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Relating to Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.”
1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, came to be. She passed away 2 yrs later on in 1797.
1798 A son, Beverly came to be. He survived to adulthood, learning to be a fiddler and carpenter.
1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died.
1801 Harriet was created. She had been their just surviving daughter, and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory.
1805 A son, Madison was created. He survived to adulthood, learning to be a carpenter and joiner.
1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician.
1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to keep Monticello without getting legitimately freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and that neither their link with Monticello nor their blood that is“African ever found.
1826 Thomas Jefferson passed away.
Sally Hemings had been never legitimately emancipated. Alternatively, she had been unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after their death.
1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston.
1830 Sally Hemings along with her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free white individuals in the 1830 census. 3 years later on, in a census that is special after the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826.
1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him and his cousin Eston until her death in 1835. The area of her grave just isn’t understood.
Why did a number of Sally Hemings’s kiddies identify on their own as white yet others as black colored?
Madison resettled in southern Ohio within the belated 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. He thought we would stay static in the community that is black. He passed away in 1878.
Eston, also a carpenter, relocated to Chillicothe, Ohio, within the 1830s. There he had been a well-known musician that is professional moving around 1852 to Wisconsin, where he changed his surname to Jefferson together with his racial identification. He passed away in 1856. Both Madison and Eston made understood which they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson.
Consequences of Freedom
Whenever Beverly and Harriet Hemings passed into white culture, they’d to reject their loved ones lineage. Historians and loved ones have now been struggling to find their descendants. Both Madison and Eston Hemings acknowledged they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson and passed that knowledge onto their young ones. Madison and Eston Hemings’s descendants have actually provided household records with Monticello’s Getting Word African United states Oral History venture.
“Certainly a relationship between a master along with his servant is just one that’s incredibly unbalanced when it comes to energy. We have no basic concept what type of love or love had been included. But he made a challenge they turned 21 that he would free her children when. In which he did therefore.”
We have no idea the character of Sally Hemings interactions with Thomas Jefferson. Was he her rapist? Had been he an effective way to achieving her objective of freedom on her behalf young ones? Did they share some love for every single other? Hemings’s son Madison divulges valuable few information about exactly exactly just what their mother looked at their daddy. Annette Gordon-Reed cites the https://hotlatinwomen.net/ issues of understanding their interactions because of the implications of ownership, age, permission, and energy.
“ The many that may be stated is the fact that Hemings and Jefferson lived together over a long time along with seven kiddies, four of who lived to adulthood. Jefferson kept their vow to Hemings, and their offspring got a head that is four-decade on emancipation, doing your best with it by leading successful and stable everyday lives. ”
Did Sally Hemings get “special privileges”?
Based on Madison Hemings, Jefferson “was maybe perhaps maybe not into the practice of showing partiality or affection that is fatherly us kiddies.” Plantation documents reveal that Sally Hemings and her kiddies received the clothing that is same meals allotments as other enslaved people at Monticello. Nonetheless, Madison Hemings and his siblings discovered trades and “were clear of the dread of experiencing become slaves all our life very long.” Plus, as young ones, they certainly were permitted to be along with their mother, good results many children that are enslaved not need.
Intercourse, Energy, and Slavery
“ So she refused to come back with him. To induce her to do this he promised her extraordinary privileges, making a solemn pledge that her kiddies must certanly be freed during the chronilogical age of twenty-one years. ”
Ended up being it rape? Had been here any love? Ended up being conformity section of her contract with Jefferson?
“She was at a position that is untenable. We will be taking a look at intimate harassment. today”
Descendant Diana Redman stocks her views on Sally Hemings.
Enslaved females had no appropriate right to consent. Their masters owned their work, their health, and kids.
Sally Hemings’s descendants and historians have actually a variety of viewpoints concerning the powerful between Jefferson and Hemings, provided the implications of ownership, age, permission, and power that is dramatically unequal masters and enslaved ladies.
The character of Sally Hemings’s sexual encounters with Thomas Jefferson won’t ever be understood.
“People for the reason that area acted towards them as though they certainly were a married couple.”
Madison Hemings stated hardly any in what his mom looked at his dad, just that she “implicitly relied” on Jefferson’s promise. Hemings additionally said which he and their siblings “were the only real children of Jefferson’s by way of a servant woman.”
“The energy facet of it’s very genuine because demonstrably he might have sold her if he desired to. She could maybe perhaps maybe not refuse their advances. but their spouse Martha could maybe maybe not state no to him either. It is thought by me will be possible for Jefferson to rationalize this relationship because men had been likely to take over ladies.”
This might be an unpleasant and complicated story that is american. Thomas Jefferson had been certainly one of our many founding that is important, as well as a lifelong servant owner whom held Sally Hemings and kids in bondage. Sally Hemings must certanly be known today, not only as Jefferson’s concubine, but as a woman that is enslaved – in the chronilogical age of 16 – negotiated with the most effective guys into the country to enhance her own condition and attain freedom on her kids.
“ She offered delivery to four other people, and Jefferson ended up being the daddy of most of them. Their names were Beverly, Harriet, Madison (myself), and Eston – three sons and another child. ”
The historic proof points to the facts of Madison Hemings’s words about “my daddy, Thomas Jefferson.” Even though principal narrative very long denied his paternity, since 1802, dental records, posted recollections, analytical information, and papers have actually identified Thomas Jefferson given that dad of Sally Hemings’s kiddies. In 1998, a DNA study genetically connected certainly one of Hemings’s male descendants using the line that is male of Jefferson family members, contributing to the wide range of proof. | <urn:uuid:b5ea0812-91cf-438e-8e80-e0855ce255ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.denizatisitesi.com/2019/12/08/hemings-s-jeffersons-descendants-1790-sally-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.980518 | 1,661 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3304005861... | 3 | Relating to Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.”
1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, came to be. She passed away 2 yrs later on in 1797.
1798 A son, Beverly came to be. He survived to adulthood, learning to be a fiddler and carpenter.
1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died.
1801 Harriet was created. She had been their just surviving daughter, and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory.
1805 A son, Madison was created. He survived to adulthood, learning to be a carpenter and joiner.
1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician.
1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to keep Monticello without getting legitimately freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and that neither their link with Monticello nor their blood that is“African ever found.
1826 Thomas Jefferson passed away.
Sally Hemings had been never legitimately emancipated. Alternatively, she had been unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after their death.
1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston.
1830 Sally Hemings along with her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free white individuals in the 1830 census. 3 years later on, in a census that is special after the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826.
1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him and his cousin Eston until her death in 1835. The area of her grave just isn’t understood.
Why did a number of Sally Hemings’s kiddies identify on their own as white yet others as black colored?
Madison resettled in southern Ohio within the belated 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. He thought we would stay static in the community that is black. He passed away in 1878.
Eston, also a carpenter, relocated to Chillicothe, Ohio, within the 1830s. There he had been a well-known musician that is professional moving around 1852 to Wisconsin, where he changed his surname to Jefferson together with his racial identification. He passed away in 1856. Both Madison and Eston made understood which they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson.
Consequences of Freedom
Whenever Beverly and Harriet Hemings passed into white culture, they’d to reject their loved ones lineage. Historians and loved ones have now been struggling to find their descendants. Both Madison and Eston Hemings acknowledged they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson and passed that knowledge onto their young ones. Madison and Eston Hemings’s descendants have actually provided household records with Monticello’s Getting Word African United states Oral History venture.
“Certainly a relationship between a master along with his servant is just one that’s incredibly unbalanced when it comes to energy. We have no basic concept what type of love or love had been included. But he made a challenge they turned 21 that he would free her children when. In which he did therefore.”
We have no idea the character of Sally Hemings interactions with Thomas Jefferson. Was he her rapist? Had been he an effective way to achieving her objective of freedom on her behalf young ones? Did they share some love for every single other? Hemings’s son Madison divulges valuable few information about exactly exactly just what their mother looked at their daddy. Annette Gordon-Reed cites the https://hotlatinwomen.net/ issues of understanding their interactions because of the implications of ownership, age, permission, and energy.
“ The many that may be stated is the fact that Hemings and Jefferson lived together over a long time along with seven kiddies, four of who lived to adulthood. Jefferson kept their vow to Hemings, and their offspring got a head that is four-decade on emancipation, doing your best with it by leading successful and stable everyday lives. ”
Did Sally Hemings get “special privileges”?
Based on Madison Hemings, Jefferson “was maybe perhaps maybe not into the practice of showing partiality or affection that is fatherly us kiddies.” Plantation documents reveal that Sally Hemings and her kiddies received the clothing that is same meals allotments as other enslaved people at Monticello. Nonetheless, Madison Hemings and his siblings discovered trades and “were clear of the dread of experiencing become slaves all our life very long.” Plus, as young ones, they certainly were permitted to be along with their mother, good results many children that are enslaved not need.
Intercourse, Energy, and Slavery
“ So she refused to come back with him. To induce her to do this he promised her extraordinary privileges, making a solemn pledge that her kiddies must certanly be freed during the chronilogical age of twenty-one years. ”
Ended up being it rape? Had been here any love? Ended up being conformity section of her contract with Jefferson?
“She was at a position that is untenable. We will be taking a look at intimate harassment. today”
Descendant Diana Redman stocks her views on Sally Hemings.
Enslaved females had no appropriate right to consent. Their masters owned their work, their health, and kids.
Sally Hemings’s descendants and historians have actually a variety of viewpoints concerning the powerful between Jefferson and Hemings, provided the implications of ownership, age, permission, and power that is dramatically unequal masters and enslaved ladies.
The character of Sally Hemings’s sexual encounters with Thomas Jefferson won’t ever be understood.
“People for the reason that area acted towards them as though they certainly were a married couple.”
Madison Hemings stated hardly any in what his mom looked at his dad, just that she “implicitly relied” on Jefferson’s promise. Hemings additionally said which he and their siblings “were the only real children of Jefferson’s by way of a servant woman.”
“The energy facet of it’s very genuine because demonstrably he might have sold her if he desired to. She could maybe perhaps maybe not refuse their advances. but their spouse Martha could maybe maybe not state no to him either. It is thought by me will be possible for Jefferson to rationalize this relationship because men had been likely to take over ladies.”
This might be an unpleasant and complicated story that is american. Thomas Jefferson had been certainly one of our many founding that is important, as well as a lifelong servant owner whom held Sally Hemings and kids in bondage. Sally Hemings must certanly be known today, not only as Jefferson’s concubine, but as a woman that is enslaved – in the chronilogical age of 16 – negotiated with the most effective guys into the country to enhance her own condition and attain freedom on her kids.
“ She offered delivery to four other people, and Jefferson ended up being the daddy of most of them. Their names were Beverly, Harriet, Madison (myself), and Eston – three sons and another child. ”
The historic proof points to the facts of Madison Hemings’s words about “my daddy, Thomas Jefferson.” Even though principal narrative very long denied his paternity, since 1802, dental records, posted recollections, analytical information, and papers have actually identified Thomas Jefferson given that dad of Sally Hemings’s kiddies. In 1998, a DNA study genetically connected certainly one of Hemings’s male descendants using the line that is male of Jefferson family members, contributing to the wide range of proof. | 1,605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do you have a tradition of spring cleaning in your home? If so, you’re following a rite of spring that goes back at least two centuries in America. This seasonal desire for cleanliness turned whole households upside down in the late 19th century as the women of the house declared war on dirt. And, after a long winter, there was plenty of dirt to be had!
In the absence of the electric Dustbusters and ionizing air filters of today, dirt and dust were relentless in the Victorian household. Spring cleaning was the one time during the year when everything in the house was dusted, aired, washed, polished and otherwise cleaned. Many women also engaged in a round of autumn cleaning, but it usually was not as extensive.
In the spring, rugs were taken out and beaten; every piece of furniture was taken outside to be aired; walls and wallpaper were dusted; curtains were taken down for cleaning; floors were mopped, swept and polished; bedsteads were taken apart and checked for insects; bedding and other linens were washed and aired; chimneys were swept. Closets, chests and cabinets were emptied of clothing, dishes, silver and glassware, all of which was aired, washed or polished. Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) once declared, “House is being ‘cleaned.’ I prefer pestilence.”
Men of the household were often completely lost during the process of spring cleaning. Most husbands despised the ritual, not knowing where they were allowed to walk or sit, as well as being denied a hot meal for the duration of the cleaning ritual. Men could see that when their wives appeared in the parlor after a day of tiresome cleaning, there was nothing in their “countenance indicative of love, sweetness or dinner.”
The process of spring cleaning was exhaustive and exhausting. By the late 19th century when parlors contained so many knick-knacks, textiles, and pieces of furniture, the process that could take several weeks. The surge in textile manufacturing in the late 18th century and early 19th century meant that fabrics and carpets became cheaper, and houses filled with more and more textiles. In spring, these textiles made for some of the most difficult things in the house to clean.
In the early part of the 19th century, before Oriental carpets were fashionable, wall-to-wall carpets covered up the soft-wood floors that most houses had. These carpets were secured to the floor with thousands of tacks which housewives had to pry loose every spring for cleaning, and hammer in every fall when the carpets went back down. If moths were a problem, cracked black pepper, small cedar branches, or tobacco were placed under the carpet to ward them off. A bed of straw was often placed on the floor to allow the dirt to sift through the carpet, helping the carpet to last longer. In the latter half of the 19th century, straw matting was often left down on floors year round, with the carpets placed on top of it in the winter.
In Cape May, spring cleaning seems to have taken place in March, April and May. The Cape May Ocean Wave (Forerunner of the Star and Wave) reported on March 27, 1889, that “House cleaning is in sight.” In May 1886, the newspaper reported that
“House cleaning is now fully on. Bedding is picturesquely
Hung from windows and carpets ornament dooryard fences.
There’s nothing like giving everything about the house a
Good sunning. Let the good work go forward till the town
Is as clean as a new pin.”
On May 9, 1896, the newspaper reported that, “It’s housecleaning wherever you go.” Year after year, the community-wide task of spring cleaning and its effects on the populous appeared on the pages of the Wave.
“Summer preparations” (as mentioned in the newspaper) probably referred to lightening up the house for summer by doing things like replacing heavy carpets with grass matting, taking down and storing velvet curtains for the summer, leaving only the lace curtains or none at all, and perhaps even slipcovering the furniture with muslin. Gilded picture frames, mirrors and lighting fixtures were often covered in netting or muslin as well to prevent flyspecks. However, after wire window screens became widely available in the 1880s, most homeowners didn’t have to worry about being invaded by flying insects, and the tradition of bagging the chandeliers fell by the wayside. Historic photographs of the outside of the Physick House show us that the Physicks did make use of window screens on their exterior porches and in their windows.
The whole process of spring cleaning must have lasted through most of the months of March and April, and then wound down in early May. The Cape May Ocean Wave reported on May 10, 1888, that “the victims of house cleaning time begin to be more cheerful.”
Today, efficient vacuum cleaners and commercial cleaning products make spring cleaning a little easier than it was more than 100 years ago. However, there’s no substitute for good ol | <urn:uuid:5f262351-92aa-40eb-959d-baefc736376c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.capemaymac.org/single-post/2019/02/19/Rites-of-spring | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.984612 | 1,088 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.421270251274... | 1 | Do you have a tradition of spring cleaning in your home? If so, you’re following a rite of spring that goes back at least two centuries in America. This seasonal desire for cleanliness turned whole households upside down in the late 19th century as the women of the house declared war on dirt. And, after a long winter, there was plenty of dirt to be had!
In the absence of the electric Dustbusters and ionizing air filters of today, dirt and dust were relentless in the Victorian household. Spring cleaning was the one time during the year when everything in the house was dusted, aired, washed, polished and otherwise cleaned. Many women also engaged in a round of autumn cleaning, but it usually was not as extensive.
In the spring, rugs were taken out and beaten; every piece of furniture was taken outside to be aired; walls and wallpaper were dusted; curtains were taken down for cleaning; floors were mopped, swept and polished; bedsteads were taken apart and checked for insects; bedding and other linens were washed and aired; chimneys were swept. Closets, chests and cabinets were emptied of clothing, dishes, silver and glassware, all of which was aired, washed or polished. Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) once declared, “House is being ‘cleaned.’ I prefer pestilence.”
Men of the household were often completely lost during the process of spring cleaning. Most husbands despised the ritual, not knowing where they were allowed to walk or sit, as well as being denied a hot meal for the duration of the cleaning ritual. Men could see that when their wives appeared in the parlor after a day of tiresome cleaning, there was nothing in their “countenance indicative of love, sweetness or dinner.”
The process of spring cleaning was exhaustive and exhausting. By the late 19th century when parlors contained so many knick-knacks, textiles, and pieces of furniture, the process that could take several weeks. The surge in textile manufacturing in the late 18th century and early 19th century meant that fabrics and carpets became cheaper, and houses filled with more and more textiles. In spring, these textiles made for some of the most difficult things in the house to clean.
In the early part of the 19th century, before Oriental carpets were fashionable, wall-to-wall carpets covered up the soft-wood floors that most houses had. These carpets were secured to the floor with thousands of tacks which housewives had to pry loose every spring for cleaning, and hammer in every fall when the carpets went back down. If moths were a problem, cracked black pepper, small cedar branches, or tobacco were placed under the carpet to ward them off. A bed of straw was often placed on the floor to allow the dirt to sift through the carpet, helping the carpet to last longer. In the latter half of the 19th century, straw matting was often left down on floors year round, with the carpets placed on top of it in the winter.
In Cape May, spring cleaning seems to have taken place in March, April and May. The Cape May Ocean Wave (Forerunner of the Star and Wave) reported on March 27, 1889, that “House cleaning is in sight.” In May 1886, the newspaper reported that
“House cleaning is now fully on. Bedding is picturesquely
Hung from windows and carpets ornament dooryard fences.
There’s nothing like giving everything about the house a
Good sunning. Let the good work go forward till the town
Is as clean as a new pin.”
On May 9, 1896, the newspaper reported that, “It’s housecleaning wherever you go.” Year after year, the community-wide task of spring cleaning and its effects on the populous appeared on the pages of the Wave.
“Summer preparations” (as mentioned in the newspaper) probably referred to lightening up the house for summer by doing things like replacing heavy carpets with grass matting, taking down and storing velvet curtains for the summer, leaving only the lace curtains or none at all, and perhaps even slipcovering the furniture with muslin. Gilded picture frames, mirrors and lighting fixtures were often covered in netting or muslin as well to prevent flyspecks. However, after wire window screens became widely available in the 1880s, most homeowners didn’t have to worry about being invaded by flying insects, and the tradition of bagging the chandeliers fell by the wayside. Historic photographs of the outside of the Physick House show us that the Physicks did make use of window screens on their exterior porches and in their windows.
The whole process of spring cleaning must have lasted through most of the months of March and April, and then wound down in early May. The Cape May Ocean Wave reported on May 10, 1888, that “the victims of house cleaning time begin to be more cheerful.”
Today, efficient vacuum cleaners and commercial cleaning products make spring cleaning a little easier than it was more than 100 years ago. However, there’s no substitute for good ol | 1,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the second installment in a three-part Harvard Medical School series on childhood obesity.
With childhood obesity now affecting 17 percent of American children, the nation is rallying around the concept that serious action is required. In 2010, President Barack Obama established the first Task Force on Childhood Obesity, aimed at reducing the rate of such obesity to just 5 percent by 2030.
Although many of the plan’s 70 recommendations focus on approaches such as improving access to healthy, affordable foods; increasing physical activity; and empowering parents to make smart nutrition choices, a large chapter of the report is dedicated to reducing the risk of childhood obesity early in life. Since the president released his Task Force Call to Action, two Institute of Medicine (IOM) reports have emphasized the need for early interventions to prevent obesity.
That’s welcome news to researchers like Matthew Gillman, Elsie Taveras (who is a member of the IOM Committee on Early Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies), and their colleagues at Project Viva, a longitudinal research study that examines a woman’s lifestyle and other factors during pregnancy and, after birth, the effects on her health and the health of her child.
Taveras is an associate professor of population medicine and pediatrics and co-director of the Obesity Prevention Program at Harvard Medical School’s (HMS) Department of Population Medicine. Gilman is a professor and director of the program.
Since 1998, the project has studied thousands of expectant mothers and their children, including more than 1,110 visits with 7-year-olds. Thanks in large part to Project Viva’s findings, a growing body of evidence has found that childhood obesity begins in utero, and early intervention can go a long way toward quelling the problem.
There’s good reason to start preventing childhood obesity as soon as possible. It’s well established that more than half of obese children are already overweight by age 2. Approximately one in five children will be overweight or obese by age 6. In addition, many of the racial and ethnic differences in risk factors for childhood obesity appear to occur early in life.
One large Project Viva study, published in the April 2010 issue of Pediatrics, found that black and Hispanic children were more likely than white children to have gained weight rapidly during infancy. What’s more, they spent less time breast-feeding, were introduced to solid foods sooner, consumed more fast foods and sugar-sweetened beverages, slept less, and had television sets in their bedrooms during the first three years of life — all risk factors for childhood obesity. Black and Hispanic mothers were also more likely to begin their pregnancies overweight or obese, to have depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and (Hispanic only) to develop gestational diabetes.
Although the exact reasons for such disparities are still largely unclear, researchers continue to find associations of these and other risk factors with childhood obesity, including:
Maternal habits. What’s good for a pregnant mother is good for her child, and the inverse holds true, as well. One 2007 study by Gillman, Taveras, and their colleagues found that children of mothers who had gained more weight in pregnancy had about four times the risk of being overweight by age 3. Other Project Viva findings suggest that children whose mothers smoked while pregnant have twice the risk of being overweight by age 3 as those whose mothers did not smoke.
C-sections. A 2012 study by Project Viva researchers found that 3-year-olds who had been born by cesarean section were twice as likely to be obese as those who had been delivered vaginally. That may be because babies born by C-section have different bacteria in the gut than those born vaginally, and some emerging data suggest that this microbiome could be important for energy balance.
Breast-feeding. Studies suggest that children who are breast-fed have a lower risk of obesity, possibly because breast-fed children may learn to self-regulate how much they eat — and mothers may learn to control how much they feed their children — by responding to hunger rather than other cues. A study by Gillman and colleagues in the March 2011 issue of Pediatrics sheds light on formula-fed infants, too. Those who were introduced to solid food before 4 months old had a sixfold increase in their odds of being obese at age 3, compared with those whose parents waited until they were at least 4 to 6 months old to introduce solids.
Infant sleep. Research by Taveras suggests that adequate sleep during infancy is just as important to babies as it is to their weary parents. Her 2008 Project Viva study, published in the Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, was the first to examine the effects of sleep during infancy. She found that babies who slept less than 12 hours a day were twice as likely to be obese by age 3 as those who got more shut-eye, possibly because sleep is crucial for a proper balance of the hormones that regulate appetite.
Starting the fight early. Findings like these are helping physicians, public health advocates, and others make recommendations to parents even before a child is born. “It’s becoming obvious that early prevention is a big part of the answer to childhood obesity,” said Gillman. The goal, he stresses, isn’t to blame parents. “We’re focusing on expectant and new mothers, because most women are especially receptive to making positive changes for their child’s health during and right after pregnancy.”
Early interventions may have impressive effects on children’s behavior. In a study published in the November 2011 issue of the Journal of Maternal and Child Health, Taveras and her colleagues assigned new mothers and their babies (ages birth to 6 months) to two groups. One group received an intervention that included conversations with pediatricians, motivational counseling by a health educator, and group parenting workshops. The other group received usual pediatric care.
After six months, the researchers found that infants in the intervention group breast-fed longer and were less likely to be introduced to solid foods, watched less TV than their peers, and slept more. “If we can help parents change some of these risk factors early in life,” said Taveras, “we may be able to protect against obesity later on, and possibly decrease the disparities we see with the disease in many nonwhite populations.”
But what about children who, at age 5 and older, are past the point of such early interventions?
“It’s certainly easier to start preventing childhood obesity very early on,” said Gillman. “It may be more difficult as kids get older, but we do need to continue making changes throughout their lives.” | <urn:uuid:fd0178db-ea61-49c0-b5b1-5cd54527d1af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://acceleratecenter.blogspot.com/2012/09/targeting-childhood-obesity-early.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.980653 | 1,382 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.3443089425563... | 2 | This is the second installment in a three-part Harvard Medical School series on childhood obesity.
With childhood obesity now affecting 17 percent of American children, the nation is rallying around the concept that serious action is required. In 2010, President Barack Obama established the first Task Force on Childhood Obesity, aimed at reducing the rate of such obesity to just 5 percent by 2030.
Although many of the plan’s 70 recommendations focus on approaches such as improving access to healthy, affordable foods; increasing physical activity; and empowering parents to make smart nutrition choices, a large chapter of the report is dedicated to reducing the risk of childhood obesity early in life. Since the president released his Task Force Call to Action, two Institute of Medicine (IOM) reports have emphasized the need for early interventions to prevent obesity.
That’s welcome news to researchers like Matthew Gillman, Elsie Taveras (who is a member of the IOM Committee on Early Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies), and their colleagues at Project Viva, a longitudinal research study that examines a woman’s lifestyle and other factors during pregnancy and, after birth, the effects on her health and the health of her child.
Taveras is an associate professor of population medicine and pediatrics and co-director of the Obesity Prevention Program at Harvard Medical School’s (HMS) Department of Population Medicine. Gilman is a professor and director of the program.
Since 1998, the project has studied thousands of expectant mothers and their children, including more than 1,110 visits with 7-year-olds. Thanks in large part to Project Viva’s findings, a growing body of evidence has found that childhood obesity begins in utero, and early intervention can go a long way toward quelling the problem.
There’s good reason to start preventing childhood obesity as soon as possible. It’s well established that more than half of obese children are already overweight by age 2. Approximately one in five children will be overweight or obese by age 6. In addition, many of the racial and ethnic differences in risk factors for childhood obesity appear to occur early in life.
One large Project Viva study, published in the April 2010 issue of Pediatrics, found that black and Hispanic children were more likely than white children to have gained weight rapidly during infancy. What’s more, they spent less time breast-feeding, were introduced to solid foods sooner, consumed more fast foods and sugar-sweetened beverages, slept less, and had television sets in their bedrooms during the first three years of life — all risk factors for childhood obesity. Black and Hispanic mothers were also more likely to begin their pregnancies overweight or obese, to have depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and (Hispanic only) to develop gestational diabetes.
Although the exact reasons for such disparities are still largely unclear, researchers continue to find associations of these and other risk factors with childhood obesity, including:
Maternal habits. What’s good for a pregnant mother is good for her child, and the inverse holds true, as well. One 2007 study by Gillman, Taveras, and their colleagues found that children of mothers who had gained more weight in pregnancy had about four times the risk of being overweight by age 3. Other Project Viva findings suggest that children whose mothers smoked while pregnant have twice the risk of being overweight by age 3 as those whose mothers did not smoke.
C-sections. A 2012 study by Project Viva researchers found that 3-year-olds who had been born by cesarean section were twice as likely to be obese as those who had been delivered vaginally. That may be because babies born by C-section have different bacteria in the gut than those born vaginally, and some emerging data suggest that this microbiome could be important for energy balance.
Breast-feeding. Studies suggest that children who are breast-fed have a lower risk of obesity, possibly because breast-fed children may learn to self-regulate how much they eat — and mothers may learn to control how much they feed their children — by responding to hunger rather than other cues. A study by Gillman and colleagues in the March 2011 issue of Pediatrics sheds light on formula-fed infants, too. Those who were introduced to solid food before 4 months old had a sixfold increase in their odds of being obese at age 3, compared with those whose parents waited until they were at least 4 to 6 months old to introduce solids.
Infant sleep. Research by Taveras suggests that adequate sleep during infancy is just as important to babies as it is to their weary parents. Her 2008 Project Viva study, published in the Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, was the first to examine the effects of sleep during infancy. She found that babies who slept less than 12 hours a day were twice as likely to be obese by age 3 as those who got more shut-eye, possibly because sleep is crucial for a proper balance of the hormones that regulate appetite.
Starting the fight early. Findings like these are helping physicians, public health advocates, and others make recommendations to parents even before a child is born. “It’s becoming obvious that early prevention is a big part of the answer to childhood obesity,” said Gillman. The goal, he stresses, isn’t to blame parents. “We’re focusing on expectant and new mothers, because most women are especially receptive to making positive changes for their child’s health during and right after pregnancy.”
Early interventions may have impressive effects on children’s behavior. In a study published in the November 2011 issue of the Journal of Maternal and Child Health, Taveras and her colleagues assigned new mothers and their babies (ages birth to 6 months) to two groups. One group received an intervention that included conversations with pediatricians, motivational counseling by a health educator, and group parenting workshops. The other group received usual pediatric care.
After six months, the researchers found that infants in the intervention group breast-fed longer and were less likely to be introduced to solid foods, watched less TV than their peers, and slept more. “If we can help parents change some of these risk factors early in life,” said Taveras, “we may be able to protect against obesity later on, and possibly decrease the disparities we see with the disease in many nonwhite populations.”
But what about children who, at age 5 and older, are past the point of such early interventions?
“It’s certainly easier to start preventing childhood obesity very early on,” said Gillman. “It may be more difficult as kids get older, but we do need to continue making changes throughout their lives.” | 1,362 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A sea turtle was discovered struggling to escape a hole in rocks less than a meter from the sea on a Hawaiian island.
Marine scientist Tommy Cutt received a call about a trapped turtle in Maui, Hawaii.
Footage shows him clambering across the rocks to approach the lapping water before kneeling down to help the turtle.
Marine Scientist Tommy Cutt saved a sea turtle which was trapped between rocks on the island of Maui in Hawaii
Meanwhile another turtle is seen waving its flippers and swimming close to the shore as though it is waiting for its friend.
Seconds later, Tommy, who is executive director of MOC Marine Institute, pushes his arm between two rocks and pulls up the trapped turtle.
The creature was unable to free itself due to its large shell and became trapped in the deep cut out in the rocks, on December 18.
It was crucial to act quickly as the turtle could have potentially drowned.
He lifted the turtle, which had become trapped due to its large shell, and helped it back into the sea
Some turtle species can remain underwater for hours with Loggerheads holding a record time of four to seven hours.
During their routine day-to-day activity, turtles can hold their breath from 45 minutes to an hour.
However stressed turtles use up oxygen stored in their body and may drown within minutes – and this could have been a strong possibility for this Maui creature.
This comes just weeks after a ‘ghost net’ of fishing ropes and plastics was spotted drifting a mile from the island of Molokini, Hawaii, and threatened marine life.
It was crucial to act quickly as the turtle could have potentially drowned inside the crevice. This comes just weeks after a ‘ghost net’ of fishing ropes and plastics was spotted near the Hawaiian coast and posed a risk to marine life
Scientists found 23 females and nine males around the main Hawaiian Islands in 2017.
Adult turtles were seen in foraging habitats of Maui, Oahu, Kauai, and Hawai‘i Island.
It is thought green turtles might be making a come-back across the US Pacific, after 90.1 per cent of turtles found within the last 13 years were of this kind.
Around 3,400 sea turtles were found between 2002 and 2015, according to research divers.
A female diver swims along side a sea turtle in South Maui (file image) | <urn:uuid:9bb67105-2c2f-4b13-9c46-aaa006fb3e5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gobnewsonline.com/2020/01/16/turtley-good-deed-sea-turtle-trapped-in-hole-in-rocks-is-rescued-by-marine-scientist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.980868 | 496 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.5655883550643921,... | 4 | A sea turtle was discovered struggling to escape a hole in rocks less than a meter from the sea on a Hawaiian island.
Marine scientist Tommy Cutt received a call about a trapped turtle in Maui, Hawaii.
Footage shows him clambering across the rocks to approach the lapping water before kneeling down to help the turtle.
Marine Scientist Tommy Cutt saved a sea turtle which was trapped between rocks on the island of Maui in Hawaii
Meanwhile another turtle is seen waving its flippers and swimming close to the shore as though it is waiting for its friend.
Seconds later, Tommy, who is executive director of MOC Marine Institute, pushes his arm between two rocks and pulls up the trapped turtle.
The creature was unable to free itself due to its large shell and became trapped in the deep cut out in the rocks, on December 18.
It was crucial to act quickly as the turtle could have potentially drowned.
He lifted the turtle, which had become trapped due to its large shell, and helped it back into the sea
Some turtle species can remain underwater for hours with Loggerheads holding a record time of four to seven hours.
During their routine day-to-day activity, turtles can hold their breath from 45 minutes to an hour.
However stressed turtles use up oxygen stored in their body and may drown within minutes – and this could have been a strong possibility for this Maui creature.
This comes just weeks after a ‘ghost net’ of fishing ropes and plastics was spotted drifting a mile from the island of Molokini, Hawaii, and threatened marine life.
It was crucial to act quickly as the turtle could have potentially drowned inside the crevice. This comes just weeks after a ‘ghost net’ of fishing ropes and plastics was spotted near the Hawaiian coast and posed a risk to marine life
Scientists found 23 females and nine males around the main Hawaiian Islands in 2017.
Adult turtles were seen in foraging habitats of Maui, Oahu, Kauai, and Hawai‘i Island.
It is thought green turtles might be making a come-back across the US Pacific, after 90.1 per cent of turtles found within the last 13 years were of this kind.
Around 3,400 sea turtles were found between 2002 and 2015, according to research divers.
A female diver swims along side a sea turtle in South Maui (file image) | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. Darwin was from a family of scientists. His father was a medical doctor and his grandfather was a botanist. His mother died when Darwin was just eight years old. Darwin’s family was wealthy and was able to send him to Edinburgh University at age sixteen. He then attended Christ’s College in Cambridge. At Christ’s College, Darwin’s botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, recommended Darwin for a position as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle. In 1831, he set sail to travel the world and study nature all over the globe. He was particularly interested in the Pacific Islands and the Galapagos Islands. These studies led him to create his theory of evolution. After returning to England, he started to write about his findings in the Journal of Researches. In his writings, he developed a theory about the origin of living things that was controversial with other naturalists, who disagreed with him.
In his most famous work, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, he writes about this controversial theory. This piece was published in 1859. He wrote about his theory that animals and humans have evolved over time and came from common ancestors. He focuses a great deal on his theory of natural selection, or the theory that only the strongest of species reproduce so that only the best qualities are passed down to the next generation. The book was written for the general public and sparked widespread interest after it was published.
How has our understanding of nature and evolution changed since Darwin wrote The Origins of Species? How has it stayed the same? Why do you think it was so hard for other scientists to accept Darwin’s theory? It has been said that this book is considered the “foundation of evolutionary biology.” Do you agree with this? If not, why?
Darwin, The Origin of Species. 1859. | <urn:uuid:5f991afd-d711-4f83-b47f-c7ee859b1fdd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/quallsk/2016/03/10/was-the-origin-of-species-the-foundation-for-evolutionary-biology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.987149 | 398 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.128749281167... | 6 | Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. Darwin was from a family of scientists. His father was a medical doctor and his grandfather was a botanist. His mother died when Darwin was just eight years old. Darwin’s family was wealthy and was able to send him to Edinburgh University at age sixteen. He then attended Christ’s College in Cambridge. At Christ’s College, Darwin’s botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, recommended Darwin for a position as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle. In 1831, he set sail to travel the world and study nature all over the globe. He was particularly interested in the Pacific Islands and the Galapagos Islands. These studies led him to create his theory of evolution. After returning to England, he started to write about his findings in the Journal of Researches. In his writings, he developed a theory about the origin of living things that was controversial with other naturalists, who disagreed with him.
In his most famous work, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, he writes about this controversial theory. This piece was published in 1859. He wrote about his theory that animals and humans have evolved over time and came from common ancestors. He focuses a great deal on his theory of natural selection, or the theory that only the strongest of species reproduce so that only the best qualities are passed down to the next generation. The book was written for the general public and sparked widespread interest after it was published.
How has our understanding of nature and evolution changed since Darwin wrote The Origins of Species? How has it stayed the same? Why do you think it was so hard for other scientists to accept Darwin’s theory? It has been said that this book is considered the “foundation of evolutionary biology.” Do you agree with this? If not, why?
Darwin, The Origin of Species. 1859. | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word tripod derives from the Greek words ‘tripous’, meaning three-footed, and refers to a three-legged structure. Used as a seat or stand, the form of the tripod is the most stable furniture construction for uneven ground, hence its ancient and widespread existence.
In Ancient Greece, tripods were most frequently used as a support for a lebes (cauldron) or as a base for other vases, although they could also function as ornaments, trophies, and sacrificial altars.
Indeed, in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, we are often told of tripods being given as gifts exchanged between hosts and guests, or as prizes to those successful in games, and in the Classical period, vases show that they continued to be awarded as prizes for athletic competitions (below: a black-figure ceramic tile showing a charioteer with his team; on the ground, the tripod awaits the victor).
Some were made of gold, but these were normally reserved for use as dedications to the gods because of their special value.
One of the most famous tripods belonged to the Pythia in the Sanctury of Apollo at Delphi. This divinely-inspired priestess used to sit on top of a tripod to deliver the oracles of Apollo, and a laurel-branch was placed on top of the tripod whenever she was away. Because of this, by the Classical Period, the tripod had come to be strongly associated with, and even sacred to, the god Apollo.
A popular image on Athenian black and red-figure pottery is that of the myth of Apollo and Herakles contesting for the Delphic tripod; angry at not having received a cure for his illness from the Pythia, Herakles began destroying the temple, and tried to carry off the tripod, thinking he would establish an oracle of his own. However, he was prevented by Zeus and Apollo, who reclaimed his sacred seat.
Another famous tripod is the so-called Plataean Tripod, made using some of the spoils taken from the Persian army after the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Particularly elaborate, it comprised a gold basin supported by a bronze serpent with three heads, in whose coils were inscribed the names of the states who had taken part in the war. During the Third Sacred war (356-346 BC) it was taken as booty by the Phocians and in AD 324 the stand was transported by the emperor Constantine to Constantinople and can to this day still be seen in the hippodrome in Istanbul.
author: Alexandra Hamburger for It’s All Greek
For our full range of replica Greek art and jewellery visit itsallgreek.co.uk | <urn:uuid:c4cab126-75f1-48fa-8258-f0b254888ca4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://itsallgreeklondon.wordpress.com/2014/10/22/the-tripod-and-its-symbolism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.980248 | 568 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.1917764... | 4 | The word tripod derives from the Greek words ‘tripous’, meaning three-footed, and refers to a three-legged structure. Used as a seat or stand, the form of the tripod is the most stable furniture construction for uneven ground, hence its ancient and widespread existence.
In Ancient Greece, tripods were most frequently used as a support for a lebes (cauldron) or as a base for other vases, although they could also function as ornaments, trophies, and sacrificial altars.
Indeed, in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, we are often told of tripods being given as gifts exchanged between hosts and guests, or as prizes to those successful in games, and in the Classical period, vases show that they continued to be awarded as prizes for athletic competitions (below: a black-figure ceramic tile showing a charioteer with his team; on the ground, the tripod awaits the victor).
Some were made of gold, but these were normally reserved for use as dedications to the gods because of their special value.
One of the most famous tripods belonged to the Pythia in the Sanctury of Apollo at Delphi. This divinely-inspired priestess used to sit on top of a tripod to deliver the oracles of Apollo, and a laurel-branch was placed on top of the tripod whenever she was away. Because of this, by the Classical Period, the tripod had come to be strongly associated with, and even sacred to, the god Apollo.
A popular image on Athenian black and red-figure pottery is that of the myth of Apollo and Herakles contesting for the Delphic tripod; angry at not having received a cure for his illness from the Pythia, Herakles began destroying the temple, and tried to carry off the tripod, thinking he would establish an oracle of his own. However, he was prevented by Zeus and Apollo, who reclaimed his sacred seat.
Another famous tripod is the so-called Plataean Tripod, made using some of the spoils taken from the Persian army after the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Particularly elaborate, it comprised a gold basin supported by a bronze serpent with three heads, in whose coils were inscribed the names of the states who had taken part in the war. During the Third Sacred war (356-346 BC) it was taken as booty by the Phocians and in AD 324 the stand was transported by the emperor Constantine to Constantinople and can to this day still be seen in the hippodrome in Istanbul.
author: Alexandra Hamburger for It’s All Greek
For our full range of replica Greek art and jewellery visit itsallgreek.co.uk | 555 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australia was the second country after New Zealand to give women the vote, and that came in 1902. However, the inclusion of women in the workforce – and their acceptance into the legal profession – took much longer, especially in NSW.
Ada Evans was the first to test the waters. She had been born in Essex, England, to a legal family and after obtaining an Arts degree at Sydney University, decided to enrol in law.v
The Dean, Professor Pitt Corbett, was away at the time but she was accepted in 1899 by the Acting Dean, Professor Jethro Brown. On his return, Professor Corbett was less than encouraging, telling her she did “not have the physique for law and would find medicine more suitable”.
The greater glory
Professor Brown, however, encouraged her to press on, and in a letter said: “If you cannot reap all the reward of your toil, the greater glory may be yours of sowing what others may reap – the glory of the pioneer.”
Women were not allowed to practise law at the time and the Supreme Court took five months to formally approve Evans’ enrolment as a student. By that time, she had placed fifth (of 18) in her first examinations and was attracting national attention.
Not all of it was favourable. After a critical article in the Melbourne Punch of July 13, 1899, Evans contacted the paper. In its follow-up, Punch seemed relieved to report that Evans did not wish “to encroach on man’s sphere … she is not even a woman suffragist”.
“A man’s sphere”
Evans, the magazine said, was simply studying “a subject she very much likes”. Evans wanted to take the next step after graduating in April 1902 but her path was blocked. She explained her frustration in an interview published in the Evening News on April 22.
“‘Do you contemplate practising?’ Evans was asked.
“‘There are great difficulties in the way,’ was the reply. ‘I have tried to get admittance to practise in some form. The Chief Justice, when I wanted to be admitted some time ago, pointed out that women were not admitted in London and so could not be here. I didn’t like that, for I don’t think we should slavishly follow London. I consider conveyancing excellent work. In England, women do all the hard work and get no ‘kudos’ for it … At the present time, typewriting women do a lot, but in cases where women have the brains to do the other partof the work, why should they not be paid for it?’”
The value of being a “person”
Women were not specifically disqualified from becoming lawyers, but the common law had created a significant obstacle – it did not regard a woman as a “person”. In the absence of legislation that specifically conferred rights or privileges on women, such as the right to practise law, none existed. And the NSW Parliament was in no rush to pass legislation that would confer that specific right on Evans or any other woman.
When the law was changed in 1918, Evans, though, felt time had passed her by. She registered as a student-at-law in 1919 and in 1921 was admitted to the Bar. She was immediately offered work but declined to practise, citing family commitments.
She added that she didn’t want the standing of women “to be undermined by a show of incompetence”.
Extracted from Defending the Rights of All: A History of the Law Society of NSW by Michael Pelly and Caroline Pierce | <urn:uuid:238222fd-60da-462b-9641-00dfdafde603> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://first100years.com.au/adaevans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.985369 | 772 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.10456147789955... | 8 | Australia was the second country after New Zealand to give women the vote, and that came in 1902. However, the inclusion of women in the workforce – and their acceptance into the legal profession – took much longer, especially in NSW.
Ada Evans was the first to test the waters. She had been born in Essex, England, to a legal family and after obtaining an Arts degree at Sydney University, decided to enrol in law.v
The Dean, Professor Pitt Corbett, was away at the time but she was accepted in 1899 by the Acting Dean, Professor Jethro Brown. On his return, Professor Corbett was less than encouraging, telling her she did “not have the physique for law and would find medicine more suitable”.
The greater glory
Professor Brown, however, encouraged her to press on, and in a letter said: “If you cannot reap all the reward of your toil, the greater glory may be yours of sowing what others may reap – the glory of the pioneer.”
Women were not allowed to practise law at the time and the Supreme Court took five months to formally approve Evans’ enrolment as a student. By that time, she had placed fifth (of 18) in her first examinations and was attracting national attention.
Not all of it was favourable. After a critical article in the Melbourne Punch of July 13, 1899, Evans contacted the paper. In its follow-up, Punch seemed relieved to report that Evans did not wish “to encroach on man’s sphere … she is not even a woman suffragist”.
“A man’s sphere”
Evans, the magazine said, was simply studying “a subject she very much likes”. Evans wanted to take the next step after graduating in April 1902 but her path was blocked. She explained her frustration in an interview published in the Evening News on April 22.
“‘Do you contemplate practising?’ Evans was asked.
“‘There are great difficulties in the way,’ was the reply. ‘I have tried to get admittance to practise in some form. The Chief Justice, when I wanted to be admitted some time ago, pointed out that women were not admitted in London and so could not be here. I didn’t like that, for I don’t think we should slavishly follow London. I consider conveyancing excellent work. In England, women do all the hard work and get no ‘kudos’ for it … At the present time, typewriting women do a lot, but in cases where women have the brains to do the other partof the work, why should they not be paid for it?’”
The value of being a “person”
Women were not specifically disqualified from becoming lawyers, but the common law had created a significant obstacle – it did not regard a woman as a “person”. In the absence of legislation that specifically conferred rights or privileges on women, such as the right to practise law, none existed. And the NSW Parliament was in no rush to pass legislation that would confer that specific right on Evans or any other woman.
When the law was changed in 1918, Evans, though, felt time had passed her by. She registered as a student-at-law in 1919 and in 1921 was admitted to the Bar. She was immediately offered work but declined to practise, citing family commitments.
She added that she didn’t want the standing of women “to be undermined by a show of incompetence”.
Extracted from Defending the Rights of All: A History of the Law Society of NSW by Michael Pelly and Caroline Pierce | 743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ESL Lesson Plan: Introduction
This weeks lesson for grade 2 was focused on the topic Dinner is ready. In the previous week I thought about how I would teach the lesson, then many thoughts came to mind. I designed my ESL lesson plan around these questions by implementing different games and activities.
The presentation for the lesson was aided with videos, props (plate, knife, fork, spoon, chopsticks), PowerPoint presentation and pictures. To summarize the content, I focused on a few things: Food and drink students like, utensils used when having dinner, types of food and drink for dinner and how to ask for a meal at a restaurant.
What do you like to eat/drink?
What is your favourite food/drink?
What’s for your dinner?
What would you like?
Tom and Jerry scene showing a sandwich
The lesson was introduced with a funny Tom and Jerry food moments video. I discovered that when a video is used in a lesson especially with characters such as Tom and Jerry or Peppa Pig students get really excited.
This is why whatever topic I am teaching I find a video that will link to the topic. I do this to ensure that while students are having fun they are learning at the same time. Students burst out into laughter while they watched the video.
At the end of the video they were able to share what were some of the food and drink they saw.
Student Centered environment
It was all about my students after I shared with them the foods and drink that I liked. I ensured the environment was prepared, guided my students and they were in control.
Firstly, I showed them pictures of different food and drink so that they could identify what they saw. I also made sure to cut the pictures of different food and drink items such as chicken, milk in the exact shape they were.
To review vocabulary, I played a guessing game with the students for them to guess what food was on the picture I held in my hand. Students were then able to share the different food and drink that they like.
To do this activity, I played the game train, train, go, go with the students so each student could share what food they like. I started with what I like by saying…I like chicken and cola. Each student then followed to say I like…Within 3 minutes the entire class was able to share what food and drink they like.
Guided question students responded to sharing what they like
The next part of the ESL lesson plan was to create a scene of a dining room at home. I ensured students identified the different food items that were on the dinner table. The students then played the role of a parent and a child asking what’s for dinner.
Students playing the role of parent and child to express what’s for dinner at home
Another activity I did was a scene of being in a restaurant. One student would pretend to be a waiter/waitress and the student who is seated around the table would be the guest in the restaurant ordering a meal.
The students were excited and all wanted to try this activity. After requesting their meal and being given by the waiter/waitress the students pretended to be having the meal by using their chopsticks, fork or spoon.
At the restaurant waiter Zee gives customer hamburger for dinner
Student using a fork to eat fish for dinner.
The lesson for grade 3 students was focused on purchasing fruit at the fruit market. The objectives of this lesson was for students to identify the different kind of fruits and learning how to express themselves when they need to purchase fruits from the fruit market.
What is your favourite fruit?
What fruit do you have?
How much are the apples/…?
A vendors table at the fruit market.
The students were informed a week before to bring a fruit to class. I printed pictures of 1 yuan, 5 yuan, 10 yuan, 20 yuan, 50 yuan, 100 yuan. This was done to give students a feeling as if they had real money to purchase fruits from the fruit market.
After identifying the different kinds of fruit that was at the market the students and I created our own pricelist. The students also worked in pairs to share what fruit they had brought to class for the lesson. Many students had apples, oranges and bananas.
To execute the lesson, students had to work in groups to ensure all could participate. After doing a demonstration with two students, the rest of the class was then prepared and ready to make their presentations of purchasing their own fruit at the market.
Class was even more fun after a few students engaged in different fruit eating challenges. The students were also able to share the different fruit they like and were also challenged to complete a fruit crossword puzzle as a team.
ESL Lesson Plan: The Results
The students and I really enjoyed both lessons. It was fun and engaging just the way learning ought to be. Using the different prop items gave the classroom a real feeling as if we were in an actual restaurant, the dining room at home having dinner and at a fruit market.
I ensured I catered to the students learning by using visual aids, auditory aids and allowing them to role play in the different scenes. I incorporated different games and transitioned from different activities to keep students active and engaged at all times.
As a teacher, my ultimate goal is to ensure that effective teaching and learning is taking place in the classroom. Hence, the reason I try my best at all times to be creative, gather resources and put my thoughts and ideas. I ensure I manage my time wisely so that I have all the materials I need for the lesson to ensure an effective teaching and learning environment.
I love to see my students having fun while they learn. The more activities, the more engaged students tend to be. I am happy that I am able to pursue my teaching career and being able to impact the lives of my students in a positive way. Are you ready for an opportunity to Teach in China so you can do the same too? Get creative with your ESL Lesson Plans. Join us today.
Author: Kedesha Douglas | <urn:uuid:c797da8d-5700-4c9e-bae8-88e73c0e343a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sdeteacher.com/2020/01/01/esl-lesson-plan-dinner-time/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.982197 | 1,257 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.36308455467... | 13 | ESL Lesson Plan: Introduction
This weeks lesson for grade 2 was focused on the topic Dinner is ready. In the previous week I thought about how I would teach the lesson, then many thoughts came to mind. I designed my ESL lesson plan around these questions by implementing different games and activities.
The presentation for the lesson was aided with videos, props (plate, knife, fork, spoon, chopsticks), PowerPoint presentation and pictures. To summarize the content, I focused on a few things: Food and drink students like, utensils used when having dinner, types of food and drink for dinner and how to ask for a meal at a restaurant.
What do you like to eat/drink?
What is your favourite food/drink?
What’s for your dinner?
What would you like?
Tom and Jerry scene showing a sandwich
The lesson was introduced with a funny Tom and Jerry food moments video. I discovered that when a video is used in a lesson especially with characters such as Tom and Jerry or Peppa Pig students get really excited.
This is why whatever topic I am teaching I find a video that will link to the topic. I do this to ensure that while students are having fun they are learning at the same time. Students burst out into laughter while they watched the video.
At the end of the video they were able to share what were some of the food and drink they saw.
Student Centered environment
It was all about my students after I shared with them the foods and drink that I liked. I ensured the environment was prepared, guided my students and they were in control.
Firstly, I showed them pictures of different food and drink so that they could identify what they saw. I also made sure to cut the pictures of different food and drink items such as chicken, milk in the exact shape they were.
To review vocabulary, I played a guessing game with the students for them to guess what food was on the picture I held in my hand. Students were then able to share the different food and drink that they like.
To do this activity, I played the game train, train, go, go with the students so each student could share what food they like. I started with what I like by saying…I like chicken and cola. Each student then followed to say I like…Within 3 minutes the entire class was able to share what food and drink they like.
Guided question students responded to sharing what they like
The next part of the ESL lesson plan was to create a scene of a dining room at home. I ensured students identified the different food items that were on the dinner table. The students then played the role of a parent and a child asking what’s for dinner.
Students playing the role of parent and child to express what’s for dinner at home
Another activity I did was a scene of being in a restaurant. One student would pretend to be a waiter/waitress and the student who is seated around the table would be the guest in the restaurant ordering a meal.
The students were excited and all wanted to try this activity. After requesting their meal and being given by the waiter/waitress the students pretended to be having the meal by using their chopsticks, fork or spoon.
At the restaurant waiter Zee gives customer hamburger for dinner
Student using a fork to eat fish for dinner.
The lesson for grade 3 students was focused on purchasing fruit at the fruit market. The objectives of this lesson was for students to identify the different kind of fruits and learning how to express themselves when they need to purchase fruits from the fruit market.
What is your favourite fruit?
What fruit do you have?
How much are the apples/…?
A vendors table at the fruit market.
The students were informed a week before to bring a fruit to class. I printed pictures of 1 yuan, 5 yuan, 10 yuan, 20 yuan, 50 yuan, 100 yuan. This was done to give students a feeling as if they had real money to purchase fruits from the fruit market.
After identifying the different kinds of fruit that was at the market the students and I created our own pricelist. The students also worked in pairs to share what fruit they had brought to class for the lesson. Many students had apples, oranges and bananas.
To execute the lesson, students had to work in groups to ensure all could participate. After doing a demonstration with two students, the rest of the class was then prepared and ready to make their presentations of purchasing their own fruit at the market.
Class was even more fun after a few students engaged in different fruit eating challenges. The students were also able to share the different fruit they like and were also challenged to complete a fruit crossword puzzle as a team.
ESL Lesson Plan: The Results
The students and I really enjoyed both lessons. It was fun and engaging just the way learning ought to be. Using the different prop items gave the classroom a real feeling as if we were in an actual restaurant, the dining room at home having dinner and at a fruit market.
I ensured I catered to the students learning by using visual aids, auditory aids and allowing them to role play in the different scenes. I incorporated different games and transitioned from different activities to keep students active and engaged at all times.
As a teacher, my ultimate goal is to ensure that effective teaching and learning is taking place in the classroom. Hence, the reason I try my best at all times to be creative, gather resources and put my thoughts and ideas. I ensure I manage my time wisely so that I have all the materials I need for the lesson to ensure an effective teaching and learning environment.
I love to see my students having fun while they learn. The more activities, the more engaged students tend to be. I am happy that I am able to pursue my teaching career and being able to impact the lives of my students in a positive way. Are you ready for an opportunity to Teach in China so you can do the same too? Get creative with your ESL Lesson Plans. Join us today.
Author: Kedesha Douglas | 1,227 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Novel Term Paper on Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky The psychological novel by Dostoyevsky opens by describing an impoverished Raskolnokov’s predicament. He sets out to pawn his items to Alyona Ivanovna whom he plots to murder. The next day he receives a letter from his mother, telling him of their situation and of his sister’s engagement. Raskolnikov sees this as a sacrifice for him and he also remembers the daughter of the man he met in a tavern and it dawns on him how passive he was realizing that he has no work and merely lives in a decent home.
Soon afterwards, he falls asleep and dreams of watching a peasant beat an overburdened horse to death. When he awakes from his slumber, he then makes his first plot to murder Alyona Ivanovna. After over hearing that the pawnbroker’s sister will be away, he takes that as his cue to take his plans into actions. However, the murder itself did not turn out the way he planned it for Lizaveta, the sister of the pawnbroker unexpectedly arrives.
He ended up killing them both and was almost caught as two customers knock at the door; however, he still managed to escape, undetected. Torn between confessing his crime and resisting arrest, he then pays two visits to Sonya. During the first visit, he seeks the sympathy of the prostitute. The, he wonders how could she go on living despite her humiliating profession. Then he came to an answer that it might be religion. Thus, he asks her to read the Gospel and the story of Lazarus, the man who was restored from death to life.
In his second visit, he professes his crime to Sonya though not through words. In a scene that uncannily recalls the original murder of the pawnbroker and Lizaveta, Raskolnikov looks into Sonya’s eyes, and she reacts with the same terror he had seen on Lizaveta’s face. In an instant, she perceives his guilt. Instead of turning away from him and displaying disgust and horror, she embraces him and shows how much she understands her sufferings. Her selfless acceptance of his suffering gives Raskolnikov new strength.
He tells her that he committed the murder to find out whether he was someone special, someone with the right to step over conventional codes of behavior. He now asks her what to do. She tells him to go to the crossroads, kiss the earth, and make a public confession. God will then send him new life. Yet Raskolnikov is not ready to surrender, and he leaves her apartment in a renewed state of indecision. Unknown to Raskolnikov and Sonya, Svidrigailov was eavesdropping. He then blackmails them that if Sonya wouldn’t love him, he’d spill the beans about the crime of Raskolnikov.
Sonya tries to kill him but she fails and then Svidrigailov, realizing that he will never be loved by Sonya, he lets her go and spends the night in a cheap hotel where he dreams of his own internal corruption. When the morning comes, he shoots himself in front of a shocked watchman. The novel’s epilogue focuses on Raskolnikov’s experiences as a convict in Siberia. After recuperating from his illness, Raskolnikov walks to a riverbank and gazes at the landscape. Sonya appears at his side. Suddenly, Raskolnikov is seized with an entirely new sensation of love and compassion.
Both he and Sonya realize that something profound has occurred within his soul. Love has raised him from the dead, and he will become a new man. Dostoyevsky concludes his novel by stating that the story of Raskolnikov’s regeneration might be the subject of a new tale, but that the present one has ended. This literature masterpiece by Fyodor Dostoyevsky encompasses the dualities present in human behavior. The title of the novel speaks for this claim, which pertains to Raskolnikov himself as the ‘criminal’ and the ‘punisher’.
In this two main binary opposites pertained to Raskolnikov, there are also underlying pairs that still clings to his character. He is pertained to as a criminal, obviously for plotting and committing murder and taking the lives of two innocent people which is against the law. This action of Raskolnikov supports his idea that was written by himself. That article that he wrote expounds the idea that a few individuals may commit a crime if they think it is necessary to attain special goals.
Raskolnikov further explains this by starting by the idea that the world is divided into two – the masses and the elite. “The first group, that is the material, are, generally speaking, by nature staid and conservative, they live in obedience and like it. In my opinion they ought to obey because that is their destiny, and there is nothing at all degrading to them in it. The second group are all law-breakers and transgressors, or are inclined that way, in the measure of their capacities.
The aims of these people are, of course, relative and very diverse; for the most part they require, in widely different contexts, the destruction of what exists in the name of better things. But if it is necessary for one of them, for the fulfillment of his ideas, to march over corpses, or wade through blood, then in my opinion he may in all conscience authorize himself to wade through blood—in proportion, however, to his idea and the degree of its importance—mark that.
It is in that sense only that I speak in my article of their right to commit crime. ” He definitely thinks that Alyona Ivanova should be killed for she was being rather cold, stingy and inconsiderate to those who mostly need help. This can be seen when Raskolnikov himself was so immersed in poverty and in so much need of money to support himself and seeks Ivanovna to pawn his items. Arriving there, it is revealed to the readers that it was not the first time that he came to the woman fro the same reason.
Inconsiderate, cold and stingy she was, she refused to pawn the item of the Raskolnikov for the price that needs. This now shows the picture of the two groups of people stated by him. Ivanovna was one of those elites and he, being part of the masses. Seeing this act of Ivanovna as something cruel and selfish, he then thinks it necessary to take her life. In taking the life of Ivanovna, that’s when he becomes a criminal and at the same time a punisher. He is a criminal in a sense that he did something against the law made by the society.
But at the same time, it makes him a punisher because of the reason behind hi deed, which is to take the life of someone which he thinks is important to do so since she was rather being selfish and uncaring to the people who needs what she can give considerately and generously. Another binary opposite underlying is him being selfish and selfless. He is able to display compassion and selflessness when he went to a house of his friend, saw their rather impoverished predicament that they are in, which is not very different from his and felt compassion and sympathy for them.
Themes that are present in the novel are that of guilt and innocence and atonement and forgiveness which are closely related to each other. Dostoyevsky renders to his readers the idea that punishment is more than just being jailed and sentenced to prison. Punishment inherently comes from the awareness of one’s guilt. Whereas innocence is embodied by the character of Sonya; though she is a prostitute, there is no indication of any sexual and lustful inclination. She is doing her job out of necessity and not out of lust. For the theme of orgiveness and atonement, Raskolnikov paid for his crime done in two ways: he was sentenced to prison and then he was tortured by his guilt and conscience which is the real atonement for Dostoyevsky. Sonya again represents the theme of forgiveness as depicted in the novel that she still accepted and understood the sufferings of Raskolnikov and she did not turn away from him. She asked him to do the right thing – to confess his sins to God and then he’ll be forgiven. Symbols in the novel include the crucifix that was given to him by Sonia. The crucifix symbolizes his redemption.
It also means hope for him in the prison. The story of Lazarus that was also told to him by Sonya is figuratively parallel to the story of Raskolnikov, who is considered dead when he actually committed a crime in the form of alienation. However, Raskolnikov, like Lazarus, was brought back to life when he confessed his crime and took responsibility for it. Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky displays distinct characteristics of Russian Literature. It specifically shows that Russian literature is pessimistic, realistic and socially significant.
Pessimism is displayed through the gritty and gray description of St. Petersburg and of the impoverished state of the characters. Didactic extremism is also seen when Raskolnikov has to learn all his life’s lessons by making a terrible crime and which ends him up in prison. He also experienced a lot of torture from his guilty conscience to be able to admit his crime, which in the end was able to give him emotional liberty through the love he felt for Sonya. With these statements and claims, Crime and Punishment definitely shows Russian temperament and views about punishment, forgiveness and redemption. | <urn:uuid:762df0ac-8738-4f75-bac8-4c0c4de7456b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://indybedbugpros.com/crime-and-punishment-by-dostoyevsky-analysis-paper-5075/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.985997 | 2,050 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.211435794830322... | 2 | Novel Term Paper on Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky The psychological novel by Dostoyevsky opens by describing an impoverished Raskolnokov’s predicament. He sets out to pawn his items to Alyona Ivanovna whom he plots to murder. The next day he receives a letter from his mother, telling him of their situation and of his sister’s engagement. Raskolnikov sees this as a sacrifice for him and he also remembers the daughter of the man he met in a tavern and it dawns on him how passive he was realizing that he has no work and merely lives in a decent home.
Soon afterwards, he falls asleep and dreams of watching a peasant beat an overburdened horse to death. When he awakes from his slumber, he then makes his first plot to murder Alyona Ivanovna. After over hearing that the pawnbroker’s sister will be away, he takes that as his cue to take his plans into actions. However, the murder itself did not turn out the way he planned it for Lizaveta, the sister of the pawnbroker unexpectedly arrives.
He ended up killing them both and was almost caught as two customers knock at the door; however, he still managed to escape, undetected. Torn between confessing his crime and resisting arrest, he then pays two visits to Sonya. During the first visit, he seeks the sympathy of the prostitute. The, he wonders how could she go on living despite her humiliating profession. Then he came to an answer that it might be religion. Thus, he asks her to read the Gospel and the story of Lazarus, the man who was restored from death to life.
In his second visit, he professes his crime to Sonya though not through words. In a scene that uncannily recalls the original murder of the pawnbroker and Lizaveta, Raskolnikov looks into Sonya’s eyes, and she reacts with the same terror he had seen on Lizaveta’s face. In an instant, she perceives his guilt. Instead of turning away from him and displaying disgust and horror, she embraces him and shows how much she understands her sufferings. Her selfless acceptance of his suffering gives Raskolnikov new strength.
He tells her that he committed the murder to find out whether he was someone special, someone with the right to step over conventional codes of behavior. He now asks her what to do. She tells him to go to the crossroads, kiss the earth, and make a public confession. God will then send him new life. Yet Raskolnikov is not ready to surrender, and he leaves her apartment in a renewed state of indecision. Unknown to Raskolnikov and Sonya, Svidrigailov was eavesdropping. He then blackmails them that if Sonya wouldn’t love him, he’d spill the beans about the crime of Raskolnikov.
Sonya tries to kill him but she fails and then Svidrigailov, realizing that he will never be loved by Sonya, he lets her go and spends the night in a cheap hotel where he dreams of his own internal corruption. When the morning comes, he shoots himself in front of a shocked watchman. The novel’s epilogue focuses on Raskolnikov’s experiences as a convict in Siberia. After recuperating from his illness, Raskolnikov walks to a riverbank and gazes at the landscape. Sonya appears at his side. Suddenly, Raskolnikov is seized with an entirely new sensation of love and compassion.
Both he and Sonya realize that something profound has occurred within his soul. Love has raised him from the dead, and he will become a new man. Dostoyevsky concludes his novel by stating that the story of Raskolnikov’s regeneration might be the subject of a new tale, but that the present one has ended. This literature masterpiece by Fyodor Dostoyevsky encompasses the dualities present in human behavior. The title of the novel speaks for this claim, which pertains to Raskolnikov himself as the ‘criminal’ and the ‘punisher’.
In this two main binary opposites pertained to Raskolnikov, there are also underlying pairs that still clings to his character. He is pertained to as a criminal, obviously for plotting and committing murder and taking the lives of two innocent people which is against the law. This action of Raskolnikov supports his idea that was written by himself. That article that he wrote expounds the idea that a few individuals may commit a crime if they think it is necessary to attain special goals.
Raskolnikov further explains this by starting by the idea that the world is divided into two – the masses and the elite. “The first group, that is the material, are, generally speaking, by nature staid and conservative, they live in obedience and like it. In my opinion they ought to obey because that is their destiny, and there is nothing at all degrading to them in it. The second group are all law-breakers and transgressors, or are inclined that way, in the measure of their capacities.
The aims of these people are, of course, relative and very diverse; for the most part they require, in widely different contexts, the destruction of what exists in the name of better things. But if it is necessary for one of them, for the fulfillment of his ideas, to march over corpses, or wade through blood, then in my opinion he may in all conscience authorize himself to wade through blood—in proportion, however, to his idea and the degree of its importance—mark that.
It is in that sense only that I speak in my article of their right to commit crime. ” He definitely thinks that Alyona Ivanova should be killed for she was being rather cold, stingy and inconsiderate to those who mostly need help. This can be seen when Raskolnikov himself was so immersed in poverty and in so much need of money to support himself and seeks Ivanovna to pawn his items. Arriving there, it is revealed to the readers that it was not the first time that he came to the woman fro the same reason.
Inconsiderate, cold and stingy she was, she refused to pawn the item of the Raskolnikov for the price that needs. This now shows the picture of the two groups of people stated by him. Ivanovna was one of those elites and he, being part of the masses. Seeing this act of Ivanovna as something cruel and selfish, he then thinks it necessary to take her life. In taking the life of Ivanovna, that’s when he becomes a criminal and at the same time a punisher. He is a criminal in a sense that he did something against the law made by the society.
But at the same time, it makes him a punisher because of the reason behind hi deed, which is to take the life of someone which he thinks is important to do so since she was rather being selfish and uncaring to the people who needs what she can give considerately and generously. Another binary opposite underlying is him being selfish and selfless. He is able to display compassion and selflessness when he went to a house of his friend, saw their rather impoverished predicament that they are in, which is not very different from his and felt compassion and sympathy for them.
Themes that are present in the novel are that of guilt and innocence and atonement and forgiveness which are closely related to each other. Dostoyevsky renders to his readers the idea that punishment is more than just being jailed and sentenced to prison. Punishment inherently comes from the awareness of one’s guilt. Whereas innocence is embodied by the character of Sonya; though she is a prostitute, there is no indication of any sexual and lustful inclination. She is doing her job out of necessity and not out of lust. For the theme of orgiveness and atonement, Raskolnikov paid for his crime done in two ways: he was sentenced to prison and then he was tortured by his guilt and conscience which is the real atonement for Dostoyevsky. Sonya again represents the theme of forgiveness as depicted in the novel that she still accepted and understood the sufferings of Raskolnikov and she did not turn away from him. She asked him to do the right thing – to confess his sins to God and then he’ll be forgiven. Symbols in the novel include the crucifix that was given to him by Sonia. The crucifix symbolizes his redemption.
It also means hope for him in the prison. The story of Lazarus that was also told to him by Sonya is figuratively parallel to the story of Raskolnikov, who is considered dead when he actually committed a crime in the form of alienation. However, Raskolnikov, like Lazarus, was brought back to life when he confessed his crime and took responsibility for it. Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky displays distinct characteristics of Russian Literature. It specifically shows that Russian literature is pessimistic, realistic and socially significant.
Pessimism is displayed through the gritty and gray description of St. Petersburg and of the impoverished state of the characters. Didactic extremism is also seen when Raskolnikov has to learn all his life’s lessons by making a terrible crime and which ends him up in prison. He also experienced a lot of torture from his guilty conscience to be able to admit his crime, which in the end was able to give him emotional liberty through the love he felt for Sonya. With these statements and claims, Crime and Punishment definitely shows Russian temperament and views about punishment, forgiveness and redemption. | 2,013 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Look at what we do in Year 2
The children have thoroughly enjoyed learning facts about the Titanic this half term. They have asked really insightful questions throughout the topic and their home learning projects were fantastic! They have enjoyed acting out being crew members on board the Titanic in their class role play areas; thinking about who was to blame for the sinking of the ship and learning about 1st, 2nd and 3rd class passengers.
To help bring the topic to life, the year 2 children visited the Sea City Music. They were able to dress up as a passenger on the Titanic, steer the ship, become a crew member and look at real artefacts.
We also had a dress up day, where the children imagined they were on board the Titanic and took part in various activities during the morning.
In Fox class the children were partnered up and they took part in a waltz dance class and had a ‘Strictly ball room’ dance off.
In Badger class the children were invited into the first class dining hall where they learnt how to serve the food and imagine what it was like to be a first class passenger.
In Woodpecker class the children created brilliant artwork based on looking out of a porthole.
LET IT GROW
As part of our Geography unit, 90 curious children made their way to Southampton Common to explore and find out about local human and physical features and to map out part of this area.
The children had a go at using a key and symbols on their maps.
We also looked at things on the Common that were ‘living’, ‘had once lived’ and things that ‘had never lived’ as we had been learning about this in Science. We made our way through the trees and bushes and discussed what we could see, feel, hear and smell. This gave us some great ideas for our story writing in English.
Back at school, we used this information to help write our own stories of Jack and the Beanstalk. We also wrote instructions on how to trap the giant. We learnt about command sentences and used imperative verbs and time
connectives in our writing.
In Science, we had a great time growing seeds and bulbs and carrying out experiments on them. We found out about what plants need to grow and compared how plants grow. We wrote instructions on how to plant our very own seed, too.
We enjoyed learning songs all about Jack and the Beanstalk and we loved performing them with all of our grown-ups on our dress up day, where we came dressed in all things plants. | <urn:uuid:3b7b49eb-c455-40c8-aa39-813e21fdf2b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shirleyinfantschool.org.uk/page/?title=Year+2&pid=126 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.987526 | 532 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.164007335... | 2 | Look at what we do in Year 2
The children have thoroughly enjoyed learning facts about the Titanic this half term. They have asked really insightful questions throughout the topic and their home learning projects were fantastic! They have enjoyed acting out being crew members on board the Titanic in their class role play areas; thinking about who was to blame for the sinking of the ship and learning about 1st, 2nd and 3rd class passengers.
To help bring the topic to life, the year 2 children visited the Sea City Music. They were able to dress up as a passenger on the Titanic, steer the ship, become a crew member and look at real artefacts.
We also had a dress up day, where the children imagined they were on board the Titanic and took part in various activities during the morning.
In Fox class the children were partnered up and they took part in a waltz dance class and had a ‘Strictly ball room’ dance off.
In Badger class the children were invited into the first class dining hall where they learnt how to serve the food and imagine what it was like to be a first class passenger.
In Woodpecker class the children created brilliant artwork based on looking out of a porthole.
LET IT GROW
As part of our Geography unit, 90 curious children made their way to Southampton Common to explore and find out about local human and physical features and to map out part of this area.
The children had a go at using a key and symbols on their maps.
We also looked at things on the Common that were ‘living’, ‘had once lived’ and things that ‘had never lived’ as we had been learning about this in Science. We made our way through the trees and bushes and discussed what we could see, feel, hear and smell. This gave us some great ideas for our story writing in English.
Back at school, we used this information to help write our own stories of Jack and the Beanstalk. We also wrote instructions on how to trap the giant. We learnt about command sentences and used imperative verbs and time
connectives in our writing.
In Science, we had a great time growing seeds and bulbs and carrying out experiments on them. We found out about what plants need to grow and compared how plants grow. We wrote instructions on how to plant our very own seed, too.
We enjoyed learning songs all about Jack and the Beanstalk and we loved performing them with all of our grown-ups on our dress up day, where we came dressed in all things plants. | 514 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many of us can remember playing childhood games when we were younger. One of my personal favorites was hide and seek. My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Of course I could have been caught, but it wasn’t a big deal at the time. What would happen though if the seeker didn’t know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding? How would he go about finding the person? Further more how much more could the person accomplish if they were hiding right in front of them, but the seeker did not know? Well it may sound a little off, but that was basically the game of espionage. Spies would try to conceal themselves by gathering information at the same time. During times of war it was critical to keep your movements, plans, and technology secret so that enemies could not be prepared or be one-step ahead. Therefore spies would be a very influential on outcomes of wars. One of the wars that the USA needed espionage help was in WWII. Not only did they need to get information but have counter intelligence to keep secrets away from Germany and their allies. Espionage helped the US during WWII in the defeat of Germany and their allies.
Spies during WWII were intended to provide the basis for an accurate assessment of other nations’ intentions and military capabilities. Richelson, 103 In such a war a successful surprise attack could leave a victim staggered and ready for a knockout blow. 103 That meant it was critical for the USA to stop espionage from telling their moves and having their spies tell them about the planned attacks of the Axis Powers. This would help the USA to pull off critical assaults on Germany such as D-Day. But before the beginning of the end of the war came many other obstacles to be overcome by the US. At the beginning of the war all the major combatants had a place in code breaking establishments, all of which would experience explosive growth during the war. 173 These agencies would then go on to provide critical information during the war to provide information needed to combat the Axis.
One of the most important needs for espionage was in the deciphering of the ENIGMA. 176 This was used to code and decode German messages sent and received between commanders and such. 176 It was very hard to decipher the ENIGMA because of the way it was set up. 176 What made it so difficult to decipher was the process by which a letter in an original message was transformed into a different one for the transmitted message. 176 The process involved, among other things, three motors in each machine that were chosen from a set of five. 176 Each of them had twenty-six settings, and a plugboard, which connected the keyboard letters to the lampboard letters. 176 For example the first time the L key was pressed a B might light up, but because the rotors turned further entries of L on the board would not produce another B but rather other letters. 176 US intelligence along with help from other countries was eventually able to make a duplicate machine that would help them in decoding messages. 177 Without help from espionage in this instance the US and their allies would be susceptible to unknown attacks and movements of armies without having a chance to prepare for it. Here to the use of American Espionage was evident in the fight against its oppressors. Without proper deciphering of messages the battles could have been altered for the side of the Axis.
One particular instance in which the US used intelligence to gain an advantage when going to be attacked was the battle of Midway. The US intercepted an encrypted message from a Japanese Admiral and revealed the date in which the attacks were scheduled. O’Toole, 388 Therefore the US was able to have a task force waiting for the Japanese when they arrived. 389 It was said that Midway marked the turning point of the war for the pacific. 389 Again the | <urn:uuid:fa56d3e1-9b7b-40a8-b757-87cb5f62eb6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/espionage-in-wwii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.985852 | 792 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.20216751098632... | 1 | Many of us can remember playing childhood games when we were younger. One of my personal favorites was hide and seek. My favorite part of the game was when I was hiding and tried to watch where the seeker looked while he or she searched. Of course I could have been caught, but it wasn’t a big deal at the time. What would happen though if the seeker didn’t know who he was looking for, but knew someone was hiding? How would he go about finding the person? Further more how much more could the person accomplish if they were hiding right in front of them, but the seeker did not know? Well it may sound a little off, but that was basically the game of espionage. Spies would try to conceal themselves by gathering information at the same time. During times of war it was critical to keep your movements, plans, and technology secret so that enemies could not be prepared or be one-step ahead. Therefore spies would be a very influential on outcomes of wars. One of the wars that the USA needed espionage help was in WWII. Not only did they need to get information but have counter intelligence to keep secrets away from Germany and their allies. Espionage helped the US during WWII in the defeat of Germany and their allies.
Spies during WWII were intended to provide the basis for an accurate assessment of other nations’ intentions and military capabilities. Richelson, 103 In such a war a successful surprise attack could leave a victim staggered and ready for a knockout blow. 103 That meant it was critical for the USA to stop espionage from telling their moves and having their spies tell them about the planned attacks of the Axis Powers. This would help the USA to pull off critical assaults on Germany such as D-Day. But before the beginning of the end of the war came many other obstacles to be overcome by the US. At the beginning of the war all the major combatants had a place in code breaking establishments, all of which would experience explosive growth during the war. 173 These agencies would then go on to provide critical information during the war to provide information needed to combat the Axis.
One of the most important needs for espionage was in the deciphering of the ENIGMA. 176 This was used to code and decode German messages sent and received between commanders and such. 176 It was very hard to decipher the ENIGMA because of the way it was set up. 176 What made it so difficult to decipher was the process by which a letter in an original message was transformed into a different one for the transmitted message. 176 The process involved, among other things, three motors in each machine that were chosen from a set of five. 176 Each of them had twenty-six settings, and a plugboard, which connected the keyboard letters to the lampboard letters. 176 For example the first time the L key was pressed a B might light up, but because the rotors turned further entries of L on the board would not produce another B but rather other letters. 176 US intelligence along with help from other countries was eventually able to make a duplicate machine that would help them in decoding messages. 177 Without help from espionage in this instance the US and their allies would be susceptible to unknown attacks and movements of armies without having a chance to prepare for it. Here to the use of American Espionage was evident in the fight against its oppressors. Without proper deciphering of messages the battles could have been altered for the side of the Axis.
One particular instance in which the US used intelligence to gain an advantage when going to be attacked was the battle of Midway. The US intercepted an encrypted message from a Japanese Admiral and revealed the date in which the attacks were scheduled. O’Toole, 388 Therefore the US was able to have a task force waiting for the Japanese when they arrived. 389 It was said that Midway marked the turning point of the war for the pacific. 389 Again the | 823 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the Corps entered the Great Plains, new animals previously unknown such as the coyote and antelope were recorded for the first time. In addition, it was in South Dakota where Lewis and Clark first recorded large herds of buffalo that came to symbolize the Great Plains.
Tension with the Teton Sioux
As the Corps sailed north, they met up with the Teton Sioux Indians near present-day Pierre, South Dakota. The Teton Sioux had previously been documented as powerful and aggressive by French fur-traders and often required payments or tributes to traders or other native groups for safe passage up the river. When the Corps first encountered the Teton Sioux, they attempted to demonstrate power and might by firing one of their air guns and parading in uniform. The Teton Sioux, however, were neither frightened nor impressed, and demanded one of Corps' boats as a toll for moving farther upriver. A fight nearly ensued, but was defused by the diplomacy of a chief named Black Buffalo after the Corps of Discovery offered tobacco as a tribute. For three more anxious days, the expedition stayed with the tribe, where there were celebrations, misunderstandings, and an overall lack of communication, as neither side properly understood the other. During this time, William Clark took detailed notes about the Teton Sioux, remarking that they were generally thin and ill-looking in appearance. He also took notes describing a "scalp dance" performed by the tribe after a war victory over the rival Omahas.
Did You Know?
The Corps of Discovery recorded over 300 different kinds of plants and animals for the first time, like this Western Meadowlark. | <urn:uuid:972c09be-f362-4e76-a8e3-518933738662> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/part-3-lewis-and-clark-in-depth-teton-sioux-territory | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.981362 | 336 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.0443087890... | 1 | As the Corps entered the Great Plains, new animals previously unknown such as the coyote and antelope were recorded for the first time. In addition, it was in South Dakota where Lewis and Clark first recorded large herds of buffalo that came to symbolize the Great Plains.
Tension with the Teton Sioux
As the Corps sailed north, they met up with the Teton Sioux Indians near present-day Pierre, South Dakota. The Teton Sioux had previously been documented as powerful and aggressive by French fur-traders and often required payments or tributes to traders or other native groups for safe passage up the river. When the Corps first encountered the Teton Sioux, they attempted to demonstrate power and might by firing one of their air guns and parading in uniform. The Teton Sioux, however, were neither frightened nor impressed, and demanded one of Corps' boats as a toll for moving farther upriver. A fight nearly ensued, but was defused by the diplomacy of a chief named Black Buffalo after the Corps of Discovery offered tobacco as a tribute. For three more anxious days, the expedition stayed with the tribe, where there were celebrations, misunderstandings, and an overall lack of communication, as neither side properly understood the other. During this time, William Clark took detailed notes about the Teton Sioux, remarking that they were generally thin and ill-looking in appearance. He also took notes describing a "scalp dance" performed by the tribe after a war victory over the rival Omahas.
Did You Know?
The Corps of Discovery recorded over 300 different kinds of plants and animals for the first time, like this Western Meadowlark. | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Up to 80% of New Zealand’s Māori population lived in the region anthropologists call Iwitini (many people), the northern North Island and the island’s coastal regions as far south as Whanganui on the western side and southern Hawke’s Bay on the east.
Polynesian horticulture was most successful in this area. Polynesian cultigens were kūmara, taro, uwhi (yam), hue (bottle gourd), aute (paper mulberry) and tī pore (cabbage tree). The kūmara grew best in this region, and was the principal food crop cultivated. Except in some small areas with ideal microclimates, taro would not grow outside of the region.
The importance of horticulture to Māori is illustrated by the fact that this region had 98% of all pā, which were often erected to protect fertile lands and crops.
The kūmara harvest was a time for feasting. Kūmara damaged when they were dug up were eaten, and the birds in the forest were fat. This coincided with the rise of Matariki in the dawn sky and the Māori new year. People had a saying ‘Matariki ahunga nui’ – Matariki provider of plentiful food.
Polynesian horticulture went hand in hand with bush-burning. Large tracts of land in the region, particularly coastal land, was cleared of forest. Coastal strips were cleared from Whanganui through to Taranaki, in Hawke's Bay and on the East Coast. Much of coastal Bay of Plenty, the Coromandel and Auckland had significant bush clearance, together with large areas of Northland.
Resources from the sea
Most of the population within the region lived on or near the coast. There were numerous harbours and estuaries rich in fish and shellfish, as well as fertile land for horticulture, and access to the sea for transport.
Land around Te Mānuka (Manukau Harbour) was highly sought after. The large harbour had portages to the Pacific and the Waikato River and was valued as a fishing ground for snapper, flounder and mullet, and for shellfish. Many kāinga (villages) were found on its shores and pā were erected on most of the volcanic cones nearby.
The Whanganui-a-Orotu was also a valued harbour in Hawke's Bay. Its abundance of resources meant the large population, possibly numbering in the thousands, lived near the harbour.
Stone resources were heavily traded throughout the country and land near major stone sources was valued.
The Coromandel provided good access to obsidian, basalt and chert. Obsidian was also found on nearby Aotea (Great Barrier Island), in the far north, and on Tūhua (Mayor Island) in the Bay of Plenty. Chert was also found on the East Coast. Other stone resources such as pounamu (greenstone) were only available through trading.
Kauri for large waka (canoes) was available within the region, though its southern limits were Kāwhia in the west to Tauranga in the east. Tōtara was also used for building. | <urn:uuid:ded9c7fd-5693-483e-8221-0788efccada5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-ohanga-onamata-a-rohe-economic-regions/page-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.98242 | 695 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.663086056709... | 6 | Up to 80% of New Zealand’s Māori population lived in the region anthropologists call Iwitini (many people), the northern North Island and the island’s coastal regions as far south as Whanganui on the western side and southern Hawke’s Bay on the east.
Polynesian horticulture was most successful in this area. Polynesian cultigens were kūmara, taro, uwhi (yam), hue (bottle gourd), aute (paper mulberry) and tī pore (cabbage tree). The kūmara grew best in this region, and was the principal food crop cultivated. Except in some small areas with ideal microclimates, taro would not grow outside of the region.
The importance of horticulture to Māori is illustrated by the fact that this region had 98% of all pā, which were often erected to protect fertile lands and crops.
The kūmara harvest was a time for feasting. Kūmara damaged when they were dug up were eaten, and the birds in the forest were fat. This coincided with the rise of Matariki in the dawn sky and the Māori new year. People had a saying ‘Matariki ahunga nui’ – Matariki provider of plentiful food.
Polynesian horticulture went hand in hand with bush-burning. Large tracts of land in the region, particularly coastal land, was cleared of forest. Coastal strips were cleared from Whanganui through to Taranaki, in Hawke's Bay and on the East Coast. Much of coastal Bay of Plenty, the Coromandel and Auckland had significant bush clearance, together with large areas of Northland.
Resources from the sea
Most of the population within the region lived on or near the coast. There were numerous harbours and estuaries rich in fish and shellfish, as well as fertile land for horticulture, and access to the sea for transport.
Land around Te Mānuka (Manukau Harbour) was highly sought after. The large harbour had portages to the Pacific and the Waikato River and was valued as a fishing ground for snapper, flounder and mullet, and for shellfish. Many kāinga (villages) were found on its shores and pā were erected on most of the volcanic cones nearby.
The Whanganui-a-Orotu was also a valued harbour in Hawke's Bay. Its abundance of resources meant the large population, possibly numbering in the thousands, lived near the harbour.
Stone resources were heavily traded throughout the country and land near major stone sources was valued.
The Coromandel provided good access to obsidian, basalt and chert. Obsidian was also found on nearby Aotea (Great Barrier Island), in the far north, and on Tūhua (Mayor Island) in the Bay of Plenty. Chert was also found on the East Coast. Other stone resources such as pounamu (greenstone) were only available through trading.
Kauri for large waka (canoes) was available within the region, though its southern limits were Kāwhia in the west to Tauranga in the east. Tōtara was also used for building. | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rome now dominated southern and central Italy, including Etruria and the Greek cities. Northern Italy, of course, remained largely occupied by the Gauls, and the Gauls remained a menace. The process by which Rome had developed from a small military outpost on a river-crossing to become the dominant power of the Italian peninsula had been by no means swift or continuous. It had taken the greater part of five centuries, and during that time Rome itself had twice been occupied by a foreign power.
According to traditional stories, the last of Rome’s kings, Tarquinius Superbus, an Etruscan, had been expelled late in the sixth century BC after his son had villainously raped the wife of a noble kinsman. Etruscan armies under Lars Porsenna had attempted to restore Tarquinius but had been thwarted by the heroism of Horatius who, with two comrades, defended the Tiber crossing against them until the demolition of the bridge was completed. The Latin cities to the south had then combined to replace the exiled monarch on his throne, but had been defeated by the Romans at the battle of Lake Regillus (where the Romans were assisted by the gods according to the legend!).
Illustrated Etruscan tomb inscriptions, taken in conjunction with the existing legends, suggest that the underlying historical facts were very different. It is clear that Porsenna was not the friend but the mortal enemy of Tarquinius, his fellow Etruscan. He probably conspired with aristocratic, partly Etruscan elements in Rome to precipitate Tarquinius’ downfall, and then himself occupied Rome. He certainly advanced south of Rome, to fight the Latins and their Greek allies of Cumae – where according to one story Tarquinius ultimately took refuge. When the Etruscans were defeated by the Latin League at Aricia (as described by Livy), their fugitives were received and protected in Rome. Moreover, Livy stresses the friendship of Porsenna towards the Romans and his chivalrous respect for their way of life. One would guess that Rome had accepted the position of subject ally to Etruria. The Roman population, despite its Etruscan overlordship, was of course Latin; their Etruscan allegiances brought them into conflict with the other Latin cities, who were allied to the Greek maritime states – Etruria’s commercial rivals.
At Rome, Latin patriotic sentiment may have accepted Etruscan kings and welcomed their leadership against Etruria itself, just as English patriotic feeling in the Middle Ages accepted French-speaking Plantagenet kings as leaders against the French. The early Roman historians, however, did not like to contemplate their city as a mere catspaw in Etruscan dynastic politics, let alone a puppet state to be employed against their Latin brothers. Consequently, these chroniclers substituted history of their own invention, assigning fictional roles to historic characters.
As the strength of Etruria diminished, Rome asserted its authority over both the Etruscans and the Latins, but at the beginning of the fourth century BC the city was overwhelmed, after the disastrous battle of the Allia, by a vast horde of Gallic raiders. The Romans retreated into their citadel on the Capitoline Mount; they eventually bought off the Gauls, whose immediate interest was in moveables and not in land. Roman history records that the great Camillus, Rome’s exiled war leader, was recalled to speed the parting Gauls with military action, but this thinly veils the fact that the Gauls departed of their own accord, having obtained what they wanted. Livy blames Roman decadence and impiety for the disaster, but the Romans must in any case have been vanquished by sheer weight of numbers. Apart from that, they were never at their best when dealing with a strange foe whose weapons and methods of warfare were new to them.
Roman military history is chequered by catastrophes. Few great empires can have sustained more major disasters during the period of their growth. Nobody would deny that the Romans were a formidable military nation; yet the genius which enabled them eventually to dominate the ancient world was as much political as military. Their great political instrument was their concept of citizenship. Citizenship was not simply a status which one did or did not possess. It was an aggregate of rights, duties and honours, which could be acquired separately and conferred by instalments. Such were the rights of making legal contracts and marriages. From both of these the right to a political vote was again separable; nor did the right to vote necessarily imply the right to hold office. Conquered enemies were thus often reconciled by a grant of partial citizenship, with the possibility of more to come if behaviour justified it. Some cities enjoyed Roman citizenship without the vote, being autonomous except in matters of foreign policy. Even the citizens of such communities, however, might qualify for full Roman citizenship if they migrated to Rome; where this right was not available, citizenship could be obtained by those who achieved public distinction in their own communities.
■ The Roman Army in Early Times
Citizenship, of course, implied a military as well as a political status. For the duties which it imposed were, above all, military. The Latin and other Italian allies, who enjoyed some intermediate degree of citizenship, were in principle required to supply an aggregate of fighting men equal to that levied by the Romans themselves. In practice, the Romans relied on their Italian allies particularly for cavalry: an arm in which they themselves were notoriously weak. The Greek cities did not normally contribute military contingents, but supplied ships and rowers. They were known as “naval allies” (socii navales) because of this function.
Any army whose technical resources are comprised by hand-arms, armour and horses, will, at all events in the early years of its development, reflect an underlying social order. Combatants who can afford horses and armour will naturally be drawn from the aristocracy. Others will have little armour and less sophisticated, if not fewer, weapons. This was true of Greek armies and also of medieval armies. It was certainly true of the Romans, whose military class differentiation was defined with unusual care and with great attention to detail. The resulting classification is associated with the military and administrative reorganization of Servius Tullius, traditionally sixth and penultimate king of Rome. His name suggests a sixth-century date for the reforms in question, though some scholars think that the so-called Servian organization was introduced later than this.
The “Servian” infantry was divided into five property classes, the wealthiest of which was armed with swords and spears and protected by helmets, round shields, greaves and breastplates. All protective armour was of bronze. In the second class, no breastplate was worn, but a long shield was substituted for the round buckler. The third class was as the second, but wore no greaves. The fourth class was equipped only with spears and javelins; the fifth was composed of slingers. There is no reference to archers. The poorest citizens were not expected to serve except in times of emergency, when they were equipped by the state. However, they normally supplied artisans to maintain siege engines and perform similar duties.
The army was also divided into centuries (i.e., “hundreds”), as the citizens were for voting purposes. However, a century soon came to contain 60, not 100 men. The first property class comprised 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth class had 20 centuries apiece; the fifth class had 30. A distinction was made between junior and senior centuries, the former containing young men for front-line action, the latter older men, more suitable for garrison duty. A single property class was equally divided between the two age groups.
The cavalry was recruited from the wealthiest families to form 18 centuries. A cavalry century received a grant for the purchase of its horses and one-fifth of this amount yearly for their upkeep. The yearly grant was apparently provided by a levy on spinsters! In general, the financial burden of warfare was shifted from the poor on to the rich. For this imposition, the rich were compensated by what amounted to a monopoly of the political suffrage. Inevitably, it was felt in time that they were overcompensated, but that is a matter which must not detain us here.
During the early epochs of Roman history, as archaeological evidence indicates, Greek hoplite armour was widely imitated throughout the Mediterranean area. Italy was no exception to this rule and, as Livy’s description suggests, Rome was no exception in Italy. Greek weapons called for Greek skill in their use, and this in turn assumed Greek tactical methods. The Romans were in contact with Greek practice, both through their Etruscan northern neighbours, who as a maritime people were more susceptible to overseas influences, and through direct contact with Greek cities in Italy, notably Cumae. The Roman army, as recruited on the Servian basis, must have fought as a hoplite phalanx, in a compact mass, several ranks deep, using their weight behind their shields as well as their long thrusting spears. The light troops afforded by the fourth and fifth infantry classes will have provided a skirmishing arm, and the cavalry held the wings on either side of the phalanx. There were also two centuries of artificers (fabri) attached to the centuries of the first class, and two of musicians (made up of hornblowers and trumpeters).
■ The Military Reforms of Camillus
The next great landmark in Roman military organization is associated with the achievements of Camillus. Camillus, credited with having saved Rome from the Gauls and remembered as a “second founder” of Rome, was a revered national hero. His name became a legend, and legends accumulated round it. At the same time, he was unquestionably a historical character. We need not believe that his timely return to Rome during the Gallic occupation deprived the Gauls of their indemnity money, which was at that very moment being weighed out in gold. But his capture of the Etruscan city of Veii is historical, and he may here have made use of mining operations such as Livy describes. Similarly, the military changes attributed to him may in part, if not entirety, be due to his initiative.
Soon after the withdrawal of the Gauls from Rome, the tactical formation adopted by the Roman army underwent a radical change. In the Servian army, the smallest unit had been the century. It was an administrative rather than a tactical unit, based on political and economic rather than military considerations. The largest unit was the legion of about 4,000 infantrymen. There were 60 centuries in a legion and, from the time of Camillus, these centuries were combined in couples, each couple being known as a maniple (manipulus). The maniple was a tactical unit. Under the new system, the Roman army was drawn up for battle in three lines, one behind the other. The maniples of each line were stationed at intervals. If the front line was forced to retreat, or if its maniples were threatened with encirclement, they could fall back into the intervals in the line immediately to their rear. In the same way, the rear lines could easily advance, when necessary, to support those in front. The positions of the middle-line maniples corresponded to intervals in the front and rear lines, thus producing a series of quincunx formations. The two constituent centuries of a maniple were each commanded by a centurion, known respectively as the forward (prior) and rear (posterior) centurion. These titles may have been dictated by later tactical developments, or they may simply have marked a difference of rank between the two officers.
The three battle lines of Camillus’ army were termed, in order from front to rear, hastati, principes and triarii. Hastati meant “spearmen”; principes, “leaders”; and triarii, the only term which was consistent with known practice, meant simply “third-liners”. In historical accounts, the hastati were not armed with spears and the principes were not the leading rank, since the hastati were in front of them. The names obviously reflect the usage of an earlier date. In the fourth century BC the two front ranks carried heavy javelins, which they discharged at the enemy on joining battle. After this, fighting was carried on with swords. The triarii alone retained the old thrusting spear (hasta). The heavy javelin of the hastati and principes was the pilum. It comprised a wooden shaft, about 4.5 feet (1.4m) long, and a lancelike, iron head of about the same length as the shaft; which fitted into the wood so far as to give an overall length of something less than 7 feet (2.1m). The Romans may have copied the pilum from their Etruscan or Samnite enemies; or they may have developed it from a more primitive weapon of their own. The sword used was the gladius, a short cut-and-thrust type, probably forged on Spanish models. A large oval shield (scutum), about 4 feet (1.2m) long, was in general use in the maniple formation. It was made of hide on a wooden base, with iron rim and boss.
It has been suggested that the new tactical formation was closely connected with the introduction of the new weapons. The fact that the front rank was called hastati seems to indicate that the hasta, or thrusting spear, was not abandoned until after the new formation had been adopted. Indeed, cause and effect may have stood in circular relationship. The open formation could have favoured new weapons which, once widely adopted, forbade the use of any other formation. At all events, there must have been more elbow room for aiming a javelin.
Apart from these considerations, open-order fighting was characteristic of Greek fourth-century warfare. Xenophon’s men had opened ranks to let the enemy’s scythe-wheel chariots pass harmlessly through. Agesilaus used similar tactics at Coronea. Camillus was aware of the Greek world – and the Greek world was aware of him. He dedicated a golden bowl to Apollo at Delphi and Greek fourth-century writers refer to him. It is at least possible that the new Roman tactical formation was based on Greek precedents, as the old one had been.
■ Officers and Other Ranks
The epoch of Camillus also saw the first regular payments for military service. The amount of pay, at the time of its introduction, is not recorded. To judge from the enthusiasm to which it gave rise and to the difficulty experienced in levying taxes to provide for it, the sum was substantial. It was a first step towards removing the differences among property classes and standardizing the equipment of the legionary soldier. For tactical purposes, of course, some differences were bound to exist: for instance, in the lighter equipment of the velites. But the removal of the property classes produced an essential change in the Roman army, such as the Greek citizen army had never known. The Athenian hoplites had always remained a social class, and hoplite warfare was their distinctive function. The Spartan hoplites had been an élite of peers, every one of them, as Thucydides remarks, in effect an officer.
At Rome, however, the centuries of which the legions were composed were conspicuously and efficiently led by centurions, men who commanded as a result of their proven merit. The Roman army, in fact, developed a system of leadership such as is familiar today – a system of officers and other ranks. Centurions were comparable to warrant officers, promoted for their performance on the field and in the camp. The military tribunes, like their commanding officers, the consuls and praetors, were at any rate originally appointed to carry out the policies of the Roman state, and they were usually drawn from the upper, politically influential classes.
Six military tribunes were chosen for each legion, and the choice was at first always made by a consul or praetor, who in normal times would have commanded two out of the four legions levied; as colleagues, the consuls shared the army between them. Later, the appointment of 24 military tribunes for the levy of four legions was made not by the consuls but by an assembly of the people. If, however, additional legions were levied, then the tribunes appointed to them were consular nominations. Tribunes appointed by the people held office for one year. Those nominated by a military commander retained their appointment for as long as he did.
Military tribunes were at first senior officers and were required to have several years of military experience prior to appointment. In practice, however, they were often young men, whose very age often precluded them from having had such experience. They were appointed because they came from rich and influential families and they thus had much in common with the subalterns of fashionable regiments in latter-day armies. Originally, an important part of the military tribune’s duties had been in connection with the levy of troops. In normal times, a levy was held once a year. Recruits were required to assemble by tribes (a local as distinct from a class division). The distribution of recruits among the four legions was based on the selection made by the tribunes.
“Praetor” was the title originally conferred on each of the two magistrates who shared supreme authority after the period of the kings. The military functions of the praetor are well attested, and the headquarters in a Roman camp continued to be termed the “praetorium”. In comparatively early times, the title of “consul” replaced that of “praetor”, but partly as a result of political manoeuvre, the office of praetor was later revived to supplement consular power. The authority of a praetor was not equal to that of a consul, but he might still command an army in the field.
The command was not always happily shared between two consuls. In times of emergency – and Rome’s early history consisted largely of emergencies – a single dictator with supreme power was appointed for a maximum term of six months, the length of a campaigning season. The dictator chose his own deputy, who was then known as the Master of the Horse (magister equitum).
The allies, who were called upon to aid Rome in case of war, were commanded by prefects (praefecti), who were Roman officers. The 300 cavalry attached to each legion were, in the third century BC at any rate, divided into ten squadrons (turmae), and subdivided into decuriae, each of which was commanded by a decurio, whose authority corresponded to that of a centurion in the infantry. | <urn:uuid:5dcb6304-3290-46aa-9414-e70537184c6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2019/07/01/the-military-of-rome-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.987968 | 3,950 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3881186246871948... | 2 | Rome now dominated southern and central Italy, including Etruria and the Greek cities. Northern Italy, of course, remained largely occupied by the Gauls, and the Gauls remained a menace. The process by which Rome had developed from a small military outpost on a river-crossing to become the dominant power of the Italian peninsula had been by no means swift or continuous. It had taken the greater part of five centuries, and during that time Rome itself had twice been occupied by a foreign power.
According to traditional stories, the last of Rome’s kings, Tarquinius Superbus, an Etruscan, had been expelled late in the sixth century BC after his son had villainously raped the wife of a noble kinsman. Etruscan armies under Lars Porsenna had attempted to restore Tarquinius but had been thwarted by the heroism of Horatius who, with two comrades, defended the Tiber crossing against them until the demolition of the bridge was completed. The Latin cities to the south had then combined to replace the exiled monarch on his throne, but had been defeated by the Romans at the battle of Lake Regillus (where the Romans were assisted by the gods according to the legend!).
Illustrated Etruscan tomb inscriptions, taken in conjunction with the existing legends, suggest that the underlying historical facts were very different. It is clear that Porsenna was not the friend but the mortal enemy of Tarquinius, his fellow Etruscan. He probably conspired with aristocratic, partly Etruscan elements in Rome to precipitate Tarquinius’ downfall, and then himself occupied Rome. He certainly advanced south of Rome, to fight the Latins and their Greek allies of Cumae – where according to one story Tarquinius ultimately took refuge. When the Etruscans were defeated by the Latin League at Aricia (as described by Livy), their fugitives were received and protected in Rome. Moreover, Livy stresses the friendship of Porsenna towards the Romans and his chivalrous respect for their way of life. One would guess that Rome had accepted the position of subject ally to Etruria. The Roman population, despite its Etruscan overlordship, was of course Latin; their Etruscan allegiances brought them into conflict with the other Latin cities, who were allied to the Greek maritime states – Etruria’s commercial rivals.
At Rome, Latin patriotic sentiment may have accepted Etruscan kings and welcomed their leadership against Etruria itself, just as English patriotic feeling in the Middle Ages accepted French-speaking Plantagenet kings as leaders against the French. The early Roman historians, however, did not like to contemplate their city as a mere catspaw in Etruscan dynastic politics, let alone a puppet state to be employed against their Latin brothers. Consequently, these chroniclers substituted history of their own invention, assigning fictional roles to historic characters.
As the strength of Etruria diminished, Rome asserted its authority over both the Etruscans and the Latins, but at the beginning of the fourth century BC the city was overwhelmed, after the disastrous battle of the Allia, by a vast horde of Gallic raiders. The Romans retreated into their citadel on the Capitoline Mount; they eventually bought off the Gauls, whose immediate interest was in moveables and not in land. Roman history records that the great Camillus, Rome’s exiled war leader, was recalled to speed the parting Gauls with military action, but this thinly veils the fact that the Gauls departed of their own accord, having obtained what they wanted. Livy blames Roman decadence and impiety for the disaster, but the Romans must in any case have been vanquished by sheer weight of numbers. Apart from that, they were never at their best when dealing with a strange foe whose weapons and methods of warfare were new to them.
Roman military history is chequered by catastrophes. Few great empires can have sustained more major disasters during the period of their growth. Nobody would deny that the Romans were a formidable military nation; yet the genius which enabled them eventually to dominate the ancient world was as much political as military. Their great political instrument was their concept of citizenship. Citizenship was not simply a status which one did or did not possess. It was an aggregate of rights, duties and honours, which could be acquired separately and conferred by instalments. Such were the rights of making legal contracts and marriages. From both of these the right to a political vote was again separable; nor did the right to vote necessarily imply the right to hold office. Conquered enemies were thus often reconciled by a grant of partial citizenship, with the possibility of more to come if behaviour justified it. Some cities enjoyed Roman citizenship without the vote, being autonomous except in matters of foreign policy. Even the citizens of such communities, however, might qualify for full Roman citizenship if they migrated to Rome; where this right was not available, citizenship could be obtained by those who achieved public distinction in their own communities.
■ The Roman Army in Early Times
Citizenship, of course, implied a military as well as a political status. For the duties which it imposed were, above all, military. The Latin and other Italian allies, who enjoyed some intermediate degree of citizenship, were in principle required to supply an aggregate of fighting men equal to that levied by the Romans themselves. In practice, the Romans relied on their Italian allies particularly for cavalry: an arm in which they themselves were notoriously weak. The Greek cities did not normally contribute military contingents, but supplied ships and rowers. They were known as “naval allies” (socii navales) because of this function.
Any army whose technical resources are comprised by hand-arms, armour and horses, will, at all events in the early years of its development, reflect an underlying social order. Combatants who can afford horses and armour will naturally be drawn from the aristocracy. Others will have little armour and less sophisticated, if not fewer, weapons. This was true of Greek armies and also of medieval armies. It was certainly true of the Romans, whose military class differentiation was defined with unusual care and with great attention to detail. The resulting classification is associated with the military and administrative reorganization of Servius Tullius, traditionally sixth and penultimate king of Rome. His name suggests a sixth-century date for the reforms in question, though some scholars think that the so-called Servian organization was introduced later than this.
The “Servian” infantry was divided into five property classes, the wealthiest of which was armed with swords and spears and protected by helmets, round shields, greaves and breastplates. All protective armour was of bronze. In the second class, no breastplate was worn, but a long shield was substituted for the round buckler. The third class was as the second, but wore no greaves. The fourth class was equipped only with spears and javelins; the fifth was composed of slingers. There is no reference to archers. The poorest citizens were not expected to serve except in times of emergency, when they were equipped by the state. However, they normally supplied artisans to maintain siege engines and perform similar duties.
The army was also divided into centuries (i.e., “hundreds”), as the citizens were for voting purposes. However, a century soon came to contain 60, not 100 men. The first property class comprised 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth class had 20 centuries apiece; the fifth class had 30. A distinction was made between junior and senior centuries, the former containing young men for front-line action, the latter older men, more suitable for garrison duty. A single property class was equally divided between the two age groups.
The cavalry was recruited from the wealthiest families to form 18 centuries. A cavalry century received a grant for the purchase of its horses and one-fifth of this amount yearly for their upkeep. The yearly grant was apparently provided by a levy on spinsters! In general, the financial burden of warfare was shifted from the poor on to the rich. For this imposition, the rich were compensated by what amounted to a monopoly of the political suffrage. Inevitably, it was felt in time that they were overcompensated, but that is a matter which must not detain us here.
During the early epochs of Roman history, as archaeological evidence indicates, Greek hoplite armour was widely imitated throughout the Mediterranean area. Italy was no exception to this rule and, as Livy’s description suggests, Rome was no exception in Italy. Greek weapons called for Greek skill in their use, and this in turn assumed Greek tactical methods. The Romans were in contact with Greek practice, both through their Etruscan northern neighbours, who as a maritime people were more susceptible to overseas influences, and through direct contact with Greek cities in Italy, notably Cumae. The Roman army, as recruited on the Servian basis, must have fought as a hoplite phalanx, in a compact mass, several ranks deep, using their weight behind their shields as well as their long thrusting spears. The light troops afforded by the fourth and fifth infantry classes will have provided a skirmishing arm, and the cavalry held the wings on either side of the phalanx. There were also two centuries of artificers (fabri) attached to the centuries of the first class, and two of musicians (made up of hornblowers and trumpeters).
■ The Military Reforms of Camillus
The next great landmark in Roman military organization is associated with the achievements of Camillus. Camillus, credited with having saved Rome from the Gauls and remembered as a “second founder” of Rome, was a revered national hero. His name became a legend, and legends accumulated round it. At the same time, he was unquestionably a historical character. We need not believe that his timely return to Rome during the Gallic occupation deprived the Gauls of their indemnity money, which was at that very moment being weighed out in gold. But his capture of the Etruscan city of Veii is historical, and he may here have made use of mining operations such as Livy describes. Similarly, the military changes attributed to him may in part, if not entirety, be due to his initiative.
Soon after the withdrawal of the Gauls from Rome, the tactical formation adopted by the Roman army underwent a radical change. In the Servian army, the smallest unit had been the century. It was an administrative rather than a tactical unit, based on political and economic rather than military considerations. The largest unit was the legion of about 4,000 infantrymen. There were 60 centuries in a legion and, from the time of Camillus, these centuries were combined in couples, each couple being known as a maniple (manipulus). The maniple was a tactical unit. Under the new system, the Roman army was drawn up for battle in three lines, one behind the other. The maniples of each line were stationed at intervals. If the front line was forced to retreat, or if its maniples were threatened with encirclement, they could fall back into the intervals in the line immediately to their rear. In the same way, the rear lines could easily advance, when necessary, to support those in front. The positions of the middle-line maniples corresponded to intervals in the front and rear lines, thus producing a series of quincunx formations. The two constituent centuries of a maniple were each commanded by a centurion, known respectively as the forward (prior) and rear (posterior) centurion. These titles may have been dictated by later tactical developments, or they may simply have marked a difference of rank between the two officers.
The three battle lines of Camillus’ army were termed, in order from front to rear, hastati, principes and triarii. Hastati meant “spearmen”; principes, “leaders”; and triarii, the only term which was consistent with known practice, meant simply “third-liners”. In historical accounts, the hastati were not armed with spears and the principes were not the leading rank, since the hastati were in front of them. The names obviously reflect the usage of an earlier date. In the fourth century BC the two front ranks carried heavy javelins, which they discharged at the enemy on joining battle. After this, fighting was carried on with swords. The triarii alone retained the old thrusting spear (hasta). The heavy javelin of the hastati and principes was the pilum. It comprised a wooden shaft, about 4.5 feet (1.4m) long, and a lancelike, iron head of about the same length as the shaft; which fitted into the wood so far as to give an overall length of something less than 7 feet (2.1m). The Romans may have copied the pilum from their Etruscan or Samnite enemies; or they may have developed it from a more primitive weapon of their own. The sword used was the gladius, a short cut-and-thrust type, probably forged on Spanish models. A large oval shield (scutum), about 4 feet (1.2m) long, was in general use in the maniple formation. It was made of hide on a wooden base, with iron rim and boss.
It has been suggested that the new tactical formation was closely connected with the introduction of the new weapons. The fact that the front rank was called hastati seems to indicate that the hasta, or thrusting spear, was not abandoned until after the new formation had been adopted. Indeed, cause and effect may have stood in circular relationship. The open formation could have favoured new weapons which, once widely adopted, forbade the use of any other formation. At all events, there must have been more elbow room for aiming a javelin.
Apart from these considerations, open-order fighting was characteristic of Greek fourth-century warfare. Xenophon’s men had opened ranks to let the enemy’s scythe-wheel chariots pass harmlessly through. Agesilaus used similar tactics at Coronea. Camillus was aware of the Greek world – and the Greek world was aware of him. He dedicated a golden bowl to Apollo at Delphi and Greek fourth-century writers refer to him. It is at least possible that the new Roman tactical formation was based on Greek precedents, as the old one had been.
■ Officers and Other Ranks
The epoch of Camillus also saw the first regular payments for military service. The amount of pay, at the time of its introduction, is not recorded. To judge from the enthusiasm to which it gave rise and to the difficulty experienced in levying taxes to provide for it, the sum was substantial. It was a first step towards removing the differences among property classes and standardizing the equipment of the legionary soldier. For tactical purposes, of course, some differences were bound to exist: for instance, in the lighter equipment of the velites. But the removal of the property classes produced an essential change in the Roman army, such as the Greek citizen army had never known. The Athenian hoplites had always remained a social class, and hoplite warfare was their distinctive function. The Spartan hoplites had been an élite of peers, every one of them, as Thucydides remarks, in effect an officer.
At Rome, however, the centuries of which the legions were composed were conspicuously and efficiently led by centurions, men who commanded as a result of their proven merit. The Roman army, in fact, developed a system of leadership such as is familiar today – a system of officers and other ranks. Centurions were comparable to warrant officers, promoted for their performance on the field and in the camp. The military tribunes, like their commanding officers, the consuls and praetors, were at any rate originally appointed to carry out the policies of the Roman state, and they were usually drawn from the upper, politically influential classes.
Six military tribunes were chosen for each legion, and the choice was at first always made by a consul or praetor, who in normal times would have commanded two out of the four legions levied; as colleagues, the consuls shared the army between them. Later, the appointment of 24 military tribunes for the levy of four legions was made not by the consuls but by an assembly of the people. If, however, additional legions were levied, then the tribunes appointed to them were consular nominations. Tribunes appointed by the people held office for one year. Those nominated by a military commander retained their appointment for as long as he did.
Military tribunes were at first senior officers and were required to have several years of military experience prior to appointment. In practice, however, they were often young men, whose very age often precluded them from having had such experience. They were appointed because they came from rich and influential families and they thus had much in common with the subalterns of fashionable regiments in latter-day armies. Originally, an important part of the military tribune’s duties had been in connection with the levy of troops. In normal times, a levy was held once a year. Recruits were required to assemble by tribes (a local as distinct from a class division). The distribution of recruits among the four legions was based on the selection made by the tribunes.
“Praetor” was the title originally conferred on each of the two magistrates who shared supreme authority after the period of the kings. The military functions of the praetor are well attested, and the headquarters in a Roman camp continued to be termed the “praetorium”. In comparatively early times, the title of “consul” replaced that of “praetor”, but partly as a result of political manoeuvre, the office of praetor was later revived to supplement consular power. The authority of a praetor was not equal to that of a consul, but he might still command an army in the field.
The command was not always happily shared between two consuls. In times of emergency – and Rome’s early history consisted largely of emergencies – a single dictator with supreme power was appointed for a maximum term of six months, the length of a campaigning season. The dictator chose his own deputy, who was then known as the Master of the Horse (magister equitum).
The allies, who were called upon to aid Rome in case of war, were commanded by prefects (praefecti), who were Roman officers. The 300 cavalry attached to each legion were, in the third century BC at any rate, divided into ten squadrons (turmae), and subdivided into decuriae, each of which was commanded by a decurio, whose authority corresponded to that of a centurion in the infantry. | 3,913 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Parents who recite numbers with their kids prior to elementary school to get them ready to tackle basic math might need to add one more step to assure their children's success at developing numeracy. According to researchers from University of Missouri, in order to help children acquire math skills, their parents need to teach them how to count — which scientists define as assigning numerical values to objects in chronological order.
Louis Manfra, an assistant professor at MU's Department of Human Development and Family Studies, explained the difference between the two. He said that while reciting numbers just means saying them from memory in chronological order, counting means understanding that each item in a particular set is counted once, and that each successive number represents the total of all items counted up to that point.
"When children are just reciting, they're basically repeating what seems like a memorized sentence. When they're counting, they're performing a more cognitive activity in which they're associating a one-to-one correspondence with the object and the number to represent a quantity."
Manfra drew that conclusion based on analysis of first grade math scores of 3,000 children from low-income families. When he checked to see what kind of preparation contributed to success in math class, he found that children who had learned to both recite and count to 20 prior to entering first grade had the best scores, but that only fewer than 10% of children he studied could do both prior to enrolling in elementary school.
"Counting gives children stronger foundations when they start school," Manfra said. "The skills children have when they start kindergarten affect their trajectories through early elementary school; therefore, it's important that children start with as many skills as possible."
Manfra said that low income families frequently believe that educating their children is entirely the job of teachers — which could be one of the reasons why they do relatively little to get their kids ready before they start school. The reality, however, is that teachers often count on parents to do at least some prep work so that kids don't first come to class being, in essence, blank slates when it comes to mathematics.
"These low-income children aren't learning math skills anywhere because parents think the children are learning them at school, and teachers think they're learning them at home," Manfra said. "This is a problem because it gives parents and teachers the idea that it's not their responsibility to educate the children, when it's everyone's responsibility. This is problematic because, when the children enter kindergarten and are at lower math levels, they don't have the foundational skills needed to set them on paths for future success."
Manfra added that both parents and teachers should make an effort to ensure that children acquire counting abilities quickly. To do this, they should seek out ways to make counting an every day part of kids' lives, such as having them count cars while running errands or ask them to give the total number of utensils when sitting down to dinner. | <urn:uuid:fb186792-8ce9-4eb9-b792-e11ae83a1e79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.educationnews.org/k-12-schools/does-counting-not-reciting-help-students-conquer-math/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.980551 | 610 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.3762734532... | 1 | Parents who recite numbers with their kids prior to elementary school to get them ready to tackle basic math might need to add one more step to assure their children's success at developing numeracy. According to researchers from University of Missouri, in order to help children acquire math skills, their parents need to teach them how to count — which scientists define as assigning numerical values to objects in chronological order.
Louis Manfra, an assistant professor at MU's Department of Human Development and Family Studies, explained the difference between the two. He said that while reciting numbers just means saying them from memory in chronological order, counting means understanding that each item in a particular set is counted once, and that each successive number represents the total of all items counted up to that point.
"When children are just reciting, they're basically repeating what seems like a memorized sentence. When they're counting, they're performing a more cognitive activity in which they're associating a one-to-one correspondence with the object and the number to represent a quantity."
Manfra drew that conclusion based on analysis of first grade math scores of 3,000 children from low-income families. When he checked to see what kind of preparation contributed to success in math class, he found that children who had learned to both recite and count to 20 prior to entering first grade had the best scores, but that only fewer than 10% of children he studied could do both prior to enrolling in elementary school.
"Counting gives children stronger foundations when they start school," Manfra said. "The skills children have when they start kindergarten affect their trajectories through early elementary school; therefore, it's important that children start with as many skills as possible."
Manfra said that low income families frequently believe that educating their children is entirely the job of teachers — which could be one of the reasons why they do relatively little to get their kids ready before they start school. The reality, however, is that teachers often count on parents to do at least some prep work so that kids don't first come to class being, in essence, blank slates when it comes to mathematics.
"These low-income children aren't learning math skills anywhere because parents think the children are learning them at school, and teachers think they're learning them at home," Manfra said. "This is a problem because it gives parents and teachers the idea that it's not their responsibility to educate the children, when it's everyone's responsibility. This is problematic because, when the children enter kindergarten and are at lower math levels, they don't have the foundational skills needed to set them on paths for future success."
Manfra added that both parents and teachers should make an effort to ensure that children acquire counting abilities quickly. To do this, they should seek out ways to make counting an every day part of kids' lives, such as having them count cars while running errands or ask them to give the total number of utensils when sitting down to dinner. | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most barbaric treatment of human beings that can be likened only to punishment in the middle ages, was the treatment of the Jews in concentration camps during the Holocaust. Learn all about the bitter reality in this article.
Defined as the mass extermination of European Jews during World War 2, because they were not considered to be of the pure Aryan race. Adolf Hitler considered the Jews to be a reason for the failure of Germany in World War 1, and further perpetrated the already prevailing hatred against them. Nazi concentration camps started out as the place to hold captive prisoners of war, and opponents of the political regime. As the second world war began, the brutal face of Nazism became clearly visible, as millions of Jews were captured and sent to these camps, in what they called a ‘purification drive’ or ‘final solution’.
What ensued was the establishment of over 9000 concentration camps, of which the most infamous camp was Auschwitz. The extermination drive was at its prime in the years 1942 till the end of the second world war, after which the camps were discovered and destroyed. These camps consisted not only of Jews, but also criminals, prisoners of war, physically disabled, mentally disabled, Polish laborers, homosexuals, Russian Jews, Italian Jews, and even Catholic priests.
Nazi principles stated that a Jew would always be a Jew even if the person converted to Christianity or any other religion. They thus encouraged and implemented extermination practices in all areas. Given below are some chilling facts about these camps.
The task of fabricating the concept of concentration camps, and implementing the extermination process of the Jews was entrusted to Adolf Eichmann, a trusted commander. Several of these camps were set up along railroad lines. Most of these camps were placed outside Germany. All the Jews were brought together in ghettos, and were told that they were being relocated to work in the east. The camps were taken care of by a commandant, who overlooked the daily operations. Under him was the Schutzhaftlagerfuhrer, who was in charge of the inmates, followed by an administrator, to handle finances. Further, there were several engineers, doctors, and finally, the guards.
Phase 1: Arrival at the Concentration Camps
The journey to the camp began with a train journey, where the prisoners had to travel for several days without food and water. They were ordered to then get off the train, and get ready to work. The Jews were always chided by officers, telling them that they ought to put their lives to some constructive use. Men were made to perform laborious tasks, while women were either to work with the men or maintain the house.
The young, the old and the useless were executed first. Sometimes in defiance, the Jews would remain close together on the train, and refuse to move. This act of defiance was immediately met with an open fire on them by the German guards. They would be coaxed out of the train saying that work awaited them, and when they stepped out of the train, the guards opened fire on them. This left very few Jews in a condition to enter the camp.
Phase 2: Immediate Death vs Settling In
After the Jews got off the trains, they were faced by a doctor at the entrance of the camp. Every prisoner was to be seen by the doctor, who would point to the left or the right with his thumb. An indication to the left meant the prisoner was to be put to death immediately. The stronger ones were directed to the right, leading to the camp. Families were torn apart in the process. Men were put into barracks separate from their wives and children. A number was tattooed on their forearm, by which they were now recognized. Their names held no meaning, and this led to a complete loss of identity. More than ten thousand prisoners were huddled into barracks designed for a mere thousand.
Phase 3: A Typical Day in a Concentration Camp
The daily life in concentration has been described by a survivor of a concentration camp, as follows:
- Prisoners were made to get up at 3 am, even in winter. Their beds had to be made quickly, failing which the prisoner would be subjected to 25 lashes. After receiving these, it was impossible to lie down, or even sit properly.
- After making the beds, everyone was to leave the barracks and go outside, irrespective of the weather conditions. It was always pitch dark, and in order to keep themselves warm, people would huddle together and rub their backs against each other.
- Only one bathroom was available for a group of four hundred people, where everyone was supposed to wash up. There were a limited number of faucets, which were usually out of order. No towels were made available to dry up.
- Black, bitter coffee was served in the name of breakfast, at 5 am.
- A roll call or a headcount was scheduled at 6 am. Prisoners had to wait for hours outside in the harsh conditions. This drained the little strength they had to face the day. If anyone failed to show up for roll call, or was late even by a minute, all the inmates were to pay for it, by standing in parade. The culprit on the other hand, was brutally beaten, sometimes to death. All this was not without the inhuman fancies of the guards and officers, to make the inmates perform several ridiculous activities, before the roll call was finished.
- After roll call, the inmates headed to perform their daily jobs. This involved building railway tracks, carrying stones and coal, sewer repair, latrine cleaning, gardening, etc. All these activities took place within the concentration camps, not without torture by the guards. Several times, officers whimsically asked a prisoner to turn around, where he was beaten on his back with a stick, so harshly, that it broke.
- Lunch break was at 12 noon. The ‘meal’ often consisted only of cabbage soup, or other tasteless liquids. Many a time, lunch would not be given on ‘days of punishment’, but was instead served with dinner after the roll call at 6 pm. This meant that the prisoners worked all day on an empty stomach.
- The work was to resume from 1 pm to 6 pm. Along with the work, the torture would also resume.
- A headcount was conducted again, at 6 pm, where prisoners were forced to stand in attention. Often one or more prisoners were picked out by the officers, who according to them, had not performed their duties to the best of their ability. They were put through a ‘punishment parade’, and made to strip publicly, lie on specially constructed benches, and receive 25 to 50 lashes.
Phase 4: The Consequences of Living in a Concentration Camp
Conditions in the camps were never humane. Upon seeing the brutalities that were inflicted on people around, and with the constant fear of punishment that sometimes led to death, several inmates entertained thoughts of suicide. The grouping together of several thousands of people, in order to punish them and make them pay for being born of blood that was not ‘pure’, resulted in the following occurrences.
- While meals were given three times a day, there were phases when the food supply would be cut off completely. People died of starvation, and lay in the paths of the concentration camps. Women were found fighting for scraps of food that lay in the gutters or dumpsters.
- There was a daily session of torture that was awarded to a random inmate chosen by the German officers. The beatings were so brutal, that it led to serious physical injury, and sometimes death. No treatment was given to injured people.
- To rid themselves of all the hideously criminal and inhuman suffering, thousands of inmates usually killed themselves.
- With such unhygienic conditions, disease spread like wildfire. The most common disease in concentration camps was typhus. Even though people were sick, they pretended to be healthy, in the hope that they could escape death.
- If even one prisoner was caught trying to escape, or successfully escaped, all other prisoners in his group were put to death immediately.
In an effort to survive all the inhumanity, the prisoners turned to religion. They began to believe that all this was happening for a purpose, and that there was a meaning to all that they were suffering. The only way to maintain their dignity was to live through it, without giving up.
Phase 5: Death
Death was constantly looming in the concentration camps. It either came naturally, or was invited. Sometimes, death of the prisoners was a game played and thoroughly enjoyed by the German officers. Some of the different ways in which people died have already been mentioned above. There were more.
By German Officers: Many a time these officers would engage in a ‘shooting competition’. While the prisoners were performing their daily duties, of carrying stone, or other material, the officers would aim and shoot at the tip of their nose, or any other body part. As has been mentioned before, being sick, or injured meant death. The prisoners injured in this ‘competition’ were then considered of no specific benefit to the concentration camp, and were shot immediately.
Death Upon Arrival: As has been mentioned before, upon arrival several inmates were sentenced to immediate death, as they weren’t considered healthy enough to be a part of the concentration camp. In such cases, they were transported to death camps, which were sometimes close to the concentration camps. At other times, it involved more long journeys, in gassed trucks and trains, which means they died on the way to the death camp.
Gas Chambers and Extermination Camps: These were used not only for the mass murder of Jews, but also those who were physically and mentally disabled. This was a practice carried out even to eliminate homosexuals from society.
- People were guided to the gas chambers under the pretense of leading them to a ‘shower’. Families were separated, leading the men in one direction, and women and children in the other.
- They were all made to shave their heads, to reduce the stench caused by burning hair in the cremation process. They were then made to strip and led to the gas chambers. To make it believable, they were even given bars of soap on their way in. Again families along with strangers were huddled in together, with the doors and windows sealed completely.
- In some gas chambers, diesel engines were used to produce and force carbon monoxide into the gas chambers. Other times, Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide) crystals were dropped into the chambers, through holes designed in the roof of the gas chamber. These crystals paralyzed the lungs immediately, and led to immediate death. There was however, no place to fall flat. People just piled upon each other and it took a lot of physical effort to bring out the dead bodies.
- The whole process took almost an hour. After the process, the dead bodies were taken out of the chambers. They were then taken to the crematorium to be burnt. All the bodies were placed in a furnace and burnt together.
What was surprising, was that the officers who carried out the entire extermination process, knew that the same fate awaited them. Many a time they would come across the corpse of a relative, their wife, their kids, and would behave like they were just another dead body. Another surprising revelation about concentration camps during the Holocaust is what is popularly known as the ‘Holocaust Denial’.
In spite of every shred of evidence present before their eyes, prominent political figures and historians have actually refuted the claims of the existence of concentration camps. Some of the claims include calling the Holocaust a myth, created by allied countries during the second world war, to defame Adolf Hitler and Germany. They say that this was further magnified by the Jews to garner support for their own homeland.
The bitter truth however, lies in the fact that there were indeed over 1,600,000 Jews sent to concentration camps, and several millions met their deaths in gruesome manners. Survivors suffered from severe trauma and shock that was caused as a result of the treatment meted out to them. They would often relive the indescribable events that had been etched in their memories, in the form of terrifying nightmares; memories of what can justifiably be called the most deplorable and distressing human experience in history. | <urn:uuid:9e11e61a-0534-461b-b4c4-1a477f13cb39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/concentration-camps-during-holocaust | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.990836 | 2,559 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.616976141929... | 8 | The most barbaric treatment of human beings that can be likened only to punishment in the middle ages, was the treatment of the Jews in concentration camps during the Holocaust. Learn all about the bitter reality in this article.
Defined as the mass extermination of European Jews during World War 2, because they were not considered to be of the pure Aryan race. Adolf Hitler considered the Jews to be a reason for the failure of Germany in World War 1, and further perpetrated the already prevailing hatred against them. Nazi concentration camps started out as the place to hold captive prisoners of war, and opponents of the political regime. As the second world war began, the brutal face of Nazism became clearly visible, as millions of Jews were captured and sent to these camps, in what they called a ‘purification drive’ or ‘final solution’.
What ensued was the establishment of over 9000 concentration camps, of which the most infamous camp was Auschwitz. The extermination drive was at its prime in the years 1942 till the end of the second world war, after which the camps were discovered and destroyed. These camps consisted not only of Jews, but also criminals, prisoners of war, physically disabled, mentally disabled, Polish laborers, homosexuals, Russian Jews, Italian Jews, and even Catholic priests.
Nazi principles stated that a Jew would always be a Jew even if the person converted to Christianity or any other religion. They thus encouraged and implemented extermination practices in all areas. Given below are some chilling facts about these camps.
The task of fabricating the concept of concentration camps, and implementing the extermination process of the Jews was entrusted to Adolf Eichmann, a trusted commander. Several of these camps were set up along railroad lines. Most of these camps were placed outside Germany. All the Jews were brought together in ghettos, and were told that they were being relocated to work in the east. The camps were taken care of by a commandant, who overlooked the daily operations. Under him was the Schutzhaftlagerfuhrer, who was in charge of the inmates, followed by an administrator, to handle finances. Further, there were several engineers, doctors, and finally, the guards.
Phase 1: Arrival at the Concentration Camps
The journey to the camp began with a train journey, where the prisoners had to travel for several days without food and water. They were ordered to then get off the train, and get ready to work. The Jews were always chided by officers, telling them that they ought to put their lives to some constructive use. Men were made to perform laborious tasks, while women were either to work with the men or maintain the house.
The young, the old and the useless were executed first. Sometimes in defiance, the Jews would remain close together on the train, and refuse to move. This act of defiance was immediately met with an open fire on them by the German guards. They would be coaxed out of the train saying that work awaited them, and when they stepped out of the train, the guards opened fire on them. This left very few Jews in a condition to enter the camp.
Phase 2: Immediate Death vs Settling In
After the Jews got off the trains, they were faced by a doctor at the entrance of the camp. Every prisoner was to be seen by the doctor, who would point to the left or the right with his thumb. An indication to the left meant the prisoner was to be put to death immediately. The stronger ones were directed to the right, leading to the camp. Families were torn apart in the process. Men were put into barracks separate from their wives and children. A number was tattooed on their forearm, by which they were now recognized. Their names held no meaning, and this led to a complete loss of identity. More than ten thousand prisoners were huddled into barracks designed for a mere thousand.
Phase 3: A Typical Day in a Concentration Camp
The daily life in concentration has been described by a survivor of a concentration camp, as follows:
- Prisoners were made to get up at 3 am, even in winter. Their beds had to be made quickly, failing which the prisoner would be subjected to 25 lashes. After receiving these, it was impossible to lie down, or even sit properly.
- After making the beds, everyone was to leave the barracks and go outside, irrespective of the weather conditions. It was always pitch dark, and in order to keep themselves warm, people would huddle together and rub their backs against each other.
- Only one bathroom was available for a group of four hundred people, where everyone was supposed to wash up. There were a limited number of faucets, which were usually out of order. No towels were made available to dry up.
- Black, bitter coffee was served in the name of breakfast, at 5 am.
- A roll call or a headcount was scheduled at 6 am. Prisoners had to wait for hours outside in the harsh conditions. This drained the little strength they had to face the day. If anyone failed to show up for roll call, or was late even by a minute, all the inmates were to pay for it, by standing in parade. The culprit on the other hand, was brutally beaten, sometimes to death. All this was not without the inhuman fancies of the guards and officers, to make the inmates perform several ridiculous activities, before the roll call was finished.
- After roll call, the inmates headed to perform their daily jobs. This involved building railway tracks, carrying stones and coal, sewer repair, latrine cleaning, gardening, etc. All these activities took place within the concentration camps, not without torture by the guards. Several times, officers whimsically asked a prisoner to turn around, where he was beaten on his back with a stick, so harshly, that it broke.
- Lunch break was at 12 noon. The ‘meal’ often consisted only of cabbage soup, or other tasteless liquids. Many a time, lunch would not be given on ‘days of punishment’, but was instead served with dinner after the roll call at 6 pm. This meant that the prisoners worked all day on an empty stomach.
- The work was to resume from 1 pm to 6 pm. Along with the work, the torture would also resume.
- A headcount was conducted again, at 6 pm, where prisoners were forced to stand in attention. Often one or more prisoners were picked out by the officers, who according to them, had not performed their duties to the best of their ability. They were put through a ‘punishment parade’, and made to strip publicly, lie on specially constructed benches, and receive 25 to 50 lashes.
Phase 4: The Consequences of Living in a Concentration Camp
Conditions in the camps were never humane. Upon seeing the brutalities that were inflicted on people around, and with the constant fear of punishment that sometimes led to death, several inmates entertained thoughts of suicide. The grouping together of several thousands of people, in order to punish them and make them pay for being born of blood that was not ‘pure’, resulted in the following occurrences.
- While meals were given three times a day, there were phases when the food supply would be cut off completely. People died of starvation, and lay in the paths of the concentration camps. Women were found fighting for scraps of food that lay in the gutters or dumpsters.
- There was a daily session of torture that was awarded to a random inmate chosen by the German officers. The beatings were so brutal, that it led to serious physical injury, and sometimes death. No treatment was given to injured people.
- To rid themselves of all the hideously criminal and inhuman suffering, thousands of inmates usually killed themselves.
- With such unhygienic conditions, disease spread like wildfire. The most common disease in concentration camps was typhus. Even though people were sick, they pretended to be healthy, in the hope that they could escape death.
- If even one prisoner was caught trying to escape, or successfully escaped, all other prisoners in his group were put to death immediately.
In an effort to survive all the inhumanity, the prisoners turned to religion. They began to believe that all this was happening for a purpose, and that there was a meaning to all that they were suffering. The only way to maintain their dignity was to live through it, without giving up.
Phase 5: Death
Death was constantly looming in the concentration camps. It either came naturally, or was invited. Sometimes, death of the prisoners was a game played and thoroughly enjoyed by the German officers. Some of the different ways in which people died have already been mentioned above. There were more.
By German Officers: Many a time these officers would engage in a ‘shooting competition’. While the prisoners were performing their daily duties, of carrying stone, or other material, the officers would aim and shoot at the tip of their nose, or any other body part. As has been mentioned before, being sick, or injured meant death. The prisoners injured in this ‘competition’ were then considered of no specific benefit to the concentration camp, and were shot immediately.
Death Upon Arrival: As has been mentioned before, upon arrival several inmates were sentenced to immediate death, as they weren’t considered healthy enough to be a part of the concentration camp. In such cases, they were transported to death camps, which were sometimes close to the concentration camps. At other times, it involved more long journeys, in gassed trucks and trains, which means they died on the way to the death camp.
Gas Chambers and Extermination Camps: These were used not only for the mass murder of Jews, but also those who were physically and mentally disabled. This was a practice carried out even to eliminate homosexuals from society.
- People were guided to the gas chambers under the pretense of leading them to a ‘shower’. Families were separated, leading the men in one direction, and women and children in the other.
- They were all made to shave their heads, to reduce the stench caused by burning hair in the cremation process. They were then made to strip and led to the gas chambers. To make it believable, they were even given bars of soap on their way in. Again families along with strangers were huddled in together, with the doors and windows sealed completely.
- In some gas chambers, diesel engines were used to produce and force carbon monoxide into the gas chambers. Other times, Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide) crystals were dropped into the chambers, through holes designed in the roof of the gas chamber. These crystals paralyzed the lungs immediately, and led to immediate death. There was however, no place to fall flat. People just piled upon each other and it took a lot of physical effort to bring out the dead bodies.
- The whole process took almost an hour. After the process, the dead bodies were taken out of the chambers. They were then taken to the crematorium to be burnt. All the bodies were placed in a furnace and burnt together.
What was surprising, was that the officers who carried out the entire extermination process, knew that the same fate awaited them. Many a time they would come across the corpse of a relative, their wife, their kids, and would behave like they were just another dead body. Another surprising revelation about concentration camps during the Holocaust is what is popularly known as the ‘Holocaust Denial’.
In spite of every shred of evidence present before their eyes, prominent political figures and historians have actually refuted the claims of the existence of concentration camps. Some of the claims include calling the Holocaust a myth, created by allied countries during the second world war, to defame Adolf Hitler and Germany. They say that this was further magnified by the Jews to garner support for their own homeland.
The bitter truth however, lies in the fact that there were indeed over 1,600,000 Jews sent to concentration camps, and several millions met their deaths in gruesome manners. Survivors suffered from severe trauma and shock that was caused as a result of the treatment meted out to them. They would often relive the indescribable events that had been etched in their memories, in the form of terrifying nightmares; memories of what can justifiably be called the most deplorable and distressing human experience in history. | 2,540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary I.—How a Candle Was Lit in England Which Has Never Been Put Out
W HEN Mary had put down the rebellion which her desire to marry Philip had raised, she had her own way and married him.
He came from Spain with much pomp and splendour, and as he rode through the streets of London there was a show of rejoicing, but the people did not really like him. He brought a great deal of money with him, and gave presents to the people, but still they did not like him. Parliament took good care that he should have no share in the government, and that made him angry. No one loved him except Mary.
With Philip's help the Queen began to do what she dearly wished. That was to bring England again under the power of the Pope.
The Pope sent a messenger to England, and Philip and Mary,
holding a solemn service, knelt at his feet. They confessed
Then the Pope's messenger granted them forgiveness in his master's name, and England was once more said to be Roman Catholic.
Now began the most terrible time of Mary's reign, for it required more than a few words from King, Queen, and Pope to make England again truly Roman Catholic. The Protestants would not give up their religion. Mary was determined that they should. Those who refused were imprisoned and put to death in the most cruel way. They were burned alive.
It would make you too sad to tell stories of this terrible time. In three years nearly three hundred people were put to death by Mary's cruel orders. Yet she did no good but rather harm to her cause. For many who were at first on her side turned away with horror from her dreadful cruelties.
These men and women who suffered death so cheerfully for their religion fought for British freedom as much as Caractacus, or Harold or any of the brave men of whom you have heard. And it was much harder to die as they did, than to fall in battle fighting for their country with sword and spear. So when you hear such names as Rogers, Hooper, Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer, honour them as heroes, and think gratefully of the many, many others, whose names we shall never know, but who suffered as bravely.
"Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man," said Latimer, as they were being led to be burned together, "We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." By this he meant that others, hearing of the brave manner in which they died, would take heart too, and fight as bravely for their faith and freedom. So instead of crushing out God's light and truth, Mary was making it shine as a light which every one might see.
Mary was not happy. She could not help knowing that her cruel behaviour did harm rather than good to the religion which she loved, yet she went on killing and torturing more fiercely than ever.
Philip grew tired of England, where he was not allowed to
rule, so he went back to his own country. This was a great
sorrow to Mary, for she loved her husband. Philip returned
indeed once, but it was only to get money for a war with
France. Very unwillingly the Parliament granted the money
and help he asked, but the war ended sadly for Mary. Calais,
which had belonged to the English for more than two hundred
years, was lost. Mary grieved very much over this. "When I
am dead," she said, "you will find 'Calais' graven on my
heart." In the same year,
She was succeeded by her sister, the Princess Elizabeth, who
was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of | <urn:uuid:8caaa48e-c506-4c84-b9c8-c58405b1ac2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=candle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.99209 | 792 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.209810703992843... | 7 | Mary I.—How a Candle Was Lit in England Which Has Never Been Put Out
W HEN Mary had put down the rebellion which her desire to marry Philip had raised, she had her own way and married him.
He came from Spain with much pomp and splendour, and as he rode through the streets of London there was a show of rejoicing, but the people did not really like him. He brought a great deal of money with him, and gave presents to the people, but still they did not like him. Parliament took good care that he should have no share in the government, and that made him angry. No one loved him except Mary.
With Philip's help the Queen began to do what she dearly wished. That was to bring England again under the power of the Pope.
The Pope sent a messenger to England, and Philip and Mary,
holding a solemn service, knelt at his feet. They confessed
Then the Pope's messenger granted them forgiveness in his master's name, and England was once more said to be Roman Catholic.
Now began the most terrible time of Mary's reign, for it required more than a few words from King, Queen, and Pope to make England again truly Roman Catholic. The Protestants would not give up their religion. Mary was determined that they should. Those who refused were imprisoned and put to death in the most cruel way. They were burned alive.
It would make you too sad to tell stories of this terrible time. In three years nearly three hundred people were put to death by Mary's cruel orders. Yet she did no good but rather harm to her cause. For many who were at first on her side turned away with horror from her dreadful cruelties.
These men and women who suffered death so cheerfully for their religion fought for British freedom as much as Caractacus, or Harold or any of the brave men of whom you have heard. And it was much harder to die as they did, than to fall in battle fighting for their country with sword and spear. So when you hear such names as Rogers, Hooper, Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer, honour them as heroes, and think gratefully of the many, many others, whose names we shall never know, but who suffered as bravely.
"Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man," said Latimer, as they were being led to be burned together, "We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." By this he meant that others, hearing of the brave manner in which they died, would take heart too, and fight as bravely for their faith and freedom. So instead of crushing out God's light and truth, Mary was making it shine as a light which every one might see.
Mary was not happy. She could not help knowing that her cruel behaviour did harm rather than good to the religion which she loved, yet she went on killing and torturing more fiercely than ever.
Philip grew tired of England, where he was not allowed to
rule, so he went back to his own country. This was a great
sorrow to Mary, for she loved her husband. Philip returned
indeed once, but it was only to get money for a war with
France. Very unwillingly the Parliament granted the money
and help he asked, but the war ended sadly for Mary. Calais,
which had belonged to the English for more than two hundred
years, was lost. Mary grieved very much over this. "When I
am dead," she said, "you will find 'Calais' graven on my
heart." In the same year,
She was succeeded by her sister, the Princess Elizabeth, who
was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of | 780 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Credit – and by association the credit card – has become a cornerstone of the American way of life. Each American household is estimated to have among them at least 10 credit cards, not counting charge cards or house cards, and carries an average of $13,000 in credit card debt. This is however not a recent phenomenon.
It was only inevitable that Americans would invent the credit card. Americans have always been comfortable about using credit. The Europeans who started colonizing America in the 1600s came from countries that had put aside old prejudices about borrowing and lending, and the new attitudes toward credit were transplanted on North American soil.
Americans have also always needed credit: borrowing to buy land, to establish a business, to travel west in pursuit of valuable animal furs or in search of precious metals. Others went into debt in order to get to America in the first place — as the colonies’ indentured servants did — or stumbled into debt, and were released by royal decree to join English general James Oglethorpe in establishing the colony of Georgia.
By 1800 the United States was an independent nation, with debt being a way of life for many of its citizens. New York City pawnbrokers gave out loans against 149,000 separate pieces of collateral in 1828 — versus a population of only around 200,000. In rural areas, people bought horses, carriages, plows, seeds, clocks and household furniture on credit. Many promised to pay in full at harvest time; others relied on open-book credit.
Open-book credit was used to purchase inexpensive necessities of life such as food and clothing. A shopkeeper allowed customers to take home the goods they needed, and to pay what they could afford to, paying in part but not all of their balance each month — much like many credit card owners do today. Yet very few fell into drowning debt. Both credit card debt and open-book credit are classified as revolving credit.
Early 19th century merchants also offered a non-revolving type of credit, the installment plan. These plans were limited to well-to-do customers who purchased expensive items like a piano or a carpet. By the turn of the century, installment buying was no longer limited to the rich, and even working class families could purchase “discretionary” goods on installment. It got so that installment buying became associated with the needy. A further refinement on installment plans came early in the 20th century with the introduction of the department store house card or the charge card.
The charge card was first offered, like installment plans had originally been, to buyers of luxury goods. Up market stores provided the house card to their prized customers, which naturally made them very happy. The house card was convenient: they didn’t have to carry large amounts of cash or undergo the identification hassle if they paid by check. The customer merely presented the house card to a clerk for recording of the sale, and received a bill once a month for thirty days’ worth of purchases. The customer settled the bill in full each month. The store charged nothing for the service, but gained customer loyalty. This charge card made it easy for the store to keep track of sales, but, the biggest advantage was that the charge card increased sales per customer.
The history of credit took a big turn with a new development: growing automobile sales.
Autos were necessary but expensive to buy as a single purchase. Everyone needed the auto, and everyone was forced to buy cars with credit. Installment buying for automobiles gave respectability to buying on credit.
The other significance of automobiles on credit was that they allowed people to go long distances in a short time, to places where they were total strangers. And what if the car broke down? That was common with the early autos. Drivers could wind up far from home, in need of costly repairs, and without enough cash to pay for them.
To solve that problem, oil companies came out with their own type of credit card. This credit card could be used to buy oil, gas, and mechanical service. Unlike the department store charge card or house card, the oil company credit card could be used everywhere around the country.
Thus, by the 1920s the essentials of the modern credit card were at hand:
• Oil companies showed the charge cards could be used nationwide
• Automobile buying needs showed buying on time was respectable
• Americans had felt comfortable with credit for centuries.
It took another thirty years before the credit card as we know it was invented. Three men finally accomplished this over lunch in a New York City restaurant in 1949.
They were convinced that there was money to be made in consumer credit, and tried to find a way to tap it. The charge card or house card boosted sales and customer loyalty, but without interest, the charge accounts by themselves did not generate revenue. Installment sales did produce interest, but that was meant to cover the seller’s costs, and not to earn income.
Suppose, the three wondered, that a third party inserted itself between buyers and sellers. Suppose this third party promised the sellers many customers, those who would not have gone to them otherwise. Suppose the same party offered affluent people with good credit records a diverse choice of establishments (not just one department store or a chain of gas stations) where they could charge what they bought, no questions asked. Wouldn’t these well-heeled spenders be more inclined to patronize those establishments where they had credit? Wouldn’t business owners, seeing their sales increase and their profits soar, be willing to return a small percentage to the third party that helped provide them with the new customer base? Wouldn’t those small percentages add up to a small fortune?
They sounded out the restaurant owner, asking how much credit card business that went his way would be worth. The owner replied, “Seven percent.” And, Diners Club was in business.
The early Diners Club credit card looked like miniature books. The owner’s name was on the front of the credit card booklet; inside were the names of establishments that had agreed to accept the credit card. Owners didn’t pay any interest or annual fees, but they paid off their entire credit card bill every month.
By 1951, Diners Club had gone international and shown its first credit card related profit. Four years later, the familiar plastic credit card replaced the original paper credit card. In 1950, Diners Club had begun charging an annual $3 fee and had a selection of 300 businesses for over 35,000 credit card holders. By the mid-1960s, restaurants, hotels, airlines, retail shops and the like were happy to accept the Diners Club credit card. The founders’ dream of a universal credit card, used for various purchases all over the world, was being realized.
Diners Club had its imitators. In 1958, American Express issued its own credit card and the Hilton Hotel chain introduced Carte Blanch. All three were known as travel and entertainment credit cards, distinguishing them from another type of credit card, the bankcard.
Seeing Diners Club’s success, banks entered the credit card market during the early 1950s, and by 1955 over one hundred US banks offered credit cards to their customers. They were slowly making money, but they had no national credit card distribution because the law restricted interstate banking. In 1958, the largest US credit card operation belonged to Bank of America, but its BankAmericard could be used only in California.
To expand the newly fledged credit card’s geographical usefulness, Bank of America pioneered the national interchange that would enable all banks all over the country to offer BankAmericard. This credit card association later metamorphosed into Visa.
This move solved the credit card distribution problem. It also prompted large banks in the east to form a rival national credit card network, Interbank Card Association which became Master Charge, and later, MasterCard. Despite initial resistance from department stores, and other house card and charge card issuers, the two credit card associations eventually signed them up in the 1980s. The credit card industry had come of age.
Today, it is a rare business that does not display the Visa and MasterCard logos, along with those of the other credit card companies. | <urn:uuid:90994991-22e8-4c39-bbc7-740569301363> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hasenchat.net/the-credit-card-70-years-of-service/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.982874 | 1,698 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.32433551549... | 7 | Credit – and by association the credit card – has become a cornerstone of the American way of life. Each American household is estimated to have among them at least 10 credit cards, not counting charge cards or house cards, and carries an average of $13,000 in credit card debt. This is however not a recent phenomenon.
It was only inevitable that Americans would invent the credit card. Americans have always been comfortable about using credit. The Europeans who started colonizing America in the 1600s came from countries that had put aside old prejudices about borrowing and lending, and the new attitudes toward credit were transplanted on North American soil.
Americans have also always needed credit: borrowing to buy land, to establish a business, to travel west in pursuit of valuable animal furs or in search of precious metals. Others went into debt in order to get to America in the first place — as the colonies’ indentured servants did — or stumbled into debt, and were released by royal decree to join English general James Oglethorpe in establishing the colony of Georgia.
By 1800 the United States was an independent nation, with debt being a way of life for many of its citizens. New York City pawnbrokers gave out loans against 149,000 separate pieces of collateral in 1828 — versus a population of only around 200,000. In rural areas, people bought horses, carriages, plows, seeds, clocks and household furniture on credit. Many promised to pay in full at harvest time; others relied on open-book credit.
Open-book credit was used to purchase inexpensive necessities of life such as food and clothing. A shopkeeper allowed customers to take home the goods they needed, and to pay what they could afford to, paying in part but not all of their balance each month — much like many credit card owners do today. Yet very few fell into drowning debt. Both credit card debt and open-book credit are classified as revolving credit.
Early 19th century merchants also offered a non-revolving type of credit, the installment plan. These plans were limited to well-to-do customers who purchased expensive items like a piano or a carpet. By the turn of the century, installment buying was no longer limited to the rich, and even working class families could purchase “discretionary” goods on installment. It got so that installment buying became associated with the needy. A further refinement on installment plans came early in the 20th century with the introduction of the department store house card or the charge card.
The charge card was first offered, like installment plans had originally been, to buyers of luxury goods. Up market stores provided the house card to their prized customers, which naturally made them very happy. The house card was convenient: they didn’t have to carry large amounts of cash or undergo the identification hassle if they paid by check. The customer merely presented the house card to a clerk for recording of the sale, and received a bill once a month for thirty days’ worth of purchases. The customer settled the bill in full each month. The store charged nothing for the service, but gained customer loyalty. This charge card made it easy for the store to keep track of sales, but, the biggest advantage was that the charge card increased sales per customer.
The history of credit took a big turn with a new development: growing automobile sales.
Autos were necessary but expensive to buy as a single purchase. Everyone needed the auto, and everyone was forced to buy cars with credit. Installment buying for automobiles gave respectability to buying on credit.
The other significance of automobiles on credit was that they allowed people to go long distances in a short time, to places where they were total strangers. And what if the car broke down? That was common with the early autos. Drivers could wind up far from home, in need of costly repairs, and without enough cash to pay for them.
To solve that problem, oil companies came out with their own type of credit card. This credit card could be used to buy oil, gas, and mechanical service. Unlike the department store charge card or house card, the oil company credit card could be used everywhere around the country.
Thus, by the 1920s the essentials of the modern credit card were at hand:
• Oil companies showed the charge cards could be used nationwide
• Automobile buying needs showed buying on time was respectable
• Americans had felt comfortable with credit for centuries.
It took another thirty years before the credit card as we know it was invented. Three men finally accomplished this over lunch in a New York City restaurant in 1949.
They were convinced that there was money to be made in consumer credit, and tried to find a way to tap it. The charge card or house card boosted sales and customer loyalty, but without interest, the charge accounts by themselves did not generate revenue. Installment sales did produce interest, but that was meant to cover the seller’s costs, and not to earn income.
Suppose, the three wondered, that a third party inserted itself between buyers and sellers. Suppose this third party promised the sellers many customers, those who would not have gone to them otherwise. Suppose the same party offered affluent people with good credit records a diverse choice of establishments (not just one department store or a chain of gas stations) where they could charge what they bought, no questions asked. Wouldn’t these well-heeled spenders be more inclined to patronize those establishments where they had credit? Wouldn’t business owners, seeing their sales increase and their profits soar, be willing to return a small percentage to the third party that helped provide them with the new customer base? Wouldn’t those small percentages add up to a small fortune?
They sounded out the restaurant owner, asking how much credit card business that went his way would be worth. The owner replied, “Seven percent.” And, Diners Club was in business.
The early Diners Club credit card looked like miniature books. The owner’s name was on the front of the credit card booklet; inside were the names of establishments that had agreed to accept the credit card. Owners didn’t pay any interest or annual fees, but they paid off their entire credit card bill every month.
By 1951, Diners Club had gone international and shown its first credit card related profit. Four years later, the familiar plastic credit card replaced the original paper credit card. In 1950, Diners Club had begun charging an annual $3 fee and had a selection of 300 businesses for over 35,000 credit card holders. By the mid-1960s, restaurants, hotels, airlines, retail shops and the like were happy to accept the Diners Club credit card. The founders’ dream of a universal credit card, used for various purchases all over the world, was being realized.
Diners Club had its imitators. In 1958, American Express issued its own credit card and the Hilton Hotel chain introduced Carte Blanch. All three were known as travel and entertainment credit cards, distinguishing them from another type of credit card, the bankcard.
Seeing Diners Club’s success, banks entered the credit card market during the early 1950s, and by 1955 over one hundred US banks offered credit cards to their customers. They were slowly making money, but they had no national credit card distribution because the law restricted interstate banking. In 1958, the largest US credit card operation belonged to Bank of America, but its BankAmericard could be used only in California.
To expand the newly fledged credit card’s geographical usefulness, Bank of America pioneered the national interchange that would enable all banks all over the country to offer BankAmericard. This credit card association later metamorphosed into Visa.
This move solved the credit card distribution problem. It also prompted large banks in the east to form a rival national credit card network, Interbank Card Association which became Master Charge, and later, MasterCard. Despite initial resistance from department stores, and other house card and charge card issuers, the two credit card associations eventually signed them up in the 1980s. The credit card industry had come of age.
Today, it is a rare business that does not display the Visa and MasterCard logos, along with those of the other credit card companies. | 1,717 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The expansion of women’s rights since 1914Women have been the minority and some may argue that they continue to be even to this day in the twentieth century. However, the rights of women have expanded since the 1900’s and women are powerful successful human beings in our society. Canada has matured and women have received the respect and acknowledgment that they always have deserved. Significant events have proven that women really do make society different and better. The expansion of women’s rights was and will always be significant to Canadian history.Women have always been around, mothers, sisters, aunts, grandmothers. Women’s suffrage groups have always existed and women have always attempted to get their voices heard. During the times of the war however, it was very difficult to ignore their arguments. Women’s suffrage groups believed in the right of women to vote in political elections and generally addressed issues of equality and wanted to improve the lives of women in Canada. Women fought for basic human rights. The suffrage movement existed to better the lives of women in all aspects, including healthcare and education. Women’s suffrage groups have had existed since the 1800’s and only by the nineteenth century had they finally began to get recognition. Canadian women did not stop protesting against discrimination and all their efforts finally led to voting privileges for some women. The very first province that granted women the right to vote was Manitoba in 1916. Following the vote granted in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta granted women the right to vote as well. In 1916 there were only three provinces to grant women the voting right, however following the next year, women were allowed to vote in both Ontario and British Columbia. The federal vote was granted to women in the year of 1918 which was an important event in the step toward the expansion of the rights of women in Canada. In the year of 1919 women had finally received the right to stand for office in the house of commons. A well known group of suffragists were known as the famous five. The famous five were five women from Alberta, Emily Murphy, Nellie McClung, Louise McKinney, Irene Parlby and Henrietta Muir Edwards. In the month of October 1929 women had been finally declared as persons under Canadian law, this was all because of the famous five. In 1927, the Supreme Court of Canada was questioned whether the mention of the word “person” in the British North America Act included women. This caused many weeks of debate that finally ended when it had come to a decision that the word “person” did not include women. This is when the person’s case began, the person’s case was a very significant case that led to women being eligible to sit in the Canadian senate. Women’s suffragists did a lot for women and due to this movement, women were now serving in war, working in offices and had the voting privilege they had always desired.The war had opened up opportunities for women to spread their message and also to prove their importance. Before the outbreak of war, women could not vote nor hold office in Canada. Educational, Political, Social and employment opportunities were also very limited. With no political power, women had no protection nor rights. World War One was important to women as due to the war, Canadian men were drained and the introduction of conscription allowed women the chance to take over the roles of men temporarily, which was helpful to women to display their skills and value. Jobs that were once denied to women were now open to women. It was common for women to work in factories and produce war materials. Jobs that were labelled unsuitable for women were now taken by women themselves. Not only were jobs taken by women but new jobs had also been created for the war effort. Munitions factories employed the largest amount of women. Women could’ve been found in many areas of work, from railway guards to police, bank clerks and in engineering. Although women had now had many opporutunities in the workforce, they still were receiving low wages compared to men for doing the same work. Women who also worked producing weapons were putting their lives at risk by handling such hazardous chemicals and this caused many women to die from overexposure of poisonous substances. In addition to these jobs, women also volunteered and started fundraisers to help support the men fighting in the war. Women would create packages and send them over to the troops. However, all the efforts of women would soon be put to rest as the changes were only made for the duration of war and once able bodied men returned, everything would reverse. Of course, this only called for a greater fight and women were not willing to give up the little they did have. Canadian society recognizes the strong efforts put forward by women throughout the past centuries. It has been a long difficult journey for women across Canada. Just in 1900, teaching was the only job available to Canadian women that led to a pension and married women were forced to resign. In 1904 there had been a strike that wanted employers to fire all women. A few years passing and in 1909, the criminal code is finally amended to make illegal the kidnapping of women. As the war started, some women gained the right to vote and made up a percentage of the workforce. Women felt more encouraged to join the labour force as child care centers and tax incentives were provided. In 1947, Canadian women who marry non-canadian men would no longer lose their citizenship. The current changes that had been made were significant to the overall expansion of women’s rights. Before World War One women were only told to raise their families and stay at home. Men were superior to women and women did not have any political privelleges. During the war, Women were finally given the chance to choose from a variety of different careers that they had before never gotten the chance to pursue. After the war, the men had returned and women were mostly laid off. This sparked the suffragist movement and this time period was greatly significant to the start of women’s rights. Some women had been granted the right to vote but by 1960, every Canadian was allowed to vote, this included Aboriginal women and men. Due to the countless women who fought for gender equality, Acts were passed. The Female Employees Equal Pay Act is very significant as in 1956 it officially made wage discrimination based on gender against the law. Women in Canada have been very strong and determined all throughout the twentieth century. Women’s rights have expanded since 1914 and it has all been possible due to the many Canadian women who did not give up the fight and due to this Canada has matured and allowed women to gain the respect they deserved and that led to the expansion of women’s rights in Canada. It is no doubt that Canadian history had been shaped by women and Canada acknowledges the efforts that led to change. There is now protection for women from discrimination by the Canadian Human Rights Act and The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. 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-0.186235874... | 1 | The expansion of women’s rights since 1914Women have been the minority and some may argue that they continue to be even to this day in the twentieth century. However, the rights of women have expanded since the 1900’s and women are powerful successful human beings in our society. Canada has matured and women have received the respect and acknowledgment that they always have deserved. Significant events have proven that women really do make society different and better. The expansion of women’s rights was and will always be significant to Canadian history.Women have always been around, mothers, sisters, aunts, grandmothers. Women’s suffrage groups have always existed and women have always attempted to get their voices heard. During the times of the war however, it was very difficult to ignore their arguments. Women’s suffrage groups believed in the right of women to vote in political elections and generally addressed issues of equality and wanted to improve the lives of women in Canada. Women fought for basic human rights. The suffrage movement existed to better the lives of women in all aspects, including healthcare and education. Women’s suffrage groups have had existed since the 1800’s and only by the nineteenth century had they finally began to get recognition. Canadian women did not stop protesting against discrimination and all their efforts finally led to voting privileges for some women. The very first province that granted women the right to vote was Manitoba in 1916. Following the vote granted in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta granted women the right to vote as well. In 1916 there were only three provinces to grant women the voting right, however following the next year, women were allowed to vote in both Ontario and British Columbia. The federal vote was granted to women in the year of 1918 which was an important event in the step toward the expansion of the rights of women in Canada. In the year of 1919 women had finally received the right to stand for office in the house of commons. A well known group of suffragists were known as the famous five. The famous five were five women from Alberta, Emily Murphy, Nellie McClung, Louise McKinney, Irene Parlby and Henrietta Muir Edwards. In the month of October 1929 women had been finally declared as persons under Canadian law, this was all because of the famous five. In 1927, the Supreme Court of Canada was questioned whether the mention of the word “person” in the British North America Act included women. This caused many weeks of debate that finally ended when it had come to a decision that the word “person” did not include women. This is when the person’s case began, the person’s case was a very significant case that led to women being eligible to sit in the Canadian senate. Women’s suffragists did a lot for women and due to this movement, women were now serving in war, working in offices and had the voting privilege they had always desired.The war had opened up opportunities for women to spread their message and also to prove their importance. Before the outbreak of war, women could not vote nor hold office in Canada. Educational, Political, Social and employment opportunities were also very limited. With no political power, women had no protection nor rights. World War One was important to women as due to the war, Canadian men were drained and the introduction of conscription allowed women the chance to take over the roles of men temporarily, which was helpful to women to display their skills and value. Jobs that were once denied to women were now open to women. It was common for women to work in factories and produce war materials. Jobs that were labelled unsuitable for women were now taken by women themselves. Not only were jobs taken by women but new jobs had also been created for the war effort. Munitions factories employed the largest amount of women. Women could’ve been found in many areas of work, from railway guards to police, bank clerks and in engineering. Although women had now had many opporutunities in the workforce, they still were receiving low wages compared to men for doing the same work. Women who also worked producing weapons were putting their lives at risk by handling such hazardous chemicals and this caused many women to die from overexposure of poisonous substances. In addition to these jobs, women also volunteered and started fundraisers to help support the men fighting in the war. Women would create packages and send them over to the troops. However, all the efforts of women would soon be put to rest as the changes were only made for the duration of war and once able bodied men returned, everything would reverse. Of course, this only called for a greater fight and women were not willing to give up the little they did have. Canadian society recognizes the strong efforts put forward by women throughout the past centuries. It has been a long difficult journey for women across Canada. Just in 1900, teaching was the only job available to Canadian women that led to a pension and married women were forced to resign. In 1904 there had been a strike that wanted employers to fire all women. A few years passing and in 1909, the criminal code is finally amended to make illegal the kidnapping of women. As the war started, some women gained the right to vote and made up a percentage of the workforce. Women felt more encouraged to join the labour force as child care centers and tax incentives were provided. In 1947, Canadian women who marry non-canadian men would no longer lose their citizenship. The current changes that had been made were significant to the overall expansion of women’s rights. Before World War One women were only told to raise their families and stay at home. Men were superior to women and women did not have any political privelleges. During the war, Women were finally given the chance to choose from a variety of different careers that they had before never gotten the chance to pursue. After the war, the men had returned and women were mostly laid off. This sparked the suffragist movement and this time period was greatly significant to the start of women’s rights. Some women had been granted the right to vote but by 1960, every Canadian was allowed to vote, this included Aboriginal women and men. Due to the countless women who fought for gender equality, Acts were passed. The Female Employees Equal Pay Act is very significant as in 1956 it officially made wage discrimination based on gender against the law. Women in Canada have been very strong and determined all throughout the twentieth century. Women’s rights have expanded since 1914 and it has all been possible due to the many Canadian women who did not give up the fight and due to this Canada has matured and allowed women to gain the respect they deserved and that led to the expansion of women’s rights in Canada. It is no doubt that Canadian history had been shaped by women and Canada acknowledges the efforts that led to change. There is now protection for women from discrimination by the Canadian Human Rights Act and The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada also submits a report to the United Nations every four years and discusses how it has worked to further the rights of women. | 1,472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Courtesy of: http://www.ancient-origins.net/
The Children of Woolpit is an ancient account dating back to the 12th century, which tells of two children that appeared on the edge of a field in the village of Woolpit in England. The young girl and boy had green-hued skin and spoke an unknown language. The children became sick and the boy died, but the girl recovered and over the years came to learn English. She later relayed the story of their origins, saying they came from a place called St Martin’s Land, which existed in an atmosphere of permanent twilight, and where the people lived underground. While some view the story as a folk tale that that describes an imaginary encounter with inhabitants of another world beneath our feet or even extraterrestrial, others accept it as a real, but somewhat altered account of a historical event that merits further investigation.
The account is set in the village of Woolpit located in Suffolk, East Anglia. In the Middle Ages, it lay within the most agriculturally productive and densely populated area of rural England. The village had belonged to the rich and powerful Abbey of Bury St. Edmunds.
The story was recorded by two 12th century chroniclers – Ralph of Coggestall (died c 1228 AD), an abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Coggeshall (about 26 miles / 42 km south of Woolpit), who recorded his account of the green children in the Chronicon Anglicanum (English Chronicle); and William of Newburgh (1136-1198 AD), an English historian and canon at the Augustinian Newburgh Priory, far to the north in Yorkshire, who includes the story of the green children in his main work Historia rerum Anglicarum (History of English Affairs). The writers stated that the events took place within the reign of King Stephen (1135-54) or King Henry II (1154-1189), depending on which version of the story you read.
The Story of the Green Children
According to the account of the green children, a boy and his sister were found by reapers working their fields at harvest time near some ditches that had been excavated to trap wolves at St Mary’s of the Wolf Pits (Woolpit). Their skin was tinged with a green hue, their clothes were made from unfamiliar materials, and their speech was unintelligible to the reapers. They were taken to the village, where they were eventually accepted into the home of local landowner, Sir Richard de Caine at Wilkes.
The children would not eat any food presented to them but appeared starving. Eventually, the villagers brought round recently harvested beans, which the children devoured. They survived only on beans for many months until they acquired a taste for bread.
The boy became sick and soon succumbed to illness and died, while the girl remained in good health and eventually lost her green-tinged skin. She learned how to speak English and was later married to a man at King’s Lynn, in the neighboring county of Norfolk. According to some accounts, she took the name ‘Agnes Barre’ and the man she married was an ambassador of Henry II, although these details have not been verified. After she learned how to speak English, she relayed the story of their origins.
A Strange Underground Land
The girl reported that she and her brother came from the “Land of Saint Martin”, where there was no sun, but a perpetual twilight, and all the inhabitants were green like them. She described another ‘luminous’ land that could be seen across a river.
She and her brother were looking after their father’s flock, when they came upon a cave. They entered the cave and wandered through the darkness for a long time until they came out the other side, entering into bright sunlight, which they found startling. It was then that they were found by the reapers.
Over the centuries, many theories have been put forward to explain this strange account. Regarding their green colouring, one proposal is that the children were suffering from Hypochromic Anemia, originally known as Chlorosis (coming from the Greek word ‘Chloris’, meaning greenish-yellow). The condition is caused by a very poor diet that affects the color of the red blood cells and results in a noticeably green shade of the skin. In support of this theory is the fact that the girl is described as returning to a normal color after adopting a healthy diet.
With regards to the description of the strange land, Paul Harris suggested in Fortean Studies 4 (1998) that the children were Flemish orphans, possibly from a nearby place known as Fornham St. Martin, which was separated from Woolpit by the River Lark. A lot of Flemish immigrants had arrived during the 12th century but were persecuted under the reign of King Henry II. In 1173, many were killed near Bury St Edmunds. If they had fled into Thetford Forest, it may have seemed like permanent twilight to the frightened children. They may also have entered one of the many underground mine passages in the area, which finally led them to Woolpit. Dressed in strange Flemish clothes and speaking another language, the children would have presented a very strange spectacle to the Woolpit villagers.
Other commentators have suggested a more ‘other-worldly’ origin for the children. Robert Burton suggested in his 1621 book ‘The Anatomy of Melancholy’ that the green children “fell from Heaven”, leading others to speculate that the children may have been extraterrestrials. In a 1996 article published in the magazine Analog, astronomer Duncan Lunan hypothesised that the children were accidentally transported to Woolpit from their home planet, which may be trapped in synchronous orbit around its sun, presenting the conditions for life only in a narrow twilight zone between a fiercely hot surface and a frozen dark side.
The story of the green children has endured for over eight centuries since the first recorded accounts. While the real facts behind the story may never be known, it has provided the inspiration for numerous poems, novels, operas, and plays across the world, and continues to capture the imagination of many curious minds.
Original article here. | <urn:uuid:7ad9b09e-fe53-41a2-b62a-234da6f22d1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://national-paranormal-society.org/the-green-children-of-woolpit-the-12th-century-legend-of-visitors-from-another-world/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.98369 | 1,305 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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The Children of Woolpit is an ancient account dating back to the 12th century, which tells of two children that appeared on the edge of a field in the village of Woolpit in England. The young girl and boy had green-hued skin and spoke an unknown language. The children became sick and the boy died, but the girl recovered and over the years came to learn English. She later relayed the story of their origins, saying they came from a place called St Martin’s Land, which existed in an atmosphere of permanent twilight, and where the people lived underground. While some view the story as a folk tale that that describes an imaginary encounter with inhabitants of another world beneath our feet or even extraterrestrial, others accept it as a real, but somewhat altered account of a historical event that merits further investigation.
The account is set in the village of Woolpit located in Suffolk, East Anglia. In the Middle Ages, it lay within the most agriculturally productive and densely populated area of rural England. The village had belonged to the rich and powerful Abbey of Bury St. Edmunds.
The story was recorded by two 12th century chroniclers – Ralph of Coggestall (died c 1228 AD), an abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Coggeshall (about 26 miles / 42 km south of Woolpit), who recorded his account of the green children in the Chronicon Anglicanum (English Chronicle); and William of Newburgh (1136-1198 AD), an English historian and canon at the Augustinian Newburgh Priory, far to the north in Yorkshire, who includes the story of the green children in his main work Historia rerum Anglicarum (History of English Affairs). The writers stated that the events took place within the reign of King Stephen (1135-54) or King Henry II (1154-1189), depending on which version of the story you read.
The Story of the Green Children
According to the account of the green children, a boy and his sister were found by reapers working their fields at harvest time near some ditches that had been excavated to trap wolves at St Mary’s of the Wolf Pits (Woolpit). Their skin was tinged with a green hue, their clothes were made from unfamiliar materials, and their speech was unintelligible to the reapers. They were taken to the village, where they were eventually accepted into the home of local landowner, Sir Richard de Caine at Wilkes.
The children would not eat any food presented to them but appeared starving. Eventually, the villagers brought round recently harvested beans, which the children devoured. They survived only on beans for many months until they acquired a taste for bread.
The boy became sick and soon succumbed to illness and died, while the girl remained in good health and eventually lost her green-tinged skin. She learned how to speak English and was later married to a man at King’s Lynn, in the neighboring county of Norfolk. According to some accounts, she took the name ‘Agnes Barre’ and the man she married was an ambassador of Henry II, although these details have not been verified. After she learned how to speak English, she relayed the story of their origins.
A Strange Underground Land
The girl reported that she and her brother came from the “Land of Saint Martin”, where there was no sun, but a perpetual twilight, and all the inhabitants were green like them. She described another ‘luminous’ land that could be seen across a river.
She and her brother were looking after their father’s flock, when they came upon a cave. They entered the cave and wandered through the darkness for a long time until they came out the other side, entering into bright sunlight, which they found startling. It was then that they were found by the reapers.
Over the centuries, many theories have been put forward to explain this strange account. Regarding their green colouring, one proposal is that the children were suffering from Hypochromic Anemia, originally known as Chlorosis (coming from the Greek word ‘Chloris’, meaning greenish-yellow). The condition is caused by a very poor diet that affects the color of the red blood cells and results in a noticeably green shade of the skin. In support of this theory is the fact that the girl is described as returning to a normal color after adopting a healthy diet.
With regards to the description of the strange land, Paul Harris suggested in Fortean Studies 4 (1998) that the children were Flemish orphans, possibly from a nearby place known as Fornham St. Martin, which was separated from Woolpit by the River Lark. A lot of Flemish immigrants had arrived during the 12th century but were persecuted under the reign of King Henry II. In 1173, many were killed near Bury St Edmunds. If they had fled into Thetford Forest, it may have seemed like permanent twilight to the frightened children. They may also have entered one of the many underground mine passages in the area, which finally led them to Woolpit. Dressed in strange Flemish clothes and speaking another language, the children would have presented a very strange spectacle to the Woolpit villagers.
Other commentators have suggested a more ‘other-worldly’ origin for the children. Robert Burton suggested in his 1621 book ‘The Anatomy of Melancholy’ that the green children “fell from Heaven”, leading others to speculate that the children may have been extraterrestrials. In a 1996 article published in the magazine Analog, astronomer Duncan Lunan hypothesised that the children were accidentally transported to Woolpit from their home planet, which may be trapped in synchronous orbit around its sun, presenting the conditions for life only in a narrow twilight zone between a fiercely hot surface and a frozen dark side.
The story of the green children has endured for over eight centuries since the first recorded accounts. While the real facts behind the story may never be known, it has provided the inspiration for numerous poems, novels, operas, and plays across the world, and continues to capture the imagination of many curious minds.
Original article here. | 1,304 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brigham Young Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Brigham Young was a leader in the Mormon church. He was the successor to Joseph Smith, the originator of the religion. Young was viewed by Mormon followers as the “American Moses” for leading them to Salt Lake City, Utah. They considered it to be their promised land. He was a proponent of polygamy, which was deemed to be controversial even then.
Brigham Young was born in Whitingham, Vermont on June 1, 1801. His father was John Young, and his mother was Abigail “Nabby” Howe. Young was said to have had only 11 days of formal education. He worked as a blacksmith, carpenter, joiner, painter, and glazier before joining the Mormon church in 1832. He became a missionary in Upper Canada, and then he and other Mormons founded a community in Kirtland, Ohio.
Leadership in the Mormon Church
Brigham Young was made a member of the first Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in 1835. As part of his leadership duties, he was responsible for spreading Mormonism to the United Kingdom.
Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon religion, was in jail pending trial for treason when he was killed by an angry mob in 1844. This power vacuum left the church unsettled. There were arguments as to who would take Smith’s place as the church president. The primary dispute settled between a man named Sidney Rigdon and Brigham Young.
Rigdon claimed that no one could take the place of their prophet. No one could be president in his place. Instead, there should be a “protector.” Young claimed that Smith had said the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles was equal to the power of the president; therefore, the leadership should come from there.
Rigdon left to form his branch of the church, and Brigham Young became the next president of the Mormon church in 1847. From that point on, a new procedure for choosing a successor had been established.
Conflicts with authorities and others led Brigham Young to move the congregation out West. They settled in what is now Utah. Then, it was part of Mexico. He organized the trek, stopping at Winter Quarters, Nebraska in 1846, and making a final stop at Salt Lake Valley in 1847. By the time they reached the valley, the territory was now in American hands after the war with Mexico. This was not made official until 1848, however.
While in the territory, Brigham Young made waves. He was a supporter of slavery, and in 1850, he attempted to revise laws to make it easier to engage in the “Indian slave trade” at the time. On a more positive note, in 1850, Young arranged the Board of Regents to start what he called the University of Deseret. It would later be called the University of Utah.
President Millard Fillmore appointed Brigham Young as the first governor of the territory and superintendent of American Indian affairs in 1851. Young oversaw the creation of forts, roads, bridges, and irrigation projects. He also organised a militia, made peace treaties with Native Americans, and supported the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad.
Lastly, in his duties as governor, he established the legislature and the capital city of the territory. In part, these accomplishments were a part of his political position, but they were also done to further his religion’s progress out West. Much later, in 1875, Young created a branch of his University of Deseret in Provo. Later, the school established its own identity and was called Brigham Young Academy. It is known today as Brigham Young University.
Brigham Young did not step down gracefully as governor. President James Buchanan received complaints of widespread obstruction of federal officials in Utah. The president decided to replace Young with a secular governor. The new governor was sent, along with troops should the situation not go smoothly. Young did not take the news well. After a protracted battle, Young arranged to burn down Salt Lake City and move his people to Mexico. Fortunately, he changed his mind in the end. He stepped down, and Buchanan eventually pardoned him.
One of the core doctrines of Mormonism, according to Brigham Young, was the godhood of Adam. He claimed that Adam was our God, but that he and Eve ate the fruit of the tree in the Garden of Eden. This made them mortal. They gave birth to the race of man and returned to heaven where Adam is the god of this world. Besides, Adam was the physical father of Jesus.
Another of Young’s teachings had to do with race. He taught that men of African descent were the descendants of Cain. According to him, their skin color was the “mark of Cain.” Previously, Joseph Smith had treated them as equals when it came to the priesthood. Young changed this. He banned black men from the priesthood (women were never allowed into the priesthood) because of their association with Cain. Young went so far as to place a death penalty on interracial couples who had children. These teachings were not reversed until 1978.
Brigham Young is better known for the practice of polygamy than his predecessor, Joseph Smith because Young was the first head of the church to make a public statement about the practice. Polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse (in this case, wife). It is said that Brigham Young had 55 wives and 56 children. | <urn:uuid:28609cff-e48a-4bac-bd97-0887df1b40c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/brigham-young/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.988172 | 1,140 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.02893306873738765... | 8 | Brigham Young Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Brigham Young was a leader in the Mormon church. He was the successor to Joseph Smith, the originator of the religion. Young was viewed by Mormon followers as the “American Moses” for leading them to Salt Lake City, Utah. They considered it to be their promised land. He was a proponent of polygamy, which was deemed to be controversial even then.
Brigham Young was born in Whitingham, Vermont on June 1, 1801. His father was John Young, and his mother was Abigail “Nabby” Howe. Young was said to have had only 11 days of formal education. He worked as a blacksmith, carpenter, joiner, painter, and glazier before joining the Mormon church in 1832. He became a missionary in Upper Canada, and then he and other Mormons founded a community in Kirtland, Ohio.
Leadership in the Mormon Church
Brigham Young was made a member of the first Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in 1835. As part of his leadership duties, he was responsible for spreading Mormonism to the United Kingdom.
Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon religion, was in jail pending trial for treason when he was killed by an angry mob in 1844. This power vacuum left the church unsettled. There were arguments as to who would take Smith’s place as the church president. The primary dispute settled between a man named Sidney Rigdon and Brigham Young.
Rigdon claimed that no one could take the place of their prophet. No one could be president in his place. Instead, there should be a “protector.” Young claimed that Smith had said the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles was equal to the power of the president; therefore, the leadership should come from there.
Rigdon left to form his branch of the church, and Brigham Young became the next president of the Mormon church in 1847. From that point on, a new procedure for choosing a successor had been established.
Conflicts with authorities and others led Brigham Young to move the congregation out West. They settled in what is now Utah. Then, it was part of Mexico. He organized the trek, stopping at Winter Quarters, Nebraska in 1846, and making a final stop at Salt Lake Valley in 1847. By the time they reached the valley, the territory was now in American hands after the war with Mexico. This was not made official until 1848, however.
While in the territory, Brigham Young made waves. He was a supporter of slavery, and in 1850, he attempted to revise laws to make it easier to engage in the “Indian slave trade” at the time. On a more positive note, in 1850, Young arranged the Board of Regents to start what he called the University of Deseret. It would later be called the University of Utah.
President Millard Fillmore appointed Brigham Young as the first governor of the territory and superintendent of American Indian affairs in 1851. Young oversaw the creation of forts, roads, bridges, and irrigation projects. He also organised a militia, made peace treaties with Native Americans, and supported the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad.
Lastly, in his duties as governor, he established the legislature and the capital city of the territory. In part, these accomplishments were a part of his political position, but they were also done to further his religion’s progress out West. Much later, in 1875, Young created a branch of his University of Deseret in Provo. Later, the school established its own identity and was called Brigham Young Academy. It is known today as Brigham Young University.
Brigham Young did not step down gracefully as governor. President James Buchanan received complaints of widespread obstruction of federal officials in Utah. The president decided to replace Young with a secular governor. The new governor was sent, along with troops should the situation not go smoothly. Young did not take the news well. After a protracted battle, Young arranged to burn down Salt Lake City and move his people to Mexico. Fortunately, he changed his mind in the end. He stepped down, and Buchanan eventually pardoned him.
One of the core doctrines of Mormonism, according to Brigham Young, was the godhood of Adam. He claimed that Adam was our God, but that he and Eve ate the fruit of the tree in the Garden of Eden. This made them mortal. They gave birth to the race of man and returned to heaven where Adam is the god of this world. Besides, Adam was the physical father of Jesus.
Another of Young’s teachings had to do with race. He taught that men of African descent were the descendants of Cain. According to him, their skin color was the “mark of Cain.” Previously, Joseph Smith had treated them as equals when it came to the priesthood. Young changed this. He banned black men from the priesthood (women were never allowed into the priesthood) because of their association with Cain. Young went so far as to place a death penalty on interracial couples who had children. These teachings were not reversed until 1978.
Brigham Young is better known for the practice of polygamy than his predecessor, Joseph Smith because Young was the first head of the church to make a public statement about the practice. Polygamy is the practice of having more than one spouse (in this case, wife). It is said that Brigham Young had 55 wives and 56 children. | 1,162 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Federalism, being the most powerful organization politically, wanted to minimize the powers of the central government. Federalists were mostly producers and businessmen. These included men such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Anti federalists took to farming instead of business, such were people like George Mason. When the constitution was being brought to the fore, they were totally against it more so the omission of the bill of rights. The argument, though interesting and with a lot of heat besides revolving around how much power the central government should have went round and round. But with all these taking place eleven states approved the draft which contained a new system of government for the United States (George and Barber 144).
Buy Federalist vs. Anti-federalist Perspectives on the Constitution essay paper online
While federalists were serious putting down their writings and bringing together their efforts with an aim to ratify the constitution, many scholars and elites were questioning and raising opposition on the same. They were greatly fearful about the majority rights being unprotected. Commonly referred to as anti federalists, they perceived themselves as people who were patriotic with the same urge that commenced with revolution (Ball 42). Partially led by Thomas Jefferson, anti federalists were a wide variety of individuals. They stood their grounds that the constitution will allow too much authority to the federal government rather than to let states make sole decisions.
Anti federalists considered shouldering act of being responsible on persons and not the kingdom and as such considered people as honest and decent. They felt that federalist image of government would result to dictatorship and greed for power. The head of state, they observed, would resemble the king they had done away with. In the same breath, they were interested about the affluent benefiting much more than the less fortunate just as the inequality among big and small states (Ball 43). Anti federalists observed that many people lost their lives owing to the war with England. Therefore, they saw the need for bill of rights which they fought hard to get during revolutionary. The federalists felt that individuals needed to be put under checks while anti federalists saw no need for that and this brought out the differences between these two. Federalists papers were put down fashionably while anti federalists saw no need for that and this saw them on the receiving end as the language used appeared bogus. From anti federalist perspective, failing to reach a consensus over which rights to be put under close watch was an idea against central authority and not against bill of rights. Therefore, if knowledge of political matters in the then thirteen states was differing that an agreement was far from being reached on common matters, there was no need for the two to have a common authority, anti federalists observed (George and Barber 150).
Other propositions from the federalists against having the bill of rights were by far not addressing the anti federalists needs because they were purely based on guess work that constitution were basically laws. One James Wilson observed that, the united state constitution gave little power to central government compared to state constitution. Central government would only get powers given and power to control speech among others. With bill of rights having powers exempted, it simply will mean that, central government has all powers. Instead of reducing power, bill of right would increase power on the central authority (George and Barber 151). As the expression of differences escalated, ant federalists had another view altogether. They argued that it’s not the authority alone to have power emanating from people instantly but individuals as well should put arrangement in place of bringing power together far from government. In short they observed that, central authority should be in such a way that its effectiveness would lie with their motivating the common people. In the same manner, anti federalists were urging to maintain and add more power on systems to allow individuals to boldly face the central government. They were totally against too much power on the central government. The society, they said, should give its power on credit to the authority in question without being seen as surrendering (George and Barber 152).
In the end, the anti federalists were for the idea that, the power for opposition must go hand in hand with authority power. The federalists on the other hand could no longer come into terms to such owing to the fact that theirs was to appear an outstanding power on the greater picture, the United States saw the need to come up with government that brought no havocs and that would regulate the country. All in all, the federalists appeared to have won, in their wish to form a government with power enough to demand respect from the one they had discarded (George and Barber 152).
The lesson we all seem to learn from federalists throws a challenge to look into affairs between central authority and its people in the perspective of powers as well as rights. The anti federalists assist our perception of putting issues in general and put straight what we feel should be addressed. Thus, the argument between federalists and ant federalist over what is to process a constitution brings to the fore what any intellect would address regarding citizens and power of the government in American constitution. Eventually, the constitution was reached upon through much deliberation, compromise and commitment.
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0.0455337315797805... | 1 | Federalism, being the most powerful organization politically, wanted to minimize the powers of the central government. Federalists were mostly producers and businessmen. These included men such as Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Anti federalists took to farming instead of business, such were people like George Mason. When the constitution was being brought to the fore, they were totally against it more so the omission of the bill of rights. The argument, though interesting and with a lot of heat besides revolving around how much power the central government should have went round and round. But with all these taking place eleven states approved the draft which contained a new system of government for the United States (George and Barber 144).
Buy Federalist vs. Anti-federalist Perspectives on the Constitution essay paper online
While federalists were serious putting down their writings and bringing together their efforts with an aim to ratify the constitution, many scholars and elites were questioning and raising opposition on the same. They were greatly fearful about the majority rights being unprotected. Commonly referred to as anti federalists, they perceived themselves as people who were patriotic with the same urge that commenced with revolution (Ball 42). Partially led by Thomas Jefferson, anti federalists were a wide variety of individuals. They stood their grounds that the constitution will allow too much authority to the federal government rather than to let states make sole decisions.
Anti federalists considered shouldering act of being responsible on persons and not the kingdom and as such considered people as honest and decent. They felt that federalist image of government would result to dictatorship and greed for power. The head of state, they observed, would resemble the king they had done away with. In the same breath, they were interested about the affluent benefiting much more than the less fortunate just as the inequality among big and small states (Ball 43). Anti federalists observed that many people lost their lives owing to the war with England. Therefore, they saw the need for bill of rights which they fought hard to get during revolutionary. The federalists felt that individuals needed to be put under checks while anti federalists saw no need for that and this brought out the differences between these two. Federalists papers were put down fashionably while anti federalists saw no need for that and this saw them on the receiving end as the language used appeared bogus. From anti federalist perspective, failing to reach a consensus over which rights to be put under close watch was an idea against central authority and not against bill of rights. Therefore, if knowledge of political matters in the then thirteen states was differing that an agreement was far from being reached on common matters, there was no need for the two to have a common authority, anti federalists observed (George and Barber 150).
Other propositions from the federalists against having the bill of rights were by far not addressing the anti federalists needs because they were purely based on guess work that constitution were basically laws. One James Wilson observed that, the united state constitution gave little power to central government compared to state constitution. Central government would only get powers given and power to control speech among others. With bill of rights having powers exempted, it simply will mean that, central government has all powers. Instead of reducing power, bill of right would increase power on the central authority (George and Barber 151). As the expression of differences escalated, ant federalists had another view altogether. They argued that it’s not the authority alone to have power emanating from people instantly but individuals as well should put arrangement in place of bringing power together far from government. In short they observed that, central authority should be in such a way that its effectiveness would lie with their motivating the common people. In the same manner, anti federalists were urging to maintain and add more power on systems to allow individuals to boldly face the central government. They were totally against too much power on the central government. The society, they said, should give its power on credit to the authority in question without being seen as surrendering (George and Barber 152).
In the end, the anti federalists were for the idea that, the power for opposition must go hand in hand with authority power. The federalists on the other hand could no longer come into terms to such owing to the fact that theirs was to appear an outstanding power on the greater picture, the United States saw the need to come up with government that brought no havocs and that would regulate the country. All in all, the federalists appeared to have won, in their wish to form a government with power enough to demand respect from the one they had discarded (George and Barber 152).
The lesson we all seem to learn from federalists throws a challenge to look into affairs between central authority and its people in the perspective of powers as well as rights. The anti federalists assist our perception of putting issues in general and put straight what we feel should be addressed. Thus, the argument between federalists and ant federalist over what is to process a constitution brings to the fore what any intellect would address regarding citizens and power of the government in American constitution. Eventually, the constitution was reached upon through much deliberation, compromise and commitment.
Most popular orders | 1,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Smithills Hall, Bolton
The hall – one of the oldest in Lancashire – has a footprint in its flagstones said to have been created when a protestant martyr was interrogated at the hall. The footprint is said to become bloody on the anniversary of his martyrdom.
George Marsh was a protestant martyr who was burned at the stake in 1555 during Bloody Mary’s reign. Captured during those predominantly Catholic times, he was brought to the hall by its owner, a magistrate called Mr Barton. During his interrogation it is reputed that he stamped his foot on the floor and prayed that a mark should be left there to show the injustice of his accusers. The depression in the flag miraculously appeared, and after his death his spectre was said to wander the hall. Another tradition suggests that some young men from the Barton family threw the flag with the footprint into the local stream. This act caused such disturbing poltergeist activity that it had to be replaced. A tradition that has echoes with that of the screaming skulls found in other parts of the country.
The footprint can still be seen today, and according to Nathaniel Hawthorn in his book Septimius 1872, the footprint becomes blood wet every year at the time of his interrogation.
There are many similar folktales throughout Britain concerned with bloody footprints, bloodstains and other features left when a religious activist were martyred for their religious (and political) views. These indelible marks originate form both the Catholics and Protestants, depending on the politics of the country at that time. | <urn:uuid:72f338bc-99c7-43ae-9baa-d60884637dd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/hauntings/smithills-hall-bolton/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.988735 | 319 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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The hall – one of the oldest in Lancashire – has a footprint in its flagstones said to have been created when a protestant martyr was interrogated at the hall. The footprint is said to become bloody on the anniversary of his martyrdom.
George Marsh was a protestant martyr who was burned at the stake in 1555 during Bloody Mary’s reign. Captured during those predominantly Catholic times, he was brought to the hall by its owner, a magistrate called Mr Barton. During his interrogation it is reputed that he stamped his foot on the floor and prayed that a mark should be left there to show the injustice of his accusers. The depression in the flag miraculously appeared, and after his death his spectre was said to wander the hall. Another tradition suggests that some young men from the Barton family threw the flag with the footprint into the local stream. This act caused such disturbing poltergeist activity that it had to be replaced. A tradition that has echoes with that of the screaming skulls found in other parts of the country.
The footprint can still be seen today, and according to Nathaniel Hawthorn in his book Septimius 1872, the footprint becomes blood wet every year at the time of his interrogation.
There are many similar folktales throughout Britain concerned with bloody footprints, bloodstains and other features left when a religious activist were martyred for their religious (and political) views. These indelible marks originate form both the Catholics and Protestants, depending on the politics of the country at that time. | 321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
i) Early centuries
Treatment of workers in the Roman Empire
Ancient Rome was a slave society. Hopkins was the first to assert that Rome was one of only five slave societies in recorded history, a view adopted quickly by Finley.
Wages vary in a labor market by skill as well as by location. Almost all workers have skills, basic skills of agriculture and often more advanced skills as well. Economists call these skills human
capital. Most ancient workers had few skills, including the ability to read, that is, little human capital. Craftsmen and some agricultural workers had competencies that did not depend on literacy and would receive a higher wage in a rural labor market for them. But these skills would not earn much, if anything, in urban areas.
Wages in such a system would not reach equality for similar skills, and most workers would not feel free to look around for a more lucrative activity. Free urban workers in the early Roman empire were paid for their work and were able to change their economic activities. Hereditary barriers were nonexistent, and Roman guilds do not appear to have been restrictive. Workers in large enterprises, like mines and galleys, were paid wages, as in more modern labor markets.
Workers engaged in more skilled and complex tasks received more elaborate compensation, probably for longer units of time than those doing wage labor, again as in more modern labor markets, even though explicit long-term contracts were not yet established. The force of competition under those circumstances probably brought wages and labor productivity into the same ballpark.
Some of the work in the early Roman empire was done for wages and some under the duress of slavery.
Treatment of slaves
Slavery in ancient Rome differed from its modern forms in that it was not based on race. But like modern slavery, it was an abusive and degrading institution. Cruelty was commonplace. In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery.
When the Romans conquered the Mediterranean, they took millions of slaves to Italy, where they toiled on the large plantations or in the houses and workplaces of wealthy citizens. The Italian economy depended on abundant slave labor, with slaves constituting 40 percent of the population. Enslaved people with talent, skill, or beauty commanded the highest prices, and many served as singers, scribes, jewelers, bartenders, and even doctors. One slave trained in medicine was worth the price of 50 agricultural slaves.
Roman law was inconsistent on slavery. Slaves were considered property; they had no rights and were subject to their owners’ whims. However, they had legal standing as witnesses in courtroom proceedings, and they could eventually gain freedom and citizenship. Masters often freed loyal slaves in gratitude for their faithful service, but slaves could also save money to purchase their freedom. Conditions for slaves in Rome gradually improved, although slaves were treated cruelly in the countryside.
Some harsh masters believed in the old proverb “Every slave is an enemy,” so that while humane legislation prohibited the mutilation or murder of slaves, outrageous cruelty continued. Like the Stoic philosophers, Christians taught the brotherhood of humanity and urged kindness towards slaves, but they did not consider slaves equals in status.
For example, Saint Augustine opposed the principle of slavery, but did not see how the practice could be abolished without endangering the social order. Thus he regarded it as another necessary evil resulting from humanity’s fall from divine grace. Other bishops were less troubled, and the early Christian church actually acquired its own slaves.
Slavery in the Roman Empire did not suddenly end, but it was slowly replaced when new economic forces introduced other forms of cheap labor. During the late empire, Roman farmers and traders were reluctant to pay large amounts of money for slaves because they did not wish to invest in a declining economy. The legal status of “slave” continued for centuries, but slaves were gradually replaced by wage laborers in the towns and by land-bound peasants (later called serfs) in the countryside. These types of workers provided cheap labor without the initial cost that slave owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle, but because the Romans found another, perhaps even harsher, system of labor.
All slaves and their families were the property of their owners, who could sell or rent them out at any time. Their lives were harsh. Slaves were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated. Their owners could also kill them for any reason, and would face no punishment. Although Romans accepted slavery as the norm, some people.
Slaves worked everywhere – in private households, in mines and factories, and on farms. They also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and buildings.
Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills.
Monasteries and convents
In English usage, the term monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics (nuns), particularly communities of teaching or nursing religious sisters.
What was a Monastery?
A monastery was a building, or buildings, where people lived and worshiped, devoting their time and life to God. The people who lived in the monastery were called monks. The monastery was self contained, meaning everything the monks needed was provided by the monastery community. They made their own clothes and grew their own food. They had no need for the outside world. This way they could be somewhat isolated and could focus on God. There were monasteries spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages.
Why were they important?
The monks in the monasteries were some of the only people in the Middle Ages who knew how to read and write. They provided education to the rest of the world. The monks also wrote books and recorded events. If it wasn’t for these books, we would know very little about what happened during the Middle Ages.
The Monks Helped People
Although the monks were focused on God and the monastery, they still played an important part in the community. Monasteries were a place where travelers could stay during the Middle Ages as there were very few inns during that time. They also helped to feed the poor, take care of the sick, and provided education to boys in the local community. Monks and nuns performed many practical services in the Middle Ages, for they housed travelers, nursed the sick, and assisted the poor; abbots and abbesses dispensed advice to secular rulers. But monasticism also offered society a spiritual outlet and ideal with important consequences for medieval culture as a whole. Monasteries encouraged literacy, promoted learning, and preserved the of ancient literature, including the works of Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, and Aristotle. To beautify the celebration of the monastic composers enriched the scope and sophistication of choral music, and to create the best environment for devotion, monasticism developed a close and fruitful partnership with the visual arts. The need for books and buildings made religious houses active patrons of the arts, and the monastic obligation to perform manual work allowed many monks and nuns to serve God as creative artists.
Daily Life in the Monastery
The majority of the monk’s day in the Middle Ages was spent praying, worshiping in church, reading the Bible, and meditating. The rest of the day was spent working hard on chores around the Monastery. The monks would have different jobs depending on their talents and interests. Some worked the land farming food for the other monks to eat. Others washed the clothes, cooked the food, or did repairs around the monastery. Some monks were scribes and would spend their day copying manuscripts and making books.
(ii) Middle Ages
Craft guilds /unions in Europe
Guilds are defined as associations of craftsmen and merchants formed to promote the economic interests of their members as well as to provide protection and mutual aid. As both business and social organizations, guilds were prolific throughout Europe between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. A significant part of the skilled labor force in medieval cities was structured around the organization of guilds, which provided economic, educational, social and religious functions. The study of guilds provides opportunities for teaching several key economic concepts in a historical context, including specialization, division of labor, productivity, human capital (skills or education), monopoly power, economic systems, and labor unions.
Functions of Guilds
Guilds served a wide variety of economic, social, and religious functions. An overview of these functions is provided in Table 1. Guilds helped to advance and expand the economies of the era by providing education and training for apprentices and by helping journeymen improve
their skills. The specialization within a trade provided by the guild structure, along with the training and skills, led to increased productivity, increased wages, and higher standards of living. Guilds became a major source of employment for workers in cities, and guild membership was widespread.
Guilds functioned as local monopolies. In classic monopolistic style, they sought to raise wages through increased profits by limiting the quantity of goods and services produced and by controlling prices. Guild membership was limited so as not to flood markets with products and cause prices to fall. In hard economic times when demand was low, fewer journeymen would become masters and fewer apprentices would become journeymen. When times were better and demand for goods and services was higher, promotions within guilds were more common.
Guilds also controlled the quality of goods produced, realizing that it was in their self-interest as well as that of consumers to produce high quality products. Guilds relied on cooperation among their members to achieve their common goals, and low quality products were not tolerated because all guild members would suffer.
Guilds often had a great deal of influence over local governments. Guild leaders, especially those of powerful merchant guilds, frequently also served as local government officials. This situation enabled guilds to have legislation passed in their favor. Guilds also helped member families in need, and performed functions such as paying for burials and dowries for poorer families. When the Black Death caused the population of Europe to plummet during the fourteenth century, guilds became extended families for plague survivors. Guilds also served
important religious functions for their members. They worked to achieve eternal salvation for members by encouraging prayer for living and dead members, church attendance, and pious behavior.
(iii) Industrial Age (18th – 20th)
The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and America became industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 1700s, manufacturing was often done in people’s homes, using hand tools or basic machines.
Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production. The iron and textile industries, along with the development of the steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved systems of transportation, communication and banking.
- Due to a high unemployment rate, workers were very easily replaceable and had no bargaining power with employers. There was an increase in population and landowners enclosed common village lands, forcing people from the country to go find work.
- Wages were very low, women and children received less than half the wages of men and had to work the same amount of time.
- There were no unions that could represent workers and the Combination Acts outlawed unionizing or protesting for better Industrial Revolution working condition
- Most people worked between 12 and 16 hours per day, six days a week, without any paid holidays or vacation.
- Safety hazards were everywhere, machines didn’t have any safety covers or fences and children as young as 5 years old were operating them. Iron workers worked in temperatures of 130 degrees and higher every day. Accidents on the job happened regularly.
- People did not have many break times, there was usually only one hour-long break per day
- Factories were dusty, dirty and dark – the only light source was sunlight that came in through a few windows. Because the machines ran on steam from fires, there was smoke everywhere. Many people ended up with eye problems and lung diseases.
- Small children had to work in coal mines without candles (if the family was too poor to buy candles) and were beaten by miners if they fell asleep. Young girls had to pull sledges or carts with coal all day long, deforming their pelvic bones and causing a lot of deaths during childbirth.
- Children did not get any sunlight, physical activity (apart from work) or education, which led to deformities and a shorter than average length.
- Should someone get injured on the job and be unable to work, they would be abandoned, wages would be stopped immediately and no medical attendance would be given to them. Injured workers usually lost their jobs and did not get any compensation.
- Unlike the country life they were used to, work in a factory was fast-paced and focused on production. No chit chat was allowed and those who still had family in rural areas could not head home to help with the harvest if they wanted to keep their jobs.
The role played by some Christians to improve working conditions during the industrial age
Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of Shaftesbury 1801-1885, a philanthropist, was the eldest son of the sixth earl, and of Anne, fourth daughter of the third Duke of Marlborough. He was born on 28 April 1801 at 24 Grosvenor Square, London, his father being then a younger brother of the family, but when his father succeeded to the title and estates in 1811 his home was at St. Giles in Dorsetshire, the family seat. He was educated at Harrow, and at Christ Church, Oxford, and obtained a first class in classics in 1822. In 1832 he took his degree of M.A., and in 1841 he was made D.C.L.
He entered parliament as Lord Ashley in 1826 as member for Woodstock, the pocket borough of the Marlborough family, and gave a general support to the governments of Liverpool and Canning. He was returned for Dorchester in 1830 and 1831, and sat for Dorset from 1831 to 1846. His first speech was an earnest pleading in favour of a proposed grant to the family of Mr. Canning, after his sudden death.
The first social abuse that roused the interest of Ashley was the treatment of lunatics. In 1828, Mr. Gordon, a benevolent member of parliament, obtained a committee to inquire into the subject; Ashley’s interest was awakened, and he was himself named a member of the committee. Not content with official inquiries, he did much by personal visitation to ascertain the real condition of lunatics in confinement, and saw such distressing evidence of ill-treatment that next year he brought in a bill to amend the law in one particular. All the rest of his life he continued, as one of the commissioners in lunacy, to interest himself in the subject, and before his death he had secured a complete reform of the Lunacy Acts, and effected an untold improvement in the condition of the unfortunate class who had formerly been treated with so much severity and cruelty. This may be ranked as the first of his services to philanthropy.
His next effort was to reform the law relating to the employment of workers in mills and factories. About the time when he entered parliament the condition of the workers in factories, and especially the children, had begun to attract the earnest attention of some. In parliament Mr. M. T. Sadler and Mr. Oastler took up the matter warmly; Mr. Sadler, in particular, as Shaftesbury afterwards said with much generosity, ‘maintained the cause in parliament with unrivalled eloquence and energy.’ Mr. Sadler having lost his seat at the election in 1833 the charge of the movement was entrusted to Ashley. His proposal that the period of labour should be limited to ten hours a day met at first with the fiercest opposition. A bill which he introduced was so emasculated by the government that he threw it over on them; it was ultimately carried, but was not satisfactory.
A deep impression was produced by Ashley in describing visits paid by him to hospitals in Lancashire, where he found many workers who had been crippled and mutilated under the conditions of their work; they presented every variety of distorted form, ‘just like a crooked alphabet.’ Returning afterwards to the subject, he showed the enormous evils and miseries which the existing system was producing; but the government would not move. So late as 1844 his proposal for a limit of ten hours was rejected. It was not till 1847, when Ashley was out of parliament, that the bill was carried. The operation of the act has proved most satisfactory, and many who at first were most vehement opponents afterwards came to acknowledge the magnitude of the improvement. At many times in the subsequent part of Ashley’s life he got the factory acts amended and extended. New industries were brought within their scope. He always maintained that he would never rest till the protection of the law should be extended to the whole mass of workers.
During this struggle collieries and mines engaged his attention. Here, too, the evils brought to light, especially with respect to women and children, were appalling. Many women were found to be working in dismal underground situations, in such a way as tended to degrade them to the level of brutes. Children, sometimes not over four or five years of age, were found toiling in the dark, in some cases so long as eighteen hours a day, dragged from bed at four in the morning, and so utterly wearied out that instruction, either on week days or Sundays, was utterly out of the question. Often they were attached by chain and girdle to trucks which they had to drag on all-fours through the workings to the shaft. The opposition were struck dumb by these revelations. An act was passed in 1842 under Ashley’s care abolishing the system of apprenticeship, which had led to fearful abuses, and excluding women and boys under thirteen from employment underground.
The treatment of ‘climbing boys,’ as the apprentices of chimney-sweepers were called, was another of the abuses which he set himself to remedy. If the evil here was not so glaring as in the factories and pits, it was only because the occupation was more limited. Ashley obtained an act for the protection of the apprentices, and many years afterwards, when some laxity in the administration was discovered, took steps to have it more rigidly enforced.
The country was greatly agitated at this time on the subject of the corn laws. Hitherto Ashley had acted generally with the conservative party, but believing that a change in the corn laws was necessary, he resigned his seat for Dorset in January 1846, and for a time was out of parliament. In the next parliament he was returned (30 July 1817) for the city of Bath. The leisure which he obtained by retiring from parliament was turned by him to account in visiting the slums of London and acquiring a more full acquaintance with the condition of the working classes. A statement of some of his experiences in this field was given in an article in the Quarterly Review for December 1846. His interest was especially intensified in two movements: the education of the neglected poor, and the improvement of the dwellings of the people.
The movement for ‘ragged schools,’ as they were now called, or ‘industrial feeding schools,’ as Mr. Sheriff Watson of Aberdeen had proposed to call them, had already been inaugurated in the northern kingdom. Ashley became the champion of the cause in parliament. In 1848 he told the House of Commons that ten thousand children had been got into ragged schools, who, there was every reason to hope, would be reclaimed. For thirty-nine years he held the office of chairman of the Ragged School Union, and during that time as many as three hundred thousand children were brought under the influence of the society. The Shoeblack Brigade was the result of another effort for the same class. At one time it numbered 306 members, and its earnings in one year were £12,000. The Refuge and Reformatory Union was a kindred movement; ultimately it came to have 589 homes, accommodating fifty thousand children. Lord Palmerston’s bill for the care and reformation of juvenile offenders, which has had so beneficial an influence, was a fruit of Shaftesbury’s influence.
Very early in his career he had become profoundly impressed with the important influence of the dwellings of the people on their habits and character. To the miserable condition of their homes he attributed two-thirds of the disorders that prevailed in the community. In 1851 he drew attention to the subject in the House of Lords. The Lodging House Act was passed, which Dickens described as the best piece of legislation that ever proceeded from the English parliament. This, however, represented but a small portion of his labours for the improvement of houses. The views which he so clearly and forcibly proclaimed led many to take practical steps to reform the abuse. The Peabody scheme was at least indirectly the fruit of his representations. On 3 August 1872 he laid the foundation-stone of buildings at Battersea, called the Shaftesbury Park Estate, containing twelve hundred houses, accommodating eight thousand people. On his own estate at Wimborne St. Giles he built a model village, where the cottages were furnished with all the appliances of civilised life, and each had its allotment of a quarter of an acre, the rent being only a shilling a week. As chairman of the central board of public health he effected many reforms, especially during the visitation of cholera in 1849. He was also chairman of a sanitary commission for the Crimea, in regard to which Miss Nightingale wrote that ‘it saved the British army.’
Shaftesbury retained a great part of the vigour both of his mind and body to very near the end of his life. The infirmities of old age showed themselves chiefly in gout and deafness. In the autumn of 1885 he went to Folkestone, but died of congestion of the lungs, 1 October 1885. He was lord-lieutenant of Dorset from 1856 till death. | <urn:uuid:fe0c6e7c-6dd6-4369-908d-e65c89e909ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.yaaka.cc/unit/cre2-working-in-a-changing-society-church-history/?id=68638 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.987582 | 4,740 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.4737480580806732... | 2 | i) Early centuries
Treatment of workers in the Roman Empire
Ancient Rome was a slave society. Hopkins was the first to assert that Rome was one of only five slave societies in recorded history, a view adopted quickly by Finley.
Wages vary in a labor market by skill as well as by location. Almost all workers have skills, basic skills of agriculture and often more advanced skills as well. Economists call these skills human
capital. Most ancient workers had few skills, including the ability to read, that is, little human capital. Craftsmen and some agricultural workers had competencies that did not depend on literacy and would receive a higher wage in a rural labor market for them. But these skills would not earn much, if anything, in urban areas.
Wages in such a system would not reach equality for similar skills, and most workers would not feel free to look around for a more lucrative activity. Free urban workers in the early Roman empire were paid for their work and were able to change their economic activities. Hereditary barriers were nonexistent, and Roman guilds do not appear to have been restrictive. Workers in large enterprises, like mines and galleys, were paid wages, as in more modern labor markets.
Workers engaged in more skilled and complex tasks received more elaborate compensation, probably for longer units of time than those doing wage labor, again as in more modern labor markets, even though explicit long-term contracts were not yet established. The force of competition under those circumstances probably brought wages and labor productivity into the same ballpark.
Some of the work in the early Roman empire was done for wages and some under the duress of slavery.
Treatment of slaves
Slavery in ancient Rome differed from its modern forms in that it was not based on race. But like modern slavery, it was an abusive and degrading institution. Cruelty was commonplace. In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery.
When the Romans conquered the Mediterranean, they took millions of slaves to Italy, where they toiled on the large plantations or in the houses and workplaces of wealthy citizens. The Italian economy depended on abundant slave labor, with slaves constituting 40 percent of the population. Enslaved people with talent, skill, or beauty commanded the highest prices, and many served as singers, scribes, jewelers, bartenders, and even doctors. One slave trained in medicine was worth the price of 50 agricultural slaves.
Roman law was inconsistent on slavery. Slaves were considered property; they had no rights and were subject to their owners’ whims. However, they had legal standing as witnesses in courtroom proceedings, and they could eventually gain freedom and citizenship. Masters often freed loyal slaves in gratitude for their faithful service, but slaves could also save money to purchase their freedom. Conditions for slaves in Rome gradually improved, although slaves were treated cruelly in the countryside.
Some harsh masters believed in the old proverb “Every slave is an enemy,” so that while humane legislation prohibited the mutilation or murder of slaves, outrageous cruelty continued. Like the Stoic philosophers, Christians taught the brotherhood of humanity and urged kindness towards slaves, but they did not consider slaves equals in status.
For example, Saint Augustine opposed the principle of slavery, but did not see how the practice could be abolished without endangering the social order. Thus he regarded it as another necessary evil resulting from humanity’s fall from divine grace. Other bishops were less troubled, and the early Christian church actually acquired its own slaves.
Slavery in the Roman Empire did not suddenly end, but it was slowly replaced when new economic forces introduced other forms of cheap labor. During the late empire, Roman farmers and traders were reluctant to pay large amounts of money for slaves because they did not wish to invest in a declining economy. The legal status of “slave” continued for centuries, but slaves were gradually replaced by wage laborers in the towns and by land-bound peasants (later called serfs) in the countryside. These types of workers provided cheap labor without the initial cost that slave owners had to pay for slaves. Slavery did not disappear in Rome because of human reform or religious principle, but because the Romans found another, perhaps even harsher, system of labor.
All slaves and their families were the property of their owners, who could sell or rent them out at any time. Their lives were harsh. Slaves were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated. Their owners could also kill them for any reason, and would face no punishment. Although Romans accepted slavery as the norm, some people.
Slaves worked everywhere – in private households, in mines and factories, and on farms. They also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and buildings.
Slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services, and might be employed at highly skilled jobs and professions. Accountants and physicians were often slaves. Slaves of Greek origin in particular might be highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills.
Monasteries and convents
In English usage, the term monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics (nuns), particularly communities of teaching or nursing religious sisters.
What was a Monastery?
A monastery was a building, or buildings, where people lived and worshiped, devoting their time and life to God. The people who lived in the monastery were called monks. The monastery was self contained, meaning everything the monks needed was provided by the monastery community. They made their own clothes and grew their own food. They had no need for the outside world. This way they could be somewhat isolated and could focus on God. There were monasteries spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages.
Why were they important?
The monks in the monasteries were some of the only people in the Middle Ages who knew how to read and write. They provided education to the rest of the world. The monks also wrote books and recorded events. If it wasn’t for these books, we would know very little about what happened during the Middle Ages.
The Monks Helped People
Although the monks were focused on God and the monastery, they still played an important part in the community. Monasteries were a place where travelers could stay during the Middle Ages as there were very few inns during that time. They also helped to feed the poor, take care of the sick, and provided education to boys in the local community. Monks and nuns performed many practical services in the Middle Ages, for they housed travelers, nursed the sick, and assisted the poor; abbots and abbesses dispensed advice to secular rulers. But monasticism also offered society a spiritual outlet and ideal with important consequences for medieval culture as a whole. Monasteries encouraged literacy, promoted learning, and preserved the of ancient literature, including the works of Cicero, Virgil, Ovid, and Aristotle. To beautify the celebration of the monastic composers enriched the scope and sophistication of choral music, and to create the best environment for devotion, monasticism developed a close and fruitful partnership with the visual arts. The need for books and buildings made religious houses active patrons of the arts, and the monastic obligation to perform manual work allowed many monks and nuns to serve God as creative artists.
Daily Life in the Monastery
The majority of the monk’s day in the Middle Ages was spent praying, worshiping in church, reading the Bible, and meditating. The rest of the day was spent working hard on chores around the Monastery. The monks would have different jobs depending on their talents and interests. Some worked the land farming food for the other monks to eat. Others washed the clothes, cooked the food, or did repairs around the monastery. Some monks were scribes and would spend their day copying manuscripts and making books.
(ii) Middle Ages
Craft guilds /unions in Europe
Guilds are defined as associations of craftsmen and merchants formed to promote the economic interests of their members as well as to provide protection and mutual aid. As both business and social organizations, guilds were prolific throughout Europe between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. A significant part of the skilled labor force in medieval cities was structured around the organization of guilds, which provided economic, educational, social and religious functions. The study of guilds provides opportunities for teaching several key economic concepts in a historical context, including specialization, division of labor, productivity, human capital (skills or education), monopoly power, economic systems, and labor unions.
Functions of Guilds
Guilds served a wide variety of economic, social, and religious functions. An overview of these functions is provided in Table 1. Guilds helped to advance and expand the economies of the era by providing education and training for apprentices and by helping journeymen improve
their skills. The specialization within a trade provided by the guild structure, along with the training and skills, led to increased productivity, increased wages, and higher standards of living. Guilds became a major source of employment for workers in cities, and guild membership was widespread.
Guilds functioned as local monopolies. In classic monopolistic style, they sought to raise wages through increased profits by limiting the quantity of goods and services produced and by controlling prices. Guild membership was limited so as not to flood markets with products and cause prices to fall. In hard economic times when demand was low, fewer journeymen would become masters and fewer apprentices would become journeymen. When times were better and demand for goods and services was higher, promotions within guilds were more common.
Guilds also controlled the quality of goods produced, realizing that it was in their self-interest as well as that of consumers to produce high quality products. Guilds relied on cooperation among their members to achieve their common goals, and low quality products were not tolerated because all guild members would suffer.
Guilds often had a great deal of influence over local governments. Guild leaders, especially those of powerful merchant guilds, frequently also served as local government officials. This situation enabled guilds to have legislation passed in their favor. Guilds also helped member families in need, and performed functions such as paying for burials and dowries for poorer families. When the Black Death caused the population of Europe to plummet during the fourteenth century, guilds became extended families for plague survivors. Guilds also served
important religious functions for their members. They worked to achieve eternal salvation for members by encouraging prayer for living and dead members, church attendance, and pious behavior.
(iii) Industrial Age (18th – 20th)
The Industrial Revolution, which took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, was a period during which predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and America became industrial and urban. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 1700s, manufacturing was often done in people’s homes, using hand tools or basic machines.
Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production. The iron and textile industries, along with the development of the steam engine, played central roles in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved systems of transportation, communication and banking.
- Due to a high unemployment rate, workers were very easily replaceable and had no bargaining power with employers. There was an increase in population and landowners enclosed common village lands, forcing people from the country to go find work.
- Wages were very low, women and children received less than half the wages of men and had to work the same amount of time.
- There were no unions that could represent workers and the Combination Acts outlawed unionizing or protesting for better Industrial Revolution working condition
- Most people worked between 12 and 16 hours per day, six days a week, without any paid holidays or vacation.
- Safety hazards were everywhere, machines didn’t have any safety covers or fences and children as young as 5 years old were operating them. Iron workers worked in temperatures of 130 degrees and higher every day. Accidents on the job happened regularly.
- People did not have many break times, there was usually only one hour-long break per day
- Factories were dusty, dirty and dark – the only light source was sunlight that came in through a few windows. Because the machines ran on steam from fires, there was smoke everywhere. Many people ended up with eye problems and lung diseases.
- Small children had to work in coal mines without candles (if the family was too poor to buy candles) and were beaten by miners if they fell asleep. Young girls had to pull sledges or carts with coal all day long, deforming their pelvic bones and causing a lot of deaths during childbirth.
- Children did not get any sunlight, physical activity (apart from work) or education, which led to deformities and a shorter than average length.
- Should someone get injured on the job and be unable to work, they would be abandoned, wages would be stopped immediately and no medical attendance would be given to them. Injured workers usually lost their jobs and did not get any compensation.
- Unlike the country life they were used to, work in a factory was fast-paced and focused on production. No chit chat was allowed and those who still had family in rural areas could not head home to help with the harvest if they wanted to keep their jobs.
The role played by some Christians to improve working conditions during the industrial age
Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of Shaftesbury 1801-1885, a philanthropist, was the eldest son of the sixth earl, and of Anne, fourth daughter of the third Duke of Marlborough. He was born on 28 April 1801 at 24 Grosvenor Square, London, his father being then a younger brother of the family, but when his father succeeded to the title and estates in 1811 his home was at St. Giles in Dorsetshire, the family seat. He was educated at Harrow, and at Christ Church, Oxford, and obtained a first class in classics in 1822. In 1832 he took his degree of M.A., and in 1841 he was made D.C.L.
He entered parliament as Lord Ashley in 1826 as member for Woodstock, the pocket borough of the Marlborough family, and gave a general support to the governments of Liverpool and Canning. He was returned for Dorchester in 1830 and 1831, and sat for Dorset from 1831 to 1846. His first speech was an earnest pleading in favour of a proposed grant to the family of Mr. Canning, after his sudden death.
The first social abuse that roused the interest of Ashley was the treatment of lunatics. In 1828, Mr. Gordon, a benevolent member of parliament, obtained a committee to inquire into the subject; Ashley’s interest was awakened, and he was himself named a member of the committee. Not content with official inquiries, he did much by personal visitation to ascertain the real condition of lunatics in confinement, and saw such distressing evidence of ill-treatment that next year he brought in a bill to amend the law in one particular. All the rest of his life he continued, as one of the commissioners in lunacy, to interest himself in the subject, and before his death he had secured a complete reform of the Lunacy Acts, and effected an untold improvement in the condition of the unfortunate class who had formerly been treated with so much severity and cruelty. This may be ranked as the first of his services to philanthropy.
His next effort was to reform the law relating to the employment of workers in mills and factories. About the time when he entered parliament the condition of the workers in factories, and especially the children, had begun to attract the earnest attention of some. In parliament Mr. M. T. Sadler and Mr. Oastler took up the matter warmly; Mr. Sadler, in particular, as Shaftesbury afterwards said with much generosity, ‘maintained the cause in parliament with unrivalled eloquence and energy.’ Mr. Sadler having lost his seat at the election in 1833 the charge of the movement was entrusted to Ashley. His proposal that the period of labour should be limited to ten hours a day met at first with the fiercest opposition. A bill which he introduced was so emasculated by the government that he threw it over on them; it was ultimately carried, but was not satisfactory.
A deep impression was produced by Ashley in describing visits paid by him to hospitals in Lancashire, where he found many workers who had been crippled and mutilated under the conditions of their work; they presented every variety of distorted form, ‘just like a crooked alphabet.’ Returning afterwards to the subject, he showed the enormous evils and miseries which the existing system was producing; but the government would not move. So late as 1844 his proposal for a limit of ten hours was rejected. It was not till 1847, when Ashley was out of parliament, that the bill was carried. The operation of the act has proved most satisfactory, and many who at first were most vehement opponents afterwards came to acknowledge the magnitude of the improvement. At many times in the subsequent part of Ashley’s life he got the factory acts amended and extended. New industries were brought within their scope. He always maintained that he would never rest till the protection of the law should be extended to the whole mass of workers.
During this struggle collieries and mines engaged his attention. Here, too, the evils brought to light, especially with respect to women and children, were appalling. Many women were found to be working in dismal underground situations, in such a way as tended to degrade them to the level of brutes. Children, sometimes not over four or five years of age, were found toiling in the dark, in some cases so long as eighteen hours a day, dragged from bed at four in the morning, and so utterly wearied out that instruction, either on week days or Sundays, was utterly out of the question. Often they were attached by chain and girdle to trucks which they had to drag on all-fours through the workings to the shaft. The opposition were struck dumb by these revelations. An act was passed in 1842 under Ashley’s care abolishing the system of apprenticeship, which had led to fearful abuses, and excluding women and boys under thirteen from employment underground.
The treatment of ‘climbing boys,’ as the apprentices of chimney-sweepers were called, was another of the abuses which he set himself to remedy. If the evil here was not so glaring as in the factories and pits, it was only because the occupation was more limited. Ashley obtained an act for the protection of the apprentices, and many years afterwards, when some laxity in the administration was discovered, took steps to have it more rigidly enforced.
The country was greatly agitated at this time on the subject of the corn laws. Hitherto Ashley had acted generally with the conservative party, but believing that a change in the corn laws was necessary, he resigned his seat for Dorset in January 1846, and for a time was out of parliament. In the next parliament he was returned (30 July 1817) for the city of Bath. The leisure which he obtained by retiring from parliament was turned by him to account in visiting the slums of London and acquiring a more full acquaintance with the condition of the working classes. A statement of some of his experiences in this field was given in an article in the Quarterly Review for December 1846. His interest was especially intensified in two movements: the education of the neglected poor, and the improvement of the dwellings of the people.
The movement for ‘ragged schools,’ as they were now called, or ‘industrial feeding schools,’ as Mr. Sheriff Watson of Aberdeen had proposed to call them, had already been inaugurated in the northern kingdom. Ashley became the champion of the cause in parliament. In 1848 he told the House of Commons that ten thousand children had been got into ragged schools, who, there was every reason to hope, would be reclaimed. For thirty-nine years he held the office of chairman of the Ragged School Union, and during that time as many as three hundred thousand children were brought under the influence of the society. The Shoeblack Brigade was the result of another effort for the same class. At one time it numbered 306 members, and its earnings in one year were £12,000. The Refuge and Reformatory Union was a kindred movement; ultimately it came to have 589 homes, accommodating fifty thousand children. Lord Palmerston’s bill for the care and reformation of juvenile offenders, which has had so beneficial an influence, was a fruit of Shaftesbury’s influence.
Very early in his career he had become profoundly impressed with the important influence of the dwellings of the people on their habits and character. To the miserable condition of their homes he attributed two-thirds of the disorders that prevailed in the community. In 1851 he drew attention to the subject in the House of Lords. The Lodging House Act was passed, which Dickens described as the best piece of legislation that ever proceeded from the English parliament. This, however, represented but a small portion of his labours for the improvement of houses. The views which he so clearly and forcibly proclaimed led many to take practical steps to reform the abuse. The Peabody scheme was at least indirectly the fruit of his representations. On 3 August 1872 he laid the foundation-stone of buildings at Battersea, called the Shaftesbury Park Estate, containing twelve hundred houses, accommodating eight thousand people. On his own estate at Wimborne St. Giles he built a model village, where the cottages were furnished with all the appliances of civilised life, and each had its allotment of a quarter of an acre, the rent being only a shilling a week. As chairman of the central board of public health he effected many reforms, especially during the visitation of cholera in 1849. He was also chairman of a sanitary commission for the Crimea, in regard to which Miss Nightingale wrote that ‘it saved the British army.’
Shaftesbury retained a great part of the vigour both of his mind and body to very near the end of his life. The infirmities of old age showed themselves chiefly in gout and deafness. In the autumn of 1885 he went to Folkestone, but died of congestion of the lungs, 1 October 1885. He was lord-lieutenant of Dorset from 1856 till death. | 4,747 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Becket: the murder that shook the Middle Ages
The assassination of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral on 29 December 1170 changed the course of history. Becket was one of the most powerful figures of his time, serving as royal Chancellor and later as Archbishop of Canterbury. Initially a close friend of King Henry II, the two men became engaged in a bitter dispute that culminated in Becket’s shocking murder by knights with close ties to the king. It is a story of betrayal, of the perceived abuse of power and those who fall for standing in the way of the Crown. Here we explore Becket’s rise and fall, and unpick the events that led to the murder that shook the Middle Ages…
Who was Thomas Becket?
Becket was a second-generation French immigrant, born around 1120 in Cheapside, in the City of London, to Gilbert and Matilda, who had left Normandy following the Norman Conquest. His father was a well-connected merchant but the family were neither excessively wealthy nor powerful. Becket was sent to school at Merton Priory and, after a few years studying in Paris, he eventually gained employment through one of his father’s friends as a clerk for Theobald, the then Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket was described by his contemporaries as intelligent, charming and authoritative and, in 1155, he got his biggest break. Recognising his talents, Theobald suggested that Henry II appoint Becket as Chancellor of England. He and the king quickly became close friends, hunting, gaming and travelling around England together. Becket embraced life in the royal court: he is said by his contemporary biographers to have enjoyed vast wealth, throwing lavish parties, decorating his residences with beautiful furnishings and making numerous journeys to France on his own ships.
Rise and fall
When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury became vacant, Becket was put forward. Given his lifestyle and reputation he was an unlikely candidate but the king had other ideas. Henry was keen to appoint his close friend to the role but, crucially, he wanted him to continue as Chancellor. With Becket in both positions, Henry saw an opportunity to exercise greater authority over the Church as well as the state. Becket was appointed Archbishop on 23 May 1162 and consecrated (officially blessed) on 3 June. However, at some point during the rest of that year, and against the king’s wishes, Becket resigned as Chancellor. His actions drove a wedge between him and the king which would never be repaired. From this point on, Becket’s relationship with Henry began to deteriorate. A series of disputes ensued regarding the division of power between the Crown and the Church. By 1164, tensions were at an all-time high and, in October, Becket was summoned to appear before the King’s council and ordered to forfeit all his personal property. He refused to accept the terms of his punishment and, fearing further repercussions from the king, he fled to France.
Life in exile
Becket remained in exile in France for six years. During this time Henry flexed his power in England. His most blatant snub of his old friend’s authority was his decision to have his son, Henry the Young King, crowned in June 1170 by Becket’s long-standing enemy, the Archbishop of York, . Becket appealed to the Pope and, under significant pressure, Henry agreed to reopen negotiations. Following this, the Archbishop and the king spoke privately for the first time since 1164, and Henry promised to restore Becket’s rights as Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket was reassured that it would be safe to return to England. However, his final act was to punish those involved in the unauthorised coronation. Before leaving France Becket issued three letters expelling (excommunicating) the Archbishop of York and two bishops from the Church. This act was to have devastating consequences upon his return to England.
The lead up to the murder
Becket returned from exile on 1 December 1170. Contemporary reports record that he was greeted on his journey back to the Cathedral by cheering crowds and rejoicing monks, but he faced increasing hostility by the authorities loyal to the king. Meanwhile, the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of London and Salisbury, furious that they had been excommunicated, travelled to Henry’s royal court in Normandy where they relayed Becket’s actions to the king. Henry was outraged and, although it is unclear whether he ever specifically ordered retribution for Becket’s actions, his furious outburst prompted four knights – Reginald FitzUrse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville and Richard le Bret – to travel to Canterbury in search of Becket. One of Becket’s biographers records Henry’s words as:
What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born clerk!Frank Barlow, Thomas Becket (California: University of California Press, 1986), p. 235.
The crime scene
We are fortunate to have five eye-witness accounts of Becket’s murder, all of which broadly agree on the details of what took place. One key account was written by a man named Edward Grim, who was so close to Becket during the skirmish that he was wounded by one of the knight’s swords. Grim tells us that when the four knights arrived at Canterbury Cathedral, Becket was in the Archbishop’s Palace. They attempted to arrest him but he refused. Becket was persuaded by the monks to take refuge in the church, but the knights pursued him, bursting into the Cathedral with swords drawn, terrifying those inside by shouting:
“Where is Thomas Becket, traitor to the king and the kingdom?” the knights then rushed at him… roughly manhandling and dragging him, intending to kill him outside the church, or carry him away in chains.The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 201.
As Grim recounts, Becket held tight onto one of the Cathedral’s pillars to prevent them seizing him, and it was at this point that one of the knights raised his sword for the first time, bringing it down on Becket, slicing off the crown of his head. Two of the other knights then started to attack Becket and most of the monks fled. The third blow brought the Archbishop’s life to an end. Gruesomely, by the end of the attack, Becket’s crown had:
“separated from the head so that the blood [turned] white from the brain, and the brain equally red from the blood.”The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 203.
The murderous knights were accompanied by a clerk, who, because of his involvement, became known as ‘Mauclerk’ or ‘evil clerk’. Following the attack, this Mauclerk:
put his foot on the neck of the holy priest and precious martyr, and, horrible to say, scattered the brains with the blood over the pavement. “Let us go, knights”, he called out to the others, “this fellow will not get up again.The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 203.
Chaos ensued following the murder, and with none of those present knowing what to do next, the body remained where it had fallen for several hours. Some individuals dipped parts of their clothes in his spilled blood, or collected it in small vessels to take away in anticipation of Becket’s future sanctity. After spending the night on the high altar of the Cathedral, he was buried by the monks the next day in the crypt. Reports immediately circulated of miraculous healings connected to Becket. Facing increasing pressure from the people of Canterbury, the monks opened the crypt of the Cathedral so pilgrims could visit his tomb. An extraordinary wave of miracles was recorded and, in recognition of this, Becket was made a saint (canonised) by the Pope on 21 February 1173. It was one of the fastest canonisations in history. Becket’s reputation as a miracle-working saint spread quickly and people from all over Europe started to flock to Canterbury in the hope that they would be healed. As well as visiting the tomb, pilgrims could also purchase a mixture of his blood and water, called St Thomas’ Water, which was bottled and sold by opportunistic monks in small lead vessels called ampulla. Henry II, in a public act of penance for his involvement in the murder, visited the tomb in 1174, granting royal approval to Becket’s cult.
Becket’s death and subsequent miracles transformed Canterbury Cathedral into one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe. In 1220 his body was moved from the crypt to a glittering new shrine in a purpose-built chapel upstairs in the Cathedral. Geoffrey Chaucer famously captured something of the atmosphere of pilgrimage to this shrine in his Canterbury Tales. In death Becket remained a figure of opposition to unbridled power and became seen as the quintessential defender of the rights of the Church. To this end you can find images of his murder in churches across Latin Christendom, from Germany and Spain, to Italy and Norway. Becket was, and remains, a truly European saint. His relics at Canterbury were visited by people from across the continent until 1538, when Henry VIII would label him a traitor, order the destruction of his shrine and try to wipe him from history altogether. That, however, is a story for another time.
Thomas Becket will open at the British Museum 15 October 2020 – 14 February 2021. Find out more and be the first to hear when tickets are on sale.
The Hintze Family Charitable Foundation
The Ruddock Foundation for the Arts
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0.0217200703918933... | 4 | Thomas Becket: the murder that shook the Middle Ages
The assassination of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral on 29 December 1170 changed the course of history. Becket was one of the most powerful figures of his time, serving as royal Chancellor and later as Archbishop of Canterbury. Initially a close friend of King Henry II, the two men became engaged in a bitter dispute that culminated in Becket’s shocking murder by knights with close ties to the king. It is a story of betrayal, of the perceived abuse of power and those who fall for standing in the way of the Crown. Here we explore Becket’s rise and fall, and unpick the events that led to the murder that shook the Middle Ages…
Who was Thomas Becket?
Becket was a second-generation French immigrant, born around 1120 in Cheapside, in the City of London, to Gilbert and Matilda, who had left Normandy following the Norman Conquest. His father was a well-connected merchant but the family were neither excessively wealthy nor powerful. Becket was sent to school at Merton Priory and, after a few years studying in Paris, he eventually gained employment through one of his father’s friends as a clerk for Theobald, the then Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket was described by his contemporaries as intelligent, charming and authoritative and, in 1155, he got his biggest break. Recognising his talents, Theobald suggested that Henry II appoint Becket as Chancellor of England. He and the king quickly became close friends, hunting, gaming and travelling around England together. Becket embraced life in the royal court: he is said by his contemporary biographers to have enjoyed vast wealth, throwing lavish parties, decorating his residences with beautiful furnishings and making numerous journeys to France on his own ships.
Rise and fall
When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury became vacant, Becket was put forward. Given his lifestyle and reputation he was an unlikely candidate but the king had other ideas. Henry was keen to appoint his close friend to the role but, crucially, he wanted him to continue as Chancellor. With Becket in both positions, Henry saw an opportunity to exercise greater authority over the Church as well as the state. Becket was appointed Archbishop on 23 May 1162 and consecrated (officially blessed) on 3 June. However, at some point during the rest of that year, and against the king’s wishes, Becket resigned as Chancellor. His actions drove a wedge between him and the king which would never be repaired. From this point on, Becket’s relationship with Henry began to deteriorate. A series of disputes ensued regarding the division of power between the Crown and the Church. By 1164, tensions were at an all-time high and, in October, Becket was summoned to appear before the King’s council and ordered to forfeit all his personal property. He refused to accept the terms of his punishment and, fearing further repercussions from the king, he fled to France.
Life in exile
Becket remained in exile in France for six years. During this time Henry flexed his power in England. His most blatant snub of his old friend’s authority was his decision to have his son, Henry the Young King, crowned in June 1170 by Becket’s long-standing enemy, the Archbishop of York, . Becket appealed to the Pope and, under significant pressure, Henry agreed to reopen negotiations. Following this, the Archbishop and the king spoke privately for the first time since 1164, and Henry promised to restore Becket’s rights as Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket was reassured that it would be safe to return to England. However, his final act was to punish those involved in the unauthorised coronation. Before leaving France Becket issued three letters expelling (excommunicating) the Archbishop of York and two bishops from the Church. This act was to have devastating consequences upon his return to England.
The lead up to the murder
Becket returned from exile on 1 December 1170. Contemporary reports record that he was greeted on his journey back to the Cathedral by cheering crowds and rejoicing monks, but he faced increasing hostility by the authorities loyal to the king. Meanwhile, the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of London and Salisbury, furious that they had been excommunicated, travelled to Henry’s royal court in Normandy where they relayed Becket’s actions to the king. Henry was outraged and, although it is unclear whether he ever specifically ordered retribution for Becket’s actions, his furious outburst prompted four knights – Reginald FitzUrse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Morville and Richard le Bret – to travel to Canterbury in search of Becket. One of Becket’s biographers records Henry’s words as:
What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born clerk!Frank Barlow, Thomas Becket (California: University of California Press, 1986), p. 235.
The crime scene
We are fortunate to have five eye-witness accounts of Becket’s murder, all of which broadly agree on the details of what took place. One key account was written by a man named Edward Grim, who was so close to Becket during the skirmish that he was wounded by one of the knight’s swords. Grim tells us that when the four knights arrived at Canterbury Cathedral, Becket was in the Archbishop’s Palace. They attempted to arrest him but he refused. Becket was persuaded by the monks to take refuge in the church, but the knights pursued him, bursting into the Cathedral with swords drawn, terrifying those inside by shouting:
“Where is Thomas Becket, traitor to the king and the kingdom?” the knights then rushed at him… roughly manhandling and dragging him, intending to kill him outside the church, or carry him away in chains.The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 201.
As Grim recounts, Becket held tight onto one of the Cathedral’s pillars to prevent them seizing him, and it was at this point that one of the knights raised his sword for the first time, bringing it down on Becket, slicing off the crown of his head. Two of the other knights then started to attack Becket and most of the monks fled. The third blow brought the Archbishop’s life to an end. Gruesomely, by the end of the attack, Becket’s crown had:
“separated from the head so that the blood [turned] white from the brain, and the brain equally red from the blood.”The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 203.
The murderous knights were accompanied by a clerk, who, because of his involvement, became known as ‘Mauclerk’ or ‘evil clerk’. Following the attack, this Mauclerk:
put his foot on the neck of the holy priest and precious martyr, and, horrible to say, scattered the brains with the blood over the pavement. “Let us go, knights”, he called out to the others, “this fellow will not get up again.The Lives of Thomas Becket, ed. and trans. by Michael Staunton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 203.
Chaos ensued following the murder, and with none of those present knowing what to do next, the body remained where it had fallen for several hours. Some individuals dipped parts of their clothes in his spilled blood, or collected it in small vessels to take away in anticipation of Becket’s future sanctity. After spending the night on the high altar of the Cathedral, he was buried by the monks the next day in the crypt. Reports immediately circulated of miraculous healings connected to Becket. Facing increasing pressure from the people of Canterbury, the monks opened the crypt of the Cathedral so pilgrims could visit his tomb. An extraordinary wave of miracles was recorded and, in recognition of this, Becket was made a saint (canonised) by the Pope on 21 February 1173. It was one of the fastest canonisations in history. Becket’s reputation as a miracle-working saint spread quickly and people from all over Europe started to flock to Canterbury in the hope that they would be healed. As well as visiting the tomb, pilgrims could also purchase a mixture of his blood and water, called St Thomas’ Water, which was bottled and sold by opportunistic monks in small lead vessels called ampulla. Henry II, in a public act of penance for his involvement in the murder, visited the tomb in 1174, granting royal approval to Becket’s cult.
Becket’s death and subsequent miracles transformed Canterbury Cathedral into one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in Europe. In 1220 his body was moved from the crypt to a glittering new shrine in a purpose-built chapel upstairs in the Cathedral. Geoffrey Chaucer famously captured something of the atmosphere of pilgrimage to this shrine in his Canterbury Tales. In death Becket remained a figure of opposition to unbridled power and became seen as the quintessential defender of the rights of the Church. To this end you can find images of his murder in churches across Latin Christendom, from Germany and Spain, to Italy and Norway. Becket was, and remains, a truly European saint. His relics at Canterbury were visited by people from across the continent until 1538, when Henry VIII would label him a traitor, order the destruction of his shrine and try to wipe him from history altogether. That, however, is a story for another time.
Thomas Becket will open at the British Museum 15 October 2020 – 14 February 2021. Find out more and be the first to hear when tickets are on sale.
The Hintze Family Charitable Foundation
The Ruddock Foundation for the Arts
Jack Ryan and Zemen Paulos | 2,109 | ENGLISH | 1 |
State-formation in south-east asia was formed by a racial division of labour in which locals were the political entrepreneurs.
Thai history was formed by encouraging the chinese to “turn” thai. They would choose what if they wanted a Thai or Chinese identity once they reached adulthood. Most chose to be Thai because the Thai elite was the place to be.
This is also similar to Java where the successful Chinese would marry into the Javanese aristocracy (priyayi).
The aggressive expansion of the European colonies in the 19th century help change the tendencies that were already apparent because they now represented the ultimate power so local political and economic leaders needed to have relations with them.
Due to the fact Thailand was not formally colonised the process of turning chinese into thais continued until the early 20th century when the arrival of more chinese women and a surge of Thai nationalism temporarily interrupted the process.
The Dutch went into Java and exalted a few powerful Chinese community leaders who were loyal to them, and these men became some of the region’s original tycoon godfathers. The chinese elite came to be known as cabang atas or highest branch.
The leaders of the chinese society were the peranakan who worked with the Dutch as officers to keep the chinese population in line.
Once technology increased and the first steam boats came into use was when the Opium Wars started. Then the First War came around and there were many reason for people to get out of China. This resulted in many of them to be transported into south-east asia where population was small and they had attractive labour rates.
In the 1830s Dutch and British trade monopolies were dismantled so the European states took over colonial management in south-east asia.
The tripartite split helped those who were politically and economically elite and of Chinese origin, the tycoon that could most effectively use his external relationships and still have authority in a immigrant community.
Oei Tiong Ham - richest man in Indonesia. His father was appointed Major of the Semarang Chinese but Oei expanded on his father’s empire through cosmopolitan expansion from a traditional trade base. He got a lot of his money from revenue farms, usually opium, big in the sugar industry. Expanded in shipping, opened a bank. First World War came along he moved to Singapore where he passed. He was one local business that could compete with large Dutch companies.
Yoke Lew - richest Chinese of the Malaysian peninsula. Opened a mining empire which employed thousands of Chinese where he also supplied them with opium, liquor, and gambling facilities. Also diversified in real estate, rubber plantations, he was even given British knighthood.
Intergrating revenue farming operations with mining and plantation ventures was common for the tycoons of the region. It reduced labor costs.
Don Carlos Palanca Chen Qianshan - Phillipines, greatest ‘headmen.’ Coolie broker, operator of major opium monopoly, tax collector, and interests in textiles, sugar, rice, and real estate. He established equilibrium between the immigrant Chinese and Spanish communities. Passed in 1901.
So all in all the aspirant godfathers were made revenue farmer and exploiter of his co-nationals.
Eventually Thailand was a rice economy with some tin mining in the south Malaya did tin and rubber, Philippines produced sugar and coconuts, Java was planted with sugar and coffee, and Sumatra produced tobacco and rubber.
Though these tycoons made a lot of money it was nothing compared to those if of the large European firms.
Chinese banks collapsed in Malaya and the Philippines due to the depression in the 1930s. Malaya fell in 1920 mostly from falling rubber prices.
Chapter 1 - Jennifer Rosales
- “The colonials sought to rule through existing elites, both political and economic.”The Dutch in Java and Indonesia, built the division between… | <urn:uuid:f232e798-c2b0-41f3-996b-572802ba0bf6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/El-Wow-523795.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.98114 | 816 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.5564550161... | 1 | State-formation in south-east asia was formed by a racial division of labour in which locals were the political entrepreneurs.
Thai history was formed by encouraging the chinese to “turn” thai. They would choose what if they wanted a Thai or Chinese identity once they reached adulthood. Most chose to be Thai because the Thai elite was the place to be.
This is also similar to Java where the successful Chinese would marry into the Javanese aristocracy (priyayi).
The aggressive expansion of the European colonies in the 19th century help change the tendencies that were already apparent because they now represented the ultimate power so local political and economic leaders needed to have relations with them.
Due to the fact Thailand was not formally colonised the process of turning chinese into thais continued until the early 20th century when the arrival of more chinese women and a surge of Thai nationalism temporarily interrupted the process.
The Dutch went into Java and exalted a few powerful Chinese community leaders who were loyal to them, and these men became some of the region’s original tycoon godfathers. The chinese elite came to be known as cabang atas or highest branch.
The leaders of the chinese society were the peranakan who worked with the Dutch as officers to keep the chinese population in line.
Once technology increased and the first steam boats came into use was when the Opium Wars started. Then the First War came around and there were many reason for people to get out of China. This resulted in many of them to be transported into south-east asia where population was small and they had attractive labour rates.
In the 1830s Dutch and British trade monopolies were dismantled so the European states took over colonial management in south-east asia.
The tripartite split helped those who were politically and economically elite and of Chinese origin, the tycoon that could most effectively use his external relationships and still have authority in a immigrant community.
Oei Tiong Ham - richest man in Indonesia. His father was appointed Major of the Semarang Chinese but Oei expanded on his father’s empire through cosmopolitan expansion from a traditional trade base. He got a lot of his money from revenue farms, usually opium, big in the sugar industry. Expanded in shipping, opened a bank. First World War came along he moved to Singapore where he passed. He was one local business that could compete with large Dutch companies.
Yoke Lew - richest Chinese of the Malaysian peninsula. Opened a mining empire which employed thousands of Chinese where he also supplied them with opium, liquor, and gambling facilities. Also diversified in real estate, rubber plantations, he was even given British knighthood.
Intergrating revenue farming operations with mining and plantation ventures was common for the tycoons of the region. It reduced labor costs.
Don Carlos Palanca Chen Qianshan - Phillipines, greatest ‘headmen.’ Coolie broker, operator of major opium monopoly, tax collector, and interests in textiles, sugar, rice, and real estate. He established equilibrium between the immigrant Chinese and Spanish communities. Passed in 1901.
So all in all the aspirant godfathers were made revenue farmer and exploiter of his co-nationals.
Eventually Thailand was a rice economy with some tin mining in the south Malaya did tin and rubber, Philippines produced sugar and coconuts, Java was planted with sugar and coffee, and Sumatra produced tobacco and rubber.
Though these tycoons made a lot of money it was nothing compared to those if of the large European firms.
Chinese banks collapsed in Malaya and the Philippines due to the depression in the 1930s. Malaya fell in 1920 mostly from falling rubber prices.
Chapter 1 - Jennifer Rosales
- “The colonials sought to rule through existing elites, both political and economic.”The Dutch in Java and Indonesia, built the division between… | 795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women are involved in food preparation as a result of the pressure from dominant cultural practices which may be viewed as a measure of gender inequality and women’s subjugation in the household. Food preparations and dietary practices have been seen to constitute a natural role for women culturally and traditionally. Most times, food preparation is used to perpetuate unequal gender relations in a family setting however if channelled properly it could serve as a source of employment for women and be used to create a nuisance value for them. From time immemorial it has been observed that women as primary actors are responsible for food preparation in the home and community at large for instance in the Gullah community. In the Gullah community historically both men and women played important roles in preparation and procurement of food items. Food preparation in Gullah households tends to be gender delineated and organised according to respective tasks. Each successive task tends to be gender delineated for instance both men and women may engage in food procurement which means the man may farm and harvest but it has and would always be the role of the woman to cook. In this community men engage in activities such as hunting, fishing, gardening and meat preparation, some women may also take part if they wish to participate in these activities. It is important to note that although most men have a little knowledge about cooking in every household, men rarely cook regularly in the household. Women more often take responsibility for cooking and feeding and they appear to be custodians of food rituals and practices which enhances the group’s survival. Women are more likely to be associated with cooking which is gender specific and considered a woman’s domain as a result their daily life have not received much analytical attention and not only have they been largely excluded from the process of knowledge construction and the work of food preparation has also been devalued and rendered invisible because of its dominant view of biological role for women. In Gullah, cultural practices and tradition always leaned towards girls cooking and during church functions women who are known for their skills in preparing particular dishes are usually asked to prepare foods but I have been asking myself why men were not asked to prepare the food. A professor at university of California brought her infant to work so she could nurse the infant during work and her baby was squealing which was interrupting her meeting with a student and she was wondering and screamed ‘where were the children of her male counterparts’. This her question led to the supposition that the reason why half the doctors, lawyers, accountants and business people are not women is because men do not share domestic chores with their wives. It was observed that a woman does majority of the parenting job most times in addition to taking care of the house. In most marriages, the woman’s job is considered a mere job in contrast to a man’s career. Even when women work in reality her office job is considered as the first shift and after she comes back from work she is likely to continue her second shift. In marriages, men and women come with gender ideologies which are a product of their child hood, habits and culture. Most times every discrimination faced by women have an element of culture. House work is a career and not a woman’s primary responsibility as a mother said Hochschild Arlie who disputed the biological gender oriented presupposition that house work is a woman’s natural role. | <urn:uuid:b61f4d91-5c1e-40ef-b648-99581dddb717> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://finnolux.com/women-with-cooking-which-is-gender-specific-and/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00456.warc.gz | en | 0.983909 | 677 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Women are involved in food preparation as a result of the pressure from dominant cultural practices which may be viewed as a measure of gender inequality and women’s subjugation in the household. Food preparations and dietary practices have been seen to constitute a natural role for women culturally and traditionally. Most times, food preparation is used to perpetuate unequal gender relations in a family setting however if channelled properly it could serve as a source of employment for women and be used to create a nuisance value for them. From time immemorial it has been observed that women as primary actors are responsible for food preparation in the home and community at large for instance in the Gullah community. In the Gullah community historically both men and women played important roles in preparation and procurement of food items. Food preparation in Gullah households tends to be gender delineated and organised according to respective tasks. Each successive task tends to be gender delineated for instance both men and women may engage in food procurement which means the man may farm and harvest but it has and would always be the role of the woman to cook. In this community men engage in activities such as hunting, fishing, gardening and meat preparation, some women may also take part if they wish to participate in these activities. It is important to note that although most men have a little knowledge about cooking in every household, men rarely cook regularly in the household. Women more often take responsibility for cooking and feeding and they appear to be custodians of food rituals and practices which enhances the group’s survival. Women are more likely to be associated with cooking which is gender specific and considered a woman’s domain as a result their daily life have not received much analytical attention and not only have they been largely excluded from the process of knowledge construction and the work of food preparation has also been devalued and rendered invisible because of its dominant view of biological role for women. In Gullah, cultural practices and tradition always leaned towards girls cooking and during church functions women who are known for their skills in preparing particular dishes are usually asked to prepare foods but I have been asking myself why men were not asked to prepare the food. A professor at university of California brought her infant to work so she could nurse the infant during work and her baby was squealing which was interrupting her meeting with a student and she was wondering and screamed ‘where were the children of her male counterparts’. This her question led to the supposition that the reason why half the doctors, lawyers, accountants and business people are not women is because men do not share domestic chores with their wives. It was observed that a woman does majority of the parenting job most times in addition to taking care of the house. In most marriages, the woman’s job is considered a mere job in contrast to a man’s career. Even when women work in reality her office job is considered as the first shift and after she comes back from work she is likely to continue her second shift. In marriages, men and women come with gender ideologies which are a product of their child hood, habits and culture. Most times every discrimination faced by women have an element of culture. House work is a career and not a woman’s primary responsibility as a mother said Hochschild Arlie who disputed the biological gender oriented presupposition that house work is a woman’s natural role. | 663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Holocaust means “completely burnt” The term refers to the killing of about six million Jews in Europe. These Jews, also referred to as European Jews lived in Europe during the Second World War and during the reign of terror against them by the Nazi and their leader Adolf Hitler. Born in 1889, in a village in Bavarian frontier of Austria, Adolf Hitler came from a peasant family. At his tender age his father an Austrian civil servant died, later his mother also died when Hitler was 14 years old. Hitler, without both parents lived in abject poverty; in 1913 he went to Vienna and spent most time painting postcards. When war began in 1914 he joined the German army where after serving for four years he went to Munich. Hitler later joined the Nazi and rose to become the party leader. He was later to turn to a dictator eliminating all those he thought would oppose him.
After world war one the Jews were blamed by the Germans for their defeat. They claimed that the Jews had betrayed them. Many failed attempts in batter were conducted by the Jews; the Germans regarded the Jews as dangerous group like Bolsheviks who had attempted a revolution in Bavaria, a German state. In 1933 when the Nazi took power, their main aim was to evict the Jews. In April 1933 Germans boycotted Jewish dominated business premises and conducted campaigns and riots against business owned by Jews. Later the Nazi Germans passed a law denying Jews their rights. as time passed by the German cruelty against the Jews increased tremendously, by 1933 about half a million Jews lived in Germany, as the harsh and oppressive laws by the Germans increased many Jews started living for other areas, however other Jews remained (Grillo 176).
Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader used his anti Semitic views to criticize the role the Jews played in uplifting the German society. Hitler’s book “my struggle” claims that the Jewish community internationally conspired to have Germany defeated in the First World War. He also claimed that the Jewish archived economic power through control of the mass media to their advantage. Later the Nazi government decided to introduce a full legal framework of anti-Semitic laws and policies. The first law defined who a Jew was, those with three to four Jewish grandparents were Jews, those with two grandparents were half Jews, those with one grandparent were half-breeds or mischlinge and pure Germans were called Aryans. These categorizations helped in implementing of dictatorial and discriminatory laws (McFee).
In 1935 a law on protection of German blood was passed. This law distinguished the Jews and the Germans forbidding marriages betweens the two groups. Sexual relations were also banned. By the year 1938, Jewish students were restricted from legal and medical profession. The Jews were to sell their property at a fraction of their value to the Germans. The Nazi brought many changes to the Jewish community living in Germany, the oppressive laws impacted negatively on the Jewish social, economic and communal lives, by the end of six years of the Nazi rule. The Jewish people had lost their businesses and jobs, they had also lost their German citizen ship, and only a small group was working in 1939.
As the oppression continued, the rules and laws became harsher and crueler to the Jews. This led to “the night of the broken glass” also called kristallnatch where more than 100 Jews were killed. The Nazi mob beat up hundreds of Jews, looted and set fire Jewish businesses, destroyed Jewish synagogues; in addition more than 30000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. This took place in November 1938; a fine was imposed on the Jews totaling to about 1 billion RM. the Nazi later instituted laws that limited Jews economic means of survival. After the outbreak of the Second World War, new and tougher restrictions were introduced by the Nazi. These dictatorial rules prohibited Jews from entering certain areas of German cities. The rules further prohibited the Jews the time they would buy food, when rationing began, the Jews got less portion as compared to the Germans. The Jews were also forced to give up their property such as electrical equipments, radios, bikes cameras to the German officials.
Fleming (243) claims that the Germans also banned the Jews from using public transport vehicles, this rule was introduced in 1941,jews above six years were supposed to wear on their outer garment a yellow star that represented Morgan David. Jews were also not supposed to live together with Germans; in addition they were also subjected to force Labour. The attitude of the pope and German bishop also encouraged the oppression to move on. They depended on Hitler to protect Europe Christians civilization from a doctrine based on Karl Marx theories called bolshevism. This communist doctrine was being perpetrated by Russia. Being a catholic Hitler was neither excommunicated nor criticized by the pope. The pope argued that he had to be neutral on international affairs.
After the world war two broke, the Nazi sought for a final solution to the Jewish eviction problem. They would either be deported to France or they would be taken to Madagascar then occupied by Germans. the two solutions were not adapted because Britain dint surrender and the Nazi attacked the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)The plans adopted by the Nazi were for putting Jews in concentration camps. Polish Jews were forced to live in ghettos. The Germans also banned the Jews from using public transport vehicles, this rule was introduced in 1941, Jews above six years were supposed to wear on their outer garment a yellow star that represented Morgan David. Jews were also not supposed to live together with Germans; in addition they were also subjected to force Labour.
The Jewish communities were forced to live in deplorable living conditions, these rooms were overcrowded, lacked proper health and sanitation facilities. This resulted in the high deaths among those living in these ghettos. When Hitler attacked USSR, the extermination of Jews began, police units were given permission to shoot Jews standing along mass graves they had dug themselves, about 3000 German police were involved in shooting the Jews. The head of Germany’s security service (SS) (sicherheitsdienst), Reinhard Heydrich who was the key organizer of the Jewish extermination issued a decree that all Jews in soviet administration were to be killed. This was misinterpreted by commanders to mean the killing of all male Jews. This resulted to the killing of very many Jews. The killings were later expanded to cover women and children, the law later issued by Heinrich Himmler, the then head of the SS unit, ordered all males to be shot and the female Jews and children to be driven into the swamp. This resulted to the killing of large number of the Jewish community. An example is September 29 where 33000 Jews were murdered in Ukraine, Kiev. Later the killings of the Jews extended to cover all the Jews living in Poland, Serbia and soviet, gas was used to kill the Jews. Gas vans filled with fumes of exhaust gas were filled in compartment where Jews lived. This gas exposed the Jews to carbon monoxide that killed them.
According to Eisen (342) the Jews serving in Germany as slaves also became subject to the killing, around 1 million Jews were shot between 1941 and 1942 in front of mass graves. The Germans started deporting the Jews to Eastern Europe for final extermination. The gas vans and people dealing with euthanasia program were also moved to prepare for extermination. The aim of the Nazi was to kill all the Jews in Nazi occupied area in Europe. Gassing experiment was carried in 1941, in Auschwitz killing 600 war prisoners of soviet origin. The killing was conducted by administering of cyanide gas. The gas was made from a pesticide manufactured from hydrocyanic acid. The Jews that were unable to work were also being killed. Church groups were unable to help the Jewish communities as the Germans put in place legislation allowing physical attack on Jews. They also introduced racial legislation. Reich Association of the Jews in Germany tried to solve the problem by emigration of the Jews from Germany. The group further supported Jewish schools and other self help groups organization, the group helped Jews cope with increasing discriminatory rules against them by the Nazi.
In other countries occupied by the Germans, the Jews were killed despite of the attitude of the local people. In France and Belgium, church groups protested when Jews were arrested for massacre. Italians refused to hand over most Jews even though it was allied with the Nazi, Jews in northern Italy, which was occupied by the Nazi were however killed. The resistance of the Norwegian army helped most Jews escape to Sweden. Jews in Denmark were protected by the government, when Nazi tried to arrest them the Danish helped them escape to Sweden.
Eisen, George. Children and Play in the Holocaust: Games among the Shadows.
Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press. 1988.
Fleming, Gerald, Hitler and the final decision. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Grillo, D., Pluralism and the Politics of Difference: State, Culture, and Ethnicity in
Comparative Perspective. South Carolina: Clarendon Press.1998.
McFee, Gordon. Are Jews central to the holocaust? .2009, Viewed on 1, April 2009
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0.3746770024299... | 5 | Holocaust means “completely burnt” The term refers to the killing of about six million Jews in Europe. These Jews, also referred to as European Jews lived in Europe during the Second World War and during the reign of terror against them by the Nazi and their leader Adolf Hitler. Born in 1889, in a village in Bavarian frontier of Austria, Adolf Hitler came from a peasant family. At his tender age his father an Austrian civil servant died, later his mother also died when Hitler was 14 years old. Hitler, without both parents lived in abject poverty; in 1913 he went to Vienna and spent most time painting postcards. When war began in 1914 he joined the German army where after serving for four years he went to Munich. Hitler later joined the Nazi and rose to become the party leader. He was later to turn to a dictator eliminating all those he thought would oppose him.
After world war one the Jews were blamed by the Germans for their defeat. They claimed that the Jews had betrayed them. Many failed attempts in batter were conducted by the Jews; the Germans regarded the Jews as dangerous group like Bolsheviks who had attempted a revolution in Bavaria, a German state. In 1933 when the Nazi took power, their main aim was to evict the Jews. In April 1933 Germans boycotted Jewish dominated business premises and conducted campaigns and riots against business owned by Jews. Later the Nazi Germans passed a law denying Jews their rights. as time passed by the German cruelty against the Jews increased tremendously, by 1933 about half a million Jews lived in Germany, as the harsh and oppressive laws by the Germans increased many Jews started living for other areas, however other Jews remained (Grillo 176).
Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader used his anti Semitic views to criticize the role the Jews played in uplifting the German society. Hitler’s book “my struggle” claims that the Jewish community internationally conspired to have Germany defeated in the First World War. He also claimed that the Jewish archived economic power through control of the mass media to their advantage. Later the Nazi government decided to introduce a full legal framework of anti-Semitic laws and policies. The first law defined who a Jew was, those with three to four Jewish grandparents were Jews, those with two grandparents were half Jews, those with one grandparent were half-breeds or mischlinge and pure Germans were called Aryans. These categorizations helped in implementing of dictatorial and discriminatory laws (McFee).
In 1935 a law on protection of German blood was passed. This law distinguished the Jews and the Germans forbidding marriages betweens the two groups. Sexual relations were also banned. By the year 1938, Jewish students were restricted from legal and medical profession. The Jews were to sell their property at a fraction of their value to the Germans. The Nazi brought many changes to the Jewish community living in Germany, the oppressive laws impacted negatively on the Jewish social, economic and communal lives, by the end of six years of the Nazi rule. The Jewish people had lost their businesses and jobs, they had also lost their German citizen ship, and only a small group was working in 1939.
As the oppression continued, the rules and laws became harsher and crueler to the Jews. This led to “the night of the broken glass” also called kristallnatch where more than 100 Jews were killed. The Nazi mob beat up hundreds of Jews, looted and set fire Jewish businesses, destroyed Jewish synagogues; in addition more than 30000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. This took place in November 1938; a fine was imposed on the Jews totaling to about 1 billion RM. the Nazi later instituted laws that limited Jews economic means of survival. After the outbreak of the Second World War, new and tougher restrictions were introduced by the Nazi. These dictatorial rules prohibited Jews from entering certain areas of German cities. The rules further prohibited the Jews the time they would buy food, when rationing began, the Jews got less portion as compared to the Germans. The Jews were also forced to give up their property such as electrical equipments, radios, bikes cameras to the German officials.
Fleming (243) claims that the Germans also banned the Jews from using public transport vehicles, this rule was introduced in 1941,jews above six years were supposed to wear on their outer garment a yellow star that represented Morgan David. Jews were also not supposed to live together with Germans; in addition they were also subjected to force Labour. The attitude of the pope and German bishop also encouraged the oppression to move on. They depended on Hitler to protect Europe Christians civilization from a doctrine based on Karl Marx theories called bolshevism. This communist doctrine was being perpetrated by Russia. Being a catholic Hitler was neither excommunicated nor criticized by the pope. The pope argued that he had to be neutral on international affairs.
After the world war two broke, the Nazi sought for a final solution to the Jewish eviction problem. They would either be deported to France or they would be taken to Madagascar then occupied by Germans. the two solutions were not adapted because Britain dint surrender and the Nazi attacked the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)The plans adopted by the Nazi were for putting Jews in concentration camps. Polish Jews were forced to live in ghettos. The Germans also banned the Jews from using public transport vehicles, this rule was introduced in 1941, Jews above six years were supposed to wear on their outer garment a yellow star that represented Morgan David. Jews were also not supposed to live together with Germans; in addition they were also subjected to force Labour.
The Jewish communities were forced to live in deplorable living conditions, these rooms were overcrowded, lacked proper health and sanitation facilities. This resulted in the high deaths among those living in these ghettos. When Hitler attacked USSR, the extermination of Jews began, police units were given permission to shoot Jews standing along mass graves they had dug themselves, about 3000 German police were involved in shooting the Jews. The head of Germany’s security service (SS) (sicherheitsdienst), Reinhard Heydrich who was the key organizer of the Jewish extermination issued a decree that all Jews in soviet administration were to be killed. This was misinterpreted by commanders to mean the killing of all male Jews. This resulted to the killing of very many Jews. The killings were later expanded to cover women and children, the law later issued by Heinrich Himmler, the then head of the SS unit, ordered all males to be shot and the female Jews and children to be driven into the swamp. This resulted to the killing of large number of the Jewish community. An example is September 29 where 33000 Jews were murdered in Ukraine, Kiev. Later the killings of the Jews extended to cover all the Jews living in Poland, Serbia and soviet, gas was used to kill the Jews. Gas vans filled with fumes of exhaust gas were filled in compartment where Jews lived. This gas exposed the Jews to carbon monoxide that killed them.
According to Eisen (342) the Jews serving in Germany as slaves also became subject to the killing, around 1 million Jews were shot between 1941 and 1942 in front of mass graves. The Germans started deporting the Jews to Eastern Europe for final extermination. The gas vans and people dealing with euthanasia program were also moved to prepare for extermination. The aim of the Nazi was to kill all the Jews in Nazi occupied area in Europe. Gassing experiment was carried in 1941, in Auschwitz killing 600 war prisoners of soviet origin. The killing was conducted by administering of cyanide gas. The gas was made from a pesticide manufactured from hydrocyanic acid. The Jews that were unable to work were also being killed. Church groups were unable to help the Jewish communities as the Germans put in place legislation allowing physical attack on Jews. They also introduced racial legislation. Reich Association of the Jews in Germany tried to solve the problem by emigration of the Jews from Germany. The group further supported Jewish schools and other self help groups organization, the group helped Jews cope with increasing discriminatory rules against them by the Nazi.
In other countries occupied by the Germans, the Jews were killed despite of the attitude of the local people. In France and Belgium, church groups protested when Jews were arrested for massacre. Italians refused to hand over most Jews even though it was allied with the Nazi, Jews in northern Italy, which was occupied by the Nazi were however killed. The resistance of the Norwegian army helped most Jews escape to Sweden. Jews in Denmark were protected by the government, when Nazi tried to arrest them the Danish helped them escape to Sweden.
Eisen, George. Children and Play in the Holocaust: Games among the Shadows.
Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press. 1988.
Fleming, Gerald, Hitler and the final decision. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Grillo, D., Pluralism and the Politics of Difference: State, Culture, and Ethnicity in
Comparative Perspective. South Carolina: Clarendon Press.1998.
McFee, Gordon. Are Jews central to the holocaust? .2009, Viewed on 1, April 2009
< http://www.holocaust-history.org/hitler-final-solution > | 1,972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historians have digitally reconstructed the face of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce.
The images reflect evidence that the warrior king had leprosy which disfigured his nose and upper jaw.
The facial images were based on the cast of a human skull which was excavated in the 19th century from Robert the Bruce's burial site at Dunfermline Abbey.
Robert the Bruce was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329.
His is one of Scottish history's most celebrated warriors, having defeated Edward II's English army at the battle of Bannockburn in 1314.
The reconstructed images depict a large and powerful head that would have been supported by a muscular neck and stocky frame.
However, historians believe the skull dug up in Dunfermline indicated Bruce suffered from an unidentified ailment, possibly leprosy, which laid him low several times during his reign and was the probable cause of his death.
The project to put a face to the skull was led by Dr Martin McGregor, a senior lecturer in Scottish history at the University of Glasgow.
He was inspired by the discovery of the skeleton of King Richard III of England beneath a car park in Leicester in 2012.
Dr McGregor said: "The case of Richard III revealed how far the technology had advanced.
"I saw an opportunity to apply the technology to the skull held here at Glasgow, first to test the credibility of its connection to Bruce and then to try to add to our knowledge of Scotland's greatest king."
The facial reconstruction was carried out by Professor Caroline Wilkinson from John Moores University.
She said: "Using the skull cast, we could accurately establish the muscle formation from the positions of the skull bones to determine the shape and structure of the face.
"But what the reconstruction cannot show is the colour of his eyes, his skin tones and the colour of his hair.
"We produced two versions - one without leprosy and one with a mild representation of leprosy.
"He may have had leprosy but, if he did, it is likely that it did not manifest strongly on his face, as this is not documented." | <urn:uuid:cebcd50f-a70f-4ac3-b543-de5d8881a420> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://news.sky.com/story/robert-the-bruce-revealed-in-new-images-based-on-dug-up-skull-10687798 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.9829 | 441 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.03298721462488... | 4 | Historians have digitally reconstructed the face of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce.
The images reflect evidence that the warrior king had leprosy which disfigured his nose and upper jaw.
The facial images were based on the cast of a human skull which was excavated in the 19th century from Robert the Bruce's burial site at Dunfermline Abbey.
Robert the Bruce was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329.
His is one of Scottish history's most celebrated warriors, having defeated Edward II's English army at the battle of Bannockburn in 1314.
The reconstructed images depict a large and powerful head that would have been supported by a muscular neck and stocky frame.
However, historians believe the skull dug up in Dunfermline indicated Bruce suffered from an unidentified ailment, possibly leprosy, which laid him low several times during his reign and was the probable cause of his death.
The project to put a face to the skull was led by Dr Martin McGregor, a senior lecturer in Scottish history at the University of Glasgow.
He was inspired by the discovery of the skeleton of King Richard III of England beneath a car park in Leicester in 2012.
Dr McGregor said: "The case of Richard III revealed how far the technology had advanced.
"I saw an opportunity to apply the technology to the skull held here at Glasgow, first to test the credibility of its connection to Bruce and then to try to add to our knowledge of Scotland's greatest king."
The facial reconstruction was carried out by Professor Caroline Wilkinson from John Moores University.
She said: "Using the skull cast, we could accurately establish the muscle formation from the positions of the skull bones to determine the shape and structure of the face.
"But what the reconstruction cannot show is the colour of his eyes, his skin tones and the colour of his hair.
"We produced two versions - one without leprosy and one with a mild representation of leprosy.
"He may have had leprosy but, if he did, it is likely that it did not manifest strongly on his face, as this is not documented." | 438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What literary devices have been used in "The Black Cat," and how do they explain the themes?
Poe uses dramatic irony—when the audience knows or understands something that some character(s) does not—in order to heighten tension as well as to help convey the theme that, often, people simply cannot accept responsibility for their wrongdoings. The narrator of the story, a murderer, says that his purpose is to write down, for all the world to see, "a series of mere household events." There is nothing "mere" and little "household" about the events that he relates! He tortures animals, eventually killing his once-beloved cat, and, then, in his attempt to kill the other cat, he murders his wife instead and then walls up her body in his basement.
To say that these are "mere household events" shows that the narrator either cannot or will not recognize his responsibility as well as how terribly egregious his actions are. We, of course, do (as does the author), and so this creates dramatic irony.
The story makes use of situational irony as well. If someone had just spent a long time...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 833 words.)
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0.2723134756088257,... | 1 | What literary devices have been used in "The Black Cat," and how do they explain the themes?
Poe uses dramatic irony—when the audience knows or understands something that some character(s) does not—in order to heighten tension as well as to help convey the theme that, often, people simply cannot accept responsibility for their wrongdoings. The narrator of the story, a murderer, says that his purpose is to write down, for all the world to see, "a series of mere household events." There is nothing "mere" and little "household" about the events that he relates! He tortures animals, eventually killing his once-beloved cat, and, then, in his attempt to kill the other cat, he murders his wife instead and then walls up her body in his basement.
To say that these are "mere household events" shows that the narrator either cannot or will not recognize his responsibility as well as how terribly egregious his actions are. We, of course, do (as does the author), and so this creates dramatic irony.
The story makes use of situational irony as well. If someone had just spent a long time...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 833 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 253 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most astonishing perception of the Maya is that they saw the earth as four-sided and, like a crocodile or turtle, floated in the primordial sea. Each cardinal direction had a color: North—white; South—yellow; East—red; and West—black. They believed their universe had three levels—vertically. The heavens were above and home to various gods and sky deities. Earth was in the middle, with four deities, or bacabs, at its corners and the sacred Ceiba (Yaxche) tree of life at its center. Below was the watery underworld. Known as Xibalba or Metnal, the underworld was filled with evil spirits, diseases, and the spirits of dead ancestors.
The sacred Ceiba tree transcended all levels because its branches held up the heavens, its stem was planted on earth and its roots descended into the underworld. The Maya believed that the earth had been created and destroyed several times. Humans had been created three times. In the first creation, they were made of clay; in the second, from sticks; and in the third, from corn. The last creation dated to 3114 BC and was expected to end in the year AD 2012.
Religious Objects and Spirits:
In the Maya religion, objects that we consider to be inanimate had spirit. They believed in numerous gods that were dualistic (two-sided) in nature. For example, a benevolent Chac (rain god) brought rain to nourish crops; a malevolent Chac brought hurricanes, hailstorms, and floods. Their supreme deity was known as Hunab Ku, and because he was believed to have no body or form, they never produced effigies or other graphic representations of him.
Most of their most important gods were associated with agricultural fertility. The four Chacs controlled the corners of the world and resided deep within the underworld. In times of drought, important rituals that included offerings of agricultural products, plants, and the sacrifice of men, women, and particularly children were made to the rain god deep within caves. Kinich Ahau was the sun god who rose in the east and withdrew into the underworld every evening. Itzam Na, one of the most important deities, was the provider of all things to the Maya people. Ixchel was the goddess of healing and Yum Cimil or Kisin was god of death and ruler of the underworld.
There was a prescribed ritual for every ceremony. One of the most important was the ritual ballgame. The game was played with a hard rubber ball that was directed from one side of the court to the other by use of one’s legs, hips, and shoulders. The bouncing ball was synonymous with the movements of the sun, from its birth in the east to its death in the west. Games that followed the capture of important elite warriors traditionally ended with the symbolic defeat of the enemy and the sacrifice of the captured noble. Another notable ritual was the Cha Chac. A wooden altar was placed at the entrance of cenotes or caves. People brought offerings of atole (corn porridge), beans tamales, tobacco and other goods presented to the Chacs by one or more priests and their assistants.
No doubt these beliefs helped to foster and continue the practices of today and the enormous respect the Maya have for the cosmos.
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0.029891502112... | 5 | The most astonishing perception of the Maya is that they saw the earth as four-sided and, like a crocodile or turtle, floated in the primordial sea. Each cardinal direction had a color: North—white; South—yellow; East—red; and West—black. They believed their universe had three levels—vertically. The heavens were above and home to various gods and sky deities. Earth was in the middle, with four deities, or bacabs, at its corners and the sacred Ceiba (Yaxche) tree of life at its center. Below was the watery underworld. Known as Xibalba or Metnal, the underworld was filled with evil spirits, diseases, and the spirits of dead ancestors.
The sacred Ceiba tree transcended all levels because its branches held up the heavens, its stem was planted on earth and its roots descended into the underworld. The Maya believed that the earth had been created and destroyed several times. Humans had been created three times. In the first creation, they were made of clay; in the second, from sticks; and in the third, from corn. The last creation dated to 3114 BC and was expected to end in the year AD 2012.
Religious Objects and Spirits:
In the Maya religion, objects that we consider to be inanimate had spirit. They believed in numerous gods that were dualistic (two-sided) in nature. For example, a benevolent Chac (rain god) brought rain to nourish crops; a malevolent Chac brought hurricanes, hailstorms, and floods. Their supreme deity was known as Hunab Ku, and because he was believed to have no body or form, they never produced effigies or other graphic representations of him.
Most of their most important gods were associated with agricultural fertility. The four Chacs controlled the corners of the world and resided deep within the underworld. In times of drought, important rituals that included offerings of agricultural products, plants, and the sacrifice of men, women, and particularly children were made to the rain god deep within caves. Kinich Ahau was the sun god who rose in the east and withdrew into the underworld every evening. Itzam Na, one of the most important deities, was the provider of all things to the Maya people. Ixchel was the goddess of healing and Yum Cimil or Kisin was god of death and ruler of the underworld.
There was a prescribed ritual for every ceremony. One of the most important was the ritual ballgame. The game was played with a hard rubber ball that was directed from one side of the court to the other by use of one’s legs, hips, and shoulders. The bouncing ball was synonymous with the movements of the sun, from its birth in the east to its death in the west. Games that followed the capture of important elite warriors traditionally ended with the symbolic defeat of the enemy and the sacrifice of the captured noble. Another notable ritual was the Cha Chac. A wooden altar was placed at the entrance of cenotes or caves. People brought offerings of atole (corn porridge), beans tamales, tobacco and other goods presented to the Chacs by one or more priests and their assistants.
No doubt these beliefs helped to foster and continue the practices of today and the enormous respect the Maya have for the cosmos.
Written by Nelita Castillo | 689 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 15 February 44, Caesar's dictatorship and other powers were extended for life. A month later he was stabbed to death by a group of senators that included men who had served him for years, as well as pardoned Pompeians. Before discussing why the conspirators acted in this way, we must consider the difficult question of Caesar's own long-term aims - a subject of continuing scholarly debate and little agreement. It has often been stated that the Roman Republic failed and was replaced by the rule of emperors because the system, designed to regulate the public affairs of a city-state, could not cope with the changed circumstances of governing a world empire. There is some truth in this as we have seen, for during the last years of the Republic it became increasingly difficult to accommodate and regulate the competition between a few overwhelmingly powerful individuals. At the same time the Senate failed to acknowledge the emergence of a professional army or to do anything to provide for discharged soldiers who were no longer men of property, encouraging them to a closer bond with generals who offered them more. Yet, even under the empire, the institutions of Rome were to a great extent those of a city-state, but the emperors imposed more control of the system and encouraged the integration of first Italy and then the provinces. Institutions developed to support a permanent army, kept loyal to the emperor alone. Senators still held most of the senior positions in imperial government, although usually with authority delegated from the emperor, but the number of people, both citizen and non-citizen, benefiting from the regime was greatly increased. The empire, or Principate as it is more often known, gave Rome and the provinces a remarkable level of stability, broken only twice by civil war in the first two centuries of its existence, in comparison to the period from 133 BC to 31 BC.
Augustus was Caesar's adopted heir, had risen to power as his father's avenger, and copied some of Caesar's innovations to create the Principate, although in other respects he learned from the dictator's mistakes and did things very differently. The Roman Republic faced many political, social, economic and military problems in the first century, and it is worth considering to what extent Caesar was aware of these. He had fought the Civil War to maintain his own honour and political status. Had a compromise been reached that permitted him to stand for a second consulship and go on to a further provincial command, the future would have been very different, with Rome dominated by two great men, Caesar and Pompey, instead of just one. This did not occur and, whether or not Caesar had long aimed at supreme power, he did achieve it through his victory. His reforms as dictator were wide ranging, but did they have the coherence of a clear plan to solve Rome's problems, whether or not the solutions in themselves were practical?
There are essentially two ways of viewing Caesar. The first is to see him as a man perceptive enough to understand that the Republican constitution could no longer function. Throughout his career he had taken considerable interest in the conditions of the poor in Rome and the native population in Rome's provinces, and realised that the territories could not be run simply for the selfish benefit of a tiny élite in Rome. Observing the incompetence and weakness of the Senate as a group and of individual senators, and contrasting this with his own abilities, Caesar knew that the state needed to be guided by a single individual who could discern the general good and act accordingly. In this way he tried to bring to Rome the stability it would gain from the Principate, and failed only because the Romans were not yet ready for this revolution; and perhaps because he let his impatience show. If Caesar thought in this way, then he may not have been entirely unique. On several occasions Cicero had talked of the need for the Republic to have a rector, a powerful leader who would help to guide the Senate and magistrates in making decisions for the common good. He had hoped that Pompey might fulfil this role, but even at his most optimistic had lower expectations for Caesar. Cicero's rector was certainly a less powerful figure than the dictator Caesar had become.
The alternative is to see Caesar more as an aristocrat steeped in the traditions of the Senate than as a visionary. Caesar, like all
This coin bears the head of Marcus Junius Brutus, one of the principal leaders of the conspiracy which murdered Caesar Brutus was highly respected for his learning and conduct and was a particular favourite of Caesar who pardoned him even though he fought for Pompey at Pharsalus. Brutus committed suicide after the Second Battle of Philippi in 42. (Barber Institute of Fine Arts)
men of his class and upbringing, wished to have a distinguished public career, holding high office and winning fame and glory on the state's behalf. Perhaps because his family had for generations been removed from the inner circle of the Senate, or perhaps just because he was aware of his own great gifts, his ambition was especially great, and he not only wished to succeed, but to achieve more than anyone else. This is the man who is supposed to have said that it would be harder to push him down from first to second place in the state than from second to last. He pursued his ambition with relentless purpose, adopting any radical measure to achieve his ends, even to the extent of fighting a civil war. By 45 Caesar had achieved his objective, for all potential rivals were dead and he was able to celebrate more and greater triumphs than any other Roman, permanently commemorating his achievements in a massive building programme. That he now had supreme authority in the state and the ability to reform the Republic were largely incidental. There was no grand plan for solving Rome's problems, for Caesar was either unaware of them or could not think of any way of solving them. Instead he wasted his energy with huge numbers of unconnected initiatives and reforms, tinkering with minor problems rather than confronting the real issues. It was not long before he wished again for the simple objectives of an army commander, and so decided to leave his political problems behind and instead to go and fight long wars in Dacia and Parthia.
We do not know what Caesar's long-term plans were, and the contradictory propaganda of both sides after his death will probably forever make these uncertain. Perhaps he was a mixture of the two extremes. Certainly there is no evidence that he planned ever to resign his considerable powers, but whether he thought of these as personal, or planned to create a permanent position of dictator, emperor or king and to pass this on to a successor is impossible to state with certainty. At the time many Romans certainly feared that this would happen, and at least some of the conspirators thought that they were striking a blow for liberty, in the sense of desiring that Roman aristocrats had freedom to pursue their political careers without the supervision of one all-powerful individual.
Brutus, one of the leaders of the conspiracy and the man felt by all to have had the most altruistic motives, certainly acted because he feared what Caesar might become. Married to the daughter of Cato, and a learned and serious student of philosophy himself, Brutus objected to the idea of a dictator or king, but did not hate Caesar himself. Caesar was indeed very fond of Brutus, and had once had an affair with his mother, the lively and intelligent Servilia, whom he appears to have regarded far more highly than any of his other mistresses with the exception of Cleopatra. This relationship prompted rumours, undoubtedly false but no less persistent for all that, that Brutus was in fact
Caesar's illegitimate son. Others among the conspiracy acted more from personal hatred, or in the case of his former officers, who included Decimus Brutus and Caius Trebonius, disappointment with their rewards.
Caesar had already been voted many exceptional honours, not unprecedented but usually on a grander scale than any of his predecessors. Caesar's link with the goddess Venus seemed to be more public and was represented as closer than the claims of past commanders, such as Sulla and Pompey, to be especially favoured by the gods. A temple was dedicated to Caesar's Clementia, the clemency with which he had pardoned so many of his bitter enemies. In public Caesar was granted the right always to wear a laurel wreath - an honour which is said to have especially pleased him for he was concerned over his growing baldness - as well as the other robes of a triumphing general, and he sat on a gilded chair instead of the magistrate's simpler seat. Rumours abounded that he wished to go a stage further and become a king, perhaps after the model of the Hellenistic world where the monarch was considered to be a god. When a crowd hailed him as rex (king), he replied that he was 'Not Rex, but Caesar' for Rex was also a family name in Rome. Later he made great show of refusing a crown offered to him by the mob.
Yet his behaviour gave sufficient grounds for doubting his long-term intentions. He dressed in the long-sleeved tunic and high boots of the kings of Alba Longa, a long-vanished city that had been a rival of early Rome, and from the royal family of which the Julii Caesares claimed descent. Caesar, having lost his only legitimate child, Julia, had already adopted his nephew Octavian as his heir, sending the teenager to Greece to prepare for the eastern expedition, but it was not clear whether he was to inherit just his private possessions or also his position. Even more worryingly, Cleopatra had come to Italy and been openly installed in a big house as Caesar's mistress. A statue of the Egyptian queen was placed next to that of the goddess in Caesar's great temple to Venus. Wild rumours circulated about special
Persistent, although unfounded rumour claimed that Brutus was in fact Caesar's illegitimate son. More than any of the other conspirators he was believed to have been motivated by his sense of the common good rather than personal ambition or vindictiveness. (AKG Berlin)
legislation being planned to permit Caesar to marry her. After Caesar's death a boy was produced by the queen and Mark Antony, who claimed that he was Caesar's illegitimate son and named him Caesarion, claiming that the dictator had acknowledged him. There is no contemporary record of the child dating to before March 44, and considerable doubt must exist as to his actual paternity. Another rumour current at the time spoke of an ancient prophecy, part of the Sybilline Books that had often guided the Republic at times of crisis, which declared that Parthia would only be conquered by a king. The Senate is supposed to have been planning a decree that would grant Caesar the title throughout the empire but not in Italy itself. Yet, whatever his ambitions Caesar made no attempt to rule by force, dismissing his personal bodyguard and travelling through the streets of Rome just like any other senator.
Caesar planned to leave Rome on 18 March 44 and, given the scale of his planned campaigns, would be most unlikely to return for several years. Brutus, Cassius and the more than 60 other conspirators decided that they must act. They were a disparate group, but had preserved their secret for several months. On the morning of 15 March (a date known as the Ides) there was some dismay when Caesar did not arrive at the Senate on time. Eventually he came and the Senate rose to greet him. The conspirators clustered round his chair, using the excuse of pleading for the recall of Publius Cimber. For a while the charade went on, but when Caesar stood to leave and tried to shake them off, the conspirators drew their knives, Casca striking the first blow from behind. Caesar died of multiple stab wounds. There was a final irony about his death, for Caesar's own Senate House had not been completed and the old curia still lav in ruins from its destruction by Clodius's men. As a result, the Senate had assembled in a temple attached to Pompey's theatre complex. When Caesar fell, his body lay at the foot of a statue of Pompey.
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0.363093793392... | 2 | On 15 February 44, Caesar's dictatorship and other powers were extended for life. A month later he was stabbed to death by a group of senators that included men who had served him for years, as well as pardoned Pompeians. Before discussing why the conspirators acted in this way, we must consider the difficult question of Caesar's own long-term aims - a subject of continuing scholarly debate and little agreement. It has often been stated that the Roman Republic failed and was replaced by the rule of emperors because the system, designed to regulate the public affairs of a city-state, could not cope with the changed circumstances of governing a world empire. There is some truth in this as we have seen, for during the last years of the Republic it became increasingly difficult to accommodate and regulate the competition between a few overwhelmingly powerful individuals. At the same time the Senate failed to acknowledge the emergence of a professional army or to do anything to provide for discharged soldiers who were no longer men of property, encouraging them to a closer bond with generals who offered them more. Yet, even under the empire, the institutions of Rome were to a great extent those of a city-state, but the emperors imposed more control of the system and encouraged the integration of first Italy and then the provinces. Institutions developed to support a permanent army, kept loyal to the emperor alone. Senators still held most of the senior positions in imperial government, although usually with authority delegated from the emperor, but the number of people, both citizen and non-citizen, benefiting from the regime was greatly increased. The empire, or Principate as it is more often known, gave Rome and the provinces a remarkable level of stability, broken only twice by civil war in the first two centuries of its existence, in comparison to the period from 133 BC to 31 BC.
Augustus was Caesar's adopted heir, had risen to power as his father's avenger, and copied some of Caesar's innovations to create the Principate, although in other respects he learned from the dictator's mistakes and did things very differently. The Roman Republic faced many political, social, economic and military problems in the first century, and it is worth considering to what extent Caesar was aware of these. He had fought the Civil War to maintain his own honour and political status. Had a compromise been reached that permitted him to stand for a second consulship and go on to a further provincial command, the future would have been very different, with Rome dominated by two great men, Caesar and Pompey, instead of just one. This did not occur and, whether or not Caesar had long aimed at supreme power, he did achieve it through his victory. His reforms as dictator were wide ranging, but did they have the coherence of a clear plan to solve Rome's problems, whether or not the solutions in themselves were practical?
There are essentially two ways of viewing Caesar. The first is to see him as a man perceptive enough to understand that the Republican constitution could no longer function. Throughout his career he had taken considerable interest in the conditions of the poor in Rome and the native population in Rome's provinces, and realised that the territories could not be run simply for the selfish benefit of a tiny élite in Rome. Observing the incompetence and weakness of the Senate as a group and of individual senators, and contrasting this with his own abilities, Caesar knew that the state needed to be guided by a single individual who could discern the general good and act accordingly. In this way he tried to bring to Rome the stability it would gain from the Principate, and failed only because the Romans were not yet ready for this revolution; and perhaps because he let his impatience show. If Caesar thought in this way, then he may not have been entirely unique. On several occasions Cicero had talked of the need for the Republic to have a rector, a powerful leader who would help to guide the Senate and magistrates in making decisions for the common good. He had hoped that Pompey might fulfil this role, but even at his most optimistic had lower expectations for Caesar. Cicero's rector was certainly a less powerful figure than the dictator Caesar had become.
The alternative is to see Caesar more as an aristocrat steeped in the traditions of the Senate than as a visionary. Caesar, like all
This coin bears the head of Marcus Junius Brutus, one of the principal leaders of the conspiracy which murdered Caesar Brutus was highly respected for his learning and conduct and was a particular favourite of Caesar who pardoned him even though he fought for Pompey at Pharsalus. Brutus committed suicide after the Second Battle of Philippi in 42. (Barber Institute of Fine Arts)
men of his class and upbringing, wished to have a distinguished public career, holding high office and winning fame and glory on the state's behalf. Perhaps because his family had for generations been removed from the inner circle of the Senate, or perhaps just because he was aware of his own great gifts, his ambition was especially great, and he not only wished to succeed, but to achieve more than anyone else. This is the man who is supposed to have said that it would be harder to push him down from first to second place in the state than from second to last. He pursued his ambition with relentless purpose, adopting any radical measure to achieve his ends, even to the extent of fighting a civil war. By 45 Caesar had achieved his objective, for all potential rivals were dead and he was able to celebrate more and greater triumphs than any other Roman, permanently commemorating his achievements in a massive building programme. That he now had supreme authority in the state and the ability to reform the Republic were largely incidental. There was no grand plan for solving Rome's problems, for Caesar was either unaware of them or could not think of any way of solving them. Instead he wasted his energy with huge numbers of unconnected initiatives and reforms, tinkering with minor problems rather than confronting the real issues. It was not long before he wished again for the simple objectives of an army commander, and so decided to leave his political problems behind and instead to go and fight long wars in Dacia and Parthia.
We do not know what Caesar's long-term plans were, and the contradictory propaganda of both sides after his death will probably forever make these uncertain. Perhaps he was a mixture of the two extremes. Certainly there is no evidence that he planned ever to resign his considerable powers, but whether he thought of these as personal, or planned to create a permanent position of dictator, emperor or king and to pass this on to a successor is impossible to state with certainty. At the time many Romans certainly feared that this would happen, and at least some of the conspirators thought that they were striking a blow for liberty, in the sense of desiring that Roman aristocrats had freedom to pursue their political careers without the supervision of one all-powerful individual.
Brutus, one of the leaders of the conspiracy and the man felt by all to have had the most altruistic motives, certainly acted because he feared what Caesar might become. Married to the daughter of Cato, and a learned and serious student of philosophy himself, Brutus objected to the idea of a dictator or king, but did not hate Caesar himself. Caesar was indeed very fond of Brutus, and had once had an affair with his mother, the lively and intelligent Servilia, whom he appears to have regarded far more highly than any of his other mistresses with the exception of Cleopatra. This relationship prompted rumours, undoubtedly false but no less persistent for all that, that Brutus was in fact
Caesar's illegitimate son. Others among the conspiracy acted more from personal hatred, or in the case of his former officers, who included Decimus Brutus and Caius Trebonius, disappointment with their rewards.
Caesar had already been voted many exceptional honours, not unprecedented but usually on a grander scale than any of his predecessors. Caesar's link with the goddess Venus seemed to be more public and was represented as closer than the claims of past commanders, such as Sulla and Pompey, to be especially favoured by the gods. A temple was dedicated to Caesar's Clementia, the clemency with which he had pardoned so many of his bitter enemies. In public Caesar was granted the right always to wear a laurel wreath - an honour which is said to have especially pleased him for he was concerned over his growing baldness - as well as the other robes of a triumphing general, and he sat on a gilded chair instead of the magistrate's simpler seat. Rumours abounded that he wished to go a stage further and become a king, perhaps after the model of the Hellenistic world where the monarch was considered to be a god. When a crowd hailed him as rex (king), he replied that he was 'Not Rex, but Caesar' for Rex was also a family name in Rome. Later he made great show of refusing a crown offered to him by the mob.
Yet his behaviour gave sufficient grounds for doubting his long-term intentions. He dressed in the long-sleeved tunic and high boots of the kings of Alba Longa, a long-vanished city that had been a rival of early Rome, and from the royal family of which the Julii Caesares claimed descent. Caesar, having lost his only legitimate child, Julia, had already adopted his nephew Octavian as his heir, sending the teenager to Greece to prepare for the eastern expedition, but it was not clear whether he was to inherit just his private possessions or also his position. Even more worryingly, Cleopatra had come to Italy and been openly installed in a big house as Caesar's mistress. A statue of the Egyptian queen was placed next to that of the goddess in Caesar's great temple to Venus. Wild rumours circulated about special
Persistent, although unfounded rumour claimed that Brutus was in fact Caesar's illegitimate son. More than any of the other conspirators he was believed to have been motivated by his sense of the common good rather than personal ambition or vindictiveness. (AKG Berlin)
legislation being planned to permit Caesar to marry her. After Caesar's death a boy was produced by the queen and Mark Antony, who claimed that he was Caesar's illegitimate son and named him Caesarion, claiming that the dictator had acknowledged him. There is no contemporary record of the child dating to before March 44, and considerable doubt must exist as to his actual paternity. Another rumour current at the time spoke of an ancient prophecy, part of the Sybilline Books that had often guided the Republic at times of crisis, which declared that Parthia would only be conquered by a king. The Senate is supposed to have been planning a decree that would grant Caesar the title throughout the empire but not in Italy itself. Yet, whatever his ambitions Caesar made no attempt to rule by force, dismissing his personal bodyguard and travelling through the streets of Rome just like any other senator.
Caesar planned to leave Rome on 18 March 44 and, given the scale of his planned campaigns, would be most unlikely to return for several years. Brutus, Cassius and the more than 60 other conspirators decided that they must act. They were a disparate group, but had preserved their secret for several months. On the morning of 15 March (a date known as the Ides) there was some dismay when Caesar did not arrive at the Senate on time. Eventually he came and the Senate rose to greet him. The conspirators clustered round his chair, using the excuse of pleading for the recall of Publius Cimber. For a while the charade went on, but when Caesar stood to leave and tried to shake them off, the conspirators drew their knives, Casca striking the first blow from behind. Caesar died of multiple stab wounds. There was a final irony about his death, for Caesar's own Senate House had not been completed and the old curia still lav in ruins from its destruction by Clodius's men. As a result, the Senate had assembled in a temple attached to Pompey's theatre complex. When Caesar fell, his body lay at the foot of a statue of Pompey.
Was this article helpful? | 2,506 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Gettysburg was an [American] Civil War battle that was fought between Union and Confederate forces on July 1, 2, and 3 in 1863. While you most likely know quite a lot about this battle, it remains fitting to include it, seeing that it was the bloodiest battle of the American Civil War, with a total of 7,863 killed, 27,224 wounded, and 11,199 missing or captured. After winning the Battle of Chancellorsville in Virginia, Confederate general Robert Edward Lee lead over 70,000 of his troops to invade the North. In high spirits, General Lee was convinced the North was theirs. However, this was not to be. Colliding on July 1, Union Major General Joseph Hooker, with a force of nearly 94,000 men, and General Robert Lee two army's met, and, sure of a win, Lee urged his men on in an effort to destroy the Union Army and ultimately win the War. Soon reinforced by two corps of infantry (a corp is a military body), the Union gained the upper hand. But wait, there more! Two large corps of the Confederate army collapsed the new Union infantry. By this time, most men were most likely fighting not knowing who was winning. On July 2, 1863, both armys had assembled. Lee majorly wounded the Union, and, despite major losses, the Union troops held their ground. On the third day of battle, the Confederates made a reckless move. 12,500 Confederate soldiers charged at the center of the Union line. This charge was known as Pickett's Charge. The result was a Union rifle and artillery (cannon) fire and heavy losses on the Confederacy's part. General Lee lead his battle-weary forces of roughly 48,000 men in a retreat back to Virginia. The Union reaction to the news?
Of course, following the battle was the Gettysburg Address, but come on already, this is Northeast BATTLES! | <urn:uuid:d7c56317-3074-4bda-b154-6a4375183c81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://battlesofthenortheast9504.weebly.com/the-battle-of-gettysburg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.983106 | 401 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3542491495609... | 3 | The Battle of Gettysburg was an [American] Civil War battle that was fought between Union and Confederate forces on July 1, 2, and 3 in 1863. While you most likely know quite a lot about this battle, it remains fitting to include it, seeing that it was the bloodiest battle of the American Civil War, with a total of 7,863 killed, 27,224 wounded, and 11,199 missing or captured. After winning the Battle of Chancellorsville in Virginia, Confederate general Robert Edward Lee lead over 70,000 of his troops to invade the North. In high spirits, General Lee was convinced the North was theirs. However, this was not to be. Colliding on July 1, Union Major General Joseph Hooker, with a force of nearly 94,000 men, and General Robert Lee two army's met, and, sure of a win, Lee urged his men on in an effort to destroy the Union Army and ultimately win the War. Soon reinforced by two corps of infantry (a corp is a military body), the Union gained the upper hand. But wait, there more! Two large corps of the Confederate army collapsed the new Union infantry. By this time, most men were most likely fighting not knowing who was winning. On July 2, 1863, both armys had assembled. Lee majorly wounded the Union, and, despite major losses, the Union troops held their ground. On the third day of battle, the Confederates made a reckless move. 12,500 Confederate soldiers charged at the center of the Union line. This charge was known as Pickett's Charge. The result was a Union rifle and artillery (cannon) fire and heavy losses on the Confederacy's part. General Lee lead his battle-weary forces of roughly 48,000 men in a retreat back to Virginia. The Union reaction to the news?
Of course, following the battle was the Gettysburg Address, but come on already, this is Northeast BATTLES! | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stephen Hawking, one of the most famous scientists of the 21st century, died on March 14th, 2018. But his ideas on gravity, black holes and the Big Bang are the greatest legacy he left to the world.
Early Life and College
On January 8th, 1942, Stephen Hawking was born to a successful family in Oxford, England. He was not the best student at fundamental or high school, but he was very smart. His dad wanted him to become a medical doctor, but Stephen really wanted to study math.
Despite his poor grades at school, Stephen aced his exams for college. He was admitted to Oxford University, but they didn't have math as a major. So, he decided to study physics and chemistry instead.
Stephen became a member of a rowing team when he was in college. After he graduated, he decided to continue his education and went to graduate school.
Graduate School, Marriage and Health Problems
While in graduate school, he had some health problems. He began tripping for no reason, and his speech became hard to understand. His family encouraged him to go to the doctor. Stephen was diagnosed with a disease called ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease, which affects the brain and spine. He was only twenty one, and the doctors initially gave him only a few years to live. Luckily, his condition progressed more slowly than is often the case.
During this time, Stephen had a relationship with a woman named Jane. He said she and his work were his inspiration for living. Stephen earned his Ph.D. degree in 1965. He started to get worse, and eventually became confined to a wheelchair. Nonetheless, he and Jane married in 1965 and were able to have three children.
He studied how space and time are related, including scientific studies of black holes in space and how they work in the universe. He also had a lot of success in his work as a college professor.
A New Voice
In 1985, Stephen got really sick and doctors were able to save him, but he was unable to speak. He could only use his eyebrows to communicate. Eventually, he was able to use a special voice synthesizer, allowing him to talk by moving his cheek muscles and using a mouse pad.
Famous Works and Prizes
His most notorious theory is that black holes can emit radiation; also known as Hawking radiation. He received numerous awards but never won the Nobel Prize.
Stephen always enjoyed writing books. His best seller, “A Brief History in Time” made terms like the Big Bang and black holes easy to understand. Other famous Stephen Hawking books include: “A Briefer History in Time", “On the Shoulders of Giants” and "The Universe in a Nutshell". He also wrote many books for children along with his daughter Lucy. His famous books for children include "George’s Cosmic Treasure Hunt" and “George and the Big Bang”.
His last work, submitted only two weeks before his
death, reveals the universe will come to an end when stars
run out of energy. However, his theory suggests that
scientists will be able to find parallel universes using
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0.3659194409... | 1 | Stephen Hawking, one of the most famous scientists of the 21st century, died on March 14th, 2018. But his ideas on gravity, black holes and the Big Bang are the greatest legacy he left to the world.
Early Life and College
On January 8th, 1942, Stephen Hawking was born to a successful family in Oxford, England. He was not the best student at fundamental or high school, but he was very smart. His dad wanted him to become a medical doctor, but Stephen really wanted to study math.
Despite his poor grades at school, Stephen aced his exams for college. He was admitted to Oxford University, but they didn't have math as a major. So, he decided to study physics and chemistry instead.
Stephen became a member of a rowing team when he was in college. After he graduated, he decided to continue his education and went to graduate school.
Graduate School, Marriage and Health Problems
While in graduate school, he had some health problems. He began tripping for no reason, and his speech became hard to understand. His family encouraged him to go to the doctor. Stephen was diagnosed with a disease called ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease, which affects the brain and spine. He was only twenty one, and the doctors initially gave him only a few years to live. Luckily, his condition progressed more slowly than is often the case.
During this time, Stephen had a relationship with a woman named Jane. He said she and his work were his inspiration for living. Stephen earned his Ph.D. degree in 1965. He started to get worse, and eventually became confined to a wheelchair. Nonetheless, he and Jane married in 1965 and were able to have three children.
He studied how space and time are related, including scientific studies of black holes in space and how they work in the universe. He also had a lot of success in his work as a college professor.
A New Voice
In 1985, Stephen got really sick and doctors were able to save him, but he was unable to speak. He could only use his eyebrows to communicate. Eventually, he was able to use a special voice synthesizer, allowing him to talk by moving his cheek muscles and using a mouse pad.
Famous Works and Prizes
His most notorious theory is that black holes can emit radiation; also known as Hawking radiation. He received numerous awards but never won the Nobel Prize.
Stephen always enjoyed writing books. His best seller, “A Brief History in Time” made terms like the Big Bang and black holes easy to understand. Other famous Stephen Hawking books include: “A Briefer History in Time", “On the Shoulders of Giants” and "The Universe in a Nutshell". He also wrote many books for children along with his daughter Lucy. His famous books for children include "George’s Cosmic Treasure Hunt" and “George and the Big Bang”.
His last work, submitted only two weeks before his
death, reveals the universe will come to an end when stars
run out of energy. However, his theory suggests that
scientists will be able to find parallel universes using
probes on spaceships. | 667 | ENGLISH | 1 |
MacDougall stated his experiment would have to be repeated many times before any conclusion could be obtained. The experiment is widely regarded as flawed and unscientific due to the small sample size, the methods used, as well as the fact only one of the six subjects met the hypothesis. The case has been cited as an example of selective reporting. Despite its rejection within the scientific community, MacDougall's experiment popularized the concept that the soul has weight, and specifically that it weighs 21 grams.
In 1901, Duncan MacDougall, a physician from Haverhill, Massachusetts, who wished to scientifically determine if a soul had weight, identified six patients in nursing homes whose death was imminent. Four were suffering from tuberculosis, one from diabetes, and one from unspecified causes. MacDougall specifically chose people who were suffering from conditions that caused physical exhaustion, as he needed the patients to remain still when they died to measure them accurately. When the patients looked like they were close to death, their entire bed was placed on an industrial sized scale that was sensitive within two tenths of an ounce (5.6 grams). On the belief that humans have souls and that animals do not, MacDougall later measured the changes in weight from fifteen dogs after death. MacDougall said he wished to use dogs that were sick or dying for his experiment, though was unable to find any. It is therefore presumed he poisoned healthy dogs.
One of the patients lost weight but then put the weight back on, and two of the other patients registered a loss of weight at death but a few minutes later lost even more weight. One of the patients lost "three-fourths of an ounce" (21.3 grams) in weight, coinciding with the time of death. MacDougall disregarded the results of another patient on the grounds the scales were "not finely adjusted", and discounted the results of another as the patient died while the equipment was still being calibrated. MacDougall reported that none of the dogs lost any weight after death.
While MacDougall believed the results from his experiment showed the human soul might have weight, his report, which was not published until 1907, stated the experiment would have to be repeated many times before any conclusion could be obtained.
Before MacDougall was able to publish the results of his experiments, The New York Times broke the story in an article titled "Soul has Weight, Physician Thinks". MacDougall's results were published in April of the same year in the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, and the medical journal American Medicine.
Following the publication of the experiment in American Medicine, physician Augustus P. Clarke criticized the experiment's validity. Clarke noted that at the time of death there is a sudden rise in body temperature as the lungs are no longer cooling blood, causing a subsequent rise in sweating which could easily account for MacDougall’s missing 21 grams. Clarke also pointed out that, as dogs do not have sweat glands, they would not lose weight in this manner after death. Clarke's criticism was published in the May issue of American Medicine. Arguments between MacDougall and Clarke debating the validity of the experiment continued to be published in the journal until at least December that year.
MacDougall's experiment has been the subject of considerable skepticism, and he has been accused of both flawed methods and outright fraud in obtaining his results. Noting that only one of the six patients measured supported the hypothesis, Karl Kruszelnicki has stated the experiment is a case of selective reporting, as MacDougall ignored the majority of the results. Kruszelnicki also criticized the small sample size, and questioned how MacDougall was able to determine the exact moment when a person had died considering the technology available in 1907. In 2008 physicist Robert L. Park wrote that MacDougall's experiments "are not regarded today as having any scientific merit", and psychologist Bruce Hood wrote that "because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his findings were unscientific". Professor Richard Wiseman said that within the scientific community, the experiment is confined to a "large pile of scientific curiosities labelled 'almost certainly not true'".
An article by Snopes in 2013 said the experiment was flawed because the methods used were suspect, the sample size was much too small, and the capability to measure weight changes too imprecise, concluding: "credence should not be given to the idea his experiments proved something, let alone that they measured the weight of the soul as 21 grams." The fact that MacDougall likely poisoned and killed fifteen healthy dogs in an attempt to support his research has also been a source of criticism.
In 1911 The New York Times reported that MacDougall was hoping to run experiments to take photos of souls, but he appears to not have continued any further research into the area and died in 1920. His experiment has not been repeated.
Despite its rejection within the scientific community, MacDougall's experiment popularized the idea that the soul has weight, and specifically that it weighs 21 grams. Most notably, '21 Grams' was taken as the title of a film in 2003, which references the experiment.
The concept of a soul weighing 21 grams is mentioned in numerous media, including a 2013 issue of the manga Gantz, a 2013 podcast of Welcome to Night Vale, the 2015 film The Empire of Corpses, and the 2015 song "21 Grams" by Niykee Heaton, which features the line "I just want your soul in my hands, feel your weight of 21 grams." MacDougall and his experiments are explicitly mentioned in the 1978 documentary film Beyond and Back, and episode five of the first season of Dark Matters: Twisted But True. A fictional American scientist named "Mr. MacDougall" appears in Gail Carriger's 2009 novel Soulless, as an expert in the weight and measurement of souls. | <urn:uuid:b641a3db-038e-452b-9907-224e68509036> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Duncan-MacDougall-%28doctor%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.982392 | 1,204 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.169306039810... | 1 | MacDougall stated his experiment would have to be repeated many times before any conclusion could be obtained. The experiment is widely regarded as flawed and unscientific due to the small sample size, the methods used, as well as the fact only one of the six subjects met the hypothesis. The case has been cited as an example of selective reporting. Despite its rejection within the scientific community, MacDougall's experiment popularized the concept that the soul has weight, and specifically that it weighs 21 grams.
In 1901, Duncan MacDougall, a physician from Haverhill, Massachusetts, who wished to scientifically determine if a soul had weight, identified six patients in nursing homes whose death was imminent. Four were suffering from tuberculosis, one from diabetes, and one from unspecified causes. MacDougall specifically chose people who were suffering from conditions that caused physical exhaustion, as he needed the patients to remain still when they died to measure them accurately. When the patients looked like they were close to death, their entire bed was placed on an industrial sized scale that was sensitive within two tenths of an ounce (5.6 grams). On the belief that humans have souls and that animals do not, MacDougall later measured the changes in weight from fifteen dogs after death. MacDougall said he wished to use dogs that were sick or dying for his experiment, though was unable to find any. It is therefore presumed he poisoned healthy dogs.
One of the patients lost weight but then put the weight back on, and two of the other patients registered a loss of weight at death but a few minutes later lost even more weight. One of the patients lost "three-fourths of an ounce" (21.3 grams) in weight, coinciding with the time of death. MacDougall disregarded the results of another patient on the grounds the scales were "not finely adjusted", and discounted the results of another as the patient died while the equipment was still being calibrated. MacDougall reported that none of the dogs lost any weight after death.
While MacDougall believed the results from his experiment showed the human soul might have weight, his report, which was not published until 1907, stated the experiment would have to be repeated many times before any conclusion could be obtained.
Before MacDougall was able to publish the results of his experiments, The New York Times broke the story in an article titled "Soul has Weight, Physician Thinks". MacDougall's results were published in April of the same year in the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, and the medical journal American Medicine.
Following the publication of the experiment in American Medicine, physician Augustus P. Clarke criticized the experiment's validity. Clarke noted that at the time of death there is a sudden rise in body temperature as the lungs are no longer cooling blood, causing a subsequent rise in sweating which could easily account for MacDougall’s missing 21 grams. Clarke also pointed out that, as dogs do not have sweat glands, they would not lose weight in this manner after death. Clarke's criticism was published in the May issue of American Medicine. Arguments between MacDougall and Clarke debating the validity of the experiment continued to be published in the journal until at least December that year.
MacDougall's experiment has been the subject of considerable skepticism, and he has been accused of both flawed methods and outright fraud in obtaining his results. Noting that only one of the six patients measured supported the hypothesis, Karl Kruszelnicki has stated the experiment is a case of selective reporting, as MacDougall ignored the majority of the results. Kruszelnicki also criticized the small sample size, and questioned how MacDougall was able to determine the exact moment when a person had died considering the technology available in 1907. In 2008 physicist Robert L. Park wrote that MacDougall's experiments "are not regarded today as having any scientific merit", and psychologist Bruce Hood wrote that "because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his findings were unscientific". Professor Richard Wiseman said that within the scientific community, the experiment is confined to a "large pile of scientific curiosities labelled 'almost certainly not true'".
An article by Snopes in 2013 said the experiment was flawed because the methods used were suspect, the sample size was much too small, and the capability to measure weight changes too imprecise, concluding: "credence should not be given to the idea his experiments proved something, let alone that they measured the weight of the soul as 21 grams." The fact that MacDougall likely poisoned and killed fifteen healthy dogs in an attempt to support his research has also been a source of criticism.
In 1911 The New York Times reported that MacDougall was hoping to run experiments to take photos of souls, but he appears to not have continued any further research into the area and died in 1920. His experiment has not been repeated.
Despite its rejection within the scientific community, MacDougall's experiment popularized the idea that the soul has weight, and specifically that it weighs 21 grams. Most notably, '21 Grams' was taken as the title of a film in 2003, which references the experiment.
The concept of a soul weighing 21 grams is mentioned in numerous media, including a 2013 issue of the manga Gantz, a 2013 podcast of Welcome to Night Vale, the 2015 film The Empire of Corpses, and the 2015 song "21 Grams" by Niykee Heaton, which features the line "I just want your soul in my hands, feel your weight of 21 grams." MacDougall and his experiments are explicitly mentioned in the 1978 documentary film Beyond and Back, and episode five of the first season of Dark Matters: Twisted But True. A fictional American scientist named "Mr. MacDougall" appears in Gail Carriger's 2009 novel Soulless, as an expert in the weight and measurement of souls. | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“And if the slave shall plainly say, I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free: Then his master shall bring him unto the judges; he shall also bring him to the door, or unto the door post; and his master shall bore his ear through with an aul; and he shall serve him for ever.”
What does it mean to be a slave? According to the Vocabulary.com dictionary, slavery is defined thus: Slavery is the brutal practice of forcing someone to work hard without paying them a fair wage, sometimes without paying them at all. That is a perfectly adequate definition for modern America, but it is far from the reality of slavery in ancient Israel. In fact, the rules and commandments about slaves goes all the way back to Moses, before the people ever crossed into the Promised Land.
As you can see from the definition of avad (above), it actually means doing work that another desires you to do. Moses had just delivered the people from slavery in Egypt; wouldn’t you think they wouldn’t want to subject others to what they just came from? Well, that’s why Moses told them about how they should treat slaves.
The system of slavery in ancient Israel is nothing like the definition from Vocabulary.com. In fact, the word avad was used for both servants and slaves. The difference between the two involved why they were working for their masters. People generally became household slaves because they owed money they could not pay. A thief might become a slave if he could not make restitution. A family who was very poor might sell their young daughter as a slave, but that was the purview of the father alone. The mother had no say in the matter.
In order for a Hebrew to become a slave for debt, a court would have to make an order. The only other way for this to happen was for the slave to voluntarily become a slave. And even then, the period of his slavery could not exceed 6 years.
Slaves were members of the master’s household. They were fed, clothed, often given education, and had all their needs met. The Sabbath applied to them, too, so one day a week they were not required to work. The males were circumcised and they all took part in God’s appointed festivals. If there was no heir (and sometimes if there were), a slave could inherit his master’s estate.
While they were living in the master’s household, the master only had limited rights over them. If the master mistreated them, they could be set free by the courts. And all slaves, no matter the reason for their slavery, were set free in the year of Jubilee. Anything that originally had belonged to the slave was returned to him at that point, including landholdings of his family.
If the master ignored the law and mistreated his slave and the slave ran away, others were to give him refuge, not return him to the wicked master.
After a slave was set free, he was not sent away empty-handed but was given gifts like a son leaving home.
“And when thou lettest him go free from thee, thou shalt not let him go empty; thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of thy threshing floor, and out of thy winepress; of that wherewith the Lord thy God hath blessed thee.”
When a female was sold into slavery, the son of the master had to marry her. If he refused, she was set free. However, female slaves were only sold into slavery up to the age of 12, and only in the case of abject poverty. As soon as her father could afford to, she must be redeemed.
What about slaves who were not Hebrew? Alien slaves were rarely personal property. They became slaves through war and as such belonged to the king and not an individual. They were in servitude in perpetuity. “Ye may make them an inheritance for your children after you, to hold for a possession, of them ye may take your bondmen forever” (Lev. 25:46).
Today, slaves are sold, whether male or female, and with indifference to age, all over the world—except in Israel. They are forced to work for others and are often sold to other owners. The things considered “work” that they must do are often horrific. They are starved, beaten, raped, and made to work for long hours without pay and certainly never allowed a “Sabbath.” But one thing is true: human trafficking and slavery today is nothing like slavery in ancient Israel. | <urn:uuid:050ff00f-8cd9-4c08-a7d9-d89d021ac8eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://o-susannah.com/?p=221116 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.990331 | 970 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.045810468494... | 9 | “And if the slave shall plainly say, I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free: Then his master shall bring him unto the judges; he shall also bring him to the door, or unto the door post; and his master shall bore his ear through with an aul; and he shall serve him for ever.”
What does it mean to be a slave? According to the Vocabulary.com dictionary, slavery is defined thus: Slavery is the brutal practice of forcing someone to work hard without paying them a fair wage, sometimes without paying them at all. That is a perfectly adequate definition for modern America, but it is far from the reality of slavery in ancient Israel. In fact, the rules and commandments about slaves goes all the way back to Moses, before the people ever crossed into the Promised Land.
As you can see from the definition of avad (above), it actually means doing work that another desires you to do. Moses had just delivered the people from slavery in Egypt; wouldn’t you think they wouldn’t want to subject others to what they just came from? Well, that’s why Moses told them about how they should treat slaves.
The system of slavery in ancient Israel is nothing like the definition from Vocabulary.com. In fact, the word avad was used for both servants and slaves. The difference between the two involved why they were working for their masters. People generally became household slaves because they owed money they could not pay. A thief might become a slave if he could not make restitution. A family who was very poor might sell their young daughter as a slave, but that was the purview of the father alone. The mother had no say in the matter.
In order for a Hebrew to become a slave for debt, a court would have to make an order. The only other way for this to happen was for the slave to voluntarily become a slave. And even then, the period of his slavery could not exceed 6 years.
Slaves were members of the master’s household. They were fed, clothed, often given education, and had all their needs met. The Sabbath applied to them, too, so one day a week they were not required to work. The males were circumcised and they all took part in God’s appointed festivals. If there was no heir (and sometimes if there were), a slave could inherit his master’s estate.
While they were living in the master’s household, the master only had limited rights over them. If the master mistreated them, they could be set free by the courts. And all slaves, no matter the reason for their slavery, were set free in the year of Jubilee. Anything that originally had belonged to the slave was returned to him at that point, including landholdings of his family.
If the master ignored the law and mistreated his slave and the slave ran away, others were to give him refuge, not return him to the wicked master.
After a slave was set free, he was not sent away empty-handed but was given gifts like a son leaving home.
“And when thou lettest him go free from thee, thou shalt not let him go empty; thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of thy threshing floor, and out of thy winepress; of that wherewith the Lord thy God hath blessed thee.”
When a female was sold into slavery, the son of the master had to marry her. If he refused, she was set free. However, female slaves were only sold into slavery up to the age of 12, and only in the case of abject poverty. As soon as her father could afford to, she must be redeemed.
What about slaves who were not Hebrew? Alien slaves were rarely personal property. They became slaves through war and as such belonged to the king and not an individual. They were in servitude in perpetuity. “Ye may make them an inheritance for your children after you, to hold for a possession, of them ye may take your bondmen forever” (Lev. 25:46).
Today, slaves are sold, whether male or female, and with indifference to age, all over the world—except in Israel. They are forced to work for others and are often sold to other owners. The things considered “work” that they must do are often horrific. They are starved, beaten, raped, and made to work for long hours without pay and certainly never allowed a “Sabbath.” But one thing is true: human trafficking and slavery today is nothing like slavery in ancient Israel. | 936 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Pupil Premium was introduced in April 2011. In 2017–18 schools were allocated a total of £2.4 billion funding for children from low-income families who were eligible for free school meals, looked after children and those from families with parents in the Armed Forces.
The government believes that the pupil premium, which is in additional to main school funding, is the best way to address the current underlying inequalities between children eligible for free school meals (FSM) and their peers by ensuring that funding reaches the pupils who need it most.
75% of disadvantaged pupils achieved a GLD (good level of development) at the end of EYFS last year. This is above the attainment of their classmates and represents good progress form their starting points.
By the end of KS2 the attainment of children in receipt of free school meals at some point in the last 7 years is above that of their peers in Reading.
Throughout the school disadvantaged children, on the whole, perform as well as their peers across the curriculum.
This will be reviewed in April 2020 | <urn:uuid:787f9825-9b57-4937-81e2-2146d81022c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://stedmundswestlancs.co.uk/information/pupil-premium | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.983884 | 216 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0363169200... | 3 | The Pupil Premium was introduced in April 2011. In 2017–18 schools were allocated a total of £2.4 billion funding for children from low-income families who were eligible for free school meals, looked after children and those from families with parents in the Armed Forces.
The government believes that the pupil premium, which is in additional to main school funding, is the best way to address the current underlying inequalities between children eligible for free school meals (FSM) and their peers by ensuring that funding reaches the pupils who need it most.
75% of disadvantaged pupils achieved a GLD (good level of development) at the end of EYFS last year. This is above the attainment of their classmates and represents good progress form their starting points.
By the end of KS2 the attainment of children in receipt of free school meals at some point in the last 7 years is above that of their peers in Reading.
Throughout the school disadvantaged children, on the whole, perform as well as their peers across the curriculum.
This will be reviewed in April 2020 | 224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Maynard Smith is one of the most influential biologists of the 20th century. His most famous work is in the field of evolutionary biology, where he was particularly interested in applying game theory to evolution.
Maynard Smith was born in London, in January 1920, the second son of a wealthy family. His father was a surgeon but died when John was only eight. The family then moved to live with his mother's relatives in Exmoor, where Maynard Smith first developed his fascination with natural history.
As a student, Maynard Smith joined the Communist party and read engineering at Trinity College, Cambridge. When war broke out in 1939 he tried to join the army but was rejected because of his poor eyesight. He later joked that; "under the circumstances, my poor eyesight was a selective advantage—it stopped me getting shot." Instead, he completed his degree and graduated with second class honours in 1941. He worked in the aircraft design factories until the end of the war when he decided that aircraft were "noisy and old fashioned." He decided to return to his first love, biology, and wrote to J B S Haldane, asking for his advice. He was accepted at University College London (UCL) to read zoology and graduated with a first in 1951.
Despite never gaining a PhD, Maynard Smith was offered a position as a lecturer at UCL, a post he held until 1965. While there, he worked mainly in the Drosophila (fruit fly) laboratory, studying population genetics alongside Haldane. He published a popular science book, The Theory of Evolution, in 1958. During this time he began to grow disillusioned with Communism and eventually left the party in 1956.
Maynard Smith left UCL to move to the newly-created University of Sussex, where he set up the School of Biological Science. He was dean for 20 years.
It was in 1973 that he did his most famous work on 'Evolutionary Game Theory. 'Game theory' is a mathematical model of behaviour originally developed in economics to calculate the best strategy an individual can take for the greatest gain in any given situation.
Maynard Smith applied this theory to evolution. When animals share resources in the wild they are in direct competition with each other and each wants to maximise their share of the resources available. Game theory offered an excellent mathematical model for this competition. Maynard Smith's devised the idea of an evolutionarily stable strategy (or ESS), which is the optimal behaviour an animal can adopt in order to pass its genes on to the next generation. It does this by means of a cost/benefit ratio, where the behaviour with the highest benefit compared to the cost of using this method is adopted.
It is an occupational risk of biologists to claim, towards the end of their careers, that the problems which they have not solved are insoluble.
John Maynard Smith, in Games, sex and evolution, 1988.
Maynard Smith officially retired in 1985. He continued working and researching, maintaining an active interest in evolution, until his death in 2004. | <urn:uuid:86205031-4d96-43cf-b0dd-6be4f2f97adf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://biologyheritage.rsb.org.uk/bcw-people/john+maynard+smith | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.981922 | 628 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.225465551018714... | 3 | John Maynard Smith is one of the most influential biologists of the 20th century. His most famous work is in the field of evolutionary biology, where he was particularly interested in applying game theory to evolution.
Maynard Smith was born in London, in January 1920, the second son of a wealthy family. His father was a surgeon but died when John was only eight. The family then moved to live with his mother's relatives in Exmoor, where Maynard Smith first developed his fascination with natural history.
As a student, Maynard Smith joined the Communist party and read engineering at Trinity College, Cambridge. When war broke out in 1939 he tried to join the army but was rejected because of his poor eyesight. He later joked that; "under the circumstances, my poor eyesight was a selective advantage—it stopped me getting shot." Instead, he completed his degree and graduated with second class honours in 1941. He worked in the aircraft design factories until the end of the war when he decided that aircraft were "noisy and old fashioned." He decided to return to his first love, biology, and wrote to J B S Haldane, asking for his advice. He was accepted at University College London (UCL) to read zoology and graduated with a first in 1951.
Despite never gaining a PhD, Maynard Smith was offered a position as a lecturer at UCL, a post he held until 1965. While there, he worked mainly in the Drosophila (fruit fly) laboratory, studying population genetics alongside Haldane. He published a popular science book, The Theory of Evolution, in 1958. During this time he began to grow disillusioned with Communism and eventually left the party in 1956.
Maynard Smith left UCL to move to the newly-created University of Sussex, where he set up the School of Biological Science. He was dean for 20 years.
It was in 1973 that he did his most famous work on 'Evolutionary Game Theory. 'Game theory' is a mathematical model of behaviour originally developed in economics to calculate the best strategy an individual can take for the greatest gain in any given situation.
Maynard Smith applied this theory to evolution. When animals share resources in the wild they are in direct competition with each other and each wants to maximise their share of the resources available. Game theory offered an excellent mathematical model for this competition. Maynard Smith's devised the idea of an evolutionarily stable strategy (or ESS), which is the optimal behaviour an animal can adopt in order to pass its genes on to the next generation. It does this by means of a cost/benefit ratio, where the behaviour with the highest benefit compared to the cost of using this method is adopted.
It is an occupational risk of biologists to claim, towards the end of their careers, that the problems which they have not solved are insoluble.
John Maynard Smith, in Games, sex and evolution, 1988.
Maynard Smith officially retired in 1985. He continued working and researching, maintaining an active interest in evolution, until his death in 2004. | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian Revolts
Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts
Table of Contents
The baroque period was an era that began approximately in 1650 and ended roughly in 1770. During this period there were major advancements in agriculture, architecture, construction, mining, medicine, and science. However during this period the region of the Balkans was under Ottoman administration and was part of the Ottoman Empire. Even though Macedonia was part of the Ottoman Empire it still managed to show some form of baroque significance and style. When travelling through the towns many of the residential properties and buildings portrayed a baroque-style infrastructure regardless whether the region was under Ottoman control. Theoretically the title of this book should be called : Ottoman Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts, however the author has decided to name this book : Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts.
Many years ago, to identify a clan or tribe a coat of arms was used. A form of identity representing a faction, empire, region, entity or an individual. Coat of arms can display any illustration on textiles, wood, masonry or metal. The very first coat of arms was possibly displayed back in 100 AD or even earlier. Coat of arms were common amongst knights in Europe, Asia and North America. The Macedonian coat of arms is a yellow or golden lion standing upright, on a red blood background. This coat of arms had undergone many changes through the years.
Through these turbulent years the Macedonian people had no identity and were forced into believing and following a different religion called Islam. If we go back to the 14th and 15th century the Ottoman Empire began building mosque within the region of the Balkans and many Christian churches were dismantled and destroyed. However some Christian churches remained, a good example is the Church of St John at Kaneo in Ohrid, this church is located near the Lake of Ohrid. It was also evident that during the baroque period in Macedonia, a number of Jewish churches were scattered within the city of Skopje. These Jewish churches had offered a different religion and service to the Macedonian people. The Macedonian communities were prohibited from following an Orthodox Christian religion and service. The Jewish quarter was an area within Skopje that contained various buildings of Jewish importance. The city of Skopje especially in the Jewish quarter, it possessed its own walls, two synagogues and a number of Jewish schools.
During the Dark Ages, also known as the Late Antiquity period, Slavs had settled in Macedonia, and the surrounding areas or region back in 610 AD, forming Macedonia Sclavinia which was described as being a faction. Further north was Rascia and towards the east was the Bulgarian faction. It was noted that after the arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans, the use of the Roman solidi also known as the Roman solidus decreased rapidly beginning of the 8th Century. The Byzantine or Roman Empire had also accumulated the lands of Dacia. These were not the only lands acquired by the Roman Empire. The province Dacia Traiana comprised the regions known today as : Banat, Oltenia, Transylvania, Moldavia and Romania. Like the Dacian state, many years later so was the early Macedonian state, an unstable tribal confederacy.
Moving along through the years Macedonia had become part of the Ottoman Empire. Also the regions of Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia were also part of the Ottoman Empire. The Macedonian people looking to overthrow the Turkish Ottoman rule established a rebel stronghold, men such as Karposh and Strahil, were seen as the driving force, showing patriotism and courage like yellow rampant lions ready to leap into the unknown Ottoman - held territory. Ottoman Macedonia back in the 17th Century (1601-1700) was undergoing a process of awakening and recognition in the form of a different voice, a different identity. The different voice and identity were the Macedonian people. Emerging was a large group of men wanting freedom, a new life, free from oppression and torture. These men and women were living in a different timeframe or timeline. They experienced the Ottoman way of life, learning a different language, following a different religion, they accepted life in Ottoman Macedonia not because they wanted to, but because they were forced to. The numerical figures of the Ottoman forces was to great however and more time and planning was required to win a war not just a battle, the Macedonian revolutionaries were placed in a difficult position, which was recorded by the Turkish historian Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha.
An otriad of rebels which were mostly based in the Malesevo mountains, Krushevo, Kumanovo, Smilevo, and Uskub (Skopje) joined together to form a Macedonian revolutionary group. The Ottoman Empire started to build ships known as galleons, boat building involved skilled men or women, the early modern baroque period saw the transformation of the carrack into a galleon, having an upper gundeck, lower gundeck and a quarterdeck. The galleons were very useful for battles at sea. The baroque period was also a time when architectural and construction advancements occurred, distinctive features of baroque architecture were : pear shaped domes in residential, religious and market buildings. The use of plaster, stucco, marble and other building materials were quite common. Large-scale ceilings frescoes, marian columns, the use of stained glass windows, and many other building elements were typical baroque construction. However even during war architecture, sculpture, painting, construction and education still continued regardless of the persistent struggle for freedom. The seventeenth century was interesting because here the Macedonian revolutionaries have achieved so much that the north-eastern region of Macedonia was literally free from Ottoman oppression, suffering and rule. The streets of Kratovo, Kumanovo, Kriva Palanka, Kocani, Kacanik, Tabanovce, Veles and Uskup were liberated. Why did the military involvement fade between the Macedonian communities and the Habsburg Empire after 1689 ? This question has puzzled many historians and archaeologists living during this time period. Was it due to the time required to send reinforcements, or that the region was extremely far and isolated. It could also be that the region had fallen to a disease called cholera and there were limited available doctors and medicines. Also that ammunition was in short supply. The legendary Karposh, a man who shocked the Ottoman troops and the authorities to it's core, was the leader of many revolts. | <urn:uuid:85035f61-2e6b-4162-95bf-56260ce14ab7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Baroque_Macedonia_and_the_Macedonian_Revolts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.980417 | 1,364 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.2517029941... | 1 | Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian Revolts
Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts
Table of Contents
The baroque period was an era that began approximately in 1650 and ended roughly in 1770. During this period there were major advancements in agriculture, architecture, construction, mining, medicine, and science. However during this period the region of the Balkans was under Ottoman administration and was part of the Ottoman Empire. Even though Macedonia was part of the Ottoman Empire it still managed to show some form of baroque significance and style. When travelling through the towns many of the residential properties and buildings portrayed a baroque-style infrastructure regardless whether the region was under Ottoman control. Theoretically the title of this book should be called : Ottoman Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts, however the author has decided to name this book : Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian revolts.
Many years ago, to identify a clan or tribe a coat of arms was used. A form of identity representing a faction, empire, region, entity or an individual. Coat of arms can display any illustration on textiles, wood, masonry or metal. The very first coat of arms was possibly displayed back in 100 AD or even earlier. Coat of arms were common amongst knights in Europe, Asia and North America. The Macedonian coat of arms is a yellow or golden lion standing upright, on a red blood background. This coat of arms had undergone many changes through the years.
Through these turbulent years the Macedonian people had no identity and were forced into believing and following a different religion called Islam. If we go back to the 14th and 15th century the Ottoman Empire began building mosque within the region of the Balkans and many Christian churches were dismantled and destroyed. However some Christian churches remained, a good example is the Church of St John at Kaneo in Ohrid, this church is located near the Lake of Ohrid. It was also evident that during the baroque period in Macedonia, a number of Jewish churches were scattered within the city of Skopje. These Jewish churches had offered a different religion and service to the Macedonian people. The Macedonian communities were prohibited from following an Orthodox Christian religion and service. The Jewish quarter was an area within Skopje that contained various buildings of Jewish importance. The city of Skopje especially in the Jewish quarter, it possessed its own walls, two synagogues and a number of Jewish schools.
During the Dark Ages, also known as the Late Antiquity period, Slavs had settled in Macedonia, and the surrounding areas or region back in 610 AD, forming Macedonia Sclavinia which was described as being a faction. Further north was Rascia and towards the east was the Bulgarian faction. It was noted that after the arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans, the use of the Roman solidi also known as the Roman solidus decreased rapidly beginning of the 8th Century. The Byzantine or Roman Empire had also accumulated the lands of Dacia. These were not the only lands acquired by the Roman Empire. The province Dacia Traiana comprised the regions known today as : Banat, Oltenia, Transylvania, Moldavia and Romania. Like the Dacian state, many years later so was the early Macedonian state, an unstable tribal confederacy.
Moving along through the years Macedonia had become part of the Ottoman Empire. Also the regions of Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia were also part of the Ottoman Empire. The Macedonian people looking to overthrow the Turkish Ottoman rule established a rebel stronghold, men such as Karposh and Strahil, were seen as the driving force, showing patriotism and courage like yellow rampant lions ready to leap into the unknown Ottoman - held territory. Ottoman Macedonia back in the 17th Century (1601-1700) was undergoing a process of awakening and recognition in the form of a different voice, a different identity. The different voice and identity were the Macedonian people. Emerging was a large group of men wanting freedom, a new life, free from oppression and torture. These men and women were living in a different timeframe or timeline. They experienced the Ottoman way of life, learning a different language, following a different religion, they accepted life in Ottoman Macedonia not because they wanted to, but because they were forced to. The numerical figures of the Ottoman forces was to great however and more time and planning was required to win a war not just a battle, the Macedonian revolutionaries were placed in a difficult position, which was recorded by the Turkish historian Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Agha.
An otriad of rebels which were mostly based in the Malesevo mountains, Krushevo, Kumanovo, Smilevo, and Uskub (Skopje) joined together to form a Macedonian revolutionary group. The Ottoman Empire started to build ships known as galleons, boat building involved skilled men or women, the early modern baroque period saw the transformation of the carrack into a galleon, having an upper gundeck, lower gundeck and a quarterdeck. The galleons were very useful for battles at sea. The baroque period was also a time when architectural and construction advancements occurred, distinctive features of baroque architecture were : pear shaped domes in residential, religious and market buildings. The use of plaster, stucco, marble and other building materials were quite common. Large-scale ceilings frescoes, marian columns, the use of stained glass windows, and many other building elements were typical baroque construction. However even during war architecture, sculpture, painting, construction and education still continued regardless of the persistent struggle for freedom. The seventeenth century was interesting because here the Macedonian revolutionaries have achieved so much that the north-eastern region of Macedonia was literally free from Ottoman oppression, suffering and rule. The streets of Kratovo, Kumanovo, Kriva Palanka, Kocani, Kacanik, Tabanovce, Veles and Uskup were liberated. Why did the military involvement fade between the Macedonian communities and the Habsburg Empire after 1689 ? This question has puzzled many historians and archaeologists living during this time period. Was it due to the time required to send reinforcements, or that the region was extremely far and isolated. It could also be that the region had fallen to a disease called cholera and there were limited available doctors and medicines. Also that ammunition was in short supply. The legendary Karposh, a man who shocked the Ottoman troops and the authorities to it's core, was the leader of many revolts. | 1,379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A crowd gathered in the early morning of July 4, 1817 near Rome as ground was broken to signal the beginning of construction of the canal.
Two years later, Oct. 22, 1819, the section between Utica and Rome was opened. Thousands cheered as the first boat to travel on the Erie ... the 60-foot “Chief Engineer of Rome” named for Benjamin Wright of Rome, who was the middle section’s civil engineer ... left Rome for Utica towed by one horse.
When the canal was completed in 1825, it became an immediate success. Revenues poured in as 218,000 tons of freight were carried the first year. The cost of shipping cargo from Albany to Buffalo dropped from $100 to $7. The value of land along the canal increased greatly. And Utica and Rome became boom towns with Utica’s population exploding in 1820-30 from 2,972 to 8,323 and Rome’s from 3,569 to 4,360.
The county’s population grew in that decade, too, from 50,997 to 71,326. Many of its new residents were Irish immigrants who helped to build the Erie and most were Catholic. This led to the organization of the first Catholic parish west of Albany. It was called St. John’s and still exists today in downtown Utica.
The Erie was ideal for hauling freight, but hauling passengers was another matter. Packet boats were small and usually overcrowded. Travelers complained about long delays as captains and crews frequented the many saloons that lined the canal. Women passengers often were accosted by “canawlers” ... violent men who drank hard, fought hard and, when in need of money, would board a boat, knock a passenger on the head, rob him and then throw him overboard.Type your paragraph here.
When talk of building a canal from the Hudson River to Lake Erie via the Mohawk Valley began in earnest, in about 1810, many powerful politicians opposed the project. Thomas Jefferson said, “Making a canal 350 miles through wilderness ... it is a little short of madness. Perhaps in 100 years.” But in 1815, the state Legislature prodded by political leader DeWitt Clinton voted to survey the route an Erie Canal would follow. Two years later, the survey concluded that the 363-mile canal could be built for $6 million. It eventually cost $7 million.
Clinton ... by then governor of the state ... decided that work on the 94-mile middle section of the canal from Utica west to the Seneca River would be completed first since the terrain was flat and the earth soft. That meant the greatest progress could be made in the shortest time thus silencing opponents.
Oneida County History Center | <urn:uuid:43c73cea-f4c6-4c62-b16d-97f0798ebae4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oneidacountyhistory.org/erie-canal.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.982541 | 579 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.216898739... | 3 | A crowd gathered in the early morning of July 4, 1817 near Rome as ground was broken to signal the beginning of construction of the canal.
Two years later, Oct. 22, 1819, the section between Utica and Rome was opened. Thousands cheered as the first boat to travel on the Erie ... the 60-foot “Chief Engineer of Rome” named for Benjamin Wright of Rome, who was the middle section’s civil engineer ... left Rome for Utica towed by one horse.
When the canal was completed in 1825, it became an immediate success. Revenues poured in as 218,000 tons of freight were carried the first year. The cost of shipping cargo from Albany to Buffalo dropped from $100 to $7. The value of land along the canal increased greatly. And Utica and Rome became boom towns with Utica’s population exploding in 1820-30 from 2,972 to 8,323 and Rome’s from 3,569 to 4,360.
The county’s population grew in that decade, too, from 50,997 to 71,326. Many of its new residents were Irish immigrants who helped to build the Erie and most were Catholic. This led to the organization of the first Catholic parish west of Albany. It was called St. John’s and still exists today in downtown Utica.
The Erie was ideal for hauling freight, but hauling passengers was another matter. Packet boats were small and usually overcrowded. Travelers complained about long delays as captains and crews frequented the many saloons that lined the canal. Women passengers often were accosted by “canawlers” ... violent men who drank hard, fought hard and, when in need of money, would board a boat, knock a passenger on the head, rob him and then throw him overboard.Type your paragraph here.
When talk of building a canal from the Hudson River to Lake Erie via the Mohawk Valley began in earnest, in about 1810, many powerful politicians opposed the project. Thomas Jefferson said, “Making a canal 350 miles through wilderness ... it is a little short of madness. Perhaps in 100 years.” But in 1815, the state Legislature prodded by political leader DeWitt Clinton voted to survey the route an Erie Canal would follow. Two years later, the survey concluded that the 363-mile canal could be built for $6 million. It eventually cost $7 million.
Clinton ... by then governor of the state ... decided that work on the 94-mile middle section of the canal from Utica west to the Seneca River would be completed first since the terrain was flat and the earth soft. That meant the greatest progress could be made in the shortest time thus silencing opponents.
Oneida County History Center | 609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Odo of Bayeux was born to Herleva of Falaise and Herluin de Conteville. He had an older brother, Robert and was half-brother to William
, son of Robert Duke of Normandy
1035 (22nd July)
Odo’s half-brother, William succeeded as Duke of Normandy after his father died in Nicea, returning from pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Odo was appointed Bishop of Bayeux.
was shipwrecked off the coast of Ponthieu and taken prisoner by Guy of Ponthieu. Harold was placed under virtual house arrest and accompanied William into battle at Rouen. After the battle he swore an oath to support William’s claim to the throne of England after the death of Edward the Confessor
1066 (5th January)
Edward the Confessor, King of England died
1066 (6th January)
The Witan decided that Harold Godwinson should be King of England. He was crowned the same day.
1066 (mid January)
Odo’s half-brother, William learned that Harold Godwinson had been crowned King of England. He was furious as he believed that the crown should be his.
1066 (late January)
Council of Lillebonne
Odo attended this meeting of Duke William’s most trusted advisers. They agreed to support William’s proposed invasion of England
and began making plans for an invasion.
1066 (20th May)
William made a case against Harold and presented it to the Pope. He was successful and gained papal backing for his invasion. The Pope sent him a banner to carry into battle.
1066 (late Spring)
William began preparing his invasion and amassed an armed force at Dives sur Mer. He announced that he would give land in England to any knight that fought for him.
Throughout the Summer William assembled a fleet of ships to carry his army across the Channel to England. Odo played a key part in helping to find ships for the invasion. Some sources claim that he contributed 100 ships.
1066 (4th August)
William’s fleet of around 1,000 ships was ready to sail but he delayed sailing, possibly due to unfavourable wind direction and possibly because he was waiting for harvest season in the hopes that some of the men stationed along the South coast would go home. While waiting to sail William had to provide food and provisions for up to 14,000 men and 3,000 horses.
1066 (early September)
William, decided not to wait for favourable weather and put his fleet to sea. The ships were unable to withstand the powerful stormy weather and those that survived were forced to put in to port at St Valery-sur-Somme.
1066 (28th September)
The Norman fleet finally set sail. Odo travelled to England with the fleet, sailing overnight and landing at Pevensey on the South coast of England in the morning. They were surprised to find no army waiting for them.
1066 (30th September)
William decided to move the Norman army to Hastings as there was insufficient food in Pevensey to feed the army for more than a few days. Hastings also offered better defence and a more direct route to London.
1066 (early October)
Odo supported William and they remained in Hastings, confident that Harold would march South and challenge their presence. Staying put also had the advantage that William’s men would be rested before any battle whereas many of Harold’s men had marched north, fought a battle then marched south again.
1066 (13th October)
William’s scouts reported that the Saxon army had arrived. William told his men to be ready in case of a night attack.
1066 (14th October)
Battle of Hastings
Early in the morning Odo marched north with William to meet the Saxons. William set up his forces at the bottom of Senlac hill. He had three groups – Normans, Flemings and Bretons, both cavalry and infantry. Odo was armed with a club, possibly because, as a man of God, he could not use a sword, or maybe because it was his preferred choice of weapon. He spent much of the battle urging William’s army to fight in the name of God. William made repeated attempts to break the Saxon shield wall but had little success until a group of Breton infantrymen turned and ran down the hill. The Saxons that had been withstanding that group broke the shield wall and ran down after them.
William ordered that they become the focus of the next attack and although some managed to return to their line most were cut down. It is thought that Harold’s two brothers, Gyrth
lost their lives at this point.
Having seen how the Bretons fleeing down the hill broke the shield wall, William changed tactic and ordered his men to do the same thing. Although the shield wall did not break so spectacularly again it did begin to weaken. With the light beginning to fade William ordered his archers to fire again but to angle them higher so that they hit the men just behind the shield wall. It is thought that one of these arrows went through the eye slit of Harold’s helmet and struck him in the eye or near to the eye. While he was reeling from the arrow strike he was killed with a sword blow. With Harold dead and most of the leading nobles also dead many of the remaining men fled the battlefield. Those that remained were soon cut down. William was victorious.
1066 (16th October)
Odo returned to the Norman camp at Hastings with William. They expected a deputation of English nobles to come and submit themselves and England.
1066 (20th October)
William realised that the English were not going to submit to him and that he would have to force their submission. He left Hastings bound for Dover.
1066 (early November)
William and his army reached Dover and took the Roman fort that was stationed there.
William reached Canterbury and took control of the town.
1066 (early December)
William marched on London
1066 (10th December)
Realising that they could not defeat William, Edgar Aetheling
and the remaining English nobles submitted to William.
1066 (25th December)
Odo was created Earl of Kent. This appointment gave him control of Dover Castle.
Odo of Bayeux and William FitzOsbern
were left as regents of England when William returned to Normandy.
Eustace of Boulogne
was asked by the English to take the castle at Dover while Odo was out of Kent. Eustace duly complied but returned to Boulogne when he realised that Dover castle was too heavily fortified for him to take.
1067 (7th December)
William returned to England.
1067 (after 7th December) or 1068 (during)
William lay siege to the city of Exeter because King Harold’s mother, Gytha
, had fled to there following the death of her son and had persuaded the people of Exeter to resist the conqueror. King William I dug tunnels under the city walls to weaken them and the city fell after 18 days. Gytha fled the city and avoided capture.
1068 (11th May)
Matilda was crowned Queen of England in Westminster. She was the first Queen of England to be formally crowned.
The northern Earls Edwin
rebelled against William but later surrendered to the Conqueror
Harold Godwinson’s sons, Godwin
and Magnus Haroldson
had been in Ireland raising support. They now tried to take Bristol as their base in England but the people of Bristol were worried about the consequences of supporting the Haroldsons and they returned to Ireland to rethink strategy.
William began a programme of castle building designed to stamp the Norman’s authority on England. Work began on castles at Warwick, York, Nottingham, Huntingdon, Lincoln and Cambridge.
Edgar the Aetheling attempted to take York but was unsuccessful
Edgar the Aetheling had joined forces with King Sweyn of Denmark
and together they attacked and took York
1069 (Late Autumn)
William marched North to deal with Edgar Aetheling. He paid off the Danes and defeated the Saxon rebels. Having re-established York as a Norman stronghold he set about defeating all other Northern pockets of resistance to his rule – an event that is known as The Harrying of the North.
William founded an abbey on the site of the Battle of Hastings.
William defeated a rebellion by Earl Morcar and Hereward the Wake. Morcar was captured and imprisoned but Hereward managed to escape.
By this point Odo of Bayeux had land in 23 English counties.
Roger of Montgomery allowed Ralph de Gael to marry his sister even though the alliance had been forbidden by William. The two men then plotted to overthrow William and invited the Earl of Northumbria, Waltheof and Sweyn Estridsson of Denmark to join them. However, Waltheof got cold feet and told William of the plot. Odo helped William to deal with the incident and Roger of Montgomery was imprisoned. Ralph and his wife escaped to Brittany.
Trial of Penenden Heath
Odo of Bayeux was put on trial following a dispute with Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury
. The Archbishop claimed that, using his power as Earl of Kent, Odo had defrauded the Church. The trial lasted three days and at the end Odo had to return some properties to the church.
Work began in Canterbury on a huge embroidery to commemorate the Norman Conquest. It is believed to have been commissioned by Odo for his cathedral in Bayeux. But may have been commissioned by Eustace of Boulogne to present to Odo as appeasement for trying to take Dover Castle in 1067.
1080 (14th May)
The Norman Bishop of Durham was murdered by a group of English rebels. William sent his half brother Odo of Bayeux to deal with the rebels.
Odo of Bayeux was arrested and imprisoned. Sources are not clear on the reason for this action but it is thought that he may have mis-appropriated church funds or made a play to become Pope. His lands and status as Earl of Kent were returned to the Crown. He retained his position as Bishop of Bayeux.
William ordered commissioners to visit every part of England and make a detailed inventory of the holdings of every person in the land. Included in the survey were details of land ownership both before and after the Conquest, ownership of animals, machines and other goods. The exact reason for the survey, which was called The Domesday Survey is not known but it is thought that William intended to use to base tax calculations. Odo of Bayeux is listed as owning £3,000 worth of property.
1087 (9th September)
William I died in Normandy from an injury he received in July 1087. His eldest son, Robert Curthose, inherited Normandy, while his second son, William Rufus
inherited the English throne. On his deathbed, William sanctioned the release of Odo from prison.
Odo of Bayeux supported William’s eldest son, Robert Curthose’s claim that he should rule England and Normandy. An invasion by Robert failed. Odo was forced to leave England and he served Robert Curthose as an adviser in Normandy.
Odo of Bayeux decided to join the First Crusade.
Odo of Bayeux died in Palermo. | <urn:uuid:69bd4fdd-2749-4403-9f1c-0663ee44ece6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.totallytimelines.com/odo-of-bayeux-c1035-1097/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.984802 | 2,439 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.656656... | 2 | Odo of Bayeux was born to Herleva of Falaise and Herluin de Conteville. He had an older brother, Robert and was half-brother to William
, son of Robert Duke of Normandy
1035 (22nd July)
Odo’s half-brother, William succeeded as Duke of Normandy after his father died in Nicea, returning from pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Odo was appointed Bishop of Bayeux.
was shipwrecked off the coast of Ponthieu and taken prisoner by Guy of Ponthieu. Harold was placed under virtual house arrest and accompanied William into battle at Rouen. After the battle he swore an oath to support William’s claim to the throne of England after the death of Edward the Confessor
1066 (5th January)
Edward the Confessor, King of England died
1066 (6th January)
The Witan decided that Harold Godwinson should be King of England. He was crowned the same day.
1066 (mid January)
Odo’s half-brother, William learned that Harold Godwinson had been crowned King of England. He was furious as he believed that the crown should be his.
1066 (late January)
Council of Lillebonne
Odo attended this meeting of Duke William’s most trusted advisers. They agreed to support William’s proposed invasion of England
and began making plans for an invasion.
1066 (20th May)
William made a case against Harold and presented it to the Pope. He was successful and gained papal backing for his invasion. The Pope sent him a banner to carry into battle.
1066 (late Spring)
William began preparing his invasion and amassed an armed force at Dives sur Mer. He announced that he would give land in England to any knight that fought for him.
Throughout the Summer William assembled a fleet of ships to carry his army across the Channel to England. Odo played a key part in helping to find ships for the invasion. Some sources claim that he contributed 100 ships.
1066 (4th August)
William’s fleet of around 1,000 ships was ready to sail but he delayed sailing, possibly due to unfavourable wind direction and possibly because he was waiting for harvest season in the hopes that some of the men stationed along the South coast would go home. While waiting to sail William had to provide food and provisions for up to 14,000 men and 3,000 horses.
1066 (early September)
William, decided not to wait for favourable weather and put his fleet to sea. The ships were unable to withstand the powerful stormy weather and those that survived were forced to put in to port at St Valery-sur-Somme.
1066 (28th September)
The Norman fleet finally set sail. Odo travelled to England with the fleet, sailing overnight and landing at Pevensey on the South coast of England in the morning. They were surprised to find no army waiting for them.
1066 (30th September)
William decided to move the Norman army to Hastings as there was insufficient food in Pevensey to feed the army for more than a few days. Hastings also offered better defence and a more direct route to London.
1066 (early October)
Odo supported William and they remained in Hastings, confident that Harold would march South and challenge their presence. Staying put also had the advantage that William’s men would be rested before any battle whereas many of Harold’s men had marched north, fought a battle then marched south again.
1066 (13th October)
William’s scouts reported that the Saxon army had arrived. William told his men to be ready in case of a night attack.
1066 (14th October)
Battle of Hastings
Early in the morning Odo marched north with William to meet the Saxons. William set up his forces at the bottom of Senlac hill. He had three groups – Normans, Flemings and Bretons, both cavalry and infantry. Odo was armed with a club, possibly because, as a man of God, he could not use a sword, or maybe because it was his preferred choice of weapon. He spent much of the battle urging William’s army to fight in the name of God. William made repeated attempts to break the Saxon shield wall but had little success until a group of Breton infantrymen turned and ran down the hill. The Saxons that had been withstanding that group broke the shield wall and ran down after them.
William ordered that they become the focus of the next attack and although some managed to return to their line most were cut down. It is thought that Harold’s two brothers, Gyrth
lost their lives at this point.
Having seen how the Bretons fleeing down the hill broke the shield wall, William changed tactic and ordered his men to do the same thing. Although the shield wall did not break so spectacularly again it did begin to weaken. With the light beginning to fade William ordered his archers to fire again but to angle them higher so that they hit the men just behind the shield wall. It is thought that one of these arrows went through the eye slit of Harold’s helmet and struck him in the eye or near to the eye. While he was reeling from the arrow strike he was killed with a sword blow. With Harold dead and most of the leading nobles also dead many of the remaining men fled the battlefield. Those that remained were soon cut down. William was victorious.
1066 (16th October)
Odo returned to the Norman camp at Hastings with William. They expected a deputation of English nobles to come and submit themselves and England.
1066 (20th October)
William realised that the English were not going to submit to him and that he would have to force their submission. He left Hastings bound for Dover.
1066 (early November)
William and his army reached Dover and took the Roman fort that was stationed there.
William reached Canterbury and took control of the town.
1066 (early December)
William marched on London
1066 (10th December)
Realising that they could not defeat William, Edgar Aetheling
and the remaining English nobles submitted to William.
1066 (25th December)
Odo was created Earl of Kent. This appointment gave him control of Dover Castle.
Odo of Bayeux and William FitzOsbern
were left as regents of England when William returned to Normandy.
Eustace of Boulogne
was asked by the English to take the castle at Dover while Odo was out of Kent. Eustace duly complied but returned to Boulogne when he realised that Dover castle was too heavily fortified for him to take.
1067 (7th December)
William returned to England.
1067 (after 7th December) or 1068 (during)
William lay siege to the city of Exeter because King Harold’s mother, Gytha
, had fled to there following the death of her son and had persuaded the people of Exeter to resist the conqueror. King William I dug tunnels under the city walls to weaken them and the city fell after 18 days. Gytha fled the city and avoided capture.
1068 (11th May)
Matilda was crowned Queen of England in Westminster. She was the first Queen of England to be formally crowned.
The northern Earls Edwin
rebelled against William but later surrendered to the Conqueror
Harold Godwinson’s sons, Godwin
and Magnus Haroldson
had been in Ireland raising support. They now tried to take Bristol as their base in England but the people of Bristol were worried about the consequences of supporting the Haroldsons and they returned to Ireland to rethink strategy.
William began a programme of castle building designed to stamp the Norman’s authority on England. Work began on castles at Warwick, York, Nottingham, Huntingdon, Lincoln and Cambridge.
Edgar the Aetheling attempted to take York but was unsuccessful
Edgar the Aetheling had joined forces with King Sweyn of Denmark
and together they attacked and took York
1069 (Late Autumn)
William marched North to deal with Edgar Aetheling. He paid off the Danes and defeated the Saxon rebels. Having re-established York as a Norman stronghold he set about defeating all other Northern pockets of resistance to his rule – an event that is known as The Harrying of the North.
William founded an abbey on the site of the Battle of Hastings.
William defeated a rebellion by Earl Morcar and Hereward the Wake. Morcar was captured and imprisoned but Hereward managed to escape.
By this point Odo of Bayeux had land in 23 English counties.
Roger of Montgomery allowed Ralph de Gael to marry his sister even though the alliance had been forbidden by William. The two men then plotted to overthrow William and invited the Earl of Northumbria, Waltheof and Sweyn Estridsson of Denmark to join them. However, Waltheof got cold feet and told William of the plot. Odo helped William to deal with the incident and Roger of Montgomery was imprisoned. Ralph and his wife escaped to Brittany.
Trial of Penenden Heath
Odo of Bayeux was put on trial following a dispute with Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury
. The Archbishop claimed that, using his power as Earl of Kent, Odo had defrauded the Church. The trial lasted three days and at the end Odo had to return some properties to the church.
Work began in Canterbury on a huge embroidery to commemorate the Norman Conquest. It is believed to have been commissioned by Odo for his cathedral in Bayeux. But may have been commissioned by Eustace of Boulogne to present to Odo as appeasement for trying to take Dover Castle in 1067.
1080 (14th May)
The Norman Bishop of Durham was murdered by a group of English rebels. William sent his half brother Odo of Bayeux to deal with the rebels.
Odo of Bayeux was arrested and imprisoned. Sources are not clear on the reason for this action but it is thought that he may have mis-appropriated church funds or made a play to become Pope. His lands and status as Earl of Kent were returned to the Crown. He retained his position as Bishop of Bayeux.
William ordered commissioners to visit every part of England and make a detailed inventory of the holdings of every person in the land. Included in the survey were details of land ownership both before and after the Conquest, ownership of animals, machines and other goods. The exact reason for the survey, which was called The Domesday Survey is not known but it is thought that William intended to use to base tax calculations. Odo of Bayeux is listed as owning £3,000 worth of property.
1087 (9th September)
William I died in Normandy from an injury he received in July 1087. His eldest son, Robert Curthose, inherited Normandy, while his second son, William Rufus
inherited the English throne. On his deathbed, William sanctioned the release of Odo from prison.
Odo of Bayeux supported William’s eldest son, Robert Curthose’s claim that he should rule England and Normandy. An invasion by Robert failed. Odo was forced to leave England and he served Robert Curthose as an adviser in Normandy.
Odo of Bayeux decided to join the First Crusade.
Odo of Bayeux died in Palermo. | 2,430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Disunion follows the Civil War as it unfolded.
In the early spring of 1862, the Confederate general Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson won dazzling victories in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley that made him “the hero of the South.” Combining incredible energy and audacity with a mastery of terrain and tactics, Jackson’s Valley Campaign is internationally famous and still studied today.
Beginning later that year with the Second Battle of Bull Run, Jackson cemented his reputation as Gen. Robert E. Lee’s hardest-hitting corps commander. After solid fighting at Antietam and a decisive victory at Fredericksburg, he was instrumental in the resounding Union defeat at Chancellorsville. Tragically for the Southern forces, he was wounded by friendly fire immediately following what was arguably his greatest success. He died a few days later, on May 10, 1863.
Between these two legendary pinnacles is the series of bloody engagements around Richmond in late June, 1862 known collectively as the Seven Days. For most of the time, Jackson wasn’t where he was supposed to be when he was supposed to be there; and, from all reports, he was ineffectual, listless and confused.
While historians cite a variety of causes — among them ambiguous orders and the difficulties of moving his troops in unfamiliar territory — sleep deprivation brought on by endless campaigning in the Shenandoah was the main reason. The unanswered, deeper question is why Jackson allowed himself to become so worn down that he let multiple opportunities for victory during the Seven Days slip through his fingers.
The Seven Days, in which Lee finally repulsed Gen. George B. McClellan’s Army of the Potomac from the vicinity of Richmond and effectively ended the Union’s Peninsula Campaign, opened only a few weeks after the close of Jackson’s Valley Campaign. Lee communicated partial plans to Jackson, who started his troops toward Richmond from the valley shortly after midnight June 18. Leaving his soldiers en route, Jackson met with Lee at his headquarters east of Richmond on June 23, along with the generals A.P. Hill, D.H. Hill (no relation) and James Longstreet, to work out the details of Lee’s plan for the campaign. To get there, Jackson traveled 52 miles in a mere 14 hours.
McClellan had been maneuvering toward Richmond through much of the spring. Now he was in the final stages of his Peninsula Campaign, so close to the capital that his soldiers could set their watches by the chiming of the city’s clocks. Siege operations by the enormous, finely equipped Union Army, Lee and his generals concluded, would certainly be successful and would probably start soon. McClellan must be aggressively forced back. Jackson’s assignment: open the fighting June 26 with an attack on McClellan’s right flank. This would begin an assault by all four generals against the part of the Union Army north of the Chickahominy River. The conference concluded, Jackson rode 40 miles through the rainy night to rejoin his troops and prepare for battle.
But as the morning of June 26 waned into afternoon, Jackson and his men were nowhere to be seen. Lee didn’t even know where he was. Shortly after 3 p.m., an exasperated and impetuous A.P. Hill opened the battle, “rather than hazard the whole plan by longer deferring it.” Hill drove the Federals before him until he reached their strong position on the high ground east of the hamlet of Mechanicsville and Beaver Dam Creek, where — with no flanking support from the absent Jackson — he was bloodily repulsed.
Where was Jackson? We now know he had reached Hundley’s Corner, about three miles from Beaver Dam Creek, a couple of hours after A.P. Hill started fighting. Though there was ample daylight and he could clearly hear sounds of the battle, Jackson bivouacked for the night. He did not send Lee word of where he was. He stayed up all night — conflicting reports say he was writing dispatches, or simply could not sleep because of dueling artillery.
By this point, if not before, it became obvious that Jackson was seriously sleep-deprived. Residual stress from the Valley Campaign, followed by exertions of the march to Richmond, took their toll. The historian Douglas Freeman estimates that Jackson got only 10 hours sleep during the four busy, tension-filled days leading up to June 26.
Yet even as a non-combatant, Jackson’s presence was formidable. His presence in the area was the reason McClellan decided to “change his base” of supply from the Pamunkey River south to the James River. The Confederates — and almost everyone else besides McClellan himself — looked on this movement as a retreat.
Jackson met with Lee on the morning of June 27 at Walnut Grove Church, near the front. His assignment: another attack on the Union right flank. During the march to the staging area he gave confusing instructions, first to a guide, which resulted in a time-consuming countermarch; and then to his subordinates, which led to yet more costly delays. That day’s fighting, known as the Battle of Gaines Mill, opened about 2 p.m. Jackson did not get his troops into position until close to sunset.
He met Lee on the battlefield. “Ah, General,” Lee said with gentle irony. “I am very glad to see you. I had hoped to be with you before.” Jackson did not reply. The battle raged fiercely and inconclusively before them. “That fire is very heavy,” said Lee. “Do you think your men can stand it?”
“They can stand almost anything,” asserted Jackson. “They can stand that!”
Now Jackson was animated, as though he had drawn strength from the encounter. He saluted, galloped back to his men, issued crisp orders. An observer witnessed his “fiery spirit … his face and person were literally transfigured.” Jackson sent word to his division commanders: “Tell them this affair must hang in suspense no longer! Sweep the field with the bayonet!” In spite of Jackson’s lateness, his soldiers were part of the final assault that broke the Union line and forced a bloody retreat.
His behavior during the rest of the Seven Days was comparable. Short glimpses of the fiery warrior vied with an overall impression of a man in a somnambulistic trance.
His torpor was most evident at White Oak Swamp on June 30. Jackson pursued the retreating Federals to the bridge over White Oak Swamp Creek, which they had destroyed. He brought up his artillery for a highly effective bombardment, but that was as far as it went. Efforts to rebuild the bridge failed, but his cavalryman Col. Thomas Munford found a crossing a quarter mile downstream, while Gen. Wade Hampton found a crossing 400 yards in the other direction, built a rude but effective bridge and reported back. According to Hampton, Jackson “sat in silence for some time, then rose and walked off in silence.”
His artillery dueled with that of the Union. The heat was oppressive. Jackson napped. That evening, at the mess table, he fell asleep with a biscuit between his teeth.
His troops were minimally engaged in the disastrous Confederate defeat on July 1 at Malvern Hill. Fortunately for Jackson, McClellan nevertheless retreated, as he had after defeats as well as victories throughout the Seven Days. Had the Union general done otherwise, history might have treated Jackson less kindly than it has.
Stonewall Jackson is justly famous for ferocious and innovative fighting, as well as for his piety and eccentricities. An unshakable belief in the effectiveness of his will is also part of his legacy. “You may be whatever you resolve to be,” a favorite quotation, is inscribed above the Jackson Arch at the Virginia Military Institute, where he was once a professor. Like his men, he believed he could “stand almost anything.”
He couldn’t. Jackson may have relied on his will to push himself beyond the limits of human endurance, but those limits are very real, and he encountered them in the hot, swampy lowlands east of Richmond in the summer of 1862.
Sources: Shelby Foote, “The Civil War,” Vol. 1; Douglas Southall Freeman, “Lee’s Lieutenants,” Vol.1; “Robert E. Lee,” Vol. 2; William J. Miller, “The Battles for Richmond, 1862”; James I. Robertson, Jr., “Stonewall Jackson”; Stephen W. Sears, “To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign.”
Ben Cleary is a writer and teacher in Mechanicsville, Va. | <urn:uuid:37e07597-fd67-43e8-8bee-5b4a5f73d0a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/22/where-was-stonewall/?referrer= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982845 | 1,878 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.08842344582... | 5 | Disunion follows the Civil War as it unfolded.
In the early spring of 1862, the Confederate general Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson won dazzling victories in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley that made him “the hero of the South.” Combining incredible energy and audacity with a mastery of terrain and tactics, Jackson’s Valley Campaign is internationally famous and still studied today.
Beginning later that year with the Second Battle of Bull Run, Jackson cemented his reputation as Gen. Robert E. Lee’s hardest-hitting corps commander. After solid fighting at Antietam and a decisive victory at Fredericksburg, he was instrumental in the resounding Union defeat at Chancellorsville. Tragically for the Southern forces, he was wounded by friendly fire immediately following what was arguably his greatest success. He died a few days later, on May 10, 1863.
Between these two legendary pinnacles is the series of bloody engagements around Richmond in late June, 1862 known collectively as the Seven Days. For most of the time, Jackson wasn’t where he was supposed to be when he was supposed to be there; and, from all reports, he was ineffectual, listless and confused.
While historians cite a variety of causes — among them ambiguous orders and the difficulties of moving his troops in unfamiliar territory — sleep deprivation brought on by endless campaigning in the Shenandoah was the main reason. The unanswered, deeper question is why Jackson allowed himself to become so worn down that he let multiple opportunities for victory during the Seven Days slip through his fingers.
The Seven Days, in which Lee finally repulsed Gen. George B. McClellan’s Army of the Potomac from the vicinity of Richmond and effectively ended the Union’s Peninsula Campaign, opened only a few weeks after the close of Jackson’s Valley Campaign. Lee communicated partial plans to Jackson, who started his troops toward Richmond from the valley shortly after midnight June 18. Leaving his soldiers en route, Jackson met with Lee at his headquarters east of Richmond on June 23, along with the generals A.P. Hill, D.H. Hill (no relation) and James Longstreet, to work out the details of Lee’s plan for the campaign. To get there, Jackson traveled 52 miles in a mere 14 hours.
McClellan had been maneuvering toward Richmond through much of the spring. Now he was in the final stages of his Peninsula Campaign, so close to the capital that his soldiers could set their watches by the chiming of the city’s clocks. Siege operations by the enormous, finely equipped Union Army, Lee and his generals concluded, would certainly be successful and would probably start soon. McClellan must be aggressively forced back. Jackson’s assignment: open the fighting June 26 with an attack on McClellan’s right flank. This would begin an assault by all four generals against the part of the Union Army north of the Chickahominy River. The conference concluded, Jackson rode 40 miles through the rainy night to rejoin his troops and prepare for battle.
But as the morning of June 26 waned into afternoon, Jackson and his men were nowhere to be seen. Lee didn’t even know where he was. Shortly after 3 p.m., an exasperated and impetuous A.P. Hill opened the battle, “rather than hazard the whole plan by longer deferring it.” Hill drove the Federals before him until he reached their strong position on the high ground east of the hamlet of Mechanicsville and Beaver Dam Creek, where — with no flanking support from the absent Jackson — he was bloodily repulsed.
Where was Jackson? We now know he had reached Hundley’s Corner, about three miles from Beaver Dam Creek, a couple of hours after A.P. Hill started fighting. Though there was ample daylight and he could clearly hear sounds of the battle, Jackson bivouacked for the night. He did not send Lee word of where he was. He stayed up all night — conflicting reports say he was writing dispatches, or simply could not sleep because of dueling artillery.
By this point, if not before, it became obvious that Jackson was seriously sleep-deprived. Residual stress from the Valley Campaign, followed by exertions of the march to Richmond, took their toll. The historian Douglas Freeman estimates that Jackson got only 10 hours sleep during the four busy, tension-filled days leading up to June 26.
Yet even as a non-combatant, Jackson’s presence was formidable. His presence in the area was the reason McClellan decided to “change his base” of supply from the Pamunkey River south to the James River. The Confederates — and almost everyone else besides McClellan himself — looked on this movement as a retreat.
Jackson met with Lee on the morning of June 27 at Walnut Grove Church, near the front. His assignment: another attack on the Union right flank. During the march to the staging area he gave confusing instructions, first to a guide, which resulted in a time-consuming countermarch; and then to his subordinates, which led to yet more costly delays. That day’s fighting, known as the Battle of Gaines Mill, opened about 2 p.m. Jackson did not get his troops into position until close to sunset.
He met Lee on the battlefield. “Ah, General,” Lee said with gentle irony. “I am very glad to see you. I had hoped to be with you before.” Jackson did not reply. The battle raged fiercely and inconclusively before them. “That fire is very heavy,” said Lee. “Do you think your men can stand it?”
“They can stand almost anything,” asserted Jackson. “They can stand that!”
Now Jackson was animated, as though he had drawn strength from the encounter. He saluted, galloped back to his men, issued crisp orders. An observer witnessed his “fiery spirit … his face and person were literally transfigured.” Jackson sent word to his division commanders: “Tell them this affair must hang in suspense no longer! Sweep the field with the bayonet!” In spite of Jackson’s lateness, his soldiers were part of the final assault that broke the Union line and forced a bloody retreat.
His behavior during the rest of the Seven Days was comparable. Short glimpses of the fiery warrior vied with an overall impression of a man in a somnambulistic trance.
His torpor was most evident at White Oak Swamp on June 30. Jackson pursued the retreating Federals to the bridge over White Oak Swamp Creek, which they had destroyed. He brought up his artillery for a highly effective bombardment, but that was as far as it went. Efforts to rebuild the bridge failed, but his cavalryman Col. Thomas Munford found a crossing a quarter mile downstream, while Gen. Wade Hampton found a crossing 400 yards in the other direction, built a rude but effective bridge and reported back. According to Hampton, Jackson “sat in silence for some time, then rose and walked off in silence.”
His artillery dueled with that of the Union. The heat was oppressive. Jackson napped. That evening, at the mess table, he fell asleep with a biscuit between his teeth.
His troops were minimally engaged in the disastrous Confederate defeat on July 1 at Malvern Hill. Fortunately for Jackson, McClellan nevertheless retreated, as he had after defeats as well as victories throughout the Seven Days. Had the Union general done otherwise, history might have treated Jackson less kindly than it has.
Stonewall Jackson is justly famous for ferocious and innovative fighting, as well as for his piety and eccentricities. An unshakable belief in the effectiveness of his will is also part of his legacy. “You may be whatever you resolve to be,” a favorite quotation, is inscribed above the Jackson Arch at the Virginia Military Institute, where he was once a professor. Like his men, he believed he could “stand almost anything.”
He couldn’t. Jackson may have relied on his will to push himself beyond the limits of human endurance, but those limits are very real, and he encountered them in the hot, swampy lowlands east of Richmond in the summer of 1862.
Sources: Shelby Foote, “The Civil War,” Vol. 1; Douglas Southall Freeman, “Lee’s Lieutenants,” Vol.1; “Robert E. Lee,” Vol. 2; William J. Miller, “The Battles for Richmond, 1862”; James I. Robertson, Jr., “Stonewall Jackson”; Stephen W. Sears, “To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign.”
Ben Cleary is a writer and teacher in Mechanicsville, Va. | 1,820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were many important city-states in Ancient Greece, but Athens was perhaps the most important and the most powerful.
Athens was a great center for art, literature, philosophy, and education. It was also the first Greek city-state to adopt a fully democratic system of government.
Let’s learn more about one of the world’s oldest and most fascinating cities!
Athens: The Basics
Athens began as a small Mycenean community and grew to be one of the most respected and influential cities in the ancient world.
The city-state was named after the Greek goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war. The Athenians shrine to Athena, the Parthenon, is located on a hill in the center of the city.
Athena was considered the patron goddess of Athens. The Ancient Greeks believed she kept watch over the city and its people.
The soil in Athens was not very good for growing crops. Trade, and especially sea trade, became very important to the Athenians.
The Parthenon, mentioned above, is the most famous building in Ancient Greek history. But it wasn’t the only Athenian architectural accomplishment.
Surrounding the Parthenon was the Acropolis. The Acropolis was originally built as a fortress and citadel to protect the Athenians when the city was invaded.
It continued to be used as a fortress, but many temples and buildings were also built at the Acropolis. It was also home to popular entertainment, like theatres where festivals and plays were celebrated.
For example, the largest theatre was the Theatre of Dionysus, patron god of the theatre and the god of wine. The Athenians would hold competitions to see who could write the best play.
The theatre was so well-designed that it could hold up to 25,000 people, and all of them could clearly see and hear the play.
Education in Athens
Education was very important to the Athenians. At the time, boys went to school while girls stayed home and learned to cook, clean, and sew.
At school, boys studied writing, public speaking, drama, and reading. They memorized poetry and learned to play a musical instrument—usually the lyre, which is like a small harp.
The sons of wealthy nobles attended high school, where they spent four more years studying math, science, the arts, and politics and government.
The Golden Age of Pericles
Under the leadership of Pericles (from 491 to 429 BC), the city of Athens reached its peak. It was a time of great writers, thinkers, and artists.
Some of these brilliant people included:
- Herodotus- Known as “the father of history.”
- Socrates– Known as “the father of philosophy,” he taught in the Athenian marketplace.
- Hippocrates- Known as “the father of medicine.”
- Phidias- Sculptor who created famous works for the Parthenon, the Acropolis, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
- Aeschylus, Euripedes, Aristophanes, and Sophocles- Writers of famous plays.
There were many more brilliant people to come from Athens, including the philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Plato.
In 385 B.C., Plato founded the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the western world, just outside the walls of Athens.
Later, Aristotle founded his Lyceum in the center of Athens. He built a substantial library and taught a brilliant group of research students. At the Lyceum, many of the lectures and teachings were open to the public and given free of charge.
Aristotle was also the tutor of Alexander the Great, one of the best military leaders in world history.
Democracy in Athens
Most ancient Greek city-states were ruled by kings or by councils of just a few people. But for about 100 years, Athens was a direct democracy.
This system was introduced by the Athenian leader Cleisthenes and was called demokratia, or “rule by the people.”
It was divided into three separate institutions:
- The ekklesia- a governing body that wrote laws
- The boule- a council of representatives from the ten Athenian tribes
- The dikasteria- the courts in which citizens argued cases before a group of jurors selected by lottery
Athenian citizens had the right to vote and the right to a trial. Voters also had the power to banish politicians from the city-state for up to 10 years.
Other Interesting Facts About Athens
- Athens is the oldest capital in Europe.
- The first Olympic Games in history were held in Athens in 776 B.C.
- Cheese, figs, and grapes were some of the main dishes in Athens. Meat was rarely eaten.
- Athens’ reputation as a respected city of learning and culture was so great that even when the city was defeated by Sparta and later the Romans, it was never completely destroyed or burned to the ground.
More on Ancient Greece. | <urn:uuid:9be34e15-5eb6-458b-8e94-b47811381c3e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-greece/athens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.983452 | 1,077 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
0.25111737847328186,
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0.598663687705... | 8 | There were many important city-states in Ancient Greece, but Athens was perhaps the most important and the most powerful.
Athens was a great center for art, literature, philosophy, and education. It was also the first Greek city-state to adopt a fully democratic system of government.
Let’s learn more about one of the world’s oldest and most fascinating cities!
Athens: The Basics
Athens began as a small Mycenean community and grew to be one of the most respected and influential cities in the ancient world.
The city-state was named after the Greek goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war. The Athenians shrine to Athena, the Parthenon, is located on a hill in the center of the city.
Athena was considered the patron goddess of Athens. The Ancient Greeks believed she kept watch over the city and its people.
The soil in Athens was not very good for growing crops. Trade, and especially sea trade, became very important to the Athenians.
The Parthenon, mentioned above, is the most famous building in Ancient Greek history. But it wasn’t the only Athenian architectural accomplishment.
Surrounding the Parthenon was the Acropolis. The Acropolis was originally built as a fortress and citadel to protect the Athenians when the city was invaded.
It continued to be used as a fortress, but many temples and buildings were also built at the Acropolis. It was also home to popular entertainment, like theatres where festivals and plays were celebrated.
For example, the largest theatre was the Theatre of Dionysus, patron god of the theatre and the god of wine. The Athenians would hold competitions to see who could write the best play.
The theatre was so well-designed that it could hold up to 25,000 people, and all of them could clearly see and hear the play.
Education in Athens
Education was very important to the Athenians. At the time, boys went to school while girls stayed home and learned to cook, clean, and sew.
At school, boys studied writing, public speaking, drama, and reading. They memorized poetry and learned to play a musical instrument—usually the lyre, which is like a small harp.
The sons of wealthy nobles attended high school, where they spent four more years studying math, science, the arts, and politics and government.
The Golden Age of Pericles
Under the leadership of Pericles (from 491 to 429 BC), the city of Athens reached its peak. It was a time of great writers, thinkers, and artists.
Some of these brilliant people included:
- Herodotus- Known as “the father of history.”
- Socrates– Known as “the father of philosophy,” he taught in the Athenian marketplace.
- Hippocrates- Known as “the father of medicine.”
- Phidias- Sculptor who created famous works for the Parthenon, the Acropolis, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
- Aeschylus, Euripedes, Aristophanes, and Sophocles- Writers of famous plays.
There were many more brilliant people to come from Athens, including the philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Plato.
In 385 B.C., Plato founded the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the western world, just outside the walls of Athens.
Later, Aristotle founded his Lyceum in the center of Athens. He built a substantial library and taught a brilliant group of research students. At the Lyceum, many of the lectures and teachings were open to the public and given free of charge.
Aristotle was also the tutor of Alexander the Great, one of the best military leaders in world history.
Democracy in Athens
Most ancient Greek city-states were ruled by kings or by councils of just a few people. But for about 100 years, Athens was a direct democracy.
This system was introduced by the Athenian leader Cleisthenes and was called demokratia, or “rule by the people.”
It was divided into three separate institutions:
- The ekklesia- a governing body that wrote laws
- The boule- a council of representatives from the ten Athenian tribes
- The dikasteria- the courts in which citizens argued cases before a group of jurors selected by lottery
Athenian citizens had the right to vote and the right to a trial. Voters also had the power to banish politicians from the city-state for up to 10 years.
Other Interesting Facts About Athens
- Athens is the oldest capital in Europe.
- The first Olympic Games in history were held in Athens in 776 B.C.
- Cheese, figs, and grapes were some of the main dishes in Athens. Meat was rarely eaten.
- Athens’ reputation as a respected city of learning and culture was so great that even when the city was defeated by Sparta and later the Romans, it was never completely destroyed or burned to the ground.
More on Ancient Greece. | 1,034 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander was one of the greatest conquerors ever lived. The reasons for his second name, 'Alexander the Great,' are very easy to figure out. He was known as an intelligent king he ruled over one of the greatest military formations during his period. History tells us that he never lost any battle.
Alexander the Great fought so many battles and won. I think what really helped him was the revelation that he was born to rule the world; her mother would always tell him this. At the early stage of his life, he was trained by Aristotle.
After he became the king of Macedonia, he was able to conquer one of the most powerful empires during the period. He fought and conquered the Persian empire, and he extended his boundaries over the land. He was able to conquer the city of Taxila. I think Alexander was not only great because of his military skills, but he was a visionary king.
Alexander The Great was a king from Macedonia who conquered an empire. The empire stretched out from the Balkans to what is now modern-day Pakistan. Alexander was born the son of Philip II and Olympias. Olympias was one of the seven or eight wives that Philip II had. Alexander was brought up from childhood believing he was of divine birth. He was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia.
The Romans gave him the name, Alexander "The Great." It's because they revered him as being a perfect leader and military genius. It's why he was given this moniker.
Alexander got lucky in many ways. First of all, his father was the one that built up the outstanding army that Alexander did use to conquer, and Alexander’s legacy was improved and assured by his early death. | <urn:uuid:b0c4d529-2258-470f-8a67-a8565c998ad8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1506641/why-is-alexander-called-alexander-the-great | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.994308 | 358 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.142051905... | 2 | Alexander was one of the greatest conquerors ever lived. The reasons for his second name, 'Alexander the Great,' are very easy to figure out. He was known as an intelligent king he ruled over one of the greatest military formations during his period. History tells us that he never lost any battle.
Alexander the Great fought so many battles and won. I think what really helped him was the revelation that he was born to rule the world; her mother would always tell him this. At the early stage of his life, he was trained by Aristotle.
After he became the king of Macedonia, he was able to conquer one of the most powerful empires during the period. He fought and conquered the Persian empire, and he extended his boundaries over the land. He was able to conquer the city of Taxila. I think Alexander was not only great because of his military skills, but he was a visionary king.
Alexander The Great was a king from Macedonia who conquered an empire. The empire stretched out from the Balkans to what is now modern-day Pakistan. Alexander was born the son of Philip II and Olympias. Olympias was one of the seven or eight wives that Philip II had. Alexander was brought up from childhood believing he was of divine birth. He was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia.
The Romans gave him the name, Alexander "The Great." It's because they revered him as being a perfect leader and military genius. It's why he was given this moniker.
Alexander got lucky in many ways. First of all, his father was the one that built up the outstanding army that Alexander did use to conquer, and Alexander’s legacy was improved and assured by his early death. | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in 1833, Ebenezer Don Carlos Bassett was born near Litchfield, Connecticut to free black parents who held prominent roles in Connecticut’s free black community. Bassett’s father was a businessman who had served as one of Connecticut’s Black Governors — an honorary leadership role in the state’s black community — and his grandfather was a former slave who earned his freedom by serving as a soldier in the Continental Army.
As a teenager in the late 1840s, Ebenezer attended the Birmingham Academy in Derby, where he first realized his lifelong affinity for academics. At the time, many other Connecticut towns were barring young black children from attending prestigious schools; later in life, Bassett remarked: “My success in life I owe greatly to that American sense of fairness which was tendered me in old Derby, and which exacts that every man whether white or black, shall have a fair chance to run his race in life and make the most of himself.”
While attending school, young Bassett worked odd jobs for influential Derby citizens, whose recommendations helped him further his education by attending the Wesleyan Academy in Massachusetts and then enrolling at the Connecticut State Normal School — now Central Connecticut State University — in New Britain as the first African-American student to attend classes and graduate from that institution. After graduating in 1853, Bassett moved to New Haven where he worked as a high-school principal, became active in the local community and enrolled in classes at Yale College to further his education. There, he met two of the most important people in his life: his wife, Eliza, and the famous author and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, with whom Bassett maintained a close friendship for the rest of his life.
In the 1850s, the Bassetts moved to Philadelphia, where Ebenezer became principal of the Institute for Colored Youth (since renamed Cheyney University and recognized as the oldest historically black institute of higher education in the United States). An active member of Philadelphia’s black community, Bassett helped recruit African-American soldiers for the Union Army during the Civil War and helped sponsor local events featuring Republican politicians and abolitionist speakers like Douglass.
In 1869, Bassett broke down another notable color barrier by becoming the first African-American diplomat in United States history after President Ulysses S. Grant nominated him to be the American minister to Haiti. Bassett certainly had his work cut out for him; although he was incredibly well-educated, he had received no formal diplomatic training, and the nation of Haiti (which had only been politically recognized by the United States in 1862) was constantly rocked by civil wars, corruption scandals, and violence throughout the eight years of his diplomatic tenure. Nevertheless, Bassett performed his duties with remarkable patience and decorum, gaining a reputation as a consummate professional and excellent diplomat.
As was the custom with diplomatic posts, Bassett’s tenure ended when President Grant was replaced by Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, Bassett and his family alternately lived in Philadelphia, New Haven, and New York City, where he served as consul general for Haiti for many years before passing away in 1908 and being buried in a family plot in New Haven’s Grove Street cemetery, after a remarkable life of public service to both the African-American community and the United States as a whole.
“Ebenezer Don Carlos Bassett,” Oxford African American Studies Center
Carol Ivanoff, Mary Mycek, and Marian O’Keefe, “Ebenezer Bassett’s Historic Journey,” Connecticut Explored
“Ebenezer D. Basset, Class of 1853: Biography and Timeline,” Central Connecticut State University | <urn:uuid:4ca70371-22fc-495d-b29e-16fa90814ee7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://todayincthistory.com/2019/10/16/october-16-ebenezer-bassett-americas-first-african-american-diplomat-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.981641 | 785 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.13243873417... | 9 | On this day in 1833, Ebenezer Don Carlos Bassett was born near Litchfield, Connecticut to free black parents who held prominent roles in Connecticut’s free black community. Bassett’s father was a businessman who had served as one of Connecticut’s Black Governors — an honorary leadership role in the state’s black community — and his grandfather was a former slave who earned his freedom by serving as a soldier in the Continental Army.
As a teenager in the late 1840s, Ebenezer attended the Birmingham Academy in Derby, where he first realized his lifelong affinity for academics. At the time, many other Connecticut towns were barring young black children from attending prestigious schools; later in life, Bassett remarked: “My success in life I owe greatly to that American sense of fairness which was tendered me in old Derby, and which exacts that every man whether white or black, shall have a fair chance to run his race in life and make the most of himself.”
While attending school, young Bassett worked odd jobs for influential Derby citizens, whose recommendations helped him further his education by attending the Wesleyan Academy in Massachusetts and then enrolling at the Connecticut State Normal School — now Central Connecticut State University — in New Britain as the first African-American student to attend classes and graduate from that institution. After graduating in 1853, Bassett moved to New Haven where he worked as a high-school principal, became active in the local community and enrolled in classes at Yale College to further his education. There, he met two of the most important people in his life: his wife, Eliza, and the famous author and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, with whom Bassett maintained a close friendship for the rest of his life.
In the 1850s, the Bassetts moved to Philadelphia, where Ebenezer became principal of the Institute for Colored Youth (since renamed Cheyney University and recognized as the oldest historically black institute of higher education in the United States). An active member of Philadelphia’s black community, Bassett helped recruit African-American soldiers for the Union Army during the Civil War and helped sponsor local events featuring Republican politicians and abolitionist speakers like Douglass.
In 1869, Bassett broke down another notable color barrier by becoming the first African-American diplomat in United States history after President Ulysses S. Grant nominated him to be the American minister to Haiti. Bassett certainly had his work cut out for him; although he was incredibly well-educated, he had received no formal diplomatic training, and the nation of Haiti (which had only been politically recognized by the United States in 1862) was constantly rocked by civil wars, corruption scandals, and violence throughout the eight years of his diplomatic tenure. Nevertheless, Bassett performed his duties with remarkable patience and decorum, gaining a reputation as a consummate professional and excellent diplomat.
As was the custom with diplomatic posts, Bassett’s tenure ended when President Grant was replaced by Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, Bassett and his family alternately lived in Philadelphia, New Haven, and New York City, where he served as consul general for Haiti for many years before passing away in 1908 and being buried in a family plot in New Haven’s Grove Street cemetery, after a remarkable life of public service to both the African-American community and the United States as a whole.
“Ebenezer Don Carlos Bassett,” Oxford African American Studies Center
Carol Ivanoff, Mary Mycek, and Marian O’Keefe, “Ebenezer Bassett’s Historic Journey,” Connecticut Explored
“Ebenezer D. Basset, Class of 1853: Biography and Timeline,” Central Connecticut State University | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frank Lloyd Wright was born with the name Frank Lincoln Wright in 8 June 1867 in Richland Center in Wisconsin of the United States. He changed his name to Frank Lloyd Wright after his parents divorced to honour his mother’s name. Until his death in 9 April 1959, he was an educator, writer, interior designer and American architect (Wright 51). Throughout his life, he was able to design over 1,000 projects with over 500 being completed successfully.
His design work involves the design of different types of buildings including museums, hotels, skyscrapers, schools, churches and offices. In these buildings, he went further to design the interior parts like stained glass and furniture. Apart from building, his writing career was a success for he was able to author twenty books a number of articles. He was also a lecturer in both Europe and United States. His life was colourful and it even made headlines especially the incident that occurred in 1914, in which there were murders and fire in his studio in Taliesin (Wright 55). | <urn:uuid:8a56c21d-e0d6-4eb8-88e1-8869d20c9c16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.customessaylive.com/essay-frank-lloyd-wright/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.994705 | 210 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.6116049885749... | 6 | Frank Lloyd Wright was born with the name Frank Lincoln Wright in 8 June 1867 in Richland Center in Wisconsin of the United States. He changed his name to Frank Lloyd Wright after his parents divorced to honour his mother’s name. Until his death in 9 April 1959, he was an educator, writer, interior designer and American architect (Wright 51). Throughout his life, he was able to design over 1,000 projects with over 500 being completed successfully.
His design work involves the design of different types of buildings including museums, hotels, skyscrapers, schools, churches and offices. In these buildings, he went further to design the interior parts like stained glass and furniture. Apart from building, his writing career was a success for he was able to author twenty books a number of articles. He was also a lecturer in both Europe and United States. His life was colourful and it even made headlines especially the incident that occurred in 1914, in which there were murders and fire in his studio in Taliesin (Wright 55). | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The best magazine
History Of The English Language
This form of English did not look and or sound like anything that is spoken today.
The ability to understand this is something that native English speaking people would have a hard time understanding.
Words such as "be" and "water" is derived from the old English.
From the 1100-1500 AD, this is the time that the Middle English was spoken, the Duke of Normandy conquered England.
For a while, the English language was divided into lower class as well as upper class.
During the fourteenth century, the ability to speak English became dominant in England.
This however, at the time, had many French words that were added to the language.
The English poet of this time, Chaucer use to write poems and many native speakers of the language would find it hard to understand and grasp.
Modern English was introduced during the 1500-1800 AD, and there was a distinct change in the pronunciations of many words.
This is the period known as the Great Vowel Shift and it is known to have become shorter with time.
The 16th century was the period when many of the French learned new words and got to know many people as well with all the traveling and so forth.
This is the century when books became cheaper and more people took an interest in learning to read.
Printing was invented and this meant that books now became a more popular feature.
Printing of all books were set in English.
The first dictionary was available in the year 1604.
From the 1800, to the present year, the late modern English came into being.
The difference between this English and the early modern English is the vocabulary.
The later version of the language consists of more words, the reason being that there was a need created for more words by the industrial revolution and the British Empire was on the height on half of the earth's surface.
The English at the time has adopted new words from many countries all over the world.
A distinct version of the English language was founded in North America.
This sounded more like the English of Shakespeare.
There is much more that can be said about the rich history of the English language and if you take a look at the past events of the events that has proceeded to where the language is now, it is no surprise that the language is one that has grown and is also known world wide.
If you are to go back to the older versions of the language, you will have to study up and see what it is that is being referred to.
There is no way that you would be able to pick up on this language.
It is a great idea to allow yourself to learn more on the history of English.
You will notice that not only will you be blown away by the results, but the poetry of the earlier English is something that you should take a look at. | <urn:uuid:dfbabdb8-e653-4b1d-8ad8-e29358f80b08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldwhitepaper.com/articles_q0s3ea.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.988496 | 597 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.109336... | 2 | The best magazine
History Of The English Language
This form of English did not look and or sound like anything that is spoken today.
The ability to understand this is something that native English speaking people would have a hard time understanding.
Words such as "be" and "water" is derived from the old English.
From the 1100-1500 AD, this is the time that the Middle English was spoken, the Duke of Normandy conquered England.
For a while, the English language was divided into lower class as well as upper class.
During the fourteenth century, the ability to speak English became dominant in England.
This however, at the time, had many French words that were added to the language.
The English poet of this time, Chaucer use to write poems and many native speakers of the language would find it hard to understand and grasp.
Modern English was introduced during the 1500-1800 AD, and there was a distinct change in the pronunciations of many words.
This is the period known as the Great Vowel Shift and it is known to have become shorter with time.
The 16th century was the period when many of the French learned new words and got to know many people as well with all the traveling and so forth.
This is the century when books became cheaper and more people took an interest in learning to read.
Printing was invented and this meant that books now became a more popular feature.
Printing of all books were set in English.
The first dictionary was available in the year 1604.
From the 1800, to the present year, the late modern English came into being.
The difference between this English and the early modern English is the vocabulary.
The later version of the language consists of more words, the reason being that there was a need created for more words by the industrial revolution and the British Empire was on the height on half of the earth's surface.
The English at the time has adopted new words from many countries all over the world.
A distinct version of the English language was founded in North America.
This sounded more like the English of Shakespeare.
There is much more that can be said about the rich history of the English language and if you take a look at the past events of the events that has proceeded to where the language is now, it is no surprise that the language is one that has grown and is also known world wide.
If you are to go back to the older versions of the language, you will have to study up and see what it is that is being referred to.
There is no way that you would be able to pick up on this language.
It is a great idea to allow yourself to learn more on the history of English.
You will notice that not only will you be blown away by the results, but the poetry of the earlier English is something that you should take a look at. | 594 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sigmund Freud established the stages of personality and aspects of the human mind. Paper Masters will custom write you a Freud Research paper on any topic related to the famous psychologist or his psychological theories.
No theory that has followed has been more complete, more complex, or more controversial. He was the first major social scientist to propose a unified theory to understand and explain human behavior.
Among his early influences for example are Charcot and Breuer, his professors. Encouraged by Josef Breur, he stared research on using free association. Both based their theories on that the mind has a conscious and unconscious levels.
Freud's father had two children from his previous marriage Boeree, In his three year at Vienna University Freud began his research in central nervous system in the physiological lab under the direction of German Physician Ernst Wilhelm Von Brucke Furthermore, during his youth, he frequently fantasized that his half-brother Philip was his father.
In this, Freud became a researcher of the mind, taking material not only from his patients, but also from himself, his parents, and other psychological directions in order to arrive at answers to his questions. At the age of 17, Freud attended the University of Vienna where he first studied law.
A research paper focusing on Freud's work on the nature of religion may include the following elements: Summarizes his work that is related back to the historical context of and impact on Vienna and Austria-Hungary and those writings on religion had between Order a research paper on masochism from Paper Masters.
He was the philosopher who identified childhood experience, not racial destiny or family fate, as the vessel of character, and he is the therapist who invented a specific form of treatment for mentally ill people, psychoanalysis. | <urn:uuid:7fb71cf1-8e23-497c-9a2d-9d7ccd59e665> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vytovytypacady.whatshanesaid.com/research-papers-on-sigmund-freud407413015yp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.982646 | 357 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3442471325397... | 1 | Sigmund Freud established the stages of personality and aspects of the human mind. Paper Masters will custom write you a Freud Research paper on any topic related to the famous psychologist or his psychological theories.
No theory that has followed has been more complete, more complex, or more controversial. He was the first major social scientist to propose a unified theory to understand and explain human behavior.
Among his early influences for example are Charcot and Breuer, his professors. Encouraged by Josef Breur, he stared research on using free association. Both based their theories on that the mind has a conscious and unconscious levels.
Freud's father had two children from his previous marriage Boeree, In his three year at Vienna University Freud began his research in central nervous system in the physiological lab under the direction of German Physician Ernst Wilhelm Von Brucke Furthermore, during his youth, he frequently fantasized that his half-brother Philip was his father.
In this, Freud became a researcher of the mind, taking material not only from his patients, but also from himself, his parents, and other psychological directions in order to arrive at answers to his questions. At the age of 17, Freud attended the University of Vienna where he first studied law.
A research paper focusing on Freud's work on the nature of religion may include the following elements: Summarizes his work that is related back to the historical context of and impact on Vienna and Austria-Hungary and those writings on religion had between Order a research paper on masochism from Paper Masters.
He was the philosopher who identified childhood experience, not racial destiny or family fate, as the vessel of character, and he is the therapist who invented a specific form of treatment for mentally ill people, psychoanalysis. | 352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists from Russia, early this week, displayed an 18,000-year-old male puppy. It was discovered in 2018 by locals in a frozen ground near Indigirka River in Eastern Russia's Yakutia region. The Siberian Times reported it as having a full-body, muzzle, whiskers and even eyelashes preserved by permafrost. Permafrost is the ground that has remained frozen below zero degree celsius for a period of two years or more.
The puppy died when it was less than two months old. It has been named Dogor by the scientists. Dogor means friend in the Yakut language. Scientists have struggled to identify if it really is a dog or a wolf. Genome sequencing revealed information stored inside the DNA. Even the results of genome sequencing have not helped researchers from the Swedish Centre of Paleogenetics in yielding any definitive results.
It has led to speculation among scientists that were the dog alive he might have the traits of both dog and wolf. Scientists believe so as the dog was alive at a time when their species were evolving from wolves.
Dogor's discovery is important because Siberia's melting permafrost has led to many such discoveries of prehistoric animals, including canines like Dogor and woolly mammoths. In 2011 also an ice age dog's snout was discovered by hunters searching for mammoth tusks. In 2016 as well, scientists had uncovered two such puppies whom they named as Tumat.
The above findings are important because they will help trace the lineage of domesticated dogs. Although scientists have speculated that dogs have evolved from wolves there is no concrete time period established by them for the same.
The North-East Federal University in Yakutsk issued a press release saying that the puppy could be a wolf or a so-called wolf dog. The release also mentioned that the grey wolves and dogs diverged from an extinct wolf that had died about 15,000 to 40,000 years ago. | <urn:uuid:29f1f6b0-1ed1-4787-b4c7-624e0bf98e74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/mystery-18-000-old-puppy-082009195.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.981217 | 399 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.120836965739727... | 1 | Scientists from Russia, early this week, displayed an 18,000-year-old male puppy. It was discovered in 2018 by locals in a frozen ground near Indigirka River in Eastern Russia's Yakutia region. The Siberian Times reported it as having a full-body, muzzle, whiskers and even eyelashes preserved by permafrost. Permafrost is the ground that has remained frozen below zero degree celsius for a period of two years or more.
The puppy died when it was less than two months old. It has been named Dogor by the scientists. Dogor means friend in the Yakut language. Scientists have struggled to identify if it really is a dog or a wolf. Genome sequencing revealed information stored inside the DNA. Even the results of genome sequencing have not helped researchers from the Swedish Centre of Paleogenetics in yielding any definitive results.
It has led to speculation among scientists that were the dog alive he might have the traits of both dog and wolf. Scientists believe so as the dog was alive at a time when their species were evolving from wolves.
Dogor's discovery is important because Siberia's melting permafrost has led to many such discoveries of prehistoric animals, including canines like Dogor and woolly mammoths. In 2011 also an ice age dog's snout was discovered by hunters searching for mammoth tusks. In 2016 as well, scientists had uncovered two such puppies whom they named as Tumat.
The above findings are important because they will help trace the lineage of domesticated dogs. Although scientists have speculated that dogs have evolved from wolves there is no concrete time period established by them for the same.
The North-East Federal University in Yakutsk issued a press release saying that the puppy could be a wolf or a so-called wolf dog. The release also mentioned that the grey wolves and dogs diverged from an extinct wolf that had died about 15,000 to 40,000 years ago. | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War I was already nearing its conclusion when a new enemy appeared, one that had no concern for which side someone was on. Unlike the war, the Spanish flu claimed victims on all continents, with a mortality rate much higher than what has been considered normal in modern times. The disease swept across the world in multiple waves, and for a long time was shrouded in several layers of mystery—among other things, there is no way to accurately estimate the number of victims, and scientists also spent long decades seeking its origins.
There exist a number of theories about where the Spanish flu came from, and it is hard to decide which one is more accurate. There are several reasons why, despite the countless historical sources from the Modern Period, it is difficult to trace the outbreak of the Spanish flu back to its starting point. One is that it coincided with World War I, when the belligerents had introduced censorship, and reports of rampant illness would have hurt combat morale. Thus, most countries simply kept the disease a secret or downplayed its seriousness.
This article is not part of our free offer. You either have to purchase this article or buy a subscription in order to read it. | <urn:uuid:91a08b7f-dd61-4ed4-95d4-8490945875cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://magazine.welovehistory.com/issue/When_Doomsday_Comes/article/More_Ravenous_than_War | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.982813 | 238 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.46005877852439... | 1 | World War I was already nearing its conclusion when a new enemy appeared, one that had no concern for which side someone was on. Unlike the war, the Spanish flu claimed victims on all continents, with a mortality rate much higher than what has been considered normal in modern times. The disease swept across the world in multiple waves, and for a long time was shrouded in several layers of mystery—among other things, there is no way to accurately estimate the number of victims, and scientists also spent long decades seeking its origins.
There exist a number of theories about where the Spanish flu came from, and it is hard to decide which one is more accurate. There are several reasons why, despite the countless historical sources from the Modern Period, it is difficult to trace the outbreak of the Spanish flu back to its starting point. One is that it coincided with World War I, when the belligerents had introduced censorship, and reports of rampant illness would have hurt combat morale. Thus, most countries simply kept the disease a secret or downplayed its seriousness.
This article is not part of our free offer. You either have to purchase this article or buy a subscription in order to read it. | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
the history of jazz is mainly dominated by the exploits of male jazz musicians,
the role of women in Jazz is just as significant as that of their men
counterparts. It is therefore noteworthy to observe that women in jazz have
played every instrument in every style and have engaged the same aesthetic and
technical developments as their male colleagues. Yet, with the exception of
singers and some pianist, women are invariably perceived as a new breed. They
are usually marketed as incipient and consumed as curiosities, but despite
their aura as being perpetually unprecedented, female jazz musicians do have a
history. The early music history of the roots of jazz is rich with the active
participation of African American women in spirituals, gospel and blues. Piano
music was always considered appropriate and desirable for women, and many
female pianist and composers participated in the ragtime craze of the early
1900’s. Although social expectations of what women should and could do impacted
their working conditions, reception and opportunities, female jazz musicians
have proven their worth repeatedly for over a century. One of the most
controversial female jazz musicians is a lady known for her revolutionary
stance and her pride of being black.
Her birth name is Eunice Kathleen Waymon; she was born in Tryon, North Carolina, USA on February 21st 1933. Better known by her stage name Nina Simone, she was an American singer, songwriter, pianist arranger and civil rights activist. She started playing the piano at the age of three and aspired very early to become a classical pianist, while working in a broad range of styles including classical, jazz, blues, soul, R&B, gospel and pop. Nina has a distinctive style that is very original and wide- ranging, consisting of a fusion of gospel and pop songs with classical music. She was very much influenced by the classical composer Bach and injected as much of her classical background into her music to give it more depth and quality. She always felt that pop music was inferior to the classics and was very particular with her choice of material for work during her career.
Nina played her first concert when she was twelve. This performance was a classical recital where she played the piano to a mixed audience. She later claimed that during that performance, her parents who had taken seats in the front row were forced to move to the back of the hall to make room for white people. Nina then refused to play until her parents were returned to the front. This incident announced the beginning of her involvement in the civil rights movement. After finishing high school, Nina tried to enroll at the Curtis Institute of music, but was rejected because of her being black. She then moved to the Julliard School of Musicin New York where she would further her studies and concentration on classical music techniques.
It was not easy attending this private institution because she did not have a scholarship, so, in order to fund her studies, she performed weekly at the Midtown Bar and Grill in Atlantic City, New Jersey. She played the piano and sang at this club and many other small clubs in the area, and in 1954, she adopted the stage name – Nina Simone. During this period in 1958, she recorded a single rendition of George Gershwin’s “I love You Porgy” which had already been recorded by Billie Holiday who was one of her favorite singers. This recording became a success and a billboard top 40 hit and was soon followed by her debut album on Bethlehem Records – “Little Girl Blue”.
After the success of “Little Girl Blue “, Nina landed a contract with a bigger company, Colpix Records. The success of “Little Girl Blue “with Bethlehem Records was bitter sweet because she was only paid $3000 for the recording session, and was unable to benefit financially from millions in royalties after the same song was re-released in the 1980’s as “My Baby Just Cares For Me”. Her contract with Colpix was different and more empowering, giving Nina complete creative control including the choice of material that would be recorded. A string of studio and live albums would follow, and she performed mainly popular music in order to make money and continue her studies in classical music. She was indifferent to having a recording contract, and maintained this attitude for most of her career.
In 1961, Nina married a New York police detective, Andrew Stroud who later became her manager. The sixties was an era of civil rights politics and America was undergoing a radical transformation. In 1964, she changed record companies from the American, Colpix to the Dutch, Phillips. This gave her a little more freedom and brought a change in the contents of her recordings. Nina had always included songs that drew upon her African American origins in her repertoire, and songs such as “Brown Baby” and “Zungo” were featured on her album “Nina at the Village Gate”. However, on her debut album with Phillips, she for the first time addressed the racial inequality in the U.S.A. with the song “Mississippi Goddam”. This was her response to the murder of civil rights activist Medger Evers and the bombing of a black church in Birmingham, Alabama. The record was released as a single but also boycotted in certain southern states. Civil rights messages became standard in her recordings and live performances and she spoke at many civil rights meetings such as the Selma to Montgomery march demanding equal rights for African Americans.
Nina was a strong admirer of Billie Holiday and featured Holiday’s song “Strange Fruits” on the cover of her album ”Pastel Blues” released in 1965. The song “Strange Fruits” is about the lynching of black men in the southern part of the United States, and was from a poem by W. Cuney. Nina would change record companies again, and in 1967, she signed with RCA Victor Records. Her first album with RCA released in the same year under the title “Nina Sings the Blues” featured a song written by her friend Langston Hughes, the playwright and author. The song was called “Backlash Blues” and on another album “Silk and Soul” released during the same period; she would record some of Billy Taylor’s music. In 1968, she recorded the album “Nuff Said” which contained live recordings made three days after the murder of Martin Luther King. The whole performance was dedicated to King in a song entitled “Why (The King of Love is Dead)”which was written by Gene Taylor, Nina’s bass player.
In 1970, Nina worked with producer Weldon Irwine and made Lorraine Hansberry’s unfinished play into a civil rights song. The song entitled “To Be Young Gifted and Black” was performed live and recorded on her album- ‘Black Gold’. A studio recording was later released as a single and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin and the late Danny Harthaway. A few months after the release of the ‘Black Gold’, Nina left the U.S.A. and moved to the Caribbean Island of Barbados. She went to Barbados alone, leaving her husband and manager behind. There was lack of proper communication or miscommunication between the two, and this, coupled with the fact that Nina left her wedding ring behind, convinced her husband who was also her manager that she wanted a divorce. This incident was very crucial in Nina’s career because her financial records were not given the needed attention, and when she eventually returned to the US, she learnt that there was a warrant for her arrest for unpaid taxes. She was forced to return back to Barbados where she stayed for a few years until her friend and fellow musician- Miriam Makeba convinced her to move to Liberia. Nina stayed in Liberia for a brief period and later moved to Switzerland and the Netherlands, before finally settling in France in 1992.
Nina recorded her last album – “A Single Woman” in 1993 while living in Southern France. She bought a house in Carry-Le- Rouet near Aix-en-Provence and stayed there until her death in 2003. Her funeral service was attended by Miriam Makeba, Patti Labelle, Poet Sonia Sanchez and actor Ossie Davis. She was cremated according to her wish, and her ashes scattered in several African countries.
Nina Simone lived and died as a proud black woman. | <urn:uuid:2f6c403f-5b29-4f90-8ed5-c56c2cbc00b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thepoint.gm/africa/gambia/article/jazz-appreciation-nina-simone-she-was-young-gifted-and-black | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.987423 | 1,784 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.131057292222976... | 1 | the history of jazz is mainly dominated by the exploits of male jazz musicians,
the role of women in Jazz is just as significant as that of their men
counterparts. It is therefore noteworthy to observe that women in jazz have
played every instrument in every style and have engaged the same aesthetic and
technical developments as their male colleagues. Yet, with the exception of
singers and some pianist, women are invariably perceived as a new breed. They
are usually marketed as incipient and consumed as curiosities, but despite
their aura as being perpetually unprecedented, female jazz musicians do have a
history. The early music history of the roots of jazz is rich with the active
participation of African American women in spirituals, gospel and blues. Piano
music was always considered appropriate and desirable for women, and many
female pianist and composers participated in the ragtime craze of the early
1900’s. Although social expectations of what women should and could do impacted
their working conditions, reception and opportunities, female jazz musicians
have proven their worth repeatedly for over a century. One of the most
controversial female jazz musicians is a lady known for her revolutionary
stance and her pride of being black.
Her birth name is Eunice Kathleen Waymon; she was born in Tryon, North Carolina, USA on February 21st 1933. Better known by her stage name Nina Simone, she was an American singer, songwriter, pianist arranger and civil rights activist. She started playing the piano at the age of three and aspired very early to become a classical pianist, while working in a broad range of styles including classical, jazz, blues, soul, R&B, gospel and pop. Nina has a distinctive style that is very original and wide- ranging, consisting of a fusion of gospel and pop songs with classical music. She was very much influenced by the classical composer Bach and injected as much of her classical background into her music to give it more depth and quality. She always felt that pop music was inferior to the classics and was very particular with her choice of material for work during her career.
Nina played her first concert when she was twelve. This performance was a classical recital where she played the piano to a mixed audience. She later claimed that during that performance, her parents who had taken seats in the front row were forced to move to the back of the hall to make room for white people. Nina then refused to play until her parents were returned to the front. This incident announced the beginning of her involvement in the civil rights movement. After finishing high school, Nina tried to enroll at the Curtis Institute of music, but was rejected because of her being black. She then moved to the Julliard School of Musicin New York where she would further her studies and concentration on classical music techniques.
It was not easy attending this private institution because she did not have a scholarship, so, in order to fund her studies, she performed weekly at the Midtown Bar and Grill in Atlantic City, New Jersey. She played the piano and sang at this club and many other small clubs in the area, and in 1954, she adopted the stage name – Nina Simone. During this period in 1958, she recorded a single rendition of George Gershwin’s “I love You Porgy” which had already been recorded by Billie Holiday who was one of her favorite singers. This recording became a success and a billboard top 40 hit and was soon followed by her debut album on Bethlehem Records – “Little Girl Blue”.
After the success of “Little Girl Blue “, Nina landed a contract with a bigger company, Colpix Records. The success of “Little Girl Blue “with Bethlehem Records was bitter sweet because she was only paid $3000 for the recording session, and was unable to benefit financially from millions in royalties after the same song was re-released in the 1980’s as “My Baby Just Cares For Me”. Her contract with Colpix was different and more empowering, giving Nina complete creative control including the choice of material that would be recorded. A string of studio and live albums would follow, and she performed mainly popular music in order to make money and continue her studies in classical music. She was indifferent to having a recording contract, and maintained this attitude for most of her career.
In 1961, Nina married a New York police detective, Andrew Stroud who later became her manager. The sixties was an era of civil rights politics and America was undergoing a radical transformation. In 1964, she changed record companies from the American, Colpix to the Dutch, Phillips. This gave her a little more freedom and brought a change in the contents of her recordings. Nina had always included songs that drew upon her African American origins in her repertoire, and songs such as “Brown Baby” and “Zungo” were featured on her album “Nina at the Village Gate”. However, on her debut album with Phillips, she for the first time addressed the racial inequality in the U.S.A. with the song “Mississippi Goddam”. This was her response to the murder of civil rights activist Medger Evers and the bombing of a black church in Birmingham, Alabama. The record was released as a single but also boycotted in certain southern states. Civil rights messages became standard in her recordings and live performances and she spoke at many civil rights meetings such as the Selma to Montgomery march demanding equal rights for African Americans.
Nina was a strong admirer of Billie Holiday and featured Holiday’s song “Strange Fruits” on the cover of her album ”Pastel Blues” released in 1965. The song “Strange Fruits” is about the lynching of black men in the southern part of the United States, and was from a poem by W. Cuney. Nina would change record companies again, and in 1967, she signed with RCA Victor Records. Her first album with RCA released in the same year under the title “Nina Sings the Blues” featured a song written by her friend Langston Hughes, the playwright and author. The song was called “Backlash Blues” and on another album “Silk and Soul” released during the same period; she would record some of Billy Taylor’s music. In 1968, she recorded the album “Nuff Said” which contained live recordings made three days after the murder of Martin Luther King. The whole performance was dedicated to King in a song entitled “Why (The King of Love is Dead)”which was written by Gene Taylor, Nina’s bass player.
In 1970, Nina worked with producer Weldon Irwine and made Lorraine Hansberry’s unfinished play into a civil rights song. The song entitled “To Be Young Gifted and Black” was performed live and recorded on her album- ‘Black Gold’. A studio recording was later released as a single and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin and the late Danny Harthaway. A few months after the release of the ‘Black Gold’, Nina left the U.S.A. and moved to the Caribbean Island of Barbados. She went to Barbados alone, leaving her husband and manager behind. There was lack of proper communication or miscommunication between the two, and this, coupled with the fact that Nina left her wedding ring behind, convinced her husband who was also her manager that she wanted a divorce. This incident was very crucial in Nina’s career because her financial records were not given the needed attention, and when she eventually returned to the US, she learnt that there was a warrant for her arrest for unpaid taxes. She was forced to return back to Barbados where she stayed for a few years until her friend and fellow musician- Miriam Makeba convinced her to move to Liberia. Nina stayed in Liberia for a brief period and later moved to Switzerland and the Netherlands, before finally settling in France in 1992.
Nina recorded her last album – “A Single Woman” in 1993 while living in Southern France. She bought a house in Carry-Le- Rouet near Aix-en-Provence and stayed there until her death in 2003. Her funeral service was attended by Miriam Makeba, Patti Labelle, Poet Sonia Sanchez and actor Ossie Davis. She was cremated according to her wish, and her ashes scattered in several African countries.
Nina Simone lived and died as a proud black woman. | 1,756 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Washington - New images of the Moon's battered crust point to a violent past in which it was battered by comets and asteroids during its first billion years, US scientists say.The new findings come from the GRAIL mission, a pair of spacecraft named Ebb and Flow that are orbiting the Moon and measuring its gravitational field."It was known that planets were battered by impacts, but nobody had envisioned that the (Moon's) crust was so beaten up," said Maria Zuber, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) scientist leading the mission."This is a really big surprise, and is going to cause a lot of people to think about what this means for planetary evolution," she said in a statement about the findings, to be published this week in the journal Science.Unlike the Earth's crust, which is repeatedly recycled through the process of plate tectonics, the Moon's hard crust dates back billions of years, offering clues to the formation of the solar system, including Earth.The GRAIL mission has allowed scientists to stitch together a high-resolution map of the Moon's gravity, reflecting surface structures like mountains and craters as well as subterranean features.The images suggest the Moon's crust is 34-43km thick, considerably thinner than was previously thought, according to Mark Wieczorek, another GRAIL scientist."This supports models where the moon is derived from Earth materials that were ejected during a giant impact event early in solar system history," he said.Around 98% of the crust is deeply fragmented, porous material, the result, scientists say, of very early, massive impacts."This is interesting for the Moon," Zuber said. "But what it also means is that every other planet was being bombarded like this." | <urn:uuid:9fd8b032-5480-4945-9965-3e61e0ea5b22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.news24.com/Technology/News/Moons-crust-reveals-tumultuous-past-20121206 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.981865 | 354 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.2468527108... | 1 | Washington - New images of the Moon's battered crust point to a violent past in which it was battered by comets and asteroids during its first billion years, US scientists say.The new findings come from the GRAIL mission, a pair of spacecraft named Ebb and Flow that are orbiting the Moon and measuring its gravitational field."It was known that planets were battered by impacts, but nobody had envisioned that the (Moon's) crust was so beaten up," said Maria Zuber, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) scientist leading the mission."This is a really big surprise, and is going to cause a lot of people to think about what this means for planetary evolution," she said in a statement about the findings, to be published this week in the journal Science.Unlike the Earth's crust, which is repeatedly recycled through the process of plate tectonics, the Moon's hard crust dates back billions of years, offering clues to the formation of the solar system, including Earth.The GRAIL mission has allowed scientists to stitch together a high-resolution map of the Moon's gravity, reflecting surface structures like mountains and craters as well as subterranean features.The images suggest the Moon's crust is 34-43km thick, considerably thinner than was previously thought, according to Mark Wieczorek, another GRAIL scientist."This supports models where the moon is derived from Earth materials that were ejected during a giant impact event early in solar system history," he said.Around 98% of the crust is deeply fragmented, porous material, the result, scientists say, of very early, massive impacts."This is interesting for the Moon," Zuber said. "But what it also means is that every other planet was being bombarded like this." | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today North Korea celebrates Kim Jong Il’s birthday: known as the “Day of the Shining Star.” In this article, I will try to briefly outline the history of these holidays as its leaders have changed, and the birthday of the man whose ideas served as a prototype for North Korea: Joseph Stalin.
Stalin’s actual birthday was December 18 (or December 6 in the official Julian calendar of the Russian Empire) although he later changed it to December 21: the anniversary of a 1905 uprising in Moscow. This was the day which was celebrated in the USSR.
It is well known that Stalin “did not allow even a shadow of arrogance, conceit, narcissism,” to quote a passage he personally added to his own official biography.
Thus, he had the modesty to limit major celebrations to his jubilees and the ordinary birthday of the “corypheus of all academia” was not celebrated nationwide. Only his 50th, 60th and 70th anniversaries – in 1929, 1939 and 1949 – were.
The 1949 celebration took place in the entire recently expanded socialist bloc, including in North Korea. In Pyongyang, poems were composed and meetings were held – all to commemorate the jubilee of the “dearest friend of Korean people.”
KIM IL SUNG’S BIRTHDAY
Naturally, Kim Il Sung learned from his Great Teacher in many ways – including making his birthday a holiday.
Officially, his birthday is on April 15 – though one Russian publication casts a shadow of doubt on this date. A book “Korea in the Sea of Fire” (Корея в огне войны) written by a group of authors with access to various Russian archives, directly states that his birthday is, in fact, April 12.
Unfortunately, the authors did not include any links to the document to substantiate these claims. However, this may actually mean that they saw a reference to a then-classified document which they could not have mentioned.
Kim Il Sung learned from his Great Teacher in many ways
In any case, the official birthday of the Great Leader was and is April 15. It seems the first celebration of it took place in 1950, with a visit to Kim Il Sung’s official birthplace in Mangyongdae.
A celebration of Kim’s first jubilee in charge of the country was quite massive. His heavily edited biography was published in state press on April 10, 1952, followed by a book about “Commander Kim Il Sung” being released on April 15.
For the rest of the 1950s, celebrations were sporadic: some years, the newspaper would cover visits to Mangyongdae, other years they did not.
In 1962, the next “proper” celebrations of Kim’s jubilee took place. For one day, the country experienced an echo of what was to come: a massive celebration approaching the level of the everyday personality cult which would emerge after 1967.
In Spring of that year, the Monolithic ideological system was established, and the celebrations continued every year – until in 1994, when Kim Il Sung died.
For decades, the official exchange rate of the U.S. dollar to the DPRK won was 2.16/1
ENTER KIM JONG IL
Kim Jong Il’s birthday – February 16 – was first mentioned in the Rodong Sinmun in 1972, but in a rather cryptic form. On December 14, the newspaper announced the results of elections to the Supreme People’s Assembly (100.0% participated, 100.0% endorsed the candidates), with Kim Il Sung running in the district 216.
In later years, “216” became the key number for Kim Jong Il’s birthday (2nd month, 16th day). Apart from rather innocent things, like 216 becoming the official designation of the KPA Navy, the cult surrounding the birthday of the Party Center, as Kim Jong Il was called in that time, expanded to economic affairs: for decades, the official exchange rate of the U.S. dollar to the DPRK won was 2.16/1.
The unofficial celebration of Kim Jong Il’s birthdays began in the 1970s, and at the same time, his birth year was adjusted from 1941 to 1942 – to create a nice-looking 30-year gap between him and his father. Given how North Korea often falsifies history for aesthetic reasons, one should not really be too surprised.
But it was only in 1995, after Kim Il Sung had died, that Kim Jong Il’s birthday became another “great holiday of the nation” (despite the preparations for it beginning in 1992) and only after his death the holiday was given a name: “the Day of the Shining Star.”
Unofficial celebration of Kim Jong Il’s birthdays began in the 1970s
KIM JONG UN’S BIRTHDAY
One of the things which is so puzzling about the day of Kim Jong Un’s birth is that his official year of birth has not been announced.
Even the harshest and most secretive communist regimes – like that of Enver Hoxha in Albania – would not have thought of it, and one could hardly point at any other dictatorship which has kept its leader’s birthday a secret.
His aunt has stated that he was born (quite fittingly) in 1984, while there were rumors in Pyongyang that he was born in 1983. This is likely another great North Korean mystery.
The secrecy surrounding the year is not the only strange thing here. One can only guess why this day is still not a national holiday – despite being unofficially celebrated.
Here one can make a hypothesis, which may appear to a joke, but for lack of a better explanation, may seem to be valid.
In the Korean language, a holiday celebrated on January 8 would be the “holiday of 1.8” (1.8절). The numbers 1 and 8 spelled together could be read as“ship phal” (십팔) and are thus dangerously close to one of the most common swear words in Korean: ssibal (씨발, literally “bitch”).
Thus, in order to avoid unpleasantries Kim has not yet declared his birthday an official holiday – and unfortunately for him, this date is now too well known to change it to something else.
Today North Korea celebrates Kim Jong Il’s birthday: known as the "Day of the Shining Star." In this article, I will try to briefly outline the history of these holidays as its leaders have changed, and the birthday of the man whose ideas served as a prototype for North Korea: Joseph Stalin.Stalin’s actual birthday was December 18 (or December 6 in the official Julian calendar of the
Fyodor Tertitskiy is an expert in North Korean politics and the military and a contributor to NK News and NK Pro. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from Seoul National University, and is author of "North Korea before Kim Il Sung," which you buy here. | <urn:uuid:8a6b4318-6ffd-4d03-be32-3ca53145c684> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nknews.org/2018/02/day-of-the-shining-star-and-the-politics-of-the-n-korean-leaders-birthday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00439.warc.gz | en | 0.980042 | 1,508 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.558384299278259... | 2 | Today North Korea celebrates Kim Jong Il’s birthday: known as the “Day of the Shining Star.” In this article, I will try to briefly outline the history of these holidays as its leaders have changed, and the birthday of the man whose ideas served as a prototype for North Korea: Joseph Stalin.
Stalin’s actual birthday was December 18 (or December 6 in the official Julian calendar of the Russian Empire) although he later changed it to December 21: the anniversary of a 1905 uprising in Moscow. This was the day which was celebrated in the USSR.
It is well known that Stalin “did not allow even a shadow of arrogance, conceit, narcissism,” to quote a passage he personally added to his own official biography.
Thus, he had the modesty to limit major celebrations to his jubilees and the ordinary birthday of the “corypheus of all academia” was not celebrated nationwide. Only his 50th, 60th and 70th anniversaries – in 1929, 1939 and 1949 – were.
The 1949 celebration took place in the entire recently expanded socialist bloc, including in North Korea. In Pyongyang, poems were composed and meetings were held – all to commemorate the jubilee of the “dearest friend of Korean people.”
KIM IL SUNG’S BIRTHDAY
Naturally, Kim Il Sung learned from his Great Teacher in many ways – including making his birthday a holiday.
Officially, his birthday is on April 15 – though one Russian publication casts a shadow of doubt on this date. A book “Korea in the Sea of Fire” (Корея в огне войны) written by a group of authors with access to various Russian archives, directly states that his birthday is, in fact, April 12.
Unfortunately, the authors did not include any links to the document to substantiate these claims. However, this may actually mean that they saw a reference to a then-classified document which they could not have mentioned.
Kim Il Sung learned from his Great Teacher in many ways
In any case, the official birthday of the Great Leader was and is April 15. It seems the first celebration of it took place in 1950, with a visit to Kim Il Sung’s official birthplace in Mangyongdae.
A celebration of Kim’s first jubilee in charge of the country was quite massive. His heavily edited biography was published in state press on April 10, 1952, followed by a book about “Commander Kim Il Sung” being released on April 15.
For the rest of the 1950s, celebrations were sporadic: some years, the newspaper would cover visits to Mangyongdae, other years they did not.
In 1962, the next “proper” celebrations of Kim’s jubilee took place. For one day, the country experienced an echo of what was to come: a massive celebration approaching the level of the everyday personality cult which would emerge after 1967.
In Spring of that year, the Monolithic ideological system was established, and the celebrations continued every year – until in 1994, when Kim Il Sung died.
For decades, the official exchange rate of the U.S. dollar to the DPRK won was 2.16/1
ENTER KIM JONG IL
Kim Jong Il’s birthday – February 16 – was first mentioned in the Rodong Sinmun in 1972, but in a rather cryptic form. On December 14, the newspaper announced the results of elections to the Supreme People’s Assembly (100.0% participated, 100.0% endorsed the candidates), with Kim Il Sung running in the district 216.
In later years, “216” became the key number for Kim Jong Il’s birthday (2nd month, 16th day). Apart from rather innocent things, like 216 becoming the official designation of the KPA Navy, the cult surrounding the birthday of the Party Center, as Kim Jong Il was called in that time, expanded to economic affairs: for decades, the official exchange rate of the U.S. dollar to the DPRK won was 2.16/1.
The unofficial celebration of Kim Jong Il’s birthdays began in the 1970s, and at the same time, his birth year was adjusted from 1941 to 1942 – to create a nice-looking 30-year gap between him and his father. Given how North Korea often falsifies history for aesthetic reasons, one should not really be too surprised.
But it was only in 1995, after Kim Il Sung had died, that Kim Jong Il’s birthday became another “great holiday of the nation” (despite the preparations for it beginning in 1992) and only after his death the holiday was given a name: “the Day of the Shining Star.”
Unofficial celebration of Kim Jong Il’s birthdays began in the 1970s
KIM JONG UN’S BIRTHDAY
One of the things which is so puzzling about the day of Kim Jong Un’s birth is that his official year of birth has not been announced.
Even the harshest and most secretive communist regimes – like that of Enver Hoxha in Albania – would not have thought of it, and one could hardly point at any other dictatorship which has kept its leader’s birthday a secret.
His aunt has stated that he was born (quite fittingly) in 1984, while there were rumors in Pyongyang that he was born in 1983. This is likely another great North Korean mystery.
The secrecy surrounding the year is not the only strange thing here. One can only guess why this day is still not a national holiday – despite being unofficially celebrated.
Here one can make a hypothesis, which may appear to a joke, but for lack of a better explanation, may seem to be valid.
In the Korean language, a holiday celebrated on January 8 would be the “holiday of 1.8” (1.8절). The numbers 1 and 8 spelled together could be read as“ship phal” (십팔) and are thus dangerously close to one of the most common swear words in Korean: ssibal (씨발, literally “bitch”).
Thus, in order to avoid unpleasantries Kim has not yet declared his birthday an official holiday – and unfortunately for him, this date is now too well known to change it to something else.
Today North Korea celebrates Kim Jong Il’s birthday: known as the "Day of the Shining Star." In this article, I will try to briefly outline the history of these holidays as its leaders have changed, and the birthday of the man whose ideas served as a prototype for North Korea: Joseph Stalin.Stalin’s actual birthday was December 18 (or December 6 in the official Julian calendar of the
Fyodor Tertitskiy is an expert in North Korean politics and the military and a contributor to NK News and NK Pro. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from Seoul National University, and is author of "North Korea before Kim Il Sung," which you buy here. | 1,528 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rumi Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi was born in 1207. He was mononymously known as Rumi. In the 13th century, he was one of the greatest spiritual and poetic intellects especially among those familiar with Persian. He came up with his poems mainly through every day spiritual circumstances. His family members were erudite theologians which resulted to Rumi creatively describing the word in a spiritual view. His poems are most popular in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, who are mainly Persian speakers.
Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi was born on September 30th, 1207 in Afghanistan, formerly known as Balk. His father was Bahaduddin Walad a theologian and his mother, Mumina Khatun. Both parents were local Persian-speaking and lived in a village located along River Vakhsh. Rumi along with his family and a group of disciples had to leave Balk when Mongols invaded central Asia between 1215 and 1220. They settled in Konya, presently located in western Turkey. This was after trying a series of Muslim populated lands.
Through the practice of Sufism and proper guidance from Sayyed Termazi, Rumi gained much knowledge on spiritual matters. He was also among the disciples of Sayyed Burhan taught by his father. He later took over the role of his father when he passed on and became one of the famous religious teachers. Rumi rose to become a great preacher, and by the age of 24, he was no doubt a spiritual legend.
On 5th November 1244, Rumi's transformation to poetic journey began. This was upon his meeting with Shams-e Tabrizi, a wanderer where a great friendship developed among them. Shams-e Tabrizi was later allegedly murdered by Rumi’s students. This was as a result of jealousy of the strong friendship the two had developed. It was then that Rumi expressed his loss and the love he had for his friend through poems, dance, and songs.
Ten years later Rumi kept writing poems describing different situations in a spiritual set up. Among his famous work were Diwan-e-Kabir or Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi and Mathnawi. Rumi then spent most of his later years in Anatolia.
Not much is known about Rumi’s own life. He is believed to have had a son Sultan Walad. Upon his passing, His son along with his followers founded Mevlevi Order or Order of Whirling Dervishes.
Rumi took his last breath on 17th December 1273, in Konya and was buried next to his father. Being a great poet, a Tomb was built in his honor and named Mevlana mausoleum. The tomb consisted of a dance hall, mosque and lavish living quarters. People and admirers of his work come from all parts of the world visit the tomb. It acted as a pilgrimage.
Federico Garcia Lorca
John Greenleaf Whittier | <urn:uuid:6ca1aaf0-05b1-4fcf-9fc7-a7e02f388fe0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/rumi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.992889 | 647 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.6008654832839... | 1 | Rumi Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi was born in 1207. He was mononymously known as Rumi. In the 13th century, he was one of the greatest spiritual and poetic intellects especially among those familiar with Persian. He came up with his poems mainly through every day spiritual circumstances. His family members were erudite theologians which resulted to Rumi creatively describing the word in a spiritual view. His poems are most popular in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, who are mainly Persian speakers.
Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi was born on September 30th, 1207 in Afghanistan, formerly known as Balk. His father was Bahaduddin Walad a theologian and his mother, Mumina Khatun. Both parents were local Persian-speaking and lived in a village located along River Vakhsh. Rumi along with his family and a group of disciples had to leave Balk when Mongols invaded central Asia between 1215 and 1220. They settled in Konya, presently located in western Turkey. This was after trying a series of Muslim populated lands.
Through the practice of Sufism and proper guidance from Sayyed Termazi, Rumi gained much knowledge on spiritual matters. He was also among the disciples of Sayyed Burhan taught by his father. He later took over the role of his father when he passed on and became one of the famous religious teachers. Rumi rose to become a great preacher, and by the age of 24, he was no doubt a spiritual legend.
On 5th November 1244, Rumi's transformation to poetic journey began. This was upon his meeting with Shams-e Tabrizi, a wanderer where a great friendship developed among them. Shams-e Tabrizi was later allegedly murdered by Rumi’s students. This was as a result of jealousy of the strong friendship the two had developed. It was then that Rumi expressed his loss and the love he had for his friend through poems, dance, and songs.
Ten years later Rumi kept writing poems describing different situations in a spiritual set up. Among his famous work were Diwan-e-Kabir or Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi and Mathnawi. Rumi then spent most of his later years in Anatolia.
Not much is known about Rumi’s own life. He is believed to have had a son Sultan Walad. Upon his passing, His son along with his followers founded Mevlevi Order or Order of Whirling Dervishes.
Rumi took his last breath on 17th December 1273, in Konya and was buried next to his father. Being a great poet, a Tomb was built in his honor and named Mevlana mausoleum. The tomb consisted of a dance hall, mosque and lavish living quarters. People and admirers of his work come from all parts of the world visit the tomb. It acted as a pilgrimage.
Federico Garcia Lorca
John Greenleaf Whittier | 655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (509 words)
The theme of identity had served as a very important device throughout the story of The Odyssey. Basically, The Odyssey narrated the journey of Odysseus, known as one of the greatest mortal who played a very significant part in the Greek Mythology. His story started since the Trojan War period. But his golden period really began after the fall of Troy.
One of the key scenes which affect the journey of Odysseus towards his home was when he successfully played a trick on Polyphemus, son of the sea-god Poseidon.
He attacked the creature. When Polyphemus asked to reveal his name, Odysseus said that his name was “Nobody.” Thus, in the midst of their fight, the creature had only shouted that he was being assaulted by Nobody. The Cyclopes then thought that nobody was attacking him hence they just ignored Polyphemus. He blinded the creature and declared that, “No one could beat him not even the son of the god.” Poseidon became so angry on Odysseus and swore that he would make it hard for Odysseus to go back home.
The second important part of the revelation of Odysseus’ identity was when “… he revealed himself to the Phaeacians after he was mesmerized by Demodocus’ narration of two poems which involved his own experiences during and after the Trojan War.” This was important to Odysseus because upon his revelation that he was the Great Odysseus, the Phaeacians promised to help him on his way home.
The third key scene was when Odysseus finally met with his son Telemachus. “Telemachus was with Eumaeus but Odysseus rather kept his true identity to the latter and only disclosed it with Telemachus” thinking that if others would learn about his return, he would have to spend more time planning on how he would be able to return to his home. Thus he decided that his secret should only be between him and his son. After that meeting, the father and son made plans on how to eliminate the abusive suitors of Penelope, Odysseus wife. This plan worked effectively enabling the two to kill all Penelope’s suitors. Thus, Odysseus had finally returned to his family and to his home.
Though Odysseus was regarded as one of the greatest heroes in the Greek Mythology, the themes of identity and the key scenes reported earlier seemed conflicting with how a hero was perceived during the ancient times. He became some kind of boastful and in a way conceited when he declared that he was so great that not even the son of a god could trample him. Another was when he became so emotional and was carried away by the poems of Demodocus. A hero was said to have a heart that was not easily bent. And the last one was when he planned to kill all his wife’s suitors secretly. This seemed to be a traitor’s workings for he did not declare any war against them but instead assassinating them clandestinely.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Faqles. Penguin Classics, 2006.
Cite this page
The Odyssey Theme. (2017, Mar 29). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-odyssey-theme-essay | <urn:uuid:7742f929-2872-4a6e-b881-fab7f20debc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/the-odyssey-theme-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.990425 | 718 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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The theme of identity had served as a very important device throughout the story of The Odyssey. Basically, The Odyssey narrated the journey of Odysseus, known as one of the greatest mortal who played a very significant part in the Greek Mythology. His story started since the Trojan War period. But his golden period really began after the fall of Troy.
One of the key scenes which affect the journey of Odysseus towards his home was when he successfully played a trick on Polyphemus, son of the sea-god Poseidon.
He attacked the creature. When Polyphemus asked to reveal his name, Odysseus said that his name was “Nobody.” Thus, in the midst of their fight, the creature had only shouted that he was being assaulted by Nobody. The Cyclopes then thought that nobody was attacking him hence they just ignored Polyphemus. He blinded the creature and declared that, “No one could beat him not even the son of the god.” Poseidon became so angry on Odysseus and swore that he would make it hard for Odysseus to go back home.
The second important part of the revelation of Odysseus’ identity was when “… he revealed himself to the Phaeacians after he was mesmerized by Demodocus’ narration of two poems which involved his own experiences during and after the Trojan War.” This was important to Odysseus because upon his revelation that he was the Great Odysseus, the Phaeacians promised to help him on his way home.
The third key scene was when Odysseus finally met with his son Telemachus. “Telemachus was with Eumaeus but Odysseus rather kept his true identity to the latter and only disclosed it with Telemachus” thinking that if others would learn about his return, he would have to spend more time planning on how he would be able to return to his home. Thus he decided that his secret should only be between him and his son. After that meeting, the father and son made plans on how to eliminate the abusive suitors of Penelope, Odysseus wife. This plan worked effectively enabling the two to kill all Penelope’s suitors. Thus, Odysseus had finally returned to his family and to his home.
Though Odysseus was regarded as one of the greatest heroes in the Greek Mythology, the themes of identity and the key scenes reported earlier seemed conflicting with how a hero was perceived during the ancient times. He became some kind of boastful and in a way conceited when he declared that he was so great that not even the son of a god could trample him. Another was when he became so emotional and was carried away by the poems of Demodocus. A hero was said to have a heart that was not easily bent. And the last one was when he planned to kill all his wife’s suitors secretly. This seemed to be a traitor’s workings for he did not declare any war against them but instead assassinating them clandestinely.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Faqles. Penguin Classics, 2006.
Cite this page
The Odyssey Theme. (2017, Mar 29). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-odyssey-theme-essay | 700 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Luke’s gospel emphasizes God's love for the poor, the disadvantaged, minorities, outcasts, sinners and lepers. Women play a more prominent part than in the other gospels.
All of Luke 15 concerns finding lost things. Lost sheep, lost coins, and celebration over one sinner who repents — Jesus' stories are in response to criticism that he receives that "sinners" and shares meals with them. The tax collectors and sinners were detested by respectable people with good reason. The Roman authorities contracted out collection of taxes; how a tax collector got the money was up to him. Usury, fraud and excessive profits were common. Tax collectors worked for tax farmers, who were usually foreigners. As such, they were ritually unclean. Nevertheless, Jesus attracts them. Jesus did not spend his time with the respectable religious people, he spent his time with ordinary people, people who did not go to the synagogue on a Sabbath or church on a Sunday and he ate with them. Jesus' contemporaries were staggered by the fact that he shared food with sinners. What would be the equivalent today? Pharisees of course were forbidden to eat with sinners and shepherds were such people. So he tells the story of the lost sheep.
100 sheep was the nomal size for a flock. The shepherd in the story
leaves 99 well behaved docile sheep to follow the naughty one who has wandered off. What kind of a shepherd do we have here? We would sack him! He continues the search until he finds the lost sheep. Once finding her he lays the sheep on his shoulders and plans a party with his friends. The story tells us that the God rejoices over the lost being found.
We move on to the next story keeping in our minds the word "lost".The lost coin in the story is equivalent to the cost of a sheep- it is the woman's life savings. It was a coin that women saved to put on some sort of headband during their marriage ceremony. Once they collected 10, they could be married "properly." So they saved and collected these coins because their identity in first century Palestinian society was entwined with married status. This woman lives in a poor house with a low door and no windows. She has to light a lamp to see to sweep. She searches carefully until she finds it. And on finding it, she plans a party to celebrate with her neighbours. God rejoices at the lost being found. The coin could also represent a day’s wage.
We find the word repentence only on Jesus's lips in Luke 15v7. In Aramaic it means returned to a rational state of mind. Luke’s stories of Jesus find us returning again and again to those who have a change of heart; the tax collector who stops cheating, the rich man who stops coveting, the conceited man who becomes humble. Repentance is something done wholeheartedly, it is a permanent change. Repentance is God driven, overwhelming.
So Jesus defends associating with these people, using parables. Jesus asks if you had many and lost one, wouldn’t you search until you found it? God is the shepherd/housewife; the lost sheep or coin is symbolic of people who repent, who turn back to God. Neither the sheep nor the coin can find their owner. Nothing is more frustrating than losing something from right under your nose like misplaced keys. But, as so often in the parables, there are twists which helps people remember them: what shepherd would leave his flock in the wilderness? The Pharisees would find God symbolized by a woman as outrageous (women clergy/bishops), and first-century shepherds were considered lawless and dishonest. Would a shepherd really care about one sheep out of 100? But God is like that?
These are small stories with large points. These are parables not so much telling us what to do as describing the nature of God. Jesus has chosen two examples of people who were outcasts, shepherds and women. And it is one thing to lose someone or something. It is quite another thing to know yourself as lost and needing to be found. Can you remember feeling lost? I can.
The searching was to restore the fold to 100, the coins to 10, and make a whole again. The reasons we need to search for the 'lost' is because we are incomplete without them ... the searching is so that we, too, can be whole. Carl Jung called his patients "lost sheep" and the English word “pastor” is taken from the Latin word for shepherd. There is no blame directed toward the straying sheep. Jesus in this parable is seeking out something which is lost, finding it, and celebrating the discovery. Israel is not the lost sheep here, but the tax collectors and sinners -- they are the lost sheep of the house of Israel that Jesus is sent to. Jesus is the good shepherd.
Is the church full of lost sheep and lost coins? The church should be a great lost and found department. Jesus is on a search-and-rescue mission. The main requirement for being found by Jesus is to be lost. Who are the lost in our society? The homeless, asylum seekers, people sick with worry over money, people with stigmas. Simply someone you meet? You know them. They live in our communities. Being lost makes us vulnerable and its good to come home, very good.
We are to do what Jesus did, to help those who are lost and want to come home. In recognizing our lostness, there is a coming home, a celebration, rebirth, reconciliation and beyond death, resurrection. | <urn:uuid:41b566d0-a72b-4e99-8708-49b96f9db13a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.greeneaster.org/2020/01/pentecost-14-luke-15v1-32-lost-and-found.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.98003 | 1,170 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.03462969511747... | 9 | Luke’s gospel emphasizes God's love for the poor, the disadvantaged, minorities, outcasts, sinners and lepers. Women play a more prominent part than in the other gospels.
All of Luke 15 concerns finding lost things. Lost sheep, lost coins, and celebration over one sinner who repents — Jesus' stories are in response to criticism that he receives that "sinners" and shares meals with them. The tax collectors and sinners were detested by respectable people with good reason. The Roman authorities contracted out collection of taxes; how a tax collector got the money was up to him. Usury, fraud and excessive profits were common. Tax collectors worked for tax farmers, who were usually foreigners. As such, they were ritually unclean. Nevertheless, Jesus attracts them. Jesus did not spend his time with the respectable religious people, he spent his time with ordinary people, people who did not go to the synagogue on a Sabbath or church on a Sunday and he ate with them. Jesus' contemporaries were staggered by the fact that he shared food with sinners. What would be the equivalent today? Pharisees of course were forbidden to eat with sinners and shepherds were such people. So he tells the story of the lost sheep.
100 sheep was the nomal size for a flock. The shepherd in the story
leaves 99 well behaved docile sheep to follow the naughty one who has wandered off. What kind of a shepherd do we have here? We would sack him! He continues the search until he finds the lost sheep. Once finding her he lays the sheep on his shoulders and plans a party with his friends. The story tells us that the God rejoices over the lost being found.
We move on to the next story keeping in our minds the word "lost".The lost coin in the story is equivalent to the cost of a sheep- it is the woman's life savings. It was a coin that women saved to put on some sort of headband during their marriage ceremony. Once they collected 10, they could be married "properly." So they saved and collected these coins because their identity in first century Palestinian society was entwined with married status. This woman lives in a poor house with a low door and no windows. She has to light a lamp to see to sweep. She searches carefully until she finds it. And on finding it, she plans a party to celebrate with her neighbours. God rejoices at the lost being found. The coin could also represent a day’s wage.
We find the word repentence only on Jesus's lips in Luke 15v7. In Aramaic it means returned to a rational state of mind. Luke’s stories of Jesus find us returning again and again to those who have a change of heart; the tax collector who stops cheating, the rich man who stops coveting, the conceited man who becomes humble. Repentance is something done wholeheartedly, it is a permanent change. Repentance is God driven, overwhelming.
So Jesus defends associating with these people, using parables. Jesus asks if you had many and lost one, wouldn’t you search until you found it? God is the shepherd/housewife; the lost sheep or coin is symbolic of people who repent, who turn back to God. Neither the sheep nor the coin can find their owner. Nothing is more frustrating than losing something from right under your nose like misplaced keys. But, as so often in the parables, there are twists which helps people remember them: what shepherd would leave his flock in the wilderness? The Pharisees would find God symbolized by a woman as outrageous (women clergy/bishops), and first-century shepherds were considered lawless and dishonest. Would a shepherd really care about one sheep out of 100? But God is like that?
These are small stories with large points. These are parables not so much telling us what to do as describing the nature of God. Jesus has chosen two examples of people who were outcasts, shepherds and women. And it is one thing to lose someone or something. It is quite another thing to know yourself as lost and needing to be found. Can you remember feeling lost? I can.
The searching was to restore the fold to 100, the coins to 10, and make a whole again. The reasons we need to search for the 'lost' is because we are incomplete without them ... the searching is so that we, too, can be whole. Carl Jung called his patients "lost sheep" and the English word “pastor” is taken from the Latin word for shepherd. There is no blame directed toward the straying sheep. Jesus in this parable is seeking out something which is lost, finding it, and celebrating the discovery. Israel is not the lost sheep here, but the tax collectors and sinners -- they are the lost sheep of the house of Israel that Jesus is sent to. Jesus is the good shepherd.
Is the church full of lost sheep and lost coins? The church should be a great lost and found department. Jesus is on a search-and-rescue mission. The main requirement for being found by Jesus is to be lost. Who are the lost in our society? The homeless, asylum seekers, people sick with worry over money, people with stigmas. Simply someone you meet? You know them. They live in our communities. Being lost makes us vulnerable and its good to come home, very good.
We are to do what Jesus did, to help those who are lost and want to come home. In recognizing our lostness, there is a coming home, a celebration, rebirth, reconciliation and beyond death, resurrection. | 1,173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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If you didn’t know, March is Women’s History Month. There is no better way to empower your child than to give them examples of others that have made great contributions to our modern society. Capture the powerful spirit of Women’s History Month with these 6 women that changed history.
You cannot discuss female icons without mentioning Amelia Earhart. It takes courage, determination, and talent to take a machine into the sky. Amelia Earhart possessed those traits and more. She was the 16th woman to be issued an aviator’s license and is best known for being the first female aviator to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean, a 15-hour flight. Earhart wrote a book about her transatlantic experience. She also became the first aviator to fly solo from Honolulu, Hawaii to Oakland, California. She became famous in her lifetime. Her life came to a tragic end when she mysteriously disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean while trying to fly around the world from the equator. Her body was never found and was legally declared dead two years later. To this day, the mystery remains unsolved – although there are several theories speculating on her mysterious disappearance.
Susan B. Anthony
Susan B. Anthony helped lead the women’s suffrage movement. In 1869, Anthony, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, established the National Woman Suffrage Association aimed at persuading others to support the woman’s right to vote. In 1872, Anthony illegally voted in the presidential election. As a result, she was arrested and fined, but she never paid the fine. She became famous for founding the Suffrage movement. Anthony also was involved in the abolitionist movement and fought to end slavery. Anthony never saw her goal realized as women did not have the right to vote until 14 years after her death in 1922.
A civil rights activist best known for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger inn 1955. The police arrested Parks at the scene. After her trial, the Montgomery Bus Boycott ensued which lasted for 381 days. In her autobiography she explained what her refusal meant, “[p]eople always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.” Her refusal and subsequent Montgomery Bus Boycott became important symbols in the Civil Rights Movement in the fight against racial segregation.
“A bird doesn’t sing because it has an answer, it sings because it has a song.”
Best known for her poetry and memoirs, Angelou used her voice to advocate for civil rights. Angelou’s best known work, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, was the first non-fiction best-seller by an African American woman. The memoir chronicled her early life and adulthood. Angelou also broke grounds in Hollywood as she became the first African-American woman to have her screenplay Georgia, Georgia produced. She also published several collections of poetry. Fun fact? In her early adulthood, she became the first female cable car conductor – albeit she held the job briefly. She recently died in May, 2014. President Barack Obama paid tribute to her with a statement “[Angelou] had the ability to remind us that we are all God’s children; that we all have something to offer.”
Annie Oakley was an American sharpshooter in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. She began shooting as a teenager and earned enough money to pay off her mother’s mortgage. She married Frank Butler, another sharpshooter. Together they joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. They delighted audiences with their shooting tricks. Oakley shot from long distances and even shot distant targets while looking into a mirror. In one of her tricks she shot off the end of a cigarette held in her husband’s lips. In another, she shot holes through cards thrown in the air before they landed.
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Ruth Bader Ginsburg, affectionately known in popular culture as the Notorious R.B.G., is a supreme court justice appointed by President Clinton in 1993. She is the second female justice to be confirmed to the United States Supreme Court. On the Supreme Court, she is known for her caution, moderation, and restraint. However, she is equally known for her stinging and forceful dissents, such as in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. In Ledbetter, where the Supreme Court held that workers cannot sue their employers over unequal pay caused by discrimination that occurred years earlier. RBG read her dissent from the bench, an unusual and rare practice. She said. “[i]n our view, the court does not comprehend, or is indifferent to, the insidious way women can be victims of pay discrimination.” She is a strong advocate of gender equality, workers’ rights, and the separation of church and state. She discusses her views outside the courtroom as well. She famously discussed her abortion views in a 2009 New York Times interview saying that “[t]he basic thing is that the government has no business making that choice for a woman.”
Studying history – with all of its captivating stories, morals, and powerful women – will inspire both you and your child as you both embrace the spirit of women’s history month. Enjoy celebrating women’s history month with your child!
Want more inspiration? Check out Women’s Suffrage 101. | <urn:uuid:529a80af-b2fa-4c01-a9f3-0cfa6184084f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dailymom.com/nurture/6-women-to-celebrate-with-your-children-for-womens-history-month/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.98047 | 1,216 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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If you didn’t know, March is Women’s History Month. There is no better way to empower your child than to give them examples of others that have made great contributions to our modern society. Capture the powerful spirit of Women’s History Month with these 6 women that changed history.
You cannot discuss female icons without mentioning Amelia Earhart. It takes courage, determination, and talent to take a machine into the sky. Amelia Earhart possessed those traits and more. She was the 16th woman to be issued an aviator’s license and is best known for being the first female aviator to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean, a 15-hour flight. Earhart wrote a book about her transatlantic experience. She also became the first aviator to fly solo from Honolulu, Hawaii to Oakland, California. She became famous in her lifetime. Her life came to a tragic end when she mysteriously disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean while trying to fly around the world from the equator. Her body was never found and was legally declared dead two years later. To this day, the mystery remains unsolved – although there are several theories speculating on her mysterious disappearance.
Susan B. Anthony
Susan B. Anthony helped lead the women’s suffrage movement. In 1869, Anthony, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, established the National Woman Suffrage Association aimed at persuading others to support the woman’s right to vote. In 1872, Anthony illegally voted in the presidential election. As a result, she was arrested and fined, but she never paid the fine. She became famous for founding the Suffrage movement. Anthony also was involved in the abolitionist movement and fought to end slavery. Anthony never saw her goal realized as women did not have the right to vote until 14 years after her death in 1922.
A civil rights activist best known for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger inn 1955. The police arrested Parks at the scene. After her trial, the Montgomery Bus Boycott ensued which lasted for 381 days. In her autobiography she explained what her refusal meant, “[p]eople always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.” Her refusal and subsequent Montgomery Bus Boycott became important symbols in the Civil Rights Movement in the fight against racial segregation.
“A bird doesn’t sing because it has an answer, it sings because it has a song.”
Best known for her poetry and memoirs, Angelou used her voice to advocate for civil rights. Angelou’s best known work, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, was the first non-fiction best-seller by an African American woman. The memoir chronicled her early life and adulthood. Angelou also broke grounds in Hollywood as she became the first African-American woman to have her screenplay Georgia, Georgia produced. She also published several collections of poetry. Fun fact? In her early adulthood, she became the first female cable car conductor – albeit she held the job briefly. She recently died in May, 2014. President Barack Obama paid tribute to her with a statement “[Angelou] had the ability to remind us that we are all God’s children; that we all have something to offer.”
Annie Oakley was an American sharpshooter in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. She began shooting as a teenager and earned enough money to pay off her mother’s mortgage. She married Frank Butler, another sharpshooter. Together they joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. They delighted audiences with their shooting tricks. Oakley shot from long distances and even shot distant targets while looking into a mirror. In one of her tricks she shot off the end of a cigarette held in her husband’s lips. In another, she shot holes through cards thrown in the air before they landed.
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Ruth Bader Ginsburg, affectionately known in popular culture as the Notorious R.B.G., is a supreme court justice appointed by President Clinton in 1993. She is the second female justice to be confirmed to the United States Supreme Court. On the Supreme Court, she is known for her caution, moderation, and restraint. However, she is equally known for her stinging and forceful dissents, such as in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. In Ledbetter, where the Supreme Court held that workers cannot sue their employers over unequal pay caused by discrimination that occurred years earlier. RBG read her dissent from the bench, an unusual and rare practice. She said. “[i]n our view, the court does not comprehend, or is indifferent to, the insidious way women can be victims of pay discrimination.” She is a strong advocate of gender equality, workers’ rights, and the separation of church and state. She discusses her views outside the courtroom as well. She famously discussed her abortion views in a 2009 New York Times interview saying that “[t]he basic thing is that the government has no business making that choice for a woman.”
Studying history – with all of its captivating stories, morals, and powerful women – will inspire both you and your child as you both embrace the spirit of women’s history month. Enjoy celebrating women’s history month with your child!
Want more inspiration? Check out Women’s Suffrage 101. | 1,185 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the AD 500s, an Italian named Benedict of Nursia drew up a set of rules for monks (or people in monasteries). All monks must be poor, unmarried and obedient. Monks wore simple robes, shaved their heads, and shard all their daily tasks.
Monasteries were for men only. Religious women joined orders of their own and became nuns. Each monastery was led by an abbot, some of whom had as much power asy nobleman, controlling farms, trades and even private armies.
Monks grew their own food, reared farm animals, baked bread and brews beer. They made their own clothes and furniture, and built their own churches. They also looked after the sick. Part of their time was spent teaching young boys, who would in time become monks themselves. | <urn:uuid:45a204bf-92bc-4ea1-8612-e98d96f34d24> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://giftedminds.com.ng/blog/what-was-early-monastic-life-like/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.994754 | 166 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2427254468202... | 3 | In the AD 500s, an Italian named Benedict of Nursia drew up a set of rules for monks (or people in monasteries). All monks must be poor, unmarried and obedient. Monks wore simple robes, shaved their heads, and shard all their daily tasks.
Monasteries were for men only. Religious women joined orders of their own and became nuns. Each monastery was led by an abbot, some of whom had as much power asy nobleman, controlling farms, trades and even private armies.
Monks grew their own food, reared farm animals, baked bread and brews beer. They made their own clothes and furniture, and built their own churches. They also looked after the sick. Part of their time was spent teaching young boys, who would in time become monks themselves. | 167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
mythology and peace in 3 stories
Mythology and peace in 3 stories
Horse The Greek army had been in enmity with the kingdom of Troy for 10 years. They wanted to put an end to the war. The idea of invading the Troy territory came to their mind. Led by the crafty Odysseus, the Greek army erected the Trojan Horse, which was a huge wooden horse to hide powerful warriors led by Odysseus to enter the city of Troy.
They managed to trick the Trojans saying that it was a gift from Athena, the goddess of civilization. Three days later, the Greek army conquered the city of Troy, burned tents, won the war against the Trojans, and then sailed back to their homeland.
2- Theseus and the Labyrinth
Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, was the first legendary ruler of Crete. He was married to Pasiphae, the daughter of the sun-god Helios, a skillful witchcraft practitioner.
- One day, the god Poseidon sent a snow-white bull to Minos for sacrifice.
- Instead of accepting Poseidon's instruction, Minos did not sacrifice it.
- Angered, Poseidon cast a spell on his wife, Pasiphae, who instantly fell madly in love with the bull.
- Skillful witches, however, were not able to prevent her from lusting after the bull.
- As a result, she bore a son from the bull, whose name was Minotaur.
Minotaur, the son of Pasiphae from the bull, was a monster, half bull, half woman, and was confined to a labyrinth. Its head was a bull's head and it had a human body. There, it would devour the enemies of the King Minos.
The Athenians were compelled to sacrifice 7 men yearly for the beast. Saddened by the reality, Theseus, the son of Aegeus, king of Athens,was sent to slay it and bring peace back by ending such violence. With the help of Ariadne, Minos's daughter who fell in love with him, Theseus managed to kill Minotaur and find his way back from the labyrinth.
Ajamila was a young Brahmin boy, who was honest, righteous and truthful. He had a good knowledge of the four Vedas, which are the holy Indian scriptures. He got married to a Brahmin girl when he was of age. They had a happy married life.
However, one day, when he went to the forest to collect flowers and kusa grass for his adoration, he met an unclean woman and lusted after her. He soon forgot his wife and his religion. Soon after, he degenerated spiritually and materially when he married her. Not only did he lose his relationship to God, but he also spent all his fortunes to her that he had to steal and deceive people to survive.
One day, he was terminally ill. He saw the angels of death, the messengers or Yama, coming. Feeling scared, he called the name of Narayana, his favorite son, who was named after the Indian god Narayana. Then, the Indian god appeared, preventing the death messengers from taking his life away. Slowly, Ajamila recovered from his illness and then, left his family to meditate and sing to his god every day and find the inner peace that Prem Rawat, the ambassador of peace is talking about.
In fact, Prem Rawat's message about inner peace is: "Wherever you go, peace goes with you..." | <urn:uuid:d43320c6-0bd5-4144-becb-21a4e53769b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ivalerio.com/mythology-and-peace/mythology-and-peace-in-3-stories | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.984533 | 746 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Mythology and peace in 3 stories
Horse The Greek army had been in enmity with the kingdom of Troy for 10 years. They wanted to put an end to the war. The idea of invading the Troy territory came to their mind. Led by the crafty Odysseus, the Greek army erected the Trojan Horse, which was a huge wooden horse to hide powerful warriors led by Odysseus to enter the city of Troy.
They managed to trick the Trojans saying that it was a gift from Athena, the goddess of civilization. Three days later, the Greek army conquered the city of Troy, burned tents, won the war against the Trojans, and then sailed back to their homeland.
2- Theseus and the Labyrinth
Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, was the first legendary ruler of Crete. He was married to Pasiphae, the daughter of the sun-god Helios, a skillful witchcraft practitioner.
- One day, the god Poseidon sent a snow-white bull to Minos for sacrifice.
- Instead of accepting Poseidon's instruction, Minos did not sacrifice it.
- Angered, Poseidon cast a spell on his wife, Pasiphae, who instantly fell madly in love with the bull.
- Skillful witches, however, were not able to prevent her from lusting after the bull.
- As a result, she bore a son from the bull, whose name was Minotaur.
Minotaur, the son of Pasiphae from the bull, was a monster, half bull, half woman, and was confined to a labyrinth. Its head was a bull's head and it had a human body. There, it would devour the enemies of the King Minos.
The Athenians were compelled to sacrifice 7 men yearly for the beast. Saddened by the reality, Theseus, the son of Aegeus, king of Athens,was sent to slay it and bring peace back by ending such violence. With the help of Ariadne, Minos's daughter who fell in love with him, Theseus managed to kill Minotaur and find his way back from the labyrinth.
Ajamila was a young Brahmin boy, who was honest, righteous and truthful. He had a good knowledge of the four Vedas, which are the holy Indian scriptures. He got married to a Brahmin girl when he was of age. They had a happy married life.
However, one day, when he went to the forest to collect flowers and kusa grass for his adoration, he met an unclean woman and lusted after her. He soon forgot his wife and his religion. Soon after, he degenerated spiritually and materially when he married her. Not only did he lose his relationship to God, but he also spent all his fortunes to her that he had to steal and deceive people to survive.
One day, he was terminally ill. He saw the angels of death, the messengers or Yama, coming. Feeling scared, he called the name of Narayana, his favorite son, who was named after the Indian god Narayana. Then, the Indian god appeared, preventing the death messengers from taking his life away. Slowly, Ajamila recovered from his illness and then, left his family to meditate and sing to his god every day and find the inner peace that Prem Rawat, the ambassador of peace is talking about.
In fact, Prem Rawat's message about inner peace is: "Wherever you go, peace goes with you..." | 746 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Examples of Art Used To Change What People Think
When I went to the Holocaust Museum in DC, I was overwhelmed by the mire actual size of the posters. Nothing in DC compares to the posters of Nazi Germany. What I’m trying to say is that the posters were 2 to 3 x bigger than me. If these were the actual size in 1930’s Germany, the mire size alone served to indoctrinate.
Propaganda was once a more neutral term that simply meant to present information in a way that is persuasive and influential to an audience. Its negative connotations today are primarily due to its association with Nazism.
As part of Hitler’s program to reshape German minds, the children of the regime were indoctrinated from a very early age. They were taught to focus on external “enemies” like Jews and communists, to believe in the pseudoscience of eugenics, to live up to German physical ideals, and to take pride in the German race. Propaganda was also used to bolster the cult of personality surrounding Adolf Hitler himself. And this process of brainwashing was helped by influential organizations like the Hitler Youth.
Young, impressionable members of the Hitler Youth were brainwashed by Nazi ideology and were made to take part in strenuous physical activity. The idea was to create dedicated, unquestioning soldiers for Hitler and the Nazi regime. | <urn:uuid:8ba04ab5-226f-48a8-afb1-cb0feda9754f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jackie4morgan.com/2015/08/19/nazis-use-art-to-indoctrinate-adults-brainwashing-to-get-kids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.983733 | 283 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.24783024191856... | 9 | Examples of Art Used To Change What People Think
When I went to the Holocaust Museum in DC, I was overwhelmed by the mire actual size of the posters. Nothing in DC compares to the posters of Nazi Germany. What I’m trying to say is that the posters were 2 to 3 x bigger than me. If these were the actual size in 1930’s Germany, the mire size alone served to indoctrinate.
Propaganda was once a more neutral term that simply meant to present information in a way that is persuasive and influential to an audience. Its negative connotations today are primarily due to its association with Nazism.
As part of Hitler’s program to reshape German minds, the children of the regime were indoctrinated from a very early age. They were taught to focus on external “enemies” like Jews and communists, to believe in the pseudoscience of eugenics, to live up to German physical ideals, and to take pride in the German race. Propaganda was also used to bolster the cult of personality surrounding Adolf Hitler himself. And this process of brainwashing was helped by influential organizations like the Hitler Youth.
Young, impressionable members of the Hitler Youth were brainwashed by Nazi ideology and were made to take part in strenuous physical activity. The idea was to create dedicated, unquestioning soldiers for Hitler and the Nazi regime. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Ebola, in full Ebola virus disease, formerly called Ebola hemorrhagic fever, contagious disease caused by a virus of the family Filoviridae that is responsible for a severe and often fatal viral hemorrhagic fever. Outbreaks in primates—including gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans—and domestic pigs have been recorded. The disease is characterized by extreme fever, rash, and profuse hemorrhaging. In humans, ebolaviruses cause fatality in 25 to 90 percent of cases.
Species of ebolaviruses
Ebolaviruses take their name from the Ebola River in the northern Congo basin of central Africa, where they first emerged in 1976. Ebolaviruses are closely related to species in the genus Marburgvirus, which was discovered in 1967, and the two are the only members of the Filoviridae that cause epidemic human disease. Five species of ebolaviruses—known as Zaire ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Taï Forest ebolavirus, Reston ebolavirus, and Bundibugyo ebolavirus, named for their outbreak locations—have been described. The viruses are known commonly as Ebola virus (EBOV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV), Reston virus (RESTV), and Bundibugyo virus (BDBV).
EBOV causes death in 40 to 90 percent of cases, and SUDV causes death in 50 percent of cases. TAFV, found in dead chimpanzees in Taï National Park in southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, can infect humans, although only one human case has been documented, and the individual survived. RESTV, which was originally discovered in laboratory monkeys in Reston, Virginia, in 1989, was also detected in laboratory monkeys in other locations in the United States in 1990 and 1996, as well as in Siena, Italy, in 1992. All the monkeys infected with RESTV have been traced to one export facility located in the Philippines, although the origin of the strain has not been identified. Similar to TAFV, RESTV does not appear to cause death in humans. The fifth species, BDBV, was discovered in November 2007 in an outbreak in Bundibugyo district of Uganda, near the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo; it causes death in roughly 25 to 35 percent of cases.
The first outbreaks, in 1976 in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Sudan (including what is now South Sudan), resulted in more than 400 deaths. A subsequent outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 1995 prompted temporary quarantine of the Kikwit region, and more than 250 people died. Later outbreaks in Uganda in 2000 and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2002 also resulted in several hundred deaths. Other notable outbreaks include those in Yambio county (2004) of South Sudan and in the Bundibugyo (2007) and Kibale (2012) districts of Uganda.
In September 2007 an outbreak was confirmed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo—in Kasai-Occidental (West Kasai) province, located in the south-central region of the country. However, while Ebola was detected in blood samples from some people that fell ill, other people were found to be infected with Shigella, the bacterium that causes dysentery—a disease whose symptoms are similar to the early symptoms of Ebola. As a result, although several hundred people became ill and more than 160 people died during the Ebola outbreak, it was unclear how many of the deaths were actually caused by Ebola. Less than two years later, in December 2008, a second outbreak of the disease was confirmed in West Kasai. Ebola had been detected in just four people by early 2009. However, another 42 cases were suspected, and some 200 people were under close observation for infection. Although 13 deaths were reported in association with the outbreak, samples collected from the victims did not test positive for Ebola.
In 2008, tissue samples from pigs that died of unknown causes in the Philippines were analyzed and found to contain RESTV. This was the first time that the virus was found in a mammalian species other than primates. Infections in pigs were unexpected and raised concerns about transmission of the virus from pigs to humans. In January 2009, antibodies to RESTV were found in five Filipinos, four of whom worked on pig farms and one of whom worked in a slaughterhouse. All five individuals were believed to have been infected with the virus through direct contact with infected pigs. The infected people were healthy and did not show signs of infection at the time antibodies to the virus were detected. In order to stop the spread of RESTV among pigs, Philippines officials authorized the slaughter of thousands of potentially infected swine.
A large outbreak occurred in western Africa in 2014–16, affecting people primarily in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia (see Ebola outbreak of 2014–16). More than 28,600 cases and 11,300 deaths had been documented by January 2016. Death figures likely were underreported, however. Estimates of the case fatality rate for the outbreak ranged from about 50 to 70 percent. Though outbreaks were normally brought under control effectively through existing prevention and treatment strategies, the outbreak that was detected in 2014 was complicated by a limited health workforce and particularly by misperceptions of the disease among some people living in affected regions. As the outbreak progressed, the possibility for dissemination of Ebola to countries outside western Africa rose. On August 8, following a sudden increase in cases that severely compromised aid efforts, the director general of the World Health Organization, Margaret Chan, announced the decision to declare the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern. In September officials with the United Nations estimated that $1 billion was needed to bring the outbreak under control, prompting aid responses from countries such as China, Cuba, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Shortly thereafter Ebola emerged in the United States, in a man who had traveled by plane from Liberia to Dallas, Texas, where he subsequently developed symptoms of illness and died; it was the first case connected with the outbreak to be diagnosed outside of Africa. About the same time, Spanish health officials reported the transmission of Ebola within Spain’s borders—the first time that the disease was contracted beyond the outbreak zone in Africa.
Earlier in the outbreak a case had been confirmed in Senegal, and 20 cases were recorded in Nigeria. The rapid implementation of effective control measures, however, put an end to the outbreak in those countries. They were declared Ebola-free by WHO in October. A small number of cases were documented in Mali in October and November; two of them had originated in Guinea.
Cases continued to be reported in 2015 among people who were living or working within the geographical region where the outbreak had originated. However, in Liberia and Sierra Leone, the number of new cases began to decline steeply. In early May Liberia was declared to be free of Ebola, though the disease reemerged the following month. In early September, after a 42-day period from the last negative test, Ebola transmission officially ended in Liberia. The country’s disease-free period was short-lived, however. In November 2015 a 10-year-old boy tested positive for the virus. Just days earlier Sierra Leone had been declared free of the disease. Late the following month Guinea also was declared Ebola-free, leaving only Liberia, which finally was cleared of the disease in mid-January 2016. The virus continued to circulate in survivors, however, and, within days of WHO announcing the end of Ebola transmission in western Africa, a new case emerged in Sierra Leone.
The second largest Ebola outbreak on record began in August 2018 in North Kivu province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The outbreak persisted for more than a year. By late October 2019, some 3,100 cases had been confirmed, with more than 2,100 deaths. The initial epicentre of the outbreak was Beni, a town that was also the site of violent attacks and protests in a conflict between armed groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The complexity of the situation in Beni raised significant challenges for health response teams that were mobilized to bring the outbreak under control. Within weeks the virus had spread to multiple towns in North Kivu and had reached the neighbouring Ituri province. In January 2019 the epicentre had spread south, close to the border of Uganda and more densely populated areas. As the year progressed, the outbreak expanded and by October had affected populations throughout not only North Kivu and Ituri provinces but also the province of South Kivu. Thousands of people in affected areas were vaccinated, and persons traveling internationally were subjected to screening in an effort to prevent the spread of Ebola beyond the affected regions. | <urn:uuid:4eb2de2f-1deb-4a04-a187-af05f3387627> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/science/Ebola | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.98204 | 1,849 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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Ebola, in full Ebola virus disease, formerly called Ebola hemorrhagic fever, contagious disease caused by a virus of the family Filoviridae that is responsible for a severe and often fatal viral hemorrhagic fever. Outbreaks in primates—including gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans—and domestic pigs have been recorded. The disease is characterized by extreme fever, rash, and profuse hemorrhaging. In humans, ebolaviruses cause fatality in 25 to 90 percent of cases.
Species of ebolaviruses
Ebolaviruses take their name from the Ebola River in the northern Congo basin of central Africa, where they first emerged in 1976. Ebolaviruses are closely related to species in the genus Marburgvirus, which was discovered in 1967, and the two are the only members of the Filoviridae that cause epidemic human disease. Five species of ebolaviruses—known as Zaire ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Taï Forest ebolavirus, Reston ebolavirus, and Bundibugyo ebolavirus, named for their outbreak locations—have been described. The viruses are known commonly as Ebola virus (EBOV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Taï Forest virus (TAFV), Reston virus (RESTV), and Bundibugyo virus (BDBV).
EBOV causes death in 40 to 90 percent of cases, and SUDV causes death in 50 percent of cases. TAFV, found in dead chimpanzees in Taï National Park in southwestern Côte d’Ivoire, can infect humans, although only one human case has been documented, and the individual survived. RESTV, which was originally discovered in laboratory monkeys in Reston, Virginia, in 1989, was also detected in laboratory monkeys in other locations in the United States in 1990 and 1996, as well as in Siena, Italy, in 1992. All the monkeys infected with RESTV have been traced to one export facility located in the Philippines, although the origin of the strain has not been identified. Similar to TAFV, RESTV does not appear to cause death in humans. The fifth species, BDBV, was discovered in November 2007 in an outbreak in Bundibugyo district of Uganda, near the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo; it causes death in roughly 25 to 35 percent of cases.
The first outbreaks, in 1976 in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Sudan (including what is now South Sudan), resulted in more than 400 deaths. A subsequent outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 1995 prompted temporary quarantine of the Kikwit region, and more than 250 people died. Later outbreaks in Uganda in 2000 and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2002 also resulted in several hundred deaths. Other notable outbreaks include those in Yambio county (2004) of South Sudan and in the Bundibugyo (2007) and Kibale (2012) districts of Uganda.
In September 2007 an outbreak was confirmed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo—in Kasai-Occidental (West Kasai) province, located in the south-central region of the country. However, while Ebola was detected in blood samples from some people that fell ill, other people were found to be infected with Shigella, the bacterium that causes dysentery—a disease whose symptoms are similar to the early symptoms of Ebola. As a result, although several hundred people became ill and more than 160 people died during the Ebola outbreak, it was unclear how many of the deaths were actually caused by Ebola. Less than two years later, in December 2008, a second outbreak of the disease was confirmed in West Kasai. Ebola had been detected in just four people by early 2009. However, another 42 cases were suspected, and some 200 people were under close observation for infection. Although 13 deaths were reported in association with the outbreak, samples collected from the victims did not test positive for Ebola.
In 2008, tissue samples from pigs that died of unknown causes in the Philippines were analyzed and found to contain RESTV. This was the first time that the virus was found in a mammalian species other than primates. Infections in pigs were unexpected and raised concerns about transmission of the virus from pigs to humans. In January 2009, antibodies to RESTV were found in five Filipinos, four of whom worked on pig farms and one of whom worked in a slaughterhouse. All five individuals were believed to have been infected with the virus through direct contact with infected pigs. The infected people were healthy and did not show signs of infection at the time antibodies to the virus were detected. In order to stop the spread of RESTV among pigs, Philippines officials authorized the slaughter of thousands of potentially infected swine.
A large outbreak occurred in western Africa in 2014–16, affecting people primarily in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia (see Ebola outbreak of 2014–16). More than 28,600 cases and 11,300 deaths had been documented by January 2016. Death figures likely were underreported, however. Estimates of the case fatality rate for the outbreak ranged from about 50 to 70 percent. Though outbreaks were normally brought under control effectively through existing prevention and treatment strategies, the outbreak that was detected in 2014 was complicated by a limited health workforce and particularly by misperceptions of the disease among some people living in affected regions. As the outbreak progressed, the possibility for dissemination of Ebola to countries outside western Africa rose. On August 8, following a sudden increase in cases that severely compromised aid efforts, the director general of the World Health Organization, Margaret Chan, announced the decision to declare the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern. In September officials with the United Nations estimated that $1 billion was needed to bring the outbreak under control, prompting aid responses from countries such as China, Cuba, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Shortly thereafter Ebola emerged in the United States, in a man who had traveled by plane from Liberia to Dallas, Texas, where he subsequently developed symptoms of illness and died; it was the first case connected with the outbreak to be diagnosed outside of Africa. About the same time, Spanish health officials reported the transmission of Ebola within Spain’s borders—the first time that the disease was contracted beyond the outbreak zone in Africa.
Earlier in the outbreak a case had been confirmed in Senegal, and 20 cases were recorded in Nigeria. The rapid implementation of effective control measures, however, put an end to the outbreak in those countries. They were declared Ebola-free by WHO in October. A small number of cases were documented in Mali in October and November; two of them had originated in Guinea.
Cases continued to be reported in 2015 among people who were living or working within the geographical region where the outbreak had originated. However, in Liberia and Sierra Leone, the number of new cases began to decline steeply. In early May Liberia was declared to be free of Ebola, though the disease reemerged the following month. In early September, after a 42-day period from the last negative test, Ebola transmission officially ended in Liberia. The country’s disease-free period was short-lived, however. In November 2015 a 10-year-old boy tested positive for the virus. Just days earlier Sierra Leone had been declared free of the disease. Late the following month Guinea also was declared Ebola-free, leaving only Liberia, which finally was cleared of the disease in mid-January 2016. The virus continued to circulate in survivors, however, and, within days of WHO announcing the end of Ebola transmission in western Africa, a new case emerged in Sierra Leone.
The second largest Ebola outbreak on record began in August 2018 in North Kivu province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The outbreak persisted for more than a year. By late October 2019, some 3,100 cases had been confirmed, with more than 2,100 deaths. The initial epicentre of the outbreak was Beni, a town that was also the site of violent attacks and protests in a conflict between armed groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The complexity of the situation in Beni raised significant challenges for health response teams that were mobilized to bring the outbreak under control. Within weeks the virus had spread to multiple towns in North Kivu and had reached the neighbouring Ituri province. In January 2019 the epicentre had spread south, close to the border of Uganda and more densely populated areas. As the year progressed, the outbreak expanded and by October had affected populations throughout not only North Kivu and Ituri provinces but also the province of South Kivu. Thousands of people in affected areas were vaccinated, and persons traveling internationally were subjected to screening in an effort to prevent the spread of Ebola beyond the affected regions. | 1,987 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genghis Khan was born in or around 1162 AD and was originally named Temujin. Genghis was born into the Borgekin tribe, descended from Kobel Khan.
At 9, shortly after Gengis was sent to go live with the family of his future bride, his father attended a feast with a rival tribe, and got poisoned.
Shorty after Gengis learned of his fathers death, he went back to his tribe to take leadership, but was rejected as they did not want a child leader.
At the age of 20, Gengis had unified all the mongols under 1 ruler, him, to take over china. During this period, he got revenge on 3 tribes. all 3 he had leveled to the ground, sparing no life, but on 1 of the 3, he boiled the leader alive!
Genghis Khan was a great general, always 1 step ahead of his enemies. He had multiple methods of communication, which made his armies more mobile and responsive to his enemy's movements. He also had very trained soldiers Genghis's armies also adopted the strategies and technologies of defeated kingdoms.
Genghis was also a great leader. He kept law ant order through out his lands, and increased china's defense. He killed 10 million people in his conquest, but he redeemed that by stabling governments, and being a good ruler. | <urn:uuid:3242b89c-763d-4022-814d-7a73b65bb5a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/3e99690e/chinese---mongolian-heroes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.995537 | 286 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.0340710356831550... | 1 | Genghis Khan was born in or around 1162 AD and was originally named Temujin. Genghis was born into the Borgekin tribe, descended from Kobel Khan.
At 9, shortly after Gengis was sent to go live with the family of his future bride, his father attended a feast with a rival tribe, and got poisoned.
Shorty after Gengis learned of his fathers death, he went back to his tribe to take leadership, but was rejected as they did not want a child leader.
At the age of 20, Gengis had unified all the mongols under 1 ruler, him, to take over china. During this period, he got revenge on 3 tribes. all 3 he had leveled to the ground, sparing no life, but on 1 of the 3, he boiled the leader alive!
Genghis Khan was a great general, always 1 step ahead of his enemies. He had multiple methods of communication, which made his armies more mobile and responsive to his enemy's movements. He also had very trained soldiers Genghis's armies also adopted the strategies and technologies of defeated kingdoms.
Genghis was also a great leader. He kept law ant order through out his lands, and increased china's defense. He killed 10 million people in his conquest, but he redeemed that by stabling governments, and being a good ruler. | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Meaning & Definition
Ownership refers to the relation that a person has with an object that he owns. It is an aggregate of all the rights that he has with regards to the said object. These rights are in rem, that is, they can be enforced against the whole world and not just any specific person. The concept of ownership flows from that of possession. In the primitive societies, there was no idea of ownership. The only concept that they identified with was that of possession. It was only after they started settling down by building homes and cultivating land that they developed the idea of ownership.
According to Austin, ownership refers to “a right indefinite in point of user, unrestricted in point of disposition and unlimited in point of duration.”
Concurring with Austin’s view, Holland defines ownership as the right of absolute control over an object. According to him, ownership is an aggregate of all rights pertaining to the possession, enjoyment and disposition of an object. According to Salmond, “ownership, in its most comprehensive signification, denotes the relation between a person and right that is vested in him.”
Essentials of Ownership
Upon analyzing the various definitions of ownership, the following essentials of ownership can be derived:
- Indefinite point of user- The owner of a property has the liberty to use it. Others have the duty to not to use it or to not to interfere with the owner’s right to use it.
- Unrestricted point of disposition- The owner has the right to dispose of the property at his own will. A person needs to have the ownership of a thing in order to transfer that ownership to someone else. Mere possession does not give the power to dispose of the ownership.
- Right to possess- The owner has the right to possess the thing which he owns.
- Right to exhaust- If the nature of the thing which is owned is such that it can be exhausted then the owner has the right to exhaust it at his own will.
- Residuary character- The owner may part with several rights with regards to the thing he owns. This does not take away the ownership from him.
- Right to destroy or alienate- An owner has the right to destroy or alienate the thing that he owns.
Subject Matter of Ownership
One of the subject matters of ownership is material objects. Salmond is of the view that the real subject matter of ownership is rights. This particular view of Salmond is supported by the common law system. However, it has also received some amount of criticism. It has been argued that law generally recognizes ownership of land and chattels and not of any right. A person is said to have certain rights and not own rights.
The subject-matter of ownership is essentially determined by the legal system of a state. There are certain objects which, by their very nature, are incapable of being owned such as jungles, air, water, etc. However, the legal system of a country may recognize the ownership of such objects thereby making them a subject matter of ownership.
Modes of Acquisition
Ownership may be acquired in two ways.
Firstly, ownership may be acquired over a thing which has no owner. Such things are known as res nullius and the ownership may be acquired by possession.
Secondly, there may be things which are already owned by someone else. The ownership in such cases can be acquired using the derivative method, that is, by way of purchase, gift, inheritance, etc. The acquisition of ownership, unlike possession, has to be done strictly by lawful means.
Kinds of Ownership
Ownership may be of the following kinds:
1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Ownership
Corporeal ownership refers to the ownership of material objects whereas incorporeal ownership refers to the ownership of a right. Incorporeal ownership can also be said to be the ownership of intangible things. Examples of corporeal ownership include ownership of a house, table, car, etc. whereas those of incorporeal ownership includes ownership of trademarks, copyright, patents, etc.
2. Trust and Beneficial Ownership
The subject-matter of such ownership consists of property owned by two persons wherein one person is obligated to use it to the benefit of the other. The person under such an obligation is called the trustee and his ownership is known as trust ownership. The person to whose benefit the property is to be used is called the beneficiary and his ownership is known as beneficial ownership. Trust ownership is only a matter of form and not a matter of substance. This means that a trustee’s ownership of the property is only nominal in nature. He is given someone else’s property fictitiously by law and thereby obligating him to use it to the real owner’s benefit.
3. Legal and Equitable Ownership
Legal ownership refers to the ownership as recognized by the rules of a legal system whereas equitable ownership refers to the ownership as recognized by the rules of equity. There may be cases wherein law does not recognize the ownership due to some effect but equity does. In such situations, the ownership is said to be equitable ownership. Legal ownership is a right in rem whereas equitable ownership is a right in personam since equity acts are in personam. A person may be the legal owner of a thing and another may be the equitable owner of the same thing at the same time.
4. Vested and Contingent Ownership
All kinds of ownership may either be vested or contingent. Ownership is vested ownership when the title of the person is perfect. On the other hand, ownership can be said to be contingent if it is imperfect and can be perfected subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions. Thus, contingent ownership is conditional in nature.
5. Sole Ownership and Co-ownership
Under ordinary circumstances, a right can be owned by only one person at a time. Such ownership is known as sole ownership. However, in certain cases, same right may be vested in two individuals at the same time. This is known as co-ownership. For instance, partners of a firm are co-owners of the partnership property.
6. Common ownership and Joint Ownership
Co-ownership is of two kinds. It may be owned in common or joint ownership. In case of common ownership the owners’ share in the property can be inherited by their respective heirs whereas in case of joint ownership, in case of death of any one of the owners, his or her share is transferred to the other owner. This is the fundamental point of difference between the two.
7. Absolute and Limited Ownership
Absolute ownership is one wherein the owner is vested with all the rights with regards to the property which he owns. Such rights are exclusively vested in the owner. It must be noted here that absolute use of the property implies general use since the property can only be used by lawful means and for lawful purposes. When there are limitations imposed upon the owner’s rights with regards to his property, the ownership is known as limited ownership.
The concept of life tenancy under English law is a classic example of limited ownership. Hindu law too recognizes limited ownership. When a Hindu widow is made the owner of her husband’s property so long as she remains alive after which the property shall pass on to the legal heirs, the ownership of the widow is limited ownership.
- Fitzgerald, P.J., ‘Salmond on Jurisprudence’, Twelfth Edition, N.M. Tripathi Pvt. Ltd., 1999.
- D. Mahajan, ‘Jurisprudence and Legal Theory’, Eastern Book Company (M.D.A. Freeman, ed.)
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-0.1080797314... | 1 | Meaning & Definition
Ownership refers to the relation that a person has with an object that he owns. It is an aggregate of all the rights that he has with regards to the said object. These rights are in rem, that is, they can be enforced against the whole world and not just any specific person. The concept of ownership flows from that of possession. In the primitive societies, there was no idea of ownership. The only concept that they identified with was that of possession. It was only after they started settling down by building homes and cultivating land that they developed the idea of ownership.
According to Austin, ownership refers to “a right indefinite in point of user, unrestricted in point of disposition and unlimited in point of duration.”
Concurring with Austin’s view, Holland defines ownership as the right of absolute control over an object. According to him, ownership is an aggregate of all rights pertaining to the possession, enjoyment and disposition of an object. According to Salmond, “ownership, in its most comprehensive signification, denotes the relation between a person and right that is vested in him.”
Essentials of Ownership
Upon analyzing the various definitions of ownership, the following essentials of ownership can be derived:
- Indefinite point of user- The owner of a property has the liberty to use it. Others have the duty to not to use it or to not to interfere with the owner’s right to use it.
- Unrestricted point of disposition- The owner has the right to dispose of the property at his own will. A person needs to have the ownership of a thing in order to transfer that ownership to someone else. Mere possession does not give the power to dispose of the ownership.
- Right to possess- The owner has the right to possess the thing which he owns.
- Right to exhaust- If the nature of the thing which is owned is such that it can be exhausted then the owner has the right to exhaust it at his own will.
- Residuary character- The owner may part with several rights with regards to the thing he owns. This does not take away the ownership from him.
- Right to destroy or alienate- An owner has the right to destroy or alienate the thing that he owns.
Subject Matter of Ownership
One of the subject matters of ownership is material objects. Salmond is of the view that the real subject matter of ownership is rights. This particular view of Salmond is supported by the common law system. However, it has also received some amount of criticism. It has been argued that law generally recognizes ownership of land and chattels and not of any right. A person is said to have certain rights and not own rights.
The subject-matter of ownership is essentially determined by the legal system of a state. There are certain objects which, by their very nature, are incapable of being owned such as jungles, air, water, etc. However, the legal system of a country may recognize the ownership of such objects thereby making them a subject matter of ownership.
Modes of Acquisition
Ownership may be acquired in two ways.
Firstly, ownership may be acquired over a thing which has no owner. Such things are known as res nullius and the ownership may be acquired by possession.
Secondly, there may be things which are already owned by someone else. The ownership in such cases can be acquired using the derivative method, that is, by way of purchase, gift, inheritance, etc. The acquisition of ownership, unlike possession, has to be done strictly by lawful means.
Kinds of Ownership
Ownership may be of the following kinds:
1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Ownership
Corporeal ownership refers to the ownership of material objects whereas incorporeal ownership refers to the ownership of a right. Incorporeal ownership can also be said to be the ownership of intangible things. Examples of corporeal ownership include ownership of a house, table, car, etc. whereas those of incorporeal ownership includes ownership of trademarks, copyright, patents, etc.
2. Trust and Beneficial Ownership
The subject-matter of such ownership consists of property owned by two persons wherein one person is obligated to use it to the benefit of the other. The person under such an obligation is called the trustee and his ownership is known as trust ownership. The person to whose benefit the property is to be used is called the beneficiary and his ownership is known as beneficial ownership. Trust ownership is only a matter of form and not a matter of substance. This means that a trustee’s ownership of the property is only nominal in nature. He is given someone else’s property fictitiously by law and thereby obligating him to use it to the real owner’s benefit.
3. Legal and Equitable Ownership
Legal ownership refers to the ownership as recognized by the rules of a legal system whereas equitable ownership refers to the ownership as recognized by the rules of equity. There may be cases wherein law does not recognize the ownership due to some effect but equity does. In such situations, the ownership is said to be equitable ownership. Legal ownership is a right in rem whereas equitable ownership is a right in personam since equity acts are in personam. A person may be the legal owner of a thing and another may be the equitable owner of the same thing at the same time.
4. Vested and Contingent Ownership
All kinds of ownership may either be vested or contingent. Ownership is vested ownership when the title of the person is perfect. On the other hand, ownership can be said to be contingent if it is imperfect and can be perfected subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions. Thus, contingent ownership is conditional in nature.
5. Sole Ownership and Co-ownership
Under ordinary circumstances, a right can be owned by only one person at a time. Such ownership is known as sole ownership. However, in certain cases, same right may be vested in two individuals at the same time. This is known as co-ownership. For instance, partners of a firm are co-owners of the partnership property.
6. Common ownership and Joint Ownership
Co-ownership is of two kinds. It may be owned in common or joint ownership. In case of common ownership the owners’ share in the property can be inherited by their respective heirs whereas in case of joint ownership, in case of death of any one of the owners, his or her share is transferred to the other owner. This is the fundamental point of difference between the two.
7. Absolute and Limited Ownership
Absolute ownership is one wherein the owner is vested with all the rights with regards to the property which he owns. Such rights are exclusively vested in the owner. It must be noted here that absolute use of the property implies general use since the property can only be used by lawful means and for lawful purposes. When there are limitations imposed upon the owner’s rights with regards to his property, the ownership is known as limited ownership.
The concept of life tenancy under English law is a classic example of limited ownership. Hindu law too recognizes limited ownership. When a Hindu widow is made the owner of her husband’s property so long as she remains alive after which the property shall pass on to the legal heirs, the ownership of the widow is limited ownership.
- Fitzgerald, P.J., ‘Salmond on Jurisprudence’, Twelfth Edition, N.M. Tripathi Pvt. Ltd., 1999.
- D. Mahajan, ‘Jurisprudence and Legal Theory’, Eastern Book Company (M.D.A. Freeman, ed.)
Contributed by Tejas Vasani | 1,523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New Jersey patriot William Paterson dies
On this day in history, September 9, 1806, New Jersey patriot William Paterson dies. Paterson was a leading figure of the American Revolution in New Jersey. He helped write the US Constitution, the laws of the State of New Jersey and served as an Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court.
William Paterson was born in Ireland and immigrated to America as a child. He was enrolled at Princeton, where he graduated with a BA in 1763, delivering his class’ commencement address on the subject of patriotism. Paterson then studied law with Richard Stockton, a future signer of the Declaration of Independence.
Paterson began a law career and settled near New Brunswick, New Jersey. When the American Revolution began, Paterson became a leading figure of the revolt in New Jersey. He served several terms in the rebel New Jersey Provincial Congress, on the Council of Safety and at the New Jersey Constitutional Convention. In 1776, he was appointed New Jersey’s Attorney General, a position he held until the war was over, even turning down election to the Continental Congress to perform his duties. Paterson received a military commission from Somerset County, but never saw active duty.
After the Revolution, Paterson continued his legal career, but was appointed to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787, where he made a national name for himself by promoting the "New Jersey" or "Paterson" plan, which advocated a legislative body based on equal representation for each state. The plan created much debate, but was eventually scrapped for the current one with a Senate based on equal representation and a House based on representation by population.
In 1789, Paterson became one of New Jersey’s first US Senators and helped write the Judicial Act of 1789, which created the federal court system. In 1790, Paterson resigned his Senate seat to become governor of New Jersey, where he codified New Jersey’s laws and revised its court system.
On February 27, 1793, George Washington nominated Paterson to the US Supreme Court, but the next day he had to rescind the nomination. Since Paterson had helped create the Judicial Act of 1789 as a Senator, his appointment to the Court would have violated Article 1, Section 6 of the Constitution, which forbids members of Congress from being appointed to a position created while they are in Congress until their term has run out. Even though Paterson had resigned his Senate seat, his term had not yet ended. A few days, later, on March 4, 1793, Washington re-nominated him and Paterson was confirmed to the Court by the Senate.
As an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Paterson traveled in a circuit of federal courts. His most well-known cases had to do with the trying of participants engaged in the Whiskey Rebellion of the early 1790s. Paterson was known for being a strong defender of states’ rights and the rule of law.
Paterson died on September 9, 1806 at the age of 60 on his way to Ballston Springs, New York, where he hoped to partake of the alleged healing powers of the area’s natural springs for ailments related to a coach accident in 1803. Paterson was at the home of his daughter in Albany when he passed away.
Cornelia had married Stephen Van Rensselaer in 1802. Van Rensselaer was the inheritor of a vast estate that made him the 10th most wealthy man in US history, and the 22nd most wealthy man in world history, with an estimated worth in today’s dollars of $68 billion! Paterson was buried at the Van Renssalaer estate and many years later was moved to the Albany Rural Cemetery.
National Society Sons of the American Revolution
"All men by nature are equal in that equal right that every man hath to his natural freedom, without being subjected to the will or authority of any other man; being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions." | <urn:uuid:b481bfd2-2006-4095-8215-46a5e38f82c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.alssar.org/uncategorized/new-jersey-patriot-william-paterson-dies-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.984334 | 836 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.7587960362434387,... | 1 | New Jersey patriot William Paterson dies
On this day in history, September 9, 1806, New Jersey patriot William Paterson dies. Paterson was a leading figure of the American Revolution in New Jersey. He helped write the US Constitution, the laws of the State of New Jersey and served as an Associate Justice of the US Supreme Court.
William Paterson was born in Ireland and immigrated to America as a child. He was enrolled at Princeton, where he graduated with a BA in 1763, delivering his class’ commencement address on the subject of patriotism. Paterson then studied law with Richard Stockton, a future signer of the Declaration of Independence.
Paterson began a law career and settled near New Brunswick, New Jersey. When the American Revolution began, Paterson became a leading figure of the revolt in New Jersey. He served several terms in the rebel New Jersey Provincial Congress, on the Council of Safety and at the New Jersey Constitutional Convention. In 1776, he was appointed New Jersey’s Attorney General, a position he held until the war was over, even turning down election to the Continental Congress to perform his duties. Paterson received a military commission from Somerset County, but never saw active duty.
After the Revolution, Paterson continued his legal career, but was appointed to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787, where he made a national name for himself by promoting the "New Jersey" or "Paterson" plan, which advocated a legislative body based on equal representation for each state. The plan created much debate, but was eventually scrapped for the current one with a Senate based on equal representation and a House based on representation by population.
In 1789, Paterson became one of New Jersey’s first US Senators and helped write the Judicial Act of 1789, which created the federal court system. In 1790, Paterson resigned his Senate seat to become governor of New Jersey, where he codified New Jersey’s laws and revised its court system.
On February 27, 1793, George Washington nominated Paterson to the US Supreme Court, but the next day he had to rescind the nomination. Since Paterson had helped create the Judicial Act of 1789 as a Senator, his appointment to the Court would have violated Article 1, Section 6 of the Constitution, which forbids members of Congress from being appointed to a position created while they are in Congress until their term has run out. Even though Paterson had resigned his Senate seat, his term had not yet ended. A few days, later, on March 4, 1793, Washington re-nominated him and Paterson was confirmed to the Court by the Senate.
As an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Paterson traveled in a circuit of federal courts. His most well-known cases had to do with the trying of participants engaged in the Whiskey Rebellion of the early 1790s. Paterson was known for being a strong defender of states’ rights and the rule of law.
Paterson died on September 9, 1806 at the age of 60 on his way to Ballston Springs, New York, where he hoped to partake of the alleged healing powers of the area’s natural springs for ailments related to a coach accident in 1803. Paterson was at the home of his daughter in Albany when he passed away.
Cornelia had married Stephen Van Rensselaer in 1802. Van Rensselaer was the inheritor of a vast estate that made him the 10th most wealthy man in US history, and the 22nd most wealthy man in world history, with an estimated worth in today’s dollars of $68 billion! Paterson was buried at the Van Renssalaer estate and many years later was moved to the Albany Rural Cemetery.
National Society Sons of the American Revolution
"All men by nature are equal in that equal right that every man hath to his natural freedom, without being subjected to the will or authority of any other man; being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions." | 872 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Printed Numerals and Counters in Beech wood Box.
Place the counters beside the printed number.
Point to the printed number and say this says five.
Go to the counters and count one two three four five and say there are five counters.
My son was able to count from one to ten.
He knew the symbols as well – most of the time.
To do addition he would count out his counters 2 + 2 – he took two counters and two more. He counted them as he picked them up.
Then he counted them out 1,2,3,4.
The printed numbers were in a row in front of him.
He wrote his answer in his book.
If he was unsure of the symbol for 4 he counted along the printed numbers.
Not suitable for children under 3 years. Choking hazard due to small parts – Adult supervision required at all times.
There are no reviews yet. | <urn:uuid:a7fbeda9-c9f0-4966-b4b4-0b8c396f6365> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://letsgrow.ie/product/printed-numerals-and-counters-in-beech-wood-box/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.991091 | 194 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2473671585... | 2 | Printed Numerals and Counters in Beech wood Box.
Place the counters beside the printed number.
Point to the printed number and say this says five.
Go to the counters and count one two three four five and say there are five counters.
My son was able to count from one to ten.
He knew the symbols as well – most of the time.
To do addition he would count out his counters 2 + 2 – he took two counters and two more. He counted them as he picked them up.
Then he counted them out 1,2,3,4.
The printed numbers were in a row in front of him.
He wrote his answer in his book.
If he was unsure of the symbol for 4 he counted along the printed numbers.
Not suitable for children under 3 years. Choking hazard due to small parts – Adult supervision required at all times.
There are no reviews yet. | 186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Henry Harrison was born into an influential political family on February 9, 1773, in Charles City County, Virginia. Harrison's father was a wealthy Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and later became governor of Virginia.
Mentored by "Mad" Anthony Wayne
Harrison attended Hampden-Sydney College and studied classics and history. He next moved to Richmond to study medicine. In 1791, after the death of his father, Harrison stopped studying medicine and joined the US Army. He was sent to the Northwest Territory (present-day Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois), where he served as an aide to 'Mad' Anthony Wayne. Under Wayne, Harrison learned how to command an army of frontier soldiers.
The Battle of Tippecanoe
In 1798, Harrison resigned from the US Army and became Secretary of the Northwest Territory. In 1799, Harrison was elected as a delegate representing the Northwest Territory in Congress. After helping to gain passage of the Harrison Land Act, which made it easier for settlers to buy land in the Northwest Territory, Harrison resigned as a delegate from Congress and became governor of the Northwest Territory. As governor, Harrison secured a vast expanse of land at the expense of the Indians who inhabited it. Indian resistance, under the leadership of Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, would soon become violent. In 1811, Harrison and 1,000 soldiers marched to Prophetstown, Indiana (an Indian village), for the purposes of removing the Indians. An epic battle ensued known as the Battle of Tippecanoe, in which Harrison and his men massacred the Indians. Later, in the War of 1812, Harrison commanded an army that routed the British at the Battle of Thames (in present-day Ontario). Harrison instantly became a war hero.
After serving in both the Ohio Senate and House of Representatives, Harrison was elected to the US Senate. He served in the Senate until he was appointed Minister to Colombia in 1828. In 1836, Harrison ran for president of the United States but was defeated by Martin Van Buren. In 1840, Harrison again ran for president and was elected in a landslide victory. Harrison's vice president was John Tyler. Their catchy campaign slogan 'Tippecanoe and Tyler too" is one of the most famous in American history.
A Poster Showing Harrison's Many Accomplishments
Harrison took office on March 4, 1841. That day, Harrison delivered the longest inaugural speech in American history - in the bitter cold. Harrison quickly developed a cold, which turned into pneumonia. Despite intensive medical treatment, Harrison died just one month later. He was the first president to die in office. To this day, his presidency was the shortest in American history - 32 days. | <urn:uuid:46c847a6-6bc6-4e5b-8e49-8a2e7b8dddc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/president-9-william-henry-harrison-presidents-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.982386 | 564 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.148297488689422... | 3 | William Henry Harrison was born into an influential political family on February 9, 1773, in Charles City County, Virginia. Harrison's father was a wealthy Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and later became governor of Virginia.
Mentored by "Mad" Anthony Wayne
Harrison attended Hampden-Sydney College and studied classics and history. He next moved to Richmond to study medicine. In 1791, after the death of his father, Harrison stopped studying medicine and joined the US Army. He was sent to the Northwest Territory (present-day Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois), where he served as an aide to 'Mad' Anthony Wayne. Under Wayne, Harrison learned how to command an army of frontier soldiers.
The Battle of Tippecanoe
In 1798, Harrison resigned from the US Army and became Secretary of the Northwest Territory. In 1799, Harrison was elected as a delegate representing the Northwest Territory in Congress. After helping to gain passage of the Harrison Land Act, which made it easier for settlers to buy land in the Northwest Territory, Harrison resigned as a delegate from Congress and became governor of the Northwest Territory. As governor, Harrison secured a vast expanse of land at the expense of the Indians who inhabited it. Indian resistance, under the leadership of Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, would soon become violent. In 1811, Harrison and 1,000 soldiers marched to Prophetstown, Indiana (an Indian village), for the purposes of removing the Indians. An epic battle ensued known as the Battle of Tippecanoe, in which Harrison and his men massacred the Indians. Later, in the War of 1812, Harrison commanded an army that routed the British at the Battle of Thames (in present-day Ontario). Harrison instantly became a war hero.
After serving in both the Ohio Senate and House of Representatives, Harrison was elected to the US Senate. He served in the Senate until he was appointed Minister to Colombia in 1828. In 1836, Harrison ran for president of the United States but was defeated by Martin Van Buren. In 1840, Harrison again ran for president and was elected in a landslide victory. Harrison's vice president was John Tyler. Their catchy campaign slogan 'Tippecanoe and Tyler too" is one of the most famous in American history.
A Poster Showing Harrison's Many Accomplishments
Harrison took office on March 4, 1841. That day, Harrison delivered the longest inaugural speech in American history - in the bitter cold. Harrison quickly developed a cold, which turned into pneumonia. Despite intensive medical treatment, Harrison died just one month later. He was the first president to die in office. To this day, his presidency was the shortest in American history - 32 days. | 591 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Thinker, sculptured by Auguste Rodin is one among the most famous sculptures of the Western world. Interpretations about the position of the sculpture and the circumstances that led to creating it has resulted in many heated debates in the world of art during the time in which it was created.
As many sculptures of Rodin have been placed all over the streets of Paris, travelers can always keep an eye out while they walk on those streets during the Rodin Museum Tour.
Rodin made over twenty drafts of the famous sculpture – The Thinker, all of which can now be found in different parts of the world. Travelers could often find them at the museum Pesaro located in Venice, California Palace located in the San Fransisco, Laeken cemetery located in the Brussels, Vrennand museum located in Brasil, Meudon and also on the sculpturer’s grave.
Auguste Rodin Hesitated on the Title of the Sculpture
Initially, this famous artwork “The Thinker” was planned to be made part of a humongous door which was ordered by Musée des Arts Décoratifs de Paris, which was also planned to feature over two hundred figures depending on the Divine Comedy by the Italian writer Dante.
The sculpture was named as “The Poet” initially and was used to represent Dante facing and contemplating Hell, which reflected on his masterpiece. The piece was supposed to go on top of the humongous door, but, Rodin decided to make The Poet into a general figure, which was then called “The Thinker”.
The Sculpture Offered a New Representation of Thought
One of the most interesting things about the sculpture is that is showcased the Thought for the very first time in the human form of art. Before that, Wisdom and thoughts were portrayed using the Greek Goddess named Athena, the representation of which as Wisdom was found to be reproduced numerous times in the western form of art.
Rodin introduced the sculpture with the idea of portraying Thought by a human – in which a man who was in power was facing a dilemma, and his power was highlighted by his strong body which is resting, but ready to get up. This is what makes The Thinker a masterpiece among many other art forms.
This kind of representation of Thought using a fleshed-human was revolutionary as it was the first time someone represented Thought without using the Goddess. The exhibition of the sculpture, separated from the door, started during the year 1888, and in 1904, it was molded into a more impressive sculpture. | <urn:uuid:ab7263ea-9e07-466d-b424-edd4b01a2d03> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tourrodinmuseum.fr/rodin-museum-tour/interesting-things-to-know-about-the-thinker-by-rodin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.98719 | 534 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.66145920753479,... | 7 | The Thinker, sculptured by Auguste Rodin is one among the most famous sculptures of the Western world. Interpretations about the position of the sculpture and the circumstances that led to creating it has resulted in many heated debates in the world of art during the time in which it was created.
As many sculptures of Rodin have been placed all over the streets of Paris, travelers can always keep an eye out while they walk on those streets during the Rodin Museum Tour.
Rodin made over twenty drafts of the famous sculpture – The Thinker, all of which can now be found in different parts of the world. Travelers could often find them at the museum Pesaro located in Venice, California Palace located in the San Fransisco, Laeken cemetery located in the Brussels, Vrennand museum located in Brasil, Meudon and also on the sculpturer’s grave.
Auguste Rodin Hesitated on the Title of the Sculpture
Initially, this famous artwork “The Thinker” was planned to be made part of a humongous door which was ordered by Musée des Arts Décoratifs de Paris, which was also planned to feature over two hundred figures depending on the Divine Comedy by the Italian writer Dante.
The sculpture was named as “The Poet” initially and was used to represent Dante facing and contemplating Hell, which reflected on his masterpiece. The piece was supposed to go on top of the humongous door, but, Rodin decided to make The Poet into a general figure, which was then called “The Thinker”.
The Sculpture Offered a New Representation of Thought
One of the most interesting things about the sculpture is that is showcased the Thought for the very first time in the human form of art. Before that, Wisdom and thoughts were portrayed using the Greek Goddess named Athena, the representation of which as Wisdom was found to be reproduced numerous times in the western form of art.
Rodin introduced the sculpture with the idea of portraying Thought by a human – in which a man who was in power was facing a dilemma, and his power was highlighted by his strong body which is resting, but ready to get up. This is what makes The Thinker a masterpiece among many other art forms.
This kind of representation of Thought using a fleshed-human was revolutionary as it was the first time someone represented Thought without using the Goddess. The exhibition of the sculpture, separated from the door, started during the year 1888, and in 1904, it was molded into a more impressive sculpture. | 519 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this story ten lepers were healed by Jesus, but only one comes back to express his gratitude. The emphasis of this story is not merely on gratitude as a virtue. Jesus gives us many good gifts, but God’s intention is that, as we encounter his loving kindness, it would ultimately bring us back to him so that we can totally be made whole.
When the Israelites were in the wilderness it was easy to remember that they needed God day by day because they were living in tents and God was sending them manna and quail. God wanted the Israelites to always remember that they are dependent on him, even when they were living in the Promised Land. God commanded that they should have an annual celebration called Sukkot to remember and celebrate his provision. By celebrating the good things that God has done for us we are reminded that we can put our trust in him. | <urn:uuid:277af891-2ec8-4de5-a4af-949c21fbfd6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://resourceforkidsministry.com/tag/gratitude/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.993023 | 182 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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When the Israelites were in the wilderness it was easy to remember that they needed God day by day because they were living in tents and God was sending them manna and quail. God wanted the Israelites to always remember that they are dependent on him, even when they were living in the Promised Land. God commanded that they should have an annual celebration called Sukkot to remember and celebrate his provision. By celebrating the good things that God has done for us we are reminded that we can put our trust in him. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Haniwa (“clay cylinder” or “circle of clay” in Japanese) are terracotta cylinders and hollow sculptures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD).
They were built for the Japanese elite from between the fourth and seventh centuries.
Throughout the Kofun era, enormous burial mounds called kofun (which in Japanese literally means ‘Old Tomb’) were constructed for powerful clan chiefs and massive quantities of haniwa were carefully placed on top of those colossal, mounded tombs.
These figures were created according to the wazumi technique, in which mounds of coiled clay were built up to shape the figure, layer by layer. The first and most common shape was the simple cylinder, averaging 40-50 centimeters in diameter and one meter in height, which were used to mark the borders of a burial ground.
Later, from the early 4th century until the 6th century, the cylinders were surmounted by sculptural forms such as figures of humans, houses, female attendants, boats, military equipment, and many kinds of animals. The human figures were often decorated with incised geometric patterns and pigments of white, red, and blue.
It is believed that the figures symbolized continued service to the deceased in the other world. There is a theory that the soul of the deceased would reside in the haniwa, as the earlier haniwa were placed on top of the funeral mounds. There are haniwa that are equipped with weapons and armor. These are thought to be containers for souls.
Besides decorative and spiritual reasons for protecting the deceased in the afterlife, it is thought that these figures were used as boundary markers for the borders of the gravesite. Unlike tomb figurines from other parts of the world, haniwa were erected on the exterior surface of the tomb mound rather than buried in the chamber with the deceased.
Since the late 1990s, their influence has reached far beyond the archaeological – from video games and trading cards to children’s cartoons like Kirby and Animal Crossing, they make regular appearances in contemporary Japanese culture.
The Tokyo National Museum has many haniwa human figures, but intact pieces are few. Most of the figures are either fragmentary or with certain missing parts. | <urn:uuid:0bb2e82a-83c6-488c-b8e7-e936b9328ae4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/01/25/haniwa-funerary-objects-built-for-the-japanese-elite-during-the-4th-to-7th-centuries/?utm_source=penultimate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.985611 | 488 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.85883468389511... | 6 | The Haniwa (“clay cylinder” or “circle of clay” in Japanese) are terracotta cylinders and hollow sculptures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD).
They were built for the Japanese elite from between the fourth and seventh centuries.
Throughout the Kofun era, enormous burial mounds called kofun (which in Japanese literally means ‘Old Tomb’) were constructed for powerful clan chiefs and massive quantities of haniwa were carefully placed on top of those colossal, mounded tombs.
These figures were created according to the wazumi technique, in which mounds of coiled clay were built up to shape the figure, layer by layer. The first and most common shape was the simple cylinder, averaging 40-50 centimeters in diameter and one meter in height, which were used to mark the borders of a burial ground.
Later, from the early 4th century until the 6th century, the cylinders were surmounted by sculptural forms such as figures of humans, houses, female attendants, boats, military equipment, and many kinds of animals. The human figures were often decorated with incised geometric patterns and pigments of white, red, and blue.
It is believed that the figures symbolized continued service to the deceased in the other world. There is a theory that the soul of the deceased would reside in the haniwa, as the earlier haniwa were placed on top of the funeral mounds. There are haniwa that are equipped with weapons and armor. These are thought to be containers for souls.
Besides decorative and spiritual reasons for protecting the deceased in the afterlife, it is thought that these figures were used as boundary markers for the borders of the gravesite. Unlike tomb figurines from other parts of the world, haniwa were erected on the exterior surface of the tomb mound rather than buried in the chamber with the deceased.
Since the late 1990s, their influence has reached far beyond the archaeological – from video games and trading cards to children’s cartoons like Kirby and Animal Crossing, they make regular appearances in contemporary Japanese culture.
The Tokyo National Museum has many haniwa human figures, but intact pieces are few. Most of the figures are either fragmentary or with certain missing parts. | 484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The Nightingale and The Rose” Analysis
The short story “The Nightingale and The Rose” is written by Oscar Wilde.Wilde is from Dublin, Ireland (now).He is famous for his witty style, satirical comedies, flamboyant writing techniques, and skepticism.
His notable works are novels; The Picture of Dorian Grey, The Importance of Being Earnest, and his short stories;
The Nightingale and the Rose, and The Happy Prince and other Tales. He is an Irish writer in the Victorian Age; he had been in prison for two years being accused of homosexuality. Wilde was deeply committed to aestheticism; he tried to use the art of aestheticism in each of his work, his last poem “The Ballad of Reading Gaol” was written by him in his imprisonment.
The Nightingale and the rose is the story of a boy who wanted to take his love of life to a ball party. But the girl demanded that the boy must present a red rose in order to take her to the party. The boy was sad and complaining in his room when he sees no red rose and only white roses in the garden. His plight has sorrows and his cries were appealing God to give him a chance. A nightingale was there in the garden and heard the sigh of the boy.
Thus in order to unite true love, she made a great sacrifice, gave her life by pressing her heart against the throne to shower her blood on the white rose to turn it into the red. But her sacrifice eventually got waste when the boy presented the rose and the girl preferred diamonds over the sacrifice for true love. This story symbolizes the materialism, selfishness, selflessness for fond of love and human nature of idealism which is dominant in the Victorian society.
The story was written basically for children in 1888, but it is a story in which depth of love and objectives of love are discussed. Wilde has significantly expressed the terms and consequences of love; it must be sacrificial, vexatious and deadly. True love is actually depicted in this story by Nightingale; she values it, understands it at a quite intellectual level and gifted her life for the sake of an adorable union between real lovers.
The opening lines of the story by boy illustrate the situation of young aged philosophy student, who had knowledge about everything, read every word of a renowned and great wise man, but a small rose had created a kind of turbulence in his life. It’s not the size of rose that had been the issue for him, but the colour of the rose matters most.
The protagonist of the story is in deep love with a girl, and she simply asked him for a red rose and then she would go with him for the prince’s ball. It was one and the only condition, seemingly condition was not very difficult to be fulfilled by any common man, but the fate of the young boy was not supportive.
He had a garden, full with trees that were covered with roses but to his defective luck, all the roses were in white colour. He felt anxious and depressed when he realized that having no red rose means his lady love will not accompany him. He was blessed to have all the things in his life but he was lamenting his luck to have no love in his life.
These expressions and groaning were hinting at his loyalty and his deep understanding of love, this sigh of pain for not having love was showing that he had great respect for moral values and gave the same importance to love, which it truly deserves. The young lover was hopeless and was in pain for this helplessness. He had scary thoughts for being futile in his lover’s life; he couldn’t bring a single red rose for his beloved, he couldn’t manage to fulfil her wish and make her happy. He was thinking about the consequences and getting nervous.
“’ Here, at last, is the true lover,’ said the Nightingale.” This sentence portrays the presence of other living beings like birds, insects, reptiles and flowers. Nightingale is the other major character in the story. She was sitting on the bark of the tree and was listening to complains of the boy. There were other characters present in the garden, such as Oak-Tree, Green Lizard, Butterfly, and Daisy. They all were inquiring about the desire of a young boy.
Nightingale replied to them that the boy wanted a red rose for his lover. All were shocked and considered the boy as a fool for crying at such tiny and useless thing. But Nightingale could understand the pain of love, the doom of separation, the passion of tenderness. She asked many trees for a red rose but every tree has a different colour and refused to give.
She was the only creature who could see the strength of affection and the tears from the boy’s eyes that were grasping Nightingale scrutiny to provide him with a red rose. Now it was not only about the red rose, but it was also about the boy’s life. There were many undecided plans, such as the boy, may be with a broken heart, would commit suicide. Maybe he would get paralyzed for his whole life for not being able to gift a rose.
There were so many reasons which led the Nightingale to save his life. She hadn’t seen such a true lover in her life, that’s why she made efforts to unite the couple; it would be her eternal satisfaction to see them together. In all her life, finally, she was able to witness the purity of love, and adorable connection of a couple and how hard the time hit on them when they were distant from each other, still remembering the moments and calling the good times.
The minutes and hours in which they were able to see each other, in which they sang love songs for the other turned into a time when they were crying to fulfil the utmost desire of the other. The cries coming from the heart of the boy were surrounding Nightingale and she determined to bring him a red rose at any cost.
There are certain personifications used in the short story to strengthen the images for the reader. After the dramatic opening, nightingale in the story asked three trees of a different colour for a red rose. The first tree associated its flowers with the “foam of sea”, “snow on mountains”, while the second tree-related its flowers to “hair of mermaiden”, “yellower than daffodils”, both the trees suggested to go to their brother tree for what she wanted, she would likely get there.
The third tree produced red roses but in the “winter, storm, and frost”, it would not produce any red rose. Its veins were These weather conditions point towards the coldness of behaviours in the society. It is though a natural phenomenon but people get affected by dark and cold thoughts.
The winters are extreme part to get worried, everything freezes and every living creature is dying for sunlight. So is with the power of love. The boy is about to lose his life and only sunshine for him is to have a red rose. Nightingale decided to become that minute sun ray which could vanish the darkest beams of despair. | <urn:uuid:53f2527c-b312-4094-8c52-0d36269955a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phdessay.com/the-nightingale-and-the-rose-analysis-12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.988316 | 1,518 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.20040068030... | 2 | “The Nightingale and The Rose” Analysis
The short story “The Nightingale and The Rose” is written by Oscar Wilde.Wilde is from Dublin, Ireland (now).He is famous for his witty style, satirical comedies, flamboyant writing techniques, and skepticism.
His notable works are novels; The Picture of Dorian Grey, The Importance of Being Earnest, and his short stories;
The Nightingale and the Rose, and The Happy Prince and other Tales. He is an Irish writer in the Victorian Age; he had been in prison for two years being accused of homosexuality. Wilde was deeply committed to aestheticism; he tried to use the art of aestheticism in each of his work, his last poem “The Ballad of Reading Gaol” was written by him in his imprisonment.
The Nightingale and the rose is the story of a boy who wanted to take his love of life to a ball party. But the girl demanded that the boy must present a red rose in order to take her to the party. The boy was sad and complaining in his room when he sees no red rose and only white roses in the garden. His plight has sorrows and his cries were appealing God to give him a chance. A nightingale was there in the garden and heard the sigh of the boy.
Thus in order to unite true love, she made a great sacrifice, gave her life by pressing her heart against the throne to shower her blood on the white rose to turn it into the red. But her sacrifice eventually got waste when the boy presented the rose and the girl preferred diamonds over the sacrifice for true love. This story symbolizes the materialism, selfishness, selflessness for fond of love and human nature of idealism which is dominant in the Victorian society.
The story was written basically for children in 1888, but it is a story in which depth of love and objectives of love are discussed. Wilde has significantly expressed the terms and consequences of love; it must be sacrificial, vexatious and deadly. True love is actually depicted in this story by Nightingale; she values it, understands it at a quite intellectual level and gifted her life for the sake of an adorable union between real lovers.
The opening lines of the story by boy illustrate the situation of young aged philosophy student, who had knowledge about everything, read every word of a renowned and great wise man, but a small rose had created a kind of turbulence in his life. It’s not the size of rose that had been the issue for him, but the colour of the rose matters most.
The protagonist of the story is in deep love with a girl, and she simply asked him for a red rose and then she would go with him for the prince’s ball. It was one and the only condition, seemingly condition was not very difficult to be fulfilled by any common man, but the fate of the young boy was not supportive.
He had a garden, full with trees that were covered with roses but to his defective luck, all the roses were in white colour. He felt anxious and depressed when he realized that having no red rose means his lady love will not accompany him. He was blessed to have all the things in his life but he was lamenting his luck to have no love in his life.
These expressions and groaning were hinting at his loyalty and his deep understanding of love, this sigh of pain for not having love was showing that he had great respect for moral values and gave the same importance to love, which it truly deserves. The young lover was hopeless and was in pain for this helplessness. He had scary thoughts for being futile in his lover’s life; he couldn’t bring a single red rose for his beloved, he couldn’t manage to fulfil her wish and make her happy. He was thinking about the consequences and getting nervous.
“’ Here, at last, is the true lover,’ said the Nightingale.” This sentence portrays the presence of other living beings like birds, insects, reptiles and flowers. Nightingale is the other major character in the story. She was sitting on the bark of the tree and was listening to complains of the boy. There were other characters present in the garden, such as Oak-Tree, Green Lizard, Butterfly, and Daisy. They all were inquiring about the desire of a young boy.
Nightingale replied to them that the boy wanted a red rose for his lover. All were shocked and considered the boy as a fool for crying at such tiny and useless thing. But Nightingale could understand the pain of love, the doom of separation, the passion of tenderness. She asked many trees for a red rose but every tree has a different colour and refused to give.
She was the only creature who could see the strength of affection and the tears from the boy’s eyes that were grasping Nightingale scrutiny to provide him with a red rose. Now it was not only about the red rose, but it was also about the boy’s life. There were many undecided plans, such as the boy, may be with a broken heart, would commit suicide. Maybe he would get paralyzed for his whole life for not being able to gift a rose.
There were so many reasons which led the Nightingale to save his life. She hadn’t seen such a true lover in her life, that’s why she made efforts to unite the couple; it would be her eternal satisfaction to see them together. In all her life, finally, she was able to witness the purity of love, and adorable connection of a couple and how hard the time hit on them when they were distant from each other, still remembering the moments and calling the good times.
The minutes and hours in which they were able to see each other, in which they sang love songs for the other turned into a time when they were crying to fulfil the utmost desire of the other. The cries coming from the heart of the boy were surrounding Nightingale and she determined to bring him a red rose at any cost.
There are certain personifications used in the short story to strengthen the images for the reader. After the dramatic opening, nightingale in the story asked three trees of a different colour for a red rose. The first tree associated its flowers with the “foam of sea”, “snow on mountains”, while the second tree-related its flowers to “hair of mermaiden”, “yellower than daffodils”, both the trees suggested to go to their brother tree for what she wanted, she would likely get there.
The third tree produced red roses but in the “winter, storm, and frost”, it would not produce any red rose. Its veins were These weather conditions point towards the coldness of behaviours in the society. It is though a natural phenomenon but people get affected by dark and cold thoughts.
The winters are extreme part to get worried, everything freezes and every living creature is dying for sunlight. So is with the power of love. The boy is about to lose his life and only sunshine for him is to have a red rose. Nightingale decided to become that minute sun ray which could vanish the darkest beams of despair. | 1,458 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Camp Muir Toilets, Dr. R. Lechleitner
Panorama Point Toilet
The Panorama Point toilet was constructed in 1929 for use by day hikers and overnight users in the Paradise area. Use of the toilet was discontinued sometime in the 1970s when the structure fell into disrepair. The roof had been removed and parts of the walls had fallen down. The doors and windows were missing. The roof was originally covered with flat rocks and many of these were on the ground adjacent to the structure. The pits that were used to hold the waste were still in good shape. The toilet had piping, which was used to remove wastes from the holding tanks and the valve of this system was exposed below the toilet. Overall the structural integrity of the building was still intact but was in an unusable state. There are only a few photographs of the original toilet. The toilet is not a contributing structure to the National Historic Landmark District and the area around Panorama Point is not included in the district.
From about 1980 to 2006 Mount Rainier National Park provided a chemical toilet at Panorama Point for use by park visitors. The toilet was operational from mid-June until mid-September. During a typical summer, there was approximately 500 gallons of human waste and water flown off from the chemical toilet. Each June approximately 200 gallons of water was flown up to the site. The water was used to “prime” the toilet to allow it to function correctly. About 15 gallons of water was added to the toilet each week to allow the pumping system to function correctly. The toilet was emptied weekly into 55-gallon drums, which were flown off by helicopter each September. The waste was then transported by truck to the Tacoma Sewage Treatment Plant, where the waste was processed. In 2001 the park spent about $1000 to fly off and dispose of the waste from this toilet.
From 2003 to 2006 the historic comfort station at Panorama Point was rehabilitated and a composting toilet was installed. During the rehabilitation of the comfort station several structural repairs were made. The walls were repaired and rebuilt. Two windows and two doors were installed where they had been removed. Since the original roof was gone, a concrete slab roof reinforced with steel was placed on the structure. The concrete roof was covered with the rocks that originally were used on the roof. Solar tubes were installed to provide light and vent holes were installed. A solar heat panel (four by eight feet) was placed on the roof to heat the structure. A photovoltaic panel and batteries were installed to operate 12-volt fans. A composting toilet was installed and was used from July 2006 through October 2015. The liquid from the composting toilet was placed in a dehydration unit, which had a 12- volt fan to evaporate the liquids after they passed through the composter.
Unfortunately, neither the composter or the evaporator worked well. The evaporator could not process the volume of liquid, partly because the storage area was too cool to allow for maximum evaporation. The composter had similar problems and did not compost the waste. Since the waste was not being composted, raw waste from the composter was collected before it was mixed with wood chips in the composter starting in 2014. This raw waste was removed by carrying it out in 7-gallon buckets (and down the mountain by hand). The raw waste was then processed in a wastewater treatment plant in the park. In 2014 and 2015 there were approximately 50 gallons of raw human waste removed from the toilet each year.
In 2016 a urine separating toilet (ToiletTech’s Behind-The-Wall (or BTW seat)) was installed. Solid waste was collected in plastic bags and carried out in 7 gallon buckets and disposed of in a wastewater treatment plant in the park. The urine separating toilet worked much better than the composting toilet. The public made numerous positive comments about the toilet. It worked well over the three months it was in service. Cleaning and servicing the toilet was much easier and safer than the previous composting toilet.
In the summer of 2017 the plan is to collect the solid waste in a solar heated composting bin. This should allow the solid waste to be stabilized and decomposed on site to reduce its volume, mass, and hazard to workers. Even if this waste were to resemble compost, as is found elsewhere with these toilets, it will be removed from the park to minimize the impact of visitors on the areas fragile and sensitive ecology.
Location Panorama Point – Mount Rainier National Park, Washington Toilet Type Waste Away Building Type Custom
BTW Usage Rate / Description Seasonally > 200/day Solid Waste Retention 1/5 of the previous barrel fly outs Temps / Elevation 15F to 60F / 6,800 ft Start-Up Year 2016 | <urn:uuid:a51bdbbc-8848-4500-ab80-8445c40e57a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.toilettech.com/product-page/mt-rainier-national-park | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.981157 | 980 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.171804845333099... | 10 | History of Camp Muir Toilets, Dr. R. Lechleitner
Panorama Point Toilet
The Panorama Point toilet was constructed in 1929 for use by day hikers and overnight users in the Paradise area. Use of the toilet was discontinued sometime in the 1970s when the structure fell into disrepair. The roof had been removed and parts of the walls had fallen down. The doors and windows were missing. The roof was originally covered with flat rocks and many of these were on the ground adjacent to the structure. The pits that were used to hold the waste were still in good shape. The toilet had piping, which was used to remove wastes from the holding tanks and the valve of this system was exposed below the toilet. Overall the structural integrity of the building was still intact but was in an unusable state. There are only a few photographs of the original toilet. The toilet is not a contributing structure to the National Historic Landmark District and the area around Panorama Point is not included in the district.
From about 1980 to 2006 Mount Rainier National Park provided a chemical toilet at Panorama Point for use by park visitors. The toilet was operational from mid-June until mid-September. During a typical summer, there was approximately 500 gallons of human waste and water flown off from the chemical toilet. Each June approximately 200 gallons of water was flown up to the site. The water was used to “prime” the toilet to allow it to function correctly. About 15 gallons of water was added to the toilet each week to allow the pumping system to function correctly. The toilet was emptied weekly into 55-gallon drums, which were flown off by helicopter each September. The waste was then transported by truck to the Tacoma Sewage Treatment Plant, where the waste was processed. In 2001 the park spent about $1000 to fly off and dispose of the waste from this toilet.
From 2003 to 2006 the historic comfort station at Panorama Point was rehabilitated and a composting toilet was installed. During the rehabilitation of the comfort station several structural repairs were made. The walls were repaired and rebuilt. Two windows and two doors were installed where they had been removed. Since the original roof was gone, a concrete slab roof reinforced with steel was placed on the structure. The concrete roof was covered with the rocks that originally were used on the roof. Solar tubes were installed to provide light and vent holes were installed. A solar heat panel (four by eight feet) was placed on the roof to heat the structure. A photovoltaic panel and batteries were installed to operate 12-volt fans. A composting toilet was installed and was used from July 2006 through October 2015. The liquid from the composting toilet was placed in a dehydration unit, which had a 12- volt fan to evaporate the liquids after they passed through the composter.
Unfortunately, neither the composter or the evaporator worked well. The evaporator could not process the volume of liquid, partly because the storage area was too cool to allow for maximum evaporation. The composter had similar problems and did not compost the waste. Since the waste was not being composted, raw waste from the composter was collected before it was mixed with wood chips in the composter starting in 2014. This raw waste was removed by carrying it out in 7-gallon buckets (and down the mountain by hand). The raw waste was then processed in a wastewater treatment plant in the park. In 2014 and 2015 there were approximately 50 gallons of raw human waste removed from the toilet each year.
In 2016 a urine separating toilet (ToiletTech’s Behind-The-Wall (or BTW seat)) was installed. Solid waste was collected in plastic bags and carried out in 7 gallon buckets and disposed of in a wastewater treatment plant in the park. The urine separating toilet worked much better than the composting toilet. The public made numerous positive comments about the toilet. It worked well over the three months it was in service. Cleaning and servicing the toilet was much easier and safer than the previous composting toilet.
In the summer of 2017 the plan is to collect the solid waste in a solar heated composting bin. This should allow the solid waste to be stabilized and decomposed on site to reduce its volume, mass, and hazard to workers. Even if this waste were to resemble compost, as is found elsewhere with these toilets, it will be removed from the park to minimize the impact of visitors on the areas fragile and sensitive ecology.
Location Panorama Point – Mount Rainier National Park, Washington Toilet Type Waste Away Building Type Custom
BTW Usage Rate / Description Seasonally > 200/day Solid Waste Retention 1/5 of the previous barrel fly outs Temps / Elevation 15F to 60F / 6,800 ft Start-Up Year 2016 | 1,053 | ENGLISH | 1 |
WWII: Why the Battle For Italy Should Never Be Forgotten
Video Above: How Infantry Will Improve Tank Killing
By Daniel L. Davis, The National Interest
With Hitler’s Germany in possession of most of continental Europe, Britain’s Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed his American allies to increase the pressure on the Germans occupying Italy. Churchill had convinced the Allied Command to conduct a beach landing about sixty miles behind German lines at Anzio and needed the United States’ 5th Army to prevent German reinforcements from moving north.
“The success at Anzio,” Churchill wrote to his chief of staff on December 26, 1943, “depends on the strength of the initial landing . . . (The attack) should be decisive, as it cuts the communications of the whole of the enemy forces facing the Fifth Army. The enemy must therefore annihilate the landing for by withdrawals from the Fifth Army front or immediately retreat.”
The prime minister believed—wrongly, as subsequent events would prove—that a strong landing at Anzio would force the Germans who were facing Clark to withdraw to meet the greater threat to the North, thus allowing Clark to penetrate their lines and squeeze the Germans in Italy between the two Allied forces.
To accomplish this mission, 5th Army Commander Lt. Gen. Mark Clark tasked the 36th Infantry Division to make a penetration of the German lines on the Rapido River. The division commander, Maj. Gen. Fred L. Walker, told Clark at least five times that the mission was doomed to fail and had suggested an alternative mission that would have accomplished the same outcome—tying down German units so they couldn’t support the landings at Anzio—but Clark had flatly refused.
With only four days to prepare, Walker realized further push-back was pointless and he had to instead turn his focus to coming up with an attack plan.
Often when senior commanders discuss military plans they lose sight of the impact their orders will have on the men who have to carry them out. Other times they may be fully aware of the impact but have to make the hard call to order the mission anyway, knowing even a high sacrifice is necessary to obtain a higher need for the war. In the case of the Rapido attack, both Clark and Walker were in agreement that an attack was necessary.
Clark’s unwillingness to consider alternative ways to accomplish the higher requirement, however, set the stage for a supreme sacrifice for Walker’s division yet without succeeding in hampering German actions. Regardless of Walker’s assessment the mission would fail, he was nevertheless obligated to give it his best effort. It was a hard sell to his subordinates.
Compounding his already impossible task, Walker only had four days to prepare for the attack. His first order of business was to conduct an intelligence assessment of the nature and scope of the German defenses north of the river.
His senior intelligence officer conducted aerial reconnaissance, interrogated German prisoners, and interviewed Italians who lived in the area. After his assessment the officer told Walker the enemy had anti-tank defenses in depth which would be able to repulse any armored attack between a staggering distance of at least seven miles.
They had created a series of concrete-protected pill boxes from which machine guns could mow down any attacking infantrymen, trenches and strong points. Moreover, the intelligence officer finally noted, beyond the strong immediate defenses, the Germans “had reserve units that were complete divisions—motorized divisions.” If the powerfully arrayed enemy was the only obstacle, Walker’s men would be facing almost impossible odds. Unfortunately, the Americans faced additional hardships.
The Rapido River would normally have proven a moderately difficult hurdle to overcome. But the Germans were masters at exploiting natural obstacles to their tactical advantage. They had dredged the river to make it deeper than normal, which had the effect of creating high, vertical banks so it would be difficult for crossers to either get in or get out of the thirty-foot-wide river. But nature also conspired against the 36th Division: it had been unusually rainy in the weeks prior to the assault and the river was running even faster than normal.
In addition to manipulating the river to give their defenses an advantage, they also flooded the flat land leading up to the river so that any attacking force would have to traverse a considerable distance to even get to a crossing point, and they would be bogged down in the mud—and most critically, it was too muddy for trucks or tanks to drive through, meaning the men would have to carry their own boats to the river, through the mud, under enemy fire (for German gunners and artillery spotters commanded the high ground on either side of the river and had unobstructed visibility on the approaches).
While Clark did not appreciate the near-impossibility of the task he gave to the 36th, he was not unwilling to try and help either. To distract and weaken German defenses, he had ordered a British and French force under his command to conduct diversionary attacks on the left and right flanks of the river. Unfortunately, both attacks failed to accomplish any of their objectives. Instead, it fully alerted the Germans that a larger attack was coming. They were then fully prepared when Walker started his assaults.
The 36th Division was composed of three Infantry Regiments of about two thousand men each, the 141st, 142nd, and 143rd Infantry Regiments. As if he didn’t need any additional disadvantages, the 142nd had been taken away from Walker and designated as the Corps reserve, leaving him short-handed to attempt the attack. Just before the assault began on the night of January 20, 1944, Walker said he felt utterly helpless because “I will have little influence on the battle because everything is committed; I have no reserves; use of artillery ammunition is restricted; and I have no freedom of maneuver.”
The attack began with an intense but short artillery barrage on known or suspected German defensive positions that could bring fire on the assault force. Then the engineers began moving forward under cover of darkness to clear mines and mark lanes for follow-up forces. At a predetermined time, the first waves of infantrymen began moving towards the river carrying their boats. Things went awry from the beginning.
The plywood-and-rubber boats used in the crossing weighed four hundred pounds. It took sixteen men to carry one boat. Each man was carrying a full combat load of personal gear, had to carry the boats in the dark, over thick mud—and under heavy enemy artillery and machine gun fire (the Germans had pre-selected likely targets during the daytime so that if an attack happened at night when they couldn’t see, they could still fire their weapons onto the sites most likely to be used by the Americans). The awful conditions exacted an immediate and heavy toll.
It was so dark “you couldn’t see your hand in front of your face,” as many later recounted. Men would often trip and fall, upsetting the boat and causing the others to fall. One lieutenant described the horrible trek to the river in the dark. One group of his men were about 200 feet in front of him when “German shells came in and . . . wiped out my whole platoon except for me and my runner who was with me.” Some of the shells also killed the company commander and severely wounded several other officers—which added a new layer of difficulty for follow-on troops: having to step over and around the dead bodies of their friends.
Miraculously, some of the boat teams actually made it to the river’s edge. The fast-running water was only a couple degrees above freezing and was a shock to the men as one crew put its boat in the water—only to discover that the shelling had ripped so many holes in it that it sank right away. Some of the men, so heavily weighted down with combat gear, slipped off the boat and sank into the dark waters, never to be seen again.
Others were able to successfully get their boats into the water but because of the heavy current, were swept up to five hundred yards too far downstream, outside of the objective area and without any assistance. German machine guns were also probing the river line, killing many Americans and sinking more boats. Adding to the misery, some of the lanes cleared by the engineers got displaced, leading succeeding waves of infantrymen to walk in uncleared areas and being killed with mines.
Small groups of men eventually made it across the river and quickly dug foxholes for protection. But there were too few of them. To make matters worse, all their communications gear and radios had been lost during the trek to and over the river or had simply failed to function. They were cut off and unable to communicate with anyone. Worse, the sun would soon be coming up and the Germans on the high ground would be able to direct accurate fire on the U.S. troops.
The assistant division commander, Brig. Gen. William Wilbur, realized that the entire force would be destroyed when the sun came up, gave the orders at 5:15 a.m. to return to covered positions on the U.S. side of the river to regroup. The order applied only to the men still on the U.S. side of the river. They had lost all contact with the men on the German side. They would have to blindly wait, hoping help came soon, no idea the attack had been called off.
Later that morning, II Corps Commander, Gen. Geoffrey Keyes pressed Walker to renew the attack by noon. Walker, incredulous at the irrational demand, noted that Keyes’ operations officer was carrying a clipboard with suggested attack plans Walker could use.
“Anybody can draw lines on a map,” Walker later wrote, “that doesn’t require brains nor tactical ability. But it does require knowledge, skill, discipline, and many other good qualities to figure out, in detail, with reasonable accuracy, the difficulties that lie in the way.” It was obvious that Keyes had no understanding of the profound nature of the difficulties the Germans posed.
But under the harsh conditions of war, it is almost impossible for subordinate commanders to refuse orders, even if they feel the orders are foolish; there may always be something the higher commander knows that the junior leaders don’t. Walker therefore grudgingly regrouped his men, took accounting of the troops and equipment still left, and went about the near-impossible task of formulating a new attack plan. If the Germans had been alerted to the attack on the 20th, they were now fully prepared for the second attempt on the night of 21st January.
In general terms, an attacking force should be three times larger than the defending force to have a chance. As it turned out, the Germans had a substantial superiority in numbers to the attackers. On top of every military and natural obstacle working against Walker’s troops, the Germans were well-rested, in secure bunkers, and had the dominating high ground. The second attack was doomed before it began.
The second attack started just as the first and suffered much of the same fate. German artillery and machine guns cut the troops to ribbons on the way to the river and killed many more during the crossing. The Texans continued their relentless drive and by early afternoon on January 22nd, a number of troopers made it across and joined the few who had been huddled in foxholes since the first attack.
The determination of the leaders and men under these conditions was astonishing. Despite the impossible odds, regardless of how many of their comrades has already fallen, the men of the 36th continued fighting. Col. William H. Martin, commander of the 143rd Infantry, said of this attack, that when he knew “there was no alternative but to make the attack as ordered, I made an all-out effort to succeed. My officers and men did likewise, knowing they were facing impossible odds. The heroes of the Alamo knew they could not succeed, but they fought with determination to death.” The Texans of the 1944 battle suffered much the same fate.
Too few men made it across the river and there were insufficient numbers of soldiers to press the attack to pry the Germans from their covered positions further from the river. Survival became the greatest task. Like the day before, eventually all the Americans on the far side of the river lost contact with their headquarters, they began to run out of ammunition, and their numbers continued to dwindle as the Germans destroyed all the bridges the 36th erected over the river and then methodically eliminated each isolated group. The battle had been lost.
Astonishingly, however, World War II Corps Commander Gen. Keyes was still not able to acknowledge defeat. With the virtual destruction of two infantry regiments, he initially ordered Walker to embark on a third attack. At the time Keyes issued the order on the afternoon of the 22nd, all the boats that had been made available for the operation had been destroyed. All the bridging equipment the engineers had brought were likewise destroyed.
The only fresh unit available was the 142nd Infantry, but other than manpower, they had no means to cross the river even if there had been no enemy. Only Clark—who belatedly accepted the reality of the mission’s failure—stepped in to cancel the third attack. The battle was finally over.
Out of the approximate four thousand men of the 36th Division who began the operation, more than half were killed, wounded, or captured. Those that were left were physically and emotionally devastated and unavailable for quite some time. But what had the fight accomplished for the Allied? Sometimes even a tactical defeat can result in strategic success. That’s what Clark believed.
In his memoirs published after the war, Clark said he recognized the risk but was compelled “to go ahead with the attack in order that I could draw to this front all possible German reserves in order to clear the way for SHINGLE. This was accomplished in a magnificent manner. Some blood had to be spilled on either the land or the SHINGLE front, and I greatly preferred that it be on the Rapido, where we were secure, rather than at Anzio with the sea at our back.”
The problem with his noble-sounding rhetoric, however, is that he was wrong about the impact the attack had on the Germans. It did absolutely nothing for the Allied troops at Anzio nor did it draw any German reserves away from the Liri Valley surrounding the Rapido River. Moreover, beginning just days later, the 34th Infantry Division succeeded in crossing the Rapido River and creating a beachhead on the German side—in precisely the same spot Walker had requested prior to the January debacle.
As it turned out, the troops at Anzio did not get any help from Clark’s troops until late May when they finally broke through the Liri Valley. Clark then pressed all his troops to move with all possible speed to take Rome from the Nazis, which finally occurred on June 5, 1944. If you don’t remember that date, it’s not surprising: the costly victory did little to hasten the end of the war, and the next day—June 6, 1944—Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower’s troops landed on the beaches of Normandy and forever captured the attention of the world.
The survivors of the 36th Infantry Division, however, were not willing to fade quietly into history. In the minds of the troops that made the knowingly ill-fated attack at the Rapido, they deserved to have their story heard and justice for their loss. Less than a year after the war was over, Gen. Walker, Col. Martin, and one other veteran of the battle testified before the US House of Representatives. Their stories were gut-wrenching. Their search for justice, however, met a fate almost as disgraceful as their bitter loss in Italy.
Daniel L. Davis is a retired U.S. Army colonel who served multiple tours in Afghanistan. He is a senior fellow with Defense Priorities. Follow him on Twitter @DanielLDavis1. This article first appeared last year. | <urn:uuid:8544dd5b-da08-4947-a492-f5fca5c9fbf6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://defensemaven.io/warriormaven/history/wwii-why-the-battle-for-italy-should-never-be-forgotten-1bkAoMaFJ02PeXWYXe4IhQ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.984413 | 3,341 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.8493920564... | 6 | WWII: Why the Battle For Italy Should Never Be Forgotten
Video Above: How Infantry Will Improve Tank Killing
By Daniel L. Davis, The National Interest
With Hitler’s Germany in possession of most of continental Europe, Britain’s Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed his American allies to increase the pressure on the Germans occupying Italy. Churchill had convinced the Allied Command to conduct a beach landing about sixty miles behind German lines at Anzio and needed the United States’ 5th Army to prevent German reinforcements from moving north.
“The success at Anzio,” Churchill wrote to his chief of staff on December 26, 1943, “depends on the strength of the initial landing . . . (The attack) should be decisive, as it cuts the communications of the whole of the enemy forces facing the Fifth Army. The enemy must therefore annihilate the landing for by withdrawals from the Fifth Army front or immediately retreat.”
The prime minister believed—wrongly, as subsequent events would prove—that a strong landing at Anzio would force the Germans who were facing Clark to withdraw to meet the greater threat to the North, thus allowing Clark to penetrate their lines and squeeze the Germans in Italy between the two Allied forces.
To accomplish this mission, 5th Army Commander Lt. Gen. Mark Clark tasked the 36th Infantry Division to make a penetration of the German lines on the Rapido River. The division commander, Maj. Gen. Fred L. Walker, told Clark at least five times that the mission was doomed to fail and had suggested an alternative mission that would have accomplished the same outcome—tying down German units so they couldn’t support the landings at Anzio—but Clark had flatly refused.
With only four days to prepare, Walker realized further push-back was pointless and he had to instead turn his focus to coming up with an attack plan.
Often when senior commanders discuss military plans they lose sight of the impact their orders will have on the men who have to carry them out. Other times they may be fully aware of the impact but have to make the hard call to order the mission anyway, knowing even a high sacrifice is necessary to obtain a higher need for the war. In the case of the Rapido attack, both Clark and Walker were in agreement that an attack was necessary.
Clark’s unwillingness to consider alternative ways to accomplish the higher requirement, however, set the stage for a supreme sacrifice for Walker’s division yet without succeeding in hampering German actions. Regardless of Walker’s assessment the mission would fail, he was nevertheless obligated to give it his best effort. It was a hard sell to his subordinates.
Compounding his already impossible task, Walker only had four days to prepare for the attack. His first order of business was to conduct an intelligence assessment of the nature and scope of the German defenses north of the river.
His senior intelligence officer conducted aerial reconnaissance, interrogated German prisoners, and interviewed Italians who lived in the area. After his assessment the officer told Walker the enemy had anti-tank defenses in depth which would be able to repulse any armored attack between a staggering distance of at least seven miles.
They had created a series of concrete-protected pill boxes from which machine guns could mow down any attacking infantrymen, trenches and strong points. Moreover, the intelligence officer finally noted, beyond the strong immediate defenses, the Germans “had reserve units that were complete divisions—motorized divisions.” If the powerfully arrayed enemy was the only obstacle, Walker’s men would be facing almost impossible odds. Unfortunately, the Americans faced additional hardships.
The Rapido River would normally have proven a moderately difficult hurdle to overcome. But the Germans were masters at exploiting natural obstacles to their tactical advantage. They had dredged the river to make it deeper than normal, which had the effect of creating high, vertical banks so it would be difficult for crossers to either get in or get out of the thirty-foot-wide river. But nature also conspired against the 36th Division: it had been unusually rainy in the weeks prior to the assault and the river was running even faster than normal.
In addition to manipulating the river to give their defenses an advantage, they also flooded the flat land leading up to the river so that any attacking force would have to traverse a considerable distance to even get to a crossing point, and they would be bogged down in the mud—and most critically, it was too muddy for trucks or tanks to drive through, meaning the men would have to carry their own boats to the river, through the mud, under enemy fire (for German gunners and artillery spotters commanded the high ground on either side of the river and had unobstructed visibility on the approaches).
While Clark did not appreciate the near-impossibility of the task he gave to the 36th, he was not unwilling to try and help either. To distract and weaken German defenses, he had ordered a British and French force under his command to conduct diversionary attacks on the left and right flanks of the river. Unfortunately, both attacks failed to accomplish any of their objectives. Instead, it fully alerted the Germans that a larger attack was coming. They were then fully prepared when Walker started his assaults.
The 36th Division was composed of three Infantry Regiments of about two thousand men each, the 141st, 142nd, and 143rd Infantry Regiments. As if he didn’t need any additional disadvantages, the 142nd had been taken away from Walker and designated as the Corps reserve, leaving him short-handed to attempt the attack. Just before the assault began on the night of January 20, 1944, Walker said he felt utterly helpless because “I will have little influence on the battle because everything is committed; I have no reserves; use of artillery ammunition is restricted; and I have no freedom of maneuver.”
The attack began with an intense but short artillery barrage on known or suspected German defensive positions that could bring fire on the assault force. Then the engineers began moving forward under cover of darkness to clear mines and mark lanes for follow-up forces. At a predetermined time, the first waves of infantrymen began moving towards the river carrying their boats. Things went awry from the beginning.
The plywood-and-rubber boats used in the crossing weighed four hundred pounds. It took sixteen men to carry one boat. Each man was carrying a full combat load of personal gear, had to carry the boats in the dark, over thick mud—and under heavy enemy artillery and machine gun fire (the Germans had pre-selected likely targets during the daytime so that if an attack happened at night when they couldn’t see, they could still fire their weapons onto the sites most likely to be used by the Americans). The awful conditions exacted an immediate and heavy toll.
It was so dark “you couldn’t see your hand in front of your face,” as many later recounted. Men would often trip and fall, upsetting the boat and causing the others to fall. One lieutenant described the horrible trek to the river in the dark. One group of his men were about 200 feet in front of him when “German shells came in and . . . wiped out my whole platoon except for me and my runner who was with me.” Some of the shells also killed the company commander and severely wounded several other officers—which added a new layer of difficulty for follow-on troops: having to step over and around the dead bodies of their friends.
Miraculously, some of the boat teams actually made it to the river’s edge. The fast-running water was only a couple degrees above freezing and was a shock to the men as one crew put its boat in the water—only to discover that the shelling had ripped so many holes in it that it sank right away. Some of the men, so heavily weighted down with combat gear, slipped off the boat and sank into the dark waters, never to be seen again.
Others were able to successfully get their boats into the water but because of the heavy current, were swept up to five hundred yards too far downstream, outside of the objective area and without any assistance. German machine guns were also probing the river line, killing many Americans and sinking more boats. Adding to the misery, some of the lanes cleared by the engineers got displaced, leading succeeding waves of infantrymen to walk in uncleared areas and being killed with mines.
Small groups of men eventually made it across the river and quickly dug foxholes for protection. But there were too few of them. To make matters worse, all their communications gear and radios had been lost during the trek to and over the river or had simply failed to function. They were cut off and unable to communicate with anyone. Worse, the sun would soon be coming up and the Germans on the high ground would be able to direct accurate fire on the U.S. troops.
The assistant division commander, Brig. Gen. William Wilbur, realized that the entire force would be destroyed when the sun came up, gave the orders at 5:15 a.m. to return to covered positions on the U.S. side of the river to regroup. The order applied only to the men still on the U.S. side of the river. They had lost all contact with the men on the German side. They would have to blindly wait, hoping help came soon, no idea the attack had been called off.
Later that morning, II Corps Commander, Gen. Geoffrey Keyes pressed Walker to renew the attack by noon. Walker, incredulous at the irrational demand, noted that Keyes’ operations officer was carrying a clipboard with suggested attack plans Walker could use.
“Anybody can draw lines on a map,” Walker later wrote, “that doesn’t require brains nor tactical ability. But it does require knowledge, skill, discipline, and many other good qualities to figure out, in detail, with reasonable accuracy, the difficulties that lie in the way.” It was obvious that Keyes had no understanding of the profound nature of the difficulties the Germans posed.
But under the harsh conditions of war, it is almost impossible for subordinate commanders to refuse orders, even if they feel the orders are foolish; there may always be something the higher commander knows that the junior leaders don’t. Walker therefore grudgingly regrouped his men, took accounting of the troops and equipment still left, and went about the near-impossible task of formulating a new attack plan. If the Germans had been alerted to the attack on the 20th, they were now fully prepared for the second attempt on the night of 21st January.
In general terms, an attacking force should be three times larger than the defending force to have a chance. As it turned out, the Germans had a substantial superiority in numbers to the attackers. On top of every military and natural obstacle working against Walker’s troops, the Germans were well-rested, in secure bunkers, and had the dominating high ground. The second attack was doomed before it began.
The second attack started just as the first and suffered much of the same fate. German artillery and machine guns cut the troops to ribbons on the way to the river and killed many more during the crossing. The Texans continued their relentless drive and by early afternoon on January 22nd, a number of troopers made it across and joined the few who had been huddled in foxholes since the first attack.
The determination of the leaders and men under these conditions was astonishing. Despite the impossible odds, regardless of how many of their comrades has already fallen, the men of the 36th continued fighting. Col. William H. Martin, commander of the 143rd Infantry, said of this attack, that when he knew “there was no alternative but to make the attack as ordered, I made an all-out effort to succeed. My officers and men did likewise, knowing they were facing impossible odds. The heroes of the Alamo knew they could not succeed, but they fought with determination to death.” The Texans of the 1944 battle suffered much the same fate.
Too few men made it across the river and there were insufficient numbers of soldiers to press the attack to pry the Germans from their covered positions further from the river. Survival became the greatest task. Like the day before, eventually all the Americans on the far side of the river lost contact with their headquarters, they began to run out of ammunition, and their numbers continued to dwindle as the Germans destroyed all the bridges the 36th erected over the river and then methodically eliminated each isolated group. The battle had been lost.
Astonishingly, however, World War II Corps Commander Gen. Keyes was still not able to acknowledge defeat. With the virtual destruction of two infantry regiments, he initially ordered Walker to embark on a third attack. At the time Keyes issued the order on the afternoon of the 22nd, all the boats that had been made available for the operation had been destroyed. All the bridging equipment the engineers had brought were likewise destroyed.
The only fresh unit available was the 142nd Infantry, but other than manpower, they had no means to cross the river even if there had been no enemy. Only Clark—who belatedly accepted the reality of the mission’s failure—stepped in to cancel the third attack. The battle was finally over.
Out of the approximate four thousand men of the 36th Division who began the operation, more than half were killed, wounded, or captured. Those that were left were physically and emotionally devastated and unavailable for quite some time. But what had the fight accomplished for the Allied? Sometimes even a tactical defeat can result in strategic success. That’s what Clark believed.
In his memoirs published after the war, Clark said he recognized the risk but was compelled “to go ahead with the attack in order that I could draw to this front all possible German reserves in order to clear the way for SHINGLE. This was accomplished in a magnificent manner. Some blood had to be spilled on either the land or the SHINGLE front, and I greatly preferred that it be on the Rapido, where we were secure, rather than at Anzio with the sea at our back.”
The problem with his noble-sounding rhetoric, however, is that he was wrong about the impact the attack had on the Germans. It did absolutely nothing for the Allied troops at Anzio nor did it draw any German reserves away from the Liri Valley surrounding the Rapido River. Moreover, beginning just days later, the 34th Infantry Division succeeded in crossing the Rapido River and creating a beachhead on the German side—in precisely the same spot Walker had requested prior to the January debacle.
As it turned out, the troops at Anzio did not get any help from Clark’s troops until late May when they finally broke through the Liri Valley. Clark then pressed all his troops to move with all possible speed to take Rome from the Nazis, which finally occurred on June 5, 1944. If you don’t remember that date, it’s not surprising: the costly victory did little to hasten the end of the war, and the next day—June 6, 1944—Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower’s troops landed on the beaches of Normandy and forever captured the attention of the world.
The survivors of the 36th Infantry Division, however, were not willing to fade quietly into history. In the minds of the troops that made the knowingly ill-fated attack at the Rapido, they deserved to have their story heard and justice for their loss. Less than a year after the war was over, Gen. Walker, Col. Martin, and one other veteran of the battle testified before the US House of Representatives. Their stories were gut-wrenching. Their search for justice, however, met a fate almost as disgraceful as their bitter loss in Italy.
Daniel L. Davis is a retired U.S. Army colonel who served multiple tours in Afghanistan. He is a senior fellow with Defense Priorities. Follow him on Twitter @DanielLDavis1. This article first appeared last year. | 3,288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The violence against Jewish people in Germany on 8 and 9 November 1938 was an omen of annihilation. What became known as Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Crystal) wasn’t the first European Jewish pogrom. But it was the first that was not only sanctioned by the government of an advanced industrialized country but unleashed and abetted by it.
The toll of destruction was high. Consistent estimates of damage and deaths varies; the most common is 91 deaths, several hundred synagogues and 7500 windows of Jewish businesses were smashed. About 30,000 Jewish men were arrested. Police and firefighters did nothing as angry mobs attacked Jewish homes and businesses.
The catalyst for this frightening outburst was the assassination of an official at the German embassy in Paris. Ernst vom Rath was shot by 17-year-old Polish Jew Herschel Grynszpan on 7 November 1938. The 29-year-old died two days later. There are conflicting opinions about the reason for the murder.
One view is it was an revenge killing. Grynszpan’s parents were among the thousands of Polish Jews expelled a few days before from Germany where they had been residents since 1911. The expelled Polish Jews were initially denied entry into their native Poland. They were stranded in a refugee camp near Zbaszyn on the Polish/German border. Grynszpan was illegally living in Paris. Vom Rath was assigned to assist him.
Another view is it was a jealous lover’s revenge. Historian Hans-Jürgen Döscher argues Vom Rath and Grynszpan were lovers. Vom Rath went back on his word to arrange papers for Grynszpan to legitimise his residency. A 2013 biography of Grynszpan claimed he was prepared to testify he and Vom Rath were lovers which would not have suited the Nazi’s anti-gay propaganda narrative. Aryans such as Vom Rath were not meant to be gay.
Vom Rath died at 4:25pm. Hitler was told in the early evening. He was at the anniversary of the failed Munich Beer Hall putsch. Hitler left after dinner without making his scheduled speech. Goebbels spoke instead. He announced Vom Rath’s death and went on an anti-Semitic tirade. It was intended to incite a popular uprising against Jewish people but the intent was initially lost and storm troopers took to the streets in Munich. The violence was repeated throughout Germany with ordinary citizens joining in.
Germany’s population of 60 million showed indifference to the outrage, the motivation for which could have been fear of the consequences of doing anything else. Outside Germany the country was condemned. The United States permanently recalled its ambassador. Commentators in the United States declared the night an act of barbarism not seen since the pogroms of the Middle Ages. Support among pro-Nazis in the West dissipated.
Kristallnacht was the latest in the attempt to incrementally destroy the Jewish people and their culture. That November night of horror was an omen of what was to come.
Kristallnacht’s anniversary is an important reminder of what can happen when governments and political parties seek to divide rather than unite people; when groups of people are singled out for blame; when a group of people are belittled. That’s why we should never forget what happened to the Jewish people. We must be forever vigilant to prevent such unspeakable crimes happening again. | <urn:uuid:590089bf-0c6f-4394-9308-6015fd5c60a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.neilspark.com/single-post/2016/11/11/Portend-for-Jews | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.984125 | 712 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.6628779172897... | 13 | The violence against Jewish people in Germany on 8 and 9 November 1938 was an omen of annihilation. What became known as Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Crystal) wasn’t the first European Jewish pogrom. But it was the first that was not only sanctioned by the government of an advanced industrialized country but unleashed and abetted by it.
The toll of destruction was high. Consistent estimates of damage and deaths varies; the most common is 91 deaths, several hundred synagogues and 7500 windows of Jewish businesses were smashed. About 30,000 Jewish men were arrested. Police and firefighters did nothing as angry mobs attacked Jewish homes and businesses.
The catalyst for this frightening outburst was the assassination of an official at the German embassy in Paris. Ernst vom Rath was shot by 17-year-old Polish Jew Herschel Grynszpan on 7 November 1938. The 29-year-old died two days later. There are conflicting opinions about the reason for the murder.
One view is it was an revenge killing. Grynszpan’s parents were among the thousands of Polish Jews expelled a few days before from Germany where they had been residents since 1911. The expelled Polish Jews were initially denied entry into their native Poland. They were stranded in a refugee camp near Zbaszyn on the Polish/German border. Grynszpan was illegally living in Paris. Vom Rath was assigned to assist him.
Another view is it was a jealous lover’s revenge. Historian Hans-Jürgen Döscher argues Vom Rath and Grynszpan were lovers. Vom Rath went back on his word to arrange papers for Grynszpan to legitimise his residency. A 2013 biography of Grynszpan claimed he was prepared to testify he and Vom Rath were lovers which would not have suited the Nazi’s anti-gay propaganda narrative. Aryans such as Vom Rath were not meant to be gay.
Vom Rath died at 4:25pm. Hitler was told in the early evening. He was at the anniversary of the failed Munich Beer Hall putsch. Hitler left after dinner without making his scheduled speech. Goebbels spoke instead. He announced Vom Rath’s death and went on an anti-Semitic tirade. It was intended to incite a popular uprising against Jewish people but the intent was initially lost and storm troopers took to the streets in Munich. The violence was repeated throughout Germany with ordinary citizens joining in.
Germany’s population of 60 million showed indifference to the outrage, the motivation for which could have been fear of the consequences of doing anything else. Outside Germany the country was condemned. The United States permanently recalled its ambassador. Commentators in the United States declared the night an act of barbarism not seen since the pogroms of the Middle Ages. Support among pro-Nazis in the West dissipated.
Kristallnacht was the latest in the attempt to incrementally destroy the Jewish people and their culture. That November night of horror was an omen of what was to come.
Kristallnacht’s anniversary is an important reminder of what can happen when governments and political parties seek to divide rather than unite people; when groups of people are singled out for blame; when a group of people are belittled. That’s why we should never forget what happened to the Jewish people. We must be forever vigilant to prevent such unspeakable crimes happening again. | 721 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ELITE WOMEN IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
The laws were affected, as we have seen, by the important part noblewomen in the countryside played in the management of estates. Their service appears to have increased in the Muscovite period because their husbands were often away. Many cavalrymen were on duty every year from summer through fall, with the result that some couples spent as much as half of their marriages separated from one another. When the husbands were gone, the wives ran the estates, for only the very richest landowners could afford to employ estate managers. This meant that all over Muscovy, noblewomen were in charge during the growing season, when the workload was the heaviest and the need for good management the greatest. These women did not live secluded inside their houses nor did they veil themselves when out of doors, though they usually did stay close to home. Once again, we are not dealing with an exclusively Muscovite phenomenon. Increasingly onerous service obligations for noblemen were increasing elite women’s responsibilities and authority elsewhere in Europe in the early modern period.23
In the seventeenth century, Kallistrat Druzhina‑Osoryin, the son of a provincial cavalryman, wrote a portrait of his mother, Iuliana, that sums up the life’s work of such a woman: “She occupied herself diligently with handiwork and managed her house in a manner pleasing to God. She provided her serfs with sufficient food, and appointed each of them a task according to their strength. She cared for widows and orphans, and helped the poor in all things.”24 The author rarely mentioned his father’s activities on the estate, and although he stressed his mother’s humility and piety, he did not include obedience to his father as one of her cardinal virtues. It was her competence and benevolence that impressed him.
Monasteries for women flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The largest of these institutions were substantial walled establishments, containing hundreds of residents and supervised by abbesses, councils of nuns, and administrative officials such as cellarers, who were in charge of food provisioning. Convents also owned estates outside their walls; the land belonging to the Pokrovskii Convent in Suzdal extended across five counties (uezdy) and contained twenty‑two villages.25 The female leaders of these convents ran the affairs of their enterprises as secular women ran their households, that is, they remained within the walls, assigning business that required travel to monks who worked for them.
In its organization, Muscovite monastic life was little changed from Kievan times. There were still no highly structured religious orders such as existed in Catholic Europe. Within individual convents, discipline was looser than in the West, allowing more scope for individuals to structure their lives. A woman entering a convent could bring servants to live with her; she could have her own quarters built within the compound; she could do her own cooking and her own washing or have her servants do it. Indeed, a widow could live out her life in a convent without ever becoming a nun.
Women wishing to enter the community did have to pay a fee, as did Catholic women, with the consequence that most of Muscovy’s nuns came from the propertied classes. The nuns who performed the physical labor may have been poorer widows who could not support themselves on their inheritances and dowries, daughters from city or countryside whose parents could not find husbands for them, and perhaps also the mentally or physically disabled. From time to time, a few women were banished to convents because they had fallen out of favor with the tsar. But most nuns were widows, in keeping with tradition since Kievan times. Once a woman had fulfilled her familial duties–married, served her husband, supervised the rearing of her children–she was entitled to choose a quiet life of religious devotion.
Was monastic life a little too pleasant? Church fathers occasionally charged that discipline in the convents was lax. They complained about nuns eating expensive food and drinking too much; they hinted at sexual liaisons. Similar complaints were made about monks when clerical reformers attempted to enforce asceticism in prosperous institutions, and the reports of Catholic inspectors to the West bemoaned the same sorts of straying from the abstemious monastic ideal. Undoubtedly there were miscreants, but, sadly, we will never know how much partying was going on in Muscovy’s convents. It is clear that most nuns kept up their daily devotions, ran their establishments, and produced beautiful handcrafts, particularly embroidery.
Дата добавления: 2016-01-29; просмотров: 583; | <urn:uuid:520fa1b7-63c2-4894-99af-01bbbf8f0392> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://helpiks.org/6-65481.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.985686 | 1,004 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.0029031517... | 1 | ELITE WOMEN IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
The laws were affected, as we have seen, by the important part noblewomen in the countryside played in the management of estates. Their service appears to have increased in the Muscovite period because their husbands were often away. Many cavalrymen were on duty every year from summer through fall, with the result that some couples spent as much as half of their marriages separated from one another. When the husbands were gone, the wives ran the estates, for only the very richest landowners could afford to employ estate managers. This meant that all over Muscovy, noblewomen were in charge during the growing season, when the workload was the heaviest and the need for good management the greatest. These women did not live secluded inside their houses nor did they veil themselves when out of doors, though they usually did stay close to home. Once again, we are not dealing with an exclusively Muscovite phenomenon. Increasingly onerous service obligations for noblemen were increasing elite women’s responsibilities and authority elsewhere in Europe in the early modern period.23
In the seventeenth century, Kallistrat Druzhina‑Osoryin, the son of a provincial cavalryman, wrote a portrait of his mother, Iuliana, that sums up the life’s work of such a woman: “She occupied herself diligently with handiwork and managed her house in a manner pleasing to God. She provided her serfs with sufficient food, and appointed each of them a task according to their strength. She cared for widows and orphans, and helped the poor in all things.”24 The author rarely mentioned his father’s activities on the estate, and although he stressed his mother’s humility and piety, he did not include obedience to his father as one of her cardinal virtues. It was her competence and benevolence that impressed him.
Monasteries for women flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The largest of these institutions were substantial walled establishments, containing hundreds of residents and supervised by abbesses, councils of nuns, and administrative officials such as cellarers, who were in charge of food provisioning. Convents also owned estates outside their walls; the land belonging to the Pokrovskii Convent in Suzdal extended across five counties (uezdy) and contained twenty‑two villages.25 The female leaders of these convents ran the affairs of their enterprises as secular women ran their households, that is, they remained within the walls, assigning business that required travel to monks who worked for them.
In its organization, Muscovite monastic life was little changed from Kievan times. There were still no highly structured religious orders such as existed in Catholic Europe. Within individual convents, discipline was looser than in the West, allowing more scope for individuals to structure their lives. A woman entering a convent could bring servants to live with her; she could have her own quarters built within the compound; she could do her own cooking and her own washing or have her servants do it. Indeed, a widow could live out her life in a convent without ever becoming a nun.
Women wishing to enter the community did have to pay a fee, as did Catholic women, with the consequence that most of Muscovy’s nuns came from the propertied classes. The nuns who performed the physical labor may have been poorer widows who could not support themselves on their inheritances and dowries, daughters from city or countryside whose parents could not find husbands for them, and perhaps also the mentally or physically disabled. From time to time, a few women were banished to convents because they had fallen out of favor with the tsar. But most nuns were widows, in keeping with tradition since Kievan times. Once a woman had fulfilled her familial duties–married, served her husband, supervised the rearing of her children–she was entitled to choose a quiet life of religious devotion.
Was monastic life a little too pleasant? Church fathers occasionally charged that discipline in the convents was lax. They complained about nuns eating expensive food and drinking too much; they hinted at sexual liaisons. Similar complaints were made about monks when clerical reformers attempted to enforce asceticism in prosperous institutions, and the reports of Catholic inspectors to the West bemoaned the same sorts of straying from the abstemious monastic ideal. Undoubtedly there were miscreants, but, sadly, we will never know how much partying was going on in Muscovy’s convents. It is clear that most nuns kept up their daily devotions, ran their establishments, and produced beautiful handcrafts, particularly embroidery.
Дата добавления: 2016-01-29; просмотров: 583; | 981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2.11 The Sacrifice of Isaac
The disinheritance of Ishmael was a precursor of the later sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22), when God demanded that Abraham offer up to him the very covenant promise and inheritance that God had given him. And yet, the disinheritance and the sacrifice -- were they not the same thing? In the first instance, Abraham had to surrender the son of his flesh, the plan of Sarah and the gift of Hagar, at the command of God. In the second instance, he had to surrender the son of the Promise, the miraculous gift of God. It is almost as if God was at war with Himself: in one Word He gave the child, and in a second Word He took him away. But no, another miracle -- God intervened again, and gave Isaac to Abraham a second time, as one raised from the dead. And in Ishmael's case, a similar miracle -- the ram was missing, but there was a well of water (Gen 21:19).
What sense does this make to us today? Why would God test a man in this way? God was showing us that we do not own the blessings He gives us. They are only loaned to us, the title remains in His hands. God wanted Abraham to get his eyes off his son and his desperate need for an heir, and look to God as his source. God was saying, "Do you trust Me with your most precious possession, your son?" "But," we object, "this was cruel, this was mental torment." Indeed, liberal theology finds in it echoes of child sacrifice, a contemporary religious practice. But the only person who would have suffered from such a test was an unbeliever, because God had told Abraham previously that He would establish His covenant with Isaac (Gen 17:19-21, Gen 21:12). A person who trusted God's promise would have remembered those words and been confident in Isaac's security. Indeed, there is no record in Scripture of Abraham's inner strivings at this command of God (no doubt, however, he did not tell Sarah where they were going!). Abraham showed an almost unbelievable equanimity:
"God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son" (Gen 22:8).
Still, by the time Isaac was bound on top of the altar, I think even a trusting soul would have wavered. | <urn:uuid:3039f3d6-4c05-4982-9064-c8fc70942cae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.racialpeace.org/copy-11-of-2-15-isaac-s-wife | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.98896 | 493 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1709311902... | 11 | 2.11 The Sacrifice of Isaac
The disinheritance of Ishmael was a precursor of the later sacrifice of Isaac (Gen 22), when God demanded that Abraham offer up to him the very covenant promise and inheritance that God had given him. And yet, the disinheritance and the sacrifice -- were they not the same thing? In the first instance, Abraham had to surrender the son of his flesh, the plan of Sarah and the gift of Hagar, at the command of God. In the second instance, he had to surrender the son of the Promise, the miraculous gift of God. It is almost as if God was at war with Himself: in one Word He gave the child, and in a second Word He took him away. But no, another miracle -- God intervened again, and gave Isaac to Abraham a second time, as one raised from the dead. And in Ishmael's case, a similar miracle -- the ram was missing, but there was a well of water (Gen 21:19).
What sense does this make to us today? Why would God test a man in this way? God was showing us that we do not own the blessings He gives us. They are only loaned to us, the title remains in His hands. God wanted Abraham to get his eyes off his son and his desperate need for an heir, and look to God as his source. God was saying, "Do you trust Me with your most precious possession, your son?" "But," we object, "this was cruel, this was mental torment." Indeed, liberal theology finds in it echoes of child sacrifice, a contemporary religious practice. But the only person who would have suffered from such a test was an unbeliever, because God had told Abraham previously that He would establish His covenant with Isaac (Gen 17:19-21, Gen 21:12). A person who trusted God's promise would have remembered those words and been confident in Isaac's security. Indeed, there is no record in Scripture of Abraham's inner strivings at this command of God (no doubt, however, he did not tell Sarah where they were going!). Abraham showed an almost unbelievable equanimity:
"God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son" (Gen 22:8).
Still, by the time Isaac was bound on top of the altar, I think even a trusting soul would have wavered. | 505 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first King Kong film was released in 1933. A reworked version of Beauty and the Beast, it became a special effects and animation classic. Nature columnist Richard Collins reminds us, however, that the King Kong of the big screen is very much rooted in a species of giant ape that may have walked the earth as recently as 100,000 years ago.
The film's giant ape was no doubt based and inspired by the hairy half-hominid bigfoot, who was said to inhabit the forests of the Pacific north-west.
Believers claim that bigfoot's ancestors crossed from Asia to north America, when the continents were joined at the shoulder near what is now the Bering Strait.
Alas, there is no such thing as bigfoot. No data other than material that’s clearly been fabricated have ever been presented’ declared Washington State zoologist John Crane.
But in 1935, while King Kong was terrifying audiences worldwide, anthropologist Ralph von Koenigswald found some fossilised bones and teeth in a traditional Chinese medicine shop. They belonged to an ape-like creature but the enormous molars were not those of any known primate.
He named their owner ‘Gigantopithecus’, from the Greek ‘gigas’, a ‘giant’, and ‘pithekos’, an ‘ape’. King Kong, apparently, was not an entirely fictional character; he had actually existed.
Since Koenigswald’s day, more teeth and bones have come to light in south-east Asia, where they are ground to powder and sold by traditional healers.
Research has confirmed that Gigantopithecus was indeed a member of the great ape family, the one to which we ourselves belong.
There were at least three species, some of whose members were 3m tall and weighed more than a quarter of a tonne. Their arms could span almost 4m. Though not nearly as big as the one seen climbing the Empire State building to rescue the heroine in ‘the greatest horror film of all time’, the great ape must have been an impressive sight.
Whether he moved on all fours, or was bipedal, isn’t known but walking upright, it’s been suggested, may have placed excessive stress on knees and ankles.
Despite his fearsome appearance, Gigantopithecus was probably as docile a creature as his surviving relatives, the gorilla and orang-utan, are today. The teeth and jaws are those of a plant eater.
However, why did the big ape become extinct when those other large Asian herbivores, the rhinos and elephants, survived? Primates have huge brains; surely the great ape had the ingenuity to save himself? The question has intrigued scientists.
Now, Hervé Bocherens and colleagues at the University of Tubingen think they have the answer. In an article in Live Science, they claim that Gigantopithecus perished when the climate changed 100,000 years ago. He had become too big for his boots.
Isotopes of carbon are formed when cosmic rays bombard the upper atmosphere. During photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air. Grasses take in more of the carbon-13 isotope than do the leaves of trees.
This isotope doesn’t decay with time. The amounts of it present in their tooth enamel, compared to the ubiquitous carbon-12, indicate that the ancient apes were forest dwellers eating leaves rather than grasses.
Nor did they survive on bamboo as giant pandas do today. The isotope ratios found in the teeth of other animals of their time, show that the habitat back then had both forests and open grasslands.
When the climate became cooler and dryer, the forests shrank. The apes, it seems, failed to make the transition from leaf to grass feeding. They had over-stretched themselves; there was insufficient foot to sustain them.
Like those of the giant Irish deer the mastodons and mammoths, which would go to the wall thousands of years later, the lifestyle of the huge primates was no longer viable. They had fallen victim to their grandiose tendencies.
Orang-utans, distant relatives of the giant apes, faced a similar challenge. They too were restricted to a single habitat type but managed to survive adverse climate changes because they had slower metabolism and lower food demands.
© Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved | <urn:uuid:4775aa36-daee-4dbd-b896-f327f49daeab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/outdoors/richard-collins/think-king-kong-only-existed-in-the-movies-well-think-again-377901.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.981079 | 929 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.090071640908... | 1 | The first King Kong film was released in 1933. A reworked version of Beauty and the Beast, it became a special effects and animation classic. Nature columnist Richard Collins reminds us, however, that the King Kong of the big screen is very much rooted in a species of giant ape that may have walked the earth as recently as 100,000 years ago.
The film's giant ape was no doubt based and inspired by the hairy half-hominid bigfoot, who was said to inhabit the forests of the Pacific north-west.
Believers claim that bigfoot's ancestors crossed from Asia to north America, when the continents were joined at the shoulder near what is now the Bering Strait.
Alas, there is no such thing as bigfoot. No data other than material that’s clearly been fabricated have ever been presented’ declared Washington State zoologist John Crane.
But in 1935, while King Kong was terrifying audiences worldwide, anthropologist Ralph von Koenigswald found some fossilised bones and teeth in a traditional Chinese medicine shop. They belonged to an ape-like creature but the enormous molars were not those of any known primate.
He named their owner ‘Gigantopithecus’, from the Greek ‘gigas’, a ‘giant’, and ‘pithekos’, an ‘ape’. King Kong, apparently, was not an entirely fictional character; he had actually existed.
Since Koenigswald’s day, more teeth and bones have come to light in south-east Asia, where they are ground to powder and sold by traditional healers.
Research has confirmed that Gigantopithecus was indeed a member of the great ape family, the one to which we ourselves belong.
There were at least three species, some of whose members were 3m tall and weighed more than a quarter of a tonne. Their arms could span almost 4m. Though not nearly as big as the one seen climbing the Empire State building to rescue the heroine in ‘the greatest horror film of all time’, the great ape must have been an impressive sight.
Whether he moved on all fours, or was bipedal, isn’t known but walking upright, it’s been suggested, may have placed excessive stress on knees and ankles.
Despite his fearsome appearance, Gigantopithecus was probably as docile a creature as his surviving relatives, the gorilla and orang-utan, are today. The teeth and jaws are those of a plant eater.
However, why did the big ape become extinct when those other large Asian herbivores, the rhinos and elephants, survived? Primates have huge brains; surely the great ape had the ingenuity to save himself? The question has intrigued scientists.
Now, Hervé Bocherens and colleagues at the University of Tubingen think they have the answer. In an article in Live Science, they claim that Gigantopithecus perished when the climate changed 100,000 years ago. He had become too big for his boots.
Isotopes of carbon are formed when cosmic rays bombard the upper atmosphere. During photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air. Grasses take in more of the carbon-13 isotope than do the leaves of trees.
This isotope doesn’t decay with time. The amounts of it present in their tooth enamel, compared to the ubiquitous carbon-12, indicate that the ancient apes were forest dwellers eating leaves rather than grasses.
Nor did they survive on bamboo as giant pandas do today. The isotope ratios found in the teeth of other animals of their time, show that the habitat back then had both forests and open grasslands.
When the climate became cooler and dryer, the forests shrank. The apes, it seems, failed to make the transition from leaf to grass feeding. They had over-stretched themselves; there was insufficient foot to sustain them.
Like those of the giant Irish deer the mastodons and mammoths, which would go to the wall thousands of years later, the lifestyle of the huge primates was no longer viable. They had fallen victim to their grandiose tendencies.
Orang-utans, distant relatives of the giant apes, faced a similar challenge. They too were restricted to a single habitat type but managed to survive adverse climate changes because they had slower metabolism and lower food demands.
© Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved | 909 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many have heard a simplified version of the Rosa Parks story, as an isolated incident in which she refused to give up her seat because she was tired, ultimately. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks ( – ) was an African American civil Parks is famous for her refusal on December 1, to obey bus driver James. --Mrs. Rosa Parks—. Parks, known as "the mother of the civil rights movement," walked into history on December 1, when she refused to give up her seat.
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ROSA PARKS: A WOMAN WHO CHANGED THE. UNITED STATES. The Civil Rights Movement not only changed the United States but it also inspired. PDF | On Sep 1, , Auden Schendler and others published Making Rosa Parks. by Rosa Parks and Jim Haskins. "You're Under Arrest". When I got off from work that evening of December 1, I went to Court Square as usual to catch the.
After the arrest of Rosa Parks, black people of Montgomery and sympathizers of other races organized and promoted a boycott of the city bus line that lasted days. Martin Luther King, Jr. Contingent with the protest in Montgomery, others took shape throughout the south and the country.
They took form as sit-ins, eat-ins, swim-ins, and similar causes. Parks moved to Detroit, Michigan in Parks, from to Elaine Eason Steele in honor of her husband, Raymond The purpose is to motivate and direct youth not targeted by other programs to achieve their highest potential.
Rosa Parks sees the energy of young people as a real force for change. It is among her most treasured themes of human priorities as she speaks to young people of all ages at schools, colleges, and national organizations around the world. Youth, ages 11 through 17, meet and talk with Mrs. Parks and other national leaders as they participate in educational and historical research throughout the world.
Where are we going? As a role model for youth she was stimulated by their enthusiasm to learn as much about her life as possible. A modest person, she always encourages them to research the lives of other contributors to world peace.
In September President William J. Published Act no. She is the first living person to be honored with a holiday. She was voted by Time Magazine as one of the most Influential people of the 20th century. A Museum and Library is being built in her honor, in Montgomery, AL and will open in the fall of the year ground breaking April 21, Such an analysis is important in order to evaluate how these historical figures are portrayed in historical narratives that often appear in the social studies curriculum.
Therefore, the purpose of this research is to outline similarities and differences between Jennings and Parks in order to determine whether these historical parallels are accurate. The guiding question of this research is: Among these commonalities include their family upbringing, experiences with racial violence and segregation, and the images they embodied in publicizing racial discrimination on public conveyances. First, both women were born to families of humble origin.
Although her parents were involved in prominent organizations in the free black community, they lived modest lives. Frederick Douglass noted that her father Thomas L. Jennings fought in the War of , apprenticed as a tailor, and was a boarding house operator. Thomas and Elizabeth Jen- nings had four children, one them being Elizabeth, Jr.
Rosa Parks was born into a working class family in Tuskegee, Alabama, in Correspondence between her and her father James McCauley dated indicates at some point they reconnected. She assumed many responsibilities as a child; tending to her brother, aiding her grandmother in the kitchen, and helping her grandfather who suffered from rheumatism.
Second, Parks and Jennings had intimate experiences with threats of violence that stemmed from the legacy of slavery. African Americans were denied the right to vote, hold public office, testify in court, enter interracial marriages, and have access public facilities such as theaters, mass transit and schools Gellman She stated in her testimony, which was read to her church congregation: He [the conductor] then said I should come out and he would put me out … he took hold of me and I took hold of the window sash and held on; he pulled me until he broke my grasp….
Parks also lived with fear of imminent racial violence growing up in Alabama. She stated: The KKK moved through the country where we lived burning churches, schools, flogging, and killing.
Grandfather stayed up to wait for them to come into our house. He kept his shotgun within reach at all times. My aunt and cousins came to our house at night.
We could not … go to bed at night. The doors and windows were boarded and nailed tight from the inside. I stayed awake many nights keeping vigil with Grandpa Parks, nd.
Third, Jennings and Parks were involved in Black Freedom activism before their publicized protests to transit segregation.
As a young woman, Jennings was associated with abolitionist causes as an organist at her church. Consequently, Jennings must have been aware of her role in advocating for the equal rights of African Americans as an organist and teacher. Moreover, Parks had a history with the bus driver who called police to have her arrested on December 1, Parks recalled: That particular day was not the first time I had trouble with that particular driver.
He evicted me before, because I would not go around to the back door after I was already onto the bus. The evening that I boarded the bus, and noticed that he was the same driver, I decided to get on anyway. Although their actions were not part of larger planned protests, McGuire states that Parks seized an opportunity to resist segregation ordi- nances that fateful day in According to Stewart , Ralph D.
Parks] to become a symbolic of our protest movement 93— The LRA was instrumental in raising funds to hire the Culver firm and publicizing her ordeal on the streetcar in abolitionist newspapers run by Horace Greeley and Frederick Doug- lass. Moreover, Jennings was also aware of her class status. Judge Rockwell ruled that the Third Avenue Railway Company violated common carrier laws, which stipulated that all paying passengers on public conveyances had an expectation of punctual and safe accommodations Welke , These similarities highlight historic parallels between Parks and Jen- nings in two ways.
First, both were African American women who were educated and aware of racial discrimination and methods of protest. They were well-connected to organizations that supported their challenges to segregation on public transportationand garnered praise from notable civil rights leaders. As a result, they are credited with laying the groundwork for other activists to continue their work of achieving civil rights for African Americans and other disenfran- chised citizens.
However, there are also significant differences between them. These differences include their socio-economic statuses, how they were effected by their respective acts of resistance, and their por- trayals in Black Freedom narratives that often appear in the social studies curriculum.
First, Jennings and Parks hailed from very dissimilar socio-economic backgrounds. These family obligations caused her to cease her formal schooling when she was a teenager.
Second, Jennings and Parks experienced the effects of their acts of resis- tance in starkly different ways.
Jennings was never arrested after being ejected from the streetcar and continued to teach, even after getting married and having a child.
Typically, women during the 19th century who married had to give up their teaching jobs; however, Jennings remained employed under her married name with a child. She remained involved in matters of civil rights and education in her old age by becoming a co-founder of the first black kindergarten in PERROTTA her ordeal with the death of her parents, son, and husband, she had ample political, financial, and social support in pursuing her lawsuit, career, and family life.
Rosa Parks did not have an easy life after her arrest. She was charged with violating Chapter 6 section 11 of the Montgomery City Code of which stipulates: It shall be unlawful for any passenger to refuse or fail to take a seat among those assigned to the race to which he belongs, at the request of any such employee in charge, if there is such a seat vacant http: Although her conviction was overturned, Parks endured being apprehended, fingerprinted, had her mug shot taken, and held in jail until she made bail.
This experience posed major repercussions for her and her husband. After the Boycott, Rosa and Raymond lost their jobs. The couple struggled economically, moving to Virginia and eventually settling in Michigan. Additionally, both were plagued with serious health issues. Rosa suffered from ulcers, and Raymond passed away in Theoharis Third, an important difference between Parks and Jennings is that the former is a famous historical figure, but the latter is not. There are a few reasons why Jennings is not a widely recognized person in United States history.
The rise of television during the s provided a medium for Americans to see the news unfold in places in the country that were far away from where they lived. Images of police brutality, the speeches of leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. Another factor for the limited availability of primary sources on Jen- nings is that few documents written by or about her exist. Perrotta and Bohan also acknowledge in their biography of Jennings that limited documents about Jennings are accessible.
Since , more docu- ments have become available. The Kansas Historical Society possesses an article by H.
Cordelia Ray about the first black kindergarten Jennings was involved in co-founding in Manhattan. New York City Direc- tories and U. Sources accessed from Ancestry. Both women were well-connected with influential organizations that supported their actions and organized local action to challenge and overturn segregation- ist policies concerning public transportation. Other black women, such as Claudette Colvin and the unnamed woman from New York, were subjected to ejection from mass transit, yet they are either unknown or relegated to being a footnote in historical narratives.
Parks and Jennings are different in several key aspects. Jennings came from a prominent abolitionist family with important ties to church and abolitionist groups that raised funds to hire the prominent Culver law firm to represent her case in New York Supreme Court.
She had financial and political resources at her disposal that supported her after her ejection from the streetcar and in her career as a teacher even after she was married with a child. Parks, however, did not possess the same socio-economic resources Jennings did.
She and her husband suffered from unemploy- ment, financial stress, and illness after her arrest, eventually relocating to Michigan. Parks remains an iconic civil rights figure greatly in part to the fact her arrest and the Montgomery Bus Boycott was photographed and nationally televised. However, the different socio-economic and political backgrounds from which Parks and Jennings came from highlights how the experiences of black activists were more nuanced with regard to how they personally benefitted and suf- fered as a result of their actions.
Contextualization is a major aspect of historical inquiry. Although contextualization is important to promote historical inquiry, many learning standards and curricular materials lack thorough analysis of the historical contexts in which historical people lived. These examples are problematic, for without thorough contextualiza- tion, students can learn a sanitized history that renders figures like Rosa Parks and Elizabeth Jennings as exceptions to the broader experiences and contributions of others throughout history.
Education history scholars and instructors can mitigate misrepresenta- tion of comparisons between Rosa Parks and Elizabeth Jennings in several ways. First, Bickford and Scheutte encourage educators to be aware of gaps in the historical contexts in order to foster critical thinking in historical research and instruction. He supported Rosa's desire to complete her formal education, and she received her high school diploma in Parks was an early activist in the effort to free the "Scottsboro Boys," a celebrated case in the s.
He was an active member and she served as secretary and later youth leader of the local branch. At the time of her arrest, she was preparing for a major youth conference. After the arrest of Rosa Parks, black people of Montgomery and sympathizers of other races organized and promoted a boycott of the city bus line that lasted days.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Contingent with the protest in Montgomery, others took shape throughout the south and the country. They took form as sit-ins, eat-ins, swim-ins and similar methods. | <urn:uuid:bac77d83-792c-4063-8a9a-f9ffc538f1b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chronanreareeko.ga/design/rosa-parks-pdf-1111.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.981805 | 2,572 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.1039487868547... | 1 | Many have heard a simplified version of the Rosa Parks story, as an isolated incident in which she refused to give up her seat because she was tired, ultimately. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks ( – ) was an African American civil Parks is famous for her refusal on December 1, to obey bus driver James. --Mrs. Rosa Parks—. Parks, known as "the mother of the civil rights movement," walked into history on December 1, when she refused to give up her seat.
|Language:||English, Spanish, French|
|Distribution:||Free* [*Register to download]|
ROSA PARKS: A WOMAN WHO CHANGED THE. UNITED STATES. The Civil Rights Movement not only changed the United States but it also inspired. PDF | On Sep 1, , Auden Schendler and others published Making Rosa Parks. by Rosa Parks and Jim Haskins. "You're Under Arrest". When I got off from work that evening of December 1, I went to Court Square as usual to catch the.
After the arrest of Rosa Parks, black people of Montgomery and sympathizers of other races organized and promoted a boycott of the city bus line that lasted days. Martin Luther King, Jr. Contingent with the protest in Montgomery, others took shape throughout the south and the country.
They took form as sit-ins, eat-ins, swim-ins, and similar causes. Parks moved to Detroit, Michigan in Parks, from to Elaine Eason Steele in honor of her husband, Raymond The purpose is to motivate and direct youth not targeted by other programs to achieve their highest potential.
Rosa Parks sees the energy of young people as a real force for change. It is among her most treasured themes of human priorities as she speaks to young people of all ages at schools, colleges, and national organizations around the world. Youth, ages 11 through 17, meet and talk with Mrs. Parks and other national leaders as they participate in educational and historical research throughout the world.
Where are we going? As a role model for youth she was stimulated by their enthusiasm to learn as much about her life as possible. A modest person, she always encourages them to research the lives of other contributors to world peace.
In September President William J. Published Act no. She is the first living person to be honored with a holiday. She was voted by Time Magazine as one of the most Influential people of the 20th century. A Museum and Library is being built in her honor, in Montgomery, AL and will open in the fall of the year ground breaking April 21, Such an analysis is important in order to evaluate how these historical figures are portrayed in historical narratives that often appear in the social studies curriculum.
Therefore, the purpose of this research is to outline similarities and differences between Jennings and Parks in order to determine whether these historical parallels are accurate. The guiding question of this research is: Among these commonalities include their family upbringing, experiences with racial violence and segregation, and the images they embodied in publicizing racial discrimination on public conveyances. First, both women were born to families of humble origin.
Although her parents were involved in prominent organizations in the free black community, they lived modest lives. Frederick Douglass noted that her father Thomas L. Jennings fought in the War of , apprenticed as a tailor, and was a boarding house operator. Thomas and Elizabeth Jen- nings had four children, one them being Elizabeth, Jr.
Rosa Parks was born into a working class family in Tuskegee, Alabama, in Correspondence between her and her father James McCauley dated indicates at some point they reconnected. She assumed many responsibilities as a child; tending to her brother, aiding her grandmother in the kitchen, and helping her grandfather who suffered from rheumatism.
Second, Parks and Jennings had intimate experiences with threats of violence that stemmed from the legacy of slavery. African Americans were denied the right to vote, hold public office, testify in court, enter interracial marriages, and have access public facilities such as theaters, mass transit and schools Gellman She stated in her testimony, which was read to her church congregation: He [the conductor] then said I should come out and he would put me out … he took hold of me and I took hold of the window sash and held on; he pulled me until he broke my grasp….
Parks also lived with fear of imminent racial violence growing up in Alabama. She stated: The KKK moved through the country where we lived burning churches, schools, flogging, and killing.
Grandfather stayed up to wait for them to come into our house. He kept his shotgun within reach at all times. My aunt and cousins came to our house at night.
We could not … go to bed at night. The doors and windows were boarded and nailed tight from the inside. I stayed awake many nights keeping vigil with Grandpa Parks, nd.
Third, Jennings and Parks were involved in Black Freedom activism before their publicized protests to transit segregation.
As a young woman, Jennings was associated with abolitionist causes as an organist at her church. Consequently, Jennings must have been aware of her role in advocating for the equal rights of African Americans as an organist and teacher. Moreover, Parks had a history with the bus driver who called police to have her arrested on December 1, Parks recalled: That particular day was not the first time I had trouble with that particular driver.
He evicted me before, because I would not go around to the back door after I was already onto the bus. The evening that I boarded the bus, and noticed that he was the same driver, I decided to get on anyway. Although their actions were not part of larger planned protests, McGuire states that Parks seized an opportunity to resist segregation ordi- nances that fateful day in According to Stewart , Ralph D.
Parks] to become a symbolic of our protest movement 93— The LRA was instrumental in raising funds to hire the Culver firm and publicizing her ordeal on the streetcar in abolitionist newspapers run by Horace Greeley and Frederick Doug- lass. Moreover, Jennings was also aware of her class status. Judge Rockwell ruled that the Third Avenue Railway Company violated common carrier laws, which stipulated that all paying passengers on public conveyances had an expectation of punctual and safe accommodations Welke , These similarities highlight historic parallels between Parks and Jen- nings in two ways.
First, both were African American women who were educated and aware of racial discrimination and methods of protest. They were well-connected to organizations that supported their challenges to segregation on public transportationand garnered praise from notable civil rights leaders. As a result, they are credited with laying the groundwork for other activists to continue their work of achieving civil rights for African Americans and other disenfran- chised citizens.
However, there are also significant differences between them. These differences include their socio-economic statuses, how they were effected by their respective acts of resistance, and their por- trayals in Black Freedom narratives that often appear in the social studies curriculum.
First, Jennings and Parks hailed from very dissimilar socio-economic backgrounds. These family obligations caused her to cease her formal schooling when she was a teenager.
Second, Jennings and Parks experienced the effects of their acts of resis- tance in starkly different ways.
Jennings was never arrested after being ejected from the streetcar and continued to teach, even after getting married and having a child.
Typically, women during the 19th century who married had to give up their teaching jobs; however, Jennings remained employed under her married name with a child. She remained involved in matters of civil rights and education in her old age by becoming a co-founder of the first black kindergarten in PERROTTA her ordeal with the death of her parents, son, and husband, she had ample political, financial, and social support in pursuing her lawsuit, career, and family life.
Rosa Parks did not have an easy life after her arrest. She was charged with violating Chapter 6 section 11 of the Montgomery City Code of which stipulates: It shall be unlawful for any passenger to refuse or fail to take a seat among those assigned to the race to which he belongs, at the request of any such employee in charge, if there is such a seat vacant http: Although her conviction was overturned, Parks endured being apprehended, fingerprinted, had her mug shot taken, and held in jail until she made bail.
This experience posed major repercussions for her and her husband. After the Boycott, Rosa and Raymond lost their jobs. The couple struggled economically, moving to Virginia and eventually settling in Michigan. Additionally, both were plagued with serious health issues. Rosa suffered from ulcers, and Raymond passed away in Theoharis Third, an important difference between Parks and Jennings is that the former is a famous historical figure, but the latter is not. There are a few reasons why Jennings is not a widely recognized person in United States history.
The rise of television during the s provided a medium for Americans to see the news unfold in places in the country that were far away from where they lived. Images of police brutality, the speeches of leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. Another factor for the limited availability of primary sources on Jen- nings is that few documents written by or about her exist. Perrotta and Bohan also acknowledge in their biography of Jennings that limited documents about Jennings are accessible.
Since , more docu- ments have become available. The Kansas Historical Society possesses an article by H.
Cordelia Ray about the first black kindergarten Jennings was involved in co-founding in Manhattan. New York City Direc- tories and U. Sources accessed from Ancestry. Both women were well-connected with influential organizations that supported their actions and organized local action to challenge and overturn segregation- ist policies concerning public transportation. Other black women, such as Claudette Colvin and the unnamed woman from New York, were subjected to ejection from mass transit, yet they are either unknown or relegated to being a footnote in historical narratives.
Parks and Jennings are different in several key aspects. Jennings came from a prominent abolitionist family with important ties to church and abolitionist groups that raised funds to hire the prominent Culver law firm to represent her case in New York Supreme Court.
She had financial and political resources at her disposal that supported her after her ejection from the streetcar and in her career as a teacher even after she was married with a child. Parks, however, did not possess the same socio-economic resources Jennings did.
She and her husband suffered from unemploy- ment, financial stress, and illness after her arrest, eventually relocating to Michigan. Parks remains an iconic civil rights figure greatly in part to the fact her arrest and the Montgomery Bus Boycott was photographed and nationally televised. However, the different socio-economic and political backgrounds from which Parks and Jennings came from highlights how the experiences of black activists were more nuanced with regard to how they personally benefitted and suf- fered as a result of their actions.
Contextualization is a major aspect of historical inquiry. Although contextualization is important to promote historical inquiry, many learning standards and curricular materials lack thorough analysis of the historical contexts in which historical people lived. These examples are problematic, for without thorough contextualiza- tion, students can learn a sanitized history that renders figures like Rosa Parks and Elizabeth Jennings as exceptions to the broader experiences and contributions of others throughout history.
Education history scholars and instructors can mitigate misrepresenta- tion of comparisons between Rosa Parks and Elizabeth Jennings in several ways. First, Bickford and Scheutte encourage educators to be aware of gaps in the historical contexts in order to foster critical thinking in historical research and instruction. He supported Rosa's desire to complete her formal education, and she received her high school diploma in Parks was an early activist in the effort to free the "Scottsboro Boys," a celebrated case in the s.
He was an active member and she served as secretary and later youth leader of the local branch. At the time of her arrest, she was preparing for a major youth conference. After the arrest of Rosa Parks, black people of Montgomery and sympathizers of other races organized and promoted a boycott of the city bus line that lasted days.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Contingent with the protest in Montgomery, others took shape throughout the south and the country. They took form as sit-ins, eat-ins, swim-ins and similar methods. | 2,546 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How to Build a 3-Year-Old's Self Esteem
The life of your 3-year-old is pretty exciting. Every day she learns something new, finds new uses for old items and she becomes smarter and more adorable – especially in your eyes. This is an important age for your toddler’s self-esteem. Everything you say to her and in front of her can either help to build her self-esteem or break it down. Self-esteem is simply a measure of how much your child values her self-worth 1. Your words and actions are more important than ever before, because building your toddler’s self-esteem now could have a lasting effect on the rest of her life.
Affection and Attention
According to the University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension, 3-year-olds acquire self-esteem by being loved and encouraged in their efforts by their parents and other caregivers, according to a fact sheet from the University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension. When you give him plenty of hugs, kisses and affection you are helping to build his self-esteem. When he knows that he’s loved, he has no room for self-doubt -- self-doubt can have a negative effect on his self-esteem. Thoughts of self-doubt are those pervasive thoughts of negative self-talk, such as "I'm no good" or "I can't do anything right," according to Kids Health. When a child has good self-esteem, he says, "I don't understand this" rather than "I'm stupid, according to Kids Health 1. Kids with healthy self-esteem have a sense of optimism rather than pessimism..
Role Model for Positivity
Pay careful attention to what you say and how you say it whether you are talking to your toddler or simply in front of him, according to Kids Health. You can help to build your 3-year-old’s self-esteem by maintaining positivity and encouragement. For example, if she tries to build a fort with a blanket and some dining room chairs and continuously fails, don’t tell her that she’s doing it wrong. Tell her that you’re proud of her for putting so much effort into her fort even if it didn’t turn out the way she wanted. You can then ask her if she’d like a little help with the building process.
Doing Things for Himself
Three-year-olds feel a sense of accomplishment when they do things on their own with no help. Let him do a few things on his own, such as making his bed or picking out his own clothes, advises the University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension. His bed-making skills at 3 will not be as developed as when he's older, but the purpose of this exercise is to help him build his own self-esteem. When you allow him to do things like this, he feels proud of himself and that helps to build his self-esteem in a positive manner. Even if he fails the first few times at performing a task, when he does succeed, he'll have developed an idea of his own capabilities, according to Kids Health.
A Happy Home
If your child lives in a house in which you and her dad fight all the time -- or a home in which she doesn’t feel safe, the marital situation or other factors relating to safety may negatively affect her self-esteem level, according to Kids Health 1. A child exposed to frequently arguing parents may feel helpless over his environment and he may become depressed. On the other hand, in a happy, well-adjusted home environment, your 3-year-old is more likely to learn positive self-esteem. Make sure home is a happy, healthy one for your 3-year-old.
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-0.019653752... | 2 | How to Build a 3-Year-Old's Self Esteem
The life of your 3-year-old is pretty exciting. Every day she learns something new, finds new uses for old items and she becomes smarter and more adorable – especially in your eyes. This is an important age for your toddler’s self-esteem. Everything you say to her and in front of her can either help to build her self-esteem or break it down. Self-esteem is simply a measure of how much your child values her self-worth 1. Your words and actions are more important than ever before, because building your toddler’s self-esteem now could have a lasting effect on the rest of her life.
Affection and Attention
According to the University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension, 3-year-olds acquire self-esteem by being loved and encouraged in their efforts by their parents and other caregivers, according to a fact sheet from the University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension. When you give him plenty of hugs, kisses and affection you are helping to build his self-esteem. When he knows that he’s loved, he has no room for self-doubt -- self-doubt can have a negative effect on his self-esteem. Thoughts of self-doubt are those pervasive thoughts of negative self-talk, such as "I'm no good" or "I can't do anything right," according to Kids Health. When a child has good self-esteem, he says, "I don't understand this" rather than "I'm stupid, according to Kids Health 1. Kids with healthy self-esteem have a sense of optimism rather than pessimism..
Role Model for Positivity
Pay careful attention to what you say and how you say it whether you are talking to your toddler or simply in front of him, according to Kids Health. You can help to build your 3-year-old’s self-esteem by maintaining positivity and encouragement. For example, if she tries to build a fort with a blanket and some dining room chairs and continuously fails, don’t tell her that she’s doing it wrong. Tell her that you’re proud of her for putting so much effort into her fort even if it didn’t turn out the way she wanted. You can then ask her if she’d like a little help with the building process.
Doing Things for Himself
Three-year-olds feel a sense of accomplishment when they do things on their own with no help. Let him do a few things on his own, such as making his bed or picking out his own clothes, advises the University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension. His bed-making skills at 3 will not be as developed as when he's older, but the purpose of this exercise is to help him build his own self-esteem. When you allow him to do things like this, he feels proud of himself and that helps to build his self-esteem in a positive manner. Even if he fails the first few times at performing a task, when he does succeed, he'll have developed an idea of his own capabilities, according to Kids Health.
A Happy Home
If your child lives in a house in which you and her dad fight all the time -- or a home in which she doesn’t feel safe, the marital situation or other factors relating to safety may negatively affect her self-esteem level, according to Kids Health 1. A child exposed to frequently arguing parents may feel helpless over his environment and he may become depressed. On the other hand, in a happy, well-adjusted home environment, your 3-year-old is more likely to learn positive self-esteem. Make sure home is a happy, healthy one for your 3-year-old.
- PhotoObjects.net/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images | 741 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By early June 1944, the Battle of Britain had long been won. Luftwaffe bombing attacks on the island, no longer a major threat, were replaced by a rain of V-1 buzz bombs–pilotless aircraft that carried one-ton bombs, their inaccuracy limiting them to area targets. The first buzz-bomb attack came on June 13, 1944. It was no surprise to Allied intelligence, which had been keeping a close watch on launch-site construction in northern France. The Army Air Forces had lost 79 aircraft in sorties against the sites before the first V-1 was launched. They were not easy targets.
Some 2,000 V-1s were launched against the UK, primarily the London area, by the end of June. Loss of life and property damage were extensive. Estimates vary widely, some as high as 6,000 killed, 17,000 injured, and more than a million left homeless. This use of unmanned weapons marked a new phase of warfare, against which there was no good active defense. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill persuaded Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower to give the launching sites top priority, with 50 percent of Allied heavy bomber and many tactical air missions targeted against them in Operation Crossbow.
On July 8, 1944, the 398th Bomb Group, based at Nuthampstead, Hertfordshire, UK, and other 1st Air Division groups were dispatched against V-1 targets. It looked like an easy mission–good weather, no fighter opposition anticipated, and flak expected to be light. The group was led by Capt. Tracy Petersen, flying with Capt. Hal Lamb and his crew. Deputy lead was Capt. Kearier Berry. Some surprises lay ahead.
All went well as the formation crossed the English channel and made landfall. Then, as they left the initial point and approached their target, things began to turn sour. The formation was hit by a heavy barrage of accurate flak, concentrated on the three B-17 Flying Fortresses in the lead element. Oil poured from the two damaged engines of Captain Petersen’s aircraft; the deputy lead completely lost two engines, suffered other major damage, and had to drop out of the formation. The number three B-17 disappeared.
Captain Petersen elected to continue the bomb run, getting what little power he could from the damaged engines that momentarily would run out of oil to feather the props. With great difficulty, the formation held together, if only raggedly.
After bombs away, the lead aircraft took more hits, losing a third engine. With two windmilling props that could not be feathered and one that could be, Petersen’s B-17 headed back across the cold waters of the channel, steadily losing altitude. The crew members threw out everything not bolted down, hoping to make the Royal Canadian Air Force strip at Manston, the closest friendly base. Air-Sea Rescue was informed they might have to ditch. As they approached the English coast, it was clear they were several hundred feet too low to clear the bluffs that stood between them and Manston. Ditching was out because of heavy surf. They would have to belly-in on the beach.
Here, another unforeseen problem arose: The beach was full of concrete posts–tank traps that had been erected when a German invasion seemed likely. The crew had already weathered a left turn into the two dead engines–not a prescription for long life. Now what? Lifting first one wing then the other to avoid the posts, they finally saw a clear stretch of beach ahead of them. Hal Lamb and Tracy Petersen made a gentle wheels-up landing after a masterful job of flying.
As the jubilant crew poured out of the B-17, observers near the beach shouted to them that they were between two mine fields and should not move until a guide could lead them to safety. Thanks to crew teamwork and a bit of luck, they had survived another brush with disaster. A 398th Bomb Group aircraft soon picked them up at Manston, uninjured, except for the radio operator, who had been slightly wounded by flak. Not your average July day.
Later, they learned that Captain Berry’s crew had been forced to bail out over the channel. The last to leave the aircraft, Berry hit the water in sight of a rock formation along the British coast, a destination he reached after an exhausting three-hour swim. Moments after he emerged from the water, he heard an aircraft approaching. It was a fighter, blinking lights along the leading edge of its wing, headed directly for him. Its machine guns fired at him. Berry headed back into the water. Belatedly, the Spitfire pilot recognized that he had been firing at a human target. He called Air-Sea Rescue, which retrieved Berry from his hot spot, which turned out to be a gunnery range.
The rest of his crew also survived the bailout. All other 398th Bomb Group B-17s made it back to the UK that day, some with battle damage.
Although Crossbow has had relatively little attention in the postwar years, it was a major Allied bombing campaign. Nazi Germany hoped the V-1 and V-2 attacks would stem the tide of war that was running against them. They did not, thanks to hundreds of Allied heavy and medium strikes on launching, storage, and production facilities. The hazards of the mission flown by the Petersen-Lamb and Berry crews on July 8, 1944, were typical of that campaign, but not all missions had such welcome endings.
Thanks to Herbert F. Mellor, president, and Virginia Leitch, assistant administrator, of the McChord Air Museum Foundation, McChord AFB, Wash.
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0.431342244148... | 9 | By early June 1944, the Battle of Britain had long been won. Luftwaffe bombing attacks on the island, no longer a major threat, were replaced by a rain of V-1 buzz bombs–pilotless aircraft that carried one-ton bombs, their inaccuracy limiting them to area targets. The first buzz-bomb attack came on June 13, 1944. It was no surprise to Allied intelligence, which had been keeping a close watch on launch-site construction in northern France. The Army Air Forces had lost 79 aircraft in sorties against the sites before the first V-1 was launched. They were not easy targets.
Some 2,000 V-1s were launched against the UK, primarily the London area, by the end of June. Loss of life and property damage were extensive. Estimates vary widely, some as high as 6,000 killed, 17,000 injured, and more than a million left homeless. This use of unmanned weapons marked a new phase of warfare, against which there was no good active defense. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill persuaded Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower to give the launching sites top priority, with 50 percent of Allied heavy bomber and many tactical air missions targeted against them in Operation Crossbow.
On July 8, 1944, the 398th Bomb Group, based at Nuthampstead, Hertfordshire, UK, and other 1st Air Division groups were dispatched against V-1 targets. It looked like an easy mission–good weather, no fighter opposition anticipated, and flak expected to be light. The group was led by Capt. Tracy Petersen, flying with Capt. Hal Lamb and his crew. Deputy lead was Capt. Kearier Berry. Some surprises lay ahead.
All went well as the formation crossed the English channel and made landfall. Then, as they left the initial point and approached their target, things began to turn sour. The formation was hit by a heavy barrage of accurate flak, concentrated on the three B-17 Flying Fortresses in the lead element. Oil poured from the two damaged engines of Captain Petersen’s aircraft; the deputy lead completely lost two engines, suffered other major damage, and had to drop out of the formation. The number three B-17 disappeared.
Captain Petersen elected to continue the bomb run, getting what little power he could from the damaged engines that momentarily would run out of oil to feather the props. With great difficulty, the formation held together, if only raggedly.
After bombs away, the lead aircraft took more hits, losing a third engine. With two windmilling props that could not be feathered and one that could be, Petersen’s B-17 headed back across the cold waters of the channel, steadily losing altitude. The crew members threw out everything not bolted down, hoping to make the Royal Canadian Air Force strip at Manston, the closest friendly base. Air-Sea Rescue was informed they might have to ditch. As they approached the English coast, it was clear they were several hundred feet too low to clear the bluffs that stood between them and Manston. Ditching was out because of heavy surf. They would have to belly-in on the beach.
Here, another unforeseen problem arose: The beach was full of concrete posts–tank traps that had been erected when a German invasion seemed likely. The crew had already weathered a left turn into the two dead engines–not a prescription for long life. Now what? Lifting first one wing then the other to avoid the posts, they finally saw a clear stretch of beach ahead of them. Hal Lamb and Tracy Petersen made a gentle wheels-up landing after a masterful job of flying.
As the jubilant crew poured out of the B-17, observers near the beach shouted to them that they were between two mine fields and should not move until a guide could lead them to safety. Thanks to crew teamwork and a bit of luck, they had survived another brush with disaster. A 398th Bomb Group aircraft soon picked them up at Manston, uninjured, except for the radio operator, who had been slightly wounded by flak. Not your average July day.
Later, they learned that Captain Berry’s crew had been forced to bail out over the channel. The last to leave the aircraft, Berry hit the water in sight of a rock formation along the British coast, a destination he reached after an exhausting three-hour swim. Moments after he emerged from the water, he heard an aircraft approaching. It was a fighter, blinking lights along the leading edge of its wing, headed directly for him. Its machine guns fired at him. Berry headed back into the water. Belatedly, the Spitfire pilot recognized that he had been firing at a human target. He called Air-Sea Rescue, which retrieved Berry from his hot spot, which turned out to be a gunnery range.
The rest of his crew also survived the bailout. All other 398th Bomb Group B-17s made it back to the UK that day, some with battle damage.
Although Crossbow has had relatively little attention in the postwar years, it was a major Allied bombing campaign. Nazi Germany hoped the V-1 and V-2 attacks would stem the tide of war that was running against them. They did not, thanks to hundreds of Allied heavy and medium strikes on launching, storage, and production facilities. The hazards of the mission flown by the Petersen-Lamb and Berry crews on July 8, 1944, were typical of that campaign, but not all missions had such welcome endings.
Thanks to Herbert F. Mellor, president, and Virginia Leitch, assistant administrator, of the McChord Air Museum Foundation, McChord AFB, Wash.
Published August 1996. For presentation on this web site, some Valor articles have been amended for accuracy. | 1,230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Skyhill in 1079 took place about one mile (1.5 km) west of Ramsey, Isle of Man in 1079. This was during the third and final time that the Norse-Gael warrior Godred Crovan had invaded the island, finally taking it from the ruling king Fingal Godredson.
At the time of the battle, the Isle of Man was part of a larger political entity called the Kingdom of the Sudreys, which consisted of Mann and the Hebrides. According to the ‘Chronicles of Mann’ Godred Crovan’s father was “Harald the Black of Ysland” about whom nothing more is known. Other sources suggest he may have been a brother or son of Ivar Haraldsson who died in 1054.
In 1070 King Godred Sitricson died and his throne was passed to Fingal, but he does not seem to have remained there long. In 1079, Godred Crovan assembled a fleet and an army, probably of Norsemen from the Hebrides, and attacked the island. He was repulsed, but was soon back for a second attempt. Again he was repulsed, but later in the same year Godred Crovan came back a third time, and the Chronicles are reasonably clear as to what happened next:
A third time he gathered a massive force and came by night to the harbour which is called Ramsey, and three hundred men he hid in a wood which was on the sloping brow of the mountain called Sky Hill. At dawn the Manxmen formed up in battle order and after a massive charge joined battle with Godred. When the battle was raging vehemently, the three hundred rose from their place of hiding at their rear and began to weaken the resistance of the Manxmen and compelled them to flee. Now when they saw themselves defeated without any place for them to escape to, for the tide had filled the riverbed at Ramsey and the enemy were pressing constantly from the other side, those that were left begged Godred with pitiful cries to spare them their lives. Moved with compassion and taking pity on their plight, since he had been reared among them for some time, he called off his army and forbade them to pursue them further.
It has been suggested that Fingal died at this battle, as he disappears from the record from this time, but the otherwise detailed account neglects to mention this. The result of the battle was that the Manx submitted to Godred’s rule and a sanctioned plundering of the island was carried out by his men. The island was then divided between the north, for rule by the Manx, and the South, for rule by those from the Hebrides whom Godred had brought with him to the battle. Despite Godred then moving on to a conquest of Dublin before returning to the Hebrides, he retained rule of the island until his death in 1095. His descendants continued to rule the island for the next 74 years until 1153. Again, this is clear in the Chronicles:
Next day Godred gave his army the option of having the country divided amongst them if they preferred to remain and inhabit it, or of taking everything it contained worth having, and returning to their homes. The soldiers preferred plundering the whole island, and returning home enriched by its wealth. Godred then granted to the few islanders who had remained with him, the southern part of the island, and to the surviving Manxmen the northern portion, on condition that none of them should ever presume to claim any of the land by hereditary right.
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0.221055001020... | 8 | The Battle of Skyhill in 1079 took place about one mile (1.5 km) west of Ramsey, Isle of Man in 1079. This was during the third and final time that the Norse-Gael warrior Godred Crovan had invaded the island, finally taking it from the ruling king Fingal Godredson.
At the time of the battle, the Isle of Man was part of a larger political entity called the Kingdom of the Sudreys, which consisted of Mann and the Hebrides. According to the ‘Chronicles of Mann’ Godred Crovan’s father was “Harald the Black of Ysland” about whom nothing more is known. Other sources suggest he may have been a brother or son of Ivar Haraldsson who died in 1054.
In 1070 King Godred Sitricson died and his throne was passed to Fingal, but he does not seem to have remained there long. In 1079, Godred Crovan assembled a fleet and an army, probably of Norsemen from the Hebrides, and attacked the island. He was repulsed, but was soon back for a second attempt. Again he was repulsed, but later in the same year Godred Crovan came back a third time, and the Chronicles are reasonably clear as to what happened next:
A third time he gathered a massive force and came by night to the harbour which is called Ramsey, and three hundred men he hid in a wood which was on the sloping brow of the mountain called Sky Hill. At dawn the Manxmen formed up in battle order and after a massive charge joined battle with Godred. When the battle was raging vehemently, the three hundred rose from their place of hiding at their rear and began to weaken the resistance of the Manxmen and compelled them to flee. Now when they saw themselves defeated without any place for them to escape to, for the tide had filled the riverbed at Ramsey and the enemy were pressing constantly from the other side, those that were left begged Godred with pitiful cries to spare them their lives. Moved with compassion and taking pity on their plight, since he had been reared among them for some time, he called off his army and forbade them to pursue them further.
It has been suggested that Fingal died at this battle, as he disappears from the record from this time, but the otherwise detailed account neglects to mention this. The result of the battle was that the Manx submitted to Godred’s rule and a sanctioned plundering of the island was carried out by his men. The island was then divided between the north, for rule by the Manx, and the South, for rule by those from the Hebrides whom Godred had brought with him to the battle. Despite Godred then moving on to a conquest of Dublin before returning to the Hebrides, he retained rule of the island until his death in 1095. His descendants continued to rule the island for the next 74 years until 1153. Again, this is clear in the Chronicles:
Next day Godred gave his army the option of having the country divided amongst them if they preferred to remain and inhabit it, or of taking everything it contained worth having, and returning to their homes. The soldiers preferred plundering the whole island, and returning home enriched by its wealth. Godred then granted to the few islanders who had remained with him, the southern part of the island, and to the surviving Manxmen the northern portion, on condition that none of them should ever presume to claim any of the land by hereditary right.
(source: Chronica Regum Manniae et Insularum (The Chronicles of the Kings of Man and the Isles) and wiki) | 784 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is a bark canoe made in from a sheet of bark folded and tied at both ends with plant-fibre string. The bow (the front) is folded tightly to a point; the stern (the rear) has looser folds. The canoe was made by Albert Woodlands, an Indigenous man from the northern coast of New South Wales. It measures 310 cm in length and 45 cm in width.
Bark canoes such as this one were used by Aboriginal people for general transport, fishing and collecting birds' eggs from reed beds. When fishing in such canoes, women sat and used hooks and lines; men stood to throw spears. A small fire was kept alight in the canoe on a bed of wet clay or seaweed. This kept people warm in winter and also allowed them to cook the fish they had caught.
Canoes of this type were made from the bark of swamp she-oak Casuarina glauca, bangalay Eucalyptus botryoides or stringybark Eucalyptus agglomerata and Eucalyptus acmeniodes. These trees were chosen for bark canoe construction because they have large dominant trunks and thick fibrous bark. The tree species are common throughout Australia.
This canoe was constructed from a single piece of bark that was removed from a tree trunk using ground-edged hatchets and wooden mallets. An outline was cut in a tree, and stone wedges were inserted around the edges and left there until the bark loosened. The bark was softened with fire and folded and tied at both ends with plant-fibre string. Today, distinctive scars can be seen on trees from which bark was removed for canoe construction. These are known as 'canoe trees'.
The light material and the shallowness of the canoe made its design appropriate for use in the calm water of rivers and estuaries. It could also have been used by an experienced person in choppy water outside estuaries. Small bark paddles of about 60-90 cm were used to propel the canoes, which ranged in length from 2 m to 6 m.
Albert Woodlands, an Aboriginal man from West Kempsey on the northern coast of NSW, built the canoe for exhibition at the Australian Museum.
To repair damaged or leaking canoes, small holes were patched with resin from different species of 'Xanthorrhoea' grass trees. Large holes may have been patched with the leaves of the cabbage tree palm Livistonia australis or with 'Melaleuca' paperbark. A patch was sewn on with string or animal sinew and molten resin was used to make it watertight. | <urn:uuid:cdd722eb-dddc-4f1d-a994-737056321ab6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/cultures/atsi-collection/cultural-objects/indigenous-bark-canoe-from-new-south-wales/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.980577 | 555 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.6965487003326... | 12 | This is a bark canoe made in from a sheet of bark folded and tied at both ends with plant-fibre string. The bow (the front) is folded tightly to a point; the stern (the rear) has looser folds. The canoe was made by Albert Woodlands, an Indigenous man from the northern coast of New South Wales. It measures 310 cm in length and 45 cm in width.
Bark canoes such as this one were used by Aboriginal people for general transport, fishing and collecting birds' eggs from reed beds. When fishing in such canoes, women sat and used hooks and lines; men stood to throw spears. A small fire was kept alight in the canoe on a bed of wet clay or seaweed. This kept people warm in winter and also allowed them to cook the fish they had caught.
Canoes of this type were made from the bark of swamp she-oak Casuarina glauca, bangalay Eucalyptus botryoides or stringybark Eucalyptus agglomerata and Eucalyptus acmeniodes. These trees were chosen for bark canoe construction because they have large dominant trunks and thick fibrous bark. The tree species are common throughout Australia.
This canoe was constructed from a single piece of bark that was removed from a tree trunk using ground-edged hatchets and wooden mallets. An outline was cut in a tree, and stone wedges were inserted around the edges and left there until the bark loosened. The bark was softened with fire and folded and tied at both ends with plant-fibre string. Today, distinctive scars can be seen on trees from which bark was removed for canoe construction. These are known as 'canoe trees'.
The light material and the shallowness of the canoe made its design appropriate for use in the calm water of rivers and estuaries. It could also have been used by an experienced person in choppy water outside estuaries. Small bark paddles of about 60-90 cm were used to propel the canoes, which ranged in length from 2 m to 6 m.
Albert Woodlands, an Aboriginal man from West Kempsey on the northern coast of NSW, built the canoe for exhibition at the Australian Museum.
To repair damaged or leaking canoes, small holes were patched with resin from different species of 'Xanthorrhoea' grass trees. Large holes may have been patched with the leaves of the cabbage tree palm Livistonia australis or with 'Melaleuca' paperbark. A patch was sewn on with string or animal sinew and molten resin was used to make it watertight. | 556 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the house where President Herbert Hoover was born. The future President spent his early childhood in West Branch, which had a population of only 265 people at the time Hoover lived in Iowa. Hoover lived at this cottage until the age of nine, when the loss of his parents led to his being sent to live with an uncle in Oregon.
President Herbert Hoover, the 31st President of the United States, was born in this two-room West Branch cottage. Hoover became the first President born west of the Mississippi River. At the time of his birth, only 265 people lived in the town of West Branch. Hoover became an orphan at the age of nine, having lost his father to a heart attack when he was six his mother to pneumonia and typhoid three years later. At the age of eleven, the three Hoover siblings were separated from one another. Herbert was sent to Oregon to live with his uncle, while his two other siblings moved to live with other relatives. | <urn:uuid:f35d0043-58d6-4d88-817f-72ad3e591825> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/1350 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00045.warc.gz | en | 0.994897 | 195 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3720958530902862... | 2 | This is the house where President Herbert Hoover was born. The future President spent his early childhood in West Branch, which had a population of only 265 people at the time Hoover lived in Iowa. Hoover lived at this cottage until the age of nine, when the loss of his parents led to his being sent to live with an uncle in Oregon.
President Herbert Hoover, the 31st President of the United States, was born in this two-room West Branch cottage. Hoover became the first President born west of the Mississippi River. At the time of his birth, only 265 people lived in the town of West Branch. Hoover became an orphan at the age of nine, having lost his father to a heart attack when he was six his mother to pneumonia and typhoid three years later. At the age of eleven, the three Hoover siblings were separated from one another. Herbert was sent to Oregon to live with his uncle, while his two other siblings moved to live with other relatives. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Shakespeare (Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, United Kingdom c. Apr. 26, 1564) was a playwright, poet and English actor. Sometimes known as the Bard of Avon (or simply The Bard), Shakespeare is considered the greatest writer in the English language and one of the most famous in the world literature.
The New Encyclopædia Britannica says that "many consider him the greatest playwright of all time. Their pieces [...] are represented more often and in more nations than any other writer."
Shakespeare's plays have been translated into the major languages and his plays still being represented worldwide. Also, many quotations and aphorisms of his works have become part of everyday use, both in English and other languages. Over time, there has been much speculation about his life, questioning his sexuality, religious affiliation, and even the authorship of his works. | <urn:uuid:5991ceea-f3e1-4201-a279-4b5f22482ccc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herder.com.mx/en/autores-writers/william-shakespeare | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.985974 | 186 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.200255557894706... | 5 | William Shakespeare (Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, United Kingdom c. Apr. 26, 1564) was a playwright, poet and English actor. Sometimes known as the Bard of Avon (or simply The Bard), Shakespeare is considered the greatest writer in the English language and one of the most famous in the world literature.
The New Encyclopædia Britannica says that "many consider him the greatest playwright of all time. Their pieces [...] are represented more often and in more nations than any other writer."
Shakespeare's plays have been translated into the major languages and his plays still being represented worldwide. Also, many quotations and aphorisms of his works have become part of everyday use, both in English and other languages. Over time, there has been much speculation about his life, questioning his sexuality, religious affiliation, and even the authorship of his works. | 184 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of West Virginia is filled with stories of religious diversity — of hermits and holy men and women who escaped the clamor and confines of civilization. Beyond the edge of the American frontier, its sheltered valleys promised both freedom and isolation in a potential Garden of Eden. That promise was not always fulfilled.
One such story is that of the Eckerlin Brothers, who were Dunkards, a branch of Anabaptists, as are the Amish and Mennonites. The Dunkards were known for fully immersing, or dunking, their baptized. Dunkard Creek, in Monongalia County, and Dunkard Bottom, in Preston County, are both named for the Eckerlins, who were the first Europeans believed to have settled in the vast wilderness west of the Allegheny Mountains.
The following version of this history is recounted in the "Chronicum Ephratense," written by a monk of Dunkard faith in 1789, according to a citation in the West Virginia Heritage Encyclopedia, Vol. 7, pages 1420-1421. There seem to be many varied versions of the tale. (The surname Eckerlin is also spelled Eckerly and Eckarly in other accounts, and the given names of the brothers included in these records vary as well.)
Michael Eckerlin, a councilman of Strasbourg, Germany, left the Roman Catholic church and professed his faith of the German Baptists, or Anabaptists, also known as the Dunkards. After his death, his wife and four sons emigrated to America, reaching Philadelphia around 1725.
Three of the children — Israel, Samuel, and Gabriel — were baptized into a Dunkard church, which later became a monastic community, and took as their names Onesimus, Jephune, and Jotham (or Jonathan) sometime between 1728 and 1732.
In the latter years the brothers and a number of others, known as The Solitary Brethren, moved into a cloister called Zion at Ephrata, Pa. The Brethren, both men and women, held all property in common, and marriage was forbidden.
Onesimus became the prior of Zion, but as such he caused controversy among the brethren because of his desire to expand the order and construct additional buildings and a bell tower at the cloister, a desire which was called "vanity" by the others. After a time an open conflict developed, and the Eckerlin brothers departed from the group, journeying into the Allegheny Mountains until they reached the New River [near present day Pulaski, Va.], where they built huts at a place they called "Mahanaim."
Thus the Eckerlins were among the first (if not the first) settlers west of the Alleghenies. Others joined them briefly but later returned to Ephrata or to the secular communities from which they had come, reporting that the Indians made life in the wilderness untenable — but the Eckerlin brothers stayed on.
The Eckerlins had varying occupations. Jephune attended to the border people as a physician. Onesimus spent most of his time writing. And Jotham, for a while, did all the hunting until he was order to stop by Onesimus, who believed that such activity was unseemly for a monk. In 1750 Onesimus and Jotham returned to Ephrata for a visit but soon came back to the New River, despite the rigors of a bad winter and heavy snow.
When the first land grants were made by Indians in the Ohio Valley, Onesimus requested leave of the Six Nations to settle on the Youghioghany River but was told he must apply to the Onondaga council and be recommended by the governor of Pennsylvania.
Unwilling to return to Philadelphia for that purpose, the brother applied to Christopher Gist, land agent of the Ohio Company, and received a tract on the Monongahela on what is still known as Dunkards Creek.
In 1753 or 1754 the brothers moved to Cheat River in what is now Preston County, led by friendly Delaware to a remote area now known as Dunkard's Bottom [near Kingwood] where they expected to be safe from the French and hostile Indians. Here they proposed to build their hermitage, which they proposed to develop into a religious community.
The brothers raised horses and cleared the land, and there is even a tradition that they were planning to develop a gold and silver mine.
But their solitude was short-lived. A band of Iroquois raided the settlement and took everything, including the carpets and the clothes the brothers wore on their backs.
Meanwhile, the settlers of the South Branch Valley began to fear that the brothers were in league with the Indians and agitated successfully to prevent the Ecklerlins from getting legal title to the land on which they were living.
When the brothers came to the valley for supplies, they were arrested, and for a time Onesimus was held prisoner in one of their forts [Fort Pleasant near Moorefield], although he was later allowed to return.
But the end came in 1758 when Jephune was marched back from the South Branch under armed guard, the settlers having determined to dissolved the hermitage and escort the brothers back east.
As they approached the settlement, Jephune and his escort saw it attacked by Mohawk under the command of a French officer. Onesimus and Jotham were taken prisoner, the monastery was set on fire, and Jephune returned to civilization with his guards.
Onesimus and Jotham were taken to Fort DuQuesne (now Pittsburgh) where they were sold to the French and were reasonably well-treated afterwards as their captors respected religious men and monks in particular.
However, France and England were at war, so there was no hope of their return to any English settlement. They were taken to Canada and then to France where Onesumus became converted to Catholicism and became a monk known as "Le Bon Chretien."
Both brothers died soon afterward. Jephune, according to tradition, spent his last days in Easton, Pa., among the Dunkards there. | <urn:uuid:da2ed2a7-ba0b-4526-9191-e74d49e79baa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wvexplorer.com/2017/03/19/strange-tale-of-eckerlin-brothers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.98643 | 1,279 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.209284022... | 7 | The history of West Virginia is filled with stories of religious diversity — of hermits and holy men and women who escaped the clamor and confines of civilization. Beyond the edge of the American frontier, its sheltered valleys promised both freedom and isolation in a potential Garden of Eden. That promise was not always fulfilled.
One such story is that of the Eckerlin Brothers, who were Dunkards, a branch of Anabaptists, as are the Amish and Mennonites. The Dunkards were known for fully immersing, or dunking, their baptized. Dunkard Creek, in Monongalia County, and Dunkard Bottom, in Preston County, are both named for the Eckerlins, who were the first Europeans believed to have settled in the vast wilderness west of the Allegheny Mountains.
The following version of this history is recounted in the "Chronicum Ephratense," written by a monk of Dunkard faith in 1789, according to a citation in the West Virginia Heritage Encyclopedia, Vol. 7, pages 1420-1421. There seem to be many varied versions of the tale. (The surname Eckerlin is also spelled Eckerly and Eckarly in other accounts, and the given names of the brothers included in these records vary as well.)
Michael Eckerlin, a councilman of Strasbourg, Germany, left the Roman Catholic church and professed his faith of the German Baptists, or Anabaptists, also known as the Dunkards. After his death, his wife and four sons emigrated to America, reaching Philadelphia around 1725.
Three of the children — Israel, Samuel, and Gabriel — were baptized into a Dunkard church, which later became a monastic community, and took as their names Onesimus, Jephune, and Jotham (or Jonathan) sometime between 1728 and 1732.
In the latter years the brothers and a number of others, known as The Solitary Brethren, moved into a cloister called Zion at Ephrata, Pa. The Brethren, both men and women, held all property in common, and marriage was forbidden.
Onesimus became the prior of Zion, but as such he caused controversy among the brethren because of his desire to expand the order and construct additional buildings and a bell tower at the cloister, a desire which was called "vanity" by the others. After a time an open conflict developed, and the Eckerlin brothers departed from the group, journeying into the Allegheny Mountains until they reached the New River [near present day Pulaski, Va.], where they built huts at a place they called "Mahanaim."
Thus the Eckerlins were among the first (if not the first) settlers west of the Alleghenies. Others joined them briefly but later returned to Ephrata or to the secular communities from which they had come, reporting that the Indians made life in the wilderness untenable — but the Eckerlin brothers stayed on.
The Eckerlins had varying occupations. Jephune attended to the border people as a physician. Onesimus spent most of his time writing. And Jotham, for a while, did all the hunting until he was order to stop by Onesimus, who believed that such activity was unseemly for a monk. In 1750 Onesimus and Jotham returned to Ephrata for a visit but soon came back to the New River, despite the rigors of a bad winter and heavy snow.
When the first land grants were made by Indians in the Ohio Valley, Onesimus requested leave of the Six Nations to settle on the Youghioghany River but was told he must apply to the Onondaga council and be recommended by the governor of Pennsylvania.
Unwilling to return to Philadelphia for that purpose, the brother applied to Christopher Gist, land agent of the Ohio Company, and received a tract on the Monongahela on what is still known as Dunkards Creek.
In 1753 or 1754 the brothers moved to Cheat River in what is now Preston County, led by friendly Delaware to a remote area now known as Dunkard's Bottom [near Kingwood] where they expected to be safe from the French and hostile Indians. Here they proposed to build their hermitage, which they proposed to develop into a religious community.
The brothers raised horses and cleared the land, and there is even a tradition that they were planning to develop a gold and silver mine.
But their solitude was short-lived. A band of Iroquois raided the settlement and took everything, including the carpets and the clothes the brothers wore on their backs.
Meanwhile, the settlers of the South Branch Valley began to fear that the brothers were in league with the Indians and agitated successfully to prevent the Ecklerlins from getting legal title to the land on which they were living.
When the brothers came to the valley for supplies, they were arrested, and for a time Onesimus was held prisoner in one of their forts [Fort Pleasant near Moorefield], although he was later allowed to return.
But the end came in 1758 when Jephune was marched back from the South Branch under armed guard, the settlers having determined to dissolved the hermitage and escort the brothers back east.
As they approached the settlement, Jephune and his escort saw it attacked by Mohawk under the command of a French officer. Onesimus and Jotham were taken prisoner, the monastery was set on fire, and Jephune returned to civilization with his guards.
Onesimus and Jotham were taken to Fort DuQuesne (now Pittsburgh) where they were sold to the French and were reasonably well-treated afterwards as their captors respected religious men and monks in particular.
However, France and England were at war, so there was no hope of their return to any English settlement. They were taken to Canada and then to France where Onesumus became converted to Catholicism and became a monk known as "Le Bon Chretien."
Both brothers died soon afterward. Jephune, according to tradition, spent his last days in Easton, Pa., among the Dunkards there. | 1,290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At a Glance
Herman Melville, the author of Moby Dick, certainly didn't lack for an active imagination, but many of the bawdy, swashbuckling stories that he created actually did stem from his own experiences. Born into a respected colonial family that had come upon hard times, Melville timidly began his adult life as a schoolteacher, but he quickly found that occupation too stifling. Following a dream, he set off to sea, experiencing firsthand the harsh, brutal reality of life on ocean vessels, and he even lived for a time among island cannibals. Upon his return, he embarked on a career as a writer, coloring works such as Billy Budd with details from his adventures. Often unappreciated during his lifetime, Melville is now recognized as one of America’s greatest authors.
Facts and Trivia
- Melville sailed on at least five different ships—the Saint Lawrence, the Acushnet, the Lucy Ann, the Charles and Henry, and the United States. He ended his service on two of them by deserting.
- Although Melville enjoyed some success as an author during his life, early novels such as Typee and Omoo were regarded simply as interesting travelogues, not the work of a serious writer.
- Along with eleven books of fiction, Melville also wrote and published poetry. In fact, his Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land is considered the longest poem in American literature. Some current editions of Clarel are over nine hundred pages!
- Melville’s most celebrated work remains Moby Dick, but early readers of the novel about the giant whale were not very kind. Here is what one critic had to say in 1852: “If there are any of our readers who wish to find examples of bad rhetoric, involved syntax, stilted sentiment and incoherent English, we will take the liberty of recommending to them this precious volume of Mr. Melville’s.”
- Fame was indeed a fickle mistress to Herman Melville. When he died in 1891, the New York Times obituaries listed his name as “Henry Melville.”
Article abstract: With great power and insight into man’s ambiguous nature, Melville helped prove that American literature could equal that of England.
Herman Melville was born August 1, 1819, in New York City, the second son of Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill. (The final e was added after Allan’s death in 1832, perhaps to indicate the family’s connection with the aristocratic Melville clan of Scotland.) He grew up in the shadow of his older brother, Gansevoort, for whom the family had high expectations. In contrast, his mother found seven-year-old Herman “very backward in speech and somewhat slow in comprehension.” The Melvills wanted all of their children to excel because of the family’s prominence. Maria’s father was considered the richest man in Albany, New York, a Revolutionary War hero after whom a New York City street was named, and Allan’s father participated in the Boston Tea Party. Allan Melvill did his best to keep up the appearance of prosperous respectability, moving several times to larger and more comfortable houses in better Manhattan neighborhoods, yet this surface prosperity belied his problems with his business, importing fine French dry goods. In 1830, he closed his shop and moved the family to Albany, leaving unpaid bills behind.
Allan’s worries about his new Albany business drove him mad just before he died in January, 1832, and his two oldest sons had to go to work. (Maria was left with four sons and four daughters.) While sixteen-year-old Gansevoort took over his father’s fur store and factory, Herman became a bank clerk. He wanted more than a career in commerce, however, and quit the bank in 1835 to work in the family store while attending the Albany Classical School. In 1837, he qualified to be a teacher and was in charge of a one-room school near Pittsfield, Massachusetts, for one term.
After his family moved to Lansingburgh, New York, in 1838, Melville studied engineering and surveying at the Lansingburgh Academy. After failing to obtain a job on the...
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0.15579755... | 1 | At a Glance
Herman Melville, the author of Moby Dick, certainly didn't lack for an active imagination, but many of the bawdy, swashbuckling stories that he created actually did stem from his own experiences. Born into a respected colonial family that had come upon hard times, Melville timidly began his adult life as a schoolteacher, but he quickly found that occupation too stifling. Following a dream, he set off to sea, experiencing firsthand the harsh, brutal reality of life on ocean vessels, and he even lived for a time among island cannibals. Upon his return, he embarked on a career as a writer, coloring works such as Billy Budd with details from his adventures. Often unappreciated during his lifetime, Melville is now recognized as one of America’s greatest authors.
Facts and Trivia
- Melville sailed on at least five different ships—the Saint Lawrence, the Acushnet, the Lucy Ann, the Charles and Henry, and the United States. He ended his service on two of them by deserting.
- Although Melville enjoyed some success as an author during his life, early novels such as Typee and Omoo were regarded simply as interesting travelogues, not the work of a serious writer.
- Along with eleven books of fiction, Melville also wrote and published poetry. In fact, his Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land is considered the longest poem in American literature. Some current editions of Clarel are over nine hundred pages!
- Melville’s most celebrated work remains Moby Dick, but early readers of the novel about the giant whale were not very kind. Here is what one critic had to say in 1852: “If there are any of our readers who wish to find examples of bad rhetoric, involved syntax, stilted sentiment and incoherent English, we will take the liberty of recommending to them this precious volume of Mr. Melville’s.”
- Fame was indeed a fickle mistress to Herman Melville. When he died in 1891, the New York Times obituaries listed his name as “Henry Melville.”
Article abstract: With great power and insight into man’s ambiguous nature, Melville helped prove that American literature could equal that of England.
Herman Melville was born August 1, 1819, in New York City, the second son of Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill. (The final e was added after Allan’s death in 1832, perhaps to indicate the family’s connection with the aristocratic Melville clan of Scotland.) He grew up in the shadow of his older brother, Gansevoort, for whom the family had high expectations. In contrast, his mother found seven-year-old Herman “very backward in speech and somewhat slow in comprehension.” The Melvills wanted all of their children to excel because of the family’s prominence. Maria’s father was considered the richest man in Albany, New York, a Revolutionary War hero after whom a New York City street was named, and Allan’s father participated in the Boston Tea Party. Allan Melvill did his best to keep up the appearance of prosperous respectability, moving several times to larger and more comfortable houses in better Manhattan neighborhoods, yet this surface prosperity belied his problems with his business, importing fine French dry goods. In 1830, he closed his shop and moved the family to Albany, leaving unpaid bills behind.
Allan’s worries about his new Albany business drove him mad just before he died in January, 1832, and his two oldest sons had to go to work. (Maria was left with four sons and four daughters.) While sixteen-year-old Gansevoort took over his father’s fur store and factory, Herman became a bank clerk. He wanted more than a career in commerce, however, and quit the bank in 1835 to work in the family store while attending the Albany Classical School. In 1837, he qualified to be a teacher and was in charge of a one-room school near Pittsfield, Massachusetts, for one term.
After his family moved to Lansingburgh, New York, in 1838, Melville studied engineering and surveying at the Lansingburgh Academy. After failing to obtain a job on the...
(The entire section is 4,501 words.) | 907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This limestone is from the Dinantian epoch of the Lower Carboniferous. It was laid down approximately 350 million years ago in semi tropical seas. It is made up from the calcium rich shells, bones & skeletons of the fauna that was prevalent at that time. Some of their remains can be seen as well preserved fossils. Crinoid fossils are usually fragmented as they were quite delicate in life & tended to be broken up by currents after death. The Derbyshire limestone is very pure, about 98% soluble in rainwater (over time) leaving only residual clay. It is extracted for aggregate, building stone, the manufacture of cement, paper & calcium carbide. This example was quarried in the White Peak of Derbyshire. Specimens are supplied in labelled card trays. | <urn:uuid:01aa21f2-5cd1-4a96-8d4b-0fb87eb5deac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.geologysuperstore.com/index.php/limestone.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.981521 | 160 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.36916580796... | 2 | This limestone is from the Dinantian epoch of the Lower Carboniferous. It was laid down approximately 350 million years ago in semi tropical seas. It is made up from the calcium rich shells, bones & skeletons of the fauna that was prevalent at that time. Some of their remains can be seen as well preserved fossils. Crinoid fossils are usually fragmented as they were quite delicate in life & tended to be broken up by currents after death. The Derbyshire limestone is very pure, about 98% soluble in rainwater (over time) leaving only residual clay. It is extracted for aggregate, building stone, the manufacture of cement, paper & calcium carbide. This example was quarried in the White Peak of Derbyshire. Specimens are supplied in labelled card trays. | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In pretty much everything I do with science teachers in Nepal, whether at Jana Uddhar School or elsewhere, my aims are three-fold:
- change the way the teachers approach teaching
- make science fun for both the teachers and students
- using resources readily available to them.
If I am even just a bit successful with any one of them, I am confident that there will be considerable change in the learning outcomes of the students. Most importantly, all that will teach students to think.
Not long after I conducted the lesson on Life Processes, I did another activity for the fifth graders: I took them on a “field trip.” At a government school in Nepal, that, of course, is a novel activity!
Discussing a lesson, I had suggested a visit to the neighboring river to Buddhi, their Science Teacher. They had just finished the topic Life Process/Living Things. They were wrapping up The Effects of Human Activity on Nature (i.e. Environmental Pollution). The next topic was Environmental Conservation. Given that, the river-visit was a perfect way to reinforce, in a real and tangible way, what they had already learned in the classroom and to prepare them for what they would be learning next.
So last Monday, after a brief introduction, Buddhi and I took the students to the river. They were to make notes on all signs of human and animal activities in and around the river and to think about how that might be affecting the river and the environment.
The following are some images from that trip. (Click on an image to browse.)
The students start off on a bridge (photo 1), next to an outhouse (photo 2), observing a small gorge on which they are building a dam (photo 3). Photo 4 is also of the students on the bridge showing the river in the background to the right.
Photo 5 shows signs of animal activity on the bank and in the background is the platform where dead bodies are cremated. The next photo (5) shows the river as seen from the cremation platform.
Photo 6 is looking upstream, while 6 shows the slippers worn by the farmers working on the field (in the backgrounds). (They had come over to take shelter when it had started to rain.) The last photo shows some coals in the foreground, from the cremation platform most likely, and the two young farmers in the background.
Following the trip, we had a brief session in the classroom. The children shared what they saw and how the river and life in it were affected by them etc. Not surprisingly, many of them already knew most of what they needed to learn. What’s more, because of that, we were able to go even beyond what was in the textbook — like to discussing the impact of these human activities on living things in the river, such as fish, down stream, way down stream like in the Terai (the Southern Plains), and the effect of leached fertilizers from the fields etc.
Buddhi was supposed to conduct the follow-up activity. The students were to draw diagrams of the areas they visited and identify the things/signs of activities in and around the river, and how they affect the river.
More than anything, in addition to the trip being fun — because it was probably something they had never done in the past — the trip would have made them think about their environment in ways they had probably never been asked or challenged to…or so I believe!
The more students engage in activities such as these, the more they’ll be forced to think about, and take into consideration, that which they probably never have!
What’s the point of formal education if it doesn’t do some of that from time to time?!
Aug. 25, 2016 Update
I visited the visited the school last Tuesday after a long time. (Breaks, exams, and my obligations etc. came in the way.) Buddhi sir indeed had carried out the follow-up activity — mapping out the river surroundings. The drawings were displayed in the classroom. Here they are. (Click on an image to browse.) | <urn:uuid:0bea8a02-61cf-4442-a7e6-0b7af1cb5545> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dorjegurung.com/blog/2016/07/grade-5-science-at-jana-uddhar-a-field-trip/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.98161 | 855 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.359836369752883... | 7 | In pretty much everything I do with science teachers in Nepal, whether at Jana Uddhar School or elsewhere, my aims are three-fold:
- change the way the teachers approach teaching
- make science fun for both the teachers and students
- using resources readily available to them.
If I am even just a bit successful with any one of them, I am confident that there will be considerable change in the learning outcomes of the students. Most importantly, all that will teach students to think.
Not long after I conducted the lesson on Life Processes, I did another activity for the fifth graders: I took them on a “field trip.” At a government school in Nepal, that, of course, is a novel activity!
Discussing a lesson, I had suggested a visit to the neighboring river to Buddhi, their Science Teacher. They had just finished the topic Life Process/Living Things. They were wrapping up The Effects of Human Activity on Nature (i.e. Environmental Pollution). The next topic was Environmental Conservation. Given that, the river-visit was a perfect way to reinforce, in a real and tangible way, what they had already learned in the classroom and to prepare them for what they would be learning next.
So last Monday, after a brief introduction, Buddhi and I took the students to the river. They were to make notes on all signs of human and animal activities in and around the river and to think about how that might be affecting the river and the environment.
The following are some images from that trip. (Click on an image to browse.)
The students start off on a bridge (photo 1), next to an outhouse (photo 2), observing a small gorge on which they are building a dam (photo 3). Photo 4 is also of the students on the bridge showing the river in the background to the right.
Photo 5 shows signs of animal activity on the bank and in the background is the platform where dead bodies are cremated. The next photo (5) shows the river as seen from the cremation platform.
Photo 6 is looking upstream, while 6 shows the slippers worn by the farmers working on the field (in the backgrounds). (They had come over to take shelter when it had started to rain.) The last photo shows some coals in the foreground, from the cremation platform most likely, and the two young farmers in the background.
Following the trip, we had a brief session in the classroom. The children shared what they saw and how the river and life in it were affected by them etc. Not surprisingly, many of them already knew most of what they needed to learn. What’s more, because of that, we were able to go even beyond what was in the textbook — like to discussing the impact of these human activities on living things in the river, such as fish, down stream, way down stream like in the Terai (the Southern Plains), and the effect of leached fertilizers from the fields etc.
Buddhi was supposed to conduct the follow-up activity. The students were to draw diagrams of the areas they visited and identify the things/signs of activities in and around the river, and how they affect the river.
More than anything, in addition to the trip being fun — because it was probably something they had never done in the past — the trip would have made them think about their environment in ways they had probably never been asked or challenged to…or so I believe!
The more students engage in activities such as these, the more they’ll be forced to think about, and take into consideration, that which they probably never have!
What’s the point of formal education if it doesn’t do some of that from time to time?!
Aug. 25, 2016 Update
I visited the visited the school last Tuesday after a long time. (Breaks, exams, and my obligations etc. came in the way.) Buddhi sir indeed had carried out the follow-up activity — mapping out the river surroundings. The drawings were displayed in the classroom. Here they are. (Click on an image to browse.) | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Black Jacobins traces the remarkable history of the revolution in the French colony of San Domingo (modern day Haiti). It describes the events that helped the revolution become the first successful slave rebellion in history.
In particular, The Black Jacobins views the events through the prism of the revolution’s greatest figure, Toussaint L’Ouverture. It shows how he, a former slave who was inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, successfully defeated the European empires and helped to destroy the brutal practice of slavery in San Domingo.
In the late seventeenth century, France acquired the colony of San Domingo (modern-day Haiti) in the West Indies. Over the next century, this colony was to prove very prosperous for the French. Its soil was fertile, allowing crops like indigo, cotton, sugar and coffee to be grown.
Yet, there was a problem: to grow and harvest these crops, a huge amount of labor was needed, and this wasn’t readily available. The original native population of the island had all but been wiped out by European colonists, and the climate made it almost impossible for European laborers to carry out the back-breaking work.
The solution to this problem was to use African slaves. In San Domingo, along with the other European colonies in the Americas, huge numbers of African people were forcibly transported from their homelands to work as slaves. The scale of the slave trade was enormous; by the late eighteenth century, there were about half-a-million slaves in San Domingo alone.
Life for the slaves was incredibly brutal. Although the French government laid down rules about how they must be treated, these rules were more often than not ignored. The colonists saw the slaves as their property to do with as they wished. They forced the slaves who worked in the fields to do incredibly exhausting tasks from dawn until dusk in the intense heat.
They also subjected their “property” to the most inhumane treatment. Punishments for even the smallest of misdemeanours were harsh, and whippings and beatings became very common. For worse crimes, the punishments were horrific; for example, there were even cases of slaves being filled with gunpowder and blown up.
This violent and degrading system kept the colony of San Domingo prosperous in its raw materials, allowing many settlers to become very rich. | <urn:uuid:0706bbc2-2eca-4f89-a204-19bd7643c9b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blinkist.com/books/the-black-jacobins-en/preview | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.980653 | 492 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.5158027410... | 2 | The Black Jacobins traces the remarkable history of the revolution in the French colony of San Domingo (modern day Haiti). It describes the events that helped the revolution become the first successful slave rebellion in history.
In particular, The Black Jacobins views the events through the prism of the revolution’s greatest figure, Toussaint L’Ouverture. It shows how he, a former slave who was inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, successfully defeated the European empires and helped to destroy the brutal practice of slavery in San Domingo.
In the late seventeenth century, France acquired the colony of San Domingo (modern-day Haiti) in the West Indies. Over the next century, this colony was to prove very prosperous for the French. Its soil was fertile, allowing crops like indigo, cotton, sugar and coffee to be grown.
Yet, there was a problem: to grow and harvest these crops, a huge amount of labor was needed, and this wasn’t readily available. The original native population of the island had all but been wiped out by European colonists, and the climate made it almost impossible for European laborers to carry out the back-breaking work.
The solution to this problem was to use African slaves. In San Domingo, along with the other European colonies in the Americas, huge numbers of African people were forcibly transported from their homelands to work as slaves. The scale of the slave trade was enormous; by the late eighteenth century, there were about half-a-million slaves in San Domingo alone.
Life for the slaves was incredibly brutal. Although the French government laid down rules about how they must be treated, these rules were more often than not ignored. The colonists saw the slaves as their property to do with as they wished. They forced the slaves who worked in the fields to do incredibly exhausting tasks from dawn until dusk in the intense heat.
They also subjected their “property” to the most inhumane treatment. Punishments for even the smallest of misdemeanours were harsh, and whippings and beatings became very common. For worse crimes, the punishments were horrific; for example, there were even cases of slaves being filled with gunpowder and blown up.
This violent and degrading system kept the colony of San Domingo prosperous in its raw materials, allowing many settlers to become very rich. | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The word “voluntary” can be used for the title of a piece of music. The title was often used by English composers in the late Renaissance or Baroque periods for a piece of organ music that was free in style, i.e. it did not have to be composed in a strict form such as sonata form or a fugue. It was meant to sound as if it was being improvised (the word voluntary in general means “free”, i.e. not “forced to do something”).
Composers such as Orlando Gibbons, John Blow and Henry Purcell wrote voluntaries, although sometimes they preferred to use other titles such as fancy (an English form of the Italian word fantasia), or even fugue. However, these fugues were not composed in the proper fugue style: they just started off with imitation as in a fugue, but continued in a freer style.
Some voluntaries were called double voluntaries. These were pieces written for organs with two manuals (keyboards). The pieces contrasted a loud manual with a soft one.
Some voluntaries were known as trumpet voluntaries. These were voluntaries which had a tune which was played (with the right hand) on a stop called a “trumpet” or a “cornet”. Two very famous trumpet voluntaries, often played at weddings, are the trumpet voluntary by Henry Purcell and the one by Jeremiah Clarke (which people used to think was composed by Purcell). In the 18th century the composer John Stanley wrote many trumpet voluntaries. | <urn:uuid:eb2492f5-363c-4dbc-b514-8ad19845f75f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_(music) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.993885 | 330 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.1748517155647... | 6 | The word “voluntary” can be used for the title of a piece of music. The title was often used by English composers in the late Renaissance or Baroque periods for a piece of organ music that was free in style, i.e. it did not have to be composed in a strict form such as sonata form or a fugue. It was meant to sound as if it was being improvised (the word voluntary in general means “free”, i.e. not “forced to do something”).
Composers such as Orlando Gibbons, John Blow and Henry Purcell wrote voluntaries, although sometimes they preferred to use other titles such as fancy (an English form of the Italian word fantasia), or even fugue. However, these fugues were not composed in the proper fugue style: they just started off with imitation as in a fugue, but continued in a freer style.
Some voluntaries were called double voluntaries. These were pieces written for organs with two manuals (keyboards). The pieces contrasted a loud manual with a soft one.
Some voluntaries were known as trumpet voluntaries. These were voluntaries which had a tune which was played (with the right hand) on a stop called a “trumpet” or a “cornet”. Two very famous trumpet voluntaries, often played at weddings, are the trumpet voluntary by Henry Purcell and the one by Jeremiah Clarke (which people used to think was composed by Purcell). In the 18th century the composer John Stanley wrote many trumpet voluntaries. | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Personal Life
- Literary Career
- Mirza Ghalib Shayari
Urdu is the language of love. Urdu has the power to romanticize every part of a sentence. To profess love, to admire, to praise Urdu Shayari are the first choice. Urdu is spoken predominantly in Pakistan and some parts of India. Urdu is a historical language that has produced several classics and elegant poems. In this article, we will dive into the life of Mirza Ghalib, a well known Urdu and Persian poet of the past.
Mirza Asadullah Baig Khan was an Urdu and Persian poet in Mughal Empire born in 1797. He predominantly wrote in Persian and Urdu, but he is known for his Urdu works. Ghalib is famous worldwide for his contribution to poetry.
Mirza Ghalib was in Agra in a family of Aibak Turks who had relocated from Uzbekistan. His paternal grandfather moved to India during the reign of Ahmad Shah. His grandfather had four sons and three daughters. Ghalib’s father, Mirza Abdullah Baig, married Izzat ut Nisa Begum from Kashmir. He worked with Nawab of Lucknow and then Nizam of Hyderabad. Ghalib’s father died when Ghalib was only five years old. His uncle took him in, but his uncle succumbed to injuries from an accident.
When Ghalib was just a teenager, he married Umrao Begum, daughter of a Nawab. He then shifted to Delhi with his younger brother, who had Schizophrenia. None of the seven kids of Mirza Ghalib survived infancy. He wrote about his marriage and life in a lot of his poems. He considered his marriage and life is a continuous struggle and prison. In one of his couplets, he described the world to be a playground, and everyone is amused by something new every day. Ghalib was considered a ladies man, and his relationship with his wife was conflicting. His wife was a conservative religious woman. One of his couplets roughly translated to how someone can be a poet if they have never tasted the wine, prison, and lovers beating.
Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II honored Mirza Ghalib with the title “Dabir-ul-Mulk” in 1850. He was also honored with “Najm-ud-daula.” He was an essential part of the royal court; the emperor appointed him as his tutor as he was fond of poetry. He was also the royal historian of the court. He added Mirza to his name because he became part of the Mughal Nobility. He used to say that he will be loved by future generations, which turned out to be true. As the Mughal nobility decline, Mirza lost his court and status under British Raj.
Mirza Ghalib took his last breath on 15 February 1869 in Delhi. Ghalib’s grave rests in Hazrat Nizamuddin. His house is located in Old Delhi Chandni Chowk and is known as Ghalib ki Haveli.
Ghalib was a celebrated letter writer. It is said that he could make letters talk. During that time, writing letters in Urdu was considered decorative. He was the one who introduced informal Urdu, which we use now. His messages were witty, romantic, and funny, in one of his letters, he expressed that he rights a letter with an intent to make the reader happy. The letters were usually informal, and he sometimes addressed the person by name rather than their title. Ghalib was a revolutionary of Urdu literature. His letters have been translated in English by Ralph Russell. You can find them in The Oxford Ghalib.
Buy Oxford Ghalib at Amazon India –
Ghalib’s pen name or Takhallus was Asad; he sometimes used Asad Ullah Khan. He is popularly known as Ghalib, which means conqueror, superior, or excellent. Mirza Ghalib poetry is still used by our generation to profess love.
Mirza Ghalib Shayaris
Some of the most notable Shayari and Mirza Ghalib quotes are mentioned below. His work is known to make you feel emotions; you never even knew you had.
“ Un ke dekhe se jo aa jaati ha munh par raunaq
Vo Samjhate hai ki Beemar ka haal acha hai”
“ Aina kyun na dun ki tamasha kahein jise
Aisa kahan se laun ki tujh saa kahein jise”
“ Ishq par zor nhi hai ye to vo aatish ‘Ghalib’
Ki lagae na lage aur bujhae na bane”
“ Dil e nadan tujhe hua kya hai
Akhir is dard ki dava kya hai”
“ Hum ko unse vafa ki hai ummeed
Jo nahin jaante vafa kya hai”
“ Mehrban hoke bula lo mujhe chahe jis wakt
Main gaya wakt nhi hun ki phir aa bhi na sakun”
“ Mohabbat mein nahin hai farq jiine aur marne ka
Usi ko dekh kar jiite hai jis kaafir par dam nikle”
“ Dard minnat-e-kash dava na hua
Mai na acha hua bura na hua”
“ Ye na thi hamari kismat ki visal-e-yaar hota
Agar aur jiite rahte to yehi intezaar hota”
Ghalib has many rivals in court. The stories of competition and humorous jibes of Zauq and Ghalib are famous. Although both of them had mutual respect. Ghalib’s contemporary Momin was also popular at that time.
Along with poetry, Ghalib was also a prose writer. His work reflected the political crises during the downfall of the Mughal nobility. Sometimes Ghalib’s work was too witty and sophisticated that a few could understand them. He defended them by expressing his thoughts in a sher, which roughly translated to “Its not fame I want at the expense of meaningful sentences.”
Ghalib’s work and lifestyle have inspired several plays and movies. In 1954 Mirza Ghalib, a Bollywood movie starring Bharat Bhushan and Suraiya, was released. The story revolves around Ghalib and his love interest in court chaudvin. In 1988 Mirza Ghalib Television show aired on DD National. It was produced by Gulzar and was successful. Naseeruddin Shah played the role of Ghalib, and Jagjit Singh and Chitra Singh sang the music. The show earned the title of a classic and has a cult following in India. | <urn:uuid:d23cee7f-909c-400e-b203-b2d4a4df7aab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://timesnext.com/mirza-ghalib-biography-everything-about-urdu-and-persian-poet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.981642 | 1,518 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.05105403810739517... | 7 | - Personal Life
- Literary Career
- Mirza Ghalib Shayari
Urdu is the language of love. Urdu has the power to romanticize every part of a sentence. To profess love, to admire, to praise Urdu Shayari are the first choice. Urdu is spoken predominantly in Pakistan and some parts of India. Urdu is a historical language that has produced several classics and elegant poems. In this article, we will dive into the life of Mirza Ghalib, a well known Urdu and Persian poet of the past.
Mirza Asadullah Baig Khan was an Urdu and Persian poet in Mughal Empire born in 1797. He predominantly wrote in Persian and Urdu, but he is known for his Urdu works. Ghalib is famous worldwide for his contribution to poetry.
Mirza Ghalib was in Agra in a family of Aibak Turks who had relocated from Uzbekistan. His paternal grandfather moved to India during the reign of Ahmad Shah. His grandfather had four sons and three daughters. Ghalib’s father, Mirza Abdullah Baig, married Izzat ut Nisa Begum from Kashmir. He worked with Nawab of Lucknow and then Nizam of Hyderabad. Ghalib’s father died when Ghalib was only five years old. His uncle took him in, but his uncle succumbed to injuries from an accident.
When Ghalib was just a teenager, he married Umrao Begum, daughter of a Nawab. He then shifted to Delhi with his younger brother, who had Schizophrenia. None of the seven kids of Mirza Ghalib survived infancy. He wrote about his marriage and life in a lot of his poems. He considered his marriage and life is a continuous struggle and prison. In one of his couplets, he described the world to be a playground, and everyone is amused by something new every day. Ghalib was considered a ladies man, and his relationship with his wife was conflicting. His wife was a conservative religious woman. One of his couplets roughly translated to how someone can be a poet if they have never tasted the wine, prison, and lovers beating.
Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II honored Mirza Ghalib with the title “Dabir-ul-Mulk” in 1850. He was also honored with “Najm-ud-daula.” He was an essential part of the royal court; the emperor appointed him as his tutor as he was fond of poetry. He was also the royal historian of the court. He added Mirza to his name because he became part of the Mughal Nobility. He used to say that he will be loved by future generations, which turned out to be true. As the Mughal nobility decline, Mirza lost his court and status under British Raj.
Mirza Ghalib took his last breath on 15 February 1869 in Delhi. Ghalib’s grave rests in Hazrat Nizamuddin. His house is located in Old Delhi Chandni Chowk and is known as Ghalib ki Haveli.
Ghalib was a celebrated letter writer. It is said that he could make letters talk. During that time, writing letters in Urdu was considered decorative. He was the one who introduced informal Urdu, which we use now. His messages were witty, romantic, and funny, in one of his letters, he expressed that he rights a letter with an intent to make the reader happy. The letters were usually informal, and he sometimes addressed the person by name rather than their title. Ghalib was a revolutionary of Urdu literature. His letters have been translated in English by Ralph Russell. You can find them in The Oxford Ghalib.
Buy Oxford Ghalib at Amazon India –
Ghalib’s pen name or Takhallus was Asad; he sometimes used Asad Ullah Khan. He is popularly known as Ghalib, which means conqueror, superior, or excellent. Mirza Ghalib poetry is still used by our generation to profess love.
Mirza Ghalib Shayaris
Some of the most notable Shayari and Mirza Ghalib quotes are mentioned below. His work is known to make you feel emotions; you never even knew you had.
“ Un ke dekhe se jo aa jaati ha munh par raunaq
Vo Samjhate hai ki Beemar ka haal acha hai”
“ Aina kyun na dun ki tamasha kahein jise
Aisa kahan se laun ki tujh saa kahein jise”
“ Ishq par zor nhi hai ye to vo aatish ‘Ghalib’
Ki lagae na lage aur bujhae na bane”
“ Dil e nadan tujhe hua kya hai
Akhir is dard ki dava kya hai”
“ Hum ko unse vafa ki hai ummeed
Jo nahin jaante vafa kya hai”
“ Mehrban hoke bula lo mujhe chahe jis wakt
Main gaya wakt nhi hun ki phir aa bhi na sakun”
“ Mohabbat mein nahin hai farq jiine aur marne ka
Usi ko dekh kar jiite hai jis kaafir par dam nikle”
“ Dard minnat-e-kash dava na hua
Mai na acha hua bura na hua”
“ Ye na thi hamari kismat ki visal-e-yaar hota
Agar aur jiite rahte to yehi intezaar hota”
Ghalib has many rivals in court. The stories of competition and humorous jibes of Zauq and Ghalib are famous. Although both of them had mutual respect. Ghalib’s contemporary Momin was also popular at that time.
Along with poetry, Ghalib was also a prose writer. His work reflected the political crises during the downfall of the Mughal nobility. Sometimes Ghalib’s work was too witty and sophisticated that a few could understand them. He defended them by expressing his thoughts in a sher, which roughly translated to “Its not fame I want at the expense of meaningful sentences.”
Ghalib’s work and lifestyle have inspired several plays and movies. In 1954 Mirza Ghalib, a Bollywood movie starring Bharat Bhushan and Suraiya, was released. The story revolves around Ghalib and his love interest in court chaudvin. In 1988 Mirza Ghalib Television show aired on DD National. It was produced by Gulzar and was successful. Naseeruddin Shah played the role of Ghalib, and Jagjit Singh and Chitra Singh sang the music. The show earned the title of a classic and has a cult following in India. | 1,432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The three witches were doing their work by giving their prophecy to Macbeth and Banquo and hence are not responsible for the murder of King Duncan and Banquo’s family. In this play, Shakespeare stipulates that it was Macbeth’s choice which caused the death of Duncan the King. It was the obligation of the witches to prophesy but they didn’t make things to happen.
The play clearly outlines that there is only one responsible person for the death of the King Duncan and this is Macbeth. Although many people argue that the three witches or Lady Macbeth played part in influencing Macbeth to kill Duncan, this should not be true. The witches only told their prophecy of Macbeth possibility of becoming a king but they didn’t suggest murder.
Macbeth reached the murder decision only because of his power hunger for he wanted to climb and rise to the throne. Despite the fact that the witches had motivated Macbeth ambitious, they had nothing to do with his decision making.
For example, Banquo was given good news by the witches about the likelihood of his children becoming kings and yet he did not rush to murder as it’s in the Macbeth’s case. So if the witches had supernatural powers then Banquo too would have preferred murder to all those seemed to be a block to his children’s achievements. It’s also believed that Lady Macbeth should be blamed for Macbeth’s actions.
She openly question Macbeth’s courage and abuse him for not being man enough while making decisions. She tells her that he should not fear to act. She suggests murder and eventually Macbeth is the one to bear responsibilities of executing the king. After the murder of Duncan the relationship between the Macbeth and his wife weaken and he no longer trusts her in his ambition.
In this play, one of the characters that appears as a tragic hero is Macbeth, she has to bear the responsibilities for his actions at any time (Greenblatt, Cohen, Howard and Maus 56).
He realized this later when he engaged in a fight with Macduff knowing that he would emerge a loser. It’s seen throughout the play that Macbeth has power to make free options and choices and no one can force him to do anything and he makes his final decisions.
As we focus on the issue of the king’s death, overtly it seems to be very complex and sophisticated matter to declare who was responsible for his death. In the first point, one would think that Lady Macbeth, in collaboration with the other witches, were solely accountable and responsible for the death of the king.
This is true to some extend by the fact of Macbeth’s comments in section three of part one when she appraises of the supernatural power as having the power of unfixing his hair. Furthermore, the last part of depicts that Macbeth had hidden illicit agenda whereby he prays that there would be no light that would shine and let others have sight on his black and deep cravings.
Thus, it appears that the killing of the king is partially linked to the acts of the witches, that is through the act of using supernatural powers dissipated through witches’ prophesies for they were human being with same kind of feeling as the king. In brief, the idea of king’s murder through witches is far match complex when looked into it from the religiosity perspective, or the act of free will and fate.
Greenblatt, Stephen, Walter Cohen, Jean E. Howard and Katharine Eisaman Maus. The Norton Shakespeare. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. | <urn:uuid:94b5f815-2836-44f6-9675-720c2ffb0340> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivypanda.com/essays/are-the-witches-responsible-for-duncans-death/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.982879 | 776 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.050293296... | 1 | The three witches were doing their work by giving their prophecy to Macbeth and Banquo and hence are not responsible for the murder of King Duncan and Banquo’s family. In this play, Shakespeare stipulates that it was Macbeth’s choice which caused the death of Duncan the King. It was the obligation of the witches to prophesy but they didn’t make things to happen.
The play clearly outlines that there is only one responsible person for the death of the King Duncan and this is Macbeth. Although many people argue that the three witches or Lady Macbeth played part in influencing Macbeth to kill Duncan, this should not be true. The witches only told their prophecy of Macbeth possibility of becoming a king but they didn’t suggest murder.
Macbeth reached the murder decision only because of his power hunger for he wanted to climb and rise to the throne. Despite the fact that the witches had motivated Macbeth ambitious, they had nothing to do with his decision making.
For example, Banquo was given good news by the witches about the likelihood of his children becoming kings and yet he did not rush to murder as it’s in the Macbeth’s case. So if the witches had supernatural powers then Banquo too would have preferred murder to all those seemed to be a block to his children’s achievements. It’s also believed that Lady Macbeth should be blamed for Macbeth’s actions.
She openly question Macbeth’s courage and abuse him for not being man enough while making decisions. She tells her that he should not fear to act. She suggests murder and eventually Macbeth is the one to bear responsibilities of executing the king. After the murder of Duncan the relationship between the Macbeth and his wife weaken and he no longer trusts her in his ambition.
In this play, one of the characters that appears as a tragic hero is Macbeth, she has to bear the responsibilities for his actions at any time (Greenblatt, Cohen, Howard and Maus 56).
He realized this later when he engaged in a fight with Macduff knowing that he would emerge a loser. It’s seen throughout the play that Macbeth has power to make free options and choices and no one can force him to do anything and he makes his final decisions.
As we focus on the issue of the king’s death, overtly it seems to be very complex and sophisticated matter to declare who was responsible for his death. In the first point, one would think that Lady Macbeth, in collaboration with the other witches, were solely accountable and responsible for the death of the king.
This is true to some extend by the fact of Macbeth’s comments in section three of part one when she appraises of the supernatural power as having the power of unfixing his hair. Furthermore, the last part of depicts that Macbeth had hidden illicit agenda whereby he prays that there would be no light that would shine and let others have sight on his black and deep cravings.
Thus, it appears that the killing of the king is partially linked to the acts of the witches, that is through the act of using supernatural powers dissipated through witches’ prophesies for they were human being with same kind of feeling as the king. In brief, the idea of king’s murder through witches is far match complex when looked into it from the religiosity perspective, or the act of free will and fate.
Greenblatt, Stephen, Walter Cohen, Jean E. Howard and Katharine Eisaman Maus. The Norton Shakespeare. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. | 720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Quiz: Test Your Knowledge of the Industrial Revolution: HowStuffWorks
Test Your Knowledge of the Industrial Revolution
7 Min Quiz
Which decade do historians agree on as the start of the Industrial Revolution?
Economic historian Arnold Toynbee first described the time from 1760 to 1840 as the Industrial Revolution. Since then, historians agree on 1760 as when it began and spread throughout Europe and the United States.
What country did the Industrial Revolution actually begin in?
Events leading up to the Industrial Revolution first began in the United Kingdom. Prior to its arrival, manufacturing was typically done in people's homes using hand tools or basic machines. It wasn't until around 1790 that the Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States.
What was the Enclosure Movement?
During the Agricultural Revolution, British parliament passed legislation that allowed for what was shared land to be privately owned. This led to wealthy farmers buying as much of it as they could, which then forced smaller farmers off of their land. As a result, those who no longer had a means to farm went to cities in search of work in factories and mines.
Who is credited with bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States?
Samuel Slater was an English-American industrialist known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution" after he introduced the first water-powered cotton mill to the United States using technology he brought with him from the United Kingdom. He built tenant farms and towns around his mills, which first emerged in Rhode Island.
How did the Industrial Revolution impact population distribution in the United States?
With the boom of factories and mills in urban cities, people began to leave rural communities and farms in incredibly high numbers, all of them seeking work. This caused a major uptick in population in those cities, especially ones on the east coast. This also lead to a number of issues, especially overcrowding.
In what region of the United States was the Industrial Revolution most prevalent?
The eastern coast of America specifically was at the center of the Industrial Revolution. When Samuel Slater built his first mills and factories in Rhode Island, this set up the whole region to become the powerhouse it was during this time. Factories soon began to pop up all over the area, especially in cities like New York and Boston.
What were some economic effects the Industrial Revolution had on Americans?
The Industrial Revolution marked a time when the middle class truly began to thrive, but the working and poor classes only grew to be poorer. The upper class, especially those who owned factories, saw incredible growth in their wealth. This also helped lead to the emergence of wealthy corporations.
As populations grew in cities, the working poor were forced to live in a specific type of housing. What were they called?
Tenements were a run-down and often overcrowded type of apartment that would house multiple families at a time. These especially existed in the poor areas of large cities, and eventually also became the primary type of housing immigrants had to live in after they would arrive in America.
Who invented the cotton gin and transformed the way cotton was picked and processed?
In 1793, American inventor Eli Whitney introduced the cotton gin and forever changed the way seeds were removed from cotton and processed for use in textiles. The machine was especially used in the South, where plantations of cotton fields were in abundance.
How did the cotton gin impact America both economically and socially?
While the cotton gin lead to an immense rise in the yield of cotton and placed America at the front of all production worldwide, it also lead to the growth of slavery. The cotton gin did reduce the need for human labor, but with the increase of cotton demand it forced the need for slaves to grow and pick it.
The use of child labor was very common during the Industrial Revolution. What was this exactly?
Child labor has always existed, but never was it so prominent as it was during the Industrial Revolution. Low-income families started sending their children to factories so that they could bring home some money as well. However, they were barely paid anything and often were used in situations that were especially dangerous, leading to severe injuries.
Where was "Cottonopolis"?
The nickname "Cottonopolis" was given to the city of Manchester, England. It was famed as the world's first industrial city, and during the Industrial Revolution was revered as the home of the cotton industry in the U.K. Still, it would never come close to how successful America's South was in the cotton industry.
Who invented the assembly line?
Henry Ford, who is also the founder of the Ford Motor Company, first introduced his assembly line in 1913 in his auto factory. After he did this, he was able to build a car in under three hours when it used to take twelve! This innovation forever changed the way the auto industry manufactures vehicles.
What lead to the creation of labor unions during the Industrial Revolution?
Labor unions initially formed because workers were fed up with the working conditions they were subjected to, but even more importantly, that the government took very little interested in making sure standards were in place or that any sort of regulation was active in how businesses treated their employees.
What did labor unions actually do for factory, mill, and mine workers during this time?
One of the most notable things that labor unions introduced and organized at this time were strikes. This helped them peacefully negotiate with employers to get better working conditions and pay for workers in factories, mills and mines.
Who was President when the Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States?
The Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States in 1790. George Washington was President from 1789 to 1797, leading the country through the formative years of technological advances in machinery and manufacturing.
How were women significantly affected by the Industrial Revolution?
A majority of women during the Industrial Revolution were not wealthy and were forced to enter the workforce to help provide for their families. While this could have been an empowering moment, they earned a fraction of what men were paid.
Who were the Lowell Mill Girls?
The Lowell Mills girls were young women who joined the workforce of their own accord in Lowell, MA. At the time, Francis Cabot Lowell was able to offer the thousands of them competitive pay and even provided housing. By 1840, they made up nearly three-quarters of the mill workforce.
Who was responsible for inventing the telegraph?
Samuel Morse developed the telegraph in the 1830s and 1840s, transmitting electrical signals from one station to another through wire that was laid in between them. On May 24, 1844, Morse sent his famous message, "What hath God wrought?" from Washington to Baltimore.
Eli Whitney invented something else after the cotton gin. What was it?
After he invented the cotton gin, Eli Whitney began to build firearms. He was the first to use interchangeable parts in his manufacturing process, which then cut down the time it took to make them and made it cheaper to repair if needed. It was also easier for unskilled laborers to manufacture products.
Who were the Luddites?
“Luddite” is a term still used today to describe people who dislike new technology, but it was first used to describe disgruntled workers who rallied against the Industrial Revolution in England. Some even broke into factories and smashed textile machines after their appeals for government aid were ignored.
A few political and economical ideologies emerged during the Industrial Revolution. What was one of the most prominent ones?
Classical liberalism emerged as a response to industrialization and urbanization during the Revolution in both the U.S. and U.K. It focused on a belief of individual liberty and a very limited, small government; that people should be able to sell their products, goods or services to others without intervention from the government, unless people's welfare was in jeopardy.
Who founded Utilitarianism?
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical who founded the basis of Utilitarianism on the idea that actions should be judged based on their consequences; that morally appropriate or "good" behavior will not do any harm to others, but instead increase overall happiness or "utility."
Who was Karl Marx?
Karl Marx was also known for his work as a historian, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary. He believed that no one, or no class, should have any sort of power over another. Marxism's biggest drive was to remove power from the corporations and government.
What was an invention that improved the textile industry?
James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny in England during the early days of the Industrial Revolution. It helped bring the textile industry out of people's homes and into factories. As production sped up and output increased with this new machine, more and more people were needed to spin and process cloth.
What sort of economic system did America have as a result of the Industrial Revolution?
While capitalism had its roots and existed before the Industrial Revolution his the United States, this was the period that it hit its stride. Capitalism exists with the base belief that private individuals or companies can invest their money how they wish, so they can make greater profits and build their wealth. It functions with the assumption that the market will determine costs through demand, and that the government will not interfere in how it all plays out.
Corporations grew in their power during the Industrial Revolution. Why was this?
Corporations like the Standard Oil Company founded by John D. Rockefeller and the U.S. Steel Company founded by Andrew Carnegie implemented practices like "cutting out the middle man" and underselling their competitors that would lead to these other businesses either going under or having to sell to corporations. This type of business practice is heavily practiced by corporations today.
It's argued that the steam engine was the most important invention of the entire Industrial Revolution. Why?
Before steam power and the steam engine, a majority of factories were powered by wind, water or even horse or man. Prior to its creation, factories also had to be placed along sources of water and were not able to expand beyond that. With the steam engine, factories and their machines became more efficient, and people were able to travel by steam-powered locomotive, ship and car.
Aside from corporations and the rich, who really benefited from the Industrial Revolution?
Because the middle class had more job opportunities than they ever had before, they were able to lift themselves up out of the lower standards of living they had experienced before. The middle class started to enjoy better, healthier diets, as well as other luxuries that having a little more money can offer.
Labor unions fought for workers' rights during the Industrial Revolution. What is an example of something still practiced by them today?
Labor unions were responsible for creating successful strikes during the Industrial Revolution, setting up for the continued use of them to fight for workers' rights or benefits even today. It allows for peaceful protest and helps protect the jobs of workers who decide to strike. An example of recent strikes in America is the teachers' strikes across a number of states.
Who invented the machine called "The Reaper"?
Cyrus McCormick invented the reaper in 1831, speeding up the process of harvesting wheat, grains, and other crops by replacing the process of having to cut down everything by hand. The reaper was horse-drawn and also mechanized, increasing productivity and removing some of the hard labor farmers had faced for decades up to this point.
What major health concern plagued the working class in large cities?
A high number of factories that popped up all over large cities were guilty of dumping waste into rivers, which were used for drinking water by many in these cities. This especially affected the working and poor class, who were already in overcrowded, unhealthy living conditions. Other forms of pollution also became a problem, causing other issues like trouble with breathing.
Why was James Watts so important to the Industrial Revolution happening in the United Kingdom?
James Watts was an English inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements in steam engine technology drove the Industrial Revolution, first in the United Kingdom and eventually in the United States. He took the existing engine created by Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen and made it smaller and more efficient, not needing as much coal to function as before.
John McAdam is known as "The Father of the Modern Road". Why is this?
John McAdam was a Scottish engineer whose innovation was the biggest advancement in road design and construction. Some of these roads still exist today and are named after him. Before the McAdam Road, large rocks were laid to create a surface for roads. McAdam's design used crushed rocks and allowed for much smoother roads, which were able to be done faster and cheaper.
Overall, why is the Industrial Revolution such an important moment in history?
The Industrial Revolution was a significant fundamental change in the way goods are designed, produced and manufactured, which also ultimately altered the way people lived. It was also the moment in history where we can see a complete change in society on every level; politically, economically and socially new ideas emerged.
We can all look back at our time in grade school and recall learning about the Industrial Revolution. We were educated on the push for innovation and fresh inventions, the emergence and immense growth of factories, and the living and working conditions people were faced with during this time. From its birth in the United Kingdom to its arrival in the United States, this transformative time in history not only impacted technology but forever changed the world in a multitude of ways.
So, how much do you honestly remember from your school days? Can you recall the actual decade the Industrial Revolution began? Can you describe the conditions that lead to the labor unions we still see in use today? What about naming not only the most important inventions of this time but those who were responsible for their creation?
Whether you're looking to brush up on a piece of history you may have forgotten a bit about or you want to show off your steel trap of a memory, it's time to test your knowledge of what went down during the age of expanding landscapes, incredible innovation and the ultimate shift in life as people knew it. Let's see what you got!
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-0.05539413541... | 1 | Quiz: Test Your Knowledge of the Industrial Revolution: HowStuffWorks
Test Your Knowledge of the Industrial Revolution
7 Min Quiz
Which decade do historians agree on as the start of the Industrial Revolution?
Economic historian Arnold Toynbee first described the time from 1760 to 1840 as the Industrial Revolution. Since then, historians agree on 1760 as when it began and spread throughout Europe and the United States.
What country did the Industrial Revolution actually begin in?
Events leading up to the Industrial Revolution first began in the United Kingdom. Prior to its arrival, manufacturing was typically done in people's homes using hand tools or basic machines. It wasn't until around 1790 that the Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States.
What was the Enclosure Movement?
During the Agricultural Revolution, British parliament passed legislation that allowed for what was shared land to be privately owned. This led to wealthy farmers buying as much of it as they could, which then forced smaller farmers off of their land. As a result, those who no longer had a means to farm went to cities in search of work in factories and mines.
Who is credited with bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States?
Samuel Slater was an English-American industrialist known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution" after he introduced the first water-powered cotton mill to the United States using technology he brought with him from the United Kingdom. He built tenant farms and towns around his mills, which first emerged in Rhode Island.
How did the Industrial Revolution impact population distribution in the United States?
With the boom of factories and mills in urban cities, people began to leave rural communities and farms in incredibly high numbers, all of them seeking work. This caused a major uptick in population in those cities, especially ones on the east coast. This also lead to a number of issues, especially overcrowding.
In what region of the United States was the Industrial Revolution most prevalent?
The eastern coast of America specifically was at the center of the Industrial Revolution. When Samuel Slater built his first mills and factories in Rhode Island, this set up the whole region to become the powerhouse it was during this time. Factories soon began to pop up all over the area, especially in cities like New York and Boston.
What were some economic effects the Industrial Revolution had on Americans?
The Industrial Revolution marked a time when the middle class truly began to thrive, but the working and poor classes only grew to be poorer. The upper class, especially those who owned factories, saw incredible growth in their wealth. This also helped lead to the emergence of wealthy corporations.
As populations grew in cities, the working poor were forced to live in a specific type of housing. What were they called?
Tenements were a run-down and often overcrowded type of apartment that would house multiple families at a time. These especially existed in the poor areas of large cities, and eventually also became the primary type of housing immigrants had to live in after they would arrive in America.
Who invented the cotton gin and transformed the way cotton was picked and processed?
In 1793, American inventor Eli Whitney introduced the cotton gin and forever changed the way seeds were removed from cotton and processed for use in textiles. The machine was especially used in the South, where plantations of cotton fields were in abundance.
How did the cotton gin impact America both economically and socially?
While the cotton gin lead to an immense rise in the yield of cotton and placed America at the front of all production worldwide, it also lead to the growth of slavery. The cotton gin did reduce the need for human labor, but with the increase of cotton demand it forced the need for slaves to grow and pick it.
The use of child labor was very common during the Industrial Revolution. What was this exactly?
Child labor has always existed, but never was it so prominent as it was during the Industrial Revolution. Low-income families started sending their children to factories so that they could bring home some money as well. However, they were barely paid anything and often were used in situations that were especially dangerous, leading to severe injuries.
Where was "Cottonopolis"?
The nickname "Cottonopolis" was given to the city of Manchester, England. It was famed as the world's first industrial city, and during the Industrial Revolution was revered as the home of the cotton industry in the U.K. Still, it would never come close to how successful America's South was in the cotton industry.
Who invented the assembly line?
Henry Ford, who is also the founder of the Ford Motor Company, first introduced his assembly line in 1913 in his auto factory. After he did this, he was able to build a car in under three hours when it used to take twelve! This innovation forever changed the way the auto industry manufactures vehicles.
What lead to the creation of labor unions during the Industrial Revolution?
Labor unions initially formed because workers were fed up with the working conditions they were subjected to, but even more importantly, that the government took very little interested in making sure standards were in place or that any sort of regulation was active in how businesses treated their employees.
What did labor unions actually do for factory, mill, and mine workers during this time?
One of the most notable things that labor unions introduced and organized at this time were strikes. This helped them peacefully negotiate with employers to get better working conditions and pay for workers in factories, mills and mines.
Who was President when the Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States?
The Industrial Revolution arrived in the United States in 1790. George Washington was President from 1789 to 1797, leading the country through the formative years of technological advances in machinery and manufacturing.
How were women significantly affected by the Industrial Revolution?
A majority of women during the Industrial Revolution were not wealthy and were forced to enter the workforce to help provide for their families. While this could have been an empowering moment, they earned a fraction of what men were paid.
Who were the Lowell Mill Girls?
The Lowell Mills girls were young women who joined the workforce of their own accord in Lowell, MA. At the time, Francis Cabot Lowell was able to offer the thousands of them competitive pay and even provided housing. By 1840, they made up nearly three-quarters of the mill workforce.
Who was responsible for inventing the telegraph?
Samuel Morse developed the telegraph in the 1830s and 1840s, transmitting electrical signals from one station to another through wire that was laid in between them. On May 24, 1844, Morse sent his famous message, "What hath God wrought?" from Washington to Baltimore.
Eli Whitney invented something else after the cotton gin. What was it?
After he invented the cotton gin, Eli Whitney began to build firearms. He was the first to use interchangeable parts in his manufacturing process, which then cut down the time it took to make them and made it cheaper to repair if needed. It was also easier for unskilled laborers to manufacture products.
Who were the Luddites?
“Luddite” is a term still used today to describe people who dislike new technology, but it was first used to describe disgruntled workers who rallied against the Industrial Revolution in England. Some even broke into factories and smashed textile machines after their appeals for government aid were ignored.
A few political and economical ideologies emerged during the Industrial Revolution. What was one of the most prominent ones?
Classical liberalism emerged as a response to industrialization and urbanization during the Revolution in both the U.S. and U.K. It focused on a belief of individual liberty and a very limited, small government; that people should be able to sell their products, goods or services to others without intervention from the government, unless people's welfare was in jeopardy.
Who founded Utilitarianism?
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical who founded the basis of Utilitarianism on the idea that actions should be judged based on their consequences; that morally appropriate or "good" behavior will not do any harm to others, but instead increase overall happiness or "utility."
Who was Karl Marx?
Karl Marx was also known for his work as a historian, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary. He believed that no one, or no class, should have any sort of power over another. Marxism's biggest drive was to remove power from the corporations and government.
What was an invention that improved the textile industry?
James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny in England during the early days of the Industrial Revolution. It helped bring the textile industry out of people's homes and into factories. As production sped up and output increased with this new machine, more and more people were needed to spin and process cloth.
What sort of economic system did America have as a result of the Industrial Revolution?
While capitalism had its roots and existed before the Industrial Revolution his the United States, this was the period that it hit its stride. Capitalism exists with the base belief that private individuals or companies can invest their money how they wish, so they can make greater profits and build their wealth. It functions with the assumption that the market will determine costs through demand, and that the government will not interfere in how it all plays out.
Corporations grew in their power during the Industrial Revolution. Why was this?
Corporations like the Standard Oil Company founded by John D. Rockefeller and the U.S. Steel Company founded by Andrew Carnegie implemented practices like "cutting out the middle man" and underselling their competitors that would lead to these other businesses either going under or having to sell to corporations. This type of business practice is heavily practiced by corporations today.
It's argued that the steam engine was the most important invention of the entire Industrial Revolution. Why?
Before steam power and the steam engine, a majority of factories were powered by wind, water or even horse or man. Prior to its creation, factories also had to be placed along sources of water and were not able to expand beyond that. With the steam engine, factories and their machines became more efficient, and people were able to travel by steam-powered locomotive, ship and car.
Aside from corporations and the rich, who really benefited from the Industrial Revolution?
Because the middle class had more job opportunities than they ever had before, they were able to lift themselves up out of the lower standards of living they had experienced before. The middle class started to enjoy better, healthier diets, as well as other luxuries that having a little more money can offer.
Labor unions fought for workers' rights during the Industrial Revolution. What is an example of something still practiced by them today?
Labor unions were responsible for creating successful strikes during the Industrial Revolution, setting up for the continued use of them to fight for workers' rights or benefits even today. It allows for peaceful protest and helps protect the jobs of workers who decide to strike. An example of recent strikes in America is the teachers' strikes across a number of states.
Who invented the machine called "The Reaper"?
Cyrus McCormick invented the reaper in 1831, speeding up the process of harvesting wheat, grains, and other crops by replacing the process of having to cut down everything by hand. The reaper was horse-drawn and also mechanized, increasing productivity and removing some of the hard labor farmers had faced for decades up to this point.
What major health concern plagued the working class in large cities?
A high number of factories that popped up all over large cities were guilty of dumping waste into rivers, which were used for drinking water by many in these cities. This especially affected the working and poor class, who were already in overcrowded, unhealthy living conditions. Other forms of pollution also became a problem, causing other issues like trouble with breathing.
Why was James Watts so important to the Industrial Revolution happening in the United Kingdom?
James Watts was an English inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements in steam engine technology drove the Industrial Revolution, first in the United Kingdom and eventually in the United States. He took the existing engine created by Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen and made it smaller and more efficient, not needing as much coal to function as before.
John McAdam is known as "The Father of the Modern Road". Why is this?
John McAdam was a Scottish engineer whose innovation was the biggest advancement in road design and construction. Some of these roads still exist today and are named after him. Before the McAdam Road, large rocks were laid to create a surface for roads. McAdam's design used crushed rocks and allowed for much smoother roads, which were able to be done faster and cheaper.
Overall, why is the Industrial Revolution such an important moment in history?
The Industrial Revolution was a significant fundamental change in the way goods are designed, produced and manufactured, which also ultimately altered the way people lived. It was also the moment in history where we can see a complete change in society on every level; politically, economically and socially new ideas emerged.
We can all look back at our time in grade school and recall learning about the Industrial Revolution. We were educated on the push for innovation and fresh inventions, the emergence and immense growth of factories, and the living and working conditions people were faced with during this time. From its birth in the United Kingdom to its arrival in the United States, this transformative time in history not only impacted technology but forever changed the world in a multitude of ways.
So, how much do you honestly remember from your school days? Can you recall the actual decade the Industrial Revolution began? Can you describe the conditions that lead to the labor unions we still see in use today? What about naming not only the most important inventions of this time but those who were responsible for their creation?
Whether you're looking to brush up on a piece of history you may have forgotten a bit about or you want to show off your steel trap of a memory, it's time to test your knowledge of what went down during the age of expanding landscapes, incredible innovation and the ultimate shift in life as people knew it. Let's see what you got!
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and confirming that you are 13 years old or over. | 3,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘A Doll’s House,’ written by Henrik Ibsen allows every individual in the play to find out the kind of person he or she is and to strive to attain their true identity. Ibsen portrays this behaviour in a Doll’s House through one of the main characters, Nora Helmer by setting the scene in Norway during 1872. In the late 1800’s women did not play an important role in society. Their job was to cook, clean, sew and take care of the children. Women were treated as material possesions rather than human beings that were capable of thinking and acting for themselves.Order now
On the other hand males had always dominated over the women appearing more superior, however this was not viewed as something ‘unfair’. Males were to go to school and then further advance in their education by attending college. Ibsen strappingly depicts the limit of women’s rights during the 1800’s. Deception within ‘A Doll’s House’ is an ongoing theme. It brings out the plot, outlines the characters and allows the reader to explore the status of women and the society. Without deception there would really be no play. This also leaves the audience to make a decision about the play.
After reading ‘A Doll’s House’ I can conclude that there are resemblances yet a contrast between the characters Mrs. Linde and Nora. A contrasting difference in the characters are shown in the role that they play in their marriages. The character of Nora is the most deceptive in the play. She is one the main characters. Her deceptiveness is caused by the disloyalty towards her husband, Torvald. From the start of the play we see her lying about the most ridiculous things like how much money she spends and whether she has been eating macaroons.
Then we find out how she lies about the crimes shes committed when she took out a loan without Torvald knowing and forging her fathers signature. However we still see Nora as a ‘sweet and innocent child. ‘ We can see throughout the play that Nora is able to disguise herself and appear differently to the audience. This is a way she protects herself and gets her own way. One of the most obvious and consistent things she does is act like a ‘child’. We can see her childish acts at the beginning of the first act as she ‘crosses quietly to Torvald’s dorr’after ‘sneakily eating a few macaroons and hiding them in her pocket.
‘ There are many incidents throughout the play where Nora uses her child like acts to get her what she wants but at the same time cover up her lies. This can be seen when Torvald is questioning her about the macaroons (which were forbidden for her by Torvald) and she turns around and says to her husband, ‘I could never deceive you. ‘ Many people do not pay much attention to her lying as she doesn’t lie about anything significant, however we see it as a ‘white lie,’ this is probably because of her sweet and playful character.
I believe the first scene in the play makes us feel like we should protect Nora in a way and that she isnt really capable of doing any wrong. Another character, Mrs. Linde makes her first appearance in the play and we find out that she is an old friend of Nora’s. Her talk with Nora allows us to hear the hardships from the past years involving deaths and ill family members. However we see a selfish side to Nora, where she really doesn’t pay attention to Mrs. Linde instead she is more eager to talk about how ‘these last eight years have been so truly happy,’ Nora feels the need to brag about her life in order to prove herself to Mrs.
Linde. As Nora discovers that Mrs. Linde has lost her husband and has no children Nora tries to empathise with Mrs. Linde, however in a way it seems as though she is rubbing it in as she talks about her ‘three beautiful children’ and ‘her extraordinary luck they’ve just had’ with ‘Torvald being made manager of the bank. ‘ Nora again lies when it is to do with her career. She tells Mrs. Linde that she has had ‘a few odd jobs’ such as ‘needlework, embroidery,crocheting,’ This coincides with what she and Torvald were talking about earlier involving Christmas decorations.
Obviously Torvald is not aware of her taking any jobs as she is ‘his little squirrel’ and ‘doesn’t want her to work’ (which was very common in those days). It is either she is lying to Mrs. Linde in order to make herself look ‘better’ or she was lying to Torvald about ‘the cat tearing everything to shreads,’ causing her to do a rush job on the decorations because she had to fit work into her schedule. It is more likely that she is lying to Torvald as he seems to be the victim of most of her lies.
Mrs. Linde feels protective over Nora because she still sees her as ‘still being a child’ and we see this as Dr. Rank enters the room. Nora offers him a macaroon, to which he replies, ‘I thought that they were forbidden. ‘ Nora justifies it by telling Dr. Rank that Mrs. Linde has brought them. Mrs. Linde does not come against this because she knows about the consequences of breaking rules around the house. Here we can see how Nora is capable of twisting people to her side in order to be able to keep her lies up without being discovered. | <urn:uuid:c932c7b4-4996-495a-ba08-424834a200cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/literary-arts/prose/role-in-society-22850/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.986965 | 1,220 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.004223361145704985... | 4 | ‘A Doll’s House,’ written by Henrik Ibsen allows every individual in the play to find out the kind of person he or she is and to strive to attain their true identity. Ibsen portrays this behaviour in a Doll’s House through one of the main characters, Nora Helmer by setting the scene in Norway during 1872. In the late 1800’s women did not play an important role in society. Their job was to cook, clean, sew and take care of the children. Women were treated as material possesions rather than human beings that were capable of thinking and acting for themselves.Order now
On the other hand males had always dominated over the women appearing more superior, however this was not viewed as something ‘unfair’. Males were to go to school and then further advance in their education by attending college. Ibsen strappingly depicts the limit of women’s rights during the 1800’s. Deception within ‘A Doll’s House’ is an ongoing theme. It brings out the plot, outlines the characters and allows the reader to explore the status of women and the society. Without deception there would really be no play. This also leaves the audience to make a decision about the play.
After reading ‘A Doll’s House’ I can conclude that there are resemblances yet a contrast between the characters Mrs. Linde and Nora. A contrasting difference in the characters are shown in the role that they play in their marriages. The character of Nora is the most deceptive in the play. She is one the main characters. Her deceptiveness is caused by the disloyalty towards her husband, Torvald. From the start of the play we see her lying about the most ridiculous things like how much money she spends and whether she has been eating macaroons.
Then we find out how she lies about the crimes shes committed when she took out a loan without Torvald knowing and forging her fathers signature. However we still see Nora as a ‘sweet and innocent child. ‘ We can see throughout the play that Nora is able to disguise herself and appear differently to the audience. This is a way she protects herself and gets her own way. One of the most obvious and consistent things she does is act like a ‘child’. We can see her childish acts at the beginning of the first act as she ‘crosses quietly to Torvald’s dorr’after ‘sneakily eating a few macaroons and hiding them in her pocket.
‘ There are many incidents throughout the play where Nora uses her child like acts to get her what she wants but at the same time cover up her lies. This can be seen when Torvald is questioning her about the macaroons (which were forbidden for her by Torvald) and she turns around and says to her husband, ‘I could never deceive you. ‘ Many people do not pay much attention to her lying as she doesn’t lie about anything significant, however we see it as a ‘white lie,’ this is probably because of her sweet and playful character.
I believe the first scene in the play makes us feel like we should protect Nora in a way and that she isnt really capable of doing any wrong. Another character, Mrs. Linde makes her first appearance in the play and we find out that she is an old friend of Nora’s. Her talk with Nora allows us to hear the hardships from the past years involving deaths and ill family members. However we see a selfish side to Nora, where she really doesn’t pay attention to Mrs. Linde instead she is more eager to talk about how ‘these last eight years have been so truly happy,’ Nora feels the need to brag about her life in order to prove herself to Mrs.
Linde. As Nora discovers that Mrs. Linde has lost her husband and has no children Nora tries to empathise with Mrs. Linde, however in a way it seems as though she is rubbing it in as she talks about her ‘three beautiful children’ and ‘her extraordinary luck they’ve just had’ with ‘Torvald being made manager of the bank. ‘ Nora again lies when it is to do with her career. She tells Mrs. Linde that she has had ‘a few odd jobs’ such as ‘needlework, embroidery,crocheting,’ This coincides with what she and Torvald were talking about earlier involving Christmas decorations.
Obviously Torvald is not aware of her taking any jobs as she is ‘his little squirrel’ and ‘doesn’t want her to work’ (which was very common in those days). It is either she is lying to Mrs. Linde in order to make herself look ‘better’ or she was lying to Torvald about ‘the cat tearing everything to shreads,’ causing her to do a rush job on the decorations because she had to fit work into her schedule. It is more likely that she is lying to Torvald as he seems to be the victim of most of her lies.
Mrs. Linde feels protective over Nora because she still sees her as ‘still being a child’ and we see this as Dr. Rank enters the room. Nora offers him a macaroon, to which he replies, ‘I thought that they were forbidden. ‘ Nora justifies it by telling Dr. Rank that Mrs. Linde has brought them. Mrs. Linde does not come against this because she knows about the consequences of breaking rules around the house. Here we can see how Nora is capable of twisting people to her side in order to be able to keep her lies up without being discovered. | 1,142 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Originally published in English in 1976, the book draws on and extends our knowledge of the process of learning. The subject of the study is the general stage in a child's development that comes between his successful performance of an activity without knowing how he did it - that is, what he had to do in order to succeed - and the times when he becomes aware of what went into that action. The book reports the results of experiments conducted at the Centre of Genetic Epistemology. Children, ranging in age between four and adolescence, were asked to perform such tasks as walking on all fours, playing tiddlywinks, building a ramp for a toy car. They were then asked to explain how they had performed the task, and in some cases, to instruct the interviewer. Their answers show a number of surprising inaccuracies in the child's ability to grasp the nature of what he has done.
Taking a broad view of his results, Piaget shows that they reveal several stages in the gradual development of the child’s conceptualization of his actions. In analysing each stage, Piaget argues that the child’s concept of his own action cannot be considered a simple matter of ‘enlightenment’, but must actively be reconstructed from his experience. This view has always been at the core of Piaget’s work, and a new area of the child’s mental world is here given definitive treatment. | <urn:uuid:4af94e7a-689f-4f9f-b149-1df0960979aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.telegraph.co.uk/Product/Jean-Piaget/The-Grasp-of-Consciousness-Psychology-Revivals--Action-an/18125772 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.984087 | 302 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.393240183591842... | 1 | Originally published in English in 1976, the book draws on and extends our knowledge of the process of learning. The subject of the study is the general stage in a child's development that comes between his successful performance of an activity without knowing how he did it - that is, what he had to do in order to succeed - and the times when he becomes aware of what went into that action. The book reports the results of experiments conducted at the Centre of Genetic Epistemology. Children, ranging in age between four and adolescence, were asked to perform such tasks as walking on all fours, playing tiddlywinks, building a ramp for a toy car. They were then asked to explain how they had performed the task, and in some cases, to instruct the interviewer. Their answers show a number of surprising inaccuracies in the child's ability to grasp the nature of what he has done.
Taking a broad view of his results, Piaget shows that they reveal several stages in the gradual development of the child’s conceptualization of his actions. In analysing each stage, Piaget argues that the child’s concept of his own action cannot be considered a simple matter of ‘enlightenment’, but must actively be reconstructed from his experience. This view has always been at the core of Piaget’s work, and a new area of the child’s mental world is here given definitive treatment. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘The Canterbury Tales’ by Geoffrey Chaucer is a classic work of literature that shows the corruption and greed of the church and others in positions of control. In this lesson, we’ll discuss how Chaucer explores these themes with his characters.
The Canterbury Tales
The Canterbury Tales was written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 14th century. Although interpretations of Chaucer’s intention for his work differ, two themes are present in many of the Tales: corruption of the institution of the Catholic Church, which was an immense influence on the people of England and Ireland during those days, and greed, which he points to both as a cause of this corruption as well as a corrupting force among society in general.
In the series of tales, we hear from many characters that are revealed to be more than they seem. One of the layman storytellers who stands out for her greed is the Wife of Bath.
During her prologue, the Wife of Bath reveals that she has been married five times. She candidly discusses her greed and how she uses her body and mind to manipulate the men she is with into giving her all of the gold and riches she desires. She has had no problem teasing her husbands or withholding sex until they buy her all the clothes and other goods she wants.
The Wife of Bath is not above using guilt as a tool either. While she herself might not necessarily be entirely faithful, she doesn’t hesitate to accuse her husbands of infidelities to make them feel bad. If one questioned her on her absence one night, she would turn the tables on him, insisting that because she is so in love with him she was out making sure he wasn’t cheating on her. Presumably, this would then make him feel loved and sorry that he even suspected her, and then he would give her money, or go out and buy her something.
Another storyteller that is greedy and smart is the Reeve. He is essentially a manager of lands for a lord. He is good at his job–in fact, he manages the lands so well that he has found ways to pilfer money from the lord without his knowledge. He then uses this money to make sure he is well kept. He also even uses it to give loans to the same lord, in exchange for favors down the road.
Chaucer’s portrayal of greed doesn’t end there though. It actually shows its ugly face even more in the Church figures, pointing to the even larger issue of corruption in the Church. The Monk, the Friar, the Prioress, and the Pardoner are all Church figures who are more symbols of wealth than humility. The Monk who is pledged to a life of poverty has made a fortune by providing forgiveness for money, as well as settling disputes for coin. The Pardoner is also known for this and confesses to these sins quite easily. The Pardoner also sells false relics for money (and he tries to sell them to the other pilgrims).
Even the Friar and the Prioress are not without fault; both wear clothing much too rich for their positions, indicating that they have made money somehow from them. The Friar is also more in love with his horses and hunting than he is in managing and caring for the monastery to which he is pledged. He spends very little time there.
All of this focus on greed clearly shows that one of Chaucer’s main concerns was the corruption of the Church. In Chaucer’s time, the Church had control over a lot of the day-to-day existence of most people. The poor were required to work church lands for free one to two days a week, which meant they couldn’t work their own. Many pardoners, friars, and monks asked for money in exchange for forgiveness, which meant the poor went without. The people meant to feed and clothe those in poverty ignored their roles and instead focused on making money for themselves. Through his Tales, Chaucer shines a light on this corruption and the dark motivating forces behind it that can be found in ordinary people.
The Canterbury Tales may be a fictional tale of a pilgrimage to Canterbury, but it also discusses the corruption of the institution of the Catholic Church that was prevalent during the 14th century. He also uses the book to show greed in its many forms, whether seen in the agents of the Church or in a woman who knows it is the only way to get ahead. Many of the pilgrims resort to manipulation to get what they want, which shows the dark side of the people, as well as the Church. | <urn:uuid:1c82bc4c-ccb4-440c-a733-6f108a172300> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://naturez-vous.com/the-canterbury-tales-greed-corruption/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.986503 | 946 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.187094822525978... | 1 | ‘The Canterbury Tales’ by Geoffrey Chaucer is a classic work of literature that shows the corruption and greed of the church and others in positions of control. In this lesson, we’ll discuss how Chaucer explores these themes with his characters.
The Canterbury Tales
The Canterbury Tales was written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 14th century. Although interpretations of Chaucer’s intention for his work differ, two themes are present in many of the Tales: corruption of the institution of the Catholic Church, which was an immense influence on the people of England and Ireland during those days, and greed, which he points to both as a cause of this corruption as well as a corrupting force among society in general.
In the series of tales, we hear from many characters that are revealed to be more than they seem. One of the layman storytellers who stands out for her greed is the Wife of Bath.
During her prologue, the Wife of Bath reveals that she has been married five times. She candidly discusses her greed and how she uses her body and mind to manipulate the men she is with into giving her all of the gold and riches she desires. She has had no problem teasing her husbands or withholding sex until they buy her all the clothes and other goods she wants.
The Wife of Bath is not above using guilt as a tool either. While she herself might not necessarily be entirely faithful, she doesn’t hesitate to accuse her husbands of infidelities to make them feel bad. If one questioned her on her absence one night, she would turn the tables on him, insisting that because she is so in love with him she was out making sure he wasn’t cheating on her. Presumably, this would then make him feel loved and sorry that he even suspected her, and then he would give her money, or go out and buy her something.
Another storyteller that is greedy and smart is the Reeve. He is essentially a manager of lands for a lord. He is good at his job–in fact, he manages the lands so well that he has found ways to pilfer money from the lord without his knowledge. He then uses this money to make sure he is well kept. He also even uses it to give loans to the same lord, in exchange for favors down the road.
Chaucer’s portrayal of greed doesn’t end there though. It actually shows its ugly face even more in the Church figures, pointing to the even larger issue of corruption in the Church. The Monk, the Friar, the Prioress, and the Pardoner are all Church figures who are more symbols of wealth than humility. The Monk who is pledged to a life of poverty has made a fortune by providing forgiveness for money, as well as settling disputes for coin. The Pardoner is also known for this and confesses to these sins quite easily. The Pardoner also sells false relics for money (and he tries to sell them to the other pilgrims).
Even the Friar and the Prioress are not without fault; both wear clothing much too rich for their positions, indicating that they have made money somehow from them. The Friar is also more in love with his horses and hunting than he is in managing and caring for the monastery to which he is pledged. He spends very little time there.
All of this focus on greed clearly shows that one of Chaucer’s main concerns was the corruption of the Church. In Chaucer’s time, the Church had control over a lot of the day-to-day existence of most people. The poor were required to work church lands for free one to two days a week, which meant they couldn’t work their own. Many pardoners, friars, and monks asked for money in exchange for forgiveness, which meant the poor went without. The people meant to feed and clothe those in poverty ignored their roles and instead focused on making money for themselves. Through his Tales, Chaucer shines a light on this corruption and the dark motivating forces behind it that can be found in ordinary people.
The Canterbury Tales may be a fictional tale of a pilgrimage to Canterbury, but it also discusses the corruption of the institution of the Catholic Church that was prevalent during the 14th century. He also uses the book to show greed in its many forms, whether seen in the agents of the Church or in a woman who knows it is the only way to get ahead. Many of the pilgrims resort to manipulation to get what they want, which shows the dark side of the people, as well as the Church. | 927 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 19 is a very important day in India's freedom struggle because it was on this day in 1927 when great freedom fighters Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ulla Khan and Roshan Singh were hanged by British empire for adopting the revolutionary path to help India get Independence. The day is celebrated every year across the country as 'Martyrdom Day. '
Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ullah Khan and Roshan Singh were given death sentence by British government for their involvement in Kakori conspiracy. On August 9, 1925, several revolutionaries including Chandrashekhar Azad, Bismil, Ashfaq Ulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and Roshan Singh looted a train which was carrying treasury of British empire. The revolutionaries looted the train between Kakori and Alamnagar near Lucknow.
This incident, which is popularly known as Kakori Conspiracy, caught the attention of people across the country. Though Azad managed to dodge the police after looting the treasury, Bismil, Khan, Lahiri, and Roshan Singh were arrested and were sentenced to death.
Born in 1897, Bismil was a poet-turned-revolutionary. Kakori Conspiracy is still considered one of the most brazen acts of defiance against an unjust and harsh British rule here. It was mentioned to be a message to the British that they cannot get away with taking money from Indians for their own personal use. Ashfaq Ulla Khan was born in Shahjahanpur and he was close friend of Bismil. Just like Bismil, Khan was also a poet.
During the hearing in court, Ram Prasad Bismil had said, 'Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna Ab Hamare Dil Me Hain, Dekhna Hai Zor Kitna Bazu-e-Katil Me Hai?' | <urn:uuid:af82e1e7-d051-4fca-81aa-f8a4e909b998> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zeenews.india.com/india/nation-remembers-ram-prasad-bismil-ashfaqulla-khan-roshan-singh-the-revolutionaries-behind-kakori-conspiracy-2252999.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.981134 | 385 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.24797864258289... | 2 | December 19 is a very important day in India's freedom struggle because it was on this day in 1927 when great freedom fighters Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ulla Khan and Roshan Singh were hanged by British empire for adopting the revolutionary path to help India get Independence. The day is celebrated every year across the country as 'Martyrdom Day. '
Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ullah Khan and Roshan Singh were given death sentence by British government for their involvement in Kakori conspiracy. On August 9, 1925, several revolutionaries including Chandrashekhar Azad, Bismil, Ashfaq Ulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and Roshan Singh looted a train which was carrying treasury of British empire. The revolutionaries looted the train between Kakori and Alamnagar near Lucknow.
This incident, which is popularly known as Kakori Conspiracy, caught the attention of people across the country. Though Azad managed to dodge the police after looting the treasury, Bismil, Khan, Lahiri, and Roshan Singh were arrested and were sentenced to death.
Born in 1897, Bismil was a poet-turned-revolutionary. Kakori Conspiracy is still considered one of the most brazen acts of defiance against an unjust and harsh British rule here. It was mentioned to be a message to the British that they cannot get away with taking money from Indians for their own personal use. Ashfaq Ulla Khan was born in Shahjahanpur and he was close friend of Bismil. Just like Bismil, Khan was also a poet.
During the hearing in court, Ram Prasad Bismil had said, 'Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna Ab Hamare Dil Me Hain, Dekhna Hai Zor Kitna Bazu-e-Katil Me Hai?' | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great War And The Shaping of the 20th Century Essay
Another man is killed; Another family receives a telegram saying that a loved one was killed in battle; The family will never be the same again without the presence of this man. This is an effort to explain some of the impact that World War I had on millions of individuals. This sequence of events was conducted over and over millions of times during WWI. So why were there so many deaths?Who were the instigators of a war that caused so much suffering, not just in family life, but in society in general? What were some of the effects that war had on society? To answer these questions, it is necessary to look at history, prior to the war, and examine the actions of certain individuals …show more content…
Another instigator of the war to be discussed is Wilhelm II. Wilhelm II was shrewed, treacherous, and hysterical. He was a chronic bully, and his habitual style of discourse was a neurotic bluster that masked the painful inner uncertainty of a small man who has had the bad luck in life to be called upon to stomp about in a giant’s boots. [iv] When the opportunity for a war surpassed the opportunity for peace between Austria and Serbia, Wilhelm II took advantage of the opportunity by telling Berchtold, Serbia must be dealt with, and as soon as possible. [v] Wilhelm II also told Berchtold that, "He promised his full support and advised immediate action against Serbia[vi]." Though it was quite clearly recognized that a world war might be the consequence, On July 5th, Wilhelm II, holding the fate of Austria and Serbia in his hands, and also the fate of the peace of Europe, chose war by offering Germany’s 'full support' to Austria-Hungary.[vii] Therefore, Wilhelm II helped to ignite the start of WWI with his ‘war fever’ attitude and by offering his “full support” to Austria-Hungary.
The last instigator of the war to be discussed is the Austrian foreign minister during the war, Count Leopold von Berchtold. Berchtold was The | <urn:uuid:7bbb2e84-391f-48a9-9eaa-3b58bb510c83> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/the-great-war-and-the-shaping-of/FKCSSHENAC | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.983143 | 446 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.4309401810169... | 1 | The Great War And The Shaping of the 20th Century Essay
Another man is killed; Another family receives a telegram saying that a loved one was killed in battle; The family will never be the same again without the presence of this man. This is an effort to explain some of the impact that World War I had on millions of individuals. This sequence of events was conducted over and over millions of times during WWI. So why were there so many deaths?Who were the instigators of a war that caused so much suffering, not just in family life, but in society in general? What were some of the effects that war had on society? To answer these questions, it is necessary to look at history, prior to the war, and examine the actions of certain individuals …show more content…
Another instigator of the war to be discussed is Wilhelm II. Wilhelm II was shrewed, treacherous, and hysterical. He was a chronic bully, and his habitual style of discourse was a neurotic bluster that masked the painful inner uncertainty of a small man who has had the bad luck in life to be called upon to stomp about in a giant’s boots. [iv] When the opportunity for a war surpassed the opportunity for peace between Austria and Serbia, Wilhelm II took advantage of the opportunity by telling Berchtold, Serbia must be dealt with, and as soon as possible. [v] Wilhelm II also told Berchtold that, "He promised his full support and advised immediate action against Serbia[vi]." Though it was quite clearly recognized that a world war might be the consequence, On July 5th, Wilhelm II, holding the fate of Austria and Serbia in his hands, and also the fate of the peace of Europe, chose war by offering Germany’s 'full support' to Austria-Hungary.[vii] Therefore, Wilhelm II helped to ignite the start of WWI with his ‘war fever’ attitude and by offering his “full support” to Austria-Hungary.
The last instigator of the war to be discussed is the Austrian foreign minister during the war, Count Leopold von Berchtold. Berchtold was The | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
However, this won’t fully happen until 2021, so it is still an important term to understand. During the height of its use, LIBOR was used as a measure of the health of the entire global financial system – as a higher interbank borrowing cost implies low confidence in a bank’s ability to repay the loan.
The LIBOR rate is calculated daily, by surveying different banks around the world and averaging the findings to set the day-to-day interbank borrowing rate.
A brief history of LIBOR
LIBOR was created as a uniform measure of interest rates across different banks. It became necessary during the rapid expansion of the interest rate market in the 1980s.
The British Bankers’ Association (BBA) set up BBA settlement rates for interest levels in 1984, before these were developed into the BBA LIBOR in 1986.
LIBOR was used for many years and was the benchmark interbank lending rate. However, this all changed when LIBOR was the subject of a scandal in which it was revealed that banks had been falsely increasing or decreasing their interest rates to affect the average. This was an attempt to profit from trades, as well as to give the impression that a bank appeared more creditworthy than it was.
Investigators found that LIBOR had been the subject of unfair manipulation since at least 1991. The uncovering of the scandal was the reason that the BBA handed over responsibility for maintaining the rate to the ICE in February 2014, at which point BBA LIBOR changed to Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) LIBOR.
As a result of the LIBOR scandal, it was agreed that the rate would be phased out and replaced by a series of alternate interest rates to determine the borrowing cost between banks. | <urn:uuid:a44223f2-0b62-4dac-a995-88eb35b55d3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ig.com/uk/glossary-trading-terms/libor-definition | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.983131 | 358 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.048320103436... | 4 | However, this won’t fully happen until 2021, so it is still an important term to understand. During the height of its use, LIBOR was used as a measure of the health of the entire global financial system – as a higher interbank borrowing cost implies low confidence in a bank’s ability to repay the loan.
The LIBOR rate is calculated daily, by surveying different banks around the world and averaging the findings to set the day-to-day interbank borrowing rate.
A brief history of LIBOR
LIBOR was created as a uniform measure of interest rates across different banks. It became necessary during the rapid expansion of the interest rate market in the 1980s.
The British Bankers’ Association (BBA) set up BBA settlement rates for interest levels in 1984, before these were developed into the BBA LIBOR in 1986.
LIBOR was used for many years and was the benchmark interbank lending rate. However, this all changed when LIBOR was the subject of a scandal in which it was revealed that banks had been falsely increasing or decreasing their interest rates to affect the average. This was an attempt to profit from trades, as well as to give the impression that a bank appeared more creditworthy than it was.
Investigators found that LIBOR had been the subject of unfair manipulation since at least 1991. The uncovering of the scandal was the reason that the BBA handed over responsibility for maintaining the rate to the ICE in February 2014, at which point BBA LIBOR changed to Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) LIBOR.
As a result of the LIBOR scandal, it was agreed that the rate would be phased out and replaced by a series of alternate interest rates to determine the borrowing cost between banks. | 369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This research is about how Francis Bacon, one of the most important artists of the twentieth century, established a connection between art and life, as well as how some of the environmental and social dynamics involved had an impact on his works. The artist's work "Three Works for Crucifixion" in 1962 was analyzed and a context was formed. When establishing this context or studying an artist, it is important to follow the traces of the period in which he lived. Francis Bacon is an artist who reflects the inner world and the chaos of the period to his works. The artist is often referred to with the Expression movement, however, it is difficult to put him in any form. Because it is possible to find traces of many movements in his work. This article is based on the works of the artist on the theme of Crucifixion, is an attempt to understand the art adventure and the period in which he lived.
Keywords: Francis Bacon, art, crucifixion, tryptic | <urn:uuid:04c3ea23-bcf2-4210-89df-33e8beee5ed0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ulakbilge.com/ozet.php?dili=2&ref=1577084146&did=197 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.987356 | 199 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.60637849569320... | 5 | This research is about how Francis Bacon, one of the most important artists of the twentieth century, established a connection between art and life, as well as how some of the environmental and social dynamics involved had an impact on his works. The artist's work "Three Works for Crucifixion" in 1962 was analyzed and a context was formed. When establishing this context or studying an artist, it is important to follow the traces of the period in which he lived. Francis Bacon is an artist who reflects the inner world and the chaos of the period to his works. The artist is often referred to with the Expression movement, however, it is difficult to put him in any form. Because it is possible to find traces of many movements in his work. This article is based on the works of the artist on the theme of Crucifixion, is an attempt to understand the art adventure and the period in which he lived.
Keywords: Francis Bacon, art, crucifixion, tryptic | 200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Time Left: 00:00:00
Your Time: 00:00:00
The war ended with the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. King Richard III of the House of York was killed in the battle and Henry Tudor, the leader of the House of Lancaster, became King Henry VII.
Areas of what is now Scotland were never conquered by the Romans, and the Emperor Hadrian built a wall in the north of England to keep out the Picts (ancestors of the Scottish people).
Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother Victoria. On 6 February 2017 she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne.
Labour government took into public ownership (nationalised) the railways, coal mines and gas, water and electricity supplies.
Fill in the blank space with appropriate choice.
Henry VIII had to take the permission of _________ in order to divorce his first wife.
To divorce his first wife, Henry VIII needed the approval of the Pope. When the Pope refused, Henry established the Church of England. In this new Church, the king, not the Pope, would have the power to appoint bishops and order how people should worship.
Henry VIII was succeeded by his son Edward VI, who was strongly Protestant. During his reign, the Book of Common Prayer was written to be used in the Church of England. A version of this book is still used in some churches today.
In the Middle Ages, Parliament began to develop into the institution it is today. Its origins can be traced to the king’s council of advisers, which included important noblemen and the leaders of the Church.
The Irish Nationalist movement had grown strongly through the 19th century. Some, such as the Fenians, favoured complete independence.
In Scotland, 31 December is called Hogmanay and 2 January is also a public holiday. For some Scottish people, Hogmanay is a bigger holiday than Christmas.
In 1815, the French Wars ended with the defeat of the Emperor Napoleon by the Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo. Wellington was known as the Iron Duke and later became Prime Minister.
About AD 600, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in Britain. These kingdoms were mainly in what is now England. The burial place of one of the kings was at Sutton Hoo in modern Suffolk.
The 1950s were a period of economic recovery after the war and increasing prosperity for working people.
The queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart (often now called ‘Mary, Queen of Scots’) was a Catholic. She was only a week old when her father died and she became queen.
Better transport links were needed to transport raw materials and manufactured goods. Canals were built to link the factories to towns and cities and to the ports, particularly in the new industrial areas in the middle and north of England.
After his victory in the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII deliberately strengthened the central administration of England and reduced the power of the nobles. When he died, his son Henry VIII continued the policy of centralising power.
The BBC started radio broadcasts in 1922 and began the world’s first regular television service in 1936.
One of the most famous battles of the Hundred Years War was the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, where King Henry V’s vastly outnumbered English army defeated the French. The English left France in the 1450s.
The United States entered the Second World War when the Japanese bombed its naval base at Pearl Harbour in December 1941.
The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, when people learned how to make weapons and tools out of iron. People still lived in roundhouses, grouped together into larger settlements, and sometimes defended sites called hill forts.
This commercial expansion and prosperity was sustained in part by the booming slave trade. While slavery was illegal within Britain itself, by the 18th century it was a fully established overseas industry, dominated by Britain and the American colonies.
Queen Elizabeth I was a Protestant. She re-established the Church of England as the official Church in England. Everyone had to attend their local church and there were laws about the type of religious services and the prayers which could be said, but Elizabeth did not ask about people’s real beliefs.
Alexander Fleming was researching influenza (the ‘flu’) in 1928 when he discovered penicillin. This was then further developed into a usable drug by the scientists Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
Having occupied Austria and invaded Czechoslovakia, Hitler followed his invasion of Poland by taking control of Belgium and the Netherlands. Then, in 1940, German forces defeated allied troops and advanced through France.
During the reign of Henry VIII, Wales became formally united with England by the Act for the Government of Wales. The Welsh sent representatives to the House of Commons and the Welsh legal system was reformed.
Correct Incorrect Review | <urn:uuid:947185fb-c639-4811-be08-5871ac4c9da7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thelifeinuktest.co.uk/long-illustrious-history/practice-test/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00026.warc.gz | en | 0.984608 | 1,028 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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Your Time: 00:00:00
The war ended with the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. King Richard III of the House of York was killed in the battle and Henry Tudor, the leader of the House of Lancaster, became King Henry VII.
Areas of what is now Scotland were never conquered by the Romans, and the Emperor Hadrian built a wall in the north of England to keep out the Picts (ancestors of the Scottish people).
Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning British monarch on 9 September 2015 when she surpassed the reign of her great-great-grandmother Victoria. On 6 February 2017 she became the first British monarch to celebrate a Sapphire Jubilee, commemorating 65 years on the throne.
Labour government took into public ownership (nationalised) the railways, coal mines and gas, water and electricity supplies.
Fill in the blank space with appropriate choice.
Henry VIII had to take the permission of _________ in order to divorce his first wife.
To divorce his first wife, Henry VIII needed the approval of the Pope. When the Pope refused, Henry established the Church of England. In this new Church, the king, not the Pope, would have the power to appoint bishops and order how people should worship.
Henry VIII was succeeded by his son Edward VI, who was strongly Protestant. During his reign, the Book of Common Prayer was written to be used in the Church of England. A version of this book is still used in some churches today.
In the Middle Ages, Parliament began to develop into the institution it is today. Its origins can be traced to the king’s council of advisers, which included important noblemen and the leaders of the Church.
The Irish Nationalist movement had grown strongly through the 19th century. Some, such as the Fenians, favoured complete independence.
In Scotland, 31 December is called Hogmanay and 2 January is also a public holiday. For some Scottish people, Hogmanay is a bigger holiday than Christmas.
In 1815, the French Wars ended with the defeat of the Emperor Napoleon by the Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo. Wellington was known as the Iron Duke and later became Prime Minister.
About AD 600, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in Britain. These kingdoms were mainly in what is now England. The burial place of one of the kings was at Sutton Hoo in modern Suffolk.
The 1950s were a period of economic recovery after the war and increasing prosperity for working people.
The queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart (often now called ‘Mary, Queen of Scots’) was a Catholic. She was only a week old when her father died and she became queen.
Better transport links were needed to transport raw materials and manufactured goods. Canals were built to link the factories to towns and cities and to the ports, particularly in the new industrial areas in the middle and north of England.
After his victory in the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII deliberately strengthened the central administration of England and reduced the power of the nobles. When he died, his son Henry VIII continued the policy of centralising power.
The BBC started radio broadcasts in 1922 and began the world’s first regular television service in 1936.
One of the most famous battles of the Hundred Years War was the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, where King Henry V’s vastly outnumbered English army defeated the French. The English left France in the 1450s.
The United States entered the Second World War when the Japanese bombed its naval base at Pearl Harbour in December 1941.
The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, when people learned how to make weapons and tools out of iron. People still lived in roundhouses, grouped together into larger settlements, and sometimes defended sites called hill forts.
This commercial expansion and prosperity was sustained in part by the booming slave trade. While slavery was illegal within Britain itself, by the 18th century it was a fully established overseas industry, dominated by Britain and the American colonies.
Queen Elizabeth I was a Protestant. She re-established the Church of England as the official Church in England. Everyone had to attend their local church and there were laws about the type of religious services and the prayers which could be said, but Elizabeth did not ask about people’s real beliefs.
Alexander Fleming was researching influenza (the ‘flu’) in 1928 when he discovered penicillin. This was then further developed into a usable drug by the scientists Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
Having occupied Austria and invaded Czechoslovakia, Hitler followed his invasion of Poland by taking control of Belgium and the Netherlands. Then, in 1940, German forces defeated allied troops and advanced through France.
During the reign of Henry VIII, Wales became formally united with England by the Act for the Government of Wales. The Welsh sent representatives to the House of Commons and the Welsh legal system was reformed.
Correct Incorrect Review | 1,052 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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