2:20 p.m. on September 27 an explosion, triggered by an unidentified source, destroyed most of downtown Ardmore.
Many people were injured, and forty-three people were killed. A district grand jury and a local coroner's jury found the Santa Fe Railway at fault. Citizens formed a committee that took claims and then presented them to the railroad officials. More than seventeen hundred claims were filed, and $1.25 million was paid.
The attorney responsible for the settlement of these claims was a native of Clinton County. His name was Samuel Thomas Bledsoe.
Samuel Thomas Bledsoe was born in Clinton County on May 12, 1868, the son of Elijah and Ottilla G. Snow Bledsoe. After attending some school in Clinton County, he was enrolled in a private school at Jamestown, Kentucky, and later, the Southern Normal School and Business College at Bowling Green. He also studied law under the direction of Tom Brown of Brown and Bliss, Sherman, Texas, who later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas. Bledsoe attended the University of Texas in 1888 and 1889. He taught school in Clinton County in 1885 and in Cumberland County in 1886. He moved to Grayson County, Texas in 1887. In 1890, he was admitted to the practice of law at Sherman, Texas. On May 1, 1890, he moved to Ardmore, Indian Territory, and began practice of law there. And, on July, 1912, was appointed General Attorney of the Santa Fe at Oklahoma City.
Although there was grave doubt of the Santa Fe's responsibility for damage resulting from the explosion, that Company on Bledsoe's recommendation offered to assume liability to all claimants who would agree to submit their claims to arbitration by a Committee of Ardmore citizens to be selected by the Mayor of Ardmore in case they were unable to agree with the Company as to the amount to be paid. Notwithstanding there were many hundred claims, only one suit was filed, the claimant recovering much less than he had been offered.
Samuel Thomas Bledsoe died on March 8, 1939 at Chicago, Illinois.
*From Chronicles of Oklahoma - Vol. 17, No. 2, June 1939 - Samuel Thomas Bledsoe, by M.L. Lyles.
"But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu...
James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl...
When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a...
(This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ... | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presidents of the United States nominate the Justices to the Supreme Court. The nominees are then confirmed or rejected by the Senate. Once confirmed the Justices are entitled to serve for a lifetime unless they resign, retire or impeached.
5. William O. Douglas
Justice William O. Douglas was a Supreme Court Justice in the United States from 1939 until 1975. He was the longest-serving Supreme Court Justice in the US having served for 35 years. William O. Douglas was famous for his controversial stances and rulings. He was born on October 16, 1898, in Minnesota. He studied at Columbia Law School and later joined the school’s faculty upon completion of his studies. He also taught at Yale Law School and chaired the Securities and Exchange Commission between 1937 and 1939. President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated him as a Supreme Court Justice in early 1939, and he took office in April 1939. During his tenure as a Supreme Court Justice, William O. Douglas made his mark as a staunch defender of civil liberties. In the 1965 case Griswold v. Connecticut, he ruled for married couples’ access to contraceptives. He also vigorously defended the rights of accused American communists in 1951 and campaigned against the Vietnam War, the most unpopular stance at the time. He was often against President Richard Nixon’s administration. Despite his firm position on civil liberties, his personal life was not as admirable. He was a reputed womanizer who had four marriages and three divorces in the short span of 13 years.
4. Felix Frankfurter
Justice Felix Frankfurter was a US Supreme Court Justice from 1939 until 1962. He was born to a Jewish family in Austria on November 15, 1882. His family moved to the US in 1894 where he attended Harvard Law School and graduated in 1906. He worked in a law firm in New York and then moved to the Bureau of Insular Affairs as a Law Officer. He was a respected legal expert and became a trusted adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt upon his election. The President nominated him as a Justice to the Supreme Court in 1939. Justice Felix Frankfurter, who was known for his progressive views, was one of the founders of American Civil Liberties Union. Despite his stand on civil liberties, there were a few instances where he ruled against civil rights. For example, in the case of Korematsu v. the United States, he ruled that it was constitutional for the state to confine Japanese Americans during the Second World War.
3. David Souter
David Souter served on the US Supreme Court from October of 1999 until June of 2009. He began his legal career as an associate in a law firm in Concord, New Hampshire. After two years of private practice, he switched to public service where he served as Assistant Attorney General in 1968 and later in 1976 as the Attorney General of New Hampshire. He was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States in October 1990. During his service as a judge, he avoided controversy. However, in the case of Bush v. Gore, he voted against the majority who called for an end to the vote recount in Florida. The decision by the majority resulted in Bush being declared the winner of elections in Florida.
2. Harry Blackmun
Harry Blackmun served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States for 24 years. He was born in Nashville, Illinois on November 12, 1908. He earned a scholarship to Harvard Law School where he graduated in 1932. He served in various positions in his legal profession including appeal court clerk and law professor at the University of Minnesota Law School. In 1970, President Richard Nixon nominated Harry Blackmun to serve in the Supreme Court of the US, and he was sworn in on May 12, 1970. He was a conservative judge who often ruled for the governmental status quo. Nonetheless, in a historical case - Roe v. Wade- in 1973, Harry Blackmun made a liberal decision by ruling that women in the US had a constitutional right to have an abortion. Blackmun authored the Court ruling in the landmark ruling of Roe v. Wade case, and his opinion made him a target for criticism from the opponents of abortion, and he received numerous negative mail and even death threats over the case. In the following years, he took a more liberal position advocating for the poor, immigrants and pushing for affirmative action.
1. William H. Rehnquist
Justice William H. Rehnquist served as the Chief Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States for 19 years from 1986 until 2005, after having been an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court from 1972 until 1986. He was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and studied at several universities including Stanford and Harvard. He graduated from the Stanford Law School in 1952. He took an interest in the Republican Party and served in the Office of Legal Counsel as an assistant attorney general from 1969 to 1971. President Richard Nixon appointed him associate justice of the Supreme Court. He was viewed as a right-wing extremist by most people. Justice William Rehnquist was one of the two judges with dissenting in the case of Roe v. Wade whose ruling legalized abortion in the US and allowed women the right to have an abortion.
Who is William O. Douglas?
Justice William O. Douglas was a Supreme Court Justice in the United States from 1939 until 1975. He was the longest-serving Supreme Court Justice in the US having served for 35 years. William O. Douglas was famous for his controversial stances and rulings.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.1834942102432... | 1 | Presidents of the United States nominate the Justices to the Supreme Court. The nominees are then confirmed or rejected by the Senate. Once confirmed the Justices are entitled to serve for a lifetime unless they resign, retire or impeached.
5. William O. Douglas
Justice William O. Douglas was a Supreme Court Justice in the United States from 1939 until 1975. He was the longest-serving Supreme Court Justice in the US having served for 35 years. William O. Douglas was famous for his controversial stances and rulings. He was born on October 16, 1898, in Minnesota. He studied at Columbia Law School and later joined the school’s faculty upon completion of his studies. He also taught at Yale Law School and chaired the Securities and Exchange Commission between 1937 and 1939. President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated him as a Supreme Court Justice in early 1939, and he took office in April 1939. During his tenure as a Supreme Court Justice, William O. Douglas made his mark as a staunch defender of civil liberties. In the 1965 case Griswold v. Connecticut, he ruled for married couples’ access to contraceptives. He also vigorously defended the rights of accused American communists in 1951 and campaigned against the Vietnam War, the most unpopular stance at the time. He was often against President Richard Nixon’s administration. Despite his firm position on civil liberties, his personal life was not as admirable. He was a reputed womanizer who had four marriages and three divorces in the short span of 13 years.
4. Felix Frankfurter
Justice Felix Frankfurter was a US Supreme Court Justice from 1939 until 1962. He was born to a Jewish family in Austria on November 15, 1882. His family moved to the US in 1894 where he attended Harvard Law School and graduated in 1906. He worked in a law firm in New York and then moved to the Bureau of Insular Affairs as a Law Officer. He was a respected legal expert and became a trusted adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt upon his election. The President nominated him as a Justice to the Supreme Court in 1939. Justice Felix Frankfurter, who was known for his progressive views, was one of the founders of American Civil Liberties Union. Despite his stand on civil liberties, there were a few instances where he ruled against civil rights. For example, in the case of Korematsu v. the United States, he ruled that it was constitutional for the state to confine Japanese Americans during the Second World War.
3. David Souter
David Souter served on the US Supreme Court from October of 1999 until June of 2009. He began his legal career as an associate in a law firm in Concord, New Hampshire. After two years of private practice, he switched to public service where he served as Assistant Attorney General in 1968 and later in 1976 as the Attorney General of New Hampshire. He was appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States in October 1990. During his service as a judge, he avoided controversy. However, in the case of Bush v. Gore, he voted against the majority who called for an end to the vote recount in Florida. The decision by the majority resulted in Bush being declared the winner of elections in Florida.
2. Harry Blackmun
Harry Blackmun served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States for 24 years. He was born in Nashville, Illinois on November 12, 1908. He earned a scholarship to Harvard Law School where he graduated in 1932. He served in various positions in his legal profession including appeal court clerk and law professor at the University of Minnesota Law School. In 1970, President Richard Nixon nominated Harry Blackmun to serve in the Supreme Court of the US, and he was sworn in on May 12, 1970. He was a conservative judge who often ruled for the governmental status quo. Nonetheless, in a historical case - Roe v. Wade- in 1973, Harry Blackmun made a liberal decision by ruling that women in the US had a constitutional right to have an abortion. Blackmun authored the Court ruling in the landmark ruling of Roe v. Wade case, and his opinion made him a target for criticism from the opponents of abortion, and he received numerous negative mail and even death threats over the case. In the following years, he took a more liberal position advocating for the poor, immigrants and pushing for affirmative action.
1. William H. Rehnquist
Justice William H. Rehnquist served as the Chief Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States for 19 years from 1986 until 2005, after having been an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court from 1972 until 1986. He was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and studied at several universities including Stanford and Harvard. He graduated from the Stanford Law School in 1952. He took an interest in the Republican Party and served in the Office of Legal Counsel as an assistant attorney general from 1969 to 1971. President Richard Nixon appointed him associate justice of the Supreme Court. He was viewed as a right-wing extremist by most people. Justice William Rehnquist was one of the two judges with dissenting in the case of Roe v. Wade whose ruling legalized abortion in the US and allowed women the right to have an abortion.
Who is William O. Douglas?
Justice William O. Douglas was a Supreme Court Justice in the United States from 1939 until 1975. He was the longest-serving Supreme Court Justice in the US having served for 35 years. William O. Douglas was famous for his controversial stances and rulings.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. Joan of Arc’s birth date is unknown, but her childhood was marked by war.
Though her exact date of birth isn’t known, Joan of Arc was born in the French village of Domrémy (now known as Domrémy-la-Pucelle) around 1412 to Jacques d’Arc and his wife, Isabelle. Her remote area of northeastern France was not immune to the growing dangers of the Hundred Years’ War, a protracted conflict between France and England that lasted from 1337 to 1453 and saw the French crown fall into dispute. Raids were common at the time, especially as the area in which Joan and her family lived was controlled by the Burgundians, a faction allied with England against the French ruling family. During one incident, her home village was burned down.
2. Joan of Arc began having visions when she was just 13 years old.
While Joan of Arc spent her teenage years fighting for the French army toward the end of the Hundred Years’ War, her willingness to go into battle wasn’t just an act of patriotism. In 1424, Joan began having visions in which St. Michael the Archangel, St. Catherine of Alexandria, and St. Margaret of Antioch appeared to her to instruct her to live a life dedicated to God. As time went on, the visions grew more intense, and eventually the saints would tell her to meet with the Dauphin, the future Charles VII, whom she viewed as the rightful heir to the French throne. The visions urged Joan to convince him to allow her to take up arms against the English and drive them out of France, which would result in Charles officially being recognized as king.
In May 1428, Joan of Arc tried to convince Sir Robert de Baudricourt, commander of a royal garrison, to let her go see Charles. She was initially turned away, but her persistence paid off, because by February 1429, Joan and her visions had gained enough support from the war-weary townspeople to earn Baudricourt's respect and a trip to Chinon to meet with Charles. While traveling to the court, she cut her hair short and began dressing like a man to blend in with the other soldiers.
3. Joan of Arc had correctly spotted Charles VII in disguise.
Joan of Arc claimed she would be able to recognize the Dauphin without ever having met him, so before their first meeting, the future king decided to see this ability in person. He disguised himself as just another member of the court. When Joan arrived, true to her word, she was still able to pick him out, and before long, Charles was ready to listen to her.
While she had no military experience, Joan of Arc managed to convince Charles to let her lead an army to the town of Orléans, then occupied by English forces, so that she could liberate it in his name. In April 1429, as English and French forces battled near the west side of the city, Joan and her troops entered through the east, virtually unopposed, bringing much-needed supplies and reinforcements with them. Once entrenched in Orléans, Joan—dressed in white armor and riding atop a white horse—became an inspiration for the French soldiers and was known for charging into battles, distributing food, and openly calling for the English to depart.
Joan of Arc was an invaluable symbol of hope for the French in Orléans, and by May 8, 1429, after a series of battles within the city, Joan and her army were successful in driving the English out. After a few more victories, Joan of Arc attended Charles's triumphant coronation in Reims in July 1429.
4. Joan of Arc was put on trial for heresy and witchcraft.
In May 1430, Joan of Arc was captured by Burgundian troops during a siege on the town of Compiègne. After her capture, she was sold to the English for 10,000 francs, and she would be held in prison for more than a year on charges of heresy, witchcraft, and wearing men’s clothing. The latter was directly forbidden in the Biblical verse Deuteronomy 22:5, which states that women should not wear “that which pertaineth unto a man.”
A very pro-English trial ensued, with a guilty verdict all but confirmed. On May 28, 1431, Joan signed a retraction of her claims that saints had appeared before her and agreed to only dress as a woman, which would have reduced her death sentence to life in prison, instead. But a few days later, she was again found in men’s clothing and claimed that the visions had returned to her. Her retraction now nullified, the death sentence would be carried out.
5. Joan of Arc died when she was burned at the stake.
On May 30, 1431, Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in the Place du Vieux-Marché in Rouen, France. The main charges after her relapse did not involve witchcraft but were instead related to wearing men’s clothing and falsely claiming that God had urged her to commit violence against the English. Joan of Arc was only 19 at the time of her execution, and it’s estimated that 10,000 people gathered to watch. After her death, a legend soon grew that Joan's heart had somehow survived the fire.
6. Joan of Arc Became a Saint in 1920.
The rehabilitation of Joan of Arc’s reputation took place soon after her execution. In 1456, a retrial was held, ordered by King Charles VII, that posthumously overturned Joan’s conviction and cleared her of any dubious claims of witchcraft and heresy. While Joan of Arc would remain a hero in France for centuries, she gained wider immortality on May 16, 1920, when she was officially canonized by the Catholic Church and was named the patron saint of France, soldiers, and prisoners.
7. The Passion of Joan of Arc is known as one of the most important silent movies.
Less than 10 years after Joan of Arc was made a saint by Pope Benedict XV, her story was brought to the big screen while the movie industry was still in its infancy. Titled The Passion of Joan of Arc, this 1928 silent film is the product of director Carl Theodor Dreyer and star Renée Jeanne Falconetti, who played Joan of Arc. The movie depicts Joan’s imprisonment, trial, and execution. And while it was a financial flop at the time, it has since earned a reputation as one of the finest films of the silent era, with publications like Sight & Sound and The Village Voice, along with critics like Roger Ebert, singing its praises.
8. Jules Bastien-Lepage's Joan of Arc Painting Has Been in New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art Since 1889.
Joan of Arc has inspired countless different works of art in nearly every medium imaginable. In addition to the Saint Joan of Arc statue in Notre Dame cathedral, one of the most recognizable works inspired by the famed French hero is the painting by artist Jules Bastien-Lepage that hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The figure of Joan was modeled by Marie-Adèle Robert, one of the artist’s cousins, and was completed in 1879.
Famous Joan of Arc Quotes
- “I do not fear men-at-arms; my way has been made plain before me. If there be men-at-arms my Lord God will make a way for me to go to my Lord Dauphin. For that am I come.”
- “I would rather die than do something which I know to be a sin, or to be against God's will.”
- “I was in my thirteenth year when I heard a voice from God to help me govern my conduct. And the first time I was very much afraid.”
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0.00898989476263... | 7 | 1. Joan of Arc’s birth date is unknown, but her childhood was marked by war.
Though her exact date of birth isn’t known, Joan of Arc was born in the French village of Domrémy (now known as Domrémy-la-Pucelle) around 1412 to Jacques d’Arc and his wife, Isabelle. Her remote area of northeastern France was not immune to the growing dangers of the Hundred Years’ War, a protracted conflict between France and England that lasted from 1337 to 1453 and saw the French crown fall into dispute. Raids were common at the time, especially as the area in which Joan and her family lived was controlled by the Burgundians, a faction allied with England against the French ruling family. During one incident, her home village was burned down.
2. Joan of Arc began having visions when she was just 13 years old.
While Joan of Arc spent her teenage years fighting for the French army toward the end of the Hundred Years’ War, her willingness to go into battle wasn’t just an act of patriotism. In 1424, Joan began having visions in which St. Michael the Archangel, St. Catherine of Alexandria, and St. Margaret of Antioch appeared to her to instruct her to live a life dedicated to God. As time went on, the visions grew more intense, and eventually the saints would tell her to meet with the Dauphin, the future Charles VII, whom she viewed as the rightful heir to the French throne. The visions urged Joan to convince him to allow her to take up arms against the English and drive them out of France, which would result in Charles officially being recognized as king.
In May 1428, Joan of Arc tried to convince Sir Robert de Baudricourt, commander of a royal garrison, to let her go see Charles. She was initially turned away, but her persistence paid off, because by February 1429, Joan and her visions had gained enough support from the war-weary townspeople to earn Baudricourt's respect and a trip to Chinon to meet with Charles. While traveling to the court, she cut her hair short and began dressing like a man to blend in with the other soldiers.
3. Joan of Arc had correctly spotted Charles VII in disguise.
Joan of Arc claimed she would be able to recognize the Dauphin without ever having met him, so before their first meeting, the future king decided to see this ability in person. He disguised himself as just another member of the court. When Joan arrived, true to her word, she was still able to pick him out, and before long, Charles was ready to listen to her.
While she had no military experience, Joan of Arc managed to convince Charles to let her lead an army to the town of Orléans, then occupied by English forces, so that she could liberate it in his name. In April 1429, as English and French forces battled near the west side of the city, Joan and her troops entered through the east, virtually unopposed, bringing much-needed supplies and reinforcements with them. Once entrenched in Orléans, Joan—dressed in white armor and riding atop a white horse—became an inspiration for the French soldiers and was known for charging into battles, distributing food, and openly calling for the English to depart.
Joan of Arc was an invaluable symbol of hope for the French in Orléans, and by May 8, 1429, after a series of battles within the city, Joan and her army were successful in driving the English out. After a few more victories, Joan of Arc attended Charles's triumphant coronation in Reims in July 1429.
4. Joan of Arc was put on trial for heresy and witchcraft.
In May 1430, Joan of Arc was captured by Burgundian troops during a siege on the town of Compiègne. After her capture, she was sold to the English for 10,000 francs, and she would be held in prison for more than a year on charges of heresy, witchcraft, and wearing men’s clothing. The latter was directly forbidden in the Biblical verse Deuteronomy 22:5, which states that women should not wear “that which pertaineth unto a man.”
A very pro-English trial ensued, with a guilty verdict all but confirmed. On May 28, 1431, Joan signed a retraction of her claims that saints had appeared before her and agreed to only dress as a woman, which would have reduced her death sentence to life in prison, instead. But a few days later, she was again found in men’s clothing and claimed that the visions had returned to her. Her retraction now nullified, the death sentence would be carried out.
5. Joan of Arc died when she was burned at the stake.
On May 30, 1431, Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in the Place du Vieux-Marché in Rouen, France. The main charges after her relapse did not involve witchcraft but were instead related to wearing men’s clothing and falsely claiming that God had urged her to commit violence against the English. Joan of Arc was only 19 at the time of her execution, and it’s estimated that 10,000 people gathered to watch. After her death, a legend soon grew that Joan's heart had somehow survived the fire.
6. Joan of Arc Became a Saint in 1920.
The rehabilitation of Joan of Arc’s reputation took place soon after her execution. In 1456, a retrial was held, ordered by King Charles VII, that posthumously overturned Joan’s conviction and cleared her of any dubious claims of witchcraft and heresy. While Joan of Arc would remain a hero in France for centuries, she gained wider immortality on May 16, 1920, when she was officially canonized by the Catholic Church and was named the patron saint of France, soldiers, and prisoners.
7. The Passion of Joan of Arc is known as one of the most important silent movies.
Less than 10 years after Joan of Arc was made a saint by Pope Benedict XV, her story was brought to the big screen while the movie industry was still in its infancy. Titled The Passion of Joan of Arc, this 1928 silent film is the product of director Carl Theodor Dreyer and star Renée Jeanne Falconetti, who played Joan of Arc. The movie depicts Joan’s imprisonment, trial, and execution. And while it was a financial flop at the time, it has since earned a reputation as one of the finest films of the silent era, with publications like Sight & Sound and The Village Voice, along with critics like Roger Ebert, singing its praises.
8. Jules Bastien-Lepage's Joan of Arc Painting Has Been in New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art Since 1889.
Joan of Arc has inspired countless different works of art in nearly every medium imaginable. In addition to the Saint Joan of Arc statue in Notre Dame cathedral, one of the most recognizable works inspired by the famed French hero is the painting by artist Jules Bastien-Lepage that hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The figure of Joan was modeled by Marie-Adèle Robert, one of the artist’s cousins, and was completed in 1879.
Famous Joan of Arc Quotes
- “I do not fear men-at-arms; my way has been made plain before me. If there be men-at-arms my Lord God will make a way for me to go to my Lord Dauphin. For that am I come.”
- “I would rather die than do something which I know to be a sin, or to be against God's will.”
- “I was in my thirteenth year when I heard a voice from God to help me govern my conduct. And the first time I was very much afraid.”
- “Children say that people are hung sometimes for speaking the truth.” | 1,697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the novel Catcher in the Rye, by J. D. Salinger, Holden Caulfield is depressed teenager filled with angst. His depression is not only evident in his words, but his actions as well. He has never really lived a normal life, for his little brother died when he was just a young boy. He is vulnerable, and he has been in many situations no other person should ever have to experience. Throughout the story, Holden displays his depression and loneliness; he is trapped in a world where he feels he does not belong.
Holden endures an incredible amount of distress at a very young age. The death of his younger brother, Allie, and his family’s unusual way of handling it was the start of his depression. “I was only thirteen, and they were going to have me psychoanalyzed and all, because I broke all the windows in the garage. I don’t blame them. I really don’t. I slept in the garage the night he died, and I broke all the goddam windows with my fist, just for the hell of it”. (Salinger, 98). Holden misses his little brother, for example, one night while he was walking down the street in the city, he pretends he is talking to Allie. Every time I'd get to the end of a block I'd make believe I was talking to my brother Allie. I'd say to him, ‘Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Please, Allie,’ and then when I'd reach the other side of the street without disappearing, I'd thank him”. (Salinger, 198). Holden’s fear of disappearing off of the sidewalk relates to his isolation of the world around him. When he says he is afraid of disappearing, he may really mean he is afraid of dying. He has dealt with death his whole life, but he is so frightened by the thought of dying, he refers to it as disappearing.
After Allie’s death, Holden feels isolated from the rest of the world; like he didn’t fit in. He never really expressed himself in the ways he needed to, which led to an unusual childhood. Holden was never the school type, he felt as though he never fit in anywhere. He failed out of numerous schools, including Pencey, where he talked to his old teacher Mr. Spencer. At first he was happy to see old Spencer, but after a little while of having a conversation with him, he starts to feel depressed. Mr. Spencer talks to Holden about his future and wishes him good luck; Holden thinks wishing someone good luck is a terrible thing to do.
Normally, that is a pleasant way of saying goodbye or hoping someone does well, but it only aggravates him. He hated anything that seems phony, and to Holden, saying good luck to people in as phony as it gets. “God, how I hate it when somebody yells “Good luck! ” at me when I’m leaving somewhere. It’s depressing”. (Salinger, 202). Holden seems to hate everybody he speaks about, yet he still attempts to reach out to them. One of his issues is that whenever he tries to have a conversation or connect with somebody, he always ends up judging them, turning them away and feeling disappointed.
Nobody can ever really bond with Holden; he constantly alienated himself from everyone around him. Holden also claims everyone he has contact with is a “phony”; he cannot seem to accept people for who they are; therefore, he relentlessly feels lonely. When Holden visits his old school to see Phoebe, he notices the words “fuck you” written on the wall. He gets so heated; he rubs it off and wishes he could kill the person who did it. He continues to think about it as he walks through the school, only to find another “fuck you” written on the wall.
Thinking about all the children going out in the hallways seeing the graffiti, and wondering what it meant makes him feel depressed. Again, he is disappointed when he sees yet more profanity on the wall of the mummy’s tomb in the Museum of Natural History. He was enjoying himself in the tomb; he thought it was very peaceful. After he sees what is written on the wall he gets so frustrated he leaves. Whenever Holden gives something a chance or begins to like someone, he always gets disappointed and depressed, and he feels even lonelier than before. “You can’t ever find a place that’s nice and peaceful, because there isn’t any.
You may think there is, but once you get there, when you’re not looking, somebody’ll sneak up and write “Fuck you” right under your nose. ” (Salinger, 204) ). Holden also pushes away the people he claims he trusts, for instance, Mr. Antolini. When Holden left the house after he visited Pheobe, he called his old teacher from Elkton Hills for help. He was invited over his house and given a place to sleep for the night. Mr. Antolini gives Holden plenty of needed advice, but after Holden falls asleep, he awakens to Mr. Antolini petting the tops of his head. He is so startled he runs out of the house and back out onto the streets.
Holden thought he could trust him, but was in complete disbelief when he woke up. No matter what he does, he always seems to end up in the same position as he was before even when he thought things were getting better. After Holden left Pencey, he decided to sneak into his old home to visit his little sister Pheobe. As soon as he walks into the door she is ecstatic to see him, until she begins to get suspicious about why Holden is home so early from school. She figures out he has been kicked out of Pencey and immediately begins to make a fuss and worry about Holden, making him depressed.
She complains that he doesn’t like any school or anything as a matter of fact, so she asks him to name just one thing that he likes. Holden can’t seem to think of any, instead, he thinks back to when he witnessed a tragic accident at one of his old schools, Elkton Hills. There was a boy named James Castle. He was made fun of and bullied by a few boys, to the point where he jumped out of the window in his room and killed himself. Holden was in the shower when this happened, but he did see James’s body lying on the concrete below. Witnessing this gruesome scene only added to Holden’s disheartening outlook on life, worsening his depression.
When Holden was young, he had a crush on this girl, Jane Gallagher, who is the same girl his present roommate at Pencey is going on a date with. As soon as Holden hears him say her name, it drives him crazy. “You don’t even know if her first name is Jane or Jean, ya goddamn moron! ” (Salinger, 44). The thought of Stradlater going on a date with Jane makes Holden want to kill him; he won’t admit it, but he still likes her. When Stradlater comes back from the date, Holden asks him if he gave her the “time” in the back of Ed Bankey’s car, and when Stradlater doesn’t tell him, Holden tries to beat him up.
This whole situation makes Holden even more depressed and eventually leads to him leaving Pencey. When he wanders through New York City, he constantly has the urge to call Jane and see how she’s doing and maybe even get together with her. Every time he has this idea, he claims he “doesn’t feel like it”, so he never calls her. This could possibly be because of all the other times he has been let down and disappointed by the people he always tries to reach out to; he has no more hope. Holden’s depression gets progressively worse throughout the book; his words and his actions made it increasingly clear that he was emotionally troubled.
Holden never really receives the help he needed and he always dealt with troubles on his own, which led him to be frustrated and oversensitive. He has never felt as though he belonged anywhere; he has always been an outcast in a way. His whole life, he hasn’t really had anyone he can truly trust, and if he thought he did, he ended up being disappointed. Despite Holden’s hatred of everyone around him, he always finds himself in need of a friend or just someone to talk to. “Don’t ever tell anybody anything. If you do, you start missing everybody” (Salinger, 214). | <urn:uuid:84396df5-dc00-42fd-b359-f1adfccbe202> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jgdb.com/essays/the-catcher-in-the-rye-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.987308 | 1,865 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.383758246898... | 2 | In the novel Catcher in the Rye, by J. D. Salinger, Holden Caulfield is depressed teenager filled with angst. His depression is not only evident in his words, but his actions as well. He has never really lived a normal life, for his little brother died when he was just a young boy. He is vulnerable, and he has been in many situations no other person should ever have to experience. Throughout the story, Holden displays his depression and loneliness; he is trapped in a world where he feels he does not belong.
Holden endures an incredible amount of distress at a very young age. The death of his younger brother, Allie, and his family’s unusual way of handling it was the start of his depression. “I was only thirteen, and they were going to have me psychoanalyzed and all, because I broke all the windows in the garage. I don’t blame them. I really don’t. I slept in the garage the night he died, and I broke all the goddam windows with my fist, just for the hell of it”. (Salinger, 98). Holden misses his little brother, for example, one night while he was walking down the street in the city, he pretends he is talking to Allie. Every time I'd get to the end of a block I'd make believe I was talking to my brother Allie. I'd say to him, ‘Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Allie, don't let me disappear. Please, Allie,’ and then when I'd reach the other side of the street without disappearing, I'd thank him”. (Salinger, 198). Holden’s fear of disappearing off of the sidewalk relates to his isolation of the world around him. When he says he is afraid of disappearing, he may really mean he is afraid of dying. He has dealt with death his whole life, but he is so frightened by the thought of dying, he refers to it as disappearing.
After Allie’s death, Holden feels isolated from the rest of the world; like he didn’t fit in. He never really expressed himself in the ways he needed to, which led to an unusual childhood. Holden was never the school type, he felt as though he never fit in anywhere. He failed out of numerous schools, including Pencey, where he talked to his old teacher Mr. Spencer. At first he was happy to see old Spencer, but after a little while of having a conversation with him, he starts to feel depressed. Mr. Spencer talks to Holden about his future and wishes him good luck; Holden thinks wishing someone good luck is a terrible thing to do.
Normally, that is a pleasant way of saying goodbye or hoping someone does well, but it only aggravates him. He hated anything that seems phony, and to Holden, saying good luck to people in as phony as it gets. “God, how I hate it when somebody yells “Good luck! ” at me when I’m leaving somewhere. It’s depressing”. (Salinger, 202). Holden seems to hate everybody he speaks about, yet he still attempts to reach out to them. One of his issues is that whenever he tries to have a conversation or connect with somebody, he always ends up judging them, turning them away and feeling disappointed.
Nobody can ever really bond with Holden; he constantly alienated himself from everyone around him. Holden also claims everyone he has contact with is a “phony”; he cannot seem to accept people for who they are; therefore, he relentlessly feels lonely. When Holden visits his old school to see Phoebe, he notices the words “fuck you” written on the wall. He gets so heated; he rubs it off and wishes he could kill the person who did it. He continues to think about it as he walks through the school, only to find another “fuck you” written on the wall.
Thinking about all the children going out in the hallways seeing the graffiti, and wondering what it meant makes him feel depressed. Again, he is disappointed when he sees yet more profanity on the wall of the mummy’s tomb in the Museum of Natural History. He was enjoying himself in the tomb; he thought it was very peaceful. After he sees what is written on the wall he gets so frustrated he leaves. Whenever Holden gives something a chance or begins to like someone, he always gets disappointed and depressed, and he feels even lonelier than before. “You can’t ever find a place that’s nice and peaceful, because there isn’t any.
You may think there is, but once you get there, when you’re not looking, somebody’ll sneak up and write “Fuck you” right under your nose. ” (Salinger, 204) ). Holden also pushes away the people he claims he trusts, for instance, Mr. Antolini. When Holden left the house after he visited Pheobe, he called his old teacher from Elkton Hills for help. He was invited over his house and given a place to sleep for the night. Mr. Antolini gives Holden plenty of needed advice, but after Holden falls asleep, he awakens to Mr. Antolini petting the tops of his head. He is so startled he runs out of the house and back out onto the streets.
Holden thought he could trust him, but was in complete disbelief when he woke up. No matter what he does, he always seems to end up in the same position as he was before even when he thought things were getting better. After Holden left Pencey, he decided to sneak into his old home to visit his little sister Pheobe. As soon as he walks into the door she is ecstatic to see him, until she begins to get suspicious about why Holden is home so early from school. She figures out he has been kicked out of Pencey and immediately begins to make a fuss and worry about Holden, making him depressed.
She complains that he doesn’t like any school or anything as a matter of fact, so she asks him to name just one thing that he likes. Holden can’t seem to think of any, instead, he thinks back to when he witnessed a tragic accident at one of his old schools, Elkton Hills. There was a boy named James Castle. He was made fun of and bullied by a few boys, to the point where he jumped out of the window in his room and killed himself. Holden was in the shower when this happened, but he did see James’s body lying on the concrete below. Witnessing this gruesome scene only added to Holden’s disheartening outlook on life, worsening his depression.
When Holden was young, he had a crush on this girl, Jane Gallagher, who is the same girl his present roommate at Pencey is going on a date with. As soon as Holden hears him say her name, it drives him crazy. “You don’t even know if her first name is Jane or Jean, ya goddamn moron! ” (Salinger, 44). The thought of Stradlater going on a date with Jane makes Holden want to kill him; he won’t admit it, but he still likes her. When Stradlater comes back from the date, Holden asks him if he gave her the “time” in the back of Ed Bankey’s car, and when Stradlater doesn’t tell him, Holden tries to beat him up.
This whole situation makes Holden even more depressed and eventually leads to him leaving Pencey. When he wanders through New York City, he constantly has the urge to call Jane and see how she’s doing and maybe even get together with her. Every time he has this idea, he claims he “doesn’t feel like it”, so he never calls her. This could possibly be because of all the other times he has been let down and disappointed by the people he always tries to reach out to; he has no more hope. Holden’s depression gets progressively worse throughout the book; his words and his actions made it increasingly clear that he was emotionally troubled.
Holden never really receives the help he needed and he always dealt with troubles on his own, which led him to be frustrated and oversensitive. He has never felt as though he belonged anywhere; he has always been an outcast in a way. His whole life, he hasn’t really had anyone he can truly trust, and if he thought he did, he ended up being disappointed. Despite Holden’s hatred of everyone around him, he always finds himself in need of a friend or just someone to talk to. “Don’t ever tell anybody anything. If you do, you start missing everybody” (Salinger, 214). | 1,784 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nehemiah was a person in the Bible, believed to be the primary author of the book of Nehemiah. The name means comforted by God.
The son of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1), and probably of the tribe of Judah. His family must have belonged to Jerusalem (Neh. 2:3). He lived in the time when Israel had been conquered by the Persians (see history of ancient Israel and Judah). In his youth he was appointed to the important office of royal cup-bearer at the palace of Shushan. The king, Artaxerxes I (Artaxerxes Longimanus), seems to have been on terms of friendly familiarity with his attendant.
Through his brother Hanani, and perhaps from other sources (Neh. 1:2; 2:3), he heard of the mournful and desolate condition of Jerusalem, and was filled with sadness of heart. For many days he fasted and mourned and prayed for the place of his fathers' sepulchres. At length the king observed his sadness of countenance and asked the reason of it. Nehemiah explained it all to the king, and obtained his permission to go up to Jerusalem and there to act as tirshatha , or governor of Judea.
He went up in the spring of B.C. 446 (eleven years after Ezra), with a strong escort supplied by the king, and with letters to all the pashas of the provinces through which he had to pass, as also to Asaph, keeper of the royal forests, directing him to assist Nehemiah.
On his arrival he set himself to survey the city, and to form a plan for its restoration; a plan which he carried out with great skill and energy, so that the whole was completed in about six months.
He remained in Judea for thirteen years as governor, carrying out many reforms, notwithstanding much opposition that he encountered (Neh. 13:11). He built up the state on the old lines, "supplementing and completing the work of Ezra," and making all arrangements for the safety and good government of the city. At the close of this important period of his public life, he returned to Persia to the service of his royal master at Shushan or Ecbatana. Very soon after this the old corrupt state of things returned.
Malachi now appeared among the people with words of stern reproof and solemn warning; and Nehemiah again returned from Persia (after an absence of some two years), and was grieved to see the widespread moral degeneracy that had taken place during his absence. He set himself with vigour to rectify the flagrant abuses that had sprung up, and restored the orderly administration of public worship and the outward observance of the law of Moses.
Of his subsequent history we know nothing. Probably he remained at his post as governor till his death (about B.C. 413) in a good old age. The place of his death and burial is, however, unknown.
Nehemiah was the last of the governors sent from the Persian court. Judea after this was annexed to the satrapy of Coele-Syria, and was governed by the high priest under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria, and the internal government of the country became more and more a hierarchy.
Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed | <urn:uuid:9e9f12bb-1a5e-47a2-bc9a-f85e1eeeecb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.infomutt.com/n/ne/nehemiah.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.984725 | 706 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.233881577849... | 4 | Nehemiah was a person in the Bible, believed to be the primary author of the book of Nehemiah. The name means comforted by God.
The son of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1), and probably of the tribe of Judah. His family must have belonged to Jerusalem (Neh. 2:3). He lived in the time when Israel had been conquered by the Persians (see history of ancient Israel and Judah). In his youth he was appointed to the important office of royal cup-bearer at the palace of Shushan. The king, Artaxerxes I (Artaxerxes Longimanus), seems to have been on terms of friendly familiarity with his attendant.
Through his brother Hanani, and perhaps from other sources (Neh. 1:2; 2:3), he heard of the mournful and desolate condition of Jerusalem, and was filled with sadness of heart. For many days he fasted and mourned and prayed for the place of his fathers' sepulchres. At length the king observed his sadness of countenance and asked the reason of it. Nehemiah explained it all to the king, and obtained his permission to go up to Jerusalem and there to act as tirshatha , or governor of Judea.
He went up in the spring of B.C. 446 (eleven years after Ezra), with a strong escort supplied by the king, and with letters to all the pashas of the provinces through which he had to pass, as also to Asaph, keeper of the royal forests, directing him to assist Nehemiah.
On his arrival he set himself to survey the city, and to form a plan for its restoration; a plan which he carried out with great skill and energy, so that the whole was completed in about six months.
He remained in Judea for thirteen years as governor, carrying out many reforms, notwithstanding much opposition that he encountered (Neh. 13:11). He built up the state on the old lines, "supplementing and completing the work of Ezra," and making all arrangements for the safety and good government of the city. At the close of this important period of his public life, he returned to Persia to the service of his royal master at Shushan or Ecbatana. Very soon after this the old corrupt state of things returned.
Malachi now appeared among the people with words of stern reproof and solemn warning; and Nehemiah again returned from Persia (after an absence of some two years), and was grieved to see the widespread moral degeneracy that had taken place during his absence. He set himself with vigour to rectify the flagrant abuses that had sprung up, and restored the orderly administration of public worship and the outward observance of the law of Moses.
Of his subsequent history we know nothing. Probably he remained at his post as governor till his death (about B.C. 413) in a good old age. The place of his death and burial is, however, unknown.
Nehemiah was the last of the governors sent from the Persian court. Judea after this was annexed to the satrapy of Coele-Syria, and was governed by the high priest under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria, and the internal government of the country became more and more a hierarchy.
Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed | 714 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What are literacy programs?
Literacy programs are programs that help you master reading and writing. These are programs that are usually taught to children because it is one of the basic things you need to learn in life. If parents don’t have time for their children, they need to enrol their kids at schools that offer literacy programs. It won’t be hard to find one since there are many schools that offer these programs such as disability courses. You will need to pay good money for your kids to learn such programs like pathology courses sydney. The good part is that it will be worth every penny because the conversations inside the house will improve. When you want your kid to do something, she will immediately understand what you are trying to say. It would be great because that would mean more quality time for you and your kid. It would mean less time when you are trying hard to understand each other.
What are the best ways to teach literacy?
One of the most effective ways to teach literacy is to use teaching methods that were proven to be effective throughout the years. If a lot of children learned literacy through those methods then there is no reason not to try them again. If you have students, it would be a splendid idea to give them long homework. The purpose of this is to make them practice more at home. In any learning method, it is important to practice and practice. Therefore, make them read and write a lot. After all, if you give them short assignments then they may end up not doing them. It would be either that or they would want to get it over with as soon as possible. How about making them read a bunch of stories and poems? Of course, the stories should be interesting so they would not lose their interest at any point of the lesson. One good story to read would be today’s latest news as they would certainly be interested in what is going on in the world. Perhaps, the best way to teach the children is to ask them what they find most effective. If they are in the mood for reading books, then make them read a lot. They will learn reading and gain more information at the same time.
What are the 5 components of literacy?
The first component is vocabulary development. It is important to develop this at such a young age. Besides, you don’t want people to make fun of you as you grow up because you make common grammar mistakes. The next one is reading comprehension strategies for reading since it is equally important to properly read words. There are some words that are pronounced differently than what they look like so it is important to take note of those things. The next is fluency and someone will know you know a certain language if you are fluent with it. If you know the words but you are not fluent then you can’t be considered good at it. Yes, it is difficult to master a certain language. Phonemic awareness and phonics are two components that should definitely catch your attention. They were not components of literacy for nothing. There are two words that look alike but they are pronounced differently. When you pronounce the wrong word, then it could mean a whole different thing. The people you are talking to may confuse you for something else.
What are the six early literacy skills?
The first one is Letter Knowledge which will be hard at first but the more you get used to it, the more it will get easy. Besides, this is something you will encounter each day so it won’t be that big of a mess. Narrative skills is another one as it allows you to tell a story. If you don’t have this then nobody would want to listen to you. Print awareness and print motivation are two more literacy skills that you should be aware of. After all, you should know what the words look like. The last thing you would want to happen is to be surprised what they look like when you already know how to pronounce them. | <urn:uuid:be9f3266-0492-4c7c-b2f8-1af8dfdfa4ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.literacyeducators.com.au/classroom-literacy-programs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.982076 | 808 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.450341641... | 6 | What are literacy programs?
Literacy programs are programs that help you master reading and writing. These are programs that are usually taught to children because it is one of the basic things you need to learn in life. If parents don’t have time for their children, they need to enrol their kids at schools that offer literacy programs. It won’t be hard to find one since there are many schools that offer these programs such as disability courses. You will need to pay good money for your kids to learn such programs like pathology courses sydney. The good part is that it will be worth every penny because the conversations inside the house will improve. When you want your kid to do something, she will immediately understand what you are trying to say. It would be great because that would mean more quality time for you and your kid. It would mean less time when you are trying hard to understand each other.
What are the best ways to teach literacy?
One of the most effective ways to teach literacy is to use teaching methods that were proven to be effective throughout the years. If a lot of children learned literacy through those methods then there is no reason not to try them again. If you have students, it would be a splendid idea to give them long homework. The purpose of this is to make them practice more at home. In any learning method, it is important to practice and practice. Therefore, make them read and write a lot. After all, if you give them short assignments then they may end up not doing them. It would be either that or they would want to get it over with as soon as possible. How about making them read a bunch of stories and poems? Of course, the stories should be interesting so they would not lose their interest at any point of the lesson. One good story to read would be today’s latest news as they would certainly be interested in what is going on in the world. Perhaps, the best way to teach the children is to ask them what they find most effective. If they are in the mood for reading books, then make them read a lot. They will learn reading and gain more information at the same time.
What are the 5 components of literacy?
The first component is vocabulary development. It is important to develop this at such a young age. Besides, you don’t want people to make fun of you as you grow up because you make common grammar mistakes. The next one is reading comprehension strategies for reading since it is equally important to properly read words. There are some words that are pronounced differently than what they look like so it is important to take note of those things. The next is fluency and someone will know you know a certain language if you are fluent with it. If you know the words but you are not fluent then you can’t be considered good at it. Yes, it is difficult to master a certain language. Phonemic awareness and phonics are two components that should definitely catch your attention. They were not components of literacy for nothing. There are two words that look alike but they are pronounced differently. When you pronounce the wrong word, then it could mean a whole different thing. The people you are talking to may confuse you for something else.
What are the six early literacy skills?
The first one is Letter Knowledge which will be hard at first but the more you get used to it, the more it will get easy. Besides, this is something you will encounter each day so it won’t be that big of a mess. Narrative skills is another one as it allows you to tell a story. If you don’t have this then nobody would want to listen to you. Print awareness and print motivation are two more literacy skills that you should be aware of. After all, you should know what the words look like. The last thing you would want to happen is to be surprised what they look like when you already know how to pronounce them. | 785 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This effigy mound does not look like an Alligator per se, In theory, its name may come from a Native American tale about an under-water panther, or at least of a dangerous underwater creature. That description alone could bring up thoughts of an alligator. The shock of seeing something so ancient made into a cul de sac should be reason enough to take a look.
Alligator mound is known as an Effigy Mound meaning it is not a burial mound but represents an animal or person carved from or made from some material such as stone or earth. A more correct term that can be used is that it is a Zoomorphic geoglyph. The true and ancient history of the mound is unknown. Several radiocarbon dating trials have been performed on excavated pieces from the mound. The most consistent time frame that has been acknowledged is between AD1170-1270. The peoples that lived during this era are known as the Fort Ancient culture (c. AD 1000-1550) there is strong evidence that suggests the Serpent Mound, the only other effigy mound known to exist in Ohio, was also made by the Fort Ancient culture.
Another line of thought is that many sites that have mounds, earthworks, and evidence of large living centers are palimpsest in nature meaning they have been inhabited since ancient times. The mound itself is located on the north side of Raccoon Creek valley between Granville and Newark in central Licking County Ohio. The archaeological landscape of the valley shows evidence of occupation from Paleoindian through the historic period. The positioning of the mound follows suit with the majority of all known mounds and earthworks being located near a water source.
Effigy mounds are rare in Ohio, common in the upper Mississippi Valley and prevalent in some western states such as Wisconsin. Giving some credence to the belief that the prehistoric peoples had an extensive trade route established and used the rivers to their full advantage. Many other known sites of habitation have contained materials that could not have gotten there in any other manner.
The Alligator mound is more than 200 feet long, and it four to five feet high at its highest points. The mound was almost destroyed in the 1840s due to quarrying operations in the area. The owner of the quarry agreed to stop the project, but the mound was used as a pasture for several years. Interest in preserving Alligator mound didn't begin until the 1970s when it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. The mound is now owned by the Licking County Historical Society and is preserved as a small park for the community. | <urn:uuid:95182b04-3b44-4a76-88b4-e0d4c946c4b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/32533 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.982755 | 539 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | This effigy mound does not look like an Alligator per se, In theory, its name may come from a Native American tale about an under-water panther, or at least of a dangerous underwater creature. That description alone could bring up thoughts of an alligator. The shock of seeing something so ancient made into a cul de sac should be reason enough to take a look.
Alligator mound is known as an Effigy Mound meaning it is not a burial mound but represents an animal or person carved from or made from some material such as stone or earth. A more correct term that can be used is that it is a Zoomorphic geoglyph. The true and ancient history of the mound is unknown. Several radiocarbon dating trials have been performed on excavated pieces from the mound. The most consistent time frame that has been acknowledged is between AD1170-1270. The peoples that lived during this era are known as the Fort Ancient culture (c. AD 1000-1550) there is strong evidence that suggests the Serpent Mound, the only other effigy mound known to exist in Ohio, was also made by the Fort Ancient culture.
Another line of thought is that many sites that have mounds, earthworks, and evidence of large living centers are palimpsest in nature meaning they have been inhabited since ancient times. The mound itself is located on the north side of Raccoon Creek valley between Granville and Newark in central Licking County Ohio. The archaeological landscape of the valley shows evidence of occupation from Paleoindian through the historic period. The positioning of the mound follows suit with the majority of all known mounds and earthworks being located near a water source.
Effigy mounds are rare in Ohio, common in the upper Mississippi Valley and prevalent in some western states such as Wisconsin. Giving some credence to the belief that the prehistoric peoples had an extensive trade route established and used the rivers to their full advantage. Many other known sites of habitation have contained materials that could not have gotten there in any other manner.
The Alligator mound is more than 200 feet long, and it four to five feet high at its highest points. The mound was almost destroyed in the 1840s due to quarrying operations in the area. The owner of the quarry agreed to stop the project, but the mound was used as a pasture for several years. Interest in preserving Alligator mound didn't begin until the 1970s when it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. The mound is now owned by the Licking County Historical Society and is preserved as a small park for the community. | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Q1.) Why did the people of Çatal Hüyük build their city like a honeycomb with entrances in the ceilings, and bury their dead under their beds? What do these things tell you about their daily world and value system? How does their repeated wall imagery, and sculpture help to further tell us about their belief system?
Catal Huyuk is known to be one of the world's oldest civilization. It was built in what is now Turkey in about 5000 BC to 5700BC. The total population was about 10,000. In Catal Huyuk the Mud bring houses were built next to each other and the city was built in a shape similar to that of a honeycomb. Instead of doors in the walls their houses were accessed from entrances built into the roof. There are many theories as to why this was done, it could have been done to avoid enemies or wild animals. It was probably a wild world then and since Humans weren’t advanced enough to fight the predators, the best way to survive was to avoid them, the best way to do it would be to build entrances at a height that is not easily accessible. Human remains have been found in pits beneath the floors and especially in platforms that are assumed to have been their beds or sleeping areas. There are many reasons they might have done this. The one that makes the most sence is that they believed the dead was still a part of their home and the body deserved to stay in its home so they could be still part of the same family., In some cases the skeletens were found with the skull missing. These could have been used in ritual, as some were found in other areas of the “honey comb”. Some skulls were plastered and painted with ocher to recreate human-like faces, this shows that they wanted the dead to be still a part of this world or to creat memories of the deceased. Another great discovery was that of The Seated Woman of Catal Hayuk, which is a baked-clay, nude female form, with a lepord on each side, this shows that they were familiar with leopards and that was probably the predator they were trying to avoid. Having a leopard on each side represents the power the lady had and was probably a goddess. Catal Huyuk appears to have been a City of Shrines and may indeed have been the sacred center for other settlements around that area. Vultures painted on the temple walls could have represented the death aspect of the Goddess.
Q2) How did Akhenaten change the political hierarchy of Egypt and why? What religious changes did he make and why? Were Akhenaten’s reforms problematic and if so why? Akhenaten was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt who ruled for 17 years. He is also known as the rebel pharaoh as he changed the whole constitution of Egypt. He is also known for changing the whole religion that had been followed in Egypt for ages, and introducing a new religion of monotheism.
About 200 miles from the pyramids of Giza, The city Amarna was discovered. It had Palaces, wide streets and everything a civilization is expected to have but There was no imagery of Pharoah fighting his enemies or punishing others and no signs of sacrifices to gods were found either. The statues of Akhenaten show that he could have been misshapen. Akhenatens father, Amenhotep the third lived in the city of Thebes ,home of the god Amun. Statues and family potraits of the family were found with Akhenaten missing in every one of them. The young prince was excluded from temple ceremonies as well. It is assumed Queen tae wanted her son Akhenaten to be king even thought there were other half-brothers. Each Pharaoh added a temple and statues to the city of karnak. Knehatens temple was different, so was his statue, with long fingers, wide hips and a mishappen chest. His temple also showed that Amenhaten had declared that there was only one god. Akhenaten started a new religion, a new world in the city of Amarna. The idea came to him in the fifth year of his reign. The preists were furious with… | <urn:uuid:5b7ac3b7-47d4-41bf-b745-5204cd551146> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Take-Home-Exam-One-1-596539.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.991003 | 876 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.3908663690090... | 1 | Q1.) Why did the people of Çatal Hüyük build their city like a honeycomb with entrances in the ceilings, and bury their dead under their beds? What do these things tell you about their daily world and value system? How does their repeated wall imagery, and sculpture help to further tell us about their belief system?
Catal Huyuk is known to be one of the world's oldest civilization. It was built in what is now Turkey in about 5000 BC to 5700BC. The total population was about 10,000. In Catal Huyuk the Mud bring houses were built next to each other and the city was built in a shape similar to that of a honeycomb. Instead of doors in the walls their houses were accessed from entrances built into the roof. There are many theories as to why this was done, it could have been done to avoid enemies or wild animals. It was probably a wild world then and since Humans weren’t advanced enough to fight the predators, the best way to survive was to avoid them, the best way to do it would be to build entrances at a height that is not easily accessible. Human remains have been found in pits beneath the floors and especially in platforms that are assumed to have been their beds or sleeping areas. There are many reasons they might have done this. The one that makes the most sence is that they believed the dead was still a part of their home and the body deserved to stay in its home so they could be still part of the same family., In some cases the skeletens were found with the skull missing. These could have been used in ritual, as some were found in other areas of the “honey comb”. Some skulls were plastered and painted with ocher to recreate human-like faces, this shows that they wanted the dead to be still a part of this world or to creat memories of the deceased. Another great discovery was that of The Seated Woman of Catal Hayuk, which is a baked-clay, nude female form, with a lepord on each side, this shows that they were familiar with leopards and that was probably the predator they were trying to avoid. Having a leopard on each side represents the power the lady had and was probably a goddess. Catal Huyuk appears to have been a City of Shrines and may indeed have been the sacred center for other settlements around that area. Vultures painted on the temple walls could have represented the death aspect of the Goddess.
Q2) How did Akhenaten change the political hierarchy of Egypt and why? What religious changes did he make and why? Were Akhenaten’s reforms problematic and if so why? Akhenaten was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt who ruled for 17 years. He is also known as the rebel pharaoh as he changed the whole constitution of Egypt. He is also known for changing the whole religion that had been followed in Egypt for ages, and introducing a new religion of monotheism.
About 200 miles from the pyramids of Giza, The city Amarna was discovered. It had Palaces, wide streets and everything a civilization is expected to have but There was no imagery of Pharoah fighting his enemies or punishing others and no signs of sacrifices to gods were found either. The statues of Akhenaten show that he could have been misshapen. Akhenatens father, Amenhotep the third lived in the city of Thebes ,home of the god Amun. Statues and family potraits of the family were found with Akhenaten missing in every one of them. The young prince was excluded from temple ceremonies as well. It is assumed Queen tae wanted her son Akhenaten to be king even thought there were other half-brothers. Each Pharaoh added a temple and statues to the city of karnak. Knehatens temple was different, so was his statue, with long fingers, wide hips and a mishappen chest. His temple also showed that Amenhaten had declared that there was only one god. Akhenaten started a new religion, a new world in the city of Amarna. The idea came to him in the fifth year of his reign. The preists were furious with… | 878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the nation’s leaders. A genius. An ambassador. This human being was a strong individual. James Buchanan was one of the United States’ most inspiring presidents. His remarkable contributions were a significant mark in history, as well as his education that he received. The year 1857 to 1861 were the four years that made a mark in history.
April 23, 1791 was the day an amazing individual was born into this world that was made to change the country. James Buchanan was the second child out of his eleven brothers and sisters that was born in a log cabin near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. His two very important parents were Elizabeth Speer Buchanan, and James Buchanan,. Some of James’ hobbies were reading books. When James was a young child, his mother taught him to read, which later influenced him to have a positive attitude toward literature. James also enjoyed studying Latin and Greek in his childhood. Later in life, President Buchanan developed an interest towards law. Unfortunately, this great leader had his life put to an end on the day of June 1, 1868 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania when he was 77 years of age from pneumonia. On the brighter side, this president made several impacts for our country in the past.
From the very beginning of his birth, James Buchanan was a natural born genius. He first attended school in Mercersburg where he grew an interest for Latin and Greek. After his early school years, James attended Dickinson College at only sixteen years old. Dickinson College was located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania where he l=planned to major in law. During Buchanan’s time in Dickinson, he was expelled in 1808 due to bad behavior while in class. Thankfully, James was forced to make a pledge of good behavior to reenter into college. Finally in 1809, James Buchanan graduated and then studied under the famous lawyer, James Hopkins. Upon graduation he also served in the War of 1812, three years later. In the war, Buchanan volunteered to defend Baltimore, Maryland against the British. Also, one of his first jobs was a lawyer, after receiving his degrees in law. Unknowingly, James Buchanan hadn’t realized what had hit him the day he became the President of the United States after becoming a lawyer.
After receiving his full education, James Buchanan was finally announced the fifteenth president of the United States on March 4, 1857 when he was inaugurated. His inauguration was a memorable time during that time period, which was held in front of the U.S. Capitol. Throughout his lifetime, James Buchanan made many contributions from treaties and changes in government, to helping the country. One of the treaties that Buchanan had contributed to was the Oregon Treaty. This treaty was a settlement of the disputes of the Oregon Territory, which in present times, were Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana, Wyoming, and British Columbia. The Oregon Treaty was then represented by James Buchanan, later on. Also, on December 18, 1832, James... | <urn:uuid:babbd2e4-f373-40fd-8b5f-78a4e6dce66f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/james-buchanan-marking-their-point-in-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.993124 | 611 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | One of the nation’s leaders. A genius. An ambassador. This human being was a strong individual. James Buchanan was one of the United States’ most inspiring presidents. His remarkable contributions were a significant mark in history, as well as his education that he received. The year 1857 to 1861 were the four years that made a mark in history.
April 23, 1791 was the day an amazing individual was born into this world that was made to change the country. James Buchanan was the second child out of his eleven brothers and sisters that was born in a log cabin near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. His two very important parents were Elizabeth Speer Buchanan, and James Buchanan,. Some of James’ hobbies were reading books. When James was a young child, his mother taught him to read, which later influenced him to have a positive attitude toward literature. James also enjoyed studying Latin and Greek in his childhood. Later in life, President Buchanan developed an interest towards law. Unfortunately, this great leader had his life put to an end on the day of June 1, 1868 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania when he was 77 years of age from pneumonia. On the brighter side, this president made several impacts for our country in the past.
From the very beginning of his birth, James Buchanan was a natural born genius. He first attended school in Mercersburg where he grew an interest for Latin and Greek. After his early school years, James attended Dickinson College at only sixteen years old. Dickinson College was located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania where he l=planned to major in law. During Buchanan’s time in Dickinson, he was expelled in 1808 due to bad behavior while in class. Thankfully, James was forced to make a pledge of good behavior to reenter into college. Finally in 1809, James Buchanan graduated and then studied under the famous lawyer, James Hopkins. Upon graduation he also served in the War of 1812, three years later. In the war, Buchanan volunteered to defend Baltimore, Maryland against the British. Also, one of his first jobs was a lawyer, after receiving his degrees in law. Unknowingly, James Buchanan hadn’t realized what had hit him the day he became the President of the United States after becoming a lawyer.
After receiving his full education, James Buchanan was finally announced the fifteenth president of the United States on March 4, 1857 when he was inaugurated. His inauguration was a memorable time during that time period, which was held in front of the U.S. Capitol. Throughout his lifetime, James Buchanan made many contributions from treaties and changes in government, to helping the country. One of the treaties that Buchanan had contributed to was the Oregon Treaty. This treaty was a settlement of the disputes of the Oregon Territory, which in present times, were Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana, Wyoming, and British Columbia. The Oregon Treaty was then represented by James Buchanan, later on. Also, on December 18, 1832, James... | 636 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Macedonian phalanx is an infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Achaemenid Empire and other armies. Phalanxes remained dominant on battlefields throughout the Ancient Macedonian Period, although wars had developed into more protracted operations generally involving sieges and naval combat as much as pitched battles, until they were ultimately displaced by the Roman legions.
In 359 BCE following the Macedonian defeat from the Illyrians which killed the majority of Macedonia's army and the current King Perdiccas III, Perdiccas' brother Philip II took the throne. Philip II was a hostage in Thebes for much of his youth (367-360), where he witnessed the combat tactics of the general Epaminondas, which then influenced his restructuring of the infantry. Philip's military reforms were a new approach to the current hoplite warfare which focused on their shield, the hoplon; his focus was on a new weapon, the sarissa. The first phalanx was a 10 by 10 square with very few experienced troops. The phalanx was later changed to a 16 by 16 formation, and while the date for this change is still unknown, it occurred before 331 under Philips rule. Philip called the soldiers in the phalanx pezhetairoi, meaning "foot-companions", bolstering the importance of the phalanx to the king. Philip also increased the amount of training required for the infantry and introduced regulations on military behaviour. During Alexander's campaign, the phalanx remained more or less the same, with the notable difference being more non-Macedonian soldiers among the ranks.
Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a sarissa, a double-pointed pike over 6 m (18 ft) in length, weighing about 14.5 pounds. The sarissae were carried in two pieces before a battle and then slid together when they were being used. At close range such large weapons were of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance. The weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spear points than available targets at any given time. Men in rows behind the initial five angled their spears at a 45 degree angle in an attempt to ward off arrows or other projectiles. The secondary weapon was a shortsword called a xiphos. The phalangites also had a smaller and flatter shield than that of the Greek hoplon, measuring about 24 inches and weighing about 12 pounds. The shield was made of bronze plated wood and was worn hung around the neck so as to free up both hands to wield the sarissa. All of the armor and weaponry a phalangite would carry totaled about 40 pounds, which was close to 10 pounds less than the weight of Greek hoplite equipment.
The phalanx consisted of a line-up of several battalion blocks called syntagmata, each of its 16 files (lochoi) numbering 16 men, for a total of 256 in each unit. Each syntagma was commanded by a syntagmatarch, who - together with his subordinate officers - would form the first row of each block.
Each file was lead and commanded by a dekadarch who were the most experienced Macedonian soldiers and received about triple pay. The leader was followed by another two experienced Macedonian soldiers, with a third positioned at the very end of the file, all three who received about double pay. The rest of the file was filled up by more inexperienced soldiers, often Persians during Alexanders Campaign. The phalanx was divided into taxis based on geographical recruitment differences.
The phalanx used the "oblique line with refused left" arrangement, designed to force enemies to engage with soldiers on the furthest right end, increasing the risk of opening a gap in their lines for the cavalry to break through. Due to the structure of the phalanx, it was weakest in the rear and on the right.
Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their heavy cavalry broke through their ranks. The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was almost always stationed on the far right. The hypaspists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, were stationed on the immediate right of the phalanx wielding hoplite sized spears and shields. The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role. Other forces—skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, archers, and artillery—were also employed. | <urn:uuid:7d6e8641-c7b0-42bc-841d-62f0ff19b1b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dir.md/wiki/Macedonian_Phalanx?host=en.wikipedia.org | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.980742 | 977 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.268350780010223... | 2 | The Macedonian phalanx is an infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Achaemenid Empire and other armies. Phalanxes remained dominant on battlefields throughout the Ancient Macedonian Period, although wars had developed into more protracted operations generally involving sieges and naval combat as much as pitched battles, until they were ultimately displaced by the Roman legions.
In 359 BCE following the Macedonian defeat from the Illyrians which killed the majority of Macedonia's army and the current King Perdiccas III, Perdiccas' brother Philip II took the throne. Philip II was a hostage in Thebes for much of his youth (367-360), where he witnessed the combat tactics of the general Epaminondas, which then influenced his restructuring of the infantry. Philip's military reforms were a new approach to the current hoplite warfare which focused on their shield, the hoplon; his focus was on a new weapon, the sarissa. The first phalanx was a 10 by 10 square with very few experienced troops. The phalanx was later changed to a 16 by 16 formation, and while the date for this change is still unknown, it occurred before 331 under Philips rule. Philip called the soldiers in the phalanx pezhetairoi, meaning "foot-companions", bolstering the importance of the phalanx to the king. Philip also increased the amount of training required for the infantry and introduced regulations on military behaviour. During Alexander's campaign, the phalanx remained more or less the same, with the notable difference being more non-Macedonian soldiers among the ranks.
Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a sarissa, a double-pointed pike over 6 m (18 ft) in length, weighing about 14.5 pounds. The sarissae were carried in two pieces before a battle and then slid together when they were being used. At close range such large weapons were of little use, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance. The weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spear points than available targets at any given time. Men in rows behind the initial five angled their spears at a 45 degree angle in an attempt to ward off arrows or other projectiles. The secondary weapon was a shortsword called a xiphos. The phalangites also had a smaller and flatter shield than that of the Greek hoplon, measuring about 24 inches and weighing about 12 pounds. The shield was made of bronze plated wood and was worn hung around the neck so as to free up both hands to wield the sarissa. All of the armor and weaponry a phalangite would carry totaled about 40 pounds, which was close to 10 pounds less than the weight of Greek hoplite equipment.
The phalanx consisted of a line-up of several battalion blocks called syntagmata, each of its 16 files (lochoi) numbering 16 men, for a total of 256 in each unit. Each syntagma was commanded by a syntagmatarch, who - together with his subordinate officers - would form the first row of each block.
Each file was lead and commanded by a dekadarch who were the most experienced Macedonian soldiers and received about triple pay. The leader was followed by another two experienced Macedonian soldiers, with a third positioned at the very end of the file, all three who received about double pay. The rest of the file was filled up by more inexperienced soldiers, often Persians during Alexanders Campaign. The phalanx was divided into taxis based on geographical recruitment differences.
The phalanx used the "oblique line with refused left" arrangement, designed to force enemies to engage with soldiers on the furthest right end, increasing the risk of opening a gap in their lines for the cavalry to break through. Due to the structure of the phalanx, it was weakest in the rear and on the right.
Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their heavy cavalry broke through their ranks. The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was almost always stationed on the far right. The hypaspists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, were stationed on the immediate right of the phalanx wielding hoplite sized spears and shields. The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role. Other forces—skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, archers, and artillery—were also employed. | 1,006 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Century of Suffrage
January – February 2020
The 19th Amendment gave women a voice, and an obligation.
BY MEGG MUELLER
In 1910, the penalty for stealing (or kidnapping) a girl in Nevada was five years in prison or a fine of $2,000, while anyone convicted of stealing a horse could be imprisoned for 14 years. At the same time, if a U.S. woman married a foreigner, she lost her citizenship. Another law during the early 1900s, this one concerning community property between a husband and wife, allowed a man to sell or will community property without the consent of his wife. And finally, any wages a woman earned while living with her husband were not deemed her property unless her husband allowed her to use the wages, which were then considered a gift from him.
These are just a few of the laws of the time, shared in the pamphlet “Women Under Nevada Laws,” written in 1913 by Goldfield attorney Bird Wilson. Wilson was concerned at how little women (and men) knew about the rights women had at the turn of the century.
The rancor felt about the above-noted laws being created without any say from female constituents was growing, and the cry of “taxation without representation” was reborn. While that sentiment was enough to ignite the American Revolution, it sparked little fire with the male citizens of the young nation. It took until 1920 before half of the citizens of the U.S. were granted the right to vote. But the fight began long before.
BATTLE BORN CRY
Almost 100 years after the Declaration of Independence was signed, giving the nation freedom from Great Britain, America’s women were still living under tyranny. Susan B. Anthony was arrested in 1872 for voting, and while other women were arrested as well, it was Anthony’s profile as a well-known suffragist that made her a target worthy of setting an example. She was charged with voting for a representative of Congress without having the right to vote. Adding insult to injury, she was declared incompetent to be a witness at her own trial, because she was a woman.
As far back as 1869, when Nevada’s first legislation regarding women’s votes was introduced, the Silver State’s women had been pressing for the right to vote. The issue would return to the Legislature—five times, in fact—but would fail to pass one legislative branch or the other each time, until 1911 when it passed both houses. However, the measure had to pass a subsequent legislative vote in 1913 before it was put before the people for a vote.
Nevadan Anne Martin had recently returned to her home state after a stint in England where she was an active and some say aggressive activist for the feminist cause. Martin had been the founder and first chairman of the Department of History at the University of Nevada but resigned after her father died in 1901. She went to England to study, and it is there she received an activist’s education, even being arrested during a protest.
When she returned to Nevada in 1911, she immediately became active in the Nevada Equal Franchise Society, founded in Reno, and in early 1912 she was named its president. Bird Wilson was vice president, and together, they spent the nine months leading up to the 1913 election blanketing the state with suffrage news, speakers, and lecture tours. Discovering the rural towns were as equally interested as the larger cities, Martin helped societies form in outlying counties, and found women in every town—sometimes just one—to help distribute pamphlets and spread the word about the suffrage movement.
The groundswell in Nevada was largely positive, with more national aversion than local countering the movement. Wilson’s pamphlet saw more than 100,000 copies distributed statewide in two years, and it was seen as very successful in softening the views of many male voters. It also enlightened many women who previously had very little idea what their rights were under the law. The most influential opponent turned out to be banker and miner George Wingfield. So opposed to women voting, Wingfield—who owned the “Reno Evening Gazette”—wrote editorial after editorial against the movement, and once, even threatened to close his mining and ranching enterprises and leave the state if women won the vote.
On election day, Nov. 3, 1914, voters passed the resolution 10,396 to 7,258 with just four counties—Washoe, Storey, Ormsby, and Eureka—voting against it. The negative vote from the four most populous counties proved Martin was right to focus so much attention on the rural voters instead. She’d felt the liquor and gaming interests would have too much sway in the more populated areas, and had seen the anti-temperance movement squash more than one suffrage vote. Raising awareness and culling support in Nevada’s smaller towns, without temperance as an issue, proved a smart move.
THE FEDERAL VOTE
After the Nevada women won the right to vote in state elections, the federal vote was the next target. That year, Martin wrote an article in “Good Housekeeping” magazine, where she stated, “The question we must have answered in the coming campaign is not ‘What shall women do for the political parties?’ but ‘What shall the political parties do for women?’ ”
The answer was just what she’d hoped. The 19th Amendment was passed during a special congressional session in summer 1919. It was then sent on to the states for ratification, with 36 states needed to ratify it. The state of Nevada ratified the amendment on Feb. 20, 1920, and Tennessee became the required 36th state when it ratified it on Aug. 18, 1920. The amendment was officially adopted to the Constitution on Aug. 26, 1920.
Women had won the right to vote, but getting them to exercise that right was a struggle. In the first election in 1920, just 36 percent of eligible women voted. Literacy tests, residency requirements, and poll taxes were a few of the reasons that kept women from the polls. It wasn’t until 1960’s presidential election that women voted in greater numbers than men.
Women of color faced even more obstacles when trying to exercise their new right to vote. Black American, American Indian, and Latin women faced state loopholes such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and some had to deal with fraud, intimidation, and even violence when attempting to vote. A group of women in Birmingham, Alabama, were beaten in 1926 when attempting to register to vote. Immigration laws kept Asians from getting citizenship until 1952, but it wasn’t until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that things really began to change. The Act prohibited racial discrimination in voting, forbidding states from creating discriminatory restrictions.
Inexperience with voting and a lack of education were two of the issues that hindered Nevada’s early women voters, and they are issues that still concern Molly Walt today. Molly is the executive director for the Nevada Commission for Women (NCW) and she is also the chairperson for the Nevada Women’s Suffrage Celebration Committee which is dedicated to “educating Nevadans on the suffrage movement and the historic importance of the ratification of the 19th Amendment.”
The two organizations are held together by Molly’s leadership and the united goal of education about suffrage, and women’s equality issues today. Molly became the NCW’s leader two years ago, and the committee sprang from her research about plans for celebrating the 19th Amendment’s 100th anniversary.
“No one had a set-in-stone plan, which made me decide to form a statewide committee where we could all work together to coordinate events,” Molly explains. “We want all these events to be successful. We need to celebrate the 70-plus years that it took to get women the right to vote.”
The NCW was created as an information clearinghouse in 1991, and while it was dormant for a few years, it was reactivated in 2014 by Governor Sandoval. Its purpose is to advance women toward full equality, in all areas, and to Molly that goal starts with educating people about how far women still have to go to attain equality. Correcting gender disparity is a main goal, but so is creating awareness about how—despite 100 years since the vote was passed—the role of women in leadership still needs to be addressed.
Women often won’t apply to boards and leadership committees if they don’t feel qualified, Molly claims, while men apply to what interests them and let the interviewer decide they are qualified. It might seem a small distinction, but it can keep women from seeking opportunities in which they may be successful. The socioeconomic factors that influence women are another area the NCW studies, along with providing advice to legislators on the effect of proposed legislation on women. Keeping the media informed about women’s issues, and recognizing and promoting the contributions women in the state make is also important to the commission, as is educating young people about how far women’s rights have come, and how far they still have to go. As a former teacher and mother of four, it’s the education component that keeps coming back to the forefront for Molly.
“My daughter is a senior in high school, and she spent one day learning about women’s suffrage,” Molly says. “This is important to me because of my daughters; my kids. Women aren’t treated equally, they often aren’t paid equally, and the opportunities aren’t equal.”
There are studies that show it could be another 60 years for women to be paid the same as men, Molly says, and her concern is that the right to vote is being taken for granted.
“Change still needs to happen,” she says. “I just want my daughters to be given the same opportunities, and I want to be part of that change. So this year, we celebrate the women who did fight for those opportunities.”
Nevada Commission for Women
515 E. Musser St, Ste. 303
Carson City, NV 89701
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0.0398399904... | 12 | A Century of Suffrage
January – February 2020
The 19th Amendment gave women a voice, and an obligation.
BY MEGG MUELLER
In 1910, the penalty for stealing (or kidnapping) a girl in Nevada was five years in prison or a fine of $2,000, while anyone convicted of stealing a horse could be imprisoned for 14 years. At the same time, if a U.S. woman married a foreigner, she lost her citizenship. Another law during the early 1900s, this one concerning community property between a husband and wife, allowed a man to sell or will community property without the consent of his wife. And finally, any wages a woman earned while living with her husband were not deemed her property unless her husband allowed her to use the wages, which were then considered a gift from him.
These are just a few of the laws of the time, shared in the pamphlet “Women Under Nevada Laws,” written in 1913 by Goldfield attorney Bird Wilson. Wilson was concerned at how little women (and men) knew about the rights women had at the turn of the century.
The rancor felt about the above-noted laws being created without any say from female constituents was growing, and the cry of “taxation without representation” was reborn. While that sentiment was enough to ignite the American Revolution, it sparked little fire with the male citizens of the young nation. It took until 1920 before half of the citizens of the U.S. were granted the right to vote. But the fight began long before.
BATTLE BORN CRY
Almost 100 years after the Declaration of Independence was signed, giving the nation freedom from Great Britain, America’s women were still living under tyranny. Susan B. Anthony was arrested in 1872 for voting, and while other women were arrested as well, it was Anthony’s profile as a well-known suffragist that made her a target worthy of setting an example. She was charged with voting for a representative of Congress without having the right to vote. Adding insult to injury, she was declared incompetent to be a witness at her own trial, because she was a woman.
As far back as 1869, when Nevada’s first legislation regarding women’s votes was introduced, the Silver State’s women had been pressing for the right to vote. The issue would return to the Legislature—five times, in fact—but would fail to pass one legislative branch or the other each time, until 1911 when it passed both houses. However, the measure had to pass a subsequent legislative vote in 1913 before it was put before the people for a vote.
Nevadan Anne Martin had recently returned to her home state after a stint in England where she was an active and some say aggressive activist for the feminist cause. Martin had been the founder and first chairman of the Department of History at the University of Nevada but resigned after her father died in 1901. She went to England to study, and it is there she received an activist’s education, even being arrested during a protest.
When she returned to Nevada in 1911, she immediately became active in the Nevada Equal Franchise Society, founded in Reno, and in early 1912 she was named its president. Bird Wilson was vice president, and together, they spent the nine months leading up to the 1913 election blanketing the state with suffrage news, speakers, and lecture tours. Discovering the rural towns were as equally interested as the larger cities, Martin helped societies form in outlying counties, and found women in every town—sometimes just one—to help distribute pamphlets and spread the word about the suffrage movement.
The groundswell in Nevada was largely positive, with more national aversion than local countering the movement. Wilson’s pamphlet saw more than 100,000 copies distributed statewide in two years, and it was seen as very successful in softening the views of many male voters. It also enlightened many women who previously had very little idea what their rights were under the law. The most influential opponent turned out to be banker and miner George Wingfield. So opposed to women voting, Wingfield—who owned the “Reno Evening Gazette”—wrote editorial after editorial against the movement, and once, even threatened to close his mining and ranching enterprises and leave the state if women won the vote.
On election day, Nov. 3, 1914, voters passed the resolution 10,396 to 7,258 with just four counties—Washoe, Storey, Ormsby, and Eureka—voting against it. The negative vote from the four most populous counties proved Martin was right to focus so much attention on the rural voters instead. She’d felt the liquor and gaming interests would have too much sway in the more populated areas, and had seen the anti-temperance movement squash more than one suffrage vote. Raising awareness and culling support in Nevada’s smaller towns, without temperance as an issue, proved a smart move.
THE FEDERAL VOTE
After the Nevada women won the right to vote in state elections, the federal vote was the next target. That year, Martin wrote an article in “Good Housekeeping” magazine, where she stated, “The question we must have answered in the coming campaign is not ‘What shall women do for the political parties?’ but ‘What shall the political parties do for women?’ ”
The answer was just what she’d hoped. The 19th Amendment was passed during a special congressional session in summer 1919. It was then sent on to the states for ratification, with 36 states needed to ratify it. The state of Nevada ratified the amendment on Feb. 20, 1920, and Tennessee became the required 36th state when it ratified it on Aug. 18, 1920. The amendment was officially adopted to the Constitution on Aug. 26, 1920.
Women had won the right to vote, but getting them to exercise that right was a struggle. In the first election in 1920, just 36 percent of eligible women voted. Literacy tests, residency requirements, and poll taxes were a few of the reasons that kept women from the polls. It wasn’t until 1960’s presidential election that women voted in greater numbers than men.
Women of color faced even more obstacles when trying to exercise their new right to vote. Black American, American Indian, and Latin women faced state loopholes such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and some had to deal with fraud, intimidation, and even violence when attempting to vote. A group of women in Birmingham, Alabama, were beaten in 1926 when attempting to register to vote. Immigration laws kept Asians from getting citizenship until 1952, but it wasn’t until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that things really began to change. The Act prohibited racial discrimination in voting, forbidding states from creating discriminatory restrictions.
Inexperience with voting and a lack of education were two of the issues that hindered Nevada’s early women voters, and they are issues that still concern Molly Walt today. Molly is the executive director for the Nevada Commission for Women (NCW) and she is also the chairperson for the Nevada Women’s Suffrage Celebration Committee which is dedicated to “educating Nevadans on the suffrage movement and the historic importance of the ratification of the 19th Amendment.”
The two organizations are held together by Molly’s leadership and the united goal of education about suffrage, and women’s equality issues today. Molly became the NCW’s leader two years ago, and the committee sprang from her research about plans for celebrating the 19th Amendment’s 100th anniversary.
“No one had a set-in-stone plan, which made me decide to form a statewide committee where we could all work together to coordinate events,” Molly explains. “We want all these events to be successful. We need to celebrate the 70-plus years that it took to get women the right to vote.”
The NCW was created as an information clearinghouse in 1991, and while it was dormant for a few years, it was reactivated in 2014 by Governor Sandoval. Its purpose is to advance women toward full equality, in all areas, and to Molly that goal starts with educating people about how far women still have to go to attain equality. Correcting gender disparity is a main goal, but so is creating awareness about how—despite 100 years since the vote was passed—the role of women in leadership still needs to be addressed.
Women often won’t apply to boards and leadership committees if they don’t feel qualified, Molly claims, while men apply to what interests them and let the interviewer decide they are qualified. It might seem a small distinction, but it can keep women from seeking opportunities in which they may be successful. The socioeconomic factors that influence women are another area the NCW studies, along with providing advice to legislators on the effect of proposed legislation on women. Keeping the media informed about women’s issues, and recognizing and promoting the contributions women in the state make is also important to the commission, as is educating young people about how far women’s rights have come, and how far they still have to go. As a former teacher and mother of four, it’s the education component that keeps coming back to the forefront for Molly.
“My daughter is a senior in high school, and she spent one day learning about women’s suffrage,” Molly says. “This is important to me because of my daughters; my kids. Women aren’t treated equally, they often aren’t paid equally, and the opportunities aren’t equal.”
There are studies that show it could be another 60 years for women to be paid the same as men, Molly says, and her concern is that the right to vote is being taken for granted.
“Change still needs to happen,” she says. “I just want my daughters to be given the same opportunities, and I want to be part of that change. So this year, we celebrate the women who did fight for those opportunities.”
Nevada Commission for Women
515 E. Musser St, Ste. 303
Carson City, NV 89701
Nevada Women’s Suffrage Celebration Committee | 2,188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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