Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Eureka stockade battle between police The Eureka Stockade was a battle between the police (troopers), soldiers and the Australian gold miners (diggers). The minersrebelled against the monthly licence fees and invasive and oftenviolent licence checks by the police, but what began as a noisy butpeaceful rebellion became a battle that resulted in numerouscasualties.The Eureka Stockade, which occurred on the Ballarat goldfields in December 1854, was a battle between the miners, known as diggers, and the police and soldiers. eureka stockade battle between police Eureka Rebellion. The Eureka Rebellion was a rebellion in 1854, instigated by gold miners in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, who revolted against the colonial authority of the United Kingdom. It culminated in the Battle of the Eureka Stockade, which was fought between miners and the colonial forces of Australia on 3 December 1854 by Allan Percival. Captain John Thomas was promoted to major after the Eureka Stockade fight. He transferred to the 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment and served in China. He was wounded during the British attack on the Taku Forts in 1860, promoted to lieutenant colonel The Battle of the Eureka Stockade (by which the rebellion is popularly known) was fought between miners and the Colonial forces of Australia on 3 December 1854 at Eureka Lead and named for the stockade structure erected by miners during the conflict.eureka stockade battle between police The Battle of the Eureka Stockade, by which the rebellion is popularly known, was fought between miners and the colonial forces of Australia on this date in 1854 at Eureka lead mines, and named for the stockade structure erected by miners during the conflict. Depiction of the Eureka Stockade by Beryl Ireland (1891) The spark that detonated rebellion came in October 1854 with the murder of a digger. The culprit, his mates had good reason to think, was the publican of the Eureka Hotel at Ballarat and a known crony of the goldfields police. A mob of 5000 angry diggers burned the pub down. eureka stockade battle between police Eureka Stockade. On 3 December, there was an allout clash between the miners and the police, supported by the military. The miners planned their defence and attack carefully, but they were no match for the wellarmed force they faced. When the battle was over, 125 miners were taken prisoner and many were badly wounded. Eureka Stockade. The police were unsettled by the hostility building among the diggers and decided to implement a licence hunt the next day. That morning, as the police moved through the miners tents, the diggers decided they had had enough, they gathered and marched to Bakery Hill. How can the answer be improved?Rating: 4.39 / Views: 686	<urn:uuid:68edd6c8-b14e-4a56-97c2-711312008048>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://imelre.ml/110586-eureka-stockade-battle-between-police.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00360.warc.gz	en	0.98251	606	3.34375	3	[ -0.14241492748260498, 0.0012910149525851011, 0.12256240844726562, 0.36669421195983887, 0.14361245930194855, 0.0945553332567215, 0.16434316337108612, 0.15423962473869324, -0.19241902232170105, 0.5162745714187622, 0.17606902122497559, -0.8806025981903076, -0.38793954253196716, 0.193196475505...	1	Eureka stockade battle between police The Eureka Stockade was a battle between the police (troopers), soldiers and the Australian gold miners (diggers). The minersrebelled against the monthly licence fees and invasive and oftenviolent licence checks by the police, but what began as a noisy butpeaceful rebellion became a battle that resulted in numerouscasualties.The Eureka Stockade, which occurred on the Ballarat goldfields in December 1854, was a battle between the miners, known as diggers, and the police and soldiers. eureka stockade battle between police Eureka Rebellion. The Eureka Rebellion was a rebellion in 1854, instigated by gold miners in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, who revolted against the colonial authority of the United Kingdom. It culminated in the Battle of the Eureka Stockade, which was fought between miners and the colonial forces of Australia on 3 December 1854 by Allan Percival. Captain John Thomas was promoted to major after the Eureka Stockade fight. He transferred to the 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment and served in China. He was wounded during the British attack on the Taku Forts in 1860, promoted to lieutenant colonel The Battle of the Eureka Stockade (by which the rebellion is popularly known) was fought between miners and the Colonial forces of Australia on 3 December 1854 at Eureka Lead and named for the stockade structure erected by miners during the conflict.eureka stockade battle between police The Battle of the Eureka Stockade, by which the rebellion is popularly known, was fought between miners and the colonial forces of Australia on this date in 1854 at Eureka lead mines, and named for the stockade structure erected by miners during the conflict. Depiction of the Eureka Stockade by Beryl Ireland (1891) The spark that detonated rebellion came in October 1854 with the murder of a digger. The culprit, his mates had good reason to think, was the publican of the Eureka Hotel at Ballarat and a known crony of the goldfields police. A mob of 5000 angry diggers burned the pub down. eureka stockade battle between police Eureka Stockade. On 3 December, there was an allout clash between the miners and the police, supported by the military. The miners planned their defence and attack carefully, but they were no match for the wellarmed force they faced. When the battle was over, 125 miners were taken prisoner and many were badly wounded. Eureka Stockade. The police were unsettled by the hostility building among the diggers and decided to implement a licence hunt the next day. That morning, as the police moved through the miners tents, the diggers decided they had had enough, they gathered and marched to Bakery Hill. How can the answer be improved?Rating: 4.39 / Views: 686	626	ENGLISH	1
Note: This article is being republished on November 14, 2019, Jawaharlal Nehru’s birth anniversary. Narendra Modi does not agree but the world has never hesitated in recognising Jawaharlal Nehru as a historical figure who left a mark on India and the world. When Nehru died in 1964, the New York Times plainly referred to him as the “maker of modern India”; the Economist ran a cover story titled “World without Nehru”. It recalled his “almost magical grip” on the masses and regretted that the world stage would be poorer without the “great man”. There has been a considerable shift in opinion about Nehru in India. He was idolised by the public while he lived but nowadays there is a tendency to try and actively forget him or diminish his role. Now Prime Minister Modi has told parliament that “India did not get democracy due to Pandit Nehru, as Congress wants us to believe.” Nehru has been dropped from school textbooks of Class VIII in the state of Rajasthan. He did not find a mention in a National Archives exhibition on the Quit India movement. The Ministry of Culture has decided to convert the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library at Nehru’s official residence “into a complex showcasing [the] lives of all Indian prime ministers.” This is a mystifying form of equal opportunity eminence that perhaps has few parallels. Imagine if the Lincoln Memorial were to suddenly sprout statues of other luminaries. There are several reasons why Nehru has become a target. The RSS has long despised him for banning the organisation after Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination and it vehemently disagrees with the form of secularism that he instituted as state practice. It has been easy to rouse public sentiment against Nehru by invoking the humiliating defeat in the 1962 war against China. Nehru’s foreign policy of nonalignment and his faith in state planning have also been questioned. Many also resent his prominence in public life – for the way the Congress has appropriated him politically with statues, roads and government programmes named after him, the numerous advertisements in newspapers bearing his image and so on. In some ways, his ubiquity has obscured the detail that makes Nehru great. Rise to greatness Nehru’s life is worth recalling to get a sense as to what he meant to India then and what he offers to the country now. There are fewer biographies of Nehru than he deserves. Part of the reason may have to do with the difficulty in taking on his daunting oeuvre, given how much he wrote and said by way of books, articles, private correspondence and speeches. Historian Judith M. Brown’s excellent 2003 biography, Nehru: A Political Life, is very helpful in that regard. Drawing on existing material and Nehru’s post-1947 papers made available to her by Sonia Gandhi, Brown offers a fascinating, even-handed assessment of his career. Born into a privileged home with a wealthy lawyer and political leader for a father in Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal grew up around the time when colonial rule was, to paraphrase Brown, challenging India’s religious and social conventions while affording material and political opportunities for educated Indians. Nehru’s political opinions were shaped by his education at Harrow and Cambridge, where he developed a strong distaste for imperialism. After a few desultory years on return, Nehru is drawn to politics, inspired by Gandhi and the protests around 1919-20. The nationalist movement then is marked by debates between moderates and radicals over tactics and strategy, over the use of non-cooperation, questions over pushing for full independence or being content with gradualist approaches. In this fractious climate, Nehru stands by Gandhi and sees him as being central to India’s path to independence, even if the Mahatma’s political approaches and emphasis on moral transformation often frustrate him. Nehru’s outlook is shaped by other factors as well. One, that he grew up in a household marked by Hindu-Muslim cultural mingling; Motilal’s early education from a Muslim tutor was only in Arabic and Persian and being a Kashmiri family in Allahabad, the Nehrus could never really be considered locals and were not prone to narrow, provincial loyalties. Nehru was in some ways always a perennial outsider – a fierce nationalist who admired Britain culturally, he felt deeply about India’s subjugation under foreign rule but disapproved of its beliefs and customs. Nehru soon became preoccupied with politics and Congress matters. He also read voraciously. Being in prison a lot helped. In the 23 years from 1921 to 1945 he was sent to jail for nine terms in periods ranging from 12 days to 1041, a total of 3,259 days – which was nearly nine years of his life. He acclimatised to prison life and wrote of the friendships and hobbies he developed and the irritations of lacking privacy. “His greatest solace was reading”, Brown writes. He read on politics, economics, science, literature and contemporary affairs. “Solid reading is a necessity in prison; without it the mind stagnates and rots,” he was to say. In one phase, between February 1934 and September 1935, he read 188 books, averaging 15-20 volumes a month. This no doubt shaped his ownability to produce magical prose, as seen through his own writing in Autobiography and the Discovery of India and the deeply evocative letters and speeches he wrote. Through his years in India and Britain and his travels to Europe and interactions with leaders from other countries, Nehru developed strong convictions about colonial rule, equality within and between nations, the need for land reform and state intervention in the economy and society, the place for science in a nation’s life (as opposed to faith, which he was dismissive of), the need for a greater role for women in nation-building and on India’s place in the world. This form of intellectual development was critical to India’s future as Nehru was to attain prominence in the Congress in the 1930s, including as president of the party, and as the nationalist movement wound through phases of agitation, accommodation, factional division and stasis. Gandhi was ceasing to be a “serious political leader” in the decade and was focusing his energies on the condition of the “untouchables” instead. Around 1936, Gandhi was “publicly proclaiming that Nehru was his heir, and felt that Nehru with his many gifts and total commitment to India rather than to any sectional cause or personal concern was the one who could be relied upon” to achieve unity in the Congress. Nehru was at this stage not only a key player in party deliberations but also a mass leader attracting a good deal of public adulation. As is well-known, Nehru went on head an interim government in 1946 and was the central figure in the negotiations leading up to Partition and independence alongside Lord Mountbatten and M.A. Jinnah. Nehru, who insisted on full independence for India long before Gandhi was prepared to agitate for it, was to vehemently oppose Mountbatten’s proposal to devolve power to the provinces before transferring power – as that would amount to the Balkanisation of India. Mountbatten recanted but Nehru and his colleagues were to face a range of challenges in the weeks leading to independence, including, as Brown writes, raging communal violence, provincial choices about joining India or Pakistan, the future of the Indian princes, the division of assets of British India and so on. Nehru also had to deal with the crisis in Kashmir soon after – and the assassination of Gandhi within six months of independence. Three important legacies Nehru owes much of his reputation to his post-1946 career. He made at least three decisive interventions that have made India the republic it has become. First, he ensured that his vision of India was inscribed in the Constitution. He drafted and moved in the Constituent Assembly a resolution that set out its objectives, which included the declaration of India as an independent republic in which all power was derived from the people. Everyone was to be guaranteed “social, economic and political justice, equality of status and opportunity, and freedom of thought, religion and association.” There were to be safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas. All of this was not a given. The 1937 provincial elections were limited by property ownership and had given the vote to only about 30 million Indians. There were, by contrast, 173 million eligible voters in the 1951 elections in independent India. Historian Ramachandra Guha writes in Patriots and Partisans that “Nehru was without question the chief architect of our democracy. It was he, more than any other nationalist, who promoted universal franchise and the multi-party system.” Brown writes that “at the heart of Nehru’s vision of India was the conviction that it was a composite nation, born of a civilisation which over centuries had drawn from and assimilated the many religious and cultural traditions present on the subcontinent.” Nehru also worked in a context when India as an independent nation emerged as a political compact where units like princely states and other communities were open to alternative political futures. The Indian Union could hold together based on guaranteed fundamental rights to all, secularism and a state policy that addressed social inequalities and divisions. Nehru instinctively understood the utility of a constitutional democracy for a people with disparate identities; India was also lucky to have a generation of other gifted leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Azad and C. Rajagopalachari and together they crafted a political framework for Indians to coexist and evolve a shared imagination of the nation while preserving specific identities. Second, Nehru’s impact on world politics is widely acknowledged. He emerged as an authoritative voice and critic of racism, imperialism and an advocate of Asian unity, Afro-Asian solidarity and world peace. He presciently crafted the policy of Non-Alignment to steer clear of power blocs in order to benefit from contacts with both sides as Guha points out, and it also enabled India to emerge as a mediator between nations and as a leader of developing countries. Nehru’s conduct of foreign affairs had, as Brown puts it, “created for his country a distinctive, independent international identity.” Third, Nehru was also focused on domestic social change and saw state planning as a driver of growth and an agent for addressing inequality. This socialist mode of governance with a measure of mixed economy has been discredited in recent years as it stymied innovation and growth but such policies did not lack support – Indian industrialists, for example, also wanted protection from competition. Leaders, in any case, should be judged by the standards of their time. As Brown suggests, Nehru did not have very many governing models to choose from then; he was impressed by the pace of Soviet industrialisation and wanted to replicate it in India without the attendant violence. It’s worth noting where India was setting out from: it’s literacy rate at independence, for instance, stood at 14% and poverty levels were high; state intervention was indeed necessary in several sectors and yielded significant results in many instances, such as in its nuclear and space programmes. Mistakes and failures too Of course, Nehru had many failures. He completely misread China’s intentions and didn’t expect Mao to launch an offensive in 1962. Worse, he allowed his assumption to affect India’s defence preparedness. He held on to his friend Krishna Menon as defence minister way longer than he should have. Nehru’s failure to delegate undermined the development of political talent and cost India dearly in inestimable ways. Many of his aspirations on the domestic front like land reform were thwarted by state level leaders who had ties to rural landed elites. As Guha has written, the Right thinks he was too statist, some on the Left think he wasn’t interventionist enough. The big dams that he initiated have displaced indigenous communities. Kashmir’s alienation with India in some part began with the arrest of Sheikh Abdullah for long periods. In turn, Nehru often found himself at odds with his countrymen: he was frustrated with administrative incompetence, communal rhetoric, venality in the Congress, and narrow provincial and casteist outlooks that were out of step with the spirit of nation-building. The scale of his achievement, however, remains. Guha cites a telling tribute by Nirad Chaudhuri who once wrote that Nehru’s leadership was “the most important moral force behind the unity of India.” He said properly speaking there could not be a successor to Nehru, “but only successors to the different elements of his composite leadership.” In some ways that speaks to the range of his influence. Gandhi is understood to be a sage but Nehru was no less a counsellor to India, constantly drawing attention to the principles and direction of its politics and society. He inspired, he cajoled, he rebuked. He also failed. He worked tirelessly to the point of exhaustion several times in his career. Guha recalls the Australian diplomat Walter Crocker writing that the “great bulk of the people sensed, and they never lost the sense, that Nehru wanted only to help them and wanted nothing for himself…” His was truly a full life lived for India – and there is scarcely any public institution or aspect of the republic that Nehru did not shape or influence. There is plenty in his legacy to both celebrate and contest. Belittling his role – or worse, forgetting him – only betrays India’s degradation, even if it cannot alter Nehru’s place in history. Sushil Aaron is an independent journalist. He tweets at @SushilAaron	<urn:uuid:48f87984-e46c-4d26-beb4-426bb65519d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thewire.in/history/nehru-india-cannot-forget	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00091.warc.gz	en	0.980071	2,916	3.28125	3	[ -0.03470240905880928, 0.5437415838241577, -0.0006810957565903664, -0.013939954340457916, -0.07981926202774048, 0.2857322096824646, 0.5994660258293152, 0.26850470900535583, 0.18694418668746948, -0.11930026113986969, 0.18850338459014893, 0.13583441078662872, 0.35325416922569275, 0.5319818258...	2	Note: This article is being republished on November 14, 2019, Jawaharlal Nehru’s birth anniversary. Narendra Modi does not agree but the world has never hesitated in recognising Jawaharlal Nehru as a historical figure who left a mark on India and the world. When Nehru died in 1964, the New York Times plainly referred to him as the “maker of modern India”; the Economist ran a cover story titled “World without Nehru”. It recalled his “almost magical grip” on the masses and regretted that the world stage would be poorer without the “great man”. There has been a considerable shift in opinion about Nehru in India. He was idolised by the public while he lived but nowadays there is a tendency to try and actively forget him or diminish his role. Now Prime Minister Modi has told parliament that “India did not get democracy due to Pandit Nehru, as Congress wants us to believe.” Nehru has been dropped from school textbooks of Class VIII in the state of Rajasthan. He did not find a mention in a National Archives exhibition on the Quit India movement. The Ministry of Culture has decided to convert the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library at Nehru’s official residence “into a complex showcasing [the] lives of all Indian prime ministers.” This is a mystifying form of equal opportunity eminence that perhaps has few parallels. Imagine if the Lincoln Memorial were to suddenly sprout statues of other luminaries. There are several reasons why Nehru has become a target. The RSS has long despised him for banning the organisation after Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination and it vehemently disagrees with the form of secularism that he instituted as state practice. It has been easy to rouse public sentiment against Nehru by invoking the humiliating defeat in the 1962 war against China. Nehru’s foreign policy of nonalignment and his faith in state planning have also been questioned. Many also resent his prominence in public life – for the way the Congress has appropriated him politically with statues, roads and government programmes named after him, the numerous advertisements in newspapers bearing his image and so on. In some ways, his ubiquity has obscured the detail that makes Nehru great. Rise to greatness Nehru’s life is worth recalling to get a sense as to what he meant to India then and what he offers to the country now. There are fewer biographies of Nehru than he deserves. Part of the reason may have to do with the difficulty in taking on his daunting oeuvre, given how much he wrote and said by way of books, articles, private correspondence and speeches. Historian Judith M. Brown’s excellent 2003 biography, Nehru: A Political Life, is very helpful in that regard. Drawing on existing material and Nehru’s post-1947 papers made available to her by Sonia Gandhi, Brown offers a fascinating, even-handed assessment of his career. Born into a privileged home with a wealthy lawyer and political leader for a father in Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal grew up around the time when colonial rule was, to paraphrase Brown, challenging India’s religious and social conventions while affording material and political opportunities for educated Indians. Nehru’s political opinions were shaped by his education at Harrow and Cambridge, where he developed a strong distaste for imperialism. After a few desultory years on return, Nehru is drawn to politics, inspired by Gandhi and the protests around 1919-20. The nationalist movement then is marked by debates between moderates and radicals over tactics and strategy, over the use of non-cooperation, questions over pushing for full independence or being content with gradualist approaches. In this fractious climate, Nehru stands by Gandhi and sees him as being central to India’s path to independence, even if the Mahatma’s political approaches and emphasis on moral transformation often frustrate him. Nehru’s outlook is shaped by other factors as well. One, that he grew up in a household marked by Hindu-Muslim cultural mingling; Motilal’s early education from a Muslim tutor was only in Arabic and Persian and being a Kashmiri family in Allahabad, the Nehrus could never really be considered locals and were not prone to narrow, provincial loyalties. Nehru was in some ways always a perennial outsider – a fierce nationalist who admired Britain culturally, he felt deeply about India’s subjugation under foreign rule but disapproved of its beliefs and customs. Nehru soon became preoccupied with politics and Congress matters. He also read voraciously. Being in prison a lot helped. In the 23 years from 1921 to 1945 he was sent to jail for nine terms in periods ranging from 12 days to 1041, a total of 3,259 days – which was nearly nine years of his life. He acclimatised to prison life and wrote of the friendships and hobbies he developed and the irritations of lacking privacy. “His greatest solace was reading”, Brown writes. He read on politics, economics, science, literature and contemporary affairs. “Solid reading is a necessity in prison; without it the mind stagnates and rots,” he was to say. In one phase, between February 1934 and September 1935, he read 188 books, averaging 15-20 volumes a month. This no doubt shaped his ownability to produce magical prose, as seen through his own writing in Autobiography and the Discovery of India and the deeply evocative letters and speeches he wrote. Through his years in India and Britain and his travels to Europe and interactions with leaders from other countries, Nehru developed strong convictions about colonial rule, equality within and between nations, the need for land reform and state intervention in the economy and society, the place for science in a nation’s life (as opposed to faith, which he was dismissive of), the need for a greater role for women in nation-building and on India’s place in the world. This form of intellectual development was critical to India’s future as Nehru was to attain prominence in the Congress in the 1930s, including as president of the party, and as the nationalist movement wound through phases of agitation, accommodation, factional division and stasis. Gandhi was ceasing to be a “serious political leader” in the decade and was focusing his energies on the condition of the “untouchables” instead. Around 1936, Gandhi was “publicly proclaiming that Nehru was his heir, and felt that Nehru with his many gifts and total commitment to India rather than to any sectional cause or personal concern was the one who could be relied upon” to achieve unity in the Congress. Nehru was at this stage not only a key player in party deliberations but also a mass leader attracting a good deal of public adulation. As is well-known, Nehru went on head an interim government in 1946 and was the central figure in the negotiations leading up to Partition and independence alongside Lord Mountbatten and M.A. Jinnah. Nehru, who insisted on full independence for India long before Gandhi was prepared to agitate for it, was to vehemently oppose Mountbatten’s proposal to devolve power to the provinces before transferring power – as that would amount to the Balkanisation of India. Mountbatten recanted but Nehru and his colleagues were to face a range of challenges in the weeks leading to independence, including, as Brown writes, raging communal violence, provincial choices about joining India or Pakistan, the future of the Indian princes, the division of assets of British India and so on. Nehru also had to deal with the crisis in Kashmir soon after – and the assassination of Gandhi within six months of independence. Three important legacies Nehru owes much of his reputation to his post-1946 career. He made at least three decisive interventions that have made India the republic it has become. First, he ensured that his vision of India was inscribed in the Constitution. He drafted and moved in the Constituent Assembly a resolution that set out its objectives, which included the declaration of India as an independent republic in which all power was derived from the people. Everyone was to be guaranteed “social, economic and political justice, equality of status and opportunity, and freedom of thought, religion and association.” There were to be safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas. All of this was not a given. The 1937 provincial elections were limited by property ownership and had given the vote to only about 30 million Indians. There were, by contrast, 173 million eligible voters in the 1951 elections in independent India. Historian Ramachandra Guha writes in Patriots and Partisans that “Nehru was without question the chief architect of our democracy. It was he, more than any other nationalist, who promoted universal franchise and the multi-party system.” Brown writes that “at the heart of Nehru’s vision of India was the conviction that it was a composite nation, born of a civilisation which over centuries had drawn from and assimilated the many religious and cultural traditions present on the subcontinent.” Nehru also worked in a context when India as an independent nation emerged as a political compact where units like princely states and other communities were open to alternative political futures. The Indian Union could hold together based on guaranteed fundamental rights to all, secularism and a state policy that addressed social inequalities and divisions. Nehru instinctively understood the utility of a constitutional democracy for a people with disparate identities; India was also lucky to have a generation of other gifted leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Azad and C. Rajagopalachari and together they crafted a political framework for Indians to coexist and evolve a shared imagination of the nation while preserving specific identities. Second, Nehru’s impact on world politics is widely acknowledged. He emerged as an authoritative voice and critic of racism, imperialism and an advocate of Asian unity, Afro-Asian solidarity and world peace. He presciently crafted the policy of Non-Alignment to steer clear of power blocs in order to benefit from contacts with both sides as Guha points out, and it also enabled India to emerge as a mediator between nations and as a leader of developing countries. Nehru’s conduct of foreign affairs had, as Brown puts it, “created for his country a distinctive, independent international identity.” Third, Nehru was also focused on domestic social change and saw state planning as a driver of growth and an agent for addressing inequality. This socialist mode of governance with a measure of mixed economy has been discredited in recent years as it stymied innovation and growth but such policies did not lack support – Indian industrialists, for example, also wanted protection from competition. Leaders, in any case, should be judged by the standards of their time. As Brown suggests, Nehru did not have very many governing models to choose from then; he was impressed by the pace of Soviet industrialisation and wanted to replicate it in India without the attendant violence. It’s worth noting where India was setting out from: it’s literacy rate at independence, for instance, stood at 14% and poverty levels were high; state intervention was indeed necessary in several sectors and yielded significant results in many instances, such as in its nuclear and space programmes. Mistakes and failures too Of course, Nehru had many failures. He completely misread China’s intentions and didn’t expect Mao to launch an offensive in 1962. Worse, he allowed his assumption to affect India’s defence preparedness. He held on to his friend Krishna Menon as defence minister way longer than he should have. Nehru’s failure to delegate undermined the development of political talent and cost India dearly in inestimable ways. Many of his aspirations on the domestic front like land reform were thwarted by state level leaders who had ties to rural landed elites. As Guha has written, the Right thinks he was too statist, some on the Left think he wasn’t interventionist enough. The big dams that he initiated have displaced indigenous communities. Kashmir’s alienation with India in some part began with the arrest of Sheikh Abdullah for long periods. In turn, Nehru often found himself at odds with his countrymen: he was frustrated with administrative incompetence, communal rhetoric, venality in the Congress, and narrow provincial and casteist outlooks that were out of step with the spirit of nation-building. The scale of his achievement, however, remains. Guha cites a telling tribute by Nirad Chaudhuri who once wrote that Nehru’s leadership was “the most important moral force behind the unity of India.” He said properly speaking there could not be a successor to Nehru, “but only successors to the different elements of his composite leadership.” In some ways that speaks to the range of his influence. Gandhi is understood to be a sage but Nehru was no less a counsellor to India, constantly drawing attention to the principles and direction of its politics and society. He inspired, he cajoled, he rebuked. He also failed. He worked tirelessly to the point of exhaustion several times in his career. Guha recalls the Australian diplomat Walter Crocker writing that the “great bulk of the people sensed, and they never lost the sense, that Nehru wanted only to help them and wanted nothing for himself…” His was truly a full life lived for India – and there is scarcely any public institution or aspect of the republic that Nehru did not shape or influence. There is plenty in his legacy to both celebrate and contest. Belittling his role – or worse, forgetting him – only betrays India’s degradation, even if it cannot alter Nehru’s place in history. Sushil Aaron is an independent journalist. He tweets at @SushilAaron	2,873	ENGLISH	1
Recognized mostly as nurses, women have played a variety of roles in the military and during war through the years, often so committed to serving they would dress themselves as men to get on the battlefield. Deborah Sampson was the first woman to serve with an infantry. She was deemed a hero of the American Revolution when she served 17 months in the Fourth Massachusetts Regiment under the guise of “Robert Shurtleff.” At West Point, N.Y., she was assigned to Capt. George Webb’s Light Infantry Company, Fourth Regiment, Massachusetts Continental Line. Her job was to scout neutral territory to assess British buildup of men and military equipment in Manhattan, which Gen. George Washington contemplated attacking, according to WomensHistory.org. In June 1782, Sampson and two sergeants led about 30 infantrymen on an expedition that ended with confrontation — often one-on-one — with British loyalists, called Tories. She led a raid on a Tory home that resulted in the capture of 15 men, according to WomensHistory.org. Hospitalized in October 1783 with an illness, her true gender was revealed and she was honorably discharged. Dr. Mary Edwards Walker was the Army’s first female surgeon. Serving during the Civil War, she would cross enemy lines to treat civilians, ultimately being captured by Confederate troops and held as a prisoner of war. She remains the only woman to ever receive the Medal of Honor. In 1866, Cathay Williams became the first and only documented black woman up to that point to enlist in the Army. Dressed as a man, she was a Buffalo soldier going by the name of William Cathay. It was during World War II that women’s roles began to expand dramatically — even putting them in the pilot seats of military aircraft for the first time, with the formation of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, or WASP, program. WASP flew every type of aircraft the Army had at the time, ferrying them, towing gunnery targets, transporting equipment and non-flying personnel and flight-testing aircraft that had been repaired before the men were allowed to fly them again. Two other branches of service were also created just for females: Women’s Auxiliary Corps — later, the Women’s Army Corps or WAC; and the Women Accepted for Volunteer Military Services — WAVES. Women also served in the Marines and Coast Guard, called SPARS. The WASP program was created by merging the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron — WAFS — started by Nancy Harkness Love, and the British Air Transport Auxiliary — ATA — which was created at the suggestion of Jacqueline Cochran. Cochran earned her pilot’s license in 1932 and soon went on to set women’s records in flying, altitude and open class speed. In 1953, she became the first woman pilot to exceed the speed of sound. During World War II, she was the first woman to fly a bomber across the Atlantic and earned the Distinguished Service Medal. Cochran and her husband, Floyd Odlum, ultimately moved to a ranch in Indio, where they lived until their deaths — his in 1976 and hers in 1980. Just under 1.29 million people serve in the U.S. military today and as many as 18 percent of them are women — up from just 2 percent in 1973 when the draft ended and the opportunities for women began to broaden. Over the past 45 years, barriers for women have been dropped — a step or two at a time — and today women are fighter pilots, serve aboard ships and submarines and, finally, with the infantry. Two Coachella Valley veterans, Linda Little, who served 25½ years in the U.S. Navy, and Michelle Cherland, who served 24 years in the U.S. Army and Army Reserve, said they each found the military provided them opportunities to do what they wanted. Each said they were treated with respect — by all with whom they served. “Women, I think, are getting more respect than they ever have,” Cherland said. “But I think there is still a lot of work to be done.” While it was 2013 when then Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta removed the military’s ban on women serving in combat, Cherland said it meant little to her because, as she put it, “We have been there all along.” Her career in the Army started in 1991 in signal operations, putting her unit — males and females — in war zones ahead of troops to string communication cables that would be vital for troops. She and her unit were armed the same as men in the infantry. “Nothing really is safe when you’re overseas,” said Cherland, a first-grade teacher at Lincoln Elementary School in Palm Desert, who did three deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan. “Females were not getting recognized for what we know we have done.” In her 24 years in the military, she served three years on active duty as a non-commissioned officer and the remainder as an officer in the reserves, retiring as a captain in 2015. She was deployed to the Middle East three times between 2003 and 2013 — once to Iraq and twice to Afghanistan — earning her captain’s bars and the Bronze Star during her second deployment with the 348th Transportation Company in 2009. She had changed careers to logistician and was stationed at Camp Leatherneck — a Marine base — in Kuwait, where she was leading supply convoys back and forth around the footprint of Afghanistan. Convoys could be days long and exhausting, she said. “Even the smallest of convoys is dangerous. Often, we would sleep in the trucks in the middle of nowhere,” she said. “We were fired upon all the time.” At just 5 feet tall with shoes on, Cherland said when she first had to stand in front of troops as a leader, “I saw in their eyes, ‘We’re gonna die.’ I had to prove that I am small but mighty; that I would respect them and I would keep them safe.” That came from getting to know the men and women she was leading and showing she genuinely cared about each one, Cherland said. Soldiers she led were 19 to 24 years old, some newlyweds. She would be their confidante, asking how they were doing and then listening to them reply honestly. “I earned their trust,” she said. “I always felt that, if you showed respect, you got respect,” Cherland said. One difference between her and the male captains: She was assigned to sleep with other female enlistees — her subordinates — while the men were given private quarters with radios, telephones and computers with Internet access. “I was not able to get any of that because of my gender,” Cherland said. Rooming with others had its pluses, though. “I got to bond with the other female soldiers,” she said. “We were a bunch of moms in our tent talking about our kids.” She was the only female officer in her company at the time. She knew the men were watching her and she wanted to be sure that no matter what, she would be at least as good a leader as they were. “I used to tell ... the young enlisted females that they would have to work at 200 percent to gain the respect of their male counterparts,” Cherland said. “Once you have that,” she said, “you can work at 150 percent.” While she did not experience sexual harassment or assault, Cherland knows the same is not true of all women in the military and she would like to see a better reporting system put in place — one that better protects the victim. “I met the most wonderful human beings in my life and I was privileged to lead them,” Cherland said. Little joined the Navy in 1983 and in 1989 her help with passing an inspection earned her an invitation from a rear admiral join his administrative staff with the Seabees. “I said, ‘How soon?’” Not long after reporting to the Seabees, her unit was called up for Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, serving under Rear Adm. Paul Rosser. “What they said was, ‘Report for duty 17 November 1990; make sure your will is in order,” Little recalled. “I’ll never forget those words.” Her unit was sent to Gulfport, Louisiana, for training “which was quite intense. ... including chemical warfare training,” Little said. They were ready to ship overseas to the Middle East but then told to stand by, enough troops were already on the way, she recalled. “We were ready to go; my whole unit was ready to go ... and they just said, ‘No, we don’t need you at this time.’” Then, at 1:40 a.m. on Jan. 17, 1991, she was on duty when her beeper went off. “That’s when the USS Missouri shot off its first ... Tomahawk cruise missile at Iraqi targets,” she said, commencing Operation Desert Storm. “Now we’re in it.” From there, information about what was happening was passed along on a need-to-know basis. “Most of the time, my family would ask what’s going on and I wouldn’t know,” Little said. “It was a scary time for us.” During her career, she did what she hoped when joining the Navy — she saw the world. Overall, it was a rewarding life and the opportunities are there for men and women, Little said. “What civilian job can you go to, you’re going to get a uniform supplied to you, three square meals a day, a roof over your head, staying physically fit and be paid for it?” She always felt she was part of a team and was supported by those with whom she served — men and women. “I took orders from guys who were a lot younger than me. I took orders from guys who were a lot older than me,” Little said. “I never had a problem with anyone.” She retired in 2008 as a petty officer first class with a rating of yeoman first class. Along the way, she received the Navy Meritorious Service Medal, National Defense Service Medal and other commendations. Little qualified as an expert rifleman and pistol shooter — the highest ranking possible. When she enlisted in the Navy, many of the barriers women encountered had already been lifted, she said. “Women do everything in the Navy now,” said Little, who now volunteers as a docent at the Palm Springs Air Museum. She chose the administrative field to learn more about computers, which were starting to be more widely used when she enlisted. “I love the Navy. I love my country. I’m very patriotic,” and the tears flow with the sounding of "Taps" or the singing of the national anthem, she said. “I would highly recommend (the military) for any female or male.” Notable milestones for women in the U.S. military since the Vietnam War 1976: The five military academies open their doors to women cadets. 1978: Women in the Navy and Marine Corps are able to serve on non-combat ships as technicians, nurses and officers. 1991-92: More than 41,000 women are deployed to the combat zone and two are taken captive during the Persian Gulf War. 1991: Congress authorizes women to fly in combat missions. 1993: Congress authorizes women to serve on combat ships. 1998: Females are allowed to fly combat missions for the first time as pilots. 2000: Capt. Kathleen McGrath becomes the first woman to command a U.S. Navy warship, which is assigned to the Persian Gulf. 2004: Col. Linda McTague becomes the first woman to command a U.S. Air Force fighter squadron. 2005: Army National Guard Sgt. Leigh Ann Hester earns the Silver Star in Iraq — the first woman to receive the award since World War II. 2008: Ann Elizabeth Dunwoody is promoted to four-star general in the U.S. Army — the first woman to reach that rank ever in the U.S. military. 2010: Navy begins allowing women to serve on submarines. Source: Task & Purpose VETERANS DAY EVENTS Here are some of the ceremonies honoring veterans on Sunday and Monday. All events are free and open to the public: 9-10:30 a.m.: Annual ceremony honoring veterans, is held at City Hall, 78495 Calle Tampico, including the introduction of residents whose names are being added to the city’s Veterans Acknowledgement Sculpture on the Civic Center Campus. 11 a.m.: Old Town Artisan Studios, at 78046 Calle Barcelona, will pay tribute to veterans and their families; announce a new Veterans Art Program and present ceramic poppies to vets and those who have lost loved ones in the military. 2 p.m.: Forest Lawn, 69855 E. Ramon Road, Cathedral City hosts its fourth annual celebration featuring a selection of talent from across the desert. All day: The “Healing Field,” a tribute to uniformed men and women killed while serving since Sept. 11, 2001, is open daily until noon, Nov. 17, at Patriot Park next to Big League Dreams Sports Park, on the northeast corner of Date Palm and Dinah Shore drives. More than 6,900 American flags represent the fallen heroes. 9 a.m.: The Hall of Honor is dedicated at The Carlotta in Palm Desert. The Hall of Honor is a space dedicated to honoring the men and women of The Carlotta who have served the country's military. 11 a.m.: Annual ceremony honoring all who have served will be held at the Civic Center Park amphitheater, on the northeast corner of Fred Waring Drive and San Pablo Avenue, will include keynote speaker Lt. Col. Joel Schmidt, executive officer of the 7th Marines, based at the Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms and concert by Heatwave, the Boys & Girls Club Jazz Band. 3:30 p.m.: The 22nd annual Veterans Day Parade makes its way down Palm Canyon Drive, from Ramon Road to Alejo Road, followed by the Palm Springs High School Spirit of the Sands Band performance on the corner of Palm Canyon and Amado Road. The concert concludes with fireworks. Among those participating in the parade are members of the local chapter of the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association. 10 a.m.: The city hosts its annual ceremony with light refreshments at the veterans’ monument in front of City Hall, on the northeast corner of Highway 111 and Eldorado Drive.	<urn:uuid:9036e9b1-c0f3-4117-b20c-a2745a2cb70f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/2018/11/10/veterans-day-rules-couldnt-keep-determined-women-out/1835457002/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00030.warc.gz	en	0.981173	3,204	3.546875	4	[ -0.5670647025108337, 0.39558565616607666, 0.34593909978866577, -0.21228398382663727, -0.42846375703811646, 0.3659425675868988, 0.28380104899406433, 0.3789668083190918, -0.18749956786632538, -0.27973490953445435, 0.18989410996437073, 0.0919094979763031, -0.03157079592347145, 0.1500394791364...	1	Recognized mostly as nurses, women have played a variety of roles in the military and during war through the years, often so committed to serving they would dress themselves as men to get on the battlefield. Deborah Sampson was the first woman to serve with an infantry. She was deemed a hero of the American Revolution when she served 17 months in the Fourth Massachusetts Regiment under the guise of “Robert Shurtleff.” At West Point, N.Y., she was assigned to Capt. George Webb’s Light Infantry Company, Fourth Regiment, Massachusetts Continental Line. Her job was to scout neutral territory to assess British buildup of men and military equipment in Manhattan, which Gen. George Washington contemplated attacking, according to WomensHistory.org. In June 1782, Sampson and two sergeants led about 30 infantrymen on an expedition that ended with confrontation — often one-on-one — with British loyalists, called Tories. She led a raid on a Tory home that resulted in the capture of 15 men, according to WomensHistory.org. Hospitalized in October 1783 with an illness, her true gender was revealed and she was honorably discharged. Dr. Mary Edwards Walker was the Army’s first female surgeon. Serving during the Civil War, she would cross enemy lines to treat civilians, ultimately being captured by Confederate troops and held as a prisoner of war. She remains the only woman to ever receive the Medal of Honor. In 1866, Cathay Williams became the first and only documented black woman up to that point to enlist in the Army. Dressed as a man, she was a Buffalo soldier going by the name of William Cathay. It was during World War II that women’s roles began to expand dramatically — even putting them in the pilot seats of military aircraft for the first time, with the formation of the Women Airforce Service Pilots, or WASP, program. WASP flew every type of aircraft the Army had at the time, ferrying them, towing gunnery targets, transporting equipment and non-flying personnel and flight-testing aircraft that had been repaired before the men were allowed to fly them again. Two other branches of service were also created just for females: Women’s Auxiliary Corps — later, the Women’s Army Corps or WAC; and the Women Accepted for Volunteer Military Services — WAVES. Women also served in the Marines and Coast Guard, called SPARS. The WASP program was created by merging the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron — WAFS — started by Nancy Harkness Love, and the British Air Transport Auxiliary — ATA — which was created at the suggestion of Jacqueline Cochran. Cochran earned her pilot’s license in 1932 and soon went on to set women’s records in flying, altitude and open class speed. In 1953, she became the first woman pilot to exceed the speed of sound. During World War II, she was the first woman to fly a bomber across the Atlantic and earned the Distinguished Service Medal. Cochran and her husband, Floyd Odlum, ultimately moved to a ranch in Indio, where they lived until their deaths — his in 1976 and hers in 1980. Just under 1.29 million people serve in the U.S. military today and as many as 18 percent of them are women — up from just 2 percent in 1973 when the draft ended and the opportunities for women began to broaden. Over the past 45 years, barriers for women have been dropped — a step or two at a time — and today women are fighter pilots, serve aboard ships and submarines and, finally, with the infantry. Two Coachella Valley veterans, Linda Little, who served 25½ years in the U.S. Navy, and Michelle Cherland, who served 24 years in the U.S. Army and Army Reserve, said they each found the military provided them opportunities to do what they wanted. Each said they were treated with respect — by all with whom they served. “Women, I think, are getting more respect than they ever have,” Cherland said. “But I think there is still a lot of work to be done.” While it was 2013 when then Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta removed the military’s ban on women serving in combat, Cherland said it meant little to her because, as she put it, “We have been there all along.” Her career in the Army started in 1991 in signal operations, putting her unit — males and females — in war zones ahead of troops to string communication cables that would be vital for troops. She and her unit were armed the same as men in the infantry. “Nothing really is safe when you’re overseas,” said Cherland, a first-grade teacher at Lincoln Elementary School in Palm Desert, who did three deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan. “Females were not getting recognized for what we know we have done.” In her 24 years in the military, she served three years on active duty as a non-commissioned officer and the remainder as an officer in the reserves, retiring as a captain in 2015. She was deployed to the Middle East three times between 2003 and 2013 — once to Iraq and twice to Afghanistan — earning her captain’s bars and the Bronze Star during her second deployment with the 348th Transportation Company in 2009. She had changed careers to logistician and was stationed at Camp Leatherneck — a Marine base — in Kuwait, where she was leading supply convoys back and forth around the footprint of Afghanistan. Convoys could be days long and exhausting, she said. “Even the smallest of convoys is dangerous. Often, we would sleep in the trucks in the middle of nowhere,” she said. “We were fired upon all the time.” At just 5 feet tall with shoes on, Cherland said when she first had to stand in front of troops as a leader, “I saw in their eyes, ‘We’re gonna die.’ I had to prove that I am small but mighty; that I would respect them and I would keep them safe.” That came from getting to know the men and women she was leading and showing she genuinely cared about each one, Cherland said. Soldiers she led were 19 to 24 years old, some newlyweds. She would be their confidante, asking how they were doing and then listening to them reply honestly. “I earned their trust,” she said. “I always felt that, if you showed respect, you got respect,” Cherland said. One difference between her and the male captains: She was assigned to sleep with other female enlistees — her subordinates — while the men were given private quarters with radios, telephones and computers with Internet access. “I was not able to get any of that because of my gender,” Cherland said. Rooming with others had its pluses, though. “I got to bond with the other female soldiers,” she said. “We were a bunch of moms in our tent talking about our kids.” She was the only female officer in her company at the time. She knew the men were watching her and she wanted to be sure that no matter what, she would be at least as good a leader as they were. “I used to tell ... the young enlisted females that they would have to work at 200 percent to gain the respect of their male counterparts,” Cherland said. “Once you have that,” she said, “you can work at 150 percent.” While she did not experience sexual harassment or assault, Cherland knows the same is not true of all women in the military and she would like to see a better reporting system put in place — one that better protects the victim. “I met the most wonderful human beings in my life and I was privileged to lead them,” Cherland said. Little joined the Navy in 1983 and in 1989 her help with passing an inspection earned her an invitation from a rear admiral join his administrative staff with the Seabees. “I said, ‘How soon?’” Not long after reporting to the Seabees, her unit was called up for Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, serving under Rear Adm. Paul Rosser. “What they said was, ‘Report for duty 17 November 1990; make sure your will is in order,” Little recalled. “I’ll never forget those words.” Her unit was sent to Gulfport, Louisiana, for training “which was quite intense. ... including chemical warfare training,” Little said. They were ready to ship overseas to the Middle East but then told to stand by, enough troops were already on the way, she recalled. “We were ready to go; my whole unit was ready to go ... and they just said, ‘No, we don’t need you at this time.’” Then, at 1:40 a.m. on Jan. 17, 1991, she was on duty when her beeper went off. “That’s when the USS Missouri shot off its first ... Tomahawk cruise missile at Iraqi targets,” she said, commencing Operation Desert Storm. “Now we’re in it.” From there, information about what was happening was passed along on a need-to-know basis. “Most of the time, my family would ask what’s going on and I wouldn’t know,” Little said. “It was a scary time for us.” During her career, she did what she hoped when joining the Navy — she saw the world. Overall, it was a rewarding life and the opportunities are there for men and women, Little said. “What civilian job can you go to, you’re going to get a uniform supplied to you, three square meals a day, a roof over your head, staying physically fit and be paid for it?” She always felt she was part of a team and was supported by those with whom she served — men and women. “I took orders from guys who were a lot younger than me. I took orders from guys who were a lot older than me,” Little said. “I never had a problem with anyone.” She retired in 2008 as a petty officer first class with a rating of yeoman first class. Along the way, she received the Navy Meritorious Service Medal, National Defense Service Medal and other commendations. Little qualified as an expert rifleman and pistol shooter — the highest ranking possible. When she enlisted in the Navy, many of the barriers women encountered had already been lifted, she said. “Women do everything in the Navy now,” said Little, who now volunteers as a docent at the Palm Springs Air Museum. She chose the administrative field to learn more about computers, which were starting to be more widely used when she enlisted. “I love the Navy. I love my country. I’m very patriotic,” and the tears flow with the sounding of "Taps" or the singing of the national anthem, she said. “I would highly recommend (the military) for any female or male.” Notable milestones for women in the U.S. military since the Vietnam War 1976: The five military academies open their doors to women cadets. 1978: Women in the Navy and Marine Corps are able to serve on non-combat ships as technicians, nurses and officers. 1991-92: More than 41,000 women are deployed to the combat zone and two are taken captive during the Persian Gulf War. 1991: Congress authorizes women to fly in combat missions. 1993: Congress authorizes women to serve on combat ships. 1998: Females are allowed to fly combat missions for the first time as pilots. 2000: Capt. Kathleen McGrath becomes the first woman to command a U.S. Navy warship, which is assigned to the Persian Gulf. 2004: Col. Linda McTague becomes the first woman to command a U.S. Air Force fighter squadron. 2005: Army National Guard Sgt. Leigh Ann Hester earns the Silver Star in Iraq — the first woman to receive the award since World War II. 2008: Ann Elizabeth Dunwoody is promoted to four-star general in the U.S. Army — the first woman to reach that rank ever in the U.S. military. 2010: Navy begins allowing women to serve on submarines. Source: Task & Purpose VETERANS DAY EVENTS Here are some of the ceremonies honoring veterans on Sunday and Monday. All events are free and open to the public: 9-10:30 a.m.: Annual ceremony honoring veterans, is held at City Hall, 78495 Calle Tampico, including the introduction of residents whose names are being added to the city’s Veterans Acknowledgement Sculpture on the Civic Center Campus. 11 a.m.: Old Town Artisan Studios, at 78046 Calle Barcelona, will pay tribute to veterans and their families; announce a new Veterans Art Program and present ceramic poppies to vets and those who have lost loved ones in the military. 2 p.m.: Forest Lawn, 69855 E. Ramon Road, Cathedral City hosts its fourth annual celebration featuring a selection of talent from across the desert. All day: The “Healing Field,” a tribute to uniformed men and women killed while serving since Sept. 11, 2001, is open daily until noon, Nov. 17, at Patriot Park next to Big League Dreams Sports Park, on the northeast corner of Date Palm and Dinah Shore drives. More than 6,900 American flags represent the fallen heroes. 9 a.m.: The Hall of Honor is dedicated at The Carlotta in Palm Desert. The Hall of Honor is a space dedicated to honoring the men and women of The Carlotta who have served the country's military. 11 a.m.: Annual ceremony honoring all who have served will be held at the Civic Center Park amphitheater, on the northeast corner of Fred Waring Drive and San Pablo Avenue, will include keynote speaker Lt. Col. Joel Schmidt, executive officer of the 7th Marines, based at the Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms and concert by Heatwave, the Boys & Girls Club Jazz Band. 3:30 p.m.: The 22nd annual Veterans Day Parade makes its way down Palm Canyon Drive, from Ramon Road to Alejo Road, followed by the Palm Springs High School Spirit of the Sands Band performance on the corner of Palm Canyon and Amado Road. The concert concludes with fireworks. Among those participating in the parade are members of the local chapter of the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association. 10 a.m.: The city hosts its annual ceremony with light refreshments at the veterans’ monument in front of City Hall, on the northeast corner of Highway 111 and Eldorado Drive.	3,100	ENGLISH	1
How one classifies a woman as a woman is an interesting subject. Femininity, biology, mentality and even beauty are all factors that can contribute to if society would classify one as a man or as the “Other”. Feminist, Simone de Beauvoir would say that biology is not what necessarily determines what makes a woman a woman. According to de Beauvoir, society itself has the power to tell a woman if she is in fact a woman and society has the power to tell women what their value is in society. Once a woman realizes that they are being treated differently than a man, they will understand that the differences between them are what makes a woman. Femininity, or womanhood does not come from differences in biology, psychology, or intellect. Femininity is a reflection not on the constitutional differences in men and women, but rather the differences in their situation. When considering women and femininity it is important to remember that situation determines character and not the other way around, meaning that women are not born in their final form but they are gradually shaped into who they are destined to be by their upbringing and by society. Society has a lot of power on how women regard themselves. Society has the power to create a mould that all women must fit into. From a young age, girls are taught how to dress and how to act to please society. From birth women and men are labeled and taught how to act. Women are taught to be passive, submissive to men, feminine and docile while men are taught to be strong, focused and masculine. Women are taught that they are less important, unnecessary and secondary to men. Men will always be seen as the dominate sex and women will always be seen as smaller, more insignificant sex. In the novel The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir, she analyzes the Western definition of “woman,” with an innovative examination of inequality and otherness. Women have been seen as the second sex to man throughout history. It is a narrative that is constantly repeated in media, society and history. Men are constantly seen as dominant, strong and heroic while women are known to be lesser than men, which leaves women at a disadvantage at almost every point of their lives compared to men. Woman being seen as the second sex to man is continuously being shown through history that is constantly being repeated, the major distinction between male and female sexual liberation and through the fact that women and men are never raised the sameway. Simone de Beauvoir is one of the leading and most influential feminist, existentialist philosopher and writer. De Beauvoir worked alongside many existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus and Maurice Merleau-Pontyde, to construct some of her most famous writings including work on ethics, fiction, feminism and politics. While working in the field of ethics, Simone wrote a book called The Ethics of Ambiguity, where she developed a thesis that convicted the “spirit of seriousness.” That people are too eager to identify with certain abstractions or concepts at the expense of their individual freedoms and responsibilities. Simone de Beauvoir’s most famous and contributive work is The Second Sex. The novel addresses the fact that throughout history, women has been objectified and labelled as an “Other”. In the novel, de Beauvoir notes that “humanity is male and man defines woman not herself but as relative to him.” Man will always come first and woman will always be second and considered as the “Other”in comparison to them. According to de Beauvoir “The whole of feminine history has been man-made. Just as in America there is no Negro problem, but rather a white problem; just as anti-Semitism is not a Jewish problem, it is our problem; so the woman problem has always been a man problem.” Sexism is not women’s fault. While the issue of sexism affects women daily, men are to blame for it. It is an issue invented and executed by their oppressors. In the bible there is a passage in Genesis about the first man and women created by God named Adam and Eve, who resided in the garden of Eden. In this garden Eve was easily persuaded by the devil, embodied by a serpent, to eat the forbidden fruit and to persuade Adam to eat the fruit as well. Adam and Eve were cast out of the garden of Eden and Eve was heavily punished by God. This implies not only that women easily influenced by men, but also that they are evil since Eve ate the fruit knowing that it was forbidden. As a result of Eve’s faults God said, “I will greatly multiply your sorrow and your conception; In pain you shall bring forth children; Your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” There is an argument that Eve was weak and that she was easily tempted by the devil serpent. The stereotype that women are unable to make proper decisions stemmed from this. If Adam were to be tempted by the serpent, he would have made the right decision and have been smart enough to refuse. The stereotype that women are evil temptresses was also bred from this story since Eve was able to get Adam to eat the forbidden fruit as well. The story of Adam and Eve is an iconic story known to those outside of the Christian faith. The story was the beginning of many stereotypes that still show women in a negative light. Eve and all women are known to make bad decisions, are known to be temptresses and they are known to be easily influenced by man. While Eve’s mistakes are often remembered, the fact that Adam also ate the forbidden fruit is often forgotten. Although Adam tried to reason with God and place all blame on Eve, he too was punished. God told Adam, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten from the tree about which I commanded you, saying, ‘You shall not eat from it’; Cursed is the ground because of you; In toil you will eat of it All the days of your life.” This is an unfair punishment and shows the favouritism towards Adam — the man. Eve’s punishment was much harsher. Not only does this punish Adam but in the long run it also punished Eve as well since during that time men were the primary breadwinners of the family. The story of Adam and Eve was the beginning of many negative stereotypes for women. While stereotypes seem meaningless, they have consequences that affect women to this day. In comparison to men, women are told that their ideas and plans are secondary and not as good. Men are also able to escape blame while women are more likely to be punished for their mistakes. Adam was given a light consequence for his actions while Eve was given harsher punishments and she is known as the reason why woman and man were cast out of the garden of Eden. Simone de Beauvoir’s initial thesis was that man fundamentally oppress women by characterizing them on every level as the other, defined entirely in the opposition to man. According to Simone, man owns the role of “the self” or “the subject,” women own the role of the “object” the “other.” Subjects are essential, absolute, free and transcendent. Objects are codependent since no object can survive without someone or something controlling it. Women are to fit into this cast that men have created and during de Beauvoir’s era, the role a woman was forced into was to be an innocent and obedient housewife and mother. Simone de Beauvoir did not fit into this role. She rejected the role society projected upon her and instead paved her own path. Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir challenged the way society viewed commitments and relationships, they did not desire to have the conventional relationship dependant on gender roles and therefore did not. Early into their relationship they agreed to a “transparency pact,” meaning they would allow the other to be free and be with other lovers and live wherever they chose to as long as they told one another everything. Simone was and still is criticized very heavily for having an open relationship and choosing to never get married to Jean-Paul. In a piece for the New Yorker in 2015, an American critic and essayist by the name of Louis Menand, argued that de Beauvoir was a “classic enabler” in her relationship with Sartre. Menand even suggested that she faked bisexuality to please Sartre, and that parts of The Second Sex were written as a plea to him. There are countless articles that accuse de Beauvoir of either not wanting to be in an open relationship, of being promiscuous rather than bisexual and of faking her bisexuality to please Sartre. Jean-Paul Sartre was just as famous as Simone de Beauvoir was and yet the articles written about him championed his ability to have a healthy relationship with a high profile woman while also having many lovers at the same time. There is a big difference between how a sexually liberated man is treated versus how a sexually liberated woman is treated. A woman is unable to be sexually liberated since that is against the label that society has given her. According to society women are supposed to be sexual only for procreation or for their husbands satisfaction. A sexually liberated woman is a slut. A queer sexually liberated woman is a slut and an attention seeker since women are only ever sexual with other women for male enjoyment. As the ‘subject’ men are able to choose their own destiny without any questions asked but since a women are the secondary ‘objects’ she must shape and mould herself to be the type of women society accepts. The nature versus nurture debate is mentioned often in The Second Sex, with de Beauvoir arguing that women’s mistreatment in society is not from a result of natural differences between man and woman but the differences in upbringing. The male dominance is not genetic, but it is something that is conditioned at every stage of development. De Beauvoir said that, “Man learns his power,” and woman learns she has none. Women are not born passive, mediocre, or second-rate. Rather, she is brought up and raised to believe that a proper woman must embody these characteristics while simultaneously being conditioned to believe that denying her true self and not embracing individualism, is the only way to achieve happiness and gain acceptance. All women and men are born equal and the possibility exists of them being equal in adulthood as well as in childhood, but because of the way society has created a clear cut difference in the way women and men should be treated, that possibility has crumbled. De Beauvoir’s answer as to why women are raised so differently to men is the fact that women are used simply as a reproductive tool. Throughout history, it is always seen that women are slaves to their reproductive system. Back in de Beauvoir’s time, with women having such difficulty joining the workforce, their only job was to have an uninterrupted cycles of pregnancies to help grow the population. Therefore woman’s only contribution was to growing the population and remaining restricted to their womb. Women still have a hard time joining the workforce at the same rate and speed that men do. When women do join the workforce they are also still expected to do most of the housework. Women are expected to work twice as hard as men in the workforce to earn close to what they make while also being the primary parent. Men are not forced to choose between family and work but women are. Many women choose to not having children to focus more on their careers. Woman is neither entirely a worker nor entirely a womb. One may argue that women chose to keep themselves stuck in the role that society has placed upon them. Many believe that women should have stood up for themselves and created their own individual roles in society. In terms of the Bible, the first copy was written 3500 years ago. Many would argue that the Bible is no longer significant in playing a big role in today’s society therefore the argument is invalid. Many things have happened since the first version of the Bible was published, therefore it is not fair to bring up an argument that has been dealt with. In terms of Simone de Beauvoir’s open relationship and the argument that men and women are not treated equally, one may protest that it is for the wellbeing of the women. The question of whether or not men and women should be treated equally has been asked for years and many would say they should not be because women are actually more important than men. The fight for equality is also a fight almost won since men and women are both in the workforce, men and women can both take paternity/maternity leave, and the wage gap is smaller now than ever and in countries such Iceland making equal pay mandatory. Women should also be treated with more care and should be better protected than men since they are able to carry children. It is said that with one hundred men and one women the population would take ages to grow while with one hundred women and one man the population would boom. Another argument that could be made is that not all men and women are uncomfortable with their roles in society, meaning that there are some women who find joy in being housewives, and would prefer to be the primary parent in terms of their children. The Second Sex was written in 1949 and although there has been considerable change in the world, the way women are viewed still needs work. Although today’s society claims that the division between men and women no longer exists, women still have a long fight to be considered equal to man. In the present there is a hierarchy with man on top and with woman below them. As Simone de Beauvoir once said, “every individual self, regardless of gender, is entitled to subjectivity, ” women just lose this entitlement because of outside forces that plot against them whether that be man himself or society as a whole. For women to be seen as man’s true equal, the way that society views women will have to change. The media for one are a big influence on how women are viewed. The words used in associated with women, such as weak need to be changed as well since words like focused, smart and powerful are only synonymous with men. Women are not tools for growing the population, nor are women supposed to be seen and not heard. Women are not secondary to men. Women are just as smart, powerful and athletic as men. For many years women have been pushed down below men, forced to be secondary. From birth women are taught to think of themselves as “not as good” as men. Women are brought up to be wives and mothers, not to be engineers, doctors and astronauts. From birth women should be taught that they are stronger than men since they have had to endure so much oppression. Women have had to fight for rights that were given to men. Women have had to sacrifice to achieve goals that are easily achievable to men. The way women are raised has to be changed, women should be raised not just to be mothers and wives but to be independent, strong women who can shatter the glass ceilings put in place by men. Women are not, and will never be the second sex.	<urn:uuid:95c98d90-fafc-47ae-9aa9-32dfd192c2dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://firstnightdanbury.org/how-or-intellect-femininity-is-a-reflection/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00008.warc.gz	en	0.985983	3,133	3.390625	3	[ 0.2099742442369461, 0.29865914583206177, -0.0972394198179245, -0.09947877377271652, -0.16777431964874268, 0.20033851265907288, 0.40858668088912964, 0.27013733983039856, 0.146729975938797, -0.21235841512680054, 0.09804694354534149, -0.3514166474342346, 0.07070993632078171, 0.038947515189647...	3	How one classifies a woman as a woman is an interesting subject. Femininity, biology, mentality and even beauty are all factors that can contribute to if society would classify one as a man or as the “Other”. Feminist, Simone de Beauvoir would say that biology is not what necessarily determines what makes a woman a woman. According to de Beauvoir, society itself has the power to tell a woman if she is in fact a woman and society has the power to tell women what their value is in society. Once a woman realizes that they are being treated differently than a man, they will understand that the differences between them are what makes a woman. Femininity, or womanhood does not come from differences in biology, psychology, or intellect. Femininity is a reflection not on the constitutional differences in men and women, but rather the differences in their situation. When considering women and femininity it is important to remember that situation determines character and not the other way around, meaning that women are not born in their final form but they are gradually shaped into who they are destined to be by their upbringing and by society. Society has a lot of power on how women regard themselves. Society has the power to create a mould that all women must fit into. From a young age, girls are taught how to dress and how to act to please society. From birth women and men are labeled and taught how to act. Women are taught to be passive, submissive to men, feminine and docile while men are taught to be strong, focused and masculine. Women are taught that they are less important, unnecessary and secondary to men. Men will always be seen as the dominate sex and women will always be seen as smaller, more insignificant sex. In the novel The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir, she analyzes the Western definition of “woman,” with an innovative examination of inequality and otherness. Women have been seen as the second sex to man throughout history. It is a narrative that is constantly repeated in media, society and history. Men are constantly seen as dominant, strong and heroic while women are known to be lesser than men, which leaves women at a disadvantage at almost every point of their lives compared to men. Woman being seen as the second sex to man is continuously being shown through history that is constantly being repeated, the major distinction between male and female sexual liberation and through the fact that women and men are never raised the sameway. Simone de Beauvoir is one of the leading and most influential feminist, existentialist philosopher and writer. De Beauvoir worked alongside many existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus and Maurice Merleau-Pontyde, to construct some of her most famous writings including work on ethics, fiction, feminism and politics. While working in the field of ethics, Simone wrote a book called The Ethics of Ambiguity, where she developed a thesis that convicted the “spirit of seriousness.” That people are too eager to identify with certain abstractions or concepts at the expense of their individual freedoms and responsibilities. Simone de Beauvoir’s most famous and contributive work is The Second Sex. The novel addresses the fact that throughout history, women has been objectified and labelled as an “Other”. In the novel, de Beauvoir notes that “humanity is male and man defines woman not herself but as relative to him.” Man will always come first and woman will always be second and considered as the “Other”in comparison to them. According to de Beauvoir “The whole of feminine history has been man-made. Just as in America there is no Negro problem, but rather a white problem; just as anti-Semitism is not a Jewish problem, it is our problem; so the woman problem has always been a man problem.” Sexism is not women’s fault. While the issue of sexism affects women daily, men are to blame for it. It is an issue invented and executed by their oppressors. In the bible there is a passage in Genesis about the first man and women created by God named Adam and Eve, who resided in the garden of Eden. In this garden Eve was easily persuaded by the devil, embodied by a serpent, to eat the forbidden fruit and to persuade Adam to eat the fruit as well. Adam and Eve were cast out of the garden of Eden and Eve was heavily punished by God. This implies not only that women easily influenced by men, but also that they are evil since Eve ate the fruit knowing that it was forbidden. As a result of Eve’s faults God said, “I will greatly multiply your sorrow and your conception; In pain you shall bring forth children; Your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” There is an argument that Eve was weak and that she was easily tempted by the devil serpent. The stereotype that women are unable to make proper decisions stemmed from this. If Adam were to be tempted by the serpent, he would have made the right decision and have been smart enough to refuse. The stereotype that women are evil temptresses was also bred from this story since Eve was able to get Adam to eat the forbidden fruit as well. The story of Adam and Eve is an iconic story known to those outside of the Christian faith. The story was the beginning of many stereotypes that still show women in a negative light. Eve and all women are known to make bad decisions, are known to be temptresses and they are known to be easily influenced by man. While Eve’s mistakes are often remembered, the fact that Adam also ate the forbidden fruit is often forgotten. Although Adam tried to reason with God and place all blame on Eve, he too was punished. God told Adam, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten from the tree about which I commanded you, saying, ‘You shall not eat from it’; Cursed is the ground because of you; In toil you will eat of it All the days of your life.” This is an unfair punishment and shows the favouritism towards Adam — the man. Eve’s punishment was much harsher. Not only does this punish Adam but in the long run it also punished Eve as well since during that time men were the primary breadwinners of the family. The story of Adam and Eve was the beginning of many negative stereotypes for women. While stereotypes seem meaningless, they have consequences that affect women to this day. In comparison to men, women are told that their ideas and plans are secondary and not as good. Men are also able to escape blame while women are more likely to be punished for their mistakes. Adam was given a light consequence for his actions while Eve was given harsher punishments and she is known as the reason why woman and man were cast out of the garden of Eden. Simone de Beauvoir’s initial thesis was that man fundamentally oppress women by characterizing them on every level as the other, defined entirely in the opposition to man. According to Simone, man owns the role of “the self” or “the subject,” women own the role of the “object” the “other.” Subjects are essential, absolute, free and transcendent. Objects are codependent since no object can survive without someone or something controlling it. Women are to fit into this cast that men have created and during de Beauvoir’s era, the role a woman was forced into was to be an innocent and obedient housewife and mother. Simone de Beauvoir did not fit into this role. She rejected the role society projected upon her and instead paved her own path. Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir challenged the way society viewed commitments and relationships, they did not desire to have the conventional relationship dependant on gender roles and therefore did not. Early into their relationship they agreed to a “transparency pact,” meaning they would allow the other to be free and be with other lovers and live wherever they chose to as long as they told one another everything. Simone was and still is criticized very heavily for having an open relationship and choosing to never get married to Jean-Paul. In a piece for the New Yorker in 2015, an American critic and essayist by the name of Louis Menand, argued that de Beauvoir was a “classic enabler” in her relationship with Sartre. Menand even suggested that she faked bisexuality to please Sartre, and that parts of The Second Sex were written as a plea to him. There are countless articles that accuse de Beauvoir of either not wanting to be in an open relationship, of being promiscuous rather than bisexual and of faking her bisexuality to please Sartre. Jean-Paul Sartre was just as famous as Simone de Beauvoir was and yet the articles written about him championed his ability to have a healthy relationship with a high profile woman while also having many lovers at the same time. There is a big difference between how a sexually liberated man is treated versus how a sexually liberated woman is treated. A woman is unable to be sexually liberated since that is against the label that society has given her. According to society women are supposed to be sexual only for procreation or for their husbands satisfaction. A sexually liberated woman is a slut. A queer sexually liberated woman is a slut and an attention seeker since women are only ever sexual with other women for male enjoyment. As the ‘subject’ men are able to choose their own destiny without any questions asked but since a women are the secondary ‘objects’ she must shape and mould herself to be the type of women society accepts. The nature versus nurture debate is mentioned often in The Second Sex, with de Beauvoir arguing that women’s mistreatment in society is not from a result of natural differences between man and woman but the differences in upbringing. The male dominance is not genetic, but it is something that is conditioned at every stage of development. De Beauvoir said that, “Man learns his power,” and woman learns she has none. Women are not born passive, mediocre, or second-rate. Rather, she is brought up and raised to believe that a proper woman must embody these characteristics while simultaneously being conditioned to believe that denying her true self and not embracing individualism, is the only way to achieve happiness and gain acceptance. All women and men are born equal and the possibility exists of them being equal in adulthood as well as in childhood, but because of the way society has created a clear cut difference in the way women and men should be treated, that possibility has crumbled. De Beauvoir’s answer as to why women are raised so differently to men is the fact that women are used simply as a reproductive tool. Throughout history, it is always seen that women are slaves to their reproductive system. Back in de Beauvoir’s time, with women having such difficulty joining the workforce, their only job was to have an uninterrupted cycles of pregnancies to help grow the population. Therefore woman’s only contribution was to growing the population and remaining restricted to their womb. Women still have a hard time joining the workforce at the same rate and speed that men do. When women do join the workforce they are also still expected to do most of the housework. Women are expected to work twice as hard as men in the workforce to earn close to what they make while also being the primary parent. Men are not forced to choose between family and work but women are. Many women choose to not having children to focus more on their careers. Woman is neither entirely a worker nor entirely a womb. One may argue that women chose to keep themselves stuck in the role that society has placed upon them. Many believe that women should have stood up for themselves and created their own individual roles in society. In terms of the Bible, the first copy was written 3500 years ago. Many would argue that the Bible is no longer significant in playing a big role in today’s society therefore the argument is invalid. Many things have happened since the first version of the Bible was published, therefore it is not fair to bring up an argument that has been dealt with. In terms of Simone de Beauvoir’s open relationship and the argument that men and women are not treated equally, one may protest that it is for the wellbeing of the women. The question of whether or not men and women should be treated equally has been asked for years and many would say they should not be because women are actually more important than men. The fight for equality is also a fight almost won since men and women are both in the workforce, men and women can both take paternity/maternity leave, and the wage gap is smaller now than ever and in countries such Iceland making equal pay mandatory. Women should also be treated with more care and should be better protected than men since they are able to carry children. It is said that with one hundred men and one women the population would take ages to grow while with one hundred women and one man the population would boom. Another argument that could be made is that not all men and women are uncomfortable with their roles in society, meaning that there are some women who find joy in being housewives, and would prefer to be the primary parent in terms of their children. The Second Sex was written in 1949 and although there has been considerable change in the world, the way women are viewed still needs work. Although today’s society claims that the division between men and women no longer exists, women still have a long fight to be considered equal to man. In the present there is a hierarchy with man on top and with woman below them. As Simone de Beauvoir once said, “every individual self, regardless of gender, is entitled to subjectivity, ” women just lose this entitlement because of outside forces that plot against them whether that be man himself or society as a whole. For women to be seen as man’s true equal, the way that society views women will have to change. The media for one are a big influence on how women are viewed. The words used in associated with women, such as weak need to be changed as well since words like focused, smart and powerful are only synonymous with men. Women are not tools for growing the population, nor are women supposed to be seen and not heard. Women are not secondary to men. Women are just as smart, powerful and athletic as men. For many years women have been pushed down below men, forced to be secondary. From birth women are taught to think of themselves as “not as good” as men. Women are brought up to be wives and mothers, not to be engineers, doctors and astronauts. From birth women should be taught that they are stronger than men since they have had to endure so much oppression. Women have had to fight for rights that were given to men. Women have had to sacrifice to achieve goals that are easily achievable to men. The way women are raised has to be changed, women should be raised not just to be mothers and wives but to be independent, strong women who can shatter the glass ceilings put in place by men. Women are not, and will never be the second sex.	3,045	ENGLISH	1
Femininity is the quality of being a female, which includes the behaviors and roles that are generally associated with women. In the 1960s and earlier, mothers usually stayed home, did the household chores such as laundry, cooking, cleaning, as well as taking care of the children. The men would go to work then return home after a long day and expect dinner ready, and then relax. Within families, in many generations, women taught their daughters to do the same to be the “good wife” society expects each woman to be. Over the years, the norms of both men and women have changed as far as it now being acceptable for women to work, in addition to all the family and household responsibilities she has, but also men helping more around the house and playing more of the role when caring for the children. However, although women have come a long way from before, there still seems to be a lack of respect toward women. The way artists refer to women in their songs or how company’s advertisements depict women as sex images, these are ways popular culture portrays women today. Popular culture such as music, advertisements, and television, impact a person’s idea of a woman being negative, which is not how they should be viewed by others. From a young age, children are conformed to acting and dressing a certain way according to how their parents want them to. Due to the norms that are set for women, they are expected to act, dress, and carry themselves a certain way. They need to act very lady like, they are expected to dress in skirts, dresses and wear colors that are usually assigned to girls such as pink and purple. These are norms that were made by society and of course, if a person does not conform to them, they are oftentimes looked down upon and very rarely ever rewarded. In “Becoming Members of Social Society: Learning the Social Meaning of Gender” written by Aaron H. Devor, he says “As we move through our lives, society demands different gender performances from us and rewards, tolerates, or punishes us differently for conformity to, or digression from, social norms” (387). An example of society rewarding a person for digression from social norms would be if a woman shaves her head in honor of someone who is battling cancer. A woman who wears men’s clothes, has a shaved head, and is not at all feminine would be an example of a person that society would punish for digression from social norms. Women should be free to do as they please. Not only is a person’s appearance what the people in today’s society pays attention to, but the responsibilities a woman does as apposed to what a man does, such as household chores including cooking, cleaning, laundry, and raising the children. Many people look down upon women who do not take care of those responsibilities, then others get angry when women feel as though they are responsible for these chores. Many women are influenced by women to do these responsibilities because they were taught to them by past generations. The people in our society worry so much about everybody else’s flaws when each person should worry for themselves and not what others please to do. Many advertisements have portrayed different images for women, especially depicting them as sex objects. In “Two Ways a Woman Can Get Hurt” by Jean Kilbourne, she says “Sex in advertising is pornographic because it dehumanizes and objectifies people, especially women…”(420). The advertisements company’s use display women to be used for sex when advertising for certain products. Usually advertisements for cologne use women being or looking sexy to catch the customer’s eye to want to buy the product. Women are human beings that deserve respect for being women. They are made to look sexy and getting attention for dressing and posing this way, yet they are being disrespected and looked down upon for the way they present themselves when going to the club. It does not make sense that a woman can be sexy for an advertisement, but when it comes to her everyday life she cannot express herself in the same way. According to society, and what is accepted by them and what is not, they are allowed to be sexy when it comes to certain advertisements but when she wants to wear a dress that is too short or showing too much cleavage, she is seen as a hoe, which is oftentimes the case. There are certain values a woman is expected to have, such as they way she carries herself, appearance, and behavior. For example, in movies and shows there may be a scene in which there is a man getting drunk, acting crazy, and hooking up with different girls and the man gets respect for that and is being praised. Yet, when it is switched around to a woman doing the same thing, she is seen as a ho or a slut. Society already has what is acceptable for each gender, but popular culture emphasizes and keeps people’s ideas at the same place. Music impacts the idea many people have of women due to the way certain artists express their ideas of how a woman is. Music artists such as Tupac has written songs honoring women. He has a song called “Keep Ya Head Up,” that inspires women to keep living life with high hopes and dreams regardless of how men treat them, throughout the song he says that things will get easier. He wrote another song called “Dear Mama” which talks about the struggles he and his family went through growing up. His mother was on drugs, and his mother was raising Tupac and his siblings on her own and even though they hung around with the thugs and the wrong crowd, his mother never left their side. The song “Dear Mama” is basically a thank you to his mother for all that she did for him and for never losing hope or leaving his side when times got tough. While Tupac was an artist who believed women deserved the utmost respect, there are other artists who refer to women as being no better for anything other than sex. For example, the rapper YG, has a song called “Bitches Ain’t Shit” which refers to women being “bitches,” and nothing but “hoes and tricks.” This song is about a man who has sex with many different women and talks about the different way each woman is, or what it is her body has to offer such as “ass and titties.” The difference between these two artists is the perspective in which they see women. Tupac is very respectful toward women, while YG sees women for sex only. Even though the image of women is seen a negative way to many men and women due to the advertisements and music, they are expected to be seen as role models. Majority of women are mothers and if are not yet they may soon be and are supposed to be someone who their children look up to. Women are people who are oftentimes to have the motherly characteristic who care for others as well as emotional. They are not supposed to be seen partying and getting drunk or being around a lot of guys, nor are they supposed to dress in a way that shows a lot of skin or exposing to much cleavage. Women are expected to act and dress a certain way because they are the people who are supposed to care for others. They are usually the ones who take care of children, do household chores and make sure their husbands and children are well taken care of and if they are not, they are seen as a bad wife and mother. Some may say that women should not feel obligated to do the standard things women do such as cooking and cleaning, but they are respected for those things by their husband and children because if she were not the one to do it for them, they would have to do it themselves. Finally, although women should be responsible for their behavior and how they present themselves, they should be free to do as they please, just how it is acceptable for men to live their life how they want to without worrying if they will be judged. Popular culture such as music, media, and television shows provides people with an idea of women that can be either positive or negative all depending on what it is they are doing. When a woman looks sexy in advertisements they are seen as hot and all a man wants from them is sex, but then there are men who call women hoes when they go to the club dancing around with there guys and getting drunk. Women should be treated with respect, of course they have to earn it but a book should not always be judged by its cover. Mothers especially deserve the utmost respect because they are the ones who carry their child in their womb for nine months, then go on to raise them and teach them about life. Yet the children they are raising and giving their all to make their lives better than theirs, they are the ones being disrespectful when it should not be that way. Devor H. Aaron. “Becoming Members of Society: Learning the Social Meanings of Gender.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Ed. Gary Colombo. Robert Cullen. Bonnie Lisle. 9th ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2013. 387-396 Kilbourne, Jean. “Two Ways A Woman Can Get Hurt: Advertisng and Violence.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts or Critical Thinking and Writing. Ed. Gary Colombo. Robert Cullen. Bonnie Lisle. 9th ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2013. 420-445 Cite this page Women Deserve More Respect. (2016, Mar 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/women-deserve-more-respect-essay	<urn:uuid:db6852dc-1355-4125-b60d-718b06c9631e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/women-deserve-more-respect-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00418.warc.gz	en	0.983724	2,017	3.5625	4	[ 0.3018393814563751, 0.13321053981781006, 0.14229445159435272, -0.31205034255981445, -0.20184925198554993, 0.5236243009567261, 0.4215138554573059, 0.11213523894548416, -0.16196967661380768, -0.21455839276313782, 0.16722702980041504, 0.0722091794013977, 0.013369057327508926, 0.05862034112215...	1	Femininity is the quality of being a female, which includes the behaviors and roles that are generally associated with women. In the 1960s and earlier, mothers usually stayed home, did the household chores such as laundry, cooking, cleaning, as well as taking care of the children. The men would go to work then return home after a long day and expect dinner ready, and then relax. Within families, in many generations, women taught their daughters to do the same to be the “good wife” society expects each woman to be. Over the years, the norms of both men and women have changed as far as it now being acceptable for women to work, in addition to all the family and household responsibilities she has, but also men helping more around the house and playing more of the role when caring for the children. However, although women have come a long way from before, there still seems to be a lack of respect toward women. The way artists refer to women in their songs or how company’s advertisements depict women as sex images, these are ways popular culture portrays women today. Popular culture such as music, advertisements, and television, impact a person’s idea of a woman being negative, which is not how they should be viewed by others. From a young age, children are conformed to acting and dressing a certain way according to how their parents want them to. Due to the norms that are set for women, they are expected to act, dress, and carry themselves a certain way. They need to act very lady like, they are expected to dress in skirts, dresses and wear colors that are usually assigned to girls such as pink and purple. These are norms that were made by society and of course, if a person does not conform to them, they are oftentimes looked down upon and very rarely ever rewarded. In “Becoming Members of Social Society: Learning the Social Meaning of Gender” written by Aaron H. Devor, he says “As we move through our lives, society demands different gender performances from us and rewards, tolerates, or punishes us differently for conformity to, or digression from, social norms” (387). An example of society rewarding a person for digression from social norms would be if a woman shaves her head in honor of someone who is battling cancer. A woman who wears men’s clothes, has a shaved head, and is not at all feminine would be an example of a person that society would punish for digression from social norms. Women should be free to do as they please. Not only is a person’s appearance what the people in today’s society pays attention to, but the responsibilities a woman does as apposed to what a man does, such as household chores including cooking, cleaning, laundry, and raising the children. Many people look down upon women who do not take care of those responsibilities, then others get angry when women feel as though they are responsible for these chores. Many women are influenced by women to do these responsibilities because they were taught to them by past generations. The people in our society worry so much about everybody else’s flaws when each person should worry for themselves and not what others please to do. Many advertisements have portrayed different images for women, especially depicting them as sex objects. In “Two Ways a Woman Can Get Hurt” by Jean Kilbourne, she says “Sex in advertising is pornographic because it dehumanizes and objectifies people, especially women…”(420). The advertisements company’s use display women to be used for sex when advertising for certain products. Usually advertisements for cologne use women being or looking sexy to catch the customer’s eye to want to buy the product. Women are human beings that deserve respect for being women. They are made to look sexy and getting attention for dressing and posing this way, yet they are being disrespected and looked down upon for the way they present themselves when going to the club. It does not make sense that a woman can be sexy for an advertisement, but when it comes to her everyday life she cannot express herself in the same way. According to society, and what is accepted by them and what is not, they are allowed to be sexy when it comes to certain advertisements but when she wants to wear a dress that is too short or showing too much cleavage, she is seen as a hoe, which is oftentimes the case. There are certain values a woman is expected to have, such as they way she carries herself, appearance, and behavior. For example, in movies and shows there may be a scene in which there is a man getting drunk, acting crazy, and hooking up with different girls and the man gets respect for that and is being praised. Yet, when it is switched around to a woman doing the same thing, she is seen as a ho or a slut. Society already has what is acceptable for each gender, but popular culture emphasizes and keeps people’s ideas at the same place. Music impacts the idea many people have of women due to the way certain artists express their ideas of how a woman is. Music artists such as Tupac has written songs honoring women. He has a song called “Keep Ya Head Up,” that inspires women to keep living life with high hopes and dreams regardless of how men treat them, throughout the song he says that things will get easier. He wrote another song called “Dear Mama” which talks about the struggles he and his family went through growing up. His mother was on drugs, and his mother was raising Tupac and his siblings on her own and even though they hung around with the thugs and the wrong crowd, his mother never left their side. The song “Dear Mama” is basically a thank you to his mother for all that she did for him and for never losing hope or leaving his side when times got tough. While Tupac was an artist who believed women deserved the utmost respect, there are other artists who refer to women as being no better for anything other than sex. For example, the rapper YG, has a song called “Bitches Ain’t Shit” which refers to women being “bitches,” and nothing but “hoes and tricks.” This song is about a man who has sex with many different women and talks about the different way each woman is, or what it is her body has to offer such as “ass and titties.” The difference between these two artists is the perspective in which they see women. Tupac is very respectful toward women, while YG sees women for sex only. Even though the image of women is seen a negative way to many men and women due to the advertisements and music, they are expected to be seen as role models. Majority of women are mothers and if are not yet they may soon be and are supposed to be someone who their children look up to. Women are people who are oftentimes to have the motherly characteristic who care for others as well as emotional. They are not supposed to be seen partying and getting drunk or being around a lot of guys, nor are they supposed to dress in a way that shows a lot of skin or exposing to much cleavage. Women are expected to act and dress a certain way because they are the people who are supposed to care for others. They are usually the ones who take care of children, do household chores and make sure their husbands and children are well taken care of and if they are not, they are seen as a bad wife and mother. Some may say that women should not feel obligated to do the standard things women do such as cooking and cleaning, but they are respected for those things by their husband and children because if she were not the one to do it for them, they would have to do it themselves. Finally, although women should be responsible for their behavior and how they present themselves, they should be free to do as they please, just how it is acceptable for men to live their life how they want to without worrying if they will be judged. Popular culture such as music, media, and television shows provides people with an idea of women that can be either positive or negative all depending on what it is they are doing. When a woman looks sexy in advertisements they are seen as hot and all a man wants from them is sex, but then there are men who call women hoes when they go to the club dancing around with there guys and getting drunk. Women should be treated with respect, of course they have to earn it but a book should not always be judged by its cover. Mothers especially deserve the utmost respect because they are the ones who carry their child in their womb for nine months, then go on to raise them and teach them about life. Yet the children they are raising and giving their all to make their lives better than theirs, they are the ones being disrespectful when it should not be that way. Devor H. Aaron. “Becoming Members of Society: Learning the Social Meanings of Gender.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Ed. Gary Colombo. Robert Cullen. Bonnie Lisle. 9th ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2013. 387-396 Kilbourne, Jean. “Two Ways A Woman Can Get Hurt: Advertisng and Violence.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts or Critical Thinking and Writing. Ed. Gary Colombo. Robert Cullen. Bonnie Lisle. 9th ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin’s, 2013. 420-445 Cite this page Women Deserve More Respect. (2016, Mar 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/women-deserve-more-respect-essay	1,982	ENGLISH	1
The biologists studied the plants in part by sampling the sticky liquid inside their pitchers and testing for enzymes. They could also compare the genes turned on in the pitchers to those turned on in the normal leaves. That’s a direct comparison because the pitchers—like the traps on Venus flytraps—are just specialized leaves. Before carnivorous plants were carnivorous, they were regular photosynthesizing machines. They lived in bogs and other wetlands that have plenty of water, but not many nutrients. And a few of these pre-carnivores evolved the ability to trap insects, digest their exoskeletons, and absorb nutrients from their carcasses. Those plants survived better in places with poor soil quality because they could get carbon and nitrogen and other nutrients from insects. It was a desperate measure.	<urn:uuid:4458dd44-ba53-4569-85fe-6e55c0071919>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.popsci.com/carnivorous-plants-arent-as-cool-as-you-think/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00444.warc.gz	en	0.980901	164	3.96875	4	[ -0.10568104684352875, -0.13667568564414978, 0.27561792731285095, 0.1295909881591797, 0.596261739730835, -0.22932392358779907, 0.4169653356075287, 0.4146066904067993, -0.22770480811595917, 0.30801287293434143, 0.11454817652702332, -0.14767971634864807, 0.08970809727907181, 0.228173255920410...	1	The biologists studied the plants in part by sampling the sticky liquid inside their pitchers and testing for enzymes. They could also compare the genes turned on in the pitchers to those turned on in the normal leaves. That’s a direct comparison because the pitchers—like the traps on Venus flytraps—are just specialized leaves. Before carnivorous plants were carnivorous, they were regular photosynthesizing machines. They lived in bogs and other wetlands that have plenty of water, but not many nutrients. And a few of these pre-carnivores evolved the ability to trap insects, digest their exoskeletons, and absorb nutrients from their carcasses. Those plants survived better in places with poor soil quality because they could get carbon and nitrogen and other nutrients from insects. It was a desperate measure.	161	ENGLISH	1
WASHINGTON — Greenbelt, Maryland, sits in a verdant pocket just outside of D.C., accessible by the Capital Beltway or the Metro. And while its leafy surroundings aren’t hard to miss, its historic beginnings may be harder to spot. The city and its origins take center stage in photographer Jason Reblando‘s new book, “New Deal Utopias,” which takes a look at the three cities created during President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal era. Sharing Greenbelt’s federal foundations are Greenhills, Ohio, and Greendale, Wisconsin, known as greenbelt towns and forged during the Great Depression. “As the populations were pressing toward the perimeters of the cities, Rexford Tugwell had this idea of kind of exploring outward of cities and exploring new suburban land as a new frontier for new communities,” Reblando told WTOP. Tugwell was a New Deal adviser and headed the Resettlement Administration with the goal of creating affordable housing for displaced farmers and poor urban dwellers. What came about were the three greenbelt towns, based on what is known as “garden city” principles. Those principles were set forth by an Englishman, Ebenezer Howard, who was “appalled by the overcrowded slums of London in the late 19th century,” Reblando said. “His idea was to decentralize big cities and form new communities that had the best features of the town and had the best features of the country, meaning the social and economic opportunities of living together with the open, green spaces and fresh air of nature,” he said. Greenbelt’s modest houses were built intentionally. “They were built to connote egalitarianism instead of a showy, ostentatious McMansion as we might see modern housing today,” Reblando said. There were also lots of common green spaces, he said, built into the community to encourage neighborly interaction as well as direct interaction with nature. The term greenbelt refers to the thick belt of parks and forest area planned around each community, which was meant to also serve as a natural boundary to the cities. “It’s kind of a reaction to the overcrowding and kind of slum-conditions that cities were experiencing during the 1930s,” he added. As much as Greenbelt was an exercise in physical planning, it also served a social purpose. The planned community drew 5,700 applicants for the original residences, according to Greenbelt’s website. Besides meeting income criteria, future residents also had “to demonstrate willingness to participate in community organizations,” the website reads. (And the first families who settled in Greenbelt in 1937 were all white, the city’s website admitted.) The federally built community, with its co-op gas station and food store, took root during a time when fears of communism and socialism were inflamed. Critics nicknamed Tugwell “Rex the Red,” and he eventually left the administration. The private sector also had unfavorable views of the government making forays into the housing business. “The same political divisions that kind of created and were in the air at the formation of the greenbelt towns are still alive and well today,” Reblando said. While the communities were as much a housing and job creation project, “the idealism did eventually clash with reality,” he added. “I think a lot of expectations were put upon them, and a lot of people were looking at them as these model communities.” Reblando, now based in Chicago, had grown up in suburban Long Island. When talking about greenbelt towns, he stays reverential. After visiting Greenbelt, Maryland, he said, “The housing there is very, very special. Between the layout and the 1930s architecture, you can tell that it is from another time.” “It’s kind of like living in a little museum, and people are not only keeping the housing up but living out these greenbelt and New Deal principles there.” Jason Reblando will make a presentation and sign books on Thursday, Oct. 19, at 7:30 p.m. in the Greenbelt Community Center. The event is free to the public. Find more information. © 2020 WTOP. All Rights Reserved. This website is not intended for users located within the European Economic Area.	<urn:uuid:c45fd059-c38e-4781-a43e-0ea75e840d11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wtop.com/prince-georges-county/2017/10/in-its-80th-year-greenbelt-stars-in-new-book-featuring-new-deal-cities/slide/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00530.warc.gz	en	0.98308	934	3.484375	3	[ -0.1960415244102478, -0.17974933981895447, 0.20469936728477478, -0.17429393529891968, 0.11204127967357635, 0.45795130729675293, -0.27352839708328247, -0.27945268154144287, -0.2528688311576843, 0.06238318979740143, 0.11413314938545227, 0.0384797677397728, -0.6099883317947388, 0.290238618850...	1	WASHINGTON — Greenbelt, Maryland, sits in a verdant pocket just outside of D.C., accessible by the Capital Beltway or the Metro. And while its leafy surroundings aren’t hard to miss, its historic beginnings may be harder to spot. The city and its origins take center stage in photographer Jason Reblando‘s new book, “New Deal Utopias,” which takes a look at the three cities created during President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal era. Sharing Greenbelt’s federal foundations are Greenhills, Ohio, and Greendale, Wisconsin, known as greenbelt towns and forged during the Great Depression. “As the populations were pressing toward the perimeters of the cities, Rexford Tugwell had this idea of kind of exploring outward of cities and exploring new suburban land as a new frontier for new communities,” Reblando told WTOP. Tugwell was a New Deal adviser and headed the Resettlement Administration with the goal of creating affordable housing for displaced farmers and poor urban dwellers. What came about were the three greenbelt towns, based on what is known as “garden city” principles. Those principles were set forth by an Englishman, Ebenezer Howard, who was “appalled by the overcrowded slums of London in the late 19th century,” Reblando said. “His idea was to decentralize big cities and form new communities that had the best features of the town and had the best features of the country, meaning the social and economic opportunities of living together with the open, green spaces and fresh air of nature,” he said. Greenbelt’s modest houses were built intentionally. “They were built to connote egalitarianism instead of a showy, ostentatious McMansion as we might see modern housing today,” Reblando said. There were also lots of common green spaces, he said, built into the community to encourage neighborly interaction as well as direct interaction with nature. The term greenbelt refers to the thick belt of parks and forest area planned around each community, which was meant to also serve as a natural boundary to the cities. “It’s kind of a reaction to the overcrowding and kind of slum-conditions that cities were experiencing during the 1930s,” he added. As much as Greenbelt was an exercise in physical planning, it also served a social purpose. The planned community drew 5,700 applicants for the original residences, according to Greenbelt’s website. Besides meeting income criteria, future residents also had “to demonstrate willingness to participate in community organizations,” the website reads. (And the first families who settled in Greenbelt in 1937 were all white, the city’s website admitted.) The federally built community, with its co-op gas station and food store, took root during a time when fears of communism and socialism were inflamed. Critics nicknamed Tugwell “Rex the Red,” and he eventually left the administration. The private sector also had unfavorable views of the government making forays into the housing business. “The same political divisions that kind of created and were in the air at the formation of the greenbelt towns are still alive and well today,” Reblando said. While the communities were as much a housing and job creation project, “the idealism did eventually clash with reality,” he added. “I think a lot of expectations were put upon them, and a lot of people were looking at them as these model communities.” Reblando, now based in Chicago, had grown up in suburban Long Island. When talking about greenbelt towns, he stays reverential. After visiting Greenbelt, Maryland, he said, “The housing there is very, very special. Between the layout and the 1930s architecture, you can tell that it is from another time.” “It’s kind of like living in a little museum, and people are not only keeping the housing up but living out these greenbelt and New Deal principles there.” Jason Reblando will make a presentation and sign books on Thursday, Oct. 19, at 7:30 p.m. in the Greenbelt Community Center. The event is free to the public. Find more information. © 2020 WTOP. All Rights Reserved. This website is not intended for users located within the European Economic Area.	878	ENGLISH	1
In 1968, The Czechoslovakia goverment, headed by Alexander Dubcek, planned to implement reforms aimed at granting greater political freedom, economic policies that would ensure less state control, more reliance on free market economics and Dubcek insisted on greater freedom from Russian and Soviet domination. Alexander Dubcek was no revolutionary, or even anti Communist or against the USSR in anyway. In fact he was quite the opposite. Dubcek, with his background and training in Russia, was seen by the USSR as a safe pair of hands. “Our Sasha”, as he was known back in Moscow. He became the new First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia on 5 January 1968, with the complete and utter support of Moscow. However once he took power, he did try to change the more harsher Stalinist aspects in Czechoslvakia, and to give the Communist/Socialist regime a "human face", which would be less rigid and authoritarian and more open and tolerant. He sought to win popular support for the Communist government by eliminating its worst, most repressive features, allowing greater freedom of expression and tolerating political and social organizations not under Communist control. The sudden atmosphere of freedom that Dubcek was encouraging took root, and Czech citizens embraced and celebrated the new tolerance for free exchange of ideas and open discussion in what came to be known as the “Prague Spring.” The USSR response to Dubcek's reforms and the general atmosphere that prevailed in Czechoslovakia in those years, to what would later become known as the “Prague Spring”, was to invade Czechoslovakia. On the night of August 20, 1968, more than 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops crossed into Czechoslovakia and headed for the capital city of Prague. In just over a day, the entire country was occupied; within a week nearly three-quarters of a million foreign troops were in Czechoslovakia. Soviet troops occupying Czechoslovakia. Anti-Soviet riots broke out in Prague, but these were viciously crushed and thousands of Czechs fled the country. The United States and NATO turned a blind eye to the evolving situation in Czechoslovakia. The United States made it clear that it would not intervene on behalf of the Prague Spring, giving the USSR a free hand to do as it pleased. It took the USSR a full eight months to quell the inspired non-violent resistance of the Czech and Slovak population, in contrast to the original Soviet military's estimate of four days. The Soviet military presence in Czechoslovakia would last until 1991. Even though Czechoslovakia's spirit of rebellion and reform were crushd by the USSR, they were not destroyed, and they would make a comeback in 1989 with the "The Velvet Revolution", which would result in the collapse of communist regime in Czechoslovakia.	<urn:uuid:4a398f7c-9277-4675-aef6-8e6920ae03ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dispropaganda.com/single-post/2017/08/20/How-the-USSR-invaded-Czechoslovakia-in-1968-and-crushed-the-Prague-Spring	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00299.warc.gz	en	0.981608	586	3.4375	3	[ -0.3246432840824127, 0.06590285152196884, 0.039094798266887665, -0.020784731954336166, -0.17683105170726776, 0.48731309175491333, -0.09161074459552765, 0.1507328748703003, -0.1501893252134323, 0.021866977214813232, 0.5495417714118958, 0.1588955968618393, 0.33441802859306335, -0.10148876160...	2	In 1968, The Czechoslovakia goverment, headed by Alexander Dubcek, planned to implement reforms aimed at granting greater political freedom, economic policies that would ensure less state control, more reliance on free market economics and Dubcek insisted on greater freedom from Russian and Soviet domination. Alexander Dubcek was no revolutionary, or even anti Communist or against the USSR in anyway. In fact he was quite the opposite. Dubcek, with his background and training in Russia, was seen by the USSR as a safe pair of hands. “Our Sasha”, as he was known back in Moscow. He became the new First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia on 5 January 1968, with the complete and utter support of Moscow. However once he took power, he did try to change the more harsher Stalinist aspects in Czechoslvakia, and to give the Communist/Socialist regime a "human face", which would be less rigid and authoritarian and more open and tolerant. He sought to win popular support for the Communist government by eliminating its worst, most repressive features, allowing greater freedom of expression and tolerating political and social organizations not under Communist control. The sudden atmosphere of freedom that Dubcek was encouraging took root, and Czech citizens embraced and celebrated the new tolerance for free exchange of ideas and open discussion in what came to be known as the “Prague Spring.” The USSR response to Dubcek's reforms and the general atmosphere that prevailed in Czechoslovakia in those years, to what would later become known as the “Prague Spring”, was to invade Czechoslovakia. On the night of August 20, 1968, more than 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops crossed into Czechoslovakia and headed for the capital city of Prague. In just over a day, the entire country was occupied; within a week nearly three-quarters of a million foreign troops were in Czechoslovakia. Soviet troops occupying Czechoslovakia. Anti-Soviet riots broke out in Prague, but these were viciously crushed and thousands of Czechs fled the country. The United States and NATO turned a blind eye to the evolving situation in Czechoslovakia. The United States made it clear that it would not intervene on behalf of the Prague Spring, giving the USSR a free hand to do as it pleased. It took the USSR a full eight months to quell the inspired non-violent resistance of the Czech and Slovak population, in contrast to the original Soviet military's estimate of four days. The Soviet military presence in Czechoslovakia would last until 1991. Even though Czechoslovakia's spirit of rebellion and reform were crushd by the USSR, they were not destroyed, and they would make a comeback in 1989 with the "The Velvet Revolution", which would result in the collapse of communist regime in Czechoslovakia.	601	ENGLISH	1
Ludwig van Beethoven, also known as “ The General of Musicians,” was born on December 16, 1770. However, this date is not exact because it is believed that Beethoven’s father lied about his son’s age in order to portray him as an infant prodigy. As a result, Beethoven is convinced he was born on December 16, 1772 at the Rheingasse home, which belonged to the Fischers, who were close friends of the family (Orga 8). Johann van and Maria Magdalena Beethoven bore five children of which three survived. Ludwig van Beethoven was the first child to survive, probably making him the most cherished especially in his father’s eyes. The other two surviving siblings were Casper and Nikolaus. They were said to have played extremely important roles in Beethoven’s life. Johann van said to be a lesser man than his father Ludwig Louis van Beethoven, who was a trained musician and later appointed Kapellmeister. Many believed he could not compare to his dad because he did not have a high-ranking job, instead his income was based on giving piano, singing, and violin lessons to the public (Kerman 354). Johann wanted his first son to be great, especially in the music field, so he pushed him to learn the piano and violin at a very early age. For instance, Beethoven had his first public appearance at the age of eight on March 26, 1778. He performed at a concert with one of his father’s other pupils. His performance consisted of concertos and trios on the keyboard. Beethoven continued to play at concerts, as well as taking music lessons with instructors other than his father. When visiting the Fischer Family one day Johann proclaimed, “My son Ludwig is my only comfort now in life. He is improving in his music to such an extent that he is admired by everyone. I foresee that in time he will be a great man in the world” (Orga 29). During this time he also attended elementary school in Bonn, but he did not exceed grade school. Beethoven learned all he could by age ten and from then on he lived off his wits and curiosity (Orga 28). In 1779, Beethoven met his first very important teacher at Bonn by the name of Christian Neefe. Neefe automatically saw Beethoven’s talent and had a strong liking to him from the beginning. Moreover, when he took a short leave of absence from Bonn, he appointed Beethoven, at only eleven years o... ... middle of paper ... ... His funeral was held on the 29th of March and about 15,000 guests attended his burial. The surrounding schools were closed that day in respect of the composer. Also, out of respect the choir sang the Miserere in an arrangement from one of his Equali for trombones. Following the singing, about 200 horse carriages accompanied the coffin on its final journey (Orga 8). To conclude, Beethoven was know as “The General of Musicians,” “The Young Genius,” and the most admired composer in the history of western music. His musical ability, his passion, and his harsh losses all helped to contribute to his undying success as a great pianist and composer. Even today his works are still studied and listened to around the world. Kerman, Joseph. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 Vols. London: MacMillan Pub. Ltd., 1980. 2: 354-60. Grout, Donald Jay. A History of Western Music. 3rd ed. New York: Cornell UP, 1981. Marek, George R. Beethoven: Biography of a Genius. New York: Funk and Wagnall’s Publishing Company, 1969. Orga, Ates. Beethoven: The Illustrated Lives of the Great Composers. London: Omnibus Press, 1983. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Ludwig van Beethoven was an extraordinary music composer, especially considering he was deaf most of his life and career. He was born in Germany on December 16, 1770. Many obstacles were hurled at him, but he triumphed over them, and even deafness didn’t stop him from composing some of the worlds greatest, and most recognized music compositions (Rosenwald 167). His life, music, and his musical styles and techniques all contribute to his life story. Beethoven was born in Bonn Germany. At 14, he held the occupation of a court organist.... [tags: beethoven, music composer, music ] 542 words (1.5 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven was born on December 16, 1770 in Bonn, Germany and he died on March 26, 1827 in Vienna Austria. Beethoven’s music is mostly associated with the classical era because that is when he crafted most of his greatest works. Beethoven’s father and grandfather were both musicians that played at Court of Elector of Cologne. Beethoven’s main instrument that he played was the piano. He was taught by his father how to play the piano. His father was very strict on him, and sometimes he made Beethoven, “stand at the keyboard, was often in tears.” He had other teachers that taught him how to play the violin, and how to play the piano.... [tags: ode to joy, ninth symphony, piano, musician] 891 words (2.5 pages) - Life of Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven, also known as “ The General of Musicians,” was born on December 16, 1770. However, this date is not exact because it is believed that Beethoven’s father lied about his son’s age in order to portray him as an infant prodigy. As a result, Beethoven is convinced he was born on December 16, 1772 at the Rheingasse home, which belonged to the Fischers, who were close friends of the family (Orga 8). Johann van and Maria Magdalena Beethoven bore five children of which three survived.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven Composers Music Essays] 1190 words (3.4 pages) - Ludwig van Beethoven, a German composer and a pianist, He remains one of the most famous and influential of all time. Beethoven had 9 best-known symphonies, 5 concertos for piano, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets; Beethoven also composed other music, choral works, and songs too. Beethoven was born in Bonn. Beethoven had musical talents at an early age and his first music teacher was his father. Beethoven lived in Vienna until he died. Around the by the last years of his life he was almost totally deaf, so he gave up conducting and performing but still composed music.... [tags: music, german composer, pianist] 793 words (2.3 pages) - In this paper I will discuss the life and works of Ludwig van Beethoven. This paper will cover his life as a person, his life as a musician and finally the lives and careers he influenced. Beethoven is worthy of this paper because he is one of the single greatest contributors to music as a whole. Ludwig van Beethoven was born at 515 Bonngasse, Bonn, on December 16, 1770. The previous sentence is the closest guess as to where and when Beethoven was born. There are records of Beethoven being baptized on December 17, 1770.... [tags: musician, composer, history] 892 words (2.5 pages) - The Life of Ludwig Van Beethoven The rise of Ludwig van Beethoven into the ranks of history's greatest composers was paralleled by and in some ways a consequence of his own personal tragedy and despair. Beginning in the late 1790's, the increasing buzzing and humming in his ears sent Beethoven into a panic, searching for a cure from doctor to doctor. By October 1802 he had written the Heiligenstadt Testament confessing the certainty of his growing deafness, his consequent despair, and suicidal considerations.... [tags: Biographies] 1464 words (4.2 pages) - Ludwig van Beethoven Section 1: Time line Ludwig van Beethoven was a revolutionary artist of his time, the late 1700s to the early 1800s. He refused to conform to traditional musical standards and didn't finish a piece until it reached perfection. The German instrumentalist and composer experienced much misfortune and loss throughout his life. Regardless, he is considered to have “created the bridge” transitioning from the Classical era to the Romantic era. The Classical Period came right after the Baroque period, and lasted from about 1775 until about 1825.... [tags: classical, composer, music] 1594 words (4.6 pages) - ... A string quartet consisted of two violins, a viola and a cello. It consists of four movements which are, fast, slow, minuet or scherzo, and fast. Hayden had a huge effect on Mozart and Beethoven in the classical period. Hayden was the “First great master of the string quartet” (Charlton 133). Beethoven's sixteen string quartet, was one of his most popular works in his latest period as a composer. Furthermore, these three composers also shared many differences. (Charlton 2007) Beethoven brought light to classical forms and their techniques.... [tags: composer, sonata, deaf] 649 words (1.9 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven During the early nineteenth century, one of the most influential musicians was Ludwig Van Beethoven. This research paper will focus on the life of Beethoven and his music. Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany in 1770. His mother and his father were both professional singers. At the age of four his father began teaching him piano. Ludwig was a great learner and quickly became very skilled. When he was twenty two he moved to Vienna, Austria. This brought him in contact with the famous composer, Haydn and he started to study with him for about a year.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] 1190 words (3.4 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven is known as one of the greatest classical composers to exist. He overcame much strife in life and it helped create his masterpieces. His popularity was at the height of the Classical and Romantic eras, but his music continues to inspire modern artists. Some of his most notable pieces are Missa Solemnis and String Quartet No. 14. His musical talent also helped pave the way for other great composers and artists. His early life helped pave the way for his music genius, but none it could prepare him for the struggles following becoming deaf in his later years.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] 717 words (2 pages)	<urn:uuid:5b39e04c-c030-4716-8e56-c3f5040cc4b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=54940	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00051.warc.gz	en	0.983584	2,385	3.4375	3	[ 0.29034295678138733, 0.3616330921649933, 0.2608872950077057, -0.15432041883468628, -0.577250063419342, 0.0658673346042633, -0.2932714819908142, -0.025982007384300232, 0.06239638105034828, -0.3344445824623108, 0.1303911805152893, 0.049596741795539856, -0.4660246968269348, 0.1655247211456298...	1	Ludwig van Beethoven, also known as “ The General of Musicians,” was born on December 16, 1770. However, this date is not exact because it is believed that Beethoven’s father lied about his son’s age in order to portray him as an infant prodigy. As a result, Beethoven is convinced he was born on December 16, 1772 at the Rheingasse home, which belonged to the Fischers, who were close friends of the family (Orga 8). Johann van and Maria Magdalena Beethoven bore five children of which three survived. Ludwig van Beethoven was the first child to survive, probably making him the most cherished especially in his father’s eyes. The other two surviving siblings were Casper and Nikolaus. They were said to have played extremely important roles in Beethoven’s life. Johann van said to be a lesser man than his father Ludwig Louis van Beethoven, who was a trained musician and later appointed Kapellmeister. Many believed he could not compare to his dad because he did not have a high-ranking job, instead his income was based on giving piano, singing, and violin lessons to the public (Kerman 354). Johann wanted his first son to be great, especially in the music field, so he pushed him to learn the piano and violin at a very early age. For instance, Beethoven had his first public appearance at the age of eight on March 26, 1778. He performed at a concert with one of his father’s other pupils. His performance consisted of concertos and trios on the keyboard. Beethoven continued to play at concerts, as well as taking music lessons with instructors other than his father. When visiting the Fischer Family one day Johann proclaimed, “My son Ludwig is my only comfort now in life. He is improving in his music to such an extent that he is admired by everyone. I foresee that in time he will be a great man in the world” (Orga 29). During this time he also attended elementary school in Bonn, but he did not exceed grade school. Beethoven learned all he could by age ten and from then on he lived off his wits and curiosity (Orga 28). In 1779, Beethoven met his first very important teacher at Bonn by the name of Christian Neefe. Neefe automatically saw Beethoven’s talent and had a strong liking to him from the beginning. Moreover, when he took a short leave of absence from Bonn, he appointed Beethoven, at only eleven years o... ... middle of paper ... ... His funeral was held on the 29th of March and about 15,000 guests attended his burial. The surrounding schools were closed that day in respect of the composer. Also, out of respect the choir sang the Miserere in an arrangement from one of his Equali for trombones. Following the singing, about 200 horse carriages accompanied the coffin on its final journey (Orga 8). To conclude, Beethoven was know as “The General of Musicians,” “The Young Genius,” and the most admired composer in the history of western music. His musical ability, his passion, and his harsh losses all helped to contribute to his undying success as a great pianist and composer. Even today his works are still studied and listened to around the world. Kerman, Joseph. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 Vols. London: MacMillan Pub. Ltd., 1980. 2: 354-60. Grout, Donald Jay. A History of Western Music. 3rd ed. New York: Cornell UP, 1981. Marek, George R. Beethoven: Biography of a Genius. New York: Funk and Wagnall’s Publishing Company, 1969. Orga, Ates. Beethoven: The Illustrated Lives of the Great Composers. London: Omnibus Press, 1983. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Ludwig van Beethoven was an extraordinary music composer, especially considering he was deaf most of his life and career. He was born in Germany on December 16, 1770. Many obstacles were hurled at him, but he triumphed over them, and even deafness didn’t stop him from composing some of the worlds greatest, and most recognized music compositions (Rosenwald 167). His life, music, and his musical styles and techniques all contribute to his life story. Beethoven was born in Bonn Germany. At 14, he held the occupation of a court organist.... [tags: beethoven, music composer, music ] 542 words (1.5 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven was born on December 16, 1770 in Bonn, Germany and he died on March 26, 1827 in Vienna Austria. Beethoven’s music is mostly associated with the classical era because that is when he crafted most of his greatest works. Beethoven’s father and grandfather were both musicians that played at Court of Elector of Cologne. Beethoven’s main instrument that he played was the piano. He was taught by his father how to play the piano. His father was very strict on him, and sometimes he made Beethoven, “stand at the keyboard, was often in tears.” He had other teachers that taught him how to play the violin, and how to play the piano.... [tags: ode to joy, ninth symphony, piano, musician] 891 words (2.5 pages) - Life of Ludwig van Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven, also known as “ The General of Musicians,” was born on December 16, 1770. However, this date is not exact because it is believed that Beethoven’s father lied about his son’s age in order to portray him as an infant prodigy. As a result, Beethoven is convinced he was born on December 16, 1772 at the Rheingasse home, which belonged to the Fischers, who were close friends of the family (Orga 8). Johann van and Maria Magdalena Beethoven bore five children of which three survived.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven Composers Music Essays] 1190 words (3.4 pages) - Ludwig van Beethoven, a German composer and a pianist, He remains one of the most famous and influential of all time. Beethoven had 9 best-known symphonies, 5 concertos for piano, 32 piano sonatas, and 16 string quartets; Beethoven also composed other music, choral works, and songs too. Beethoven was born in Bonn. Beethoven had musical talents at an early age and his first music teacher was his father. Beethoven lived in Vienna until he died. Around the by the last years of his life he was almost totally deaf, so he gave up conducting and performing but still composed music.... [tags: music, german composer, pianist] 793 words (2.3 pages) - In this paper I will discuss the life and works of Ludwig van Beethoven. This paper will cover his life as a person, his life as a musician and finally the lives and careers he influenced. Beethoven is worthy of this paper because he is one of the single greatest contributors to music as a whole. Ludwig van Beethoven was born at 515 Bonngasse, Bonn, on December 16, 1770. The previous sentence is the closest guess as to where and when Beethoven was born. There are records of Beethoven being baptized on December 17, 1770.... [tags: musician, composer, history] 892 words (2.5 pages) - The Life of Ludwig Van Beethoven The rise of Ludwig van Beethoven into the ranks of history's greatest composers was paralleled by and in some ways a consequence of his own personal tragedy and despair. Beginning in the late 1790's, the increasing buzzing and humming in his ears sent Beethoven into a panic, searching for a cure from doctor to doctor. By October 1802 he had written the Heiligenstadt Testament confessing the certainty of his growing deafness, his consequent despair, and suicidal considerations.... [tags: Biographies] 1464 words (4.2 pages) - Ludwig van Beethoven Section 1: Time line Ludwig van Beethoven was a revolutionary artist of his time, the late 1700s to the early 1800s. He refused to conform to traditional musical standards and didn't finish a piece until it reached perfection. The German instrumentalist and composer experienced much misfortune and loss throughout his life. Regardless, he is considered to have “created the bridge” transitioning from the Classical era to the Romantic era. The Classical Period came right after the Baroque period, and lasted from about 1775 until about 1825.... [tags: classical, composer, music] 1594 words (4.6 pages) - ... A string quartet consisted of two violins, a viola and a cello. It consists of four movements which are, fast, slow, minuet or scherzo, and fast. Hayden had a huge effect on Mozart and Beethoven in the classical period. Hayden was the “First great master of the string quartet” (Charlton 133). Beethoven's sixteen string quartet, was one of his most popular works in his latest period as a composer. Furthermore, these three composers also shared many differences. (Charlton 2007) Beethoven brought light to classical forms and their techniques.... [tags: composer, sonata, deaf] 649 words (1.9 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven During the early nineteenth century, one of the most influential musicians was Ludwig Van Beethoven. This research paper will focus on the life of Beethoven and his music. Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany in 1770. His mother and his father were both professional singers. At the age of four his father began teaching him piano. Ludwig was a great learner and quickly became very skilled. When he was twenty two he moved to Vienna, Austria. This brought him in contact with the famous composer, Haydn and he started to study with him for about a year.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] 1190 words (3.4 pages) - Ludwig Van Beethoven is known as one of the greatest classical composers to exist. He overcame much strife in life and it helped create his masterpieces. His popularity was at the height of the Classical and Romantic eras, but his music continues to inspire modern artists. Some of his most notable pieces are Missa Solemnis and String Quartet No. 14. His musical talent also helped pave the way for other great composers and artists. His early life helped pave the way for his music genius, but none it could prepare him for the struggles following becoming deaf in his later years.... [tags: Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] 717 words (2 pages)	2,394	ENGLISH	1
Shakespeare Standing Statue, Lost Wax Bronze MetalPN# 7892 Shakespeare penned the dramatic stories, plays, and poems that would become timeless classics. His masterpieces transcend into the human soul, as they can be found today, hundreds of years after his death around the globe. Can you imagine literature without Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, The Tempest or The Taming of the Shrew, just to name a few? About William Shakespeare (1564-1616): He was the son of John Shakespeare of Stratford and grandson of Richard Shakespeare of Snitterfield, both men of prominence. Shakespeare received a good education and studied Virgil and Ovid in Latin. He married Anne Hathaway in 1582 when he was 19 years old. She was seven years his senior. Their first child, Susanna, was baptized in May 1583 and twins were baptized in 1585. Soon after, Shakespeare moved to London. Hamnet, his only son died in 1596. By 1592, Shakespeare was an acknowledged playwright in London. However, the theaters were closed for two years due to riots and plague. The Globe Theater on the River Thames in London, was opened in 1599. Shakespeare was a part owner and he appeared there as an actor in 1600. The thatched roof of the theater caught fire during a performance on June 29th 1613 and the building was destroyed. This event is thought to have marked the end of Shakespeare's theatrical career and he moved back to Stratford. Thirty-six plays of Shakespeare were published in 1623. Eighteen in the First Folio were printed for the first time and 18, known as the Quartos, had previously appeared. Shakespeare wrote poems, but is better known for his sonnets, which were published in 1609. We Also Recommend Mercury / Hermes Lost Wax Bronze Sculpture by Giambologna 32HPN# 4085_30 The Thinker Thinking Outside of the Box Motivational Bookends 8.5HPN# 8474	<urn:uuid:68c0413b-95a4-4649-8683-b90820482938>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.museumize.com/products/shakespeare-standing-statue-lost-wax-bronze-7892	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00066.warc.gz	en	0.986922	415	3.65625	4	[ 0.13545182347297668, 0.2249705195426941, 0.7873925566673279, -0.12235573679208755, -0.6273466348648071, 0.12554554641246796, 0.13404089212417603, 0.4027523994445801, -0.4101937413215637, -0.14865294098854065, -0.0034222963731735945, -0.14722049236297607, 0.1423873007297516, 0.5169330835342...	1	Shakespeare Standing Statue, Lost Wax Bronze MetalPN# 7892 Shakespeare penned the dramatic stories, plays, and poems that would become timeless classics. His masterpieces transcend into the human soul, as they can be found today, hundreds of years after his death around the globe. Can you imagine literature without Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, The Tempest or The Taming of the Shrew, just to name a few? About William Shakespeare (1564-1616): He was the son of John Shakespeare of Stratford and grandson of Richard Shakespeare of Snitterfield, both men of prominence. Shakespeare received a good education and studied Virgil and Ovid in Latin. He married Anne Hathaway in 1582 when he was 19 years old. She was seven years his senior. Their first child, Susanna, was baptized in May 1583 and twins were baptized in 1585. Soon after, Shakespeare moved to London. Hamnet, his only son died in 1596. By 1592, Shakespeare was an acknowledged playwright in London. However, the theaters were closed for two years due to riots and plague. The Globe Theater on the River Thames in London, was opened in 1599. Shakespeare was a part owner and he appeared there as an actor in 1600. The thatched roof of the theater caught fire during a performance on June 29th 1613 and the building was destroyed. This event is thought to have marked the end of Shakespeare's theatrical career and he moved back to Stratford. Thirty-six plays of Shakespeare were published in 1623. Eighteen in the First Folio were printed for the first time and 18, known as the Quartos, had previously appeared. Shakespeare wrote poems, but is better known for his sonnets, which were published in 1609. We Also Recommend Mercury / Hermes Lost Wax Bronze Sculpture by Giambologna 32HPN# 4085_30 The Thinker Thinking Outside of the Box Motivational Bookends 8.5HPN# 8474	461	ENGLISH	1
"The Picture of Dorian Gray," the only novel by Oscar Wilde, was first published in 1890. A substantially revised and expanded edition was published in April 1891. For the new edition, Wilde revised the content of the novel's existing chapters, divided the final chapter into two chapters, and created six entirely new additional chapters. Whereas the original edition of the novel contains 13 chapters, the revised edition of the novel contains 20 chapters. The 1891 version was expanded from 13 to 20 chapters, but also toned down, particularly in some of its overt homoerotic aspects. Also, chapters 3, 5, and 15 to 18 are entirely new in the 1891 version, and chapter 13 from the first edition is split in two (becoming chapters 19 and 20). The novel tells of a young man named Dorian Gray, the subject of a painting by artist Basil Hallward. Dorian is selected for his remarkable physical beauty, and Basil becomes strongly infatuated with Dorian, believing that his beauty is responsible for a new mode of art. The Picture of Dorian Gray is considered one of the last works of classic gothic horror fiction with a strong Faustian theme. It deals with the artistic movement of the decadents, and homosexuality, both of which caused some controversy when the book was first published. However, in modern times, the book has been referred to as "one of the modern classics of Western literature. Oscar Wills Wilde (1854-1900) was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. Today he is remembered for his epigrams, his only novel (The Picture of Dorian Gray), his plays and poetry, and the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death.	<urn:uuid:5fad41ea-ea53-4ffe-b73c-3139e9f91ca1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.mondadoristore.it/The-Picture-of-Dorian-Gray-Wilde-Oscar/eae978802723142/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00167.warc.gz	en	0.983032	370	3.390625	3	[ -0.2431134730577469, -0.01691652089357376, 0.25863829255104065, -0.20084291696548462, 0.12728969752788544, 0.05497400462627411, -0.4664148688316345, -0.03259039297699928, 0.1457129418849945, 0.14091946184635162, -0.05289909616112709, 0.1520879715681076, -0.12574630975723267, 0.334372341632...	1	"The Picture of Dorian Gray," the only novel by Oscar Wilde, was first published in 1890. A substantially revised and expanded edition was published in April 1891. For the new edition, Wilde revised the content of the novel's existing chapters, divided the final chapter into two chapters, and created six entirely new additional chapters. Whereas the original edition of the novel contains 13 chapters, the revised edition of the novel contains 20 chapters. The 1891 version was expanded from 13 to 20 chapters, but also toned down, particularly in some of its overt homoerotic aspects. Also, chapters 3, 5, and 15 to 18 are entirely new in the 1891 version, and chapter 13 from the first edition is split in two (becoming chapters 19 and 20). The novel tells of a young man named Dorian Gray, the subject of a painting by artist Basil Hallward. Dorian is selected for his remarkable physical beauty, and Basil becomes strongly infatuated with Dorian, believing that his beauty is responsible for a new mode of art. The Picture of Dorian Gray is considered one of the last works of classic gothic horror fiction with a strong Faustian theme. It deals with the artistic movement of the decadents, and homosexuality, both of which caused some controversy when the book was first published. However, in modern times, the book has been referred to as "one of the modern classics of Western literature. Oscar Wills Wilde (1854-1900) was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. Today he is remembered for his epigrams, his only novel (The Picture of Dorian Gray), his plays and poetry, and the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death.	411	ENGLISH	1
There were very few behaviors that were considered “criminal.” Murder is the most discussed crime in the historical record and in most cases the treatment of the murderer was decided by the victim’s family. They could avenge their relative’s death by executing the murderer or they could accept gifts to “cover their dead” (symbolically burying the diseased through expressions of genuine sorrow). In some cases the murderer was even adopted into his victim’s family to take the place of the dead relative. Disputes and disagreements of less a serious nature were also handled by family groups unless they appealed to a civil leader to intervene and mediate. Most disputes were solved through gift giving, but sometimes other measures were taken. The most severe punishment a community could use was banishment from the community (for many this was worse than death). The neenawihtoowa (war leader) served as a kind of village police, but this role was extremely limited as there were very few criminal behaviors. The best example of the work that a neenawihtoowa might do is stopping individuals or small groups from leaving a village and heading in a direction that might disrupt a herd of bison or some other large game for which the community was staging a large hunt. They often used fire to hunt bison (pre-gun), and for simple issues of safety and coordination community members needed to be reminded not to disrupt the group effort.	<urn:uuid:778fca25-7e5e-4738-89ba-fb5a51328629>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aacimotaatiiyankwi.org/2011/06/16/how-did-the-miami-prevent-and-punish-crime-faq/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00166.warc.gz	en	0.99176	298	4.34375	4	[ -0.1703534722328186, 0.2297179400920868, 0.1145806834101677, -0.2076774686574936, 0.3922369182109833, -0.06397023051977158, 0.6099540591239929, 0.19297191500663757, -0.3149403929710388, -0.05744258686900139, 0.2291620373725891, 0.30665457248687744, 0.020474212244153023, 0.10644080489873886...	5	There were very few behaviors that were considered “criminal.” Murder is the most discussed crime in the historical record and in most cases the treatment of the murderer was decided by the victim’s family. They could avenge their relative’s death by executing the murderer or they could accept gifts to “cover their dead” (symbolically burying the diseased through expressions of genuine sorrow). In some cases the murderer was even adopted into his victim’s family to take the place of the dead relative. Disputes and disagreements of less a serious nature were also handled by family groups unless they appealed to a civil leader to intervene and mediate. Most disputes were solved through gift giving, but sometimes other measures were taken. The most severe punishment a community could use was banishment from the community (for many this was worse than death). The neenawihtoowa (war leader) served as a kind of village police, but this role was extremely limited as there were very few criminal behaviors. The best example of the work that a neenawihtoowa might do is stopping individuals or small groups from leaving a village and heading in a direction that might disrupt a herd of bison or some other large game for which the community was staging a large hunt. They often used fire to hunt bison (pre-gun), and for simple issues of safety and coordination community members needed to be reminded not to disrupt the group effort.	284	ENGLISH	1
Born in 1533 and crowned Queen of England in 1559 in Westminster Abbey upon death of her half-sister Mary. Mary always suspected Elizabeth of conspiracy and had her imprisoned in the Tower Of London where she would no longer be a threat. Her incarceration made her a "survivor" and prepared her for the difficulties that lie ahead. Her father would have been proud of her as he had thought only males were strong enough to rule during difficult times…that women were too weak to handle national problems. When Elizabeth became Queen, England was in bad shape. Catholics had been massacred under one monarch and Protestants under another. The Treasury was broke; Calais, Englands last foothold on the continent, was lost. Scotland and Ireland maintained strong militaries and enjoyed financial ties with France….all would be collectively were against England. Many doubted the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s right to the throne as her mother, Anne Boleyn, was pregnant with her before she married Henry V111 and the marriage itself was not recognized by the church as the wedding was held in secrecy; the church recognized Henry as still married to Catherine, his first wife. Thus, Elizabeth could have been thought of as illigitimate which would make her ineligible for the line of succession to the throne. Elizabeth served her country well and was both popular with the people and became a proven strong leader. Under her stewardship, the Spanish Armada was destroyed, Drake sailed around the world in the Golden Hind, and Sir Walter Raleigh made his first expedition to the South American contitnent. Fortunately for England she was a master politician (survival skills learned while in the Tower). She refused to back down when confronted by Parliament and used her talents in the best interest of the country. She "encouraged" Protestant Scottish businessmen to move to Northern Ireland (Ulster) to break the long-standing hold by the Catholic Church and establishing a strong presence for a Protestant England …something her father was unable to accomplish during his reign. She died at Richmond Palace (Surrey) on March 24, 1603 at the age of 70 after serving her country for 45 years. She is buried at Westminster Abbey. HORSE BRASS: MONARCH COLLECTION: Elizabeth 1 Manufactured by ARMAC in England who have been creating quality brassware for over 75 years. Cast in pure first-run ingot brass with a high copper content for durability and beauty. Hand finished to remove any rough edges and polished to enhance its true beauty.	<urn:uuid:a762ecac-d018-46db-8bb4-9118800569f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://house-of-windsor.com/product/horse-brass-monarch-collection-elizabeth-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00556.warc.gz	en	0.98983	507	3.625	4	[ 0.019566159695386887, 0.10929949581623077, 0.37276193499565125, 0.016743352636694908, -0.06308900564908981, 0.08498021960258484, -0.0431649312376976, -0.14760661125183105, 0.362817645072937, 0.1413683444261551, -0.5656697154045105, -0.6281416416168213, 0.1984754204750061, 0.121655389666557...	1	Born in 1533 and crowned Queen of England in 1559 in Westminster Abbey upon death of her half-sister Mary. Mary always suspected Elizabeth of conspiracy and had her imprisoned in the Tower Of London where she would no longer be a threat. Her incarceration made her a "survivor" and prepared her for the difficulties that lie ahead. Her father would have been proud of her as he had thought only males were strong enough to rule during difficult times…that women were too weak to handle national problems. When Elizabeth became Queen, England was in bad shape. Catholics had been massacred under one monarch and Protestants under another. The Treasury was broke; Calais, Englands last foothold on the continent, was lost. Scotland and Ireland maintained strong militaries and enjoyed financial ties with France….all would be collectively were against England. Many doubted the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s right to the throne as her mother, Anne Boleyn, was pregnant with her before she married Henry V111 and the marriage itself was not recognized by the church as the wedding was held in secrecy; the church recognized Henry as still married to Catherine, his first wife. Thus, Elizabeth could have been thought of as illigitimate which would make her ineligible for the line of succession to the throne. Elizabeth served her country well and was both popular with the people and became a proven strong leader. Under her stewardship, the Spanish Armada was destroyed, Drake sailed around the world in the Golden Hind, and Sir Walter Raleigh made his first expedition to the South American contitnent. Fortunately for England she was a master politician (survival skills learned while in the Tower). She refused to back down when confronted by Parliament and used her talents in the best interest of the country. She "encouraged" Protestant Scottish businessmen to move to Northern Ireland (Ulster) to break the long-standing hold by the Catholic Church and establishing a strong presence for a Protestant England …something her father was unable to accomplish during his reign. She died at Richmond Palace (Surrey) on March 24, 1603 at the age of 70 after serving her country for 45 years. She is buried at Westminster Abbey. HORSE BRASS: MONARCH COLLECTION: Elizabeth 1 Manufactured by ARMAC in England who have been creating quality brassware for over 75 years. Cast in pure first-run ingot brass with a high copper content for durability and beauty. Hand finished to remove any rough edges and polished to enhance its true beauty.	524	ENGLISH	1
National Aviation Day is today. The day honors the birth of Orville Wright, the first of the brothers to fly a plane at Kitty Hawk. President Franklin Roosevelt first proposed the day in 1939. Children could celebrate the day by making and flying paper airplanes. Franklin Roosevelt in 1943 became the first President to fly in an airplane. He flew from Miami, Florida, to Morocco to meet with Winston Churchill. He left Miami on January 11 and flew to the Caribbean, then along the coast of South America, and then across the Atlantic Ocean. The return trip took several days because he spent time with military troops. Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution was adopted in 1951. It stated that a President could not be elected to more than two terms in office. Prior to the amendment, custom (but not law) was that no President would run for a third term. However, Franklin Roosevelt was elected to office four times. After his death, people began to feel the number of term should be limited, and the amendment was born. Idea: Children could debate presidential term limitations, especially since senators and congresspeople do not have term limits. “Fireside Chats” were held for the first time by Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. These radio broadcasts from the White House were his way of communicating his concerns and triumphs to America. He delivered 30 Fireside Chats over 11 years. He started a trend that other presidents followed. President Obama delivered an online weekly address.	<urn:uuid:e92ec463-95c4-4ca8-84f9-96dea3f85e97>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.celebrateandlearn.com/?tag=franklin-roosevelt	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00256.warc.gz	en	0.982547	299	3.625	4	[ -0.1268068552017212, 0.28529539704322815, -0.06133192777633667, -0.16860997676849365, -0.2090170979499817, 0.574232280254364, 0.13008564710617065, 0.36715516448020935, -0.20213785767555237, 0.17112405598163605, 0.29517418146133423, 0.5565527677536011, 0.11540327966213226, 0.830385267734527...	2	National Aviation Day is today. The day honors the birth of Orville Wright, the first of the brothers to fly a plane at Kitty Hawk. President Franklin Roosevelt first proposed the day in 1939. Children could celebrate the day by making and flying paper airplanes. Franklin Roosevelt in 1943 became the first President to fly in an airplane. He flew from Miami, Florida, to Morocco to meet with Winston Churchill. He left Miami on January 11 and flew to the Caribbean, then along the coast of South America, and then across the Atlantic Ocean. The return trip took several days because he spent time with military troops. Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution was adopted in 1951. It stated that a President could not be elected to more than two terms in office. Prior to the amendment, custom (but not law) was that no President would run for a third term. However, Franklin Roosevelt was elected to office four times. After his death, people began to feel the number of term should be limited, and the amendment was born. Idea: Children could debate presidential term limitations, especially since senators and congresspeople do not have term limits. “Fireside Chats” were held for the first time by Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. These radio broadcasts from the White House were his way of communicating his concerns and triumphs to America. He delivered 30 Fireside Chats over 11 years. He started a trend that other presidents followed. President Obama delivered an online weekly address.	316	ENGLISH	1
David Walker, an African American, born in 1785. David’s life began in the deep south of North Carolina in a town called Wilmington. In spite of the fact that his father was a slave, Walker was born into freedom. The laws in North Carolina dictated that children would inherit the status of their mother; who in this case was a free woman. Slavery was prevalent in the United States especially in the South at the time Walker was born. His father was not a part of Walker’s life because it is believed that he either died before his birth or when Walker was very young. Walker’s freedom did not mean that he did not see the cruelty and inhumanity of his (brothers and sisters.His actual brothers and sisters or other black slaves?) His mother was sure to raise her son with a deep, intense hatred toward slavery. Extensive travels throughout the south allowed him to see the treatment of slaves first hand and to solidify his feelings to fight to resolve this brutality of other human beings. Around the age of 30, David Walker believed that he had to leave the south before he decided to punish those inflicting such hardships on others. His many years of traveling allowed him to meet others who were fighting for equal rights and for slavery to be abolished. He was self taught therefore he continued to educate himself by reading and writing. Walker finally settled in Boston in 1826 where he became the owner of a small shop that sold both new and used clothes, he married and had one son, who would later become involved with politics. Little is known of Walker’s wife but many believe that she was a slave who had escaped. Walker’s clothing business allowed him to be able to assist those who had escaped both their slave-owners and the bounty hunters that would have been hired to return them to their owners. For those that were successful at evading their pursuers he provided money and clothing as they came into town. Walker was known for his allegiance to social justice and was able to demonstrate to the abolitionist community that he was politically conscious by attending both meetings and lectures. In 1827, Walker became the Boston agent for the Freedom’s Journal published in New York. Not only did he write for this publication but he also submitted articles to Rights of All and the Liberator. However, Walker is best known for his own writing, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. He wrote the first version in 1829 and financed its publication and by October of that same year the Appeal was circulating throughout the country. Shortly after the third edition had been published Walker, “Was found dead in the doorway of his shop, under mysterious circumstances.” Walker’s Appeal is known as a treatise and is written to the colored people of the United States. According to James Turner in the introduction to the book, Walker wrote a series of articles that were used as speeches and these were later put together. These speeches were given by Walker in...	<urn:uuid:24b071ac-4e6d-4019-abec-e57e4079ab3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/church-history-reformation-present-ch-102-b	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00371.warc.gz	en	0.995384	611	3.71875	4	[ -0.5348235964775085, 0.43039095401763916, 0.2417345643043518, -0.22628000378608704, -0.5591559410095215, -0.10896378010511398, 0.07393689453601837, -0.26667913794517517, -0.3277089595794678, 0.08525799214839935, 0.30589306354522705, 0.40234437584877014, -0.010388822294771671, -0.1285027116...	1	David Walker, an African American, born in 1785. David’s life began in the deep south of North Carolina in a town called Wilmington. In spite of the fact that his father was a slave, Walker was born into freedom. The laws in North Carolina dictated that children would inherit the status of their mother; who in this case was a free woman. Slavery was prevalent in the United States especially in the South at the time Walker was born. His father was not a part of Walker’s life because it is believed that he either died before his birth or when Walker was very young. Walker’s freedom did not mean that he did not see the cruelty and inhumanity of his (brothers and sisters.His actual brothers and sisters or other black slaves?) His mother was sure to raise her son with a deep, intense hatred toward slavery. Extensive travels throughout the south allowed him to see the treatment of slaves first hand and to solidify his feelings to fight to resolve this brutality of other human beings. Around the age of 30, David Walker believed that he had to leave the south before he decided to punish those inflicting such hardships on others. His many years of traveling allowed him to meet others who were fighting for equal rights and for slavery to be abolished. He was self taught therefore he continued to educate himself by reading and writing. Walker finally settled in Boston in 1826 where he became the owner of a small shop that sold both new and used clothes, he married and had one son, who would later become involved with politics. Little is known of Walker’s wife but many believe that she was a slave who had escaped. Walker’s clothing business allowed him to be able to assist those who had escaped both their slave-owners and the bounty hunters that would have been hired to return them to their owners. For those that were successful at evading their pursuers he provided money and clothing as they came into town. Walker was known for his allegiance to social justice and was able to demonstrate to the abolitionist community that he was politically conscious by attending both meetings and lectures. In 1827, Walker became the Boston agent for the Freedom’s Journal published in New York. Not only did he write for this publication but he also submitted articles to Rights of All and the Liberator. However, Walker is best known for his own writing, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. He wrote the first version in 1829 and financed its publication and by October of that same year the Appeal was circulating throughout the country. Shortly after the third edition had been published Walker, “Was found dead in the doorway of his shop, under mysterious circumstances.” Walker’s Appeal is known as a treatise and is written to the colored people of the United States. According to James Turner in the introduction to the book, Walker wrote a series of articles that were used as speeches and these were later put together. These speeches were given by Walker in...	605	ENGLISH	1
- Biography & Autobiography - 49169 Words - No Age Recommendation Elizabeth I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called "The Virgin Queen", "Gloriana" or "Good Queen Bess", Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born into the royal succession, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, with Anne's marriage to Henry VIII being annulled, and Elizabeth hence declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled as king until his death in 1553, whereupon he bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, out of the succession in spite of statute law to the contrary. His will was set aside, Mary became queen, and Lady Jane Grey was executed. In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels. Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel, and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see, and say nothing"). In religion she was relatively tolerant, avoiding systematic persecution. After 1570, when the pope declared her illegitimate and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life. All plots were defeated, however, with the help of her ministers' secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, moving between the major powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. In the mid-1580s, war with Spain could no longer be avoided, and when Spain finally decided to attempt to conquer England in 1588, the failure of the Spanish Armada associated her with one of the greatest military victories in English history. [more] Keywords: queen elizabeth, biography, jacob abbott, history, english history, royal biography, tudor dynasty, royalty	<urn:uuid:b3984855-817f-4741-be13-f3dad5adfc32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bookrix.com/search;keywords:royal%20biography,searchoption:all.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00424.warc.gz	en	0.982417	584	3.515625	4	[ -0.07094518840312958, 0.38591063022613525, 0.507301926612854, -0.05428992956876755, -0.24168407917022705, 0.1186116635799408, -0.048064567148685455, -0.26353150606155396, 0.3814682364463806, 0.2435871809720993, -0.49666282534599304, -0.35927605628967285, 0.10882943868637085, 0.255519568920...	4	- Biography & Autobiography - 49169 Words - No Age Recommendation Elizabeth I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called "The Virgin Queen", "Gloriana" or "Good Queen Bess", Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born into the royal succession, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, with Anne's marriage to Henry VIII being annulled, and Elizabeth hence declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled as king until his death in 1553, whereupon he bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, out of the succession in spite of statute law to the contrary. His will was set aside, Mary became queen, and Lady Jane Grey was executed. In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels. Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel, and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see, and say nothing"). In religion she was relatively tolerant, avoiding systematic persecution. After 1570, when the pope declared her illegitimate and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life. All plots were defeated, however, with the help of her ministers' secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, moving between the major powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland. In the mid-1580s, war with Spain could no longer be avoided, and when Spain finally decided to attempt to conquer England in 1588, the failure of the Spanish Armada associated her with one of the greatest military victories in English history. [more] Keywords: queen elizabeth, biography, jacob abbott, history, english history, royal biography, tudor dynasty, royalty	597	ENGLISH	1
A cathedral is an impressive Christian church that traditionally contained the seat of a bishop. The great Cathedrals of the world represent one of humanity's many efforts to connect with God. During the Middle Ages, Cathedrals were especially important in the lives of medieval Christians for serving a variety of functions: they were places for communal worship, ritual, celebration, education, and governance. In particular, Cathedrals represented the seat of local authority and ecclesiastical power and frequently functioned as a social center, like a City Hall. It is a religious building for worship, specifically of a denomination with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox and some Lutheran churches, which serves as a bishop's seat, and thus as the central church of a diocese. Cathedrals were monuments to God's glory and greatness. Their towering structures represented a visual Axis Mundi for connecting with the Divine. Furthermore, they offered visual instruction to the generally illiterate masses who often learned about religion through observing the sacred art and architecture that adorned the cathedrals. The word cathedral is derived from the Latin noun "cathedra" (seat or chair), and refers to the presence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne. In the ancient world, the chair was the symbol of a teacher and thus of the bishop's role as teacher, and also of an official presiding as a magistrate and thus of the bishop's role in governing a diocese. The word cathedral, though now grammatically used as a noun, is originally the adjective in the phrase "cathedral church," from the Latin "ecclesia cathedralis." The seat marks the place set aside in the prominent church of the diocese for the head of that diocese and is therefore a major symbol of authority. There are certain deviations on the use of the term "cathedral"; for example, some pre-Reformation cathedrals in Scotland now within the Church of Scotland still retain the term cathedral, despite the Church's Presbyterian polity which does not have bishops. As cathedrals are often particularly impressive edifices, the term is often used incorrectly as a designation for any large important church. The term "cathedral" is not officially used in Eastern Orthodoxy, the church of a bishop being known as "the great church." The Oriental Orthodox Churches similarly do not have cathedrals as such, however some major churches like Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo are called cathedrals. Several cathedrals in Europe, such as Strasbourg, and in England at York, Lincoln and Southwell, are referred to as Minster (German: Münster) churches, from Latin monasterium, because the establishments were served by canons living in community or may have been an abbey, prior to the Reformation. The other kind of great church in Western Europe is the abbey The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the following main features were more or less common to all. Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium, the word not having the restricted meaning which it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities, the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. In the eighth century, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (743-766 C.E.), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088 C.E., introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for very long there, or elsewhere in England. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the cathedral clergy became more clearly organized, and were divided into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some recognized order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons. Hence the name of canon. In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and other cathedral churches. In Germany and England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark, all seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Børglum, which was Praemonstratensian until the Reformation. The others were changed to churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Uppsala was originally Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at least 15 secular canons. In Medieval France monastic chapters were very common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches were changed to churches of secular canons before the seventeenth century. One of the latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was Augustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III dispensed the members from their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The chapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later, but the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation. In the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars," who officiated for them at the services of the church. The history of the cathedrals in Britain differs somewhat from that on the continent. Cathedrals have always been fewer than in Italy, France and other parts of Europe, while the buildings themselves tend to be very large. While France, at the time of the French Revolution had 136 cathedrals, England had 27. Because of a ruling that no cathedral could be built in a village, any town in which a cathedral was located was elevated to city status, regardless of its size. To this day several large English Cathedrals are located in small "cathedral cities," notably Wells and Ely Cathedrals, both of which rank among the greatest works of English Medieval Architecture. In the British Isles towns were few, and, instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas, many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of the south Saxons, the West Saxons, the Somersætas, etc. The cathedra of such a bishop was often migratory. In 1075, a council was held in London, under the presidency of Archbishop Lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of Sardica held in 347 and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter, ordered the bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to Chichester; the Wiltshire and Dorset bishop to remove his cathedra from Sherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose cathedral was then at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces of the tribal and migratory system may still be noted in the designations of the Irish see of Meath (where the result has been that there is now no cathedral church) and Ossory, the cathedral church of which is at Kilkenny. Some of the Scottish sees were also migratory. Between 1075 and the fifteenth century, the cathedrals of England were almost evenly divided between those ruled by secular canons headed by a dean and those ruled by monastic orders headed by a prior, all of which were Benedictine except Carlisle. Two cathedrals, Bath and Coventry, shared their sees with Wells and Lichfield, respectively. The entire structure of the monastic and cathedral system was overthrown and reconstituted during the Reformation. Cathedrals which were once Roman Catholic came under the governance of the Church of England. All the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by Henry VIII and, with the exceptions of Bath and Coventry, were re-founded by him as churches of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of canons ranging from twelve at Canterbury and Durham to four at Carlisle, and with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers, epistolers, etc. The precentorship in these churches of the "New Foundation," as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of the "Old Foundation," a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of the minor canons. Henry VIII also created six new cathedrals from old monastic establishments, in each case governed by secular canons. Of these, Westminster did not retain its cathedral status. Four more of England's large historic churches were later to become cathedrals, Southwell, Southwark, Ripon and Saint Albans Abbey. Although a cathedral may be amongst the grandest of churches in a particular country or area, size and grandeur have never been requirements and in some places a cathedral church may be a modest structure. For example, early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the Byzantine so-called Little Metropole Cathedral of Athens. The plan of a cathedral generally takes the form of a cross which has both symbolic meaning and is functional in terms of church worship, allowing space for clergy, choir, chapels, processions a pipe organ and other activities and objects associated with cathedral tradition. A cathedral, in common with other Christian churches has an altar or table upon which the Eucharist is laid, a lectern for reading the Bible and a pulpit from which the sermon is traditionally preached. Cathedrals also have a baptismal font for the traditional rite of washing that marks the acceptance of a new Christian, (most usually an infant) into the Church. Particularly in Italy, baptism may take place in a separate building for that purpose. Within the church, an area, usually to the eastern end, is set aside for the ceremonial seats of the dignitaries of the church, as well as the choir. Cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secular clergy have square cloisters which traditionally provided an open area where secular activities took place protected from wind and rain. Some cathedrals also have a chapter house where the chapter could meet. In England, where these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. A cathedral may front onto the main square of a town, as in Florence, or it may be set in a walled close as at Canterbury. There may be a number of associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop's palace and often a school to educate the choristers. The role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve God in the community, through its hierarchical and organizational position in the church structure. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries have traditional functions which are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region. The formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern Hemisphere. The cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness with special services. The funerals of those famous within the community are invariably held at cathedrals. Some cathedrals, such as Aachen and Rheims are the traditional coronation places of monarchs. The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used signal the outbreak and the ending of war. Many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national significance, both artistically and historically. Many are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and object of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings. Cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes were the major landmarks in cities or the countryside until the twentieth century with the rise of skyscrapers. Outside the British Isles, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost (praepositus, Probst, etc.), who was charged, not only with the internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean," who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church. In some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England, the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. In Germany and in Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the Revolution, 38 only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyons and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers. The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. These are the Dean, the Precentor, the Chancellor and the Treasurer. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. The dean (decanus) seems to have derived his designation from the Benedictine "dean" who had ten monks under his charge. The dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and with the in cathedral has charge of the performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius, cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. He presides in the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St. Paul's Cathedral, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, écoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. He is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. The easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir, is usually assigned to him. The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custos, sacrisla, cheficier). He is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor. In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, who rolls came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part, the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others. This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for offenses, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Outside Britain they were often called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the bachcrur of the French churches. As time went on the vicars were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter. There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases, the chapter was the bishop's consilium which he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, in Europe. In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which may be vacant at the same time. In the Canon law of the Catholic Church the relationship of the bishop to his cathedral is often compared to the relationship of a pastor to the parochial church. Both are pastors over an area (the diocese for the bishop and the parish for the pastor) and both are rectors over a building (the cathedral for the bishop and the parish church for the pastor). In view of this, canon lawyers often extend the metaphor and speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it. Cathedral churches may have different degrees of dignity: The title of "primate" was occasionally conferred on metropolitan bishops of sees of great dignity or importance, such as Canterbury, York and Rouen, whose cathedral churches remained simply metro-political. Lyon, where the cathedral church is still known as La Primatiale, and Lund in Sweden, may be cited as instances of churches that were really primatial. Lyon had the archbishops of Sens and Paris and their provincial dioceses subject to it until the French Revolution, and Lund had the archbishop of Uppsala and his province subject to it. As with the title of primate, so also that of "patriarch" has been conferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. The Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, the cathedral church of Rome, alone in Western Europe possesses a patriarchal character among Roman Catholics, since the Pope is the Patriarch of the Latin Rite church. However, in February of 2006, Pope Benedict XVI ceased the use of the title "Patriarch of the West." The removal of a bishop's cathedra from a church deprives that church of its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common speech, as for example at Antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at the French Revolution. Technically, such a church is a proto-cathedral. Lutheran Helsinki Cathedral is Finland's most famous church. Saints and Apostles at Chartres Cathedral Cathedral of the Holy Name, Bombay. photo Nichalp Detail of the Cathedral of Milan, in Italy All links retrieved January 18, 2017. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:	<urn:uuid:72f29274-e009-4c6c-92a4-9092af31b7b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Cathedral	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00143.warc.gz	en	0.981554	4,996	3.90625	4	[ 0.5353068113327026, 0.0862530767917633, 0.07885166257619858, 0.036407459527254105, -0.19334357976913452, -0.14961515367031097, 0.33496400713920593, 0.01244497299194336, 0.2332431674003601, 0.268512487411499, -0.304302453994751, -0.09316280484199524, 0.13077732920646667, 0.08453762531280518...	3	A cathedral is an impressive Christian church that traditionally contained the seat of a bishop. The great Cathedrals of the world represent one of humanity's many efforts to connect with God. During the Middle Ages, Cathedrals were especially important in the lives of medieval Christians for serving a variety of functions: they were places for communal worship, ritual, celebration, education, and governance. In particular, Cathedrals represented the seat of local authority and ecclesiastical power and frequently functioned as a social center, like a City Hall. It is a religious building for worship, specifically of a denomination with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox and some Lutheran churches, which serves as a bishop's seat, and thus as the central church of a diocese. Cathedrals were monuments to God's glory and greatness. Their towering structures represented a visual Axis Mundi for connecting with the Divine. Furthermore, they offered visual instruction to the generally illiterate masses who often learned about religion through observing the sacred art and architecture that adorned the cathedrals. The word cathedral is derived from the Latin noun "cathedra" (seat or chair), and refers to the presence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne. In the ancient world, the chair was the symbol of a teacher and thus of the bishop's role as teacher, and also of an official presiding as a magistrate and thus of the bishop's role in governing a diocese. The word cathedral, though now grammatically used as a noun, is originally the adjective in the phrase "cathedral church," from the Latin "ecclesia cathedralis." The seat marks the place set aside in the prominent church of the diocese for the head of that diocese and is therefore a major symbol of authority. There are certain deviations on the use of the term "cathedral"; for example, some pre-Reformation cathedrals in Scotland now within the Church of Scotland still retain the term cathedral, despite the Church's Presbyterian polity which does not have bishops. As cathedrals are often particularly impressive edifices, the term is often used incorrectly as a designation for any large important church. The term "cathedral" is not officially used in Eastern Orthodoxy, the church of a bishop being known as "the great church." The Oriental Orthodox Churches similarly do not have cathedrals as such, however some major churches like Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo are called cathedrals. Several cathedrals in Europe, such as Strasbourg, and in England at York, Lincoln and Southwell, are referred to as Minster (German: Münster) churches, from Latin monasterium, because the establishments were served by canons living in community or may have been an abbey, prior to the Reformation. The other kind of great church in Western Europe is the abbey The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the following main features were more or less common to all. Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium, the word not having the restricted meaning which it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities, the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married. In the eighth century, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (743-766 C.E.), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088 C.E., introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for very long there, or elsewhere in England. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the cathedral clergy became more clearly organized, and were divided into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some recognized order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons. Hence the name of canon. In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and other cathedral churches. In Germany and England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark, all seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Børglum, which was Praemonstratensian until the Reformation. The others were changed to churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Uppsala was originally Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at least 15 secular canons. In Medieval France monastic chapters were very common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches were changed to churches of secular canons before the seventeenth century. One of the latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was Augustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III dispensed the members from their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The chapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later, but the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation. In the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars," who officiated for them at the services of the church. The history of the cathedrals in Britain differs somewhat from that on the continent. Cathedrals have always been fewer than in Italy, France and other parts of Europe, while the buildings themselves tend to be very large. While France, at the time of the French Revolution had 136 cathedrals, England had 27. Because of a ruling that no cathedral could be built in a village, any town in which a cathedral was located was elevated to city status, regardless of its size. To this day several large English Cathedrals are located in small "cathedral cities," notably Wells and Ely Cathedrals, both of which rank among the greatest works of English Medieval Architecture. In the British Isles towns were few, and, instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas, many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of the south Saxons, the West Saxons, the Somersætas, etc. The cathedra of such a bishop was often migratory. In 1075, a council was held in London, under the presidency of Archbishop Lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of Sardica held in 347 and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter, ordered the bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to Chichester; the Wiltshire and Dorset bishop to remove his cathedra from Sherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose cathedral was then at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces of the tribal and migratory system may still be noted in the designations of the Irish see of Meath (where the result has been that there is now no cathedral church) and Ossory, the cathedral church of which is at Kilkenny. Some of the Scottish sees were also migratory. Between 1075 and the fifteenth century, the cathedrals of England were almost evenly divided between those ruled by secular canons headed by a dean and those ruled by monastic orders headed by a prior, all of which were Benedictine except Carlisle. Two cathedrals, Bath and Coventry, shared their sees with Wells and Lichfield, respectively. The entire structure of the monastic and cathedral system was overthrown and reconstituted during the Reformation. Cathedrals which were once Roman Catholic came under the governance of the Church of England. All the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by Henry VIII and, with the exceptions of Bath and Coventry, were re-founded by him as churches of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of canons ranging from twelve at Canterbury and Durham to four at Carlisle, and with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers, epistolers, etc. The precentorship in these churches of the "New Foundation," as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of the "Old Foundation," a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of the minor canons. Henry VIII also created six new cathedrals from old monastic establishments, in each case governed by secular canons. Of these, Westminster did not retain its cathedral status. Four more of England's large historic churches were later to become cathedrals, Southwell, Southwark, Ripon and Saint Albans Abbey. Although a cathedral may be amongst the grandest of churches in a particular country or area, size and grandeur have never been requirements and in some places a cathedral church may be a modest structure. For example, early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the Byzantine so-called Little Metropole Cathedral of Athens. The plan of a cathedral generally takes the form of a cross which has both symbolic meaning and is functional in terms of church worship, allowing space for clergy, choir, chapels, processions a pipe organ and other activities and objects associated with cathedral tradition. A cathedral, in common with other Christian churches has an altar or table upon which the Eucharist is laid, a lectern for reading the Bible and a pulpit from which the sermon is traditionally preached. Cathedrals also have a baptismal font for the traditional rite of washing that marks the acceptance of a new Christian, (most usually an infant) into the Church. Particularly in Italy, baptism may take place in a separate building for that purpose. Within the church, an area, usually to the eastern end, is set aside for the ceremonial seats of the dignitaries of the church, as well as the choir. Cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secular clergy have square cloisters which traditionally provided an open area where secular activities took place protected from wind and rain. Some cathedrals also have a chapter house where the chapter could meet. In England, where these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. A cathedral may front onto the main square of a town, as in Florence, or it may be set in a walled close as at Canterbury. There may be a number of associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop's palace and often a school to educate the choristers. The role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve God in the community, through its hierarchical and organizational position in the church structure. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries have traditional functions which are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region. The formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern Hemisphere. The cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness with special services. The funerals of those famous within the community are invariably held at cathedrals. Some cathedrals, such as Aachen and Rheims are the traditional coronation places of monarchs. The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used signal the outbreak and the ending of war. Many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national significance, both artistically and historically. Many are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and object of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings. Cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes were the major landmarks in cities or the countryside until the twentieth century with the rise of skyscrapers. Outside the British Isles, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost (praepositus, Probst, etc.), who was charged, not only with the internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean," who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church. In some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England, the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. In Germany and in Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the Revolution, 38 only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyons and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers. The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. These are the Dean, the Precentor, the Chancellor and the Treasurer. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church. The dean (decanus) seems to have derived his designation from the Benedictine "dean" who had ten monks under his charge. The dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and with the in cathedral has charge of the performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the choir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius, cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. He presides in the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St. Paul's Cathedral, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, écoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. He is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. The easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir, is usually assigned to him. The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custos, sacrisla, cheficier). He is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor. In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, who rolls came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part, the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others. This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for offenses, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Outside Britain they were often called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the bachcrur of the French churches. As time went on the vicars were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter. There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases, the chapter was the bishop's consilium which he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, in Europe. In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which may be vacant at the same time. In the Canon law of the Catholic Church the relationship of the bishop to his cathedral is often compared to the relationship of a pastor to the parochial church. Both are pastors over an area (the diocese for the bishop and the parish for the pastor) and both are rectors over a building (the cathedral for the bishop and the parish church for the pastor). In view of this, canon lawyers often extend the metaphor and speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it. Cathedral churches may have different degrees of dignity: The title of "primate" was occasionally conferred on metropolitan bishops of sees of great dignity or importance, such as Canterbury, York and Rouen, whose cathedral churches remained simply metro-political. Lyon, where the cathedral church is still known as La Primatiale, and Lund in Sweden, may be cited as instances of churches that were really primatial. Lyon had the archbishops of Sens and Paris and their provincial dioceses subject to it until the French Revolution, and Lund had the archbishop of Uppsala and his province subject to it. As with the title of primate, so also that of "patriarch" has been conferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral churches of which are patriarchal in name alone. The Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, the cathedral church of Rome, alone in Western Europe possesses a patriarchal character among Roman Catholics, since the Pope is the Patriarch of the Latin Rite church. However, in February of 2006, Pope Benedict XVI ceased the use of the title "Patriarch of the West." The removal of a bishop's cathedra from a church deprives that church of its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common speech, as for example at Antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at the French Revolution. Technically, such a church is a proto-cathedral. Lutheran Helsinki Cathedral is Finland's most famous church. Saints and Apostles at Chartres Cathedral Cathedral of the Holy Name, Bombay. photo Nichalp Detail of the Cathedral of Milan, in Italy All links retrieved January 18, 2017. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:	5,024	ENGLISH	1
The messages that Washington Irving is teaching to the audience with his story, "The Devil and Tom Walker," is greed can lead to corruption and do things for the right reasons. The main character, Tom Walker, has issues with following both of these ideas. Both Tom and his wife were greedy to the point that they would hide valuables from each other. Their ultimate form of greediness that was shown is their pact made with the devil for money. Tom had the audacity to go to church and yet, he had such a desire for money, he would still take money from innocent people. Tom's greediness and immoral values ultimately lead to his demise. Greed was one of the most influential parts of the story that led to the conclusion of being taken by the devil. On page 314, the audience discovers that Tom's wife hides objects of value so she does not have to share. "Whatever the woman could lay hands on, she hid away." Later on page 319, the readers find out that Tom is the exact same way as his wife. He did not take the offer from the devil at first because he knew whatever he got from the devil, he would have to share with his wife. When she went missing, he finally took the deal since he would no longer have to share. From page 321-22, Irving tells the readers that even after Tom became wealthy, he still refused to decorate parts of his house and starved his horse. Because he was so cheap, his house looked horrible and his horse died. On page 323 a customer of Tom's said that he was taking advantage of him. Tom stated "the devil take me if I have made a farthing!" Not only is Tom showing his greed, but he is also lying. As he states this, the devil comes and takes him away. Irving's message on greed is, it can lead to corruption and your ultimate demise. Tom showed many examples of his immoral values throughout the story. In the middle of the story on page 320, the devil asked him to guide a slave ship and Tom refused because it was morally wrong.	<urn:uuid:5fec8289-954a-47ce-8ce9-fde5699585a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/217263.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00439.warc.gz	en	0.995161	427	3.40625	3	[ -0.23255136609077454, 0.16343995928764343, -0.5050929188728333, -0.22097142040729523, 0.26553598046302795, 0.0037502555642277002, 0.15705148875713348, 0.26862633228302, 0.2862102687358856, 0.1676756739616394, 0.28591856360435486, 0.2626706659793854, 0.03172169625759125, -0.2465412467718124...	5	The messages that Washington Irving is teaching to the audience with his story, "The Devil and Tom Walker," is greed can lead to corruption and do things for the right reasons. The main character, Tom Walker, has issues with following both of these ideas. Both Tom and his wife were greedy to the point that they would hide valuables from each other. Their ultimate form of greediness that was shown is their pact made with the devil for money. Tom had the audacity to go to church and yet, he had such a desire for money, he would still take money from innocent people. Tom's greediness and immoral values ultimately lead to his demise. Greed was one of the most influential parts of the story that led to the conclusion of being taken by the devil. On page 314, the audience discovers that Tom's wife hides objects of value so she does not have to share. "Whatever the woman could lay hands on, she hid away." Later on page 319, the readers find out that Tom is the exact same way as his wife. He did not take the offer from the devil at first because he knew whatever he got from the devil, he would have to share with his wife. When she went missing, he finally took the deal since he would no longer have to share. From page 321-22, Irving tells the readers that even after Tom became wealthy, he still refused to decorate parts of his house and starved his horse. Because he was so cheap, his house looked horrible and his horse died. On page 323 a customer of Tom's said that he was taking advantage of him. Tom stated "the devil take me if I have made a farthing!" Not only is Tom showing his greed, but he is also lying. As he states this, the devil comes and takes him away. Irving's message on greed is, it can lead to corruption and your ultimate demise. Tom showed many examples of his immoral values throughout the story. In the middle of the story on page 320, the devil asked him to guide a slave ship and Tom refused because it was morally wrong.	440	ENGLISH	1
The success of Ancient Egypt can highly be contributed to their religion and religious beliefs. The religion of the people of Ancient Egypt was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals which were an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians’ interaction with an array of deities who were believed to be found in, and in control of, all forces of nature. The stories, tales, and myths about the multitude of gods were meant to explain the origins and behavior of the forces they represented and controlled. The practices of Egyptian religion were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor. Pharaohs and their connection to the gods also play an integral role in the success of Ancient Egypt. Over the years, more and more is being discovered about Ancient Egypt. Through archaeological digs such as the discovery of The Book of the Dead, The Pyramid Texts, and the Rosetta stone, we are able to deduce that religion was the most important aspect of the Ancient Egyptian society. Egyptian religious beliefs formed the basis of Egyptian art, medicine, astronomy, literature, and government. Most notably, Egyptian religion influenced one of the Egyptians most iconic practices: their burial practices. Focusing solely on what the Egyptian religion was on it’s own, it is easy to see that it was very important to the people of Egypt. Their religion was bound by tradition and saw little change over the thousands of years that it was practiced. Different gods rose and declined in popularity and importance over the millenia. There were hundreds of gods and goddess and some were combined to create new deities. However, according to William Petrie, also known as the father of Egyptology, the primary deities of worship were Amun Ra ( the Sun god) and Isis (Petrie,4). In Egyptian religion, these gods were in charge of all of life forces, and commoners purpose was to praise these gods. In addition the Pharaoh or leader of their people was seen as a descendant of the gods, and serve as a intermediary between his people and the gods. The Pharaoh was obligated to sustain the gods by performing various rituals so that the gods would maintain order in the universe (Petrie, 5). Pharaoh’s and deities were both held in godly positions. Essentially, Egyptian religion consisted of fellowship to the Pharaoh and Gods, in order to ensure an everlasting and plentiful afterlife. It is certain that the Egyptians had an in depth relationship with the thought of the afterlife, which was highly connected to their religious beliefs. The Egyptians felt that by pleasing the gods, specifically the god of death Osiris (Petrie,3) that they will be able to return to their bodies after death. After death, it was believed that the heart of the deceased was weighed by Osiris, and the heavier the heart the lesser the chance to pass into the afterlife. It was this weighing process that instilled a fear in Egyptians to continue to worship their gods and pharaohs. The beliefs of the Egyptian on the human body and the afterlife have been found in ancient texts such as the Book of the Dead. This text states that these people believed that the actual human body was simply a home for the three parts of the soul. These parts were known as the ka, the ba, and the akh. The ka was the part of the soul that existed in the living realm, while the akh was the part that existed in the afterlife. The ba, essentially was the intermediary between the ka and the akh, but was attached the to body after death (Uranic 362). Egyptians tried to make sure that they continued to do good deeds to “keep their heart light” in order for them to free their ba so that it can become an akh by the mercy of their gods (Uranic 356). So how did this all lead to their iconic burial practices? Well it was a cascade of events. First as discussed, the Egyptians needed to have strong faith in worshipping their gods. This eventually would lighten their heart at death. After death the ka, the ba and the akh relied upon the body to function effectively in the afterlife. It was very important for the body to remain whole throughout the life and death of the person because of the function it served as the resting place for the parts of the soul. This caused the Egyptians to have a deep fear that their physical body would be damaged or disfigured after death. In result,the Egyptians built tombs and created the infamous mummification process to ensure that their bodies were well preserved for use in the afterlife (Baines 85). Tomb walls and religious texts such as the Pyramid Texts feature prayers and spells for protecting the body and guiding the parts of the soul back to the person’s tomb (Baines 87). Pharaohs because of their elite status were the primary target for the mummification process. They had the closest relationship with their gods, and could afford the expensive process. It was for this reason that we are able to have great ancient structures such as the Great pyramids. These pyramids are elaborate burial tombs for various pharoahs, to pass into the afterlife in peace, containing everything they would need in the afterlife.. Archaeologists have discovered that the Egyptians had not always use such a massive monument at death. Tombs in Egypt were originally simple graves dug into the earth, that still contained the “essentials of the afterlife”. Eventually these graves would developed intro rectangular mastabas, which were graves built of mud brick. Mastabas would then further develop in form to become the structures called “step pyramids” which would finally become the “true pyramids”. The architectural structure of the pyramids we see now were shaped this way to resemble sun rays, therefore pleasing Ra. Again, we see elements of the Egyptian society influenced by their religion. In addition, we see structures in the pyramids that have religious beginnings. The coffin or sarcophagus served as a symbolic tag for the soul to recognize its body. Referring back to their religious beliefs this ties into the importance of the body and soul. In addition by studying the pyramids and the inside structures and artifacts, archaeologists are able to deduce that there was indeed a hierarchy system in place. Entering a pyramids olne will immediately notice jewels and things of value. This shows archaeologists that both religion and wealth played into how they were buried. The closer to the Gods they were and the wealthier the were the more pleased the god would be, hence granting them the proper burial. Aside from burial practices, we see heavy religious influence in other aspects of the Egyptian culture.Magical utterances found in the Book of the Dead were used to pervade medical practices since disease was attributed to the gods. Astronomy evolved to determine the correct time to perform religious rites and sacrifices. By studying the relationship between pharaohs, the gods, and their people through various ancient Egyptian texts, archaeologists are able to see that pharaohs controlled just about every aspect of life in Egypt. He was that essential intermediary that the people looked to, and the gods trusted. We see influence of the gods through the pharaoh in social, economic and government aspects of the Egyptian culture. Socially the pharaoh was a bullhorn to the people for the gods. He was expected to support and guide the path and structure of society based on the gods expectations and help lead good moral conduct (Baines, 102). Society highly idolized the pharaoh for these reasons. In the government, again the pharaoh was in charge of creating laws that would appease the gods. The pharaoh could change any social, religious, or law related matter whenever. An example being that King Akhenaten started his own monotheistic religion centered around the god Aten. Studying the rule of King Akhenaten shows archaeologists that the pharaoh greatly impacted how Egypt would be governed(North,250). With the power of the Gods at his hands, Pharaohs also had a huge hand in Egyptian economy. He had the power to distribute the land in any way he wanted. He also appointed officials to regulate taxation to bring in revenue. The Pharaoh was a praised sacrosanct monarch who served as the intermediary between the gods and man. Religion was integral to Egyptian life. The complex Egyptian religion seemed to be intertwined into every part of the ancient civilization. The goal of reaching eternity with pleased gods, inspired a revolutionary era of signature burial practices, architectural masterpieces, and iconic rituals.	<urn:uuid:9747c635-a435-4420-ab9c-f555a9fd8786>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://secondstaralaska.com/the-primary-deities-of-worship-were-amun-ra/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00387.warc.gz	en	0.982427	1,726	3.640625	4	[ 0.07391060888767242, 0.9961521029472351, 0.15408119559288025, -0.06694623827934265, -0.8792072534561157, 0.11091400682926178, 0.4871809184551239, -0.2409023940563202, 0.11228065937757492, 0.15300583839416504, -0.364618182182312, -0.456428587436676, 0.066753089427948, 0.04169125109910965, ...	3	The success of Ancient Egypt can highly be contributed to their religion and religious beliefs. The religion of the people of Ancient Egypt was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals which were an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians’ interaction with an array of deities who were believed to be found in, and in control of, all forces of nature. The stories, tales, and myths about the multitude of gods were meant to explain the origins and behavior of the forces they represented and controlled. The practices of Egyptian religion were efforts to provide for the gods and gain their favor. Pharaohs and their connection to the gods also play an integral role in the success of Ancient Egypt. Over the years, more and more is being discovered about Ancient Egypt. Through archaeological digs such as the discovery of The Book of the Dead, The Pyramid Texts, and the Rosetta stone, we are able to deduce that religion was the most important aspect of the Ancient Egyptian society. Egyptian religious beliefs formed the basis of Egyptian art, medicine, astronomy, literature, and government. Most notably, Egyptian religion influenced one of the Egyptians most iconic practices: their burial practices. Focusing solely on what the Egyptian religion was on it’s own, it is easy to see that it was very important to the people of Egypt. Their religion was bound by tradition and saw little change over the thousands of years that it was practiced. Different gods rose and declined in popularity and importance over the millenia. There were hundreds of gods and goddess and some were combined to create new deities. However, according to William Petrie, also known as the father of Egyptology, the primary deities of worship were Amun Ra ( the Sun god) and Isis (Petrie,4). In Egyptian religion, these gods were in charge of all of life forces, and commoners purpose was to praise these gods. In addition the Pharaoh or leader of their people was seen as a descendant of the gods, and serve as a intermediary between his people and the gods. The Pharaoh was obligated to sustain the gods by performing various rituals so that the gods would maintain order in the universe (Petrie, 5). Pharaoh’s and deities were both held in godly positions. Essentially, Egyptian religion consisted of fellowship to the Pharaoh and Gods, in order to ensure an everlasting and plentiful afterlife. It is certain that the Egyptians had an in depth relationship with the thought of the afterlife, which was highly connected to their religious beliefs. The Egyptians felt that by pleasing the gods, specifically the god of death Osiris (Petrie,3) that they will be able to return to their bodies after death. After death, it was believed that the heart of the deceased was weighed by Osiris, and the heavier the heart the lesser the chance to pass into the afterlife. It was this weighing process that instilled a fear in Egyptians to continue to worship their gods and pharaohs. The beliefs of the Egyptian on the human body and the afterlife have been found in ancient texts such as the Book of the Dead. This text states that these people believed that the actual human body was simply a home for the three parts of the soul. These parts were known as the ka, the ba, and the akh. The ka was the part of the soul that existed in the living realm, while the akh was the part that existed in the afterlife. The ba, essentially was the intermediary between the ka and the akh, but was attached the to body after death (Uranic 362). Egyptians tried to make sure that they continued to do good deeds to “keep their heart light” in order for them to free their ba so that it can become an akh by the mercy of their gods (Uranic 356). So how did this all lead to their iconic burial practices? Well it was a cascade of events. First as discussed, the Egyptians needed to have strong faith in worshipping their gods. This eventually would lighten their heart at death. After death the ka, the ba and the akh relied upon the body to function effectively in the afterlife. It was very important for the body to remain whole throughout the life and death of the person because of the function it served as the resting place for the parts of the soul. This caused the Egyptians to have a deep fear that their physical body would be damaged or disfigured after death. In result,the Egyptians built tombs and created the infamous mummification process to ensure that their bodies were well preserved for use in the afterlife (Baines 85). Tomb walls and religious texts such as the Pyramid Texts feature prayers and spells for protecting the body and guiding the parts of the soul back to the person’s tomb (Baines 87). Pharaohs because of their elite status were the primary target for the mummification process. They had the closest relationship with their gods, and could afford the expensive process. It was for this reason that we are able to have great ancient structures such as the Great pyramids. These pyramids are elaborate burial tombs for various pharoahs, to pass into the afterlife in peace, containing everything they would need in the afterlife.. Archaeologists have discovered that the Egyptians had not always use such a massive monument at death. Tombs in Egypt were originally simple graves dug into the earth, that still contained the “essentials of the afterlife”. Eventually these graves would developed intro rectangular mastabas, which were graves built of mud brick. Mastabas would then further develop in form to become the structures called “step pyramids” which would finally become the “true pyramids”. The architectural structure of the pyramids we see now were shaped this way to resemble sun rays, therefore pleasing Ra. Again, we see elements of the Egyptian society influenced by their religion. In addition, we see structures in the pyramids that have religious beginnings. The coffin or sarcophagus served as a symbolic tag for the soul to recognize its body. Referring back to their religious beliefs this ties into the importance of the body and soul. In addition by studying the pyramids and the inside structures and artifacts, archaeologists are able to deduce that there was indeed a hierarchy system in place. Entering a pyramids olne will immediately notice jewels and things of value. This shows archaeologists that both religion and wealth played into how they were buried. The closer to the Gods they were and the wealthier the were the more pleased the god would be, hence granting them the proper burial. Aside from burial practices, we see heavy religious influence in other aspects of the Egyptian culture.Magical utterances found in the Book of the Dead were used to pervade medical practices since disease was attributed to the gods. Astronomy evolved to determine the correct time to perform religious rites and sacrifices. By studying the relationship between pharaohs, the gods, and their people through various ancient Egyptian texts, archaeologists are able to see that pharaohs controlled just about every aspect of life in Egypt. He was that essential intermediary that the people looked to, and the gods trusted. We see influence of the gods through the pharaoh in social, economic and government aspects of the Egyptian culture. Socially the pharaoh was a bullhorn to the people for the gods. He was expected to support and guide the path and structure of society based on the gods expectations and help lead good moral conduct (Baines, 102). Society highly idolized the pharaoh for these reasons. In the government, again the pharaoh was in charge of creating laws that would appease the gods. The pharaoh could change any social, religious, or law related matter whenever. An example being that King Akhenaten started his own monotheistic religion centered around the god Aten. Studying the rule of King Akhenaten shows archaeologists that the pharaoh greatly impacted how Egypt would be governed(North,250). With the power of the Gods at his hands, Pharaohs also had a huge hand in Egyptian economy. He had the power to distribute the land in any way he wanted. He also appointed officials to regulate taxation to bring in revenue. The Pharaoh was a praised sacrosanct monarch who served as the intermediary between the gods and man. Religion was integral to Egyptian life. The complex Egyptian religion seemed to be intertwined into every part of the ancient civilization. The goal of reaching eternity with pleased gods, inspired a revolutionary era of signature burial practices, architectural masterpieces, and iconic rituals.	1,749	ENGLISH	1
Unformatted text preview: David’s people had been moved into the city, which instantly made the city much more sacred. Biblical writers drew upon the geography by describing the terrain in which the city was formed, which was between valleys and on highlands with Mount Zion being a focal point. Jerusalem provided several geographical advantages to its inhabitants. An example would be its location as it was not on the major highways of trade in the Middle East, like the Watershed Highway, and any potential visitors would have to stray far away from the main routes to reach Jerusalem. This was a defensive advantage as any potential invaders would have to go out of their way specifically in order to invade Jerusalem. The valleys that surround the city also made it an easily defensible location. People chose to live there because of the sacredness of the location.... View Full Document - Spring '12	<urn:uuid:d6d8463c-6c70-4faf-8a1f-6118489e4c26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coursehero.com/file/51426628/Week-2-Reading-Responsedocx/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00517.warc.gz	en	0.98669	176	3.90625	4	[ -0.2854214310646057, -0.006278729997575283, 0.33392414450645447, 0.05344640091061592, 0.08586880564689636, -0.0011342134093865752, 0.034195106476545334, 0.43449023365974426, -0.36510518193244934, 0.3577362596988678, 0.0005122381262481213, 0.046791333705186844, 0.06383105367422104, -0.15839...	1	Unformatted text preview: David’s people had been moved into the city, which instantly made the city much more sacred. Biblical writers drew upon the geography by describing the terrain in which the city was formed, which was between valleys and on highlands with Mount Zion being a focal point. Jerusalem provided several geographical advantages to its inhabitants. An example would be its location as it was not on the major highways of trade in the Middle East, like the Watershed Highway, and any potential visitors would have to stray far away from the main routes to reach Jerusalem. This was a defensive advantage as any potential invaders would have to go out of their way specifically in order to invade Jerusalem. The valleys that surround the city also made it an easily defensible location. People chose to live there because of the sacredness of the location.... View Full Document - Spring '12	173	ENGLISH	1
The national flag of Latvia was used by independent Latvia from 1918 until the country was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. Its use was suppressed during Soviet rule. After regaining its independence, Latvia re-adopted on 27 February 1990 the same red-white-red flag. Though officially adopted in 1922, the Latvian flag was in use as early as the 13th century. The red color is sometimes described as symbolizing the readiness of the Latvians to give the blood from their hearts for freedom and their willingness to defend their liberty. An alternative interpretation, according to one legend, is that a Latvian leader was wounded in battle, and the edge of the white sheet in which he was wrapped were stained by his blood. The white stripe may stand for the sheet that wrapped him. This story is similar to the legend of the origins of the flag of Austria. - 543 Views More symbols in World Flags: Flags from countries around the world, including their origins, design and history. read more » More symbols in Flags: A flag is usually a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is usually rectangular and used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or decoration. The term flag is also used to refer to the graphi… read more »	<urn:uuid:46bb3826-5930-4a6e-b595-b7e5d4f034b4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.symbols.com/symbol/flag-of-latvia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00083.warc.gz	en	0.982791	263	3.484375	3	[ -0.24857883155345917, 0.09250382333993912, -0.271328866481781, -0.23237141966819763, 0.27367064356803894, 0.13899143040180206, 0.37992459535598755, 0.40794920921325684, 0.05488988012075424, 0.01430507656186819, 0.17814618349075317, -0.00603484408929944, 0.017186440527439117, 0.020702373236...	1	The national flag of Latvia was used by independent Latvia from 1918 until the country was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. Its use was suppressed during Soviet rule. After regaining its independence, Latvia re-adopted on 27 February 1990 the same red-white-red flag. Though officially adopted in 1922, the Latvian flag was in use as early as the 13th century. The red color is sometimes described as symbolizing the readiness of the Latvians to give the blood from their hearts for freedom and their willingness to defend their liberty. An alternative interpretation, according to one legend, is that a Latvian leader was wounded in battle, and the edge of the white sheet in which he was wrapped were stained by his blood. The white stripe may stand for the sheet that wrapped him. This story is similar to the legend of the origins of the flag of Austria. - 543 Views More symbols in World Flags: Flags from countries around the world, including their origins, design and history. read more » More symbols in Flags: A flag is usually a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is usually rectangular and used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or decoration. The term flag is also used to refer to the graphi… read more »	279	ENGLISH	1
Truman Capote’s novel In Cold Blood, published in 1966, is one of the most prominent examples of the “new journalism” literary genre. It tells the story of the murder of Gregory Clutter and his family, committed by two former convicts: Perry Smith and Richard Hickock. Truman Capote based his story on real life events, and thus all characters in his novel were non-fictional. Capote managed to uncover the psychology of the two mass murderers through interviews with them and with other figures of this grim case, and depicted complex motives that pushed Smith and Hickock towards committing the crime. The novel starts with a description of Herbert Clutter, a farmer from a small town of Holcomb, Kansas. He is a respected self-made man, and everyone in town likes him and his family: his wife Bonnie, who suffers from some sort of depression, and his two children, Kenyon and Nancy. Clutter’s two other elder daughters are married and live in other cities. Clutter is a member of the Methodist church—he is known as a fair man of conservative outlook. One day, Susan Kidwell, a young woman from Clutters’ neighborhood, visits their house and finds Nancy Clutter lying dead in her room. When the police arrives, they find the bodies of Bonnie, Kenyon, and Herbert Clutter; all of them were tied with ropes and shot by a shotgun. No evidence was found at the crime scene; however, after processing the photos from Clutter’s place, detective Alvin Dewey, who is in charge of the investigation, notices several footsteps in one of the pictures. This remains the main evidence for a rather long period of time; Dewey and his team do titanic work, checking any version of how the crime was committed and any suspect, talking to locals, and trying to reconstruct the events of November 15, 1959, when the Clutter family was murdered. At the same time, Capote depicts the life of Perry Smith and his friend Richard “Dick” Hickock. Though Capote does not directly accuse them of murder, by hints it becomes clear to the reader that Smith and Hickock are guilty. They travel across the United States, stealing food and performing financial frauds with cash checks. They spend some time in Mexico, then return to the United States. Hickock suggests to return to Kansas City as he has some “friends” there; he plans to extort money from them and then to finally leave Kansas forever. At the same time, Hickock’s former cellmate Floyd Wells, who had once worked as a hired worker on Clutter’s farm, recalls how he told Hickock about Clutters. Back then, Wells supposed that Clutter’s should have had about $10,000 at home; according to his words, Hickock planned to visit Clutters as soon as he got out of jail. Wells tells his story to detectives; he is assured in Hickock’s guilt, as the murder was committed exactly how Hickock planned to do it. After visiting Kansas City and successfully passing several more hot checks, Smith and Hickock go to Miami, where they live for some time. Then they go to Las Vegas in a stolen car. Always lacking money, they plan to rob and kill prosperous-looking causal companions, but they do not manage to do it. Instead, in Las Vegas their license plate number is recognized by a policewoman; both criminals are arrested on December 30, 1959. Though they try to plead temporary insanity, they are both found guilty and sentenced to death through hanging. The sentence is executed on April 14, 1965. Capote, who researched prisoners extensively through interviews, describes the psychology of both Perry Smith and his companion. According to Capote, Perry Smith (whom the author is told to have made friends with), had a tragic fate; three of his siblings (mother, a sister and a brother) had committed suicide. He suffered from a severe mental disorder, supposedly schizophrenia; Smith’s emotional reactions were separated from his consciousness. Hickock, on the other hand, had a relatively safe and happy past, but his character changed after a car accident, when he got head trauma. Since that time, Hickock suffered from partial amnesia and headaches, and displayed a craving for theft. Anyways, difficult pasts and psychological traumas do not save the criminals from being hanged.	<urn:uuid:41e3a23a-25fa-433d-bd33-a559745e36a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://braquedeweimar.net/in-cold-blood-by-truman-capote/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00141.warc.gz	en	0.983481	918	3.265625	3	[ -0.517664909362793, 0.2344566285610199, 0.07745689898729324, -0.03177794814109802, 0.3703050911426544, -0.14716355502605438, 0.7899487614631653, -0.2953517436981201, -0.3582214117050171, -0.0037539503537118435, 0.09392967820167542, 0.4091188907623291, 0.31974589824676514, -0.21053768694400...	1	Truman Capote’s novel In Cold Blood, published in 1966, is one of the most prominent examples of the “new journalism” literary genre. It tells the story of the murder of Gregory Clutter and his family, committed by two former convicts: Perry Smith and Richard Hickock. Truman Capote based his story on real life events, and thus all characters in his novel were non-fictional. Capote managed to uncover the psychology of the two mass murderers through interviews with them and with other figures of this grim case, and depicted complex motives that pushed Smith and Hickock towards committing the crime. The novel starts with a description of Herbert Clutter, a farmer from a small town of Holcomb, Kansas. He is a respected self-made man, and everyone in town likes him and his family: his wife Bonnie, who suffers from some sort of depression, and his two children, Kenyon and Nancy. Clutter’s two other elder daughters are married and live in other cities. Clutter is a member of the Methodist church—he is known as a fair man of conservative outlook. One day, Susan Kidwell, a young woman from Clutters’ neighborhood, visits their house and finds Nancy Clutter lying dead in her room. When the police arrives, they find the bodies of Bonnie, Kenyon, and Herbert Clutter; all of them were tied with ropes and shot by a shotgun. No evidence was found at the crime scene; however, after processing the photos from Clutter’s place, detective Alvin Dewey, who is in charge of the investigation, notices several footsteps in one of the pictures. This remains the main evidence for a rather long period of time; Dewey and his team do titanic work, checking any version of how the crime was committed and any suspect, talking to locals, and trying to reconstruct the events of November 15, 1959, when the Clutter family was murdered. At the same time, Capote depicts the life of Perry Smith and his friend Richard “Dick” Hickock. Though Capote does not directly accuse them of murder, by hints it becomes clear to the reader that Smith and Hickock are guilty. They travel across the United States, stealing food and performing financial frauds with cash checks. They spend some time in Mexico, then return to the United States. Hickock suggests to return to Kansas City as he has some “friends” there; he plans to extort money from them and then to finally leave Kansas forever. At the same time, Hickock’s former cellmate Floyd Wells, who had once worked as a hired worker on Clutter’s farm, recalls how he told Hickock about Clutters. Back then, Wells supposed that Clutter’s should have had about $10,000 at home; according to his words, Hickock planned to visit Clutters as soon as he got out of jail. Wells tells his story to detectives; he is assured in Hickock’s guilt, as the murder was committed exactly how Hickock planned to do it. After visiting Kansas City and successfully passing several more hot checks, Smith and Hickock go to Miami, where they live for some time. Then they go to Las Vegas in a stolen car. Always lacking money, they plan to rob and kill prosperous-looking causal companions, but they do not manage to do it. Instead, in Las Vegas their license plate number is recognized by a policewoman; both criminals are arrested on December 30, 1959. Though they try to plead temporary insanity, they are both found guilty and sentenced to death through hanging. The sentence is executed on April 14, 1965. Capote, who researched prisoners extensively through interviews, describes the psychology of both Perry Smith and his companion. According to Capote, Perry Smith (whom the author is told to have made friends with), had a tragic fate; three of his siblings (mother, a sister and a brother) had committed suicide. He suffered from a severe mental disorder, supposedly schizophrenia; Smith’s emotional reactions were separated from his consciousness. Hickock, on the other hand, had a relatively safe and happy past, but his character changed after a car accident, when he got head trauma. Since that time, Hickock suffered from partial amnesia and headaches, and displayed a craving for theft. Anyways, difficult pasts and psychological traumas do not save the criminals from being hanged.	911	ENGLISH	1
Dogs have been a part of the history of human beings since before the written word. The ancient temple of Gobekli-Tepe in Turkey, dated to at least 12,000 years BCE, has provided archaeologists with evidence of domesticated dogs in the Middle East corresponding to the earliest evidence of domestication, the Natufian Grave, (c. 12,000 BCE) discovered in Ein Mallaha, Israel, in which an old man was buried with a puppy. In southern France, footprints of a young child walking beside a canine have been preserved in the earth of the Chauvet Cave, dating to 26,000 years ago and a 2008 CE study concluded that dogs were domesticated in Europe between 32,000-18,800 years ago with the oldest dog remains in the world found thus far dated to 31,700 years ago (Viegas, 1). This Paleolithic dog most resembled a Siberian Husky (Viegas, 1). The findings of the 2008 study are challenged by dog remains found in the Goyet Caves of Belgium which date to 36,500 years ago. However old the first dog was, or how they came to be domesticated, they became friends to humans quite early in history and have remained so. In many cultures throughout the ancient world, dogs figured prominently and, largely, were regarded in much the same way that they are today. Dogs were seen as faithful companions, hunters, guardians, spirit-guides, and as a treasured part of the family. DOGS IN MESOPOTAMIA In the oldest story from the Near East, The Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia (dated to 2150-1400 BCE), dogs appear in an elevated role as the companions of one of the most popular goddesses of the region; the goddess Innana (Ishtar) travels with seven prized hunting dogs in collar and leash. Although Egypt is credited with the invention of the dog collar, it most likely developed in Sumer. It can be assumed the development of the dog collar was suggested shortly after dogs were domesticated which happened in Mesopotamia prior to Egypt. A golden pendant of a dog (clearly a Suluki) was found at the Sumerian city of Uruk dated to 3300 BCE and a cylinder seal from Nineveh (dated c. 3000 BCE) also features a Saluki. The dog pendant wears a wide collar; evidence of the dog collar in use at that time. In the famous Descent of Innana (a story considered older than and not a part of Gilgamesh) in which the goddess goes down into the underworld, her husband, Dumuzi, keeps domesticated dogs as part of his royal retinue. Dogs featured prominently in the everyday life of the Mesopotamians. The historian Wolfram von Soden notes this, writing: The dog (Sumerian name, ur-gi; Semitic name, Kalbu) was one of the earliest domestic animals and served primarily to protect herds and dwellings against enemies. Despite the fact that dogs roamed freely in the cities, the dog in the ancient Orient was at all times generally bound to a single master and was cared for by him. Of course, the dog was also a carrion eater, and in the villages it provided the same service as hyenas and jackals. As far as we can tell, there were only two main breeds of dog: large greyhounds which were used primarily in hunting, and very strong dogs (on the order of Danes and mastiffs), which in the ancient Orient were more than a match for the generally smaller wolves and, for that reason, were especially suitable as herd dogs. The sources distinguish numerous sub-breeds, but we can only partially identify these. The dog was often the companion of gods of therapeutics. Although the expression `vicious dog' occurred, `dog' as a derogatory term was little used. (91) Dogs are depicted in Mesopotamian art as hunters but also as companions. Dogs were kept in the home and were treated in much the same way by caring families as they are today. Inscriptions and inlaid plaques depict dogs waiting for their masters and, according to the historian Bertman, even listening to their master play music: "The images on inlaid plaques, carved seal-stones, and sculpted reliefs transport us back...We watch a shepherd playing his flute as his dog sits and attentively listens" (294). Dogs protected the home and amuletic images of canines - such as the one mentioned above from Uruk - were carried for personal protection. The famous Nimrud Dogs, clay figurines of canines found at the city of Kalhu, were buried under or beside the threshold of buildings for their protective power. Five other dog statuettes were recovered from the ruins of Nineveh and inscriptions relate how these figurines were imbued with the power of the dog to protect against danger. Further, the "gods of therapeutics" von Soden references above were the deities involved with health and healing and, most notably, the goddess Gula who was regularly depicted in the presence of her dog. Dog saliva was considered medicinal because it was noted that, when dogs licked their wounds, it promoted healing. Dogs were also associated with divinity by the ancient Persians. The Avesta (Zoroastrian scriptures) contains a section known as the Vendidad which goes to lengths in describing the beneficial aspects of the dog, how dogs should be treated, penalties for those who abuse dogs, and how such abuse – or, conversely, care – will affect one’s final destination in the afterlife. Dogs, in fact, were said to guard the bridge between the world of the living and that of the dead; how one treated a dog in one’s life affected one’s chances of attaining paradise. After death, the soul crossed the Chinvat Bridge where it was judged. If the soul had lived a righteous life in accordance with the precepts of truth, it was rewarded with paradise in the House of Song; if it had wasted its life in pursuit of self-interest and evil, it was dropped into the hell of the House of Lies. How one had treated dogs was a significant consideration in where the soul would go and killing a dog guaranteed one a place in the House of Lies. People were encouraged to care for dogs just as they would other human beings. An injured dog should be nursed back to health, a pregnant dog should be cared for as one’s own daughter and her puppies looked after for at least six months following birth; after which they should be given good homes. Dogs were provided with funerary rites on par with humans and also played an important part in human mortuary rituals; they were brought into the room to view the newly deceased, presumably because of their ability to sense what humans could not, in order to certify that the person was dead. Persian dog breeds included the Saluki, the Sarabi Mastiff, the Alabai (Central Asian Sheepdog), Afghan, and Kurdish Mastiff. They were used in hunting, as guard dogs, and for herding sheep but were also kept as companions. A dog’s soul was thought to be constituted of one-third wild beast, one-third human, and one-third divine and so dogs were to be treated with proper respect and consideration. During daily meals, it was stipulated that one should always reserve three morsels of food for one’s dog to be given in gratitude for their company. THE DOG IN INDIA In ancient India the dog was also highly regarded. The Indian Pariah Dog, which still exists today, is considered by many to be the first truly domesticated dog in history and the oldest in the world (though this has been challenged). The great cultural epic Mahabharata (circa 400 BCE) significantly features a dog who may have been one of these Pariah Dogs. The epic relates, toward the end, the tale of King Yudisthira, many years after the Battle of Kurukshetra, making a pilgrimage to his final resting place. On the way, he is accompanied by his family and his faithful dog. One by one his family members die along the path but his dog remains by his side. When at last Yudisthira reaches the gates of paradise he is welcomed for the good and noble life he has lived but the guardian at the gate tells him the dog is not allowed inside. Yudisthira is shocked that so loyal and noble a creature as his dog would not be allowed into heaven and so chooses to remain with his dog on earth, or even go to hell, rather than enter into a place which would exclude the dog. The guardian at the gate then tells Yudisthira that this was only a last test of his virtue and that, of course, the dog is welcome to enter also. In some versions of this tale, the dog is then revealed to be the god Vishnu, the preserver, who has been watching over Yudisthira all his life, thus linking the figure of the dog directly to the concept of the divine. This story was used as the plot in an episode called “The Hunt” in the famous TV series The Twilight Zone in which a farmer resists the temptations of the devil in the afterlife by refusing to enter “heaven” without his dog. In this episode, as in Mahabharata, dogs are more than welcome in the true paradise. EGYPT & THE DOG The dog’s connection with the gods and the dog’s loyalty to human beings is further explored in other cultures. In ancient Egypt the dog was linked to the dog-jackal god, Anubis, who guided the soul of the deceased to the Hall of Truth where the soul would be judged by the great god Osiris. Domesticated dogs were buried with great ceremony in the temple of Anubis at Saqqara and the idea behind this seemed to be to help the deceased dogs pass on easily to the afterlife (known in Egypt as the Field of Reeds) where they could continue to enjoy their lives as they had on earth. The best-known dog interred in this way is Abuwtiyuw who was honored with a grand burial in the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) near the plateau of Giza. Abuwtiyuw was the dog of an unknown servant of the king, (whose identity is also unclear) whose limestone memorial slab was discovered in 1935 CE by Egyptologist George Reisner. The inscribed slab would have once been part of the owner's memorial chapel and relates how "His Majesty ordered that he [the dog] be buried ceremonially, that he be given a coffin from the royal treasury, fine linen in great quantity, and incense” (Reisner, 8). Although Abuwtiyuw was especially honored, dogs, in general, were highly valued in Egypt as part of the family and, when a dog would die, the family, if they could afford to, would have the dog mummified with as much care as they would pay for a human member of the family. Great grief was displayed over the death of a dog and the family would shave their eyebrows as a sign of this grief (as they also did with their cats). Tomb paintings of the pharaoh Rameses the Great depict him with his hunting dogs (presumably in the Field of Reeds) and dogs were often buried with their masters to provide this kind of companionship in the afterlife. The intimate relationship between dogs and their masters in Egypt is made clear through inscriptions which have been preserved: We even know many ancient Egyptian dog's names from leather collars as well as stelae and reliefs. They included names such as Brave One, Reliable, Good Herdsman, North-Wind, Antelope and even "Useless". Other names come from the dog’s color, such as Blacky, while still other dogs were given numbers for names, such as "the Fifth". Many of the names seem to represent endearment, while others convey merely the dog’s abilities or capabilities. However, even as in modern times, there could be negative connotations to dogs due to their nature as servants of man. Some texts include references to prisoners as `the king’s dog’. (TourEgypt.com) The dog as a servant was most clearly represented through these collars which would have served to train and control the animals. The earliest evidence of the dog collar in Egypt is a wall painting dated c. 3500 BCE of a man walking his dog on a leash. The leash appears to be a simple affair of a rope or cloth tied to the collar. Egyptian dog collars were manufactured from a single piece of leather stitched and glued to form a ring which then was slipped over the dog's head. From simple leather rings, the collar became more elaborate in design by the time of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) when they were ornamented with copper or bronze studs. In the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) they were even more so with elaborate etching involved. This is most clearly seen in the dog collar from the tomb of Maiherpri, a noble under the reign of Thutmose IV (1400-1390 BCE) which is a leather band adorned with horses and lotus flowers and dyed a pale pink. DOGS IN ANCIENT GREECE Clearly, the dog was an important part of Egyptian society and culture but the same was true of ancient Greece. The dog was companion, protector, and hunter for the Greeks and the spiked collar, so well-known today, was invented by the Greeks to protect the necks of their canine friends from wolves. Dogs appear in Greek literature early on in the figure of the three-headed dog Cerberus who guarded the gates of Hades. In the visual arts, the dog is featured on ceramics such as the Caeretan black-figure hydria vase of Heracles and Cerberus from c. 530-520 BCE (presently in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France). In Greece, as in ancient Sumeria, the dog was associated with female deities in that both the goddesses Artemis and Hecate kept dogs (Artemis, hunting dogs while Hecate kept black Molossian dogs). The philosophic school of Cynicism in ancient Greece takes its name from the Greek for `dog’ and those who followed this school were called Kynikos (dog-like) in part because of their determination to follow a single path loyally without swerving. The great Cynic philosopher Antisthenes taught in a locale known as Cynosarges (the place of the white dog) and this, perhaps, is another reason for their name. Dogs are also featured in Plato's famous dialogue of Republic. In Book II,376b, Socrates claims that the dog is a true philosopher because dogs "distinguish the face of a friend and of an enemy only by the criterion of knowing and not knowing" and concludes that dogs must be lovers of learning because they determine what they like and what they do not based upon knowledge of the truth. The dog has learned who is a friend and who is not and, based on that knowledge, responds appropriately; while human beings are often deceived as to who their true friends are. Probably the most famous dog story from ancient Greece, however, is Argos, the loyal friend of King Odysseus of Ithaka from Book 17 of Homer’s Odyssey (c. 800 BCE). Odysseus comes home after being away for 20 years and, thanks to help from the goddess Athena, is not recognized by the hostile suitors who are trying to win the hand of Odysseus’s wife, Penelope. Argos, however, recognizes his master and rises up from where he has been faithfully waiting, wagging his tail in greeting. Odysseus, in disguise, cannot acknowledge the greeting for fear of giving away his true identity in front of the suitors and so ignores his old friend and Argos lays back down and dies. In this story and in Mahabharata, the loyalty of the dog is depicted in the exact same way. Though separated by different cultures and hundreds of years, the dog is depicted as the loyal, devoted friend to his master, whether that master returns the devotion or not. DOGS IN ROME In ancient Rome, the dog was seen in much the same way as in Greece and the well-known mosaic, Cave Canem (Beware of Dog) shows how dogs were appreciated in Rome as guardians of the home just as they had been in earlier cultures and are still today. The great Latin poet Virgil, wrote, “Never, with dogs on guard, need you fear for your stalls a midnight thief”(Georgics III, 404ff) and the writer Varro, in his work on living in the country, says that every family should have two types of dog, a hunting dog and a watchdog (De Re Rustica I.21). Dogs protected people not only from wild animals and thieves but also from supernatural threats. The goddess Trivia (the Roman version of the Greek Hecate) was the Queen of Ghosts, haunted crossroads and graveyards, and was associated with witchcraft. She stole upon people silently to prey on them but dogs were always aware of her first; a dog who seemed to be barking at nothing was thought to be warning one against the approach of Trivia or some other disembodied spirit. The Romans had many pets, from cats to apes, but favored the dog above all others. The dog is featured in mosaics, paintings, poetry and prose. The historian Lazenby writes: There is a large series of both Greek and Roman reliefs showing men and women with their canine companions. Gallic reliefs especially show a remarkably human touch in scenes depicting this household favorite with its owners. In these we see charming pictures of healthy, happy childhood: a boy reclining on a couch and giving his pet dog his plate to lick clean; again, a small girl, Graccha, who, the inscription tells us, lived only 1 year and 4 months, holds in her left hand a basket which contains three puppies, the mother of which looks up at them with much concern. (1) Dogs are mentioned in the Roman law code as guardians of the home and flocks. In one case which was recorded, a farmer brings a suit against his neighbor because the neighbor's dogs rescued the farmer's hogs from wolves and the neighbor then claimed ownership of the hogs. The complaint, which was settled in favor of the farmer, reads: Wolves carried away some hogs from my shepherds; the tenant of an adjoining farm, having pursued the wolves with strong and powerful dogs, which he kept for the protection of his flocks, took the hogs away from the wolves, or the dogs compelled them to abandon them. When my shepherd claimed the hogs, the question arose whether they had become the property of him who recovered them or whether they were still mine, for they had been obtained by a certain kind of hunting. (Nagle, 246) Varro claimed that no farm should be without two dogs and they should be kept indoors during the day and let free to roam at night in order to prevent just such a possibility as the one discussed above. He also suggested that a white dog should be chosen over a black one so that one could distinguish between one's dog and a wolf in the darkness or the twilight of early morning. THE DOG IN CHINA Ancient China had an interesting relationship with the dog. Dogs were the earliest animals domesticated in China (c. 12,000 BCE) along with pigs and were used in hunting and kept as companions. They were also used, very early on, as a food source and as sacrifices. Ancient oracle bones (which were the bones of animals or shells of turtles used to tell the future) mention dogs repeatedly as both good and bad omens depending upon how, in what condition, and under what circumstances, the dog was seen. The blood of a dog was an important component in sealing oaths and swearing allegiances because dogs were thought to have been given to humans as a gift from heaven and so their blood was sacred. As a gift from the divine, they were honored but it was understood that they had been provided for a purpose: to help human beings survive by providing them with food and with blood for sacrifice. Dogs were once killed and buried in front of a home, or before the city's gates, to ward off disease or bad luck. In time, straw dogs replaced actual dogs as the practice of sacrificing dogs became less popular. The disease or ill fortune which threatened the city or home was thought to be as easily deceived by the straw dog figure, thinking it was a guard dog, and would flee as from an actual dog. The practice of setting a statue or image of a dog in front of one's house may come from this custom of burying a straw dog in one's yard for protection against harm. For personal protection, amulets in the form of dogs were worn. These were frequently made from jade (nephrite) and, during the period of the Liangzhu Culture (c. 3400-2250 BCE) jade dog-amulets were among the most skillfully carved. The image above is of a jade dog-amulet belonging to Mr. Alfred Correya which may well be the oldest piece of dog sculpture in the world completely intact. The condition of the piece suggests it was buried as a grave good and this is in keeping with ancient Chinese tradition since the dog was a protective animal and jade was associated with immortality. A jade dog in a grave would thus both protect and guide the soul in the afterlife. DOGS IN MESOAMERICA The Maya had a similar relationship with dogs as the Chinese. Dogs were bred in pens as a food source, as guardians and pets, and for hunting, but were also associated with the gods. As dogs were noted as great swimmers, they were thought to conduct the souls of the dead across the watery expanse to the afterlife, the netherworld of Xibalba. Once the soul had arrived in the dark realm, the dog served as a guide to help the deceased through the challenges presented by the Lords of Xibalba and to reach paradise. This has been inferred from excavations in the region which have uncovered graves in which dogs are buried with their masters and from inscriptions on temple walls. Similar inscriptions in the surviving Mayan Codices depict the dog as the bringer of fire to the people and, in the Quiche Maya holy book, the Popol Vuh, dogs are instrumental in the destruction of the ungrateful and unknowing race of humans which the gods first produced and then repented of. The Aztecs and Tarascans shared this view of the dog, including the dog as a guide to the afterlife for the deceased. The Aztecs also had a story in their mythology regarding the destruction of an early race of human beings in which dogs are featured. In this tale, the gods drown the world in a great flood but a man and woman manage to survive by clinging to a log. Once the waters recede, they climb onto dry land and build a fire to dry themselves. The smoke from this fire annoys the great god Tezcatlipoca who tears off their heads and then sews the heads to the rear-ends of the man and woman and, in doing so, creates dogs. According to this myth, dogs pre-date the present race of human beings and so should be treated with respect the way one would treat an elder. The Aztecs also buried dogs with their dead and their god of death, Xolotl, was imagined as a huge dog. The Tarascans, like the Aztecs and Maya, kept dogs as pets, for hunting, and for food and also linked them with the gods and the afterlife. The souls of those who died without proper burial, such as those who drowned or were lost in battle or died alone on a hunt, were found by spirit dogs who would ensure their safe passage to the afterlife. In all three of these cultures (as, indeed, in the others mentioned above) the belief in ghosts was very real. A ghost could not only make trouble in one's daily life but could actually bring physical harm and even death. The Tarascan tale about the spirit dogs allayed the fear that, if one had not been able to properly bury a loved one, the deceased's ghost would return to trouble the living. The people would not have to fear because the dog would take care of the problem. Celtic & Norse Dogs The dog was also associated with the afterlife, protection, and healing in Celtic and Norse cultures. The Celtic-Germanic goddess of healing and prosperity, Nehalennia, is frequently depicted in the company of a dog and dogs themselves are considered semi-divine (the Celtic goddess Turrean was transformed by the jealous fairy queen into the first Irish Wolfhound). As in other cultures, the dog was associated with protection after death and as a guiding presence. This was also true in the Scandinavian Norse culture where the dog Garm was thought to guard the afterlife of Hel, keeping the dead souls in and the living out. Dogs were associated with divinity through the goddess Frigg, Odin’s consort, who is frequently depicted in a chariot pulled by dogs. Dogs were often buried with their masters as protectors and guides in the afterlife and dogs feasted at the feet of their warrior masters in the great hall of Valhalla after death. More dog remains have been found in excavated Norse burial sites than in any other culture. In ancient India, Mesopotamia, China, Mesoamerica and Egypt, the people had deep ties with their dogs and, as seen, this was also common in ancient Greece and Rome. Ancient Greeks thought of dogs as geniuses, as `possessing a certain elevated spirit'. Plato referred to the dog as a ‘lover of learning’ and a ‘beast worthy of wonder.’ The philosopher Diogenes of Sinope loved the simplicity of the dog's life and encouraged human beings to emulate it. While other animals have undergone significant changes in the way they are perceived through history (the cat, most notably) the dog has remained a constant companion, friend, and protector and has been portrayed that way through the art and in the writings of many ancient cultures. The old claim that a dog is one's best friend is substantiated through the historical record but needs no proof for anyone in the modern day who is lucky enough to enjoy the company of a good dog. Author's Note: This article is dedicated to Sophia the Dog, my own true philosopher.	<urn:uuid:cf617949-fde2-427d-9e14-4066cfcba8b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient.eu/article/184/dogs-in-the-ancient-world/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00093.warc.gz	en	0.985005	5,633	3.640625	4	[ -0.16908136010169983, 0.25060319900512695, 0.45886102318763733, 0.12449591606855392, -0.4134119153022766, -0.16944685578346252, 0.13911618292331696, 0.13801537454128265, 0.11921289563179016, 0.10120408236980438, -0.02191116288304329, -0.8053370714187622, 0.23630443215370178, 0.280459940433...	2	Dogs have been a part of the history of human beings since before the written word. The ancient temple of Gobekli-Tepe in Turkey, dated to at least 12,000 years BCE, has provided archaeologists with evidence of domesticated dogs in the Middle East corresponding to the earliest evidence of domestication, the Natufian Grave, (c. 12,000 BCE) discovered in Ein Mallaha, Israel, in which an old man was buried with a puppy. In southern France, footprints of a young child walking beside a canine have been preserved in the earth of the Chauvet Cave, dating to 26,000 years ago and a 2008 CE study concluded that dogs were domesticated in Europe between 32,000-18,800 years ago with the oldest dog remains in the world found thus far dated to 31,700 years ago (Viegas, 1). This Paleolithic dog most resembled a Siberian Husky (Viegas, 1). The findings of the 2008 study are challenged by dog remains found in the Goyet Caves of Belgium which date to 36,500 years ago. However old the first dog was, or how they came to be domesticated, they became friends to humans quite early in history and have remained so. In many cultures throughout the ancient world, dogs figured prominently and, largely, were regarded in much the same way that they are today. Dogs were seen as faithful companions, hunters, guardians, spirit-guides, and as a treasured part of the family. DOGS IN MESOPOTAMIA In the oldest story from the Near East, The Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia (dated to 2150-1400 BCE), dogs appear in an elevated role as the companions of one of the most popular goddesses of the region; the goddess Innana (Ishtar) travels with seven prized hunting dogs in collar and leash. Although Egypt is credited with the invention of the dog collar, it most likely developed in Sumer. It can be assumed the development of the dog collar was suggested shortly after dogs were domesticated which happened in Mesopotamia prior to Egypt. A golden pendant of a dog (clearly a Suluki) was found at the Sumerian city of Uruk dated to 3300 BCE and a cylinder seal from Nineveh (dated c. 3000 BCE) also features a Saluki. The dog pendant wears a wide collar; evidence of the dog collar in use at that time. In the famous Descent of Innana (a story considered older than and not a part of Gilgamesh) in which the goddess goes down into the underworld, her husband, Dumuzi, keeps domesticated dogs as part of his royal retinue. Dogs featured prominently in the everyday life of the Mesopotamians. The historian Wolfram von Soden notes this, writing: The dog (Sumerian name, ur-gi; Semitic name, Kalbu) was one of the earliest domestic animals and served primarily to protect herds and dwellings against enemies. Despite the fact that dogs roamed freely in the cities, the dog in the ancient Orient was at all times generally bound to a single master and was cared for by him. Of course, the dog was also a carrion eater, and in the villages it provided the same service as hyenas and jackals. As far as we can tell, there were only two main breeds of dog: large greyhounds which were used primarily in hunting, and very strong dogs (on the order of Danes and mastiffs), which in the ancient Orient were more than a match for the generally smaller wolves and, for that reason, were especially suitable as herd dogs. The sources distinguish numerous sub-breeds, but we can only partially identify these. The dog was often the companion of gods of therapeutics. Although the expression `vicious dog' occurred, `dog' as a derogatory term was little used. (91) Dogs are depicted in Mesopotamian art as hunters but also as companions. Dogs were kept in the home and were treated in much the same way by caring families as they are today. Inscriptions and inlaid plaques depict dogs waiting for their masters and, according to the historian Bertman, even listening to their master play music: "The images on inlaid plaques, carved seal-stones, and sculpted reliefs transport us back...We watch a shepherd playing his flute as his dog sits and attentively listens" (294). Dogs protected the home and amuletic images of canines - such as the one mentioned above from Uruk - were carried for personal protection. The famous Nimrud Dogs, clay figurines of canines found at the city of Kalhu, were buried under or beside the threshold of buildings for their protective power. Five other dog statuettes were recovered from the ruins of Nineveh and inscriptions relate how these figurines were imbued with the power of the dog to protect against danger. Further, the "gods of therapeutics" von Soden references above were the deities involved with health and healing and, most notably, the goddess Gula who was regularly depicted in the presence of her dog. Dog saliva was considered medicinal because it was noted that, when dogs licked their wounds, it promoted healing. Dogs were also associated with divinity by the ancient Persians. The Avesta (Zoroastrian scriptures) contains a section known as the Vendidad which goes to lengths in describing the beneficial aspects of the dog, how dogs should be treated, penalties for those who abuse dogs, and how such abuse – or, conversely, care – will affect one’s final destination in the afterlife. Dogs, in fact, were said to guard the bridge between the world of the living and that of the dead; how one treated a dog in one’s life affected one’s chances of attaining paradise. After death, the soul crossed the Chinvat Bridge where it was judged. If the soul had lived a righteous life in accordance with the precepts of truth, it was rewarded with paradise in the House of Song; if it had wasted its life in pursuit of self-interest and evil, it was dropped into the hell of the House of Lies. How one had treated dogs was a significant consideration in where the soul would go and killing a dog guaranteed one a place in the House of Lies. People were encouraged to care for dogs just as they would other human beings. An injured dog should be nursed back to health, a pregnant dog should be cared for as one’s own daughter and her puppies looked after for at least six months following birth; after which they should be given good homes. Dogs were provided with funerary rites on par with humans and also played an important part in human mortuary rituals; they were brought into the room to view the newly deceased, presumably because of their ability to sense what humans could not, in order to certify that the person was dead. Persian dog breeds included the Saluki, the Sarabi Mastiff, the Alabai (Central Asian Sheepdog), Afghan, and Kurdish Mastiff. They were used in hunting, as guard dogs, and for herding sheep but were also kept as companions. A dog’s soul was thought to be constituted of one-third wild beast, one-third human, and one-third divine and so dogs were to be treated with proper respect and consideration. During daily meals, it was stipulated that one should always reserve three morsels of food for one’s dog to be given in gratitude for their company. THE DOG IN INDIA In ancient India the dog was also highly regarded. The Indian Pariah Dog, which still exists today, is considered by many to be the first truly domesticated dog in history and the oldest in the world (though this has been challenged). The great cultural epic Mahabharata (circa 400 BCE) significantly features a dog who may have been one of these Pariah Dogs. The epic relates, toward the end, the tale of King Yudisthira, many years after the Battle of Kurukshetra, making a pilgrimage to his final resting place. On the way, he is accompanied by his family and his faithful dog. One by one his family members die along the path but his dog remains by his side. When at last Yudisthira reaches the gates of paradise he is welcomed for the good and noble life he has lived but the guardian at the gate tells him the dog is not allowed inside. Yudisthira is shocked that so loyal and noble a creature as his dog would not be allowed into heaven and so chooses to remain with his dog on earth, or even go to hell, rather than enter into a place which would exclude the dog. The guardian at the gate then tells Yudisthira that this was only a last test of his virtue and that, of course, the dog is welcome to enter also. In some versions of this tale, the dog is then revealed to be the god Vishnu, the preserver, who has been watching over Yudisthira all his life, thus linking the figure of the dog directly to the concept of the divine. This story was used as the plot in an episode called “The Hunt” in the famous TV series The Twilight Zone in which a farmer resists the temptations of the devil in the afterlife by refusing to enter “heaven” without his dog. In this episode, as in Mahabharata, dogs are more than welcome in the true paradise. EGYPT & THE DOG The dog’s connection with the gods and the dog’s loyalty to human beings is further explored in other cultures. In ancient Egypt the dog was linked to the dog-jackal god, Anubis, who guided the soul of the deceased to the Hall of Truth where the soul would be judged by the great god Osiris. Domesticated dogs were buried with great ceremony in the temple of Anubis at Saqqara and the idea behind this seemed to be to help the deceased dogs pass on easily to the afterlife (known in Egypt as the Field of Reeds) where they could continue to enjoy their lives as they had on earth. The best-known dog interred in this way is Abuwtiyuw who was honored with a grand burial in the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) near the plateau of Giza. Abuwtiyuw was the dog of an unknown servant of the king, (whose identity is also unclear) whose limestone memorial slab was discovered in 1935 CE by Egyptologist George Reisner. The inscribed slab would have once been part of the owner's memorial chapel and relates how "His Majesty ordered that he [the dog] be buried ceremonially, that he be given a coffin from the royal treasury, fine linen in great quantity, and incense” (Reisner, 8). Although Abuwtiyuw was especially honored, dogs, in general, were highly valued in Egypt as part of the family and, when a dog would die, the family, if they could afford to, would have the dog mummified with as much care as they would pay for a human member of the family. Great grief was displayed over the death of a dog and the family would shave their eyebrows as a sign of this grief (as they also did with their cats). Tomb paintings of the pharaoh Rameses the Great depict him with his hunting dogs (presumably in the Field of Reeds) and dogs were often buried with their masters to provide this kind of companionship in the afterlife. The intimate relationship between dogs and their masters in Egypt is made clear through inscriptions which have been preserved: We even know many ancient Egyptian dog's names from leather collars as well as stelae and reliefs. They included names such as Brave One, Reliable, Good Herdsman, North-Wind, Antelope and even "Useless". Other names come from the dog’s color, such as Blacky, while still other dogs were given numbers for names, such as "the Fifth". Many of the names seem to represent endearment, while others convey merely the dog’s abilities or capabilities. However, even as in modern times, there could be negative connotations to dogs due to their nature as servants of man. Some texts include references to prisoners as `the king’s dog’. (TourEgypt.com) The dog as a servant was most clearly represented through these collars which would have served to train and control the animals. The earliest evidence of the dog collar in Egypt is a wall painting dated c. 3500 BCE of a man walking his dog on a leash. The leash appears to be a simple affair of a rope or cloth tied to the collar. Egyptian dog collars were manufactured from a single piece of leather stitched and glued to form a ring which then was slipped over the dog's head. From simple leather rings, the collar became more elaborate in design by the time of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) when they were ornamented with copper or bronze studs. In the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) they were even more so with elaborate etching involved. This is most clearly seen in the dog collar from the tomb of Maiherpri, a noble under the reign of Thutmose IV (1400-1390 BCE) which is a leather band adorned with horses and lotus flowers and dyed a pale pink. DOGS IN ANCIENT GREECE Clearly, the dog was an important part of Egyptian society and culture but the same was true of ancient Greece. The dog was companion, protector, and hunter for the Greeks and the spiked collar, so well-known today, was invented by the Greeks to protect the necks of their canine friends from wolves. Dogs appear in Greek literature early on in the figure of the three-headed dog Cerberus who guarded the gates of Hades. In the visual arts, the dog is featured on ceramics such as the Caeretan black-figure hydria vase of Heracles and Cerberus from c. 530-520 BCE (presently in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France). In Greece, as in ancient Sumeria, the dog was associated with female deities in that both the goddesses Artemis and Hecate kept dogs (Artemis, hunting dogs while Hecate kept black Molossian dogs). The philosophic school of Cynicism in ancient Greece takes its name from the Greek for `dog’ and those who followed this school were called Kynikos (dog-like) in part because of their determination to follow a single path loyally without swerving. The great Cynic philosopher Antisthenes taught in a locale known as Cynosarges (the place of the white dog) and this, perhaps, is another reason for their name. Dogs are also featured in Plato's famous dialogue of Republic. In Book II,376b, Socrates claims that the dog is a true philosopher because dogs "distinguish the face of a friend and of an enemy only by the criterion of knowing and not knowing" and concludes that dogs must be lovers of learning because they determine what they like and what they do not based upon knowledge of the truth. The dog has learned who is a friend and who is not and, based on that knowledge, responds appropriately; while human beings are often deceived as to who their true friends are. Probably the most famous dog story from ancient Greece, however, is Argos, the loyal friend of King Odysseus of Ithaka from Book 17 of Homer’s Odyssey (c. 800 BCE). Odysseus comes home after being away for 20 years and, thanks to help from the goddess Athena, is not recognized by the hostile suitors who are trying to win the hand of Odysseus’s wife, Penelope. Argos, however, recognizes his master and rises up from where he has been faithfully waiting, wagging his tail in greeting. Odysseus, in disguise, cannot acknowledge the greeting for fear of giving away his true identity in front of the suitors and so ignores his old friend and Argos lays back down and dies. In this story and in Mahabharata, the loyalty of the dog is depicted in the exact same way. Though separated by different cultures and hundreds of years, the dog is depicted as the loyal, devoted friend to his master, whether that master returns the devotion or not. DOGS IN ROME In ancient Rome, the dog was seen in much the same way as in Greece and the well-known mosaic, Cave Canem (Beware of Dog) shows how dogs were appreciated in Rome as guardians of the home just as they had been in earlier cultures and are still today. The great Latin poet Virgil, wrote, “Never, with dogs on guard, need you fear for your stalls a midnight thief”(Georgics III, 404ff) and the writer Varro, in his work on living in the country, says that every family should have two types of dog, a hunting dog and a watchdog (De Re Rustica I.21). Dogs protected people not only from wild animals and thieves but also from supernatural threats. The goddess Trivia (the Roman version of the Greek Hecate) was the Queen of Ghosts, haunted crossroads and graveyards, and was associated with witchcraft. She stole upon people silently to prey on them but dogs were always aware of her first; a dog who seemed to be barking at nothing was thought to be warning one against the approach of Trivia or some other disembodied spirit. The Romans had many pets, from cats to apes, but favored the dog above all others. The dog is featured in mosaics, paintings, poetry and prose. The historian Lazenby writes: There is a large series of both Greek and Roman reliefs showing men and women with their canine companions. Gallic reliefs especially show a remarkably human touch in scenes depicting this household favorite with its owners. In these we see charming pictures of healthy, happy childhood: a boy reclining on a couch and giving his pet dog his plate to lick clean; again, a small girl, Graccha, who, the inscription tells us, lived only 1 year and 4 months, holds in her left hand a basket which contains three puppies, the mother of which looks up at them with much concern. (1) Dogs are mentioned in the Roman law code as guardians of the home and flocks. In one case which was recorded, a farmer brings a suit against his neighbor because the neighbor's dogs rescued the farmer's hogs from wolves and the neighbor then claimed ownership of the hogs. The complaint, which was settled in favor of the farmer, reads: Wolves carried away some hogs from my shepherds; the tenant of an adjoining farm, having pursued the wolves with strong and powerful dogs, which he kept for the protection of his flocks, took the hogs away from the wolves, or the dogs compelled them to abandon them. When my shepherd claimed the hogs, the question arose whether they had become the property of him who recovered them or whether they were still mine, for they had been obtained by a certain kind of hunting. (Nagle, 246) Varro claimed that no farm should be without two dogs and they should be kept indoors during the day and let free to roam at night in order to prevent just such a possibility as the one discussed above. He also suggested that a white dog should be chosen over a black one so that one could distinguish between one's dog and a wolf in the darkness or the twilight of early morning. THE DOG IN CHINA Ancient China had an interesting relationship with the dog. Dogs were the earliest animals domesticated in China (c. 12,000 BCE) along with pigs and were used in hunting and kept as companions. They were also used, very early on, as a food source and as sacrifices. Ancient oracle bones (which were the bones of animals or shells of turtles used to tell the future) mention dogs repeatedly as both good and bad omens depending upon how, in what condition, and under what circumstances, the dog was seen. The blood of a dog was an important component in sealing oaths and swearing allegiances because dogs were thought to have been given to humans as a gift from heaven and so their blood was sacred. As a gift from the divine, they were honored but it was understood that they had been provided for a purpose: to help human beings survive by providing them with food and with blood for sacrifice. Dogs were once killed and buried in front of a home, or before the city's gates, to ward off disease or bad luck. In time, straw dogs replaced actual dogs as the practice of sacrificing dogs became less popular. The disease or ill fortune which threatened the city or home was thought to be as easily deceived by the straw dog figure, thinking it was a guard dog, and would flee as from an actual dog. The practice of setting a statue or image of a dog in front of one's house may come from this custom of burying a straw dog in one's yard for protection against harm. For personal protection, amulets in the form of dogs were worn. These were frequently made from jade (nephrite) and, during the period of the Liangzhu Culture (c. 3400-2250 BCE) jade dog-amulets were among the most skillfully carved. The image above is of a jade dog-amulet belonging to Mr. Alfred Correya which may well be the oldest piece of dog sculpture in the world completely intact. The condition of the piece suggests it was buried as a grave good and this is in keeping with ancient Chinese tradition since the dog was a protective animal and jade was associated with immortality. A jade dog in a grave would thus both protect and guide the soul in the afterlife. DOGS IN MESOAMERICA The Maya had a similar relationship with dogs as the Chinese. Dogs were bred in pens as a food source, as guardians and pets, and for hunting, but were also associated with the gods. As dogs were noted as great swimmers, they were thought to conduct the souls of the dead across the watery expanse to the afterlife, the netherworld of Xibalba. Once the soul had arrived in the dark realm, the dog served as a guide to help the deceased through the challenges presented by the Lords of Xibalba and to reach paradise. This has been inferred from excavations in the region which have uncovered graves in which dogs are buried with their masters and from inscriptions on temple walls. Similar inscriptions in the surviving Mayan Codices depict the dog as the bringer of fire to the people and, in the Quiche Maya holy book, the Popol Vuh, dogs are instrumental in the destruction of the ungrateful and unknowing race of humans which the gods first produced and then repented of. The Aztecs and Tarascans shared this view of the dog, including the dog as a guide to the afterlife for the deceased. The Aztecs also had a story in their mythology regarding the destruction of an early race of human beings in which dogs are featured. In this tale, the gods drown the world in a great flood but a man and woman manage to survive by clinging to a log. Once the waters recede, they climb onto dry land and build a fire to dry themselves. The smoke from this fire annoys the great god Tezcatlipoca who tears off their heads and then sews the heads to the rear-ends of the man and woman and, in doing so, creates dogs. According to this myth, dogs pre-date the present race of human beings and so should be treated with respect the way one would treat an elder. The Aztecs also buried dogs with their dead and their god of death, Xolotl, was imagined as a huge dog. The Tarascans, like the Aztecs and Maya, kept dogs as pets, for hunting, and for food and also linked them with the gods and the afterlife. The souls of those who died without proper burial, such as those who drowned or were lost in battle or died alone on a hunt, were found by spirit dogs who would ensure their safe passage to the afterlife. In all three of these cultures (as, indeed, in the others mentioned above) the belief in ghosts was very real. A ghost could not only make trouble in one's daily life but could actually bring physical harm and even death. The Tarascan tale about the spirit dogs allayed the fear that, if one had not been able to properly bury a loved one, the deceased's ghost would return to trouble the living. The people would not have to fear because the dog would take care of the problem. Celtic & Norse Dogs The dog was also associated with the afterlife, protection, and healing in Celtic and Norse cultures. The Celtic-Germanic goddess of healing and prosperity, Nehalennia, is frequently depicted in the company of a dog and dogs themselves are considered semi-divine (the Celtic goddess Turrean was transformed by the jealous fairy queen into the first Irish Wolfhound). As in other cultures, the dog was associated with protection after death and as a guiding presence. This was also true in the Scandinavian Norse culture where the dog Garm was thought to guard the afterlife of Hel, keeping the dead souls in and the living out. Dogs were associated with divinity through the goddess Frigg, Odin’s consort, who is frequently depicted in a chariot pulled by dogs. Dogs were often buried with their masters as protectors and guides in the afterlife and dogs feasted at the feet of their warrior masters in the great hall of Valhalla after death. More dog remains have been found in excavated Norse burial sites than in any other culture. In ancient India, Mesopotamia, China, Mesoamerica and Egypt, the people had deep ties with their dogs and, as seen, this was also common in ancient Greece and Rome. Ancient Greeks thought of dogs as geniuses, as `possessing a certain elevated spirit'. Plato referred to the dog as a ‘lover of learning’ and a ‘beast worthy of wonder.’ The philosopher Diogenes of Sinope loved the simplicity of the dog's life and encouraged human beings to emulate it. While other animals have undergone significant changes in the way they are perceived through history (the cat, most notably) the dog has remained a constant companion, friend, and protector and has been portrayed that way through the art and in the writings of many ancient cultures. The old claim that a dog is one's best friend is substantiated through the historical record but needs no proof for anyone in the modern day who is lucky enough to enjoy the company of a good dog. Author's Note: This article is dedicated to Sophia the Dog, my own true philosopher.	5,656	ENGLISH	1
In May 1915 Italy joined the war on the side of the Allies. Italy had signed a treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary before the war, creating the Triple Entente. However they had remained neutral so far. Now Britain, France and Russia persuaded Italy to join them instead. Italy wanted to expand its territory and the Allies offered land in Austria-Hungary as well as German colonies in Africa if she joined them. Fighting on the Italian Front was mainly in two areas - the Trentino Region and along the Isonzo River. Both of these areas were very mountainous, which made it a very different war to the muddy Western Front. In June, Italy launched the First Battle of the Isonzo - the first of eleven battles in this area. The goal was to break through to the Austro-Hungarian port of Trieste, which had a large Italian population. The Italian army spent most of the war attempting to achieve this objective - suffering huge numbers of casualties in the process. Austro-Hungarian soldiers in a trench high above the Isonzo River.	<urn:uuid:ace4a920-f6e0-4c31-b53c-56c4540cb93b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://walesatwar.org/en/theatresofwar/italy_1915	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00341.warc.gz	en	0.982688	222	4.1875	4	[ -0.662315309047699, 0.39429107308387756, 0.32315775752067566, -0.16084115207195282, -0.40704649686813354, -0.21420301496982574, -0.08576063066720963, 0.23481909930706024, -0.025176435708999634, -0.21578876674175262, 0.06394098699092865, -0.9156979322433472, 0.14929531514644623, 0.611648857...	5	In May 1915 Italy joined the war on the side of the Allies. Italy had signed a treaty with Germany and Austria-Hungary before the war, creating the Triple Entente. However they had remained neutral so far. Now Britain, France and Russia persuaded Italy to join them instead. Italy wanted to expand its territory and the Allies offered land in Austria-Hungary as well as German colonies in Africa if she joined them. Fighting on the Italian Front was mainly in two areas - the Trentino Region and along the Isonzo River. Both of these areas were very mountainous, which made it a very different war to the muddy Western Front. In June, Italy launched the First Battle of the Isonzo - the first of eleven battles in this area. The goal was to break through to the Austro-Hungarian port of Trieste, which had a large Italian population. The Italian army spent most of the war attempting to achieve this objective - suffering huge numbers of casualties in the process. Austro-Hungarian soldiers in a trench high above the Isonzo River.	224	ENGLISH	1
Some light holiday reading: No one knows what day Jesus Christ was born on. From the biblical description, most historians believe that his birth probably occurred in September, approximately six months after Passover. One thing they agree on is that it is very unlikely that Jesus was born in December, since the bible records shepherds tending their sheep in the fields on that night. This is quite unlikely to have happened during a cold Judean winter. So why do we celebrate Christâ€™s birthday as Christmas, on December the 25th? The answer lies in the pagan origins of Christmas. In ancient Babylon, the feast of the Son of Isis (Goddess of Nature) was celebrated on December 25. Raucous partying, gluttonous eating and drinking, and gift-giving were traditions of this feast. In Rome, the Winter Solstice was celebrated many years before the birth of Christ. The Romans called their winter holiday Saturnalia, honoring Saturn, the God of Agriculture. In January, they observed the Kalends of January, which represented the triumph of life over death. This whole season was called Dies Natalis Invicti Solis, the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun. The festival season was marked by much merrymaking. It is in ancient Rome that the tradition of the Mummers was born. The Mummers were groups of costumed singers and dancers who traveled from house to house entertaining their neighbors. From this, the Christmas tradition of caroling was born.	<urn:uuid:2f915130-ba51-43d4-b365-14feae57d6b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.cynical-c.com/2006/12/22/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00299.warc.gz	en	0.983243	305	3.921875	4	[ 0.16099970042705536, 0.6337121725082397, 0.4973481595516205, -0.08826535195112228, -0.1895279735326767, -0.06512178480625153, 0.10815005004405975, 0.13908793032169342, 0.07574614137411118, 0.10155182331800461, 0.2377588450908661, 0.28215107321739197, 0.02547377161681652, 0.2197055667638778...	13	Some light holiday reading: No one knows what day Jesus Christ was born on. From the biblical description, most historians believe that his birth probably occurred in September, approximately six months after Passover. One thing they agree on is that it is very unlikely that Jesus was born in December, since the bible records shepherds tending their sheep in the fields on that night. This is quite unlikely to have happened during a cold Judean winter. So why do we celebrate Christâ€™s birthday as Christmas, on December the 25th? The answer lies in the pagan origins of Christmas. In ancient Babylon, the feast of the Son of Isis (Goddess of Nature) was celebrated on December 25. Raucous partying, gluttonous eating and drinking, and gift-giving were traditions of this feast. In Rome, the Winter Solstice was celebrated many years before the birth of Christ. The Romans called their winter holiday Saturnalia, honoring Saturn, the God of Agriculture. In January, they observed the Kalends of January, which represented the triumph of life over death. This whole season was called Dies Natalis Invicti Solis, the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun. The festival season was marked by much merrymaking. It is in ancient Rome that the tradition of the Mummers was born. The Mummers were groups of costumed singers and dancers who traveled from house to house entertaining their neighbors. From this, the Christmas tradition of caroling was born.	307	ENGLISH	1
Saint Chavara introduced a unique resource mobilization and public distribution system known as Pidiyari ( a handful of rice). It encouraged people to save a handful (pidi) from their everyday provision for the starving and needy. Arrangements were made for special pot each in Christian families and suggested that every time the family cooked they should leave a handful of rice in that particular pot. Setting aside a handful of rice would not have any effect in their food but when the rice thus collected was brought to the church every weekend, as a contribution from the family, would provide for the food of many poor families in the neighbourhood. Pilgrims have opportunity to offer ‘pidiyari’ in front of the shrine in remembrance of saint Chavara’s concern for the poor and thus share in his concern to the needs of the poor.	<urn:uuid:fa739119-f888-45c1-a4e6-f0e1a7595a58>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://saintchavara.org/pidiyari-offering/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00477.warc.gz	en	0.980441	172	3.40625	3	[ -0.0010658884420990944, 0.14319850504398346, 0.10016205161809921, -0.0736844539642334, 0.39623138308525085, -0.006838023196905851, 0.018354792147874832, -0.06158239394426346, -0.12234355509281158, -0.12868723273277283, -0.15410837531089783, -0.1993226855993271, 0.36184847354888916, 0.54624...	6	Saint Chavara introduced a unique resource mobilization and public distribution system known as Pidiyari ( a handful of rice). It encouraged people to save a handful (pidi) from their everyday provision for the starving and needy. Arrangements were made for special pot each in Christian families and suggested that every time the family cooked they should leave a handful of rice in that particular pot. Setting aside a handful of rice would not have any effect in their food but when the rice thus collected was brought to the church every weekend, as a contribution from the family, would provide for the food of many poor families in the neighbourhood. Pilgrims have opportunity to offer ‘pidiyari’ in front of the shrine in remembrance of saint Chavara’s concern for the poor and thus share in his concern to the needs of the poor.	170	ENGLISH	1
Immigration to the United States from Latin America has happened for long. It was at its pick in the 1980s when there was much political tension in the south. Young people were taking this as an opportunity to move to the north and begin a new life in the United States. This is what some scholars have termed as a transition in life because the life in the United States would be very different considering that they would be in a new culture. Many immigrants to the United States have come with high expectations of good jobs and good living standards (Brett 37). They consider them to be a part of the American dream. However, this, in most cases, is not the case because the experiences they get make the majority of them to prefer being back at home. Many films and stories have been developed about the lives of these immigrants and about various things they go through on a daily basis. El Norte and The Official Story are two main stories that were told about the immigration of Hispanics (Ebert 38; Asrianti 28). They give about the experience of the immigrants. There are varied reasons why El Norte and The Official Story films have been made. One is that the writers wanted to show the desires and misleading things that had led many people to the United States and ended up becoming immigrants. In El Norte, the first scene of the film is happening in a small rural Guatemalan village named San Pedro. There, the Xuncax family is introduced (Ebert 37). They show how they admire the life of people in the United States where even the poor have their own cars. The writer shows how people make quick decisions to move to the United States. Another reason the films have been made was to make people aware of the risks in migrating to the United States. Such threats begin from the first step people have made. There were also risks at the border because some of them even lost lives before crossing the border to the United States. In addition, they had to pass through a hard means; for instance; in El Norte, the characters crossed the border through pipes that had rats (Brett 42). Life on the other side was also difficult. There were many risks in being illegal immigrants in the United States; and, thus, the films were made to make people aware of these risks. Thus, they could find meanings of evading them or even avoiding moving to the U.S. It was important to tell these stories because many people were finding their way to the United States with an aim of living the good life. It was important to tell the stories in order to correct many people about the stereotypes they had had about the United States (Asrianti 26). They were aimed at passing a message so that immigrants to the United States could be decreased. There were many stereotypes among the Latinos about the United States. This is evident in El Norte where the immigrants were seen to be full of hope before they made their way into the U.S. Considering the political and economic situation in Latin America, it was important to make such films. Latin America was full of corruption and poverty. These are the main factors that made the Latino opt for the life in other countries and probably in the north (Brett 43). The films were important because they gave a real picture of what was happening in the south. In El Norte, the writer begins by narrating about the political tension that made the two immigrants make the decision of moving to the north. This would give a picture to the whole world and the U.S., in particular, about what was happening in the south. They aimed at portraying the real Latino life, and how they were personally suffering. In The Official Story, the first scene shows how the life was dirty in Argentina, how lives were lost, and depicts the campaign of killings and torture (Asrianti 53). The film show the environment in the country was unpleasant and how many eventually evaded and children were left without caregivers as their parents died from the political unrest. It was also important to tell these stories to make the U.S. government aware of what was happening in the south before they made any policies regarding the immigrants. Many of the policies that existed in the United States in the 1980s about the immigrants were mainly to oppress them and use them as slaves. This is because the U.S. government did not have a real picture of what was happening on the ground (Brett 30). Through the stories, the writers had the belief that the government would learn something from this and find the ways of helping the immigrants rather than exposing to a very risky environment. The stories about the immigrants were also told so that the impacts of immigration could be known. There was less information about immigration to the United States as many people only knew that this had been against the laws of the country. People migrating to the nation had to obtain the right documents. The impacts of these were not known to many people because many of them thought that the people were coming to the U.S. to be the part of the American dream and get employment in the country. Therefore, many of them thought that with many jobs in the United States more so in the agricultural sector many migrants were having their dreams fulfilled (Ebert 45). This was, however, not the case; and the writers aimed at making people of the real impacts of immigration. This would also play a key role in ending the stereotypes about the good life the immigrants had got in the new country. It was not the case as they have suffered much as evident in El Norte where the characters reach a part where they see the exploitation as the part of life. El Norte and The Official Story were told from a woman’s perspective. This was also the case with other stories that were written about immigration in the 1980s. They wrote the stories from a woman’s perspective because of the challenges experienced that could probably be very hard for women. It required much hardness to make it to the other country. In El Norte, this is shown clearly, where a female character decides to go back after struggling much in crossing the border (Ebert 49). It is a male character who encourages her and helps her such that they eventually cross the border. Women are seen to face the severe consequences in this because men are tolerant and adapt easily to harsh conditions unlike women. Only the best writers 24/7 Live Support Women were seen to play a critical role in immigration. Watching The Official Story, Alicia is presented as a caretaker of her adopted daughter Gaby. She goes through much; for instance, we see her struggling to know the parents of a child. However, her husband is not concerned with this (Asrianti 53). She goes to the organizations and hospitals looking for records to identify the parents of the child. It shows the emotional attachment women have when it comes to some issues like taking care of children. Women are also seen to console in hard situations. Men are the laborers; and when they are oppressed at the work place, women play a key role in cooling their emotions. In The Official Story, we see Roberto coming home when he is stressed due to the machinations at the work place. When he gets there, he is very annoyed. However, he is cooled down when Alicia says, “How does it feel not knowing where your child is?” This shows much concern by Alicia, which gets the attention of her husband (Brett 37). Therefore, the central role women play in the family makes them the center of attraction in the Latino narratives. Women are also seen to give up easily; and, thus, the stories were told from their perspective. Looking at El Norte, Rosa lost hope when she fell sick because of the rat infection she had encountered when crossing the border. In the last scene, she is shown saying, In our own land, we have no home. They want to kill us … In Mexico…. only poverty. We cannot make a home there either….here in the north, we are not accepted. When will we find a home, Enrique? Maybe when we die, we will find a home. (Brett 56) These are the words that show clearly that she had wholly lost hope in life. She eventually dies (Brett 56). On the contrary, her brother Enrique goes on with life despite the challenges he faces. Considering the challenges immigrants faced it was important to tell the stories from a woman’s perspective in order to show what they had gone through and the risks of migrating to the United States. In The Official Story, this was also the case where Alicia goes through much trying to find the parents of the child because she feels that they are very desperate because of their lost daughter (Asrianti 55). She goes to hospitals and other organizations looking for records that could help her get the parents of the child. This is not the case with her husband because he is less concerned about this and even tells his wife to ignore the matter. Generally, women are shown to go through hard times. When we look at the case of Enrique’s mother, she went through much because her husband was killed and his head hanged on the tree where they can all see. This is a psychological torture. To make matters worse, she is abducted by the militants and leaves her two children. In the process of crossing, the border women are shown to go through much in the hands of the Coyote who pretend to help them cross the border, but end up raping them. Rosa was lucky because as they were struggling with the Coyote pretending to help them cross the border, the U.S. police officers appeared (Brett 45). They were helped to go back safely where they got a faithful coyote that helped them cross the border. She is affected by the rats in the pipes they used to cross the border. Women, therefore, face most of the negative impacts of immigration like the psychological torture. This is the reason Rosa gives up and eventually dies. In El Norte and Maria Full of Grace, the directors approach the stories differently. In El Norte, the characters who are a brother and a sister are forced to escape from their country because of the conditions that have befallen them. Their father is killed; and his head hanged on the tree where they can see it. Their mother is also abducted; and, thus, they are forced to elude to begin a better life somewhere. In addition, they have been told by their father about the good life in the United States. Thus, their father died in the process of preparing them to leave to the U.S. They still had some dreams of the good life there. However, it was not the main reason that made them escape. In Maria Full of Grace, Maria, the main character, has a job; she wakes up daily and goes to earn her living. Anyway, she is lowly paid (Sarris 38). This is in Columbia where there was no political unrest. The environment was good just that Maria had the hopes about the good life in the United States. She, therefore, quit her job intentionally to get into drug trafficking. She is also pregnant and finds it hard to be married to her boyfriend because they will be forced to live in a house with other eight people. She, thus, makes a decision to smuggle heroin to the United States and dreams of the huge amount of money she will get. Therefore, she does not flee because of political unrest as it was the case with Enrique and Rosa in El Norte. In both stories, the characters are presented to have great hopes about the future. They all believe that when they make their way to the United States they will begin another good life. In El Norte, the brother and the sister are very determined to cross the border because of their hopes. They wish to see a good life in the United States. This is also the case with Maria who even losses her job as she is determined to have a good life. In both stories, the characters find that life was not as they had thought when they crossed the border (Holden 45). On arrival, Maria and Lucy in the story Maria Full of Grace, they are taken to a hotel where they are exposed to harsh conditions. In El Norte, the brother and the sister have realized that life was not as they had thought. They have to struggle much to earn their living not even to buy the cars they had thought of before crossing the border. It reaches the point when Rosa gives up and says the aforementioned words about finding home (Brett 56). Original writing according to your instructions Deadlines from 3 hours to 60 days All disciplines covered Skilled writers with Master’s/PhD degrees Personal data security Instant replies to all your questions As the stories progress, the characters change from the hopeful heroes to hopeless ones. Before crossing the border, Enrique and Rosa were very hopeful of living a good life. They later have realized that it is not as they thought because they continue being exploited for their labor by rich merchants (Brett 46). They thought that they would reach the point where they would be their own bosses and escape from the evil of exploitation. However, it is never the case. They are exploited more for their labor and even reach a point where they see the exploitation as the part of life. They lose hope on the good life; and Rosa states it clearly by saying she finds no hope in whatever she does. As a result, she eventually dies. Maria also progresses from a hardworking girl in the farms to a drug trafficker. She is in a need of higher earnings and a better life (Holden 51). She becomes a criminal in the eyes of her society because of the desire for the good life. In the stories, the role of politics is very important. In El Norte, there was a political unrest that made characters suffer much before making a final decision to escape to the states (Sarris 36). There was no peace and politics used to show how the immigrants suffered in the eyes of their own government. They were forced to take matters into their hands. The point of view of both stories is how people from Latin America end up in a reasonable life because of their desire to live in the United States. They had the stereotypes that the life in the U.S. was the best as even the poor were having their own cars. These points of view are important because they have built the films. It is through this that the role of immigration is brought in some issues to do with immigration (Holden 55). The point of view is also critical because it shows the reality. It is on the ground rather than people working on stereotypes that will never work. The points of view in the films also help to bring out the main themes. For instance, in El Norte, one of the main themes is the magical realism that is brought out through the depiction of dreams about a good life of the characters. Also, such movies dispay how this has turned out to be a nightmare. The suffering that immigrants are getting in the United States is also a result of the political issues. There are the laws that do not allow illegal immigrants in the country. In addition, the laws seem to preach inequality because the rich use their powers to exploit the poor people (Brett 28). At the end of the day, these are the poor who do all heavy work, but take home the least share. Politics is, therefore, portrayed through inequality. Women in the stories evolve with much courage. At first, they appear to be very polite, but the mysteries they are facing force them to make desperate actions as the adage goes, “Desperate situations call for desperate actions.” In El Norte, Rosa appeared to be a coward more so when her father had been killed and her mother abducted. However, in the final scene, to escape with her brother, she showed much courage. This is also the same thing at the border where women were said to fall into wrong hands of the Coyote. However, she managed to cross the border together with her friend because of the much courage she had had (Ebert 53). While in the United States, she acts courageously knowing that she is being illegally there. This is also the same case with Maria in Maria Full of Grace who was once very polite and could wake up daily to go to work in the farms where she had been paid not much. She changes from a very polite girl to a naughty one who can smuggle drugs and trade them in the United States. She demonstrates much courage showing that desperate situations call for desperate actions. Women in the stories also evolve through hardships. In El Norte, Rosa becomes hardy and can do anything to cross the border. In the states, she is also hardy to do any job so that they can earn the living. This is also the same case with Maria and Lucy in Maria Full of Grace who have become very hardy such that they can smuggle drugs to the United States. Nevertheless, they are very aware that it is the criminal offense (Holden 62). How it Works Select the type of assignment Provide explicit guidelines Enjoy your free time while our professionals work on your project Get an original work Immigration has remained to be a problem in the United States even to date. El Norte and The Official Story are the stories that show clearly how immigration has evolved and the different factors that have fertilized this. The stories are narrated from the women’s perspective because they are the ones befalling victims of this. They have to take care of their families and children. The characters in the films evolve from the polite women to hardy females. They make decisions that are being completely desperate. Politics have a key role to play in this; for instance, in El Norte, the politics unrest forced the characters to elude. Comparing El Norte and Maria Full of Grace, these are two stories that have the same point of view. They differ in the conditions that lead the characters flee away. This is because in El Norte they escaped because of the political unrest in the country; while in Maria Full of Grace the character flees intentionally as she had a job. These are the good stories. They should reveal the mysteries of immigration and the stereotypes people may have.	<urn:uuid:8bc3c718-8c54-4386-a61c-d5f001fa070a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://top-papers.com/essays/el-norte-and-the-official-story/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00037.warc.gz	en	0.986995	3,746	3.375	3	[ 0.13624534010887146, -0.11552852392196655, 0.34721067547798157, 0.042403146624565125, 0.5399508476257324, 0.31335169076919556, -0.16994799673557281, -0.15331728756427765, -0.20101532340049744, 0.03584064543247223, 0.3688216805458069, 0.5827701091766357, -0.08058547228574753, -0.14519706368...	8	Immigration to the United States from Latin America has happened for long. It was at its pick in the 1980s when there was much political tension in the south. Young people were taking this as an opportunity to move to the north and begin a new life in the United States. This is what some scholars have termed as a transition in life because the life in the United States would be very different considering that they would be in a new culture. Many immigrants to the United States have come with high expectations of good jobs and good living standards (Brett 37). They consider them to be a part of the American dream. However, this, in most cases, is not the case because the experiences they get make the majority of them to prefer being back at home. Many films and stories have been developed about the lives of these immigrants and about various things they go through on a daily basis. El Norte and The Official Story are two main stories that were told about the immigration of Hispanics (Ebert 38; Asrianti 28). They give about the experience of the immigrants. There are varied reasons why El Norte and The Official Story films have been made. One is that the writers wanted to show the desires and misleading things that had led many people to the United States and ended up becoming immigrants. In El Norte, the first scene of the film is happening in a small rural Guatemalan village named San Pedro. There, the Xuncax family is introduced (Ebert 37). They show how they admire the life of people in the United States where even the poor have their own cars. The writer shows how people make quick decisions to move to the United States. Another reason the films have been made was to make people aware of the risks in migrating to the United States. Such threats begin from the first step people have made. There were also risks at the border because some of them even lost lives before crossing the border to the United States. In addition, they had to pass through a hard means; for instance; in El Norte, the characters crossed the border through pipes that had rats (Brett 42). Life on the other side was also difficult. There were many risks in being illegal immigrants in the United States; and, thus, the films were made to make people aware of these risks. Thus, they could find meanings of evading them or even avoiding moving to the U.S. It was important to tell these stories because many people were finding their way to the United States with an aim of living the good life. It was important to tell the stories in order to correct many people about the stereotypes they had had about the United States (Asrianti 26). They were aimed at passing a message so that immigrants to the United States could be decreased. There were many stereotypes among the Latinos about the United States. This is evident in El Norte where the immigrants were seen to be full of hope before they made their way into the U.S. Considering the political and economic situation in Latin America, it was important to make such films. Latin America was full of corruption and poverty. These are the main factors that made the Latino opt for the life in other countries and probably in the north (Brett 43). The films were important because they gave a real picture of what was happening in the south. In El Norte, the writer begins by narrating about the political tension that made the two immigrants make the decision of moving to the north. This would give a picture to the whole world and the U.S., in particular, about what was happening in the south. They aimed at portraying the real Latino life, and how they were personally suffering. In The Official Story, the first scene shows how the life was dirty in Argentina, how lives were lost, and depicts the campaign of killings and torture (Asrianti 53). The film show the environment in the country was unpleasant and how many eventually evaded and children were left without caregivers as their parents died from the political unrest. It was also important to tell these stories to make the U.S. government aware of what was happening in the south before they made any policies regarding the immigrants. Many of the policies that existed in the United States in the 1980s about the immigrants were mainly to oppress them and use them as slaves. This is because the U.S. government did not have a real picture of what was happening on the ground (Brett 30). Through the stories, the writers had the belief that the government would learn something from this and find the ways of helping the immigrants rather than exposing to a very risky environment. The stories about the immigrants were also told so that the impacts of immigration could be known. There was less information about immigration to the United States as many people only knew that this had been against the laws of the country. People migrating to the nation had to obtain the right documents. The impacts of these were not known to many people because many of them thought that the people were coming to the U.S. to be the part of the American dream and get employment in the country. Therefore, many of them thought that with many jobs in the United States more so in the agricultural sector many migrants were having their dreams fulfilled (Ebert 45). This was, however, not the case; and the writers aimed at making people of the real impacts of immigration. This would also play a key role in ending the stereotypes about the good life the immigrants had got in the new country. It was not the case as they have suffered much as evident in El Norte where the characters reach a part where they see the exploitation as the part of life. El Norte and The Official Story were told from a woman’s perspective. This was also the case with other stories that were written about immigration in the 1980s. They wrote the stories from a woman’s perspective because of the challenges experienced that could probably be very hard for women. It required much hardness to make it to the other country. In El Norte, this is shown clearly, where a female character decides to go back after struggling much in crossing the border (Ebert 49). It is a male character who encourages her and helps her such that they eventually cross the border. Women are seen to face the severe consequences in this because men are tolerant and adapt easily to harsh conditions unlike women. Only the best writers 24/7 Live Support Women were seen to play a critical role in immigration. Watching The Official Story, Alicia is presented as a caretaker of her adopted daughter Gaby. She goes through much; for instance, we see her struggling to know the parents of a child. However, her husband is not concerned with this (Asrianti 53). She goes to the organizations and hospitals looking for records to identify the parents of the child. It shows the emotional attachment women have when it comes to some issues like taking care of children. Women are also seen to console in hard situations. Men are the laborers; and when they are oppressed at the work place, women play a key role in cooling their emotions. In The Official Story, we see Roberto coming home when he is stressed due to the machinations at the work place. When he gets there, he is very annoyed. However, he is cooled down when Alicia says, “How does it feel not knowing where your child is?” This shows much concern by Alicia, which gets the attention of her husband (Brett 37). Therefore, the central role women play in the family makes them the center of attraction in the Latino narratives. Women are also seen to give up easily; and, thus, the stories were told from their perspective. Looking at El Norte, Rosa lost hope when she fell sick because of the rat infection she had encountered when crossing the border. In the last scene, she is shown saying, In our own land, we have no home. They want to kill us … In Mexico…. only poverty. We cannot make a home there either….here in the north, we are not accepted. When will we find a home, Enrique? Maybe when we die, we will find a home. (Brett 56) These are the words that show clearly that she had wholly lost hope in life. She eventually dies (Brett 56). On the contrary, her brother Enrique goes on with life despite the challenges he faces. Considering the challenges immigrants faced it was important to tell the stories from a woman’s perspective in order to show what they had gone through and the risks of migrating to the United States. In The Official Story, this was also the case where Alicia goes through much trying to find the parents of the child because she feels that they are very desperate because of their lost daughter (Asrianti 55). She goes to hospitals and other organizations looking for records that could help her get the parents of the child. This is not the case with her husband because he is less concerned about this and even tells his wife to ignore the matter. Generally, women are shown to go through hard times. When we look at the case of Enrique’s mother, she went through much because her husband was killed and his head hanged on the tree where they can all see. This is a psychological torture. To make matters worse, she is abducted by the militants and leaves her two children. In the process of crossing, the border women are shown to go through much in the hands of the Coyote who pretend to help them cross the border, but end up raping them. Rosa was lucky because as they were struggling with the Coyote pretending to help them cross the border, the U.S. police officers appeared (Brett 45). They were helped to go back safely where they got a faithful coyote that helped them cross the border. She is affected by the rats in the pipes they used to cross the border. Women, therefore, face most of the negative impacts of immigration like the psychological torture. This is the reason Rosa gives up and eventually dies. In El Norte and Maria Full of Grace, the directors approach the stories differently. In El Norte, the characters who are a brother and a sister are forced to escape from their country because of the conditions that have befallen them. Their father is killed; and his head hanged on the tree where they can see it. Their mother is also abducted; and, thus, they are forced to elude to begin a better life somewhere. In addition, they have been told by their father about the good life in the United States. Thus, their father died in the process of preparing them to leave to the U.S. They still had some dreams of the good life there. However, it was not the main reason that made them escape. In Maria Full of Grace, Maria, the main character, has a job; she wakes up daily and goes to earn her living. Anyway, she is lowly paid (Sarris 38). This is in Columbia where there was no political unrest. The environment was good just that Maria had the hopes about the good life in the United States. She, therefore, quit her job intentionally to get into drug trafficking. She is also pregnant and finds it hard to be married to her boyfriend because they will be forced to live in a house with other eight people. She, thus, makes a decision to smuggle heroin to the United States and dreams of the huge amount of money she will get. Therefore, she does not flee because of political unrest as it was the case with Enrique and Rosa in El Norte. In both stories, the characters are presented to have great hopes about the future. They all believe that when they make their way to the United States they will begin another good life. In El Norte, the brother and the sister are very determined to cross the border because of their hopes. They wish to see a good life in the United States. This is also the case with Maria who even losses her job as she is determined to have a good life. In both stories, the characters find that life was not as they had thought when they crossed the border (Holden 45). On arrival, Maria and Lucy in the story Maria Full of Grace, they are taken to a hotel where they are exposed to harsh conditions. In El Norte, the brother and the sister have realized that life was not as they had thought. They have to struggle much to earn their living not even to buy the cars they had thought of before crossing the border. It reaches the point when Rosa gives up and says the aforementioned words about finding home (Brett 56). Original writing according to your instructions Deadlines from 3 hours to 60 days All disciplines covered Skilled writers with Master’s/PhD degrees Personal data security Instant replies to all your questions As the stories progress, the characters change from the hopeful heroes to hopeless ones. Before crossing the border, Enrique and Rosa were very hopeful of living a good life. They later have realized that it is not as they thought because they continue being exploited for their labor by rich merchants (Brett 46). They thought that they would reach the point where they would be their own bosses and escape from the evil of exploitation. However, it is never the case. They are exploited more for their labor and even reach a point where they see the exploitation as the part of life. They lose hope on the good life; and Rosa states it clearly by saying she finds no hope in whatever she does. As a result, she eventually dies. Maria also progresses from a hardworking girl in the farms to a drug trafficker. She is in a need of higher earnings and a better life (Holden 51). She becomes a criminal in the eyes of her society because of the desire for the good life. In the stories, the role of politics is very important. In El Norte, there was a political unrest that made characters suffer much before making a final decision to escape to the states (Sarris 36). There was no peace and politics used to show how the immigrants suffered in the eyes of their own government. They were forced to take matters into their hands. The point of view of both stories is how people from Latin America end up in a reasonable life because of their desire to live in the United States. They had the stereotypes that the life in the U.S. was the best as even the poor were having their own cars. These points of view are important because they have built the films. It is through this that the role of immigration is brought in some issues to do with immigration (Holden 55). The point of view is also critical because it shows the reality. It is on the ground rather than people working on stereotypes that will never work. The points of view in the films also help to bring out the main themes. For instance, in El Norte, one of the main themes is the magical realism that is brought out through the depiction of dreams about a good life of the characters. Also, such movies dispay how this has turned out to be a nightmare. The suffering that immigrants are getting in the United States is also a result of the political issues. There are the laws that do not allow illegal immigrants in the country. In addition, the laws seem to preach inequality because the rich use their powers to exploit the poor people (Brett 28). At the end of the day, these are the poor who do all heavy work, but take home the least share. Politics is, therefore, portrayed through inequality. Women in the stories evolve with much courage. At first, they appear to be very polite, but the mysteries they are facing force them to make desperate actions as the adage goes, “Desperate situations call for desperate actions.” In El Norte, Rosa appeared to be a coward more so when her father had been killed and her mother abducted. However, in the final scene, to escape with her brother, she showed much courage. This is also the same thing at the border where women were said to fall into wrong hands of the Coyote. However, she managed to cross the border together with her friend because of the much courage she had had (Ebert 53). While in the United States, she acts courageously knowing that she is being illegally there. This is also the same case with Maria in Maria Full of Grace who was once very polite and could wake up daily to go to work in the farms where she had been paid not much. She changes from a very polite girl to a naughty one who can smuggle drugs and trade them in the United States. She demonstrates much courage showing that desperate situations call for desperate actions. Women in the stories also evolve through hardships. In El Norte, Rosa becomes hardy and can do anything to cross the border. In the states, she is also hardy to do any job so that they can earn the living. This is also the same case with Maria and Lucy in Maria Full of Grace who have become very hardy such that they can smuggle drugs to the United States. Nevertheless, they are very aware that it is the criminal offense (Holden 62). How it Works Select the type of assignment Provide explicit guidelines Enjoy your free time while our professionals work on your project Get an original work Immigration has remained to be a problem in the United States even to date. El Norte and The Official Story are the stories that show clearly how immigration has evolved and the different factors that have fertilized this. The stories are narrated from the women’s perspective because they are the ones befalling victims of this. They have to take care of their families and children. The characters in the films evolve from the polite women to hardy females. They make decisions that are being completely desperate. Politics have a key role to play in this; for instance, in El Norte, the politics unrest forced the characters to elude. Comparing El Norte and Maria Full of Grace, these are two stories that have the same point of view. They differ in the conditions that lead the characters flee away. This is because in El Norte they escaped because of the political unrest in the country; while in Maria Full of Grace the character flees intentionally as she had a job. These are the good stories. They should reveal the mysteries of immigration and the stereotypes people may have.	3,748	ENGLISH	1
Dartmoor kistvaens are burial tombs or cists from the Neolithic age, i.e. they are approximately 4,000 years old. Kistvaens have been found in many places, including Dartmoor, a 954 square kilometre (some 370 square miles) area of moorland in south Devon, England. The box-like stone tombs were created when the ancient people of the area lived in hut circles. A feature that differentiates Dartmoor kistvaens from kistvaens in other parts of the world is that about 94% of Dartmoor kistvaens have the longer axis of the tomb oriented in a NW/SE direction. It appears that Dartmoor kistvaens were positioned in such a way that the deceased were facing the sun. The word "kistvaen" is derived from the Cornu-Celtic Cist-veyn or Cist-vyin; in Welsh the word is Cist-faen. All these names mean "a stone chest" (cist is a chest or box, maen is a stone). Kistvaens are formed using four or more flat stones for the sides and for the ends, and a larger flat stone (the "capstone") for the cover. Some kistvaens are surrounded by circles of erected stones. In general, if a body was to be buried without cremation, it was placed into a kistvaen in a contracted position. If on the other hand a body was cremated, the ashes were usually put in a cinerary urn, and then the urn was placed in a kistvaen. However, the majority of the known Dartmoor kistvaens were opened at some time in the past, and whatever they used to hold is missing. The cists were probably robbed in the hope of finding treasure. Kistvaens were known by many common names, including "money pits", "money boxes", "crocks of gold", "caves", "Roman graves" and so on. The idea that ancient tombs might contain valuable items is a very old one; one of the first mentions of searching tumuli in Devon dates back to 1324. Permission to search was granted by Edward II of England. Currently archaeologists usually use the word cist when talking about kistvaens, but in the past 120+ years other terms have been used, including "chest", "maen" or "vaen", "a stone" "a stone coffin" and so on. Tombs of the dead were traditionally regarded as sacred places by the people of Dartmoor. However the various treasure-related common names for these burial sites caused some people to break the taboo that tombs must be revered and not disturbed. As a result of this tomb-raiding, stories came into being which purport to show that a graverobber's inappropriate and greedy actions will be punished in supernatural ways. One of the legends is about "the parson", although this may possibly have been someone's nickname rather than the title of a real man of the cloth. Either way, the story says he made a map of all of the nearby kistvaens, showing the locations as black dots. Very soon his map had more black dots than a ladybird has on its back. The lure of the kistvaens was so great that the parson (and a few other people who agreed to help him) opened every kistvaen that was marked on his map. After this, the parson was seen counting money every night. His wealth did not make him happy, and neither did it last long. One night a huge electrical storm moved over the moors. Furious lightning was followed again and again almost immediately by very loud thunder. Nobody could sleep for the noise of the storm. Surprisingly the next morning there was very little damage to be seen. Actually all the houses around were intact, except for one house — the house of the parson. His house was in ruins, and it was still burning. Some neighbors even thought they smelled burning brimstone. Presumably the devil himself had made the parson pay for desecrating the kistvaens. This story features a very friendly, good-natured farmer. Once he had a dream about a kistvaen close to his farm. In his dream he saw that the kistvaen was filled with money. Next day he went there, and with a huge effort he managed to move the capstone, and started to dig. As he dug, a huge raven circled overhead, mocking him, and encouraging him to dig deeper and deeper. Eventually the farmer put his hand inside, and pulled out a small piece of flint, shaped in the form of a heart. He took his find home. After this incident, his personality changed radically: he became mean and angry, and he lost all his friends. His life became miserable. About a year later, his young son found the flint in the house, and took it outside to play with it. Then the boy went out onto the moor to look for something else to play with, and he dropped the flint as he went along. On that same day the farmer changed once again, reverting to the "jolly farmer" he had always been until the unfortunate day when he opened the kistvaen.	<urn:uuid:5f31175a-e046-453d-a489-941a1acffb44>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.advisor.travel/poi/Dartmoor-kistvaens-12096	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00301.warc.gz	en	0.984967	1,123	3.421875	3	[ 0.19882485270500183, 0.21933189034461975, -0.0440765917301178, 0.1893046498298645, -0.06771133840084076, 0.020103029906749725, 0.040641918778419495, -0.17390939593315125, -0.22173815965652466, -0.06340079754590988, 0.052642762660980225, -0.8169031143188477, 0.0044590504840016365, 0.4648390...	1	Dartmoor kistvaens are burial tombs or cists from the Neolithic age, i.e. they are approximately 4,000 years old. Kistvaens have been found in many places, including Dartmoor, a 954 square kilometre (some 370 square miles) area of moorland in south Devon, England. The box-like stone tombs were created when the ancient people of the area lived in hut circles. A feature that differentiates Dartmoor kistvaens from kistvaens in other parts of the world is that about 94% of Dartmoor kistvaens have the longer axis of the tomb oriented in a NW/SE direction. It appears that Dartmoor kistvaens were positioned in such a way that the deceased were facing the sun. The word "kistvaen" is derived from the Cornu-Celtic Cist-veyn or Cist-vyin; in Welsh the word is Cist-faen. All these names mean "a stone chest" (cist is a chest or box, maen is a stone). Kistvaens are formed using four or more flat stones for the sides and for the ends, and a larger flat stone (the "capstone") for the cover. Some kistvaens are surrounded by circles of erected stones. In general, if a body was to be buried without cremation, it was placed into a kistvaen in a contracted position. If on the other hand a body was cremated, the ashes were usually put in a cinerary urn, and then the urn was placed in a kistvaen. However, the majority of the known Dartmoor kistvaens were opened at some time in the past, and whatever they used to hold is missing. The cists were probably robbed in the hope of finding treasure. Kistvaens were known by many common names, including "money pits", "money boxes", "crocks of gold", "caves", "Roman graves" and so on. The idea that ancient tombs might contain valuable items is a very old one; one of the first mentions of searching tumuli in Devon dates back to 1324. Permission to search was granted by Edward II of England. Currently archaeologists usually use the word cist when talking about kistvaens, but in the past 120+ years other terms have been used, including "chest", "maen" or "vaen", "a stone" "a stone coffin" and so on. Tombs of the dead were traditionally regarded as sacred places by the people of Dartmoor. However the various treasure-related common names for these burial sites caused some people to break the taboo that tombs must be revered and not disturbed. As a result of this tomb-raiding, stories came into being which purport to show that a graverobber's inappropriate and greedy actions will be punished in supernatural ways. One of the legends is about "the parson", although this may possibly have been someone's nickname rather than the title of a real man of the cloth. Either way, the story says he made a map of all of the nearby kistvaens, showing the locations as black dots. Very soon his map had more black dots than a ladybird has on its back. The lure of the kistvaens was so great that the parson (and a few other people who agreed to help him) opened every kistvaen that was marked on his map. After this, the parson was seen counting money every night. His wealth did not make him happy, and neither did it last long. One night a huge electrical storm moved over the moors. Furious lightning was followed again and again almost immediately by very loud thunder. Nobody could sleep for the noise of the storm. Surprisingly the next morning there was very little damage to be seen. Actually all the houses around were intact, except for one house — the house of the parson. His house was in ruins, and it was still burning. Some neighbors even thought they smelled burning brimstone. Presumably the devil himself had made the parson pay for desecrating the kistvaens. This story features a very friendly, good-natured farmer. Once he had a dream about a kistvaen close to his farm. In his dream he saw that the kistvaen was filled with money. Next day he went there, and with a huge effort he managed to move the capstone, and started to dig. As he dug, a huge raven circled overhead, mocking him, and encouraging him to dig deeper and deeper. Eventually the farmer put his hand inside, and pulled out a small piece of flint, shaped in the form of a heart. He took his find home. After this incident, his personality changed radically: he became mean and angry, and he lost all his friends. His life became miserable. About a year later, his young son found the flint in the house, and took it outside to play with it. Then the boy went out onto the moor to look for something else to play with, and he dropped the flint as he went along. On that same day the farmer changed once again, reverting to the "jolly farmer" he had always been until the unfortunate day when he opened the kistvaen.	1,125	ENGLISH	1
Marine archaeologists in Sweden have found the wreckage of an 300-year-old warship on the seabed, close to the naval port of Karlskrona. The vessel, known as the Blekinge, is thought to have roamed the sea in the late 17<sup>th century and to have been used in battles against Denmark and Russia. The Karlskrona naval base was built in the aftermath of a war between Sweden and neighbouring Denmark – the Scanian War which took place between 1675 and 1679. King Charles XI of Sweden wanted a naval base that would have a close approach with Denmark, in case of future conflicts. "After the war, the king decided to build a new naval base that would be easy to protect in open sea and this is in the south of Sweden, not far from Denmark that they settled. The Karlskrona Naval Base was one of the largest ever constructed and it remains in use today", Jim Hansson, the curator of the archaeology unit at the Swedish National Maritime Museums told IBTimes UK. The ancient shipwreck was found by Hansson and his team of marine archaeologists three days before Christmas 2016, after they received indications from the Swedish Navy that a wreck was localised outside the Karlskrona harbour. The researchers also used historical maps that were used in the past to plan for the construction of the naval base to help them locate the remains of the vessel. The discovery is very important because the Blekinge is believed to have been the first ship constructed at the Karlskrona shipyard. This ship was built in 1682 and part of the fleet that went to war against the Danes and the Russians at the beginning of the 18th century – the Great Northern War – which eventually led to the demise of the Swedish Empire and the emergence of Russia as a dominant power. The ship is thought to have been 153 feet long (45 metres) and to have had up to 70 canons. These features are very similar to that of another famous Swedish shipwreck, now taken out of the water, known as the Vasa. There is historical evidence that the vessel sank in 1713, but it is not clear whether this was done intentionally or whether it was an accident. "During the war with Russia and Denmark, the economic situation in Sweden was dire. Construction of the base at Karlskrona had to stop. My hypothesis is that the ship was downed on purpose so that its canons could be used on a sort of canon barge, to defend Karlskrona", Hansson explained. Investigations to learn more about the ship's history have just started. Although the Blekinge is not entirely intact, the archaeologists hope to conduct small-scale excavations soon to uncover a whole deck level which they believe is buried below layers of sediments. They also hope to analyse the ship's structure to understand how warship styles evolved over the years to make way for new war tactics.	<urn:uuid:926c6a2e-1b64-4f2f-8fc8-ccf4b96fc6ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ancient-shipwreck-tells-story-bloody-war-between-sweden-its-neighbours-1604499	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00016.warc.gz	en	0.980833	613	3.40625	3	[ -0.09216032922267914, 0.4303068220615387, -0.01095844991505146, -0.40579313039779663, 0.315237432718277, -0.35065120458602905, -0.4351001977920532, 0.4192056953907013, -0.2808399498462677, -0.06360843777656555, 0.6133485436439514, -0.516122579574585, -0.0988667830824852, 0.5432528257369995...	4	Marine archaeologists in Sweden have found the wreckage of an 300-year-old warship on the seabed, close to the naval port of Karlskrona. The vessel, known as the Blekinge, is thought to have roamed the sea in the late 17<sup>th century and to have been used in battles against Denmark and Russia. The Karlskrona naval base was built in the aftermath of a war between Sweden and neighbouring Denmark – the Scanian War which took place between 1675 and 1679. King Charles XI of Sweden wanted a naval base that would have a close approach with Denmark, in case of future conflicts. "After the war, the king decided to build a new naval base that would be easy to protect in open sea and this is in the south of Sweden, not far from Denmark that they settled. The Karlskrona Naval Base was one of the largest ever constructed and it remains in use today", Jim Hansson, the curator of the archaeology unit at the Swedish National Maritime Museums told IBTimes UK. The ancient shipwreck was found by Hansson and his team of marine archaeologists three days before Christmas 2016, after they received indications from the Swedish Navy that a wreck was localised outside the Karlskrona harbour. The researchers also used historical maps that were used in the past to plan for the construction of the naval base to help them locate the remains of the vessel. The discovery is very important because the Blekinge is believed to have been the first ship constructed at the Karlskrona shipyard. This ship was built in 1682 and part of the fleet that went to war against the Danes and the Russians at the beginning of the 18th century – the Great Northern War – which eventually led to the demise of the Swedish Empire and the emergence of Russia as a dominant power. The ship is thought to have been 153 feet long (45 metres) and to have had up to 70 canons. These features are very similar to that of another famous Swedish shipwreck, now taken out of the water, known as the Vasa. There is historical evidence that the vessel sank in 1713, but it is not clear whether this was done intentionally or whether it was an accident. "During the war with Russia and Denmark, the economic situation in Sweden was dire. Construction of the base at Karlskrona had to stop. My hypothesis is that the ship was downed on purpose so that its canons could be used on a sort of canon barge, to defend Karlskrona", Hansson explained. Investigations to learn more about the ship's history have just started. Although the Blekinge is not entirely intact, the archaeologists hope to conduct small-scale excavations soon to uncover a whole deck level which they believe is buried below layers of sediments. They also hope to analyse the ship's structure to understand how warship styles evolved over the years to make way for new war tactics.	640	ENGLISH	1
Antigone goes against Creon because she does not want to see her brother rot in the desert. She believes that he should be buried, and considering he is family, how could she bare to know that he is going through such “pain?” She happens to not even care about whether Creon will execute her or not, because she believes that if she dies, she will be dying in honor. That she will be proud of her actions, because she decided to do the right thing. She figures that, she’d rather die now, instead of waiting for her death. She knows exactly what she got herself into. Although, her sister, Ismene, decides to not to follow her sister’s steps. Why? Well, only because Creon stated that, if anyone went out to prevent her brother being rotted in the desert, they would be put to death. She didn’t want to risk her life. She didn’t really care about being honored at death, or doing the moral thing for her brother. Most people are scared of death, and want to live life as long as they can. In Antigone, dramatic irony is used when the sentry comes to tell Creon that the body of Polyneices has been given a light burial. Creon has ordered that the body be watched by the guards so that no one would be able to bury the body. However, the audience knows that Antigone has planned to give her brother's body a burial based on the conversation that she has with her sister Ismene at the beginning of the play. When the sentry reports the burial, the audience knows that Antigone is responsible for the burial, but Creon does not know who has buried the body. He assumes that the sentries are behind the burial and he threatens them with punishment if they do not find out who is responsible. Because the audience is knowledgeable about something that the characters are not, this is an example of dramatic irony. In his first quote of Antigone, his precepts are patriotic, but they are not relevant to the immediate situation of Thebes. The city is no longer in danger, and Creon is not willing to make friends with any of him enemies. Creon explains his principles by stating how much he hates people who behave differently, not by presenting a general rule about how a ruler or citizen should act. Then he reiterates how he himself will behave. The emphasis is on what Creon believes. Creon's speech, and his decision is based on his thought that a man's character cannot really be judged until he has had political power. Because Polynices was Creon's nephew, Creon has chosen to expose his body in order to demonstrate what kind of ruler Creon will be- One who will not defer to kinship ties. So Creon's decision is not so much explained by the principles as it is a further emphatic declaration of them, and both the principles and the following proclamation flow from his statement that a man can only be known from how he handles power. Creon's edict is primarily intended as self-presentation. Journal 6 The verbal irony in Antigone, is in the prologue, when Antigone refers to Creon as "the worthy Creon" when she tells Ismene about his order to leave Polyneices unburied. Clearly she means that Creon is anything but worthy if he would issue such an order. Then in the second episode (act), after Antigone is arrested and Ismene tries to share her guilt and die with her, Antigone rejects the attempt, saying that her death will suffice. Ismene then asks, "What is my life without you?" and Antigone replies, "Ask Creon, since you're concerned so much for him." After that, Creon gets into the conversation, Ismene turns to him to plead for Antigone, and she and Antigone don't speak to each other again. I believe that Antigone’s motivator is all 3- pride, principle and love. All she is wanting from the people and her fellow citizens is…	<urn:uuid:1a8bda0c-0cbc-4090-a6bf-89bf82f71085>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Oedipus-And-Antigone-569092.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00283.warc.gz	en	0.98449	862	3.4375	3	[ -0.15406976640224457, 0.2883617579936981, 0.08900447189807892, -0.014691555872559547, 0.16609103977680206, 0.11757588386535645, 0.7193667888641357, 0.3247733414173126, -0.2553367614746094, 0.08081158250570297, 0.2736280858516693, -0.21179306507110596, 0.37943828105926514, 0.108518496155738...	1	Antigone goes against Creon because she does not want to see her brother rot in the desert. She believes that he should be buried, and considering he is family, how could she bare to know that he is going through such “pain?” She happens to not even care about whether Creon will execute her or not, because she believes that if she dies, she will be dying in honor. That she will be proud of her actions, because she decided to do the right thing. She figures that, she’d rather die now, instead of waiting for her death. She knows exactly what she got herself into. Although, her sister, Ismene, decides to not to follow her sister’s steps. Why? Well, only because Creon stated that, if anyone went out to prevent her brother being rotted in the desert, they would be put to death. She didn’t want to risk her life. She didn’t really care about being honored at death, or doing the moral thing for her brother. Most people are scared of death, and want to live life as long as they can. In Antigone, dramatic irony is used when the sentry comes to tell Creon that the body of Polyneices has been given a light burial. Creon has ordered that the body be watched by the guards so that no one would be able to bury the body. However, the audience knows that Antigone has planned to give her brother's body a burial based on the conversation that she has with her sister Ismene at the beginning of the play. When the sentry reports the burial, the audience knows that Antigone is responsible for the burial, but Creon does not know who has buried the body. He assumes that the sentries are behind the burial and he threatens them with punishment if they do not find out who is responsible. Because the audience is knowledgeable about something that the characters are not, this is an example of dramatic irony. In his first quote of Antigone, his precepts are patriotic, but they are not relevant to the immediate situation of Thebes. The city is no longer in danger, and Creon is not willing to make friends with any of him enemies. Creon explains his principles by stating how much he hates people who behave differently, not by presenting a general rule about how a ruler or citizen should act. Then he reiterates how he himself will behave. The emphasis is on what Creon believes. Creon's speech, and his decision is based on his thought that a man's character cannot really be judged until he has had political power. Because Polynices was Creon's nephew, Creon has chosen to expose his body in order to demonstrate what kind of ruler Creon will be- One who will not defer to kinship ties. So Creon's decision is not so much explained by the principles as it is a further emphatic declaration of them, and both the principles and the following proclamation flow from his statement that a man can only be known from how he handles power. Creon's edict is primarily intended as self-presentation. Journal 6 The verbal irony in Antigone, is in the prologue, when Antigone refers to Creon as "the worthy Creon" when she tells Ismene about his order to leave Polyneices unburied. Clearly she means that Creon is anything but worthy if he would issue such an order. Then in the second episode (act), after Antigone is arrested and Ismene tries to share her guilt and die with her, Antigone rejects the attempt, saying that her death will suffice. Ismene then asks, "What is my life without you?" and Antigone replies, "Ask Creon, since you're concerned so much for him." After that, Creon gets into the conversation, Ismene turns to him to plead for Antigone, and she and Antigone don't speak to each other again. I believe that Antigone’s motivator is all 3- pride, principle and love. All she is wanting from the people and her fellow citizens is…	848	ENGLISH	1
Birthplace: Salzburg, Austria Location of death: Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany Cause of death: unspecified Remains: Buried, Theatinerkirche, Munich, Germany Religion: Roman Catholic Race or Ethnicity: White Sexual orientation: Straight Executive summary: King of Greece, 1832-62 Otto, King of Greece, was the second son of Louis I, king of Bavaria, and his wife Teresa of Saxe-Altenburg. He was born at Salzburg on the 1st of June 1815, and was educated at Munich. In 1832 he was chosen by the conference of London to occupy the newly-erected throne of Greece, and on the 6th of February 1833 he landed at Nauplia, then the capital of independent Greece. Otto, who was not yet eighteen, was accompanied by a council of regency composed of Bavarians under the presidency of Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg (1787-1853), who as minister of finance in Bavaria had succeeded in restoring the credit of the state at the cost of his popularity. The task of governing a semi-barbarous people, but recently emancipated, divided into bitter factions, and filled with an exaggerated sense of their national destiny, would in no case have been easy; it was not facilitated by the bureaucratic methods introduced by the regents. Though Armansperg and his colleagues did a good deal to introduce system and order into the infant state, they contrived to make themselves hated by the Greeks, and with sufficient reason. That the regency refused to respond to the demand for a constitution was perhaps natural, for the experience of constitutional experiments in emancipated Greece had not been encouraging. The result, however, was perpetual unrest; the regency, too, was divided into a French and a Russian party, and distracted by personal quarrels, which led in 1834 to the recall by King Louis of G. L. von Maurer and Karl von Abel, who had been in bitter opposition to Armansperg. Soon afterwards the Mainotes were in open revolt, and the money obtained from foreign loans had to be spent in organizing a force to preserve order. On the 1st of June 1835 Otto came of age, but, on the advice of his father and under pressure of Great Britain and of the house of Rothschild, who all believed that a capable finance minister was the supreme need of Greece, he retained Armansperg as chancellor of state. The wisdom of this course was more than doubtful; for the expenses of government, of which the conversion of Athens into a dignified capital was not the least, exceeded the resources of the exchequer, and the state was only saved from bankruptcy by the continual intervention of the powers. Though King Louis, as the most exalted of Philhellenes, received an enthusiastic welcome when he visited Greece in the winter of 1835, his son's government grew increasingly unpopular. The Greeks were more heavily taxed than under Turkish rule; they had exchanged government by the sword, which they understood, for government by official regulations, which they hated; they had escaped from the sovereignty of the Muslim to fall under that of a devout Catholic, to them a heretic. Otto was well intentioned, honest and inspired with a genuine affection for his adopted country; but it needed more than mere amiable qualities to reconcile the Greeks to his rule. In 1837 Otto visited Germany and married the beautiful and talented Princess Amalie of Oldenburg. The union was unfruitful, and the new queen made herself unpopular by interfering in the government. Meanwhile, at the instance of the Swiss Philhellene Eynard, Armansperg had been dismissed by the king immediately on his return, but a Greek minister was not put in his place, and the granting of a constitution was still postponed. The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek sentiment by efforts to enlarge the frontiers of his kingdom, e.g. by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841, failed of their object and only succeeded in embroiling him with the powers. His power rested wholly on Bavarian bayonets; and when, in 1843, the last of the German troops were withdrawn, he was forced by the outbreak of a revolutionary movement in Athens to grant a constitution and to appoint a ministry of native Greeks. With the grant of the constitution Otto's troubles increased. The Greek parliament, like its predecessors during the War of Liberation, was the battleground of factions divided, not by national issues, but by their adherence to one or other of the great powers who made Greece the arena of their rivalry for the control of the Mediterranean. Otto thought to counteract the effects of political corruption and incompetence by overriding the constitution to which he had sworn. The attempt would have been perilous even for a strong man, a native ruler and an Orthodox believer; and Otto was none of these. His prestige, moreover, suffered from the "Pacifico incident" in 1850, when Lord Palmerston caused the British fleet to blockade the Peiraeus, to exact reparation for injustice done to a Levantine Jew who happened also to be a British subject. For the ill-advised intervention in the Crimean War, which led to a second occupation of the Peiraeus, Otto was not responsible; his consent had been given under protest as a concession to popular clamor. His position in Greece was, however, becoming untenable. In 1861 a student named Drusios attempted to murder the queen, and was hailed by the populace as a modern Harmodios. In October 1862 the troops in Acarnania under General Theodore Srivas declared for the king's deposition; those in Athens followed suit; a provisional government was set up and summoned a national convention. The king and queen, who were at sea, took refuge on a British warship, and returned to Bavaria, where they were lodged by King Louis in the palace of the former bishops of Bamberg. Here, on the 26th of July 1867, Otto died. He had become strangely persuaded that he held the throne of Greece by divine right; and, though he made no effort to regain it, he refused to acknowledge the validity of the election of Prince George of Denmark. Father: Louis I (King of Bavaria) Mother: Teresa of Saxe-Altenburg Wife: Princess Amelie of Oldenburg (b. 21-Dec-1818, m. 22-Nov-1836, d. 20-May-1875) King of Greece (1832-62) Do you know something we don't? Submit a correction or make a comment about this profile Copyright ©2019 Soylent Communications	<urn:uuid:5f4a1df5-648d-4726-9fc9-996432f1e888>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nndb.com/people/308/000103996/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00186.warc.gz	en	0.982728	1,384	3.390625	3	[ -0.11596059054136276, 0.43264472484588623, -0.032395973801612854, -0.5272817611694336, -0.1400464028120041, -0.2177060842514038, 0.14873427152633667, 0.03176999092102051, -0.1476956307888031, -0.26945117115974426, -0.09360043704509735, -0.6862685084342957, 0.07736743241548538, 0.3108702301...	6	Birthplace: Salzburg, Austria Location of death: Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany Cause of death: unspecified Remains: Buried, Theatinerkirche, Munich, Germany Religion: Roman Catholic Race or Ethnicity: White Sexual orientation: Straight Executive summary: King of Greece, 1832-62 Otto, King of Greece, was the second son of Louis I, king of Bavaria, and his wife Teresa of Saxe-Altenburg. He was born at Salzburg on the 1st of June 1815, and was educated at Munich. In 1832 he was chosen by the conference of London to occupy the newly-erected throne of Greece, and on the 6th of February 1833 he landed at Nauplia, then the capital of independent Greece. Otto, who was not yet eighteen, was accompanied by a council of regency composed of Bavarians under the presidency of Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg (1787-1853), who as minister of finance in Bavaria had succeeded in restoring the credit of the state at the cost of his popularity. The task of governing a semi-barbarous people, but recently emancipated, divided into bitter factions, and filled with an exaggerated sense of their national destiny, would in no case have been easy; it was not facilitated by the bureaucratic methods introduced by the regents. Though Armansperg and his colleagues did a good deal to introduce system and order into the infant state, they contrived to make themselves hated by the Greeks, and with sufficient reason. That the regency refused to respond to the demand for a constitution was perhaps natural, for the experience of constitutional experiments in emancipated Greece had not been encouraging. The result, however, was perpetual unrest; the regency, too, was divided into a French and a Russian party, and distracted by personal quarrels, which led in 1834 to the recall by King Louis of G. L. von Maurer and Karl von Abel, who had been in bitter opposition to Armansperg. Soon afterwards the Mainotes were in open revolt, and the money obtained from foreign loans had to be spent in organizing a force to preserve order. On the 1st of June 1835 Otto came of age, but, on the advice of his father and under pressure of Great Britain and of the house of Rothschild, who all believed that a capable finance minister was the supreme need of Greece, he retained Armansperg as chancellor of state. The wisdom of this course was more than doubtful; for the expenses of government, of which the conversion of Athens into a dignified capital was not the least, exceeded the resources of the exchequer, and the state was only saved from bankruptcy by the continual intervention of the powers. Though King Louis, as the most exalted of Philhellenes, received an enthusiastic welcome when he visited Greece in the winter of 1835, his son's government grew increasingly unpopular. The Greeks were more heavily taxed than under Turkish rule; they had exchanged government by the sword, which they understood, for government by official regulations, which they hated; they had escaped from the sovereignty of the Muslim to fall under that of a devout Catholic, to them a heretic. Otto was well intentioned, honest and inspired with a genuine affection for his adopted country; but it needed more than mere amiable qualities to reconcile the Greeks to his rule. In 1837 Otto visited Germany and married the beautiful and talented Princess Amalie of Oldenburg. The union was unfruitful, and the new queen made herself unpopular by interfering in the government. Meanwhile, at the instance of the Swiss Philhellene Eynard, Armansperg had been dismissed by the king immediately on his return, but a Greek minister was not put in his place, and the granting of a constitution was still postponed. The attempts of Otto to conciliate Greek sentiment by efforts to enlarge the frontiers of his kingdom, e.g. by the suggested acquisition of Crete in 1841, failed of their object and only succeeded in embroiling him with the powers. His power rested wholly on Bavarian bayonets; and when, in 1843, the last of the German troops were withdrawn, he was forced by the outbreak of a revolutionary movement in Athens to grant a constitution and to appoint a ministry of native Greeks. With the grant of the constitution Otto's troubles increased. The Greek parliament, like its predecessors during the War of Liberation, was the battleground of factions divided, not by national issues, but by their adherence to one or other of the great powers who made Greece the arena of their rivalry for the control of the Mediterranean. Otto thought to counteract the effects of political corruption and incompetence by overriding the constitution to which he had sworn. The attempt would have been perilous even for a strong man, a native ruler and an Orthodox believer; and Otto was none of these. His prestige, moreover, suffered from the "Pacifico incident" in 1850, when Lord Palmerston caused the British fleet to blockade the Peiraeus, to exact reparation for injustice done to a Levantine Jew who happened also to be a British subject. For the ill-advised intervention in the Crimean War, which led to a second occupation of the Peiraeus, Otto was not responsible; his consent had been given under protest as a concession to popular clamor. His position in Greece was, however, becoming untenable. In 1861 a student named Drusios attempted to murder the queen, and was hailed by the populace as a modern Harmodios. In October 1862 the troops in Acarnania under General Theodore Srivas declared for the king's deposition; those in Athens followed suit; a provisional government was set up and summoned a national convention. The king and queen, who were at sea, took refuge on a British warship, and returned to Bavaria, where they were lodged by King Louis in the palace of the former bishops of Bamberg. Here, on the 26th of July 1867, Otto died. He had become strangely persuaded that he held the throne of Greece by divine right; and, though he made no effort to regain it, he refused to acknowledge the validity of the election of Prince George of Denmark. Father: Louis I (King of Bavaria) Mother: Teresa of Saxe-Altenburg Wife: Princess Amelie of Oldenburg (b. 21-Dec-1818, m. 22-Nov-1836, d. 20-May-1875) King of Greece (1832-62) Do you know something we don't? Submit a correction or make a comment about this profile Copyright ©2019 Soylent Communications	1,444	ENGLISH	1
The Dust Bowl by Mathilde and Lola We are happy to show you our exhibit of the exodus of the Okies during the Dust Bowl years. The Dust Bowl started in 1940’s. It was a dust storm and a difficult period for migrant farmers. We report their journey with 8 photographs. They fled from the Dust Bowl to California. They left their farms behind and travelled on Route 66 by car or by foot with their remaining belongings because the drought caused a cessation of agricultural production. On the way, the migrants went across many states and many towns. It was a very long and exhausting trip. When they arrived in California they have nothing and they don’t know what they expect. When they arrived in a slum, it looked awful. They are hopeless. They travelled with all their family. They looked straved because of the lack of food. They are very hungry. That’s why they looked desperate and miserable. Migrants lived in terrible conditions because they were treated like slaves. Farmers are dreaming of making a new life in California, the land of plenty. California represents the symbol of the American dream. Despite the difficulty of slums and their journey migrant farmers are relieve to arrived. A mother with her children, in a tent maybe in a slum. They left from the Great Plains maybe Oklahoma or Texas but now they are California migrants. They look desperate. I think, they are in the desert because the ground is very dry. The family of migrants moved by train, by car or by foot. It was an exhausting and long journey for them. Usually, they headed West and went across many states. This is a camp of migrant workers, during the Dust Bowl in the 1930’s. The Dust Bowl was a very difficult period for migrant farmers. They fled to California. The state of California is a veritable promised land for them. Highway 66 or the mother road is a long national road leading from the Mississippi to Bakersfield California. The main migrant road during the Dust Bowl. The Migrants dreaded the lack of food because of the distance between towns. This picture was taken by Dorothea Lange in Holtville in March 1937. We see refugee families. A storm has passed because there is a pile of pots on the ground. They may go to california, which is the gathering place for all refugees. The photographer is Arthur Rothstein, he took this picture in April 1936. The house we can see was destroyed by the dust bowl. Its inhabitants had to leave the house because they could no cultivate their farms. In this photo we see the hygiene conditions of migrants. As we can see they were washing them selves in rivers or lakes because during their journey they brought little things with them so they did as they could. In this photo we can see a group of migrants. They seem happy to have arrived at their destination. What is normal after leaving their homes, makes a long and hard journey with difficult conditions.	<urn:uuid:423af04c-66ab-45f5-af56-3e4757d8a64a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://picturethis.museumca.org/exhibits/dust-bowl-mathilde-and-lola	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00496.warc.gz	en	0.987461	615	3.78125	4	[ 0.09825034439563751, -0.29970479011535645, 0.1531885862350464, 0.22467783093452454, 0.21672426164150238, 0.10115370154380798, -0.059844307601451874, -0.004306994378566742, -0.221304252743721, 0.3394356369972229, -0.16713008284568787, -0.7890143394470215, 0.24570122361183167, 0.011102819815...	2	The Dust Bowl by Mathilde and Lola We are happy to show you our exhibit of the exodus of the Okies during the Dust Bowl years. The Dust Bowl started in 1940’s. It was a dust storm and a difficult period for migrant farmers. We report their journey with 8 photographs. They fled from the Dust Bowl to California. They left their farms behind and travelled on Route 66 by car or by foot with their remaining belongings because the drought caused a cessation of agricultural production. On the way, the migrants went across many states and many towns. It was a very long and exhausting trip. When they arrived in California they have nothing and they don’t know what they expect. When they arrived in a slum, it looked awful. They are hopeless. They travelled with all their family. They looked straved because of the lack of food. They are very hungry. That’s why they looked desperate and miserable. Migrants lived in terrible conditions because they were treated like slaves. Farmers are dreaming of making a new life in California, the land of plenty. California represents the symbol of the American dream. Despite the difficulty of slums and their journey migrant farmers are relieve to arrived. A mother with her children, in a tent maybe in a slum. They left from the Great Plains maybe Oklahoma or Texas but now they are California migrants. They look desperate. I think, they are in the desert because the ground is very dry. The family of migrants moved by train, by car or by foot. It was an exhausting and long journey for them. Usually, they headed West and went across many states. This is a camp of migrant workers, during the Dust Bowl in the 1930’s. The Dust Bowl was a very difficult period for migrant farmers. They fled to California. The state of California is a veritable promised land for them. Highway 66 or the mother road is a long national road leading from the Mississippi to Bakersfield California. The main migrant road during the Dust Bowl. The Migrants dreaded the lack of food because of the distance between towns. This picture was taken by Dorothea Lange in Holtville in March 1937. We see refugee families. A storm has passed because there is a pile of pots on the ground. They may go to california, which is the gathering place for all refugees. The photographer is Arthur Rothstein, he took this picture in April 1936. The house we can see was destroyed by the dust bowl. Its inhabitants had to leave the house because they could no cultivate their farms. In this photo we see the hygiene conditions of migrants. As we can see they were washing them selves in rivers or lakes because during their journey they brought little things with them so they did as they could. In this photo we can see a group of migrants. They seem happy to have arrived at their destination. What is normal after leaving their homes, makes a long and hard journey with difficult conditions.	614	ENGLISH	1
Mesopotamia is where civilization began. By 4000 B. C., many different groups of people were working out their lives in a variety of ways. In a great arc from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, across the Turkish plains and through the highlands of Iraq and Iran, groups of peoples had settled and were farming, tending animals, making pottery and building towns, markets and forts. In the deserts, mountains and steppes, nomadic tribesmen lived by herding animals and by hunting and raiding. In Mesopotamia as these populations grew, they began to compete for land, food and supplies. One of the areas that was to become most sought after was a stretch of land almost at the very centre of these various peoples. It was only about 150 miles wide and 600 miles long and extended from the foothills of northwester Iraq to the Persian Gulf. Two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, drained the area and gave it its name, Mesopotamia – “the land between the rivers”. For the next 3,500 years, Mesopotamia was to witness the rise and fall of many cities and cultures. Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldaeans – these were only some of the people who took root and flourished in this land. Finally the Persians came and reduced Mesopotamia to a mere province but from the first unknown settlers to the mighty Nebuchadnezzar, this land gave rise to much that would affect all civilization. The first settlers in Mesopotamia set up their villages and farmed in the upper reaches of the Tigris. These were among the earliest farming communities anywhere in the world, but they gradually declined and it was many years later before this region came to be known as Assyria. Mesopotamia’s southern region, which was later called Babylonia, was especially hot and dry and did not seem to attract early man. Between the rivers were broad plains, ideal for farming if they could be watered. Along the lower reaches and in the delta, were marshlands with fish and wild fowl and reeds that could be made into boats and huts. What was needed to develop this territory were men willing to settle and work the land. The Founding of Eridu For a long time, people came and went in southern Mesopotamia. Then, about 4000 B. C., men from the east settled at a site called Eridu, in the Delta near Euphrates River. They farmed and fished and made pottery. Stone was so rare that they even baked clay tools. There was not enough rainfall to support their crops, but fertile lands along the river were easily flooded. To keep the marshes drained and to bring water to more and distant fields, men began to develop a system of dikes and canals. The construction and upkeep of such an irrigation system took much planning and labour and men were forced to work together. True community living had begun. Soon the community at Eridu built itself a shrine to its patron god. It was a simple building, made of the same unbaked bricks used for their houses. This was only proper, since the shrine was the home of the god. Inside, on its altar, people laid their offerings of fish and other foods to express thanks for past harvests and hopes for the future. If the god became unhappy, he might leave the city and expose it to evils and enemies. As the community grew, there was need for more food. The irrigation system was enlarged, but the floods in the delta and marshlands were so unpredictable and destructive that people began to settle further up on the plains, North of Eridu, for instance, there was the prosperous city of Uruk. Its people were not only farmers, but carpenters, priests and metalsmiths. They also wove cloth, made fine stone carvings and played music on a simple harp. The Rise of Sumer in Mesopotamia No matter how busy they were, the people of Uruk always took time to worship their god. As at Eridu, they periodically built a new temple, using the old building material as its foundation. Now that Uruk was thriving, the great platform towered forty feet above the plain. Stairs and ramps led up to the white temple on the top, where there was an altar to Anu, the great royal sky god. In a city as large and as wealthy as Uruk, there was room for other gods and temples as well. The southernmost part of Mesopotamia was called Sumer and now many cities are growing there. Along with Eridu and Uruk, there were Ur, Lagash and Nippur, each with its own supreme gods were recognized by all Sumerians. Among them were Anu, the sky god and his son Enlil, lord of the wind and earth; Ea, god of water and Nanna, or sin, the moon god who governed the night, the months and the calendar. All Sumerians also worshipped Uta, or Shamash, the sun god. Since he was “the one from whom no secrets are hid”, Uta was also the god of justice. Each god had his temple home in one city or another, often on a high platform, or ziggurat. The ziggurat was like an artificial mountain rising from the flatlands. The Sumerians called it “the house of the mountain,” or “the bond between heaven and earth.” To them, all nature – plants, animals, water, even the sun – sprang from the mountains and it seemed that the life-giving gods would be most at home in a high place. The temple that towered over the city was the centre of the city’s life. All land was considered the estate of the god, with the high priest acting as the god’s steward. As farming and irrigation became more complicated, officials were appointed to supervise the work. In time, some citizens gained control of large lots of land and became wealthy. Other people became so indebted that they had to sign themselves into slavery. At all times, however, everyone worked for the good of the community. The area around the temple was a busy place. Here were brought the various products – grains, vegetables, fish, cheeses, dates, sesame seed, wool, skins, reeds. Some of the products were given to support the temple staff and the community’s festivals. Some were stored for famine and emergencies, or distributed among those who could not farm, or exported to other cities and distant tribes. Supervising all this were the various men who combined the roles of temple priests and civic officials. Quotas had to be filled, land assigned, goods divided. A system for keeping records was needed and it was not long before the Sumerians were working with numbers. They had two systems, in fact; one was based on the number 60 and the other on the number 10. They could make various calculations and even worked with fractions. Systems of weights and measures were developed at the same time. Writing with Signs A man could make simple calculations in his head, but certain records had to be kept to administer the community’s property. People began to scratch the numbers in stone or press them in clay tablets. Alongside the numbers they drew outlines of the objects accounted for – livestock, human heads, plants, tools, buildings. Soon they began to simplify the pictures, eliminating details and leaving little more than a sign. They soon realized that a drawing or sign could stand for something beyond itself. The sign for star came to mean “heaven,” the sign for foot came to mean “going”. After a while, they began to use a sign for its sound alone. The word for arrow, Ti, sounded like the word for “life”, so a simple arrowhead was used to express a complicated idea. Later the arrowhead was combined with other signs to form words with the ‘Ti’ sound in them. For hundreds of years, these signs were used mainly to record lists of produce, receipts of goods, quotas and rations. The few people who kept such records did not see themselves as creating anything special. They took the clay that was readily at hand and pressed on it with a piece of pointed reed. The fact remains, however, that these early Sumerians had invented writing. It was the people of Uruk who took the lead in developing writing and other forms of Sumerian culture. Meantime, other cities were also advancing, each independent and yet sharing the Sumerian way of life. The rivers made communication and trade easy and a city might send out a whole colony to watch over trading routes. From the mountains of Iran to the east, the Sumerians got stone, timber and metals in exchange for their grains. They traded with peoples who lived as far away as Troy and the Caspian Sea. Even the Egyptians learned new ways of doing things from trading with the Sumerians. Religion and the Gods of Mesopotamia Wherever they went, the Sumerians carried their cylinder seals – semi-precious stones no longer than a finger joint. Carved on each was a design usually of animals and plants, often done with great artistry. Rolled across wet clay, the design was transferred and became a signature and a seal. To people who believed the gods watched over all their doings, it was a curse to disturb a man’s seal. In Mesopotamia, the Sumerians saw nothing strange about calling on the gods to watch over property. Every object, every activity belonged to some god. Besides the great gods of the temples, there were also the gods in the forces of nature – fire, sandstorms, lightning and thunder, the plague. All around men, too, were ghosts, demons, devils and monsters. Rabiscu the Croucher lurked in doorways and dark corners. Another demon threatened women in childbirth. Men could do several things to keep the gods and demons happy. The great temple gods were honoured with offerings and ceremonies. People wore magic charms and amulets and in their homes they kept figures of clay or wood. When a man was troubled, he asked a priest or magician to work spells or perform rites. Everything that happened was a possible sign or omen. “If a scorpion lurks in a man’s bed, that man shall have riches,” went one saying. “If the black winged ants are in town, there will be pouring rain and floods,” said another. There was a right way and a wrong way to do everything and Sumerians had to watch all their actions. It was religion – the gods, the temples, the priests – that guided community through all these dangers. Yet, as time went on, life began to change. In the early days, people looked to the temple for leadership in all affairs. The En, the highest official, was both high priest and king. Gradually the En had given up his priestly duties to concentrate on administering the expanding city. The temple, ofcourse, still controlled the land and the farmers who worked it. The ceremonies presided over by the priests and priestesses were still of great importance and a strong king could still dominate the religious life of his people. One of the greatest of the priest-kings was Gilgamesh of Uruk. For hundreds of years afterwards, men throughout the Near East told tales that made him seem more like a god than a man. Gilgamesh performed superhuman feats to protect Uruk, but one day he began to fear death. He set forth to consult an ancestor, Utnapishtim, who had been made immortal. After a long and dangerous journey, Gilgamesh found Utnapishtim and asked him how he had been freed from threat of death. Utnapishtim was willing enough to tell the story. The gods had once decided to wipe out all mankind by a great flood, but the god Ea, who often favoured men, warned Utnapishtim and told him to make a ship. Utnapishtim built a large ark, on which he loaded his family, certain craftsmen, various animals and his treasures. When the earth was flooded, all other life was wiped out. The ark grounded on a mountain peak and when the water began to go down, Utnapishtim prepared a sacrifice to the gods. It was after this that he and his wife were given the immortality of the gods. For Gilgamesh, there was to be no such escape from death. Knowing that he must die, he returned to Uruk, where his last pleasure was to look out over the city and the fortified walls he had helped to build. Such a tale told a great deal about the Sumerians themselves. It showed their respect for a great priest-king and their pride in the city. It contained the memory of the great floods that had wiped out earlier settlements and recognition of the fate that awaited all men. The tale revealed, too, that Uruk had built a wall during the reign of Gilgamesh. Other Sumerian cities such as Ur, Nippur, Lagash and Kish had also built walls and they had enlarged their armies as well. They needed to protect themselves from the nomadic tribesman to the west and the marauding mountain-men to the east. Besides, the cities were competing with each other for land, water rights and trade routes and sometimes rivalry broke out into open warfare. Meanwhile, the king of each city was becoming more powerful. He was taking over the duties of the military chief, who had formerly been elected to lead a city’s troops only during emergency. Now the king was the permanent commander of the army and even passed the position on to his descendants. No matter how powerful the ruler or how rich the city, the gods were not forgotten, Ur, for instance, was now a wealthy city, with a strong army and a firmly established dynasty of kings. Yet, as in the old days, men still made great sacrifices for their religion. Ur even observed rituals in which several people were buried along with many treasures. Then, on one occasion, about the year 2500 B. C., the king ordered a ceremony more lavish than any before. It began with the Sacred Marriage at the temple. This was a traditional ritual, held every year to ensure fertility to the land. This year, however, the sacred couple left the temple and marched down into a burial pit many feet below the ground. They were accompanied by priests, members of the court, musicians, soldiers and servants. Many of them wore jewelry or carried weapons and treasures. Four-wheeled chariots drawn by oxen were also in the procession. When they had all gathered in the pit, another ceremony took place. The sacred couple was put to death and buried in a stone chamber. Then dozens of their attendants drank a poisonous drug and lay down to await death. After the oxen were sacrificed and the final rites performed, the whole tomb was filled with earth. It was a royal burial such as only the gods could inspire. “Who is King” Sumerian cities could not afford such extravagant ceremonies very often, yet their gods did seem to be pleased. Then about 2370 B. C., Sargon, an official of the king of Kish, seized power. A new ruler was not unusual, but Sargon and his followers were Semites, people from the lands to the west. The Semites had come and gone in Mesopotamia from the beginning, sometimes as migrant groups, sometimes as individuals. Some had settled just north of Sumer in a region known as Akkad. These Semites shared a common past with the Sumerians. They had no interest in doing away with Sumerian culture and they even took over the Sumerian writing system for their own language, Akkadian. When Sargon and his Akkadians took over, then, it was more like a change in government. He set up a new capital at Agade and proceeded to take control of many cities of Mesopotamia. He destroyed the city walls and put his own people in power. Through trade he extended his influence into Syria and the Mediterranean. Sargon’s descendants expanded his empire. His grandson Naram-Sin defeated various tribes on the edges of Mesopotamia. To guard the trade routes with Turkey and Syria, great forts were built. Some goods went as far as Cyprus and India. Agade, the capital, became a splendid city, with people from all over the world bringing trade and tribute. Elephants and apes were displayed in captivity. About a century after Sargon founded it, the Akkadian empire began to fall apart. Tribes from the west and east were raiding the Akkadians and the Sumerian cities no longer supported their overlords. Then Agade was destroyed, so completely that it would never rise again. With Agade ruined, there was no clear authority. ”Who is king?” the people asked. “Who is not king!” came the answer. The Mesopotamian cities fell to the Gutians, barbarous tribesmen from mountains in Iran. Trade, communications, irrigation were all disrupted. The temples were plundered and famine spread across the land. By about 2100 B. C., however, Ur had revived and become Sumer’s strongest city. Its ruler Ur-Nammu and his descendants formed Ur’s third dynasty, which led Ur through a period of great splendour. Ur built itself a ziggurat almost 70 feet high and encouraged the building of cities, temples and canals throughout Sumer and Akkad. By trade, diplomacy and military expeditions, Ur extended its influence beyond Mesopotamia. It was not so large an empire as that of Sargon and the Akkadians, but it was more tightly organized. Administering such an empire required a great many records and documents. Clay tablets and a reed stylus were still the basic materials of the scribes who did the writing, but much had changed since the early days. The signs now in use mostly represented sounds and all words and ideas could be exposed in writing. Each sign, moreover, had long been reduced to a simple wedge shape or cuneiform, that could be quickly pressed into the clay. Even so, to become a scribe took many years of training in scribal school, or “tablet-house”. The student who misbehaved or did it careless exercises was punished. Families competed with one another to get their children into such schools, for the skill of writing assured a person of a respected career. Despite its organization, Ur’s empire began to fall away. Other cities stopped paying tribute and raiding tribes swooped down on its fortresses, lands and crops. The final blow came when the Elamites, a people from southeast, captured Ur and destroyed it. The Sumerian culture had made an impression on Mesopotamia that could never be wiped out; the language would survive for centuries in religious and learned writings. However, the power of the Sumerians was ended. The Elamites did not settle and build an empire. Instead, the Amorites, Semitic tribesmen from western deserts, took over the cities and set up their kingdoms. For the next two centuries, there was no real central authority in Mesopotamia. Marauders and nomads came and went. In the north, the Assyrians began to show their strength. Various cities took turns trying to rule Mesopotamia, but none succeeded for long. The Laws of Hammurabi Finally, out of all this turmoil, one of the Amorite kings emerged as a true ruler. He was Hammurabi of Babylon, an old Sumerian city that had never been of much importance. But when Hammurabi came to its throne about 1790 B. C., Babylon was becoming one of the stronger cities. Hammurabi took firm control, defeated various warring groups and gradually brought the cities and lands of Sumer and Akkad into a kingdom of Babylonia. Hammurabi was more than a military chieftain. He ran a true government, undertaking everything from new canals to a revised calendar. He personally supervised the affairs of his kingdom and was constantly sending letters and documents to his officials. Nothing was too small for his attention. If an official neglected to clear out an irrigation canal, Hammurabi ordered him to do the job and report back. If there was a charge of bribery, Hammurabi ordered an investigation and had everyone involved brought before him. Hammurabi’s great achievement was restoring law and order in the land. He was following tradition when he did this, for the settles peoples of Mesopotamia had always respected law, whether in the conduct of their business or in the worship of their gods. Justice was “the straight thing” that kept people on the right path. Hammurabi issued many laws and regulations. They dealt with everything from prices, wages and debts to broken contracts and the conduct of lawsuits. Then, when his reign was drawing to an end, he decided that the laws needed improving. Some had to be completely revised; others needed to be explained. With the inspiration from Shamash, god of the sun and of justice, he drew up the new laws. He had them engraved on stone and sent them forth throughout the kingdom. “Hammurabi the reverent god-fearing prince”, began the inscription, was called by the gods “to make justice appear in the land, to destroy the evil and wicked that the strong might not oppress the weak”. The laws that followed dealt with many matters: the administration of justice, property, marriage, assault, agriculture, wages and slaves. Many of them were based on the ancient idea of “an eye for an eye” – that is, a man who had put out someone’s eye would be punished by having his own eye put out. “If a man accuses another man of murder and it proves to be false, the accuser shall be put to death,” said one of Hammurabi’s laws. Another said, “if a builder makes a house for a man and the house falls down and causes the death of the owner, the builder shall be put to death”. It was harsh justice but atleast the laws were written down for all men to appeal to and behind them was the power of the king of Babylon. When Hammurabi died, he was succeeded by his son, but the dynasty soon ended. Kassites tribesman from the Zagros Mountains to the east, began to raid Babylonia and in time they captured the cities of Ur and Uruk. The people in the southern marshes known as the “sea lands” revolted and set up their own kingdom. Then out of the north came a new brand of marauders, the Hittities. They took Babylon, plundered and burnt it and then withdrew, but the damage was done. The irrigation systems, writing, the ziggurats, the laws – such things survived for centuries, but the first great age of Mesopotamia was at an end.	<urn:uuid:727aa0fa-3f58-4286-a8ea-58090804b1af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldhistoryvolume.com/early-civilizations/mesopotamia-civilization/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00415.warc.gz	en	0.988718	4,896	3.796875	4	[ 0.09595726430416107, 0.3353099524974823, 0.6317149996757507, 0.00026712531689554453, -0.13283255696296692, -0.4089113771915436, -0.19838044047355652, -0.010688934475183487, -0.27167028188705444, 0.035896509885787964, -0.23011285066604614, -0.8199901580810547, 0.24097110331058502, 0.0236591...	2	Mesopotamia is where civilization began. By 4000 B. C., many different groups of people were working out their lives in a variety of ways. In a great arc from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, across the Turkish plains and through the highlands of Iraq and Iran, groups of peoples had settled and were farming, tending animals, making pottery and building towns, markets and forts. In the deserts, mountains and steppes, nomadic tribesmen lived by herding animals and by hunting and raiding. In Mesopotamia as these populations grew, they began to compete for land, food and supplies. One of the areas that was to become most sought after was a stretch of land almost at the very centre of these various peoples. It was only about 150 miles wide and 600 miles long and extended from the foothills of northwester Iraq to the Persian Gulf. Two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, drained the area and gave it its name, Mesopotamia – “the land between the rivers”. For the next 3,500 years, Mesopotamia was to witness the rise and fall of many cities and cultures. Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldaeans – these were only some of the people who took root and flourished in this land. Finally the Persians came and reduced Mesopotamia to a mere province but from the first unknown settlers to the mighty Nebuchadnezzar, this land gave rise to much that would affect all civilization. The first settlers in Mesopotamia set up their villages and farmed in the upper reaches of the Tigris. These were among the earliest farming communities anywhere in the world, but they gradually declined and it was many years later before this region came to be known as Assyria. Mesopotamia’s southern region, which was later called Babylonia, was especially hot and dry and did not seem to attract early man. Between the rivers were broad plains, ideal for farming if they could be watered. Along the lower reaches and in the delta, were marshlands with fish and wild fowl and reeds that could be made into boats and huts. What was needed to develop this territory were men willing to settle and work the land. The Founding of Eridu For a long time, people came and went in southern Mesopotamia. Then, about 4000 B. C., men from the east settled at a site called Eridu, in the Delta near Euphrates River. They farmed and fished and made pottery. Stone was so rare that they even baked clay tools. There was not enough rainfall to support their crops, but fertile lands along the river were easily flooded. To keep the marshes drained and to bring water to more and distant fields, men began to develop a system of dikes and canals. The construction and upkeep of such an irrigation system took much planning and labour and men were forced to work together. True community living had begun. Soon the community at Eridu built itself a shrine to its patron god. It was a simple building, made of the same unbaked bricks used for their houses. This was only proper, since the shrine was the home of the god. Inside, on its altar, people laid their offerings of fish and other foods to express thanks for past harvests and hopes for the future. If the god became unhappy, he might leave the city and expose it to evils and enemies. As the community grew, there was need for more food. The irrigation system was enlarged, but the floods in the delta and marshlands were so unpredictable and destructive that people began to settle further up on the plains, North of Eridu, for instance, there was the prosperous city of Uruk. Its people were not only farmers, but carpenters, priests and metalsmiths. They also wove cloth, made fine stone carvings and played music on a simple harp. The Rise of Sumer in Mesopotamia No matter how busy they were, the people of Uruk always took time to worship their god. As at Eridu, they periodically built a new temple, using the old building material as its foundation. Now that Uruk was thriving, the great platform towered forty feet above the plain. Stairs and ramps led up to the white temple on the top, where there was an altar to Anu, the great royal sky god. In a city as large and as wealthy as Uruk, there was room for other gods and temples as well. The southernmost part of Mesopotamia was called Sumer and now many cities are growing there. Along with Eridu and Uruk, there were Ur, Lagash and Nippur, each with its own supreme gods were recognized by all Sumerians. Among them were Anu, the sky god and his son Enlil, lord of the wind and earth; Ea, god of water and Nanna, or sin, the moon god who governed the night, the months and the calendar. All Sumerians also worshipped Uta, or Shamash, the sun god. Since he was “the one from whom no secrets are hid”, Uta was also the god of justice. Each god had his temple home in one city or another, often on a high platform, or ziggurat. The ziggurat was like an artificial mountain rising from the flatlands. The Sumerians called it “the house of the mountain,” or “the bond between heaven and earth.” To them, all nature – plants, animals, water, even the sun – sprang from the mountains and it seemed that the life-giving gods would be most at home in a high place. The temple that towered over the city was the centre of the city’s life. All land was considered the estate of the god, with the high priest acting as the god’s steward. As farming and irrigation became more complicated, officials were appointed to supervise the work. In time, some citizens gained control of large lots of land and became wealthy. Other people became so indebted that they had to sign themselves into slavery. At all times, however, everyone worked for the good of the community. The area around the temple was a busy place. Here were brought the various products – grains, vegetables, fish, cheeses, dates, sesame seed, wool, skins, reeds. Some of the products were given to support the temple staff and the community’s festivals. Some were stored for famine and emergencies, or distributed among those who could not farm, or exported to other cities and distant tribes. Supervising all this were the various men who combined the roles of temple priests and civic officials. Quotas had to be filled, land assigned, goods divided. A system for keeping records was needed and it was not long before the Sumerians were working with numbers. They had two systems, in fact; one was based on the number 60 and the other on the number 10. They could make various calculations and even worked with fractions. Systems of weights and measures were developed at the same time. Writing with Signs A man could make simple calculations in his head, but certain records had to be kept to administer the community’s property. People began to scratch the numbers in stone or press them in clay tablets. Alongside the numbers they drew outlines of the objects accounted for – livestock, human heads, plants, tools, buildings. Soon they began to simplify the pictures, eliminating details and leaving little more than a sign. They soon realized that a drawing or sign could stand for something beyond itself. The sign for star came to mean “heaven,” the sign for foot came to mean “going”. After a while, they began to use a sign for its sound alone. The word for arrow, Ti, sounded like the word for “life”, so a simple arrowhead was used to express a complicated idea. Later the arrowhead was combined with other signs to form words with the ‘Ti’ sound in them. For hundreds of years, these signs were used mainly to record lists of produce, receipts of goods, quotas and rations. The few people who kept such records did not see themselves as creating anything special. They took the clay that was readily at hand and pressed on it with a piece of pointed reed. The fact remains, however, that these early Sumerians had invented writing. It was the people of Uruk who took the lead in developing writing and other forms of Sumerian culture. Meantime, other cities were also advancing, each independent and yet sharing the Sumerian way of life. The rivers made communication and trade easy and a city might send out a whole colony to watch over trading routes. From the mountains of Iran to the east, the Sumerians got stone, timber and metals in exchange for their grains. They traded with peoples who lived as far away as Troy and the Caspian Sea. Even the Egyptians learned new ways of doing things from trading with the Sumerians. Religion and the Gods of Mesopotamia Wherever they went, the Sumerians carried their cylinder seals – semi-precious stones no longer than a finger joint. Carved on each was a design usually of animals and plants, often done with great artistry. Rolled across wet clay, the design was transferred and became a signature and a seal. To people who believed the gods watched over all their doings, it was a curse to disturb a man’s seal. In Mesopotamia, the Sumerians saw nothing strange about calling on the gods to watch over property. Every object, every activity belonged to some god. Besides the great gods of the temples, there were also the gods in the forces of nature – fire, sandstorms, lightning and thunder, the plague. All around men, too, were ghosts, demons, devils and monsters. Rabiscu the Croucher lurked in doorways and dark corners. Another demon threatened women in childbirth. Men could do several things to keep the gods and demons happy. The great temple gods were honoured with offerings and ceremonies. People wore magic charms and amulets and in their homes they kept figures of clay or wood. When a man was troubled, he asked a priest or magician to work spells or perform rites. Everything that happened was a possible sign or omen. “If a scorpion lurks in a man’s bed, that man shall have riches,” went one saying. “If the black winged ants are in town, there will be pouring rain and floods,” said another. There was a right way and a wrong way to do everything and Sumerians had to watch all their actions. It was religion – the gods, the temples, the priests – that guided community through all these dangers. Yet, as time went on, life began to change. In the early days, people looked to the temple for leadership in all affairs. The En, the highest official, was both high priest and king. Gradually the En had given up his priestly duties to concentrate on administering the expanding city. The temple, ofcourse, still controlled the land and the farmers who worked it. The ceremonies presided over by the priests and priestesses were still of great importance and a strong king could still dominate the religious life of his people. One of the greatest of the priest-kings was Gilgamesh of Uruk. For hundreds of years afterwards, men throughout the Near East told tales that made him seem more like a god than a man. Gilgamesh performed superhuman feats to protect Uruk, but one day he began to fear death. He set forth to consult an ancestor, Utnapishtim, who had been made immortal. After a long and dangerous journey, Gilgamesh found Utnapishtim and asked him how he had been freed from threat of death. Utnapishtim was willing enough to tell the story. The gods had once decided to wipe out all mankind by a great flood, but the god Ea, who often favoured men, warned Utnapishtim and told him to make a ship. Utnapishtim built a large ark, on which he loaded his family, certain craftsmen, various animals and his treasures. When the earth was flooded, all other life was wiped out. The ark grounded on a mountain peak and when the water began to go down, Utnapishtim prepared a sacrifice to the gods. It was after this that he and his wife were given the immortality of the gods. For Gilgamesh, there was to be no such escape from death. Knowing that he must die, he returned to Uruk, where his last pleasure was to look out over the city and the fortified walls he had helped to build. Such a tale told a great deal about the Sumerians themselves. It showed their respect for a great priest-king and their pride in the city. It contained the memory of the great floods that had wiped out earlier settlements and recognition of the fate that awaited all men. The tale revealed, too, that Uruk had built a wall during the reign of Gilgamesh. Other Sumerian cities such as Ur, Nippur, Lagash and Kish had also built walls and they had enlarged their armies as well. They needed to protect themselves from the nomadic tribesman to the west and the marauding mountain-men to the east. Besides, the cities were competing with each other for land, water rights and trade routes and sometimes rivalry broke out into open warfare. Meanwhile, the king of each city was becoming more powerful. He was taking over the duties of the military chief, who had formerly been elected to lead a city’s troops only during emergency. Now the king was the permanent commander of the army and even passed the position on to his descendants. No matter how powerful the ruler or how rich the city, the gods were not forgotten, Ur, for instance, was now a wealthy city, with a strong army and a firmly established dynasty of kings. Yet, as in the old days, men still made great sacrifices for their religion. Ur even observed rituals in which several people were buried along with many treasures. Then, on one occasion, about the year 2500 B. C., the king ordered a ceremony more lavish than any before. It began with the Sacred Marriage at the temple. This was a traditional ritual, held every year to ensure fertility to the land. This year, however, the sacred couple left the temple and marched down into a burial pit many feet below the ground. They were accompanied by priests, members of the court, musicians, soldiers and servants. Many of them wore jewelry or carried weapons and treasures. Four-wheeled chariots drawn by oxen were also in the procession. When they had all gathered in the pit, another ceremony took place. The sacred couple was put to death and buried in a stone chamber. Then dozens of their attendants drank a poisonous drug and lay down to await death. After the oxen were sacrificed and the final rites performed, the whole tomb was filled with earth. It was a royal burial such as only the gods could inspire. “Who is King” Sumerian cities could not afford such extravagant ceremonies very often, yet their gods did seem to be pleased. Then about 2370 B. C., Sargon, an official of the king of Kish, seized power. A new ruler was not unusual, but Sargon and his followers were Semites, people from the lands to the west. The Semites had come and gone in Mesopotamia from the beginning, sometimes as migrant groups, sometimes as individuals. Some had settled just north of Sumer in a region known as Akkad. These Semites shared a common past with the Sumerians. They had no interest in doing away with Sumerian culture and they even took over the Sumerian writing system for their own language, Akkadian. When Sargon and his Akkadians took over, then, it was more like a change in government. He set up a new capital at Agade and proceeded to take control of many cities of Mesopotamia. He destroyed the city walls and put his own people in power. Through trade he extended his influence into Syria and the Mediterranean. Sargon’s descendants expanded his empire. His grandson Naram-Sin defeated various tribes on the edges of Mesopotamia. To guard the trade routes with Turkey and Syria, great forts were built. Some goods went as far as Cyprus and India. Agade, the capital, became a splendid city, with people from all over the world bringing trade and tribute. Elephants and apes were displayed in captivity. About a century after Sargon founded it, the Akkadian empire began to fall apart. Tribes from the west and east were raiding the Akkadians and the Sumerian cities no longer supported their overlords. Then Agade was destroyed, so completely that it would never rise again. With Agade ruined, there was no clear authority. ”Who is king?” the people asked. “Who is not king!” came the answer. The Mesopotamian cities fell to the Gutians, barbarous tribesmen from mountains in Iran. Trade, communications, irrigation were all disrupted. The temples were plundered and famine spread across the land. By about 2100 B. C., however, Ur had revived and become Sumer’s strongest city. Its ruler Ur-Nammu and his descendants formed Ur’s third dynasty, which led Ur through a period of great splendour. Ur built itself a ziggurat almost 70 feet high and encouraged the building of cities, temples and canals throughout Sumer and Akkad. By trade, diplomacy and military expeditions, Ur extended its influence beyond Mesopotamia. It was not so large an empire as that of Sargon and the Akkadians, but it was more tightly organized. Administering such an empire required a great many records and documents. Clay tablets and a reed stylus were still the basic materials of the scribes who did the writing, but much had changed since the early days. The signs now in use mostly represented sounds and all words and ideas could be exposed in writing. Each sign, moreover, had long been reduced to a simple wedge shape or cuneiform, that could be quickly pressed into the clay. Even so, to become a scribe took many years of training in scribal school, or “tablet-house”. The student who misbehaved or did it careless exercises was punished. Families competed with one another to get their children into such schools, for the skill of writing assured a person of a respected career. Despite its organization, Ur’s empire began to fall away. Other cities stopped paying tribute and raiding tribes swooped down on its fortresses, lands and crops. The final blow came when the Elamites, a people from southeast, captured Ur and destroyed it. The Sumerian culture had made an impression on Mesopotamia that could never be wiped out; the language would survive for centuries in religious and learned writings. However, the power of the Sumerians was ended. The Elamites did not settle and build an empire. Instead, the Amorites, Semitic tribesmen from western deserts, took over the cities and set up their kingdoms. For the next two centuries, there was no real central authority in Mesopotamia. Marauders and nomads came and went. In the north, the Assyrians began to show their strength. Various cities took turns trying to rule Mesopotamia, but none succeeded for long. The Laws of Hammurabi Finally, out of all this turmoil, one of the Amorite kings emerged as a true ruler. He was Hammurabi of Babylon, an old Sumerian city that had never been of much importance. But when Hammurabi came to its throne about 1790 B. C., Babylon was becoming one of the stronger cities. Hammurabi took firm control, defeated various warring groups and gradually brought the cities and lands of Sumer and Akkad into a kingdom of Babylonia. Hammurabi was more than a military chieftain. He ran a true government, undertaking everything from new canals to a revised calendar. He personally supervised the affairs of his kingdom and was constantly sending letters and documents to his officials. Nothing was too small for his attention. If an official neglected to clear out an irrigation canal, Hammurabi ordered him to do the job and report back. If there was a charge of bribery, Hammurabi ordered an investigation and had everyone involved brought before him. Hammurabi’s great achievement was restoring law and order in the land. He was following tradition when he did this, for the settles peoples of Mesopotamia had always respected law, whether in the conduct of their business or in the worship of their gods. Justice was “the straight thing” that kept people on the right path. Hammurabi issued many laws and regulations. They dealt with everything from prices, wages and debts to broken contracts and the conduct of lawsuits. Then, when his reign was drawing to an end, he decided that the laws needed improving. Some had to be completely revised; others needed to be explained. With the inspiration from Shamash, god of the sun and of justice, he drew up the new laws. He had them engraved on stone and sent them forth throughout the kingdom. “Hammurabi the reverent god-fearing prince”, began the inscription, was called by the gods “to make justice appear in the land, to destroy the evil and wicked that the strong might not oppress the weak”. The laws that followed dealt with many matters: the administration of justice, property, marriage, assault, agriculture, wages and slaves. Many of them were based on the ancient idea of “an eye for an eye” – that is, a man who had put out someone’s eye would be punished by having his own eye put out. “If a man accuses another man of murder and it proves to be false, the accuser shall be put to death,” said one of Hammurabi’s laws. Another said, “if a builder makes a house for a man and the house falls down and causes the death of the owner, the builder shall be put to death”. It was harsh justice but atleast the laws were written down for all men to appeal to and behind them was the power of the king of Babylon. When Hammurabi died, he was succeeded by his son, but the dynasty soon ended. Kassites tribesman from the Zagros Mountains to the east, began to raid Babylonia and in time they captured the cities of Ur and Uruk. The people in the southern marshes known as the “sea lands” revolted and set up their own kingdom. Then out of the north came a new brand of marauders, the Hittities. They took Babylon, plundered and burnt it and then withdrew, but the damage was done. The irrigation systems, writing, the ziggurats, the laws – such things survived for centuries, but the first great age of Mesopotamia was at an end.	4,809	ENGLISH	1
Law and order has been a great social issue and development throughout the history of England, and Lancashire is no exception. The punishment of crimes was once a very immediate and very strict practise, if you were suspected of a crime before the 18th Century, you could be taken to a lock-up until an assize (a periodical trial) was called in your local area. Lancashire had the Lancaster Assize but some crimes would be tried in Manchester. Once brought to trial there was no penal system for you to enter into you. You were fined, given physical punishment, exiled to one of the colonies or simple put to death. There was no prison and no reform, if you were arrested it is likely that you would first be brought to a lock-up or gaol, a small, quasi-prison where you stayed until you were transported to a bigger prison as you awaited trial. With modern transport and communication systems, there is no need for these smaller, local cells to remain in use and they have been abandoned over the past two centuries but their importance to Britain's evolving penal system remains. Here are the lost gaols of Lancashire. Clitheroe Borough Gaol The gaol opened in 1818, three years after the Napoleonic Wars came to an end in Europe. It was built in York Street in the town and was used as a lock up for drunks, vagrants and petty criminals during the 1830s. The Clitheroe Gaol wasn't in use for long as it last appears in penal statistics in 1839 although it could have still been used as a lock up until the late 19th Century. The gaol served such a small population that it is likely to have still been used as a lock up until the 1880s. It was mentioned in an extensive prison report published in 1832 as the only other prison in the area alongside Preston County House of Correction, now HM Preston the category B prison. If you walk up York Street in the town and pass the Civic Hall you will spot the heavy studded door on the right hand side of the street which once led to the 19th Century gaol. Blackburn Lock Up House Between Bolton Road and Hall Street sits the site of the old Blackburn Police Station. It is there that Blackburn Lock Up House would have been situated, by all accounts it was a very busy prison. It could house a maximum of just six prisoners at any one time but took in 520 suspects in 1846 alone. But it was mostly used as a half way house for prisoners on their way from east Lancashire towards Preston. Until the dawn of the 20th Century it was in use extensively. In September, 1905, one Thomas Smith was held there for two months after he stole money from the till of a confectionery shop on Whalley Range. A prisons inspection report from 1848 showed that it contained bare cells with a smattering of wooden benches and no bedding. The lock up had a house for the superintendent of police, rooms for the constables, and a place for the magistrates, the cells were lit only by an open iron grating which let natural light into the gaol. Lancaster Borough Gaol Lancaster Castle has served as a prison since the 11th Century, housing everyone from nine-year-old thieves to cattle wranglers, murderers and, most famously, the Pendle witches. But another Borough Gaol was established in the old town hall. The town hall itself was built in 1669 but records are not clear as to when it was used as a goal. What is clear is that during the 1800s it was no longer a town hall and worked exclusively as a prison. It last appeared in the penal statistics for 1836 but continued as a lock up for at least another two years. Accounts are scant but it wasn't the busiest of prisons, only two people were committed there throughout the whole year of 1832. The three Burnley lock ups For such a small town (with a population of little more than 70,000 people today) it is surprising that Burnley required not just one town lock up but three. The main lock up, situated in the old town police station, was converted from a former Methodist Church situated off Nairne Street and contained just three cells. It was here that the dangerous child murderer Joseph Wren was held before he was brought to trial. The second was opened in 1819 behind the famous Swan Inn, a large and popular pub that opened late in the 1700s and once housed a town committee (the forerunner of the Burnley Town Council) which met there up until 1844. Like the lock up in Nairne Street, this one housed very few cells but was built to replace the third Burnley Lock Up, located further out of the town in Nelson. This Fleet Street Lock Up was much more fascinating. It compromised of several underground cells that operated during the 1700s. It was described, rather mildly, by the Burnley Express, as being 'uncomfortable'. In 1817 it was on the receiving end of a vicious prisoner riot which saw several prisoners escape the lock up. Later that year the lock up was shut down replaced by the lock up on the other side of the Swan. Brindle Lock Up House This lock up sits between Walton Summit and Brindle, south west of Bamber Bridge. Built around 1845, the lock up house formed part of the old police station on the outskirts of Brindle Village. It had just three cells and was barely used with, scant records of how many criminals were actually incarcerated there on an annual basis. It was deemed to be one of the most poorly maintained gaols in the north of England with no heating, poor lighting and no bedding for each prisoner. Once this was made public, in a report published in 1947, the gaol didn't last long and was closed soon after.	<urn:uuid:dfe37460-47fd-422f-8513-e5240e8e262d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lancs.live/news/lancashire-news/lost-local-prisons-gaols-lancashire-17512285	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00463.warc.gz	en	0.986761	1,241	3.28125	3	[ -0.035905078053474426, -0.49578607082366943, 0.4327978491783142, -0.09558986127376556, 0.20182043313980103, -0.19070225954055786, 0.051652103662490845, -0.3848777413368225, 0.26889532804489136, -0.1360776126384735, 0.06690751016139984, 0.14848995208740234, 0.13138294219970703, -0.098875977...	8	Law and order has been a great social issue and development throughout the history of England, and Lancashire is no exception. The punishment of crimes was once a very immediate and very strict practise, if you were suspected of a crime before the 18th Century, you could be taken to a lock-up until an assize (a periodical trial) was called in your local area. Lancashire had the Lancaster Assize but some crimes would be tried in Manchester. Once brought to trial there was no penal system for you to enter into you. You were fined, given physical punishment, exiled to one of the colonies or simple put to death. There was no prison and no reform, if you were arrested it is likely that you would first be brought to a lock-up or gaol, a small, quasi-prison where you stayed until you were transported to a bigger prison as you awaited trial. With modern transport and communication systems, there is no need for these smaller, local cells to remain in use and they have been abandoned over the past two centuries but their importance to Britain's evolving penal system remains. Here are the lost gaols of Lancashire. Clitheroe Borough Gaol The gaol opened in 1818, three years after the Napoleonic Wars came to an end in Europe. It was built in York Street in the town and was used as a lock up for drunks, vagrants and petty criminals during the 1830s. The Clitheroe Gaol wasn't in use for long as it last appears in penal statistics in 1839 although it could have still been used as a lock up until the late 19th Century. The gaol served such a small population that it is likely to have still been used as a lock up until the 1880s. It was mentioned in an extensive prison report published in 1832 as the only other prison in the area alongside Preston County House of Correction, now HM Preston the category B prison. If you walk up York Street in the town and pass the Civic Hall you will spot the heavy studded door on the right hand side of the street which once led to the 19th Century gaol. Blackburn Lock Up House Between Bolton Road and Hall Street sits the site of the old Blackburn Police Station. It is there that Blackburn Lock Up House would have been situated, by all accounts it was a very busy prison. It could house a maximum of just six prisoners at any one time but took in 520 suspects in 1846 alone. But it was mostly used as a half way house for prisoners on their way from east Lancashire towards Preston. Until the dawn of the 20th Century it was in use extensively. In September, 1905, one Thomas Smith was held there for two months after he stole money from the till of a confectionery shop on Whalley Range. A prisons inspection report from 1848 showed that it contained bare cells with a smattering of wooden benches and no bedding. The lock up had a house for the superintendent of police, rooms for the constables, and a place for the magistrates, the cells were lit only by an open iron grating which let natural light into the gaol. Lancaster Borough Gaol Lancaster Castle has served as a prison since the 11th Century, housing everyone from nine-year-old thieves to cattle wranglers, murderers and, most famously, the Pendle witches. But another Borough Gaol was established in the old town hall. The town hall itself was built in 1669 but records are not clear as to when it was used as a goal. What is clear is that during the 1800s it was no longer a town hall and worked exclusively as a prison. It last appeared in the penal statistics for 1836 but continued as a lock up for at least another two years. Accounts are scant but it wasn't the busiest of prisons, only two people were committed there throughout the whole year of 1832. The three Burnley lock ups For such a small town (with a population of little more than 70,000 people today) it is surprising that Burnley required not just one town lock up but three. The main lock up, situated in the old town police station, was converted from a former Methodist Church situated off Nairne Street and contained just three cells. It was here that the dangerous child murderer Joseph Wren was held before he was brought to trial. The second was opened in 1819 behind the famous Swan Inn, a large and popular pub that opened late in the 1700s and once housed a town committee (the forerunner of the Burnley Town Council) which met there up until 1844. Like the lock up in Nairne Street, this one housed very few cells but was built to replace the third Burnley Lock Up, located further out of the town in Nelson. This Fleet Street Lock Up was much more fascinating. It compromised of several underground cells that operated during the 1700s. It was described, rather mildly, by the Burnley Express, as being 'uncomfortable'. In 1817 it was on the receiving end of a vicious prisoner riot which saw several prisoners escape the lock up. Later that year the lock up was shut down replaced by the lock up on the other side of the Swan. Brindle Lock Up House This lock up sits between Walton Summit and Brindle, south west of Bamber Bridge. Built around 1845, the lock up house formed part of the old police station on the outskirts of Brindle Village. It had just three cells and was barely used with, scant records of how many criminals were actually incarcerated there on an annual basis. It was deemed to be one of the most poorly maintained gaols in the north of England with no heating, poor lighting and no bedding for each prisoner. Once this was made public, in a report published in 1947, the gaol didn't last long and was closed soon after.	1,281	ENGLISH	1
Wilson could not have chosen a better year to run for President. The 1912 Presidential election was a race among four candidates: Governor Wilson on the Democratic ticket, incumbent President William Howard Taft with the Republican nomination, former President Theodore Roosevelt for the new Progressive "Bull Moose" Party, and Eugene V. Debs, the Socialist Party candidate. Although Debs did not provide any serious competition, and Taft's bungled term as President had already ruined his chance of being reelected, Roosevelt was a real threat. Roosevelt had already served almost two full terms as a Republican President from 1901 to 1908 and had established himself as the most powerful progressive in the nation. Moreover, the public adored him for his adventurous spirit and no-nonsense attitude. On the other hand, Taft and Roosevelt were embroiled in a bitter feud during the campaign–a particularly nasty and brutal feud that was splashed on the front pages of newspapers throughout the year. Consequently, after a year of dueling, the two men literally split the Republican Party in two, the conservatives siding with Taft and the progressives aligning with Roosevelt. This split weakened the party and paved the way to victory for Wilson. He easily defeated his three opponents in the Electoral College, his 435 votes easily topping Roosevelt's eighty-eight, Taft's eight, and Debs's zero. Wilson was inaugurated twenty-eighth President of the United States on March 4, 1913.	<urn:uuid:c7dfb7da-5b89-4204-ae02-5f6b5c2ffb84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sparknotes.com/biography/wilson/section5/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00008.warc.gz	en	0.983816	291	3.4375	3	[ -0.21907322108745575, 0.04808187484741211, -0.15300117433071136, -0.08764424175024033, 0.07485386729240417, 0.4514092206954956, -0.21094757318496704, 0.03242364153265953, 0.10879942029714584, 0.1731233149766922, 0.26978278160095215, 0.32207661867141724, 0.4531795382499695, 0.20835067331790...	1	Wilson could not have chosen a better year to run for President. The 1912 Presidential election was a race among four candidates: Governor Wilson on the Democratic ticket, incumbent President William Howard Taft with the Republican nomination, former President Theodore Roosevelt for the new Progressive "Bull Moose" Party, and Eugene V. Debs, the Socialist Party candidate. Although Debs did not provide any serious competition, and Taft's bungled term as President had already ruined his chance of being reelected, Roosevelt was a real threat. Roosevelt had already served almost two full terms as a Republican President from 1901 to 1908 and had established himself as the most powerful progressive in the nation. Moreover, the public adored him for his adventurous spirit and no-nonsense attitude. On the other hand, Taft and Roosevelt were embroiled in a bitter feud during the campaign–a particularly nasty and brutal feud that was splashed on the front pages of newspapers throughout the year. Consequently, after a year of dueling, the two men literally split the Republican Party in two, the conservatives siding with Taft and the progressives aligning with Roosevelt. This split weakened the party and paved the way to victory for Wilson. He easily defeated his three opponents in the Electoral College, his 435 votes easily topping Roosevelt's eighty-eight, Taft's eight, and Debs's zero. Wilson was inaugurated twenty-eighth President of the United States on March 4, 1913.	311	ENGLISH	1
Minamoto No Yoritomo The Kamakura Shogunate was founded by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the first shogun of the said government. He was born in Atsuta in Owari Province which is present day Atsuta-ku, Nagoya. He practiced Buddhism and was given the Buddhist name Ogosho Atsushi Dai Zenmon. The Yoritomo and Minamoto clan were descendants of the Imperial family on his fathers side. However, the Taira clan was under Kiyomori while the Minamoto clan was under its leader Yoshitomo. These clans formed into smaller factions. Minamoto No Yoritomo Early Childhood Minamoto no Yoritomo was the heir of the Minamoto or Seiwa Genji clan. His wife was Urahime. She was a member of a prestigious Fujiwara clan. When he was born, his grandfather Minamoto no Tameyoshi was the head of their clan. As a child, he was given the name Oniwakamaru. Yoritomo was of noble birth and was said to be a descendant of Emperor Seiwa through royal lineage. Create Your Custom Samurai Sword Create Your Custom Samurai Sword Tale of Genji The Tale of Genji from the Genji clan was popular among those in the Heian Court back then. It is still popular today. This was the first novel ever written. The novel gives people today a view about life during Minamoto no Yoritomos life in the Heian period of feudal Japan. It tells how the Genji clan had a military and aristocratic background. The tale also tells about how Yoritomo was not happy with the Imperial courts ways. Yoritomo wanted power but he was also jealous and suspicious. He was envious even with those who were under his circle. He went so far as exterminating some of his relatives to be able to accomplish his ambitions. After doing so, he proved himself to be a great administrator of his clan. In 1156, due to divisions in the court, there was an open warfare within the capital. Certain clans sided with others, resulting to the splitting of Seiwa Genji. This civil war was known as Hogen Rebellion. This civil war did not last long and was quickly resolved. The war was about who would succeed to take the Japanese Imperial throne. Another issue was the power that the Fujiwara clan had since they inherited the Imperial Court title during the Heian period. This particular war established the Samurai clans. This rebellion caused a chain of events that led to the building of governments ruled by the Swords for Sale Swords for Sale A few years after the success of Hogen Rebellion, the generals who were once allies began pitting against each other. What follows next is what in feudal Japanese history refers to as Heiji Rebellion. This was a short civil war between the rival subjects of Emperor Go-Shirakawa. They fought over political power. The Heiji War, as it is sometimes referred, is a direct outcome of the Hogen Rebellion. However, the difference was that this was a conflict between members of the same clan who were struggling for power. The emperor stepped down from his former role as emperor. However, his retirement did not stop him from running his influence through the powers of his successor. Opportunity for Uprising The head of the Taira clan left for Kyoto with his family on a pilgrimage. This gave his enemies the chance to start an uprising. Those who belonged to the Minamoto clan and Fujiwara no Nobuyori started the Heiji Rebellion. However, during the dispute in the province of Kyoto, Minamoto Yoshitomo was defeated. His son Minamoto no Yoritomo was captured and was sent to Izu Province as exile. He lived under the surveillance of Taira for 20 years. During this period of exile, Yoritomo seduced the daughter of his jailer. This angered his jailer Ito Sukechika. This prompted Yoritomos escape. Rebellion against the Taira Clan Prince Mochihito, the son of Emperor Go Shirakawa, was humiliated when the Taira clan claimed the throne despite the new emperor being half-Taira. He sought the help of the Minamoto clan that spread throughout different parts of feudal Japan. The Prince justified this uprising. This resulted to the Genpei War. Mochihito died shortly before Yoritomo could even lead his men to battle. In fact, this helped Yoritomo gain the support from the feudal lords of the eastern provinces. Even some members of the Taira clan joined him in this crusade. However, they were disappointed with the rewards of their participation. Destroying the Enemies Yoritomo gave himself the title Sei-i Taishogun which roughly translates to Chief Commander of the Expeditions against Barbarians. He became the supreme commander over the feudal lords during the Kamakura Shogunate. In 1185, he destroyed Fujiwara no Yasuhira to establish his power over Kyoto. This sealed his position as head of the Kamakura Shogunate. When he assumed position, he found a way to relieve the animosity between those under him. Those included the military lords, court aristocrats, and the head of the powerful temples, and shrines Minamoto no Yoritomo was able to improve the relationship of the shugo and jito. Simply put, the political relationship of those who governed the court of Kyoto and those that ran Yoritomos government in Kamakura lived in harmony under his leadership. Despite his leadership skills, he was cruel and was responsible for the death of his cousins and brothers. He found ways to prevent his vassals and military class from clashing. This was because he was aiming for stability while governing the Kamakura Shogunate. However, Yoritomo died in 1199. Create Your Custom Sword Create Your Custom Sword Minamoto Yoritomo was credited for being the founder of a system that allowed feudal lords to rule Japan for more than 700 years. He defied the emperor by establishing shugo or constables and jito or district stewards. He spread these throughout the Japanese provinces. This system weakened the power of the central governments local administrative force. He was given the title as Supreme Commander or Shogun over these constables and district stewards. In other words he had his own small government that ran the show in these provinces.	<urn:uuid:a193c218-d802-45c2-a240-fc43cdf63b13>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://samuraiswords.store/minamoto-no-yoritomo/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00312.warc.gz	en	0.987032	1,331	3.3125	3	[ -0.32263028621673584, 0.39918848872184753, 0.15338802337646484, -0.31781792640686035, -0.45941194891929626, 0.07427285611629486, 0.2345413863658905, 0.1125563532114029, -0.06676793843507767, -0.011654658243060112, 0.04514497518539429, -0.4934939742088318, 0.48457252979278564, 0.73754703998...	1	Minamoto No Yoritomo The Kamakura Shogunate was founded by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the first shogun of the said government. He was born in Atsuta in Owari Province which is present day Atsuta-ku, Nagoya. He practiced Buddhism and was given the Buddhist name Ogosho Atsushi Dai Zenmon. The Yoritomo and Minamoto clan were descendants of the Imperial family on his fathers side. However, the Taira clan was under Kiyomori while the Minamoto clan was under its leader Yoshitomo. These clans formed into smaller factions. Minamoto No Yoritomo Early Childhood Minamoto no Yoritomo was the heir of the Minamoto or Seiwa Genji clan. His wife was Urahime. She was a member of a prestigious Fujiwara clan. When he was born, his grandfather Minamoto no Tameyoshi was the head of their clan. As a child, he was given the name Oniwakamaru. Yoritomo was of noble birth and was said to be a descendant of Emperor Seiwa through royal lineage. Create Your Custom Samurai Sword Create Your Custom Samurai Sword Tale of Genji The Tale of Genji from the Genji clan was popular among those in the Heian Court back then. It is still popular today. This was the first novel ever written. The novel gives people today a view about life during Minamoto no Yoritomos life in the Heian period of feudal Japan. It tells how the Genji clan had a military and aristocratic background. The tale also tells about how Yoritomo was not happy with the Imperial courts ways. Yoritomo wanted power but he was also jealous and suspicious. He was envious even with those who were under his circle. He went so far as exterminating some of his relatives to be able to accomplish his ambitions. After doing so, he proved himself to be a great administrator of his clan. In 1156, due to divisions in the court, there was an open warfare within the capital. Certain clans sided with others, resulting to the splitting of Seiwa Genji. This civil war was known as Hogen Rebellion. This civil war did not last long and was quickly resolved. The war was about who would succeed to take the Japanese Imperial throne. Another issue was the power that the Fujiwara clan had since they inherited the Imperial Court title during the Heian period. This particular war established the Samurai clans. This rebellion caused a chain of events that led to the building of governments ruled by the Swords for Sale Swords for Sale A few years after the success of Hogen Rebellion, the generals who were once allies began pitting against each other. What follows next is what in feudal Japanese history refers to as Heiji Rebellion. This was a short civil war between the rival subjects of Emperor Go-Shirakawa. They fought over political power. The Heiji War, as it is sometimes referred, is a direct outcome of the Hogen Rebellion. However, the difference was that this was a conflict between members of the same clan who were struggling for power. The emperor stepped down from his former role as emperor. However, his retirement did not stop him from running his influence through the powers of his successor. Opportunity for Uprising The head of the Taira clan left for Kyoto with his family on a pilgrimage. This gave his enemies the chance to start an uprising. Those who belonged to the Minamoto clan and Fujiwara no Nobuyori started the Heiji Rebellion. However, during the dispute in the province of Kyoto, Minamoto Yoshitomo was defeated. His son Minamoto no Yoritomo was captured and was sent to Izu Province as exile. He lived under the surveillance of Taira for 20 years. During this period of exile, Yoritomo seduced the daughter of his jailer. This angered his jailer Ito Sukechika. This prompted Yoritomos escape. Rebellion against the Taira Clan Prince Mochihito, the son of Emperor Go Shirakawa, was humiliated when the Taira clan claimed the throne despite the new emperor being half-Taira. He sought the help of the Minamoto clan that spread throughout different parts of feudal Japan. The Prince justified this uprising. This resulted to the Genpei War. Mochihito died shortly before Yoritomo could even lead his men to battle. In fact, this helped Yoritomo gain the support from the feudal lords of the eastern provinces. Even some members of the Taira clan joined him in this crusade. However, they were disappointed with the rewards of their participation. Destroying the Enemies Yoritomo gave himself the title Sei-i Taishogun which roughly translates to Chief Commander of the Expeditions against Barbarians. He became the supreme commander over the feudal lords during the Kamakura Shogunate. In 1185, he destroyed Fujiwara no Yasuhira to establish his power over Kyoto. This sealed his position as head of the Kamakura Shogunate. When he assumed position, he found a way to relieve the animosity between those under him. Those included the military lords, court aristocrats, and the head of the powerful temples, and shrines Minamoto no Yoritomo was able to improve the relationship of the shugo and jito. Simply put, the political relationship of those who governed the court of Kyoto and those that ran Yoritomos government in Kamakura lived in harmony under his leadership. Despite his leadership skills, he was cruel and was responsible for the death of his cousins and brothers. He found ways to prevent his vassals and military class from clashing. This was because he was aiming for stability while governing the Kamakura Shogunate. However, Yoritomo died in 1199. Create Your Custom Sword Create Your Custom Sword Minamoto Yoritomo was credited for being the founder of a system that allowed feudal lords to rule Japan for more than 700 years. He defied the emperor by establishing shugo or constables and jito or district stewards. He spread these throughout the Japanese provinces. This system weakened the power of the central governments local administrative force. He was given the title as Supreme Commander or Shogun over these constables and district stewards. In other words he had his own small government that ran the show in these provinces.	1,359	ENGLISH	1
Hieroglyphics were used by the ancient Egyptians as a writing system as far back as 3200 B.C. Hieroglyphics means 'sacred writing'. There are 1000s of hieroglyphic symbols. Sometimes they are written left to right, right to left, or top to bottom. Hieroglyphics can be pictures of living creatures, symbols, or objects used in everyday life. Most of the pictures usually stand for sounds. A symbol could stand for a whole word, called an ideogram, or a sound called a phonogram. The hieroglyph system had no vowels, punctuation or spacing! Most of the ancient Egyptians couldn’t read or write. People called scribes were trained to read and write. They started learning at the age of seven. Scribes didn’t have to join the army or pay taxes. The ancient Egyptians used papyrus paper to write on. This paper was made from a type of plant called papyrus. A French scholar called Champollion studied a piece of black stone which had been found in Egypt by French soldiers. Hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Greek were written on the stone. Champollion was able to read the Greek text so was able to decipher (find the meaning of) the rest. The black stone is known as the Rosetta Stone as it was found in a small village called Rosetta. It is now in the British Museum in London.	<urn:uuid:d19bdc33-c8c0-4457-8660-7e83186974e7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/hieroglyphics	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00297.warc.gz	en	0.982889	301	3.9375	4	[ -0.18810291588306427, 0.5873463153839111, 0.07354345917701721, 0.12194942682981491, -0.9570528864860535, -0.07273830473423004, 0.4553365111351013, 0.21940577030181885, -0.047304052859544754, -0.01875474862754345, -0.24033041298389435, -0.4778021275997162, 0.030513353645801544, -0.063936419...	3	Hieroglyphics were used by the ancient Egyptians as a writing system as far back as 3200 B.C. Hieroglyphics means 'sacred writing'. There are 1000s of hieroglyphic symbols. Sometimes they are written left to right, right to left, or top to bottom. Hieroglyphics can be pictures of living creatures, symbols, or objects used in everyday life. Most of the pictures usually stand for sounds. A symbol could stand for a whole word, called an ideogram, or a sound called a phonogram. The hieroglyph system had no vowels, punctuation or spacing! Most of the ancient Egyptians couldn’t read or write. People called scribes were trained to read and write. They started learning at the age of seven. Scribes didn’t have to join the army or pay taxes. The ancient Egyptians used papyrus paper to write on. This paper was made from a type of plant called papyrus. A French scholar called Champollion studied a piece of black stone which had been found in Egypt by French soldiers. Hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Greek were written on the stone. Champollion was able to read the Greek text so was able to decipher (find the meaning of) the rest. The black stone is known as the Rosetta Stone as it was found in a small village called Rosetta. It is now in the British Museum in London.	296	ENGLISH	1
The judgment of a distinct individual's stable good characters is called moral qualities. The concept of character can refer a variety of features including the occurrence or lack of virtues such as courage, understanding, determination, honesty, and loyalty or good behaviors or habits. Some of the moral qualities are well explained here: One of the renowned presidents of United States of America had the assembly in parliament. On the way to Parliament House, he saw a pig in the small pit covered fully with dirty mud. It was trying very hard to come out of that pit. As much it tried to come out, it went deeper and deeper in the mud. The President was kind and could not bear it. He got out from his fancy car and helped the pig to go out from that pit. It was almost the time for the important assembly in the house. His dress was muddy and hands were dirty. He could have gone home for the change but he went to parliament exactly before the time. Everybody was surprised to see him in that condition. After knowing the story of his kindness, everyone started to praise his act. At the moment, President spoke up, "You are praising me for noting. Actually, I didn't show any kindness to the pig which was struggling. When I saw its condition, I was in great distress. To help myself and to make myself free of stress, I went to pig and brought it back in the land." In fact, feeling that comes inside us seeing others' trouble and putting effort to relieve them from such problems is the act of kindness. Showing kindness implies not only helping the person, animals or plants to come out of problems but also to help the agent to get personal satisfaction and happiness. There is a great history behind Albert Einstein who is all time hero of science and nuclear power. His findings of nuclear power have changed the world. Most often his formula for nuclear power has been used to make an atom bomb. An atom bomb is frequently used in the destruction of the earth. The main propose of his discovery is for the growth and development of national as well as the world not for destruction. When Einstein was busy experimenting on the nuclear bomb, he often joked saying; "If my principle comes to be correct, the German people will congratulate me as a great German, and the people of France will tell that I am a great citizen of the world". Once Albert Einstein was offered the post of President of Israel after the death of Chem, Benue (President of Israel-1952). People of Israel were so happy to accept such a noble man for the greatest post of their country. But he said, "I am grateful to all of you for this honorary proposal, but I think I may not be the most suited person for this post. I don't have the knowledge of statesmanship and couldn't guarantee the civic rights of all citizen" and he refused the offer. No doubt, the post of President is the highest post of one nation. Millions of people will be in his under and he could have the supreme power but at the same time, Scientist is also honorary post. A scientist can be more valuable than one state person. A famous scientist can be the father of the world. The polite behavior of a great man like Einstein is exemplary. Sometimes, a high post can make a person arrogant and he/she may say, "I can do any sort of work". This might bring them in real trouble. So, we should abide by the rule of morality. We can learn it from the character of Albert Einstein. There is a beautiful story of Vishwanath Shastri; an educated man of Bengal. Once, he was having the scriptural contest with another member of the town. When the opponent man was at the point of defeat, one of the members of the opposing party insulted Vishwanath by throwing tobacco upon him. It was an embarrassing moment for all. Shastri wiped out the tobacco immediately with his handkerchief and smilingly said, "It somehow seems to be related to the present context only, let us all focus on overall accepts of reality once again." It has never been the issue whether or not, his opinions will get a place at last. But the way he tolerates his insult and controlled his emotions, made other felt that he was a very generous and wise man. Many times, we lost our temper and act immediately. This might cause harm to others as well as to ourselves. So, patience and tolerance should be in everyone's attitude. We all have five senses in us and in every moment we are using these senses for different propose. We have a well-known quotation that, "It's our senses who can be our friends and foes at the same time." Self- control is the moral quality of controlling these senses and having will power to follow our dream path. For example, Napoleon, the great Emperor of France was a man with good self-control. When he was a student, he was proposed by a beautiful girl who is his neighbour. He was the tall and handsome guy. He never wasted his time in being with love and attraction. He has strong control in himself and he was focused on his studies. He was doing his research in socio-economic aspects of his country. He had a vision and he thought that girl could distract him. So, he rejected her proposal. Later, when he became the Prime Minister of his country, he got a chance to meet the same lady. He asked, "Do you remember the boy Napoleon in your neighborhood?" The girl said,"Oh, that arrogant super idiot. He was so stubborn and dirty. He did not know about singing and dancing. He was the very silent boy." Napoleon said with a smile, "If he could have loved her and entangled with your fun , he could never be the super asset of the country." Really, as Napoleon, any man can succeed with self-control. To have the self-control with respect to time helps us to determine how patience we are. It is an essential moral quality. We have to do hard work in a disciplined manner to achieve anything in our life. Sometimes we lack patience and we end up with dissatisfaction. It always takes a time to give us the proper output. A farmer who plants rice in monsoon has to wait for 3-4 months to harvest the crops. If he harvests the crops before the crops ripen then there will be no rice. He could not get anything to eat and sell in the market. His life will be miserable for rest of the year. So, patience is most important in everyone's life. This is one of the essential moral quality that each one of us must have in our life. If anybody needs help, we must always come forward to help them. It is not always necessary that we must help others only when we are requested for help. There might be natural calamities and social violence where someone needs our help and support. We can help physically, financially and socially to our friends, relatives, and neighbours. In our Nepalese society, there will not be any possibilities of surviving without getting any help from next family. In order to plant crops and harvest them in time, we need a lot of manpower to work in the field. Hence, there is greater need of help of one another. This is a perfect example how a society can be benefitted with the virtue of helpfulness. Social service is one of the most important moral quality of human life. People are so busy in their own personal work. Nobody has time for social work. There is one popular saying that if we have more need than our responsibilities then we will always end up in dissatisfaction. Having social responsibilities, add the meaning in our life. The short biography of one of the greatest social worker of the 20th century,Mother Teresa,is explained below. "Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhin (Later Mother Teresa) was born to Albanian parents in Yugoslavia on 27thAugust 1910. At the age of 18, she became a Sister of Loreto. She came to India in 1928 and started her novitiate (a beginner becoming a nun) in Darjeeling, a hill station in West Bengal. Mother Teresa became a teacher at St. Mary’s High School in Kolkata in 1929. Soon she became the principal of the school. In 1931 she adopted the name, Teresa. In 1946 Teresa felt an inner urge to start a new experiment to serve humanity. So in 1948 she obtained the Pope’s permission to leave the convent. With only five rupees in hand, she went into the streets of Kolkata to work for the poor and the needy. She lovingly collected some slum children, washed them and began to teach them under a tree. Teresa took Indian citizen in 1948. She then opened a first home and first school in Kolkata for slum children. She also adopted Indian dress and clothed herself in a sari. Mother Teresa started the Order of the Missionaries of Charity in 1950. Its members are dedicated to free service to the poor. They look after the unwanted, the abandoned and the unloved. They also run many children homes to care for the sick, retarded and orphaned children. These Sisters work also among the drug addicts, alcoholics and destitute in many countries. In 1957 Mother Teresa opened a home for lepers in Kolkata. Mother Teresa set up nearly 570 homes for the poor, spread in over 125 countries both in the West and the East. Mother Teresa was honored with numerous titles and awards. These includes the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1979, Magsaysay Award (The Philippines), Templeton Award (Britain), and India’s highest Civilian Award, Bharat Ratna. They meant little to her. She was a woman of God who practiced love in action." Those habits that we acquire and are useful for us, our family and society are the good behavior. One of the essential examples of good behavior is maintaining the cleanliness of our surrounding. Besides, respecting religion, wealth, and work is the essential part of good habits. Religious behaviors are acquired through our family and society. To speak the truth and to be honest are the virtue of our religion. Wealth is earned according to rules, not by injustice and force. Some other good behaviors are listed below; A student can get good marks in the exam if he/she follows such good conduct regularly. People who lack good conduct are categorized as bad people in our society. We should always have the good behavior to gain love and respect from other. There is a beautiful tale of a young girl who has lost her pen in a well. She prayed and prayed to the god of water until he came out from well and asked what happened to her. She explained about her lost of pen and how much essential for her to do homework. She had only one pen with her. The god of water dipped down to well and brought the golden pen and asked, "Is this your pen?". The girl refused though it was gold. She could have taken that pen to her home and sell it and get a new pen but she did not take it. He again dipped in water and brought a pen of diamond and asked the same question, "Is this your pen?" The girl wept and said, "No." Finally, he dipped his hand in well again and showed her real pen and asked the same question, "Is this your pen?" She said, "Yes, this is mine." The lord of water was so happy to see her honesty and she had gifted all pens to her. She returned home happily. Moral : Honesty is the best policy. According to the Story, when the President saw the struggling pig in the mud. He got out from his fancy car and helped the pig go out from that pit. It was almost the time for the important session in the house. His dress was muddy and hands were dirty. He could have gone home for the change but he went to parliament exactly before the time. Tolerance is the behavior that one does not necessarily agree with. Everyone must have tolerance because many times we may lost our temper and act immediately. This might cause harm to others as well as to own self. So, Tolerance should be in everyone's attitude. Helpfulness is one of the essential moral quality that each one of us must have in our life. If anybody needs help, we must always come forward to help them. It is not always necessary that he must help only we are requested for help. There might be natural calamities and social violence where someone needs our help and support. We can help physically, financially and socially to our friends, relatives and neighbors. In our Nepalese society, there will not any possibilities of surviving with framing without any help from next family. To plant crops and harvest them in time, we need a lot of manpower to work in field. This could be possible only with large number of people. Hence, there is greater need of help of one another. This is a perfect example how a society can be benefitted with the virtue of helpfulness.	<urn:uuid:3288463f-348f-492e-b219-f724b0e93e66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/4028	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00027.warc.gz	en	0.983598	2,687	3.328125	3	[ -0.4207310080528259, 0.34843307733535767, -0.048193272203207016, -0.2883751392364502, -0.5483492612838745, 0.2861584424972534, 0.9873932600021362, 0.15566501021385193, 0.07784271240234375, 0.4005867838859558, 0.07936502993106842, -0.19743643701076508, 0.3100946247577667, 0.1469563692808151...	1	The judgment of a distinct individual's stable good characters is called moral qualities. The concept of character can refer a variety of features including the occurrence or lack of virtues such as courage, understanding, determination, honesty, and loyalty or good behaviors or habits. Some of the moral qualities are well explained here: One of the renowned presidents of United States of America had the assembly in parliament. On the way to Parliament House, he saw a pig in the small pit covered fully with dirty mud. It was trying very hard to come out of that pit. As much it tried to come out, it went deeper and deeper in the mud. The President was kind and could not bear it. He got out from his fancy car and helped the pig to go out from that pit. It was almost the time for the important assembly in the house. His dress was muddy and hands were dirty. He could have gone home for the change but he went to parliament exactly before the time. Everybody was surprised to see him in that condition. After knowing the story of his kindness, everyone started to praise his act. At the moment, President spoke up, "You are praising me for noting. Actually, I didn't show any kindness to the pig which was struggling. When I saw its condition, I was in great distress. To help myself and to make myself free of stress, I went to pig and brought it back in the land." In fact, feeling that comes inside us seeing others' trouble and putting effort to relieve them from such problems is the act of kindness. Showing kindness implies not only helping the person, animals or plants to come out of problems but also to help the agent to get personal satisfaction and happiness. There is a great history behind Albert Einstein who is all time hero of science and nuclear power. His findings of nuclear power have changed the world. Most often his formula for nuclear power has been used to make an atom bomb. An atom bomb is frequently used in the destruction of the earth. The main propose of his discovery is for the growth and development of national as well as the world not for destruction. When Einstein was busy experimenting on the nuclear bomb, he often joked saying; "If my principle comes to be correct, the German people will congratulate me as a great German, and the people of France will tell that I am a great citizen of the world". Once Albert Einstein was offered the post of President of Israel after the death of Chem, Benue (President of Israel-1952). People of Israel were so happy to accept such a noble man for the greatest post of their country. But he said, "I am grateful to all of you for this honorary proposal, but I think I may not be the most suited person for this post. I don't have the knowledge of statesmanship and couldn't guarantee the civic rights of all citizen" and he refused the offer. No doubt, the post of President is the highest post of one nation. Millions of people will be in his under and he could have the supreme power but at the same time, Scientist is also honorary post. A scientist can be more valuable than one state person. A famous scientist can be the father of the world. The polite behavior of a great man like Einstein is exemplary. Sometimes, a high post can make a person arrogant and he/she may say, "I can do any sort of work". This might bring them in real trouble. So, we should abide by the rule of morality. We can learn it from the character of Albert Einstein. There is a beautiful story of Vishwanath Shastri; an educated man of Bengal. Once, he was having the scriptural contest with another member of the town. When the opponent man was at the point of defeat, one of the members of the opposing party insulted Vishwanath by throwing tobacco upon him. It was an embarrassing moment for all. Shastri wiped out the tobacco immediately with his handkerchief and smilingly said, "It somehow seems to be related to the present context only, let us all focus on overall accepts of reality once again." It has never been the issue whether or not, his opinions will get a place at last. But the way he tolerates his insult and controlled his emotions, made other felt that he was a very generous and wise man. Many times, we lost our temper and act immediately. This might cause harm to others as well as to ourselves. So, patience and tolerance should be in everyone's attitude. We all have five senses in us and in every moment we are using these senses for different propose. We have a well-known quotation that, "It's our senses who can be our friends and foes at the same time." Self- control is the moral quality of controlling these senses and having will power to follow our dream path. For example, Napoleon, the great Emperor of France was a man with good self-control. When he was a student, he was proposed by a beautiful girl who is his neighbour. He was the tall and handsome guy. He never wasted his time in being with love and attraction. He has strong control in himself and he was focused on his studies. He was doing his research in socio-economic aspects of his country. He had a vision and he thought that girl could distract him. So, he rejected her proposal. Later, when he became the Prime Minister of his country, he got a chance to meet the same lady. He asked, "Do you remember the boy Napoleon in your neighborhood?" The girl said,"Oh, that arrogant super idiot. He was so stubborn and dirty. He did not know about singing and dancing. He was the very silent boy." Napoleon said with a smile, "If he could have loved her and entangled with your fun , he could never be the super asset of the country." Really, as Napoleon, any man can succeed with self-control. To have the self-control with respect to time helps us to determine how patience we are. It is an essential moral quality. We have to do hard work in a disciplined manner to achieve anything in our life. Sometimes we lack patience and we end up with dissatisfaction. It always takes a time to give us the proper output. A farmer who plants rice in monsoon has to wait for 3-4 months to harvest the crops. If he harvests the crops before the crops ripen then there will be no rice. He could not get anything to eat and sell in the market. His life will be miserable for rest of the year. So, patience is most important in everyone's life. This is one of the essential moral quality that each one of us must have in our life. If anybody needs help, we must always come forward to help them. It is not always necessary that we must help others only when we are requested for help. There might be natural calamities and social violence where someone needs our help and support. We can help physically, financially and socially to our friends, relatives, and neighbours. In our Nepalese society, there will not be any possibilities of surviving without getting any help from next family. In order to plant crops and harvest them in time, we need a lot of manpower to work in the field. Hence, there is greater need of help of one another. This is a perfect example how a society can be benefitted with the virtue of helpfulness. Social service is one of the most important moral quality of human life. People are so busy in their own personal work. Nobody has time for social work. There is one popular saying that if we have more need than our responsibilities then we will always end up in dissatisfaction. Having social responsibilities, add the meaning in our life. The short biography of one of the greatest social worker of the 20th century,Mother Teresa,is explained below. "Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhin (Later Mother Teresa) was born to Albanian parents in Yugoslavia on 27thAugust 1910. At the age of 18, she became a Sister of Loreto. She came to India in 1928 and started her novitiate (a beginner becoming a nun) in Darjeeling, a hill station in West Bengal. Mother Teresa became a teacher at St. Mary’s High School in Kolkata in 1929. Soon she became the principal of the school. In 1931 she adopted the name, Teresa. In 1946 Teresa felt an inner urge to start a new experiment to serve humanity. So in 1948 she obtained the Pope’s permission to leave the convent. With only five rupees in hand, she went into the streets of Kolkata to work for the poor and the needy. She lovingly collected some slum children, washed them and began to teach them under a tree. Teresa took Indian citizen in 1948. She then opened a first home and first school in Kolkata for slum children. She also adopted Indian dress and clothed herself in a sari. Mother Teresa started the Order of the Missionaries of Charity in 1950. Its members are dedicated to free service to the poor. They look after the unwanted, the abandoned and the unloved. They also run many children homes to care for the sick, retarded and orphaned children. These Sisters work also among the drug addicts, alcoholics and destitute in many countries. In 1957 Mother Teresa opened a home for lepers in Kolkata. Mother Teresa set up nearly 570 homes for the poor, spread in over 125 countries both in the West and the East. Mother Teresa was honored with numerous titles and awards. These includes the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1979, Magsaysay Award (The Philippines), Templeton Award (Britain), and India’s highest Civilian Award, Bharat Ratna. They meant little to her. She was a woman of God who practiced love in action." Those habits that we acquire and are useful for us, our family and society are the good behavior. One of the essential examples of good behavior is maintaining the cleanliness of our surrounding. Besides, respecting religion, wealth, and work is the essential part of good habits. Religious behaviors are acquired through our family and society. To speak the truth and to be honest are the virtue of our religion. Wealth is earned according to rules, not by injustice and force. Some other good behaviors are listed below; A student can get good marks in the exam if he/she follows such good conduct regularly. People who lack good conduct are categorized as bad people in our society. We should always have the good behavior to gain love and respect from other. There is a beautiful tale of a young girl who has lost her pen in a well. She prayed and prayed to the god of water until he came out from well and asked what happened to her. She explained about her lost of pen and how much essential for her to do homework. She had only one pen with her. The god of water dipped down to well and brought the golden pen and asked, "Is this your pen?". The girl refused though it was gold. She could have taken that pen to her home and sell it and get a new pen but she did not take it. He again dipped in water and brought a pen of diamond and asked the same question, "Is this your pen?" The girl wept and said, "No." Finally, he dipped his hand in well again and showed her real pen and asked the same question, "Is this your pen?" She said, "Yes, this is mine." The lord of water was so happy to see her honesty and she had gifted all pens to her. She returned home happily. Moral : Honesty is the best policy. According to the Story, when the President saw the struggling pig in the mud. He got out from his fancy car and helped the pig go out from that pit. It was almost the time for the important session in the house. His dress was muddy and hands were dirty. He could have gone home for the change but he went to parliament exactly before the time. Tolerance is the behavior that one does not necessarily agree with. Everyone must have tolerance because many times we may lost our temper and act immediately. This might cause harm to others as well as to own self. So, Tolerance should be in everyone's attitude. Helpfulness is one of the essential moral quality that each one of us must have in our life. If anybody needs help, we must always come forward to help them. It is not always necessary that he must help only we are requested for help. There might be natural calamities and social violence where someone needs our help and support. We can help physically, financially and socially to our friends, relatives and neighbors. In our Nepalese society, there will not any possibilities of surviving with framing without any help from next family. To plant crops and harvest them in time, we need a lot of manpower to work in field. This could be possible only with large number of people. Hence, there is greater need of help of one another. This is a perfect example how a society can be benefitted with the virtue of helpfulness.	2,697	ENGLISH	1
The invention of the teapot during the 16th century is credited to the potters of Yixing, a district of the Jiangsu Province in China. It is thought that these potters adapted the shape of wine or water ewers to meet the demand for vessels in which whole tea leaves could be steeped, as prior to this powdered tea was used. While the Yixing kilns were renowned for the production of zisha stoneware, made from distinctive purple-red clay, a number of diverse and decorative styles were produced by the Yixing potters during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). This teapot is an example of the more elaborate decorative schemes that were being employed, and takes the form of a square seal wrapped in cloth, decorated with overglaze enamel paints. Made during the 18th century, the design of this teapot is a development of an earlier 16th century Yixing form created by the prominent artist-potter Shi Dabin (active 1620-40).	<urn:uuid:57fe743c-4880-4842-bd6d-884756ae7316>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://chitracollection.com/collection/teapot-68/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00391.warc.gz	en	0.980747	213	3.8125	4	[ -0.17164330184459686, 0.16628724336624146, 0.43897807598114014, 0.0470849871635437, -0.20865480601787567, -0.003116046078503132, 0.3856927752494812, -0.009879397228360176, -0.31971973180770874, 0.19493742287158966, -0.2830412983894348, -0.4479544162750244, -0.027399303391575813, 0.16282939...	12	The invention of the teapot during the 16th century is credited to the potters of Yixing, a district of the Jiangsu Province in China. It is thought that these potters adapted the shape of wine or water ewers to meet the demand for vessels in which whole tea leaves could be steeped, as prior to this powdered tea was used. While the Yixing kilns were renowned for the production of zisha stoneware, made from distinctive purple-red clay, a number of diverse and decorative styles were produced by the Yixing potters during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). This teapot is an example of the more elaborate decorative schemes that were being employed, and takes the form of a square seal wrapped in cloth, decorated with overglaze enamel paints. Made during the 18th century, the design of this teapot is a development of an earlier 16th century Yixing form created by the prominent artist-potter Shi Dabin (active 1620-40).	224	ENGLISH	1
At the start of World War II the American people had a sense of unity. Men chose to leave their jobs and families to join the front line, while women, for the first time, were leaving the home and taking over those jobs that their husbands left behind. In 1943, many magazines chose to paint a picture of women hard at work. These articles focused their stories on working women, and glamorized the untraditional jobs they held. They thought perhaps, that if they made these smaller, hard working jobs exciting, and noble, that more women would begin to join the work force. For this reason, the media created a fake working woman named Rosie the Riveter, and she was illustrated as a hero for American women. These efforts to pull women into working through magazines worked, more than six million women joined the workforce during war. Therefore, magazines helped to paint a picture of the average women taking a hard working wartime job, and at the same time advertised for other women to do the same.Magazines in 1943 provided articles of women hard at work during war. They were also written as an attempt to pull in other women to work, and help with the wartime efforts. In the scholarly article Rosie the Riveter Remembers, they touched base on these wartime women workers, and interviewed some of the women that had worked as “Rosies”. The article explained that during the war the media, as well as the government both set in motion a movement to help inspire women to back the war effort by taking a war job. The same women that at the time of the Great Depression were advised that they should not seize jobs from men. However, over 6 million women had entered the work force for the first time by the end of World War II. To stress the amount of women that began to work for the war effort, the article provided the statistic that in 1920, women made up 20% of the workforce, and by 1945, women made up 35% of the workforce. A handful of women that began working during World War II to help the war effort were interviewed in Rosie the Riveter Remembers. The first woman interviewed was Inez Sauer, a chief clerk in a toolroom. She explained that when the war started she was thirty-one years old, and she had never worked a day in her life. She was the mother of two young boys, aged twelve and thirteen, and a six year old daughter. When the war began her husbands rubber-matting store went out of business due to the war restrictions on rubber. She saw an ad in a Seattle newspaper that companies needed women workers to help the war effort, and the newspaper stated, ‘Do your part, free a man for service’. Again, another reassurance that newspapers and magazines were drawing women into the workforce to help with the war. Sybil Lewis was a black arc welder during World War II, and she also decided to take the job when she saw a newspaper advertisement to train women for defense work. She explained that she riveted small airplane parts, and worked in a pair. It was her, the riveter, who shot rivets with a gun through metal and fastened it together, and the bucker, who used a bucking bar on the metal to smooth out the rivets that she had shot in; she admitted that bucking was a harder job than riveting. The last woman interviewed, Frankie Cooper was a crane operator, and she stressed the idea that women joined the war movement to help the men fighting overseas. She explained that during the war, inside the plant everyone pushed and gave everything they had, because they wanted to. They all pushed through and went to work even if they did not feel well, because they were thinking of the men overseas and how hard they were working for their country. In the scholarly article American Women in a World at War, the authors read 30 thousand letters written by over 1500 women during World War II. Many of the letters were women writing to their husbands or sweethearts overseas. They wrote to them about such topics as the stress of both raising children and working a war job, or how scared they were to lose their loved one to battle. The article explained that due to the over 16 million men serving overseas, the need for women to work was in high demand, and the women entering the warfare increased significantly. Inside of the letters women told their loved ones just how proud they were to work for the war effort, and were often excited about the independence and responsibilities that came with their job. Magazines throughout 1943 depicted scenes of women hard at work, hoping to draw in new women workers. In the September 1943 issue of Good Housekeeping, there was an article titled “I Looked Into my Brother’s Face”. This article featured a painting of a beautiful woman wearing a green uniform, and holding a combat helmet. Behind her was an army plane, and an army ambulance. The article was written from the woman’s point of view, and she explained how she was a war nurse, and her brother came into her hospital wounded, and suddenly she began to think back to their childhood. She said she had seen her share of war, wounded soldiers, and bombings because that was her job as a war nurse. However, when someone you love gets hurt the war would hit home, and you would begin to realize why you were working for the war effort. She was working to make sure that Americans got to live and grow up the same way her and her brother got to, to make sure that they would come home to the same America they had always known and lived in, where everyone could live their lives with kindness, security, and peace. The article ended with the woman saying that is why her and her brother were fighting, and that everyone reading should keep it America the way they left it until they arrived back home. This article may have encouraged many women to join the war effort back home. After reading this, women may have felt the need to help keep America the way it always was, like the nurse was asking. Or, perhaps, they felt guilty sitting at home not doing much towards the war effort, while women like this nurse were hard at work overseas dealing with bombings and death day after day. Besides nurses, other women’s jobs that were shown in magazines in 1943 included riveters, and agricultural workers. The Life Magazine issue published March 15,1943 included an article titled From Alice… to Eddie… to Adolf!. Inside this article was a painting of a pretty, young woman drilling into steel. The article began explaining that Alice was hard at work drilling into a new plane,for her boyfriend Eddie to fly. She remembered the house Eddie promised her they would someday have before he left for the war; they could have that home now if it was not for Adolf she thought. The article explained that these types of stories are the ones that drive women to help produce planes, tanks, guns, and ships that America was then pouring forth. During the war millions of Americans turned their skills into wartime production. On top of this, to help win everyone would willingly drive slower in order to save tires and gas, and buy stamps, and war bonds as well as conserve metal, clothing, and food. It ended with “For this is every American’s war… Alice’s, Eddie’s, yours, ours. On one point we are all resolved: it won’t be Adolf’s” This article is encouraging women to take war jobs to help beat Adolf. If they are unable to take a war job, then the article suggests they drive less, buy war bonds, or conserve household items to help end the war sooner. The July 19,1943 Life magazine featured a woman Air Force Pilot on the cover. An article inside was titled, Girl Pilots, and touched base on women pilots in the Air Force. It began by explaining that the old belief that army flying was only for men was long gone. Every month it explained, many women finished their training in Texas, and went to relieve fighting men for combat duty. The article included many photographs of women studying, working hard, and dressed up and ready to fly. This article probably encouraged many young women to up and move to try to join the Air Force, and help with the war effort. It was a big deal to see women relieving men for combat duty. Another issue of Life magazine published on August 9, 1943 included a photo of a woman in overalls hard at work, drilling into an airplane part. The article published inside, Women in Steel are Handling Tough Jobs in Heavy Industry, was about just that, hard working Rosies in the Steel industry. It began by explaining that since the start of the war, many American women had begun to acquire jobs that were traditionally held by men. It stated, “In 1941 only 1% of aviation employes were women, while this year they will comprise an estimated 65% of the total”. Included were numerous amounts of photographs of women dangerously working hard at their factory jobs. The article explained that in the Gary steel mill, women were working as packers and shippers, welders, crane operators, billet operation helpers, furnace operators, tool machinists, laborers, engine operators, draw-bench operators, electrical helpers, grinders, oilers, coil tapers, foundry helpers, checkers, loaders, metallurgical helpers, painters, cleaning and maintenance workers, and the list went on and on. Many women reading this magazine were most likely influenced by this article, and stepped up and took a war job to help with the wartime effort. In the September 27, 1943 Life magazine issue, there was an interesting article titled Life Visits the Harvesters of America. This article discussed both men and women who were working hard for their country in the agricultural sector. The article explained that novice women workers helped to save the crops. It explained that the US Crop Corps came together to help fill in the holes that were missing when 3,000,000 farm workers left for war. One branch of the organization, called the Women’s Land Army had over 50,000 members. This article showed that women were willing to working in all sectors to help with the war effort. In hopes to encourage women to step up and fill the shoes of the men of America that left for duty, newspapers and magazines included articles and advertisements of women hard at work in all sectors. From nurses on the home front, to riveters working in factories, women came together and worked hard in hopes of beating Adolf, and having their men arrive home safely. The two scholarly articles discussed provided women’s words on the wartime effort. The first article, Rosie the Riveter Remembers, interviewed women that worked for the war effort, and most found their jobs in newspaper advertisements asking women to take a job, and help with the war effort. The second article, American Women in a World at War, looked at and discussed letters written by women during the Second World War. This article made it clear that women told their loved ones just how proud they were to hold a job of their own, and help the men overseas work toward winning the war. As for the five articles discussed from magazines, the first article was from a war nurse’s prospective, and she finally understood that she was working for American’s to keep their way of life. The second article was a young woman building a plane for her boyfriend in the Army to fly, to help beat Adolf, and have him arrive home safely. The third article discussed women in the Air Force taking over jobs of men, and helping the country significantly. The fourth article touched upon women working in factories in bad conditions, and unsafe working conditions to help create airplanes, cars, and other objects needed for the men overseas. The fifth and final article discussed, spoke about women taking jobs as harvesters for all the farmers that left to join the war, even though they had never had any experience in farming. All of these women took a stand, and chose to join a war job in hopes to help their country win the World War. On top of this, these articles also inspired other women to do the same. Thanks to magazines and newspapers of the time encouraging women to work, over 6 million women joined the workforce and helped to bring our countries men home safely.	<urn:uuid:cf9b3054-cb9f-4103-9bae-cc5e1fdb8340>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://southlaketimes.com/at-war-therefore-magazines-helped-to-paint-a-picture/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00393.warc.gz	en	0.986806	2,538	3.90625	4	[ -0.29503923654556274, 0.35073530673980713, -0.18494078516960144, 0.1576787233352661, 0.17702224850654602, 0.4239211082458496, -0.13490945100784302, 0.15052002668380737, -0.10939094424247742, -0.19101250171661377, 0.23537269234657288, 0.32844963669776917, 0.13165947794914246, 0.245814174413...	2	At the start of World War II the American people had a sense of unity. Men chose to leave their jobs and families to join the front line, while women, for the first time, were leaving the home and taking over those jobs that their husbands left behind. In 1943, many magazines chose to paint a picture of women hard at work. These articles focused their stories on working women, and glamorized the untraditional jobs they held. They thought perhaps, that if they made these smaller, hard working jobs exciting, and noble, that more women would begin to join the work force. For this reason, the media created a fake working woman named Rosie the Riveter, and she was illustrated as a hero for American women. These efforts to pull women into working through magazines worked, more than six million women joined the workforce during war. Therefore, magazines helped to paint a picture of the average women taking a hard working wartime job, and at the same time advertised for other women to do the same.Magazines in 1943 provided articles of women hard at work during war. They were also written as an attempt to pull in other women to work, and help with the wartime efforts. In the scholarly article Rosie the Riveter Remembers, they touched base on these wartime women workers, and interviewed some of the women that had worked as “Rosies”. The article explained that during the war the media, as well as the government both set in motion a movement to help inspire women to back the war effort by taking a war job. The same women that at the time of the Great Depression were advised that they should not seize jobs from men. However, over 6 million women had entered the work force for the first time by the end of World War II. To stress the amount of women that began to work for the war effort, the article provided the statistic that in 1920, women made up 20% of the workforce, and by 1945, women made up 35% of the workforce. A handful of women that began working during World War II to help the war effort were interviewed in Rosie the Riveter Remembers. The first woman interviewed was Inez Sauer, a chief clerk in a toolroom. She explained that when the war started she was thirty-one years old, and she had never worked a day in her life. She was the mother of two young boys, aged twelve and thirteen, and a six year old daughter. When the war began her husbands rubber-matting store went out of business due to the war restrictions on rubber. She saw an ad in a Seattle newspaper that companies needed women workers to help the war effort, and the newspaper stated, ‘Do your part, free a man for service’. Again, another reassurance that newspapers and magazines were drawing women into the workforce to help with the war. Sybil Lewis was a black arc welder during World War II, and she also decided to take the job when she saw a newspaper advertisement to train women for defense work. She explained that she riveted small airplane parts, and worked in a pair. It was her, the riveter, who shot rivets with a gun through metal and fastened it together, and the bucker, who used a bucking bar on the metal to smooth out the rivets that she had shot in; she admitted that bucking was a harder job than riveting. The last woman interviewed, Frankie Cooper was a crane operator, and she stressed the idea that women joined the war movement to help the men fighting overseas. She explained that during the war, inside the plant everyone pushed and gave everything they had, because they wanted to. They all pushed through and went to work even if they did not feel well, because they were thinking of the men overseas and how hard they were working for their country. In the scholarly article American Women in a World at War, the authors read 30 thousand letters written by over 1500 women during World War II. Many of the letters were women writing to their husbands or sweethearts overseas. They wrote to them about such topics as the stress of both raising children and working a war job, or how scared they were to lose their loved one to battle. The article explained that due to the over 16 million men serving overseas, the need for women to work was in high demand, and the women entering the warfare increased significantly. Inside of the letters women told their loved ones just how proud they were to work for the war effort, and were often excited about the independence and responsibilities that came with their job. Magazines throughout 1943 depicted scenes of women hard at work, hoping to draw in new women workers. In the September 1943 issue of Good Housekeeping, there was an article titled “I Looked Into my Brother’s Face”. This article featured a painting of a beautiful woman wearing a green uniform, and holding a combat helmet. Behind her was an army plane, and an army ambulance. The article was written from the woman’s point of view, and she explained how she was a war nurse, and her brother came into her hospital wounded, and suddenly she began to think back to their childhood. She said she had seen her share of war, wounded soldiers, and bombings because that was her job as a war nurse. However, when someone you love gets hurt the war would hit home, and you would begin to realize why you were working for the war effort. She was working to make sure that Americans got to live and grow up the same way her and her brother got to, to make sure that they would come home to the same America they had always known and lived in, where everyone could live their lives with kindness, security, and peace. The article ended with the woman saying that is why her and her brother were fighting, and that everyone reading should keep it America the way they left it until they arrived back home. This article may have encouraged many women to join the war effort back home. After reading this, women may have felt the need to help keep America the way it always was, like the nurse was asking. Or, perhaps, they felt guilty sitting at home not doing much towards the war effort, while women like this nurse were hard at work overseas dealing with bombings and death day after day. Besides nurses, other women’s jobs that were shown in magazines in 1943 included riveters, and agricultural workers. The Life Magazine issue published March 15,1943 included an article titled From Alice… to Eddie… to Adolf!. Inside this article was a painting of a pretty, young woman drilling into steel. The article began explaining that Alice was hard at work drilling into a new plane,for her boyfriend Eddie to fly. She remembered the house Eddie promised her they would someday have before he left for the war; they could have that home now if it was not for Adolf she thought. The article explained that these types of stories are the ones that drive women to help produce planes, tanks, guns, and ships that America was then pouring forth. During the war millions of Americans turned their skills into wartime production. On top of this, to help win everyone would willingly drive slower in order to save tires and gas, and buy stamps, and war bonds as well as conserve metal, clothing, and food. It ended with “For this is every American’s war… Alice’s, Eddie’s, yours, ours. On one point we are all resolved: it won’t be Adolf’s” This article is encouraging women to take war jobs to help beat Adolf. If they are unable to take a war job, then the article suggests they drive less, buy war bonds, or conserve household items to help end the war sooner. The July 19,1943 Life magazine featured a woman Air Force Pilot on the cover. An article inside was titled, Girl Pilots, and touched base on women pilots in the Air Force. It began by explaining that the old belief that army flying was only for men was long gone. Every month it explained, many women finished their training in Texas, and went to relieve fighting men for combat duty. The article included many photographs of women studying, working hard, and dressed up and ready to fly. This article probably encouraged many young women to up and move to try to join the Air Force, and help with the war effort. It was a big deal to see women relieving men for combat duty. Another issue of Life magazine published on August 9, 1943 included a photo of a woman in overalls hard at work, drilling into an airplane part. The article published inside, Women in Steel are Handling Tough Jobs in Heavy Industry, was about just that, hard working Rosies in the Steel industry. It began by explaining that since the start of the war, many American women had begun to acquire jobs that were traditionally held by men. It stated, “In 1941 only 1% of aviation employes were women, while this year they will comprise an estimated 65% of the total”. Included were numerous amounts of photographs of women dangerously working hard at their factory jobs. The article explained that in the Gary steel mill, women were working as packers and shippers, welders, crane operators, billet operation helpers, furnace operators, tool machinists, laborers, engine operators, draw-bench operators, electrical helpers, grinders, oilers, coil tapers, foundry helpers, checkers, loaders, metallurgical helpers, painters, cleaning and maintenance workers, and the list went on and on. Many women reading this magazine were most likely influenced by this article, and stepped up and took a war job to help with the wartime effort. In the September 27, 1943 Life magazine issue, there was an interesting article titled Life Visits the Harvesters of America. This article discussed both men and women who were working hard for their country in the agricultural sector. The article explained that novice women workers helped to save the crops. It explained that the US Crop Corps came together to help fill in the holes that were missing when 3,000,000 farm workers left for war. One branch of the organization, called the Women’s Land Army had over 50,000 members. This article showed that women were willing to working in all sectors to help with the war effort. In hopes to encourage women to step up and fill the shoes of the men of America that left for duty, newspapers and magazines included articles and advertisements of women hard at work in all sectors. From nurses on the home front, to riveters working in factories, women came together and worked hard in hopes of beating Adolf, and having their men arrive home safely. The two scholarly articles discussed provided women’s words on the wartime effort. The first article, Rosie the Riveter Remembers, interviewed women that worked for the war effort, and most found their jobs in newspaper advertisements asking women to take a job, and help with the war effort. The second article, American Women in a World at War, looked at and discussed letters written by women during the Second World War. This article made it clear that women told their loved ones just how proud they were to hold a job of their own, and help the men overseas work toward winning the war. As for the five articles discussed from magazines, the first article was from a war nurse’s prospective, and she finally understood that she was working for American’s to keep their way of life. The second article was a young woman building a plane for her boyfriend in the Army to fly, to help beat Adolf, and have him arrive home safely. The third article discussed women in the Air Force taking over jobs of men, and helping the country significantly. The fourth article touched upon women working in factories in bad conditions, and unsafe working conditions to help create airplanes, cars, and other objects needed for the men overseas. The fifth and final article discussed, spoke about women taking jobs as harvesters for all the farmers that left to join the war, even though they had never had any experience in farming. All of these women took a stand, and chose to join a war job in hopes to help their country win the World War. On top of this, these articles also inspired other women to do the same. Thanks to magazines and newspapers of the time encouraging women to work, over 6 million women joined the workforce and helped to bring our countries men home safely.	2,562	ENGLISH	1
Socrates was considered by many to be the wisest man in ancient Greece. While he was eventually condemned for his wisdom, his spoken words are still listened to and followed today. When, during his trial, Socrates stated that, “the unexamined life is not worth living” (Plato 45), people began to question his theory. They began to wonder what Socrates meant with his statement, why he would feel that a life would not be worth living. To them, life was above all else, and choosing to give up life would be out of the picture. They did not understand how one would choose not to live life just because he would be unable to examine it. Socrates felt that if he was unable to examine life, he would not be really living. To Socrates, living meant being able to question the world around him. Examining life gives one freedom. Once one examines himself and understands who he is, he can take control of his life. Socrates believed that the ability to ask, to examine, and to understand would make a life whole. He believed that the purpose of life was to grow, both physically and spiritually. Being able to explore and understand would lead to a deeper understanding of the world around us as well as a deeper understanding of ourselves. (Plato 46) Socrates felt that, above all, one should be a good citizen and always do the right thing (Plato 18). However, many in his time did not worry about doing what was correct. Socrates realized this, and understood that they did not care to look into their actions and beliefs. Their first thoughts were on the goals that they had, such as money and pleasure, rather than the thought of whether or not the goals they held were actually what should have been considered important and right (Plato 26). Socrates knew that, unless they took the time to question their lifestyles, they would never do the right thing. By living a life that was being examined, the citizens would be living a life that was, for the most part, also right. Socrates… Personally, I have found great value in examining the wisdom of many acts in my life, yet there are many types of people in this world, and if some do not ponder the wisdom of their actions much at all, must we (or particularly they) conclude their life is less worth living? It seems awfully condescending. The people who don’t examine their lives much probably aren’t examining Socrates statement. If they did, they might object to the interpretation with which it is adopted by philosophers. The live in which I let other people tell me what the questions of life are, the life in which I let other people give me their answers without my thinking through to my own answers, is the unexamined life. Socrates is saying that the life in which I ask my own questions and answer them for myself in a reasonable manner is a more valuable life than the unexamined life. The examined life is so much better than an unexamined life that Socrates is willing to die for that value. Through out generations, mankind has been asking themselves what is the purpose of life. And obviously, it would not easy for one alone to answer or explain what the meaning of life is. Nevertheless, one’s life is monotonous if it is meaningless, and it is not monotonous if it has a purpose, a target to go. Thus, the question here is how one knows that his life is worth living or not? Socrates, the father of ancient philosophy, once stated, “An unexamined life is not worth living. ” In order to make one life becomes worth to live, this famous statement strongly addresses that one must exanimate himself first and then others in the society to find the meaning and happiness of life. After reading Plato’s account of Socrates defense, the Apology, I was completely blown away by the power of Socrates words and ideas. The reading left me thinking about how I felt regarding what he had said about virtue, truth and the quest for both. In class, we discussed Socrates search for virtue and we touched on the topic of this paper: the reasons Socrates believed that “the unexamined life is not worth living for man”. It is my opinion that he is correct in that view and in this paper I intend to show you why. Like many philosophers alive in his time, it was Socrates belief that virtue could only be attained through examination. Only through exploration can you really understand what virtue is, and begin to act virtuously. Understanding, as well as sharing, this information was very important goal to Socrates. The significance of examining and understanding our lives is far greater than one might think. Understanding and comprehending the behavior of friends, as well as of ourselves, enables us to have empathy and compassion for them. And, allows us not to stand in judgment, which, in turn, allows us to live the moral, noble lives that Socrates spoke of. As one analyzes the “Apology” by Plato, one is able to analyze and contrast and most people would agree with Socrates when he claims that “…the unexamined life is not worth living…”. From a more personal standpoint I would completely agree with Socrates point of view, due to the fact most of us in society have chosen to live the “unexamined life” for centuries and as a result we live in a society where one has to live segregated from our freewill as human beings as well as a society that is restrained by rules and other types of social “walls”. When one reads and is able to contrast Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” it clearly shows a great and perhaps the most clear example of the point that Socrates was attempting to make to the jury, in the “Apology”. For example in Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”, Plato makes the reader visualize a cave where there are a great number of prisoners who are restrained and are faced staring at the wall where all they can see is shadow movements that are projected from a fire that is placed right behind these prisoners, and this fire is displaying false images from what appears to be images of the outside world. As the story proceeds, one of the prisoners manages to pe the cave and he walks outside into the “real” world and is able to see a completely different view of the real world and this prisoner is able to see a completely different image of the outside world, different from the images that the shadows inside the cave were exposing to the prisoners. What Socrates is implying is that if one decides not to discover thyself and attempts to focus more on material interest and the acquisition of personal power, one is capable of abusing this power to an extent where it may result in havoc and possibly the destruction of those who occupy the state, either emotionally or physically and all as a result of decisions that were not taken into consideration before being applied. ” What I was able to grasp from this quote that Socrates phrased is that one has the wisdom to accomplish anything in one’s personal life, but one should able to find our soul and locate the wisdom that one contains inside the mind before one attempts to reach personal obstacles in life. the greatest good of all man is daily to converse about virtue. When the time for the exam came along I decided not cheat in the exam simply because I was going to have to live with a guilty conscious for quite sometime and although cheating on the exam appeared tempting at the time I still needed some time to myself and ponder about the decision that I had to make that was probably going to damage my personal morality as an individual. ” The part of the phrase that really caught my attention is when Socrates says “. ” What Socrates is trying to make us see is that the more one speaks about virtue the more a person is able to learn about the “virtues” of one’s personal life, or in other words we are able to acquire more knowledge of the human mind and its capabilities. I did not go where I could do no good to you or to myself; but where I could do the greatest good privately to everyone of you , thither I went, and sought to persuade every man among you that he must look to himself , and seek virtue and wisdom before he looks to his private interests, and look to the state before he looks to the interests of the state; and that this should be the order which he observes in all his actions. In my third semester in Santa Monica College I was taking a math class and during the first month of the semester I had already taken two exams and had failed on both, as a result before the day of the third exam arrived I was feeling somewhat nervous due to the fact that I was not prepared to take this exam. So as the moment was arriving for this exam, I began to ponder about idea of cheating in order for the results to go my way. When the escaped prisoner decides to go into the cave and attempts to explain to the other prisoners about what is really occurring in the outside world, the other prisoners decide to gain up on the “liberated” prisoner, because they were not prepared to see reality for what it really is, so they decided to chose to somewhat live the life of a “social slave” and not the life of a person who lives a life of freedom nor freewill. Another quote that Socrates applies in this story is when he quotes “. The same thing goes for the “unexamined life”, sometimes we as a human being attempt to achieve a certain level of success in life and sometimes at the expense of others and although we may acquire success, we will always live with the conscious of such guilt that later on in life it is going to comeback and hunt us. “The unexamined life is not worth living. ” (Apology, p. 41) Socrates held him self up to this standard by allowing the courts to take his life because they would not allow him to continue his quest set forth by the Oracle. An unexamined life would be just coasting through and not making any decisions or asking any questions. Socrates could not see a point in living if you were unable to ask questions and challenge your way of thinking. An examined life would be trying to understand your purpose and the current state of things. By examining your life, therefor understanding yourself, you will not be subject to actions motivated by passion or instinct. Socrates demonstrated this when Crito arrived at his jail cell with news that he could help Socrates escape. This was an event where they had to act quickly, however Socrates said “Let us examine the question together, my dear friend, and if you can make any objection while I am speaking, make it and I will listen to you, but if you have no objection to make, my dear Crito, then stop now from saying the same thing so often, that I must leave here against the will of the Athenians. I think it important to persuade you before I act, and not to act against your wishes. See whether the start of our enquiry is adequately stated, and try to answer what I ask you in the way you think best. ” (Crito, p. 51) Socrates examines the situation with Crito instead of acting hastily. This example displays how dedicated Socrates was to his way of thinking, and helps explain Socrates actions in court. Meletus was the catalyst of this case brought against Socrates. Meletus’s affidavit said “Socrates is guilty of wrongdoing in that he busies himself studying things in the sky and below the earth; he makes the worse into the stronger argument, and he teaches these same things to others. ” (Apology, p. 25) Socrates says all these claims are false and challenges anyone in the court to speak up if they are true. Socrates was also accused of corrupting the young and of not believing in the gods the city believed in but believing in his own gods. Socrates attacked each of these accusations point by point. To disprove the accusation that he corrupts the young he says “They say: That man Socrates is a pestilential fellow who corrupts the young. If one ask them what he does and what he teaches to corrupt them, they are silent, as they do not know. ” (Apology, p. 29) To disprove the statement that he does not believe in the gods the city believes in, he starts to question the jury. Socrates states “Does any man, Meletus, believe in human activities who does not believe in humans? ” “Or in flue-playing activities but not in flute-players? ” (Apology, p. 32) Socrates sets up these analogies so he can compare them to the statements that he does not believe in any gods. Socrates then applies this analogy to himself by saying “Then since I do believe in spirits, as you admit, if spirits are gods, this is what I mean when I say you speak in riddles and in jest, as you state that I do not believe in gods and then again that I do, since I do believe in spirits”. (Apology, p. 32) Socrates in his defense is trying to prove that Meletus’s charges are blown out of proportion and they are wasting the courts time. Socrates is posed with the question “Are you not ashamed, Socrates, to have followed the kind of occupation that has led to your being now in danger of death? ” (Apology, p. 33) Socrates replies “Whenever a man has taken a position that he believes to be best, or has been placed by his commander, there he must I think remain and face danger, without a thought for death or anything else, rather than disgrace. ” (Apology, p. 33) Socrates is saying when you dedicate your life or you strongly believe in a belief or subject no matter what the danger, you should still stand behind your beliefs. By doing this, you live an examined life. In Socrates case, if he were to accept the punishment of never practicing philosophy he would be living an unexamined life because he could just set aside his beliefs and move on through life. Socrates explains his passion for philosophy by saying “Gentlemen of the jury, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practise philosophy, to exhort you and in my usual way to point out to any one of you whom I happen to meet. ” (Apology, p. 34) The way Socrates explains himself to the jury, I see a man who truly believes in what he preaches. He demonstrates that he has lived an examined life, and even with the threat of death and an opportunity to escape death, he sticks with what he truly believes is right. He questions everything and will not accept ignorance. However I feel that since Socrates was at the age of 70 his fear of death was dramatically reduced. I think if he were younger he would have taken the opportunity Crito presented to escape, so he could continue his quest. “Now the hour to part has come. I go to die, you go to live. Which of us goes to the better lot is know to no one, except the god. ” (Apology, p. 44)	<urn:uuid:d7db8f1e-582b-4fa3-90b9-fd68c95102ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://philosophyessays.net/meaning-of-life-and-socrates/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00521.warc.gz	en	0.982438	3,219	3.5625	4	[ -0.14826735854148865, 0.21377530694007874, -0.18650802969932556, -0.38129886984825134, -0.34735581278800964, -0.19908320903778076, 0.8626847267150879, 0.4368809461593628, -0.017873484641313553, 0.08602122217416763, 0.11489619314670563, -0.0777844786643982, 0.060081273317337036, 0.385313034...	2	Socrates was considered by many to be the wisest man in ancient Greece. While he was eventually condemned for his wisdom, his spoken words are still listened to and followed today. When, during his trial, Socrates stated that, “the unexamined life is not worth living” (Plato 45), people began to question his theory. They began to wonder what Socrates meant with his statement, why he would feel that a life would not be worth living. To them, life was above all else, and choosing to give up life would be out of the picture. They did not understand how one would choose not to live life just because he would be unable to examine it. Socrates felt that if he was unable to examine life, he would not be really living. To Socrates, living meant being able to question the world around him. Examining life gives one freedom. Once one examines himself and understands who he is, he can take control of his life. Socrates believed that the ability to ask, to examine, and to understand would make a life whole. He believed that the purpose of life was to grow, both physically and spiritually. Being able to explore and understand would lead to a deeper understanding of the world around us as well as a deeper understanding of ourselves. (Plato 46) Socrates felt that, above all, one should be a good citizen and always do the right thing (Plato 18). However, many in his time did not worry about doing what was correct. Socrates realized this, and understood that they did not care to look into their actions and beliefs. Their first thoughts were on the goals that they had, such as money and pleasure, rather than the thought of whether or not the goals they held were actually what should have been considered important and right (Plato 26). Socrates knew that, unless they took the time to question their lifestyles, they would never do the right thing. By living a life that was being examined, the citizens would be living a life that was, for the most part, also right. Socrates… Personally, I have found great value in examining the wisdom of many acts in my life, yet there are many types of people in this world, and if some do not ponder the wisdom of their actions much at all, must we (or particularly they) conclude their life is less worth living? It seems awfully condescending. The people who don’t examine their lives much probably aren’t examining Socrates statement. If they did, they might object to the interpretation with which it is adopted by philosophers. The live in which I let other people tell me what the questions of life are, the life in which I let other people give me their answers without my thinking through to my own answers, is the unexamined life. Socrates is saying that the life in which I ask my own questions and answer them for myself in a reasonable manner is a more valuable life than the unexamined life. The examined life is so much better than an unexamined life that Socrates is willing to die for that value. Through out generations, mankind has been asking themselves what is the purpose of life. And obviously, it would not easy for one alone to answer or explain what the meaning of life is. Nevertheless, one’s life is monotonous if it is meaningless, and it is not monotonous if it has a purpose, a target to go. Thus, the question here is how one knows that his life is worth living or not? Socrates, the father of ancient philosophy, once stated, “An unexamined life is not worth living. ” In order to make one life becomes worth to live, this famous statement strongly addresses that one must exanimate himself first and then others in the society to find the meaning and happiness of life. After reading Plato’s account of Socrates defense, the Apology, I was completely blown away by the power of Socrates words and ideas. The reading left me thinking about how I felt regarding what he had said about virtue, truth and the quest for both. In class, we discussed Socrates search for virtue and we touched on the topic of this paper: the reasons Socrates believed that “the unexamined life is not worth living for man”. It is my opinion that he is correct in that view and in this paper I intend to show you why. Like many philosophers alive in his time, it was Socrates belief that virtue could only be attained through examination. Only through exploration can you really understand what virtue is, and begin to act virtuously. Understanding, as well as sharing, this information was very important goal to Socrates. The significance of examining and understanding our lives is far greater than one might think. Understanding and comprehending the behavior of friends, as well as of ourselves, enables us to have empathy and compassion for them. And, allows us not to stand in judgment, which, in turn, allows us to live the moral, noble lives that Socrates spoke of. As one analyzes the “Apology” by Plato, one is able to analyze and contrast and most people would agree with Socrates when he claims that “…the unexamined life is not worth living…”. From a more personal standpoint I would completely agree with Socrates point of view, due to the fact most of us in society have chosen to live the “unexamined life” for centuries and as a result we live in a society where one has to live segregated from our freewill as human beings as well as a society that is restrained by rules and other types of social “walls”. When one reads and is able to contrast Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” it clearly shows a great and perhaps the most clear example of the point that Socrates was attempting to make to the jury, in the “Apology”. For example in Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”, Plato makes the reader visualize a cave where there are a great number of prisoners who are restrained and are faced staring at the wall where all they can see is shadow movements that are projected from a fire that is placed right behind these prisoners, and this fire is displaying false images from what appears to be images of the outside world. As the story proceeds, one of the prisoners manages to pe the cave and he walks outside into the “real” world and is able to see a completely different view of the real world and this prisoner is able to see a completely different image of the outside world, different from the images that the shadows inside the cave were exposing to the prisoners. What Socrates is implying is that if one decides not to discover thyself and attempts to focus more on material interest and the acquisition of personal power, one is capable of abusing this power to an extent where it may result in havoc and possibly the destruction of those who occupy the state, either emotionally or physically and all as a result of decisions that were not taken into consideration before being applied. ” What I was able to grasp from this quote that Socrates phrased is that one has the wisdom to accomplish anything in one’s personal life, but one should able to find our soul and locate the wisdom that one contains inside the mind before one attempts to reach personal obstacles in life. the greatest good of all man is daily to converse about virtue. When the time for the exam came along I decided not cheat in the exam simply because I was going to have to live with a guilty conscious for quite sometime and although cheating on the exam appeared tempting at the time I still needed some time to myself and ponder about the decision that I had to make that was probably going to damage my personal morality as an individual. ” The part of the phrase that really caught my attention is when Socrates says “. ” What Socrates is trying to make us see is that the more one speaks about virtue the more a person is able to learn about the “virtues” of one’s personal life, or in other words we are able to acquire more knowledge of the human mind and its capabilities. I did not go where I could do no good to you or to myself; but where I could do the greatest good privately to everyone of you , thither I went, and sought to persuade every man among you that he must look to himself , and seek virtue and wisdom before he looks to his private interests, and look to the state before he looks to the interests of the state; and that this should be the order which he observes in all his actions. In my third semester in Santa Monica College I was taking a math class and during the first month of the semester I had already taken two exams and had failed on both, as a result before the day of the third exam arrived I was feeling somewhat nervous due to the fact that I was not prepared to take this exam. So as the moment was arriving for this exam, I began to ponder about idea of cheating in order for the results to go my way. When the escaped prisoner decides to go into the cave and attempts to explain to the other prisoners about what is really occurring in the outside world, the other prisoners decide to gain up on the “liberated” prisoner, because they were not prepared to see reality for what it really is, so they decided to chose to somewhat live the life of a “social slave” and not the life of a person who lives a life of freedom nor freewill. Another quote that Socrates applies in this story is when he quotes “. The same thing goes for the “unexamined life”, sometimes we as a human being attempt to achieve a certain level of success in life and sometimes at the expense of others and although we may acquire success, we will always live with the conscious of such guilt that later on in life it is going to comeback and hunt us. “The unexamined life is not worth living. ” (Apology, p. 41) Socrates held him self up to this standard by allowing the courts to take his life because they would not allow him to continue his quest set forth by the Oracle. An unexamined life would be just coasting through and not making any decisions or asking any questions. Socrates could not see a point in living if you were unable to ask questions and challenge your way of thinking. An examined life would be trying to understand your purpose and the current state of things. By examining your life, therefor understanding yourself, you will not be subject to actions motivated by passion or instinct. Socrates demonstrated this when Crito arrived at his jail cell with news that he could help Socrates escape. This was an event where they had to act quickly, however Socrates said “Let us examine the question together, my dear friend, and if you can make any objection while I am speaking, make it and I will listen to you, but if you have no objection to make, my dear Crito, then stop now from saying the same thing so often, that I must leave here against the will of the Athenians. I think it important to persuade you before I act, and not to act against your wishes. See whether the start of our enquiry is adequately stated, and try to answer what I ask you in the way you think best. ” (Crito, p. 51) Socrates examines the situation with Crito instead of acting hastily. This example displays how dedicated Socrates was to his way of thinking, and helps explain Socrates actions in court. Meletus was the catalyst of this case brought against Socrates. Meletus’s affidavit said “Socrates is guilty of wrongdoing in that he busies himself studying things in the sky and below the earth; he makes the worse into the stronger argument, and he teaches these same things to others. ” (Apology, p. 25) Socrates says all these claims are false and challenges anyone in the court to speak up if they are true. Socrates was also accused of corrupting the young and of not believing in the gods the city believed in but believing in his own gods. Socrates attacked each of these accusations point by point. To disprove the accusation that he corrupts the young he says “They say: That man Socrates is a pestilential fellow who corrupts the young. If one ask them what he does and what he teaches to corrupt them, they are silent, as they do not know. ” (Apology, p. 29) To disprove the statement that he does not believe in the gods the city believes in, he starts to question the jury. Socrates states “Does any man, Meletus, believe in human activities who does not believe in humans? ” “Or in flue-playing activities but not in flute-players? ” (Apology, p. 32) Socrates sets up these analogies so he can compare them to the statements that he does not believe in any gods. Socrates then applies this analogy to himself by saying “Then since I do believe in spirits, as you admit, if spirits are gods, this is what I mean when I say you speak in riddles and in jest, as you state that I do not believe in gods and then again that I do, since I do believe in spirits”. (Apology, p. 32) Socrates in his defense is trying to prove that Meletus’s charges are blown out of proportion and they are wasting the courts time. Socrates is posed with the question “Are you not ashamed, Socrates, to have followed the kind of occupation that has led to your being now in danger of death? ” (Apology, p. 33) Socrates replies “Whenever a man has taken a position that he believes to be best, or has been placed by his commander, there he must I think remain and face danger, without a thought for death or anything else, rather than disgrace. ” (Apology, p. 33) Socrates is saying when you dedicate your life or you strongly believe in a belief or subject no matter what the danger, you should still stand behind your beliefs. By doing this, you live an examined life. In Socrates case, if he were to accept the punishment of never practicing philosophy he would be living an unexamined life because he could just set aside his beliefs and move on through life. Socrates explains his passion for philosophy by saying “Gentlemen of the jury, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practise philosophy, to exhort you and in my usual way to point out to any one of you whom I happen to meet. ” (Apology, p. 34) The way Socrates explains himself to the jury, I see a man who truly believes in what he preaches. He demonstrates that he has lived an examined life, and even with the threat of death and an opportunity to escape death, he sticks with what he truly believes is right. He questions everything and will not accept ignorance. However I feel that since Socrates was at the age of 70 his fear of death was dramatically reduced. I think if he were younger he would have taken the opportunity Crito presented to escape, so he could continue his quest. “Now the hour to part has come. I go to die, you go to live. Which of us goes to the better lot is know to no one, except the god. ” (Apology, p. 44)	3,185	ENGLISH	1
08 December 2019Comments closed This week our Ladybird (two year olds) class have been very busy making a winter display. We have been talking about winter with the children. We asked about the weather during winter time and the type of clothes we would wear, some of the words they used are written on the snowflakes.The adults wanted to create some wintery pictures but the children decided that they wanted to paint snowmen. The children painted their representations of a snowman using black paper and white paint to make the snowman stand out more. The children had a choice of different media to choose from so they could add different features and clothes to their snowman. The children remained focused and paid attention to detail and investigated new ways to do things for example, how different media such as material, paint and tissue paper can be used to create a picture. Using their own ideas they developed how they wanted their snowman to look.	<urn:uuid:a5e63526-d8aa-4fea-8ab7-3c840f343786>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://thns.org/news/week-ladybird-two-year-olds-class-busy-making-winter-display-talking-winter-children-asked-weather-winter-time-typ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00472.warc.gz	en	0.980143	189	3.34375	3	[ 0.16858941316604614, -0.17118579149246216, 0.4056491553783417, -0.17286038398742676, 0.34655123949050903, 0.34613731503486633, -0.3543805778026581, 0.24167250096797943, -0.7630903124809265, -0.0057665701024234295, -0.20257169008255005, 0.08410985767841339, 0.1130470335483551, 0.34811908006...	8	08 December 2019Comments closed This week our Ladybird (two year olds) class have been very busy making a winter display. We have been talking about winter with the children. We asked about the weather during winter time and the type of clothes we would wear, some of the words they used are written on the snowflakes.The adults wanted to create some wintery pictures but the children decided that they wanted to paint snowmen. The children painted their representations of a snowman using black paper and white paint to make the snowman stand out more. The children had a choice of different media to choose from so they could add different features and clothes to their snowman. The children remained focused and paid attention to detail and investigated new ways to do things for example, how different media such as material, paint and tissue paper can be used to create a picture. Using their own ideas they developed how they wanted their snowman to look.	194	ENGLISH	1
Exeter Hall: the great anti-slavery meeting by Thomas H. Shepherd, artist. Harden Sidney Melville, engraver. 1841. Source: The New York Public Library. Image ID 807773. lthough slavery had been a feature of human life since at least as early as 2,600 B.C.E. in Egypt, it became an extremely lucrative European trade in the late fifteenth century. It did not take Britain long to cash in on the trade in human beings. Ships left British west coast ports like Liverpool and Bristol laden which firearms, gunpowder, metals, alcohol, cotton goods, beads, knives, mirrors — the sort of things which African chiefs did not have, and which were often of very poor quality. Many of the cheaper goods were made in Birmingham and were known as "Brummagem ware". These goods were exchanged for slaves — people who had been captured in local tribal wars perhaps, or who had been taken prisoner especially for this trade. The slaves were then packed tightly into the slave ships, so that they could hardly move. Often they were chained down; they were allowed little exercise and they were kept in horrendous conditions in the hold of the ship. By the middle of the eighteenth century British ships were carrying about 50,000 slaves a year. Royal Navy sailors said that they could smell the stench of a ship carrying slaves anything up to 10 miles downwind. The slavers sailed from Africa across the Atlantic. Any slaves who had managed to survive the journey were taken to shore and were sold to plantation owners in the West Indies, the southern colonies of America (Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia) where they spent the rest of their lives working to produce goods like cotton, tobacco, sugar cane and coffee. The slave-produced goods were shipped back to Britain — the "Mother Country" — where they were manufactured or refined (if necessary) and then either sold domestically or re-exported at a vast profit. The slave trade brought in huge amounts of money to Britain, and few people even knew what was going on in the plantations, let alone cared. Men who owned plantations in the West Indies, including Sir John Gladstone, formed an important political group which opposed the abolition of the slave trade. One of the earliest voluntary organisations in Britain which was devoted to a single cause was the anti-slavery movement. In 1787 a committee of twelve was appointed, including six members of the Society of Friends (Quakers). The Quakers had set up a committee of their own in 1783 in order to obtain and publish "such information as may tend to the abolition of the slave trade." Two other members of the committee were Thomas Clarkson and Granville Sharp. These men in particular went to great lengths to collect evidence, finding out precisely how little space was allotted to slaves on the ships and similar details. They began to publish pamphlets to stir public opinion against the trade. In her New York Times review of two books on the anti-slavery movement, Marilynne Robinson describes Sharp as a minor government clerk who educated himself in the law in the course of defending the rights of Africans brought into England as slaves. He devoted himself and his slender resources to this work over decades with the object of finally putting an end to slavery itself. The trial, which is said to have abolished slavery within England by legal precedent, was centered on the question of Steuart's right to sell Somerset into the West Indies. Lord Mansfield ruled in favor of Somerset on the grounds that slavery "is so odious that nothing can be suffered to support it but positive law." There being no such law in England, "the black must be discharged." This decision freed an estimated 15,000 Africans then held as slaves in England. Wilberforce holding the broken chain of slavery, Christ Church, Chelsea. [Click on thumnail for larger image In parliament, both Charles James Fox and William Pitt the Younger agreed with the aims of the committee in which Sharp layed an importrant role, but some of the most powerful economic interests of the day opposed them. Consequently the committee had to concern itself with direct political action. Since Quakers were barred from becoming MPs until after 1828, their spokesman in parliament became the Evangelical William Wilberforce, author of Practical Christianity, one of the century's most widely read devotional works. In 1793 Britain went to war against the French following the French Revolution and the cause of the slave-traders appeared to be a patriotic cause: the trade was seen as the "nursery of seamen." Abolition of the trade was postponed although Wilberforce regularly continued to propose legislation for abolition. His moral case was very strong and the evils of the trade were generally admitted. In 1807 the slave trade in the British colonies was abolished and it became illegal to carry slaves in British ships. This was only the beginning: the ultimate aim was the abolition of slavery itself. Left: The Printing Press and the Abolition of Slavery by David d'Angers (1788-1856) a bas relief from his monument to Johannes Gutenberg in Strasbourg, France. Wilberforce is one of those depicted bringing freedom to enslaved Africans. Right: Exeter Hall: the great anti-slavery meeting [Click on thumnail for larger image In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, European statesmen condemned slavery but nothing was done to improve the conditions of slaves. The campaign to abolish slavery continued in Britain. Wilberforce and his co-workers held meetings all over the country to try to persuade people that abolition should be supported. They discovered that many people were unaware of the horrors of slavery and that others were not interested in something which happened thousands of miles away. They also met opposition from the West India lobby. After 1830 when the mood of the nation changed in favour of a variety of types of reform, the antislavery campaign gathered momentum. In 1833 Wilberforce's efforts were finally rewarded when the Abolition of Slavery Act was passed. Wilberforce, on his death-bed, was informed of the passing of the Act in the nick of time. The main terms of the Act were: - all slaves under the age of six were to be freed immediately - slaves over the age of six were to remain as part slave and part free for a further four years. In that time they would have to be paid a wage for the work they did in the quarter of the week when they were "free" - the government was to provide £20 million in compensation to the slave-owners who had lost their "property." In the West Indies the economic results of the Act were disastrous. The islands depended on the sugar trade which in turn depended on slave labour. Ultimately, the planters were unable to make the West Indies the thriving centres of trade which they had been in the eighteenth century. However, a moral victory had been won, and the 1833 Act marked the beginning of the end of slavery in the New World. - Web Resources - William Gale's The Captured Runaway - J. M. W. Turner's Slave Ship.. [Full title: Slavers Overthrowing the Dead and Dying -- Typho[on]n Coming On. - Slavery in Black and White — an editorial cartoon from September 1865 - The Black Question — a hostile editorial cartoon from September 1865 - Dickens, Slavery, and Abolition Last modified 9 March 2016 Thanks to Wendy Fox of Canada for pointing out a broken link.	<urn:uuid:850f8552-6992-4bf9-ac21-086e5b3f85d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://victorianweb.org/history/antislavery/antislavery.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00478.warc.gz	en	0.983162	1,550	3.953125	4	[ -0.09388531744480133, -0.01819559372961521, 0.1657678484916687, -0.20047636330127716, 0.05804023519158363, -0.5362386107444763, -0.07661627233028412, -0.4856373965740204, -0.5083991885185242, 0.17535080015659332, 0.27286505699157715, -0.30702733993530273, -0.01661411114037037, 0.1603611260...	4	Exeter Hall: the great anti-slavery meeting by Thomas H. Shepherd, artist. Harden Sidney Melville, engraver. 1841. Source: The New York Public Library. Image ID 807773. lthough slavery had been a feature of human life since at least as early as 2,600 B.C.E. in Egypt, it became an extremely lucrative European trade in the late fifteenth century. It did not take Britain long to cash in on the trade in human beings. Ships left British west coast ports like Liverpool and Bristol laden which firearms, gunpowder, metals, alcohol, cotton goods, beads, knives, mirrors — the sort of things which African chiefs did not have, and which were often of very poor quality. Many of the cheaper goods were made in Birmingham and were known as "Brummagem ware". These goods were exchanged for slaves — people who had been captured in local tribal wars perhaps, or who had been taken prisoner especially for this trade. The slaves were then packed tightly into the slave ships, so that they could hardly move. Often they were chained down; they were allowed little exercise and they were kept in horrendous conditions in the hold of the ship. By the middle of the eighteenth century British ships were carrying about 50,000 slaves a year. Royal Navy sailors said that they could smell the stench of a ship carrying slaves anything up to 10 miles downwind. The slavers sailed from Africa across the Atlantic. Any slaves who had managed to survive the journey were taken to shore and were sold to plantation owners in the West Indies, the southern colonies of America (Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia) where they spent the rest of their lives working to produce goods like cotton, tobacco, sugar cane and coffee. The slave-produced goods were shipped back to Britain — the "Mother Country" — where they were manufactured or refined (if necessary) and then either sold domestically or re-exported at a vast profit. The slave trade brought in huge amounts of money to Britain, and few people even knew what was going on in the plantations, let alone cared. Men who owned plantations in the West Indies, including Sir John Gladstone, formed an important political group which opposed the abolition of the slave trade. One of the earliest voluntary organisations in Britain which was devoted to a single cause was the anti-slavery movement. In 1787 a committee of twelve was appointed, including six members of the Society of Friends (Quakers). The Quakers had set up a committee of their own in 1783 in order to obtain and publish "such information as may tend to the abolition of the slave trade." Two other members of the committee were Thomas Clarkson and Granville Sharp. These men in particular went to great lengths to collect evidence, finding out precisely how little space was allotted to slaves on the ships and similar details. They began to publish pamphlets to stir public opinion against the trade. In her New York Times review of two books on the anti-slavery movement, Marilynne Robinson describes Sharp as a minor government clerk who educated himself in the law in the course of defending the rights of Africans brought into England as slaves. He devoted himself and his slender resources to this work over decades with the object of finally putting an end to slavery itself. The trial, which is said to have abolished slavery within England by legal precedent, was centered on the question of Steuart's right to sell Somerset into the West Indies. Lord Mansfield ruled in favor of Somerset on the grounds that slavery "is so odious that nothing can be suffered to support it but positive law." There being no such law in England, "the black must be discharged." This decision freed an estimated 15,000 Africans then held as slaves in England. Wilberforce holding the broken chain of slavery, Christ Church, Chelsea. [Click on thumnail for larger image In parliament, both Charles James Fox and William Pitt the Younger agreed with the aims of the committee in which Sharp layed an importrant role, but some of the most powerful economic interests of the day opposed them. Consequently the committee had to concern itself with direct political action. Since Quakers were barred from becoming MPs until after 1828, their spokesman in parliament became the Evangelical William Wilberforce, author of Practical Christianity, one of the century's most widely read devotional works. In 1793 Britain went to war against the French following the French Revolution and the cause of the slave-traders appeared to be a patriotic cause: the trade was seen as the "nursery of seamen." Abolition of the trade was postponed although Wilberforce regularly continued to propose legislation for abolition. His moral case was very strong and the evils of the trade were generally admitted. In 1807 the slave trade in the British colonies was abolished and it became illegal to carry slaves in British ships. This was only the beginning: the ultimate aim was the abolition of slavery itself. Left: The Printing Press and the Abolition of Slavery by David d'Angers (1788-1856) a bas relief from his monument to Johannes Gutenberg in Strasbourg, France. Wilberforce is one of those depicted bringing freedom to enslaved Africans. Right: Exeter Hall: the great anti-slavery meeting [Click on thumnail for larger image In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, European statesmen condemned slavery but nothing was done to improve the conditions of slaves. The campaign to abolish slavery continued in Britain. Wilberforce and his co-workers held meetings all over the country to try to persuade people that abolition should be supported. They discovered that many people were unaware of the horrors of slavery and that others were not interested in something which happened thousands of miles away. They also met opposition from the West India lobby. After 1830 when the mood of the nation changed in favour of a variety of types of reform, the antislavery campaign gathered momentum. In 1833 Wilberforce's efforts were finally rewarded when the Abolition of Slavery Act was passed. Wilberforce, on his death-bed, was informed of the passing of the Act in the nick of time. The main terms of the Act were: - all slaves under the age of six were to be freed immediately - slaves over the age of six were to remain as part slave and part free for a further four years. In that time they would have to be paid a wage for the work they did in the quarter of the week when they were "free" - the government was to provide £20 million in compensation to the slave-owners who had lost their "property." In the West Indies the economic results of the Act were disastrous. The islands depended on the sugar trade which in turn depended on slave labour. Ultimately, the planters were unable to make the West Indies the thriving centres of trade which they had been in the eighteenth century. However, a moral victory had been won, and the 1833 Act marked the beginning of the end of slavery in the New World. - Web Resources - William Gale's The Captured Runaway - J. M. W. Turner's Slave Ship.. [Full title: Slavers Overthrowing the Dead and Dying -- Typho[on]n Coming On. - Slavery in Black and White — an editorial cartoon from September 1865 - The Black Question — a hostile editorial cartoon from September 1865 - Dickens, Slavery, and Abolition Last modified 9 March 2016 Thanks to Wendy Fox of Canada for pointing out a broken link.	1,597	ENGLISH	1
CBSE Class 3 English Practice Worksheets (127) - Revision Worksheets have become an integral part of the education system. Worksheets are very critical for every student to practice his/ her concepts. Students, teachers and parents can download all CBSE educational material and extremely well prepared worksheets from this website. All revision worksheets, Sample papers, Question banks and easy to learn study notes for all classes and subjects have been prepared based on the latest guidelines sent by CBSE. All CBSE educational material is developed by our panel of teachers, have also been submitted by thousands of teachers and students. The study material has been carefully compiled by the best teachers in India. Worksheets have been submitted by teachers of various CBSE schools and also have been carefully developed keeping into consideration the latest CBSE syllabus. I.MASTER SPELLING LIST list school father keep tree grade reach raise theme scream easy batteries fuel machine solve evaluate II.Comprehension. ANN AND FRANK One day Ann and Frank went to the lake with Rover. Rover can swim well, so Frank made him go into the water after a stick. "Jump, Rover! Jump in and get the stick," said Frank; and into the water he went with a big splash.Pretty soon he came out with the stick in his mouth.Rover did not like the game as much as Frank, as the water was a little cold. They had a fine time for a while with Rover, and then set out for home, as it was late in the day, and they could not stay long. On the way home, Rover saw a rabbit, and away he went after it, as fast as he could go. Ann and Frank ran too, but could not keep up with Rover and the rabbit. When they got home, Rover was there, and Frank said, "Where is the rabbit, Rover?" Rover gave Frank a funny look and went away. "O I know!" said Frank, "the rabbit ran so fast you could not catch it." 1. What did Rover chase in the water? 2. Why couldn’t rover catch the rabbit? 3. What might have happened if Ann and Frank stayed later? 4. How do you think Rover felt about not catching the rabbit? Please click the below link to access CBSE Class 3 English Practice Worksheets (127) - Revision	<urn:uuid:4c6fad79-4b03-4e4b-b9ba-b88e64de429a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studiestoday.com/worksheet-english-cbse-class-3-english-practice-worksheets-127-revision-219576.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00139.warc.gz	en	0.982134	487	3.421875	3	[ -0.4008638560771942, -0.1396949142217636, 0.43628090620040894, 0.04650379344820976, 0.06792004406452179, 0.1499439775943756, 0.1871926635503769, 0.2613056004047394, -0.24620068073272705, 0.010702474974095821, 0.03547259792685509, -0.38745027780532837, 0.014706486836075783, 0.09806727617979...	1	CBSE Class 3 English Practice Worksheets (127) - Revision Worksheets have become an integral part of the education system. Worksheets are very critical for every student to practice his/ her concepts. Students, teachers and parents can download all CBSE educational material and extremely well prepared worksheets from this website. All revision worksheets, Sample papers, Question banks and easy to learn study notes for all classes and subjects have been prepared based on the latest guidelines sent by CBSE. All CBSE educational material is developed by our panel of teachers, have also been submitted by thousands of teachers and students. The study material has been carefully compiled by the best teachers in India. Worksheets have been submitted by teachers of various CBSE schools and also have been carefully developed keeping into consideration the latest CBSE syllabus. I.MASTER SPELLING LIST list school father keep tree grade reach raise theme scream easy batteries fuel machine solve evaluate II.Comprehension. ANN AND FRANK One day Ann and Frank went to the lake with Rover. Rover can swim well, so Frank made him go into the water after a stick. "Jump, Rover! Jump in and get the stick," said Frank; and into the water he went with a big splash.Pretty soon he came out with the stick in his mouth.Rover did not like the game as much as Frank, as the water was a little cold. They had a fine time for a while with Rover, and then set out for home, as it was late in the day, and they could not stay long. On the way home, Rover saw a rabbit, and away he went after it, as fast as he could go. Ann and Frank ran too, but could not keep up with Rover and the rabbit. When they got home, Rover was there, and Frank said, "Where is the rabbit, Rover?" Rover gave Frank a funny look and went away. "O I know!" said Frank, "the rabbit ran so fast you could not catch it." 1. What did Rover chase in the water? 2. Why couldn’t rover catch the rabbit? 3. What might have happened if Ann and Frank stayed later? 4. How do you think Rover felt about not catching the rabbit? Please click the below link to access CBSE Class 3 English Practice Worksheets (127) - Revision	476	ENGLISH	1
baseball windup and stretch pitching Baseball Windup and Stretch The motion a pitcher goes through in the process of throwing a pitch is called a delivery. Each delivery begins with the pitcher being in one of two positions, which we will learn about in this tutorial. Windup Pitching Position The windup position is most often used when there are no runners on base. Since it takes longer than the set position, using the windup when there are runners on base would give more time for the runners to steal a base. He keeps his pivot foot (his dominant foot and the one that will keep him grounded as he pitches) on the pitcher's rubber for the duration of the delivery. He then slides his free foot (his non-dominant/non-pivot foot) back, rotates his pivot foot to be parallel with the rubber, lifts his free foot up, and throws the pitch while striding toward home plate with his free foot. To finish the motion, the pitcher follows through by letting his arm continue to swing down after he has released the ball. His balance is now on his free foot, which has stepped toward home plate, and he kicks his back foot up as the momentum of the delivery drives his weight forward. Pitching Set Position or The Stretch When a pitcher is in the set position, he begins with his pivot foot on the rubber, and with his feet and shoulders parallel to the rubber (left-handed pitchers face toward first base while right-handed pitchers face toward third base). With his dominant hand holding the ball and the other hand with the glove, the pitcher puts his hands together, signaling the start of the delivery. He then lifts his free (non-pivot) foot up, and throws the pitch while striding toward home plate. Just like with the windup position, the pitcher then follows through and kicks his pivot foot up.	<urn:uuid:0e0b656f-c832-46e9-be54-3317b1f1b583>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/baseball/101/windup-and-stretch-pitching/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00289.warc.gz	en	0.982703	386	3.28125	3	[ -0.10995343327522278, 0.1690436452627182, 0.22876940667629242, -0.48918578028678894, -0.03513525426387787, 0.35659271478652954, 0.09576664865016937, -0.0756344422698021, 0.2969042956829071, 0.04275713860988617, 0.13033385574817657, -0.12867596745491028, -0.4121309220790863, 0.2548452019691...	1	baseball windup and stretch pitching Baseball Windup and Stretch The motion a pitcher goes through in the process of throwing a pitch is called a delivery. Each delivery begins with the pitcher being in one of two positions, which we will learn about in this tutorial. Windup Pitching Position The windup position is most often used when there are no runners on base. Since it takes longer than the set position, using the windup when there are runners on base would give more time for the runners to steal a base. He keeps his pivot foot (his dominant foot and the one that will keep him grounded as he pitches) on the pitcher's rubber for the duration of the delivery. He then slides his free foot (his non-dominant/non-pivot foot) back, rotates his pivot foot to be parallel with the rubber, lifts his free foot up, and throws the pitch while striding toward home plate with his free foot. To finish the motion, the pitcher follows through by letting his arm continue to swing down after he has released the ball. His balance is now on his free foot, which has stepped toward home plate, and he kicks his back foot up as the momentum of the delivery drives his weight forward. Pitching Set Position or The Stretch When a pitcher is in the set position, he begins with his pivot foot on the rubber, and with his feet and shoulders parallel to the rubber (left-handed pitchers face toward first base while right-handed pitchers face toward third base). With his dominant hand holding the ball and the other hand with the glove, the pitcher puts his hands together, signaling the start of the delivery. He then lifts his free (non-pivot) foot up, and throws the pitch while striding toward home plate. Just like with the windup position, the pitcher then follows through and kicks his pivot foot up.	377	ENGLISH	1
Anna mostly defined by his “Ohio Gang” Anna LehmanMrs. CopenhaverAmerican History 21 February 2018 Republican Presidents in the Jazz Age During the roaring twenties, or Jazz Age, three republican presidents were consecutively elected to serve. Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover were a great part of the Jazz Age and made many decisions on how to handle the events at the time. Warren G. Harding, America’s 29th President, only served in office for two years, due to the inevitable Curse of Tippecanoe. He was nominated for the republican candidate seat because it was stated that nobody else was better for it, and their was a shortage of better suitors. He surprisingly won against James Cox, Democratic candidate, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt with the help of his campaign manager and later to be Attorney General, Harry Daughtery. He told the public he would bring a “return to normalcy” after the Great War. He wanted to end foreign involvement and keep the peace in the country. He also believed in limiting immigration, enlarging the tariffs, and supporting business and the rich by lowering the income taxes. Harding’s term was mostly defined by his “Ohio Gang” of cabinet members. He appointed very smart leaders, but most of them were close personal friends. Three scandals erupted for his half-term. The first, and probably most well know idea of corruption, was the Teapot Dome Scandal. In this scandal, Albert Fall, Secretary of the Interior, illegally leased government lands to oil companies to gain a profit of $400,000. Secondly, Charles Forbes, Secretary of Veterans Bureau, was accused of stealing money from the veteran’s funds. Lastly, Harry Daughtery was accused of accepting bribes and giving away government secrets. Surprisingly, Harding wasn’t involved or associated with any of these crimes. His two year term ended because of a sudden heart attack. Harding’s Vice President, Calvin Coolidge, immediately swore into office as soon as Harding died. Coolidge was known to be silent and pensive, and was not nearly as social as Warren G. Harding. He was known for wanting less government interference with people’s lives, therefore, he supported the idea of limited government.	<urn:uuid:8e084664-7d85-4831-bf6e-cb3997146134>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/anna-mostly-defined-by-his-ohio-gang/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00394.warc.gz	en	0.985704	468	3.484375	3	[ -0.10949712246656418, -0.11279723793268204, 0.4376668632030487, -0.5889028906822205, -0.1353241205215454, 0.19775055348873138, 0.3106108009815216, -0.38527658581733704, -0.05370918661355972, 0.06843835860490799, 0.4541758894920349, 0.3443906307220459, 0.04770836606621742, 0.192439779639244...	2	Anna mostly defined by his “Ohio Gang” Anna LehmanMrs. CopenhaverAmerican History 21 February 2018 Republican Presidents in the Jazz Age During the roaring twenties, or Jazz Age, three republican presidents were consecutively elected to serve. Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover were a great part of the Jazz Age and made many decisions on how to handle the events at the time. Warren G. Harding, America’s 29th President, only served in office for two years, due to the inevitable Curse of Tippecanoe. He was nominated for the republican candidate seat because it was stated that nobody else was better for it, and their was a shortage of better suitors. He surprisingly won against James Cox, Democratic candidate, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt with the help of his campaign manager and later to be Attorney General, Harry Daughtery. He told the public he would bring a “return to normalcy” after the Great War. He wanted to end foreign involvement and keep the peace in the country. He also believed in limiting immigration, enlarging the tariffs, and supporting business and the rich by lowering the income taxes. Harding’s term was mostly defined by his “Ohio Gang” of cabinet members. He appointed very smart leaders, but most of them were close personal friends. Three scandals erupted for his half-term. The first, and probably most well know idea of corruption, was the Teapot Dome Scandal. In this scandal, Albert Fall, Secretary of the Interior, illegally leased government lands to oil companies to gain a profit of $400,000. Secondly, Charles Forbes, Secretary of Veterans Bureau, was accused of stealing money from the veteran’s funds. Lastly, Harry Daughtery was accused of accepting bribes and giving away government secrets. Surprisingly, Harding wasn’t involved or associated with any of these crimes. His two year term ended because of a sudden heart attack. Harding’s Vice President, Calvin Coolidge, immediately swore into office as soon as Harding died. Coolidge was known to be silent and pensive, and was not nearly as social as Warren G. Harding. He was known for wanting less government interference with people’s lives, therefore, he supported the idea of limited government.	462	ENGLISH	1
The blame for the Cold War cannot be placed on one person -- it developed as a series of chain reactions as a struggle for supremacy. It can be argued that the Cold War was inevitable, and therefore no one's fault, due to the differences in the capitalist and communist ideologies. It was only the need for self-preservation that had caused the two countries to sink their differences temporarily during the Second World War. Yet many of the tensions that existed in the Cold War can be attributed to Stalin's policy of Soviet expansion. It is necessary, therefore, to examine the role of Stalin as a catalyst to the Cold War. Stalin's foreign policies contributed an enormous amount to the tensions of the Cold War. His aim, to take advantage of the military situation in post-war Europe to strengthen Russian influence, was perceived to be a threat to the Americans. Stalin was highly effective in his goal to gain territory, with victories in Poland, Romania, and Finland. To the western world, this success looked as if it were the beginning of serious Russian aggressions. The western view of the time saw Stalin as doing one of two things: either continuing the expansionist policies of the tsars that preceded him, or worse, spreading communism across the world now that his "one-state" notion had been fulfilled. It also must be mentioned that Stalin is seen as wanting "unchalleged personal power and a rebuilt Russia strong enough to withstand 'caplitalist encirclement.'"1. Admittedly, the first view of Stalin, as an imperialist leader, may be skewed. The Russians claim, and have always claimed, that Stalin's motives were purely defensive. Stalin's wished to create a buffer zone of Communist states around him to protect Soviet Russia from the capitalist West. In this sense, his moves were not aggressive at all -- they were truly defensive moves to protect the Soviet system. His suspicions of Western hostility were not unfounded: the British and U.	<urn:uuid:73f75bbd-cd96-4398-8ef0-f5f4331596a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/74272.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00420.warc.gz	en	0.981937	397	3.40625	3	[ -0.6348899602890015, -0.025982290506362915, 0.19444282352924347, 0.043521516025066376, 0.17646270990371704, 0.016702115535736084, 0.5299419164657593, 0.10079395771026611, -0.21093429625034332, -0.2558961510658264, 0.2209724634885788, -0.056971874088048935, 0.464508980512619, 0.469123750925...	1	The blame for the Cold War cannot be placed on one person -- it developed as a series of chain reactions as a struggle for supremacy. It can be argued that the Cold War was inevitable, and therefore no one's fault, due to the differences in the capitalist and communist ideologies. It was only the need for self-preservation that had caused the two countries to sink their differences temporarily during the Second World War. Yet many of the tensions that existed in the Cold War can be attributed to Stalin's policy of Soviet expansion. It is necessary, therefore, to examine the role of Stalin as a catalyst to the Cold War. Stalin's foreign policies contributed an enormous amount to the tensions of the Cold War. His aim, to take advantage of the military situation in post-war Europe to strengthen Russian influence, was perceived to be a threat to the Americans. Stalin was highly effective in his goal to gain territory, with victories in Poland, Romania, and Finland. To the western world, this success looked as if it were the beginning of serious Russian aggressions. The western view of the time saw Stalin as doing one of two things: either continuing the expansionist policies of the tsars that preceded him, or worse, spreading communism across the world now that his "one-state" notion had been fulfilled. It also must be mentioned that Stalin is seen as wanting "unchalleged personal power and a rebuilt Russia strong enough to withstand 'caplitalist encirclement.'"1. Admittedly, the first view of Stalin, as an imperialist leader, may be skewed. The Russians claim, and have always claimed, that Stalin's motives were purely defensive. Stalin's wished to create a buffer zone of Communist states around him to protect Soviet Russia from the capitalist West. In this sense, his moves were not aggressive at all -- they were truly defensive moves to protect the Soviet system. His suspicions of Western hostility were not unfounded: the British and U.	394	ENGLISH	1
The manufacturer classifies his models under 5 degrees of difficulty: "Child model": very easy and with childlike motives "0": Beginner model "1": Easy "2": Moderately severe "3": Difficult Roman military camps (forts) were constructed using always the same design. When the troops were moving, they lived in marching camps which could be set up and taken down again at any time during a campaign. In occupied areas permanent camps were erected, in order to secure the borders of the Roman Empire. In the permanent camps tents were replaced by buildings made of wood or stone. Permanent camps were normally rectangular and surrounded by a trench and a stone wall. In some cases the walls were filled with soil and covered with wooden boards. The Schreiber model complies with a small fort, which includes barracks and buildings for supplies and maintenance. Small forts were designed for auxiliary troops. In the large forts along the Limes, the fortified border of the Roman Empire in present Germany, normally 500 auxiliary soldiers were stationed. The camp consisted of the commanders house, accommodation for the officers and the barracks for the soldiers. Together with the roads and the principia as the administrative building in the centre, they already formed a small town. Apart from a military hospital and a prison, large permanent camps also had storehouses, stables and workshops, for the soldiers had to take care of their own living. Around the camps they constructed wells, water pipes and roads. Merchants and craftsmen settled near the camps in order to do business with the Romans. The soldiers were also provided with groceries by the surrounding estates. – No feedback has been given for Schreiber-Bogen Card Modelling Roman Fort. –	<urn:uuid:7b0bb39f-98fb-436c-a99d-dfaf36c72013>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.seitz-global.de/en/card-modelling/buildings/schreiber-bogen-card-modelling-roman-fort/a-15910/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00455.warc.gz	en	0.985033	348	3.453125	3	[ -0.08526930212974548, 0.4917081594467163, 0.4482947587966919, 0.14855170249938965, -0.2588852047920227, 0.17430095374584198, -0.5374616980552673, 0.1840471476316452, -0.2401779592037201, -0.35296088457107544, 0.28460973501205444, -0.5468371510505676, -0.12079284340143204, 0.420062959194183...	1	The manufacturer classifies his models under 5 degrees of difficulty: "Child model": very easy and with childlike motives "0": Beginner model "1": Easy "2": Moderately severe "3": Difficult Roman military camps (forts) were constructed using always the same design. When the troops were moving, they lived in marching camps which could be set up and taken down again at any time during a campaign. In occupied areas permanent camps were erected, in order to secure the borders of the Roman Empire. In the permanent camps tents were replaced by buildings made of wood or stone. Permanent camps were normally rectangular and surrounded by a trench and a stone wall. In some cases the walls were filled with soil and covered with wooden boards. The Schreiber model complies with a small fort, which includes barracks and buildings for supplies and maintenance. Small forts were designed for auxiliary troops. In the large forts along the Limes, the fortified border of the Roman Empire in present Germany, normally 500 auxiliary soldiers were stationed. The camp consisted of the commanders house, accommodation for the officers and the barracks for the soldiers. Together with the roads and the principia as the administrative building in the centre, they already formed a small town. Apart from a military hospital and a prison, large permanent camps also had storehouses, stables and workshops, for the soldiers had to take care of their own living. Around the camps they constructed wells, water pipes and roads. Merchants and craftsmen settled near the camps in order to do business with the Romans. The soldiers were also provided with groceries by the surrounding estates. – No feedback has been given for Schreiber-Bogen Card Modelling Roman Fort. –	348	ENGLISH	1
Khilafat Movement ( 1919-24 ) was a religious-political run launched by the Muslims for holding ownership of the Khilafat-e-Usmania or Ottoman Caliphate and for non giving the Muslim sanctum topographic points travel under the power of the Non-Muslims. ‘Khalifa ‘ is an Arabic word beginning from ‘Khalafa ‘ which means ‘to follow ‘ or ‘to come after ‘ . During the 1stA World WarA Turkey supported Germany as the state was confronting monolithic jobs. But Germany started losing its district and so does Turkey. TurkeyA had lost most of its district in 1918 by the terminal of the first World War. During that clip the chief quandary was how the allied powers would treatA Turkey, theA Ottoman EmpireA or the Khilafat-e-usmania as most of its district had been occupied in this Movement. Turkey being a Muslim state, the Indian Muslims thought it was their spiritual responsibility to assist them. The other ground for back uping them was the universe as Ummah which the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of integrity. ‘Caliph ‘ is an Arabic word which means “ a replacement ” or “ a representative ” which emphasizes spiritual authorization for the caput of province. The Islamic system of authorization in which the province regulations under Islamic jurisprudence is known as Caliphate. To protect the Ottoman Empire from the Western states and to get the better of the Western democratic resistance in Turkey, Ottoman emperor Abdul Hamid II had launched a Pan Islamic plan. This plan expressed spiritual passion and sympathy amongst Indian Muslims. Following were the ends of the Motion: – Ottoman Caliphate should be kept secured. Turkey ‘s territorial harmoniousness should be preserved. Not allowing the Muslim sanctum topographic points travel under the power of the Non-Muslims. In India, this was the first religious-political Movement which gathered the common adult male. The Indian Muslims demanded certain precautions from the British and they started pass oning with the other group and the Congress Party. But during that timeline from 1906-1919 political relations was restricted to merely educated people and besides people who had adequate money to save the money involved in the political relations. However it was due to Khilafat Movement where common adult male gathered and people were on streets protesting. This was the 1st Movement in India to acquire common people involved in the political relations. Mobilization Capacity of Islam: Khilafat Movement besides showed the societal control capacity of the Islam amongst the Muslims. It besides conveyed how Islam and Islamic establishments are cherished to the Indian Muslims. Thus it clearly indicated that Islam had had a batch of mobilisation capacity and entreaty for the common adult male in India and elsewhere. Another feature of this motion is that it points out the fondness of the Muslims of India based on Islam outside the district. The significance of extra-territorial is that people feel attached to a certain establishments, political orientations, beliefs that may be outside the territorial limitations of their ain states. And these extra-territorial fond regards have ever been really strong in Muslims which are based on Islam. Concept of Ummah: The construct of Ummah is that Muslims shacking in any portion of the World belongs to an ideological socio economic category of Islam. It is a community based on the beliefs, cognition and doctrine of Islam. And hence the perceptual experience of Ummah had a batch of Muslims coming frontward during the Khilafat Movement. The Institution of Khilafat: The Indian Muslims paid much more attending to Khilafat-e-Usmania which had nexus from the original establishment of Khilafat in Islam. Institution of Khilafat was the 2nd facet which created extra-territorial feelings amongst the Muslims. The Balkan wars: If you go back in the history to 1911-12 you will happen the Balkan Wars. This war clearly signifies the strong sentiments of the Indian Muslims for other states. During that period there was a war between Turkey and Italy and Italy was besides assailing Libya. Turkey was confronting monolithic jobs therefore the Indian Muslims sent medical deputation to supply medical aid to the people affected by war. And now the Indian Muslims in 1919 are demoing the same sentiments on the bases of Ummah. Therefore there were a batch of emotions and a batch of support for the ownership of Khilafat Movement. These were some of the grounds why Khilafat Movement is so of import. The authors and poets in India were concentrating on subjects such as the coevals and the autumn down of the Muslims, this all happened during the first three decennaries of the twentieth century. And their Hagiographas clearly portray the feelings for the saving of Khilafat and the ownership of the Muslims sanctum topographic points. The cardinal function was played by the news media which steer the way of the battle. There were many other subjects by the authors and the poets which shaped the motion and recovered the jobs faced by them. Zamindar of Zafar Ali Khan, Al-Hilal of Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad and Comrade Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, etc. were the well-known newspapers and magazines which performed their duty to show their hatred. When these newspaper and magazines were demanding the cause of the Muslims, the Allies imposed mortifying footings on vanquishedA Turkey. After the first World War ended, Turkey had lost many of its districts, it was in this context the Indian Muslims started a motion that is known as the Khilafat Movement. Protests in India: Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay now known as Mumbai in July 1919 which shaped the activities of the Muslims sing the Khilafat Movement. Their first Khilafat Committee conference was held in Delhi in 1919 where they used to discourse the issues happening in the motion. In the first conference Congress leaders like Nehru and Gandhi besides took portion. It was due to Congress engagement, the other major political parties united custodies to assail the favoritism with the Muslim community. Following were the stairss announced: No Contribution in Victory Celebrations: This was the enterprise taken by the participants of this Conference. As the British had won the 1st World War they were observing their triumph everyplace, India being a portion of the British Empire was on the British ‘s side. So they decided in the Conference to boycott the triumph jubilation to demo choler on the province of personal businesss and to convey their point in more productive mode. Boycotting British Goods: The 2nd measure which they took is to boycott British goods, the intent of making this was to impact their economic system. By following this British economic system would drop drastically. Non-Cooperation with the Government: This was the 3rd measure which they took during that clip, the intent of this was non at this period but at the later on phase they may besides originate Non-Cooperation Movement. The subsequent Khilafat Conference which was an of import 1 was held in Amritsar in December 1919. All the major political parties contributed in this but the high spot of this Conference was that Shaukat Ali and Maulana Muhammad Ali, who were held behind bars for interrupting British jurisprudence in protest of British policies, besides joined the Conference after their release from prison. Without Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali parts one can non discourse the Khilafat Movement. They used to work with Congress party and besides played a important function in mobilising the multitudes. They were good known as Ali brothers. The Ali brothers with several other leaders went to imprison rather a few times due to determine up the Khilafat Movement and take the Muslims. This emanation happened whenever they were released. At the terminal of the Khilafat Conference the Congress party decided to work together as there were similar jobs in India which all of them were confronting. For Muslims the Khilafat Movement was their precedence compared to the other issues. Congress thought of uniting up with the Muslims as they were besides holding jobs against the British for the ownership of the Ottoman Empire. Congress and Muslims would hold more effectual motions together instead than working individually as their purpose is to extinguish the British from their state. One of the issues which were faced during that clip was Rowlett Act, 1919. The Rowlett Act – 1919: This was a sort of black jurisprudence, whereby the authorities had the power to collar anybody they wanted without giving them any legal installation and the right to appeal. This jurisprudence was meant for any condemnable activities which took topographic point, but really they were intern for the people involved in political activities. This act was protested by both the Hindu and Muslim communities. The Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April – 1919: The Jallianwala Bagh was a topographic point in Amritsar where many people of different categories and societies came in order to protest against the Rowlett Act. To this protest the British authorities got highly agitated and ordered the ground forces to kill everyone present at that place. The Gatess were shut and many unit of ammunitions were fired by the British. This slaughter was one of the greatest calamities that India saw. This allowed different political parties to dispute the British authorization. In the December of 1920 the well-known Congress session was organized in Nagpur by Congress leader Mahatma Gandhi. Here Gandhi adopted the non-violent and non-cooperation motion. The first motion adopted by Gandhi was the non-cooperation motion and later a twosome of other motions were launched. The general understanding was that: Peoples with British rubrics to their names had to return those rubrics, for illustration Sir which was given to the Indians had to be returned. The educational establishments and tribunals had to be boycotted. Anyone whose occupation was under the British people had to vacate. Taxs should non be paid to the British Government. Peoples vacating from military and constabularies occupations would be decided at a ulterior phase. This was non launched but could be thought approximately subsequently on. The Khilafat Conference-A Karachi- July 1921: In July 1921, the Khilafat conference was held at Karachi where there were chiefly Muslim participants who expressed their truenesss towards the Turkish Sultan and the Khilafat. At that clip they had been removed from their district by the British powers. To free foreign forces from the mainland they welcomed the attempts of the Ataturk. At that clip the Ataturk was taking assorted stairss to take the foreign forces from their mainland of Turkey. They felt that something new needed to be encouraged. The Hijrat Movement 1920-21: The chief ground of why the Hijrat motion took topographic point was that the Indian Ulama or spiritual leaders thought of India as ‘Darul Harab ‘ where the Muslims were non safe. A certain topographic point or a state where the Muslims are non allowed to transport out their spiritual patterns and activities is known as a ‘Darul Harab ‘ . The Muslim caputs ( Ulama ) said that the Muslims should travel to the nearest safe topographic point that was from ‘Darul Harab ‘ to ‘Darul Islam ‘ . This caused a panic amongst the Muslims in India and as suggested the nearest ‘Darul Islam ‘ was Afghanistan which was Hijrat. A really big figure of lower category people of society left India either on pes or with the aid of bullock carts as the paths to Afghanistan were non developed. The belongingss were sold at really inexpensive rates as they were traveling from their topographic point to a topographic point in hunt of Islam ; a big graduated table of migration of people was seen. At first the Indians were welcomed. Later on the boundary line was closed as the addition in the figure of people could non be sustained due to Afghanistan being a hapless state and its ain jobs it told the Indian migrators to travel back to its ain state. Due to this there were loss of lives and properties of several Muslims. Many Muslims died during this mission. Many of the people moved to Russia ( Soviet Union ) as they had nil left in India. This was the manner in which the Hijrat motion ended as it was all emotion based and non planned based. The End of the Khilafat Movement: This was a motion where the Muslims of British India supported the Ottoman Empire to command their holy topographic points but bit by bit the motion died out. The first thing which affected the motion was the Moplah rebellion in Kalicut. The Moplah Revolt-at Malabar Coast- Kalicut: The Moplah rebellion started in 1921.The posterities of Arab Muslims were called as Moplahs. In the August of 1921 there was a rebellion against the Hindu landlords because of their barbarous intervention towards them. This was n’t a spiritual issue. The Moplahs were enduring by the actions of the landlords so they revolted against them, but the constabulary supported the landlords. This was projected as a Hindu Muslim issue by the local Hindu Unions. Due to this there was a batch of issue against the Muslims. These issues resulted in a acrimonious relationship amongst the Hindus and Muslims. A negative impact was seen in the Hindu Muslim integrity because of the rebellion. This was a ground for the terminal of Khilafat motion. The Increase in Violence – 1921: The 2nd ground to why the motion did non last was an addition in Violence. The Non- cooperation motion started by Gandhi was a peaceable and non violent motion. Sing an addition in violent activities like the Chora Chori incident in Uttar Pradesh, Gandhi decided to stop the Non-cooperation motion. This affected the Khilafat motion as Gandhi ‘s determination to stop the Non-cooperation motion was non consulted with Khilafat motion leaders which therefore created misgiving between the two operative parties. This was another incident which weakened the Khilafat motion. The Developments inA Turkey: This was the 3rd ground to why the Khilafat motion ended. The Ataturk who controlled the military service emerged as leader. The powers of the Sultan were restricted. The head of the Grand assembly was the Ataturk. Turkey abolished the Khilafat system. The Indian Muslims were contending made no difference as the leading had changed. This weakened the Khilafat motion in India. The Hindu Muslim integrity stage was highly short. It was seen that faith was a manner to mobilise forces and form multitudes. Extra- territorialism was the footing of the start of the motion. The Muslims suffered in the Khilafat motion.	<urn:uuid:e29d3ed0-c432-470e-ab8e-279cd6c97588>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graceandthetruth.com/colonialism-and-freedom-struggle-in-india-history-essay/2275/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00073.warc.gz	en	0.982714	3,116	4.125	4	[ 0.055082302540540695, 0.4218112826347351, 0.2036885917186737, 0.046059682965278625, -0.2615896463394165, 0.13851362466812134, -0.08576668798923492, 0.043156225234270096, -0.06785277277231216, 0.15616737306118011, 0.0023478763177990913, -0.5558604001998901, 0.02368096634745598, 0.0611281320...	1	Khilafat Movement ( 1919-24 ) was a religious-political run launched by the Muslims for holding ownership of the Khilafat-e-Usmania or Ottoman Caliphate and for non giving the Muslim sanctum topographic points travel under the power of the Non-Muslims. ‘Khalifa ‘ is an Arabic word beginning from ‘Khalafa ‘ which means ‘to follow ‘ or ‘to come after ‘ . During the 1stA World WarA Turkey supported Germany as the state was confronting monolithic jobs. But Germany started losing its district and so does Turkey. TurkeyA had lost most of its district in 1918 by the terminal of the first World War. During that clip the chief quandary was how the allied powers would treatA Turkey, theA Ottoman EmpireA or the Khilafat-e-usmania as most of its district had been occupied in this Movement. Turkey being a Muslim state, the Indian Muslims thought it was their spiritual responsibility to assist them. The other ground for back uping them was the universe as Ummah which the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of integrity. ‘Caliph ‘ is an Arabic word which means “ a replacement ” or “ a representative ” which emphasizes spiritual authorization for the caput of province. The Islamic system of authorization in which the province regulations under Islamic jurisprudence is known as Caliphate. To protect the Ottoman Empire from the Western states and to get the better of the Western democratic resistance in Turkey, Ottoman emperor Abdul Hamid II had launched a Pan Islamic plan. This plan expressed spiritual passion and sympathy amongst Indian Muslims. Following were the ends of the Motion: – Ottoman Caliphate should be kept secured. Turkey ‘s territorial harmoniousness should be preserved. Not allowing the Muslim sanctum topographic points travel under the power of the Non-Muslims. In India, this was the first religious-political Movement which gathered the common adult male. The Indian Muslims demanded certain precautions from the British and they started pass oning with the other group and the Congress Party. But during that timeline from 1906-1919 political relations was restricted to merely educated people and besides people who had adequate money to save the money involved in the political relations. However it was due to Khilafat Movement where common adult male gathered and people were on streets protesting. This was the 1st Movement in India to acquire common people involved in the political relations. Mobilization Capacity of Islam: Khilafat Movement besides showed the societal control capacity of the Islam amongst the Muslims. It besides conveyed how Islam and Islamic establishments are cherished to the Indian Muslims. Thus it clearly indicated that Islam had had a batch of mobilisation capacity and entreaty for the common adult male in India and elsewhere. Another feature of this motion is that it points out the fondness of the Muslims of India based on Islam outside the district. The significance of extra-territorial is that people feel attached to a certain establishments, political orientations, beliefs that may be outside the territorial limitations of their ain states. And these extra-territorial fond regards have ever been really strong in Muslims which are based on Islam. Concept of Ummah: The construct of Ummah is that Muslims shacking in any portion of the World belongs to an ideological socio economic category of Islam. It is a community based on the beliefs, cognition and doctrine of Islam. And hence the perceptual experience of Ummah had a batch of Muslims coming frontward during the Khilafat Movement. The Institution of Khilafat: The Indian Muslims paid much more attending to Khilafat-e-Usmania which had nexus from the original establishment of Khilafat in Islam. Institution of Khilafat was the 2nd facet which created extra-territorial feelings amongst the Muslims. The Balkan wars: If you go back in the history to 1911-12 you will happen the Balkan Wars. This war clearly signifies the strong sentiments of the Indian Muslims for other states. During that period there was a war between Turkey and Italy and Italy was besides assailing Libya. Turkey was confronting monolithic jobs therefore the Indian Muslims sent medical deputation to supply medical aid to the people affected by war. And now the Indian Muslims in 1919 are demoing the same sentiments on the bases of Ummah. Therefore there were a batch of emotions and a batch of support for the ownership of Khilafat Movement. These were some of the grounds why Khilafat Movement is so of import. The authors and poets in India were concentrating on subjects such as the coevals and the autumn down of the Muslims, this all happened during the first three decennaries of the twentieth century. And their Hagiographas clearly portray the feelings for the saving of Khilafat and the ownership of the Muslims sanctum topographic points. The cardinal function was played by the news media which steer the way of the battle. There were many other subjects by the authors and the poets which shaped the motion and recovered the jobs faced by them. Zamindar of Zafar Ali Khan, Al-Hilal of Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad and Comrade Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, etc. were the well-known newspapers and magazines which performed their duty to show their hatred. When these newspaper and magazines were demanding the cause of the Muslims, the Allies imposed mortifying footings on vanquishedA Turkey. After the first World War ended, Turkey had lost many of its districts, it was in this context the Indian Muslims started a motion that is known as the Khilafat Movement. Protests in India: Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay now known as Mumbai in July 1919 which shaped the activities of the Muslims sing the Khilafat Movement. Their first Khilafat Committee conference was held in Delhi in 1919 where they used to discourse the issues happening in the motion. In the first conference Congress leaders like Nehru and Gandhi besides took portion. It was due to Congress engagement, the other major political parties united custodies to assail the favoritism with the Muslim community. Following were the stairss announced: No Contribution in Victory Celebrations: This was the enterprise taken by the participants of this Conference. As the British had won the 1st World War they were observing their triumph everyplace, India being a portion of the British Empire was on the British ‘s side. So they decided in the Conference to boycott the triumph jubilation to demo choler on the province of personal businesss and to convey their point in more productive mode. Boycotting British Goods: The 2nd measure which they took is to boycott British goods, the intent of making this was to impact their economic system. By following this British economic system would drop drastically. Non-Cooperation with the Government: This was the 3rd measure which they took during that clip, the intent of this was non at this period but at the later on phase they may besides originate Non-Cooperation Movement. The subsequent Khilafat Conference which was an of import 1 was held in Amritsar in December 1919. All the major political parties contributed in this but the high spot of this Conference was that Shaukat Ali and Maulana Muhammad Ali, who were held behind bars for interrupting British jurisprudence in protest of British policies, besides joined the Conference after their release from prison. Without Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali parts one can non discourse the Khilafat Movement. They used to work with Congress party and besides played a important function in mobilising the multitudes. They were good known as Ali brothers. The Ali brothers with several other leaders went to imprison rather a few times due to determine up the Khilafat Movement and take the Muslims. This emanation happened whenever they were released. At the terminal of the Khilafat Conference the Congress party decided to work together as there were similar jobs in India which all of them were confronting. For Muslims the Khilafat Movement was their precedence compared to the other issues. Congress thought of uniting up with the Muslims as they were besides holding jobs against the British for the ownership of the Ottoman Empire. Congress and Muslims would hold more effectual motions together instead than working individually as their purpose is to extinguish the British from their state. One of the issues which were faced during that clip was Rowlett Act, 1919. The Rowlett Act – 1919: This was a sort of black jurisprudence, whereby the authorities had the power to collar anybody they wanted without giving them any legal installation and the right to appeal. This jurisprudence was meant for any condemnable activities which took topographic point, but really they were intern for the people involved in political activities. This act was protested by both the Hindu and Muslim communities. The Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April – 1919: The Jallianwala Bagh was a topographic point in Amritsar where many people of different categories and societies came in order to protest against the Rowlett Act. To this protest the British authorities got highly agitated and ordered the ground forces to kill everyone present at that place. The Gatess were shut and many unit of ammunitions were fired by the British. This slaughter was one of the greatest calamities that India saw. This allowed different political parties to dispute the British authorization. In the December of 1920 the well-known Congress session was organized in Nagpur by Congress leader Mahatma Gandhi. Here Gandhi adopted the non-violent and non-cooperation motion. The first motion adopted by Gandhi was the non-cooperation motion and later a twosome of other motions were launched. The general understanding was that: Peoples with British rubrics to their names had to return those rubrics, for illustration Sir which was given to the Indians had to be returned. The educational establishments and tribunals had to be boycotted. Anyone whose occupation was under the British people had to vacate. Taxs should non be paid to the British Government. Peoples vacating from military and constabularies occupations would be decided at a ulterior phase. This was non launched but could be thought approximately subsequently on. The Khilafat Conference-A Karachi- July 1921: In July 1921, the Khilafat conference was held at Karachi where there were chiefly Muslim participants who expressed their truenesss towards the Turkish Sultan and the Khilafat. At that clip they had been removed from their district by the British powers. To free foreign forces from the mainland they welcomed the attempts of the Ataturk. At that clip the Ataturk was taking assorted stairss to take the foreign forces from their mainland of Turkey. They felt that something new needed to be encouraged. The Hijrat Movement 1920-21: The chief ground of why the Hijrat motion took topographic point was that the Indian Ulama or spiritual leaders thought of India as ‘Darul Harab ‘ where the Muslims were non safe. A certain topographic point or a state where the Muslims are non allowed to transport out their spiritual patterns and activities is known as a ‘Darul Harab ‘ . The Muslim caputs ( Ulama ) said that the Muslims should travel to the nearest safe topographic point that was from ‘Darul Harab ‘ to ‘Darul Islam ‘ . This caused a panic amongst the Muslims in India and as suggested the nearest ‘Darul Islam ‘ was Afghanistan which was Hijrat. A really big figure of lower category people of society left India either on pes or with the aid of bullock carts as the paths to Afghanistan were non developed. The belongingss were sold at really inexpensive rates as they were traveling from their topographic point to a topographic point in hunt of Islam ; a big graduated table of migration of people was seen. At first the Indians were welcomed. Later on the boundary line was closed as the addition in the figure of people could non be sustained due to Afghanistan being a hapless state and its ain jobs it told the Indian migrators to travel back to its ain state. Due to this there were loss of lives and properties of several Muslims. Many Muslims died during this mission. Many of the people moved to Russia ( Soviet Union ) as they had nil left in India. This was the manner in which the Hijrat motion ended as it was all emotion based and non planned based. The End of the Khilafat Movement: This was a motion where the Muslims of British India supported the Ottoman Empire to command their holy topographic points but bit by bit the motion died out. The first thing which affected the motion was the Moplah rebellion in Kalicut. The Moplah Revolt-at Malabar Coast- Kalicut: The Moplah rebellion started in 1921.The posterities of Arab Muslims were called as Moplahs. In the August of 1921 there was a rebellion against the Hindu landlords because of their barbarous intervention towards them. This was n’t a spiritual issue. The Moplahs were enduring by the actions of the landlords so they revolted against them, but the constabulary supported the landlords. This was projected as a Hindu Muslim issue by the local Hindu Unions. Due to this there was a batch of issue against the Muslims. These issues resulted in a acrimonious relationship amongst the Hindus and Muslims. A negative impact was seen in the Hindu Muslim integrity because of the rebellion. This was a ground for the terminal of Khilafat motion. The Increase in Violence – 1921: The 2nd ground to why the motion did non last was an addition in Violence. The Non- cooperation motion started by Gandhi was a peaceable and non violent motion. Sing an addition in violent activities like the Chora Chori incident in Uttar Pradesh, Gandhi decided to stop the Non-cooperation motion. This affected the Khilafat motion as Gandhi ‘s determination to stop the Non-cooperation motion was non consulted with Khilafat motion leaders which therefore created misgiving between the two operative parties. This was another incident which weakened the Khilafat motion. The Developments inA Turkey: This was the 3rd ground to why the Khilafat motion ended. The Ataturk who controlled the military service emerged as leader. The powers of the Sultan were restricted. The head of the Grand assembly was the Ataturk. Turkey abolished the Khilafat system. The Indian Muslims were contending made no difference as the leading had changed. This weakened the Khilafat motion in India. The Hindu Muslim integrity stage was highly short. It was seen that faith was a manner to mobilise forces and form multitudes. Extra- territorialism was the footing of the start of the motion. The Muslims suffered in the Khilafat motion.	3,094	ENGLISH	1
This article is posted in honor of Black History Month: The Montgomery, Alabama city code required that all public transportation be segregated and that bus drivers had the “powers of a police officer of the city while in actual charge of any bus for the purposes of carrying out the provisions” of the code. While operating a bus, drivers were required to provide separate but equal accommodations for white and black passengers by assigning seats. This was accomplished with a line roughly in the middle of the bus separating white passengers in the front of the bus and African-American passengers in the back. When an African-American passenger boarded the bus, they had to get on at the front to pay their fare and then get off and re-board the bus at the back door. When the seats in the front of the bus filled up and more white passengers got on, the bus driver would move back the sign separating black and white passengers and, if necessary, ask black passengers give up their seat. On December 1, 1955, after a long day at work at the Montgomery Fair department store, Rosa Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus for home. She took a seat in the first of several rows designated for “colored” passengers. Though the city's bus ordinance did give drivers the authority to assign seats, it didn't specifically give them the authority to demand a passenger to give up a seat to anyone (regardless of color). However, Montgomery bus drivers had adopted the custom of requiring black passengers to give up their seats to white passengers, when no other seats were available. If the black passenger protested, the bus driver had the authority to refuse service and could call the police to have them removed. As the bus Rosa was riding continued on its route, it began to fill with white passengers. Eventually, the bus was full and the driver noticed that several white passengers were standing in the aisle. He stopped the bus and moved the sign separating the two sections back one row and asked four black passengers to give up their seats. Three complied, but Rosa refused and remained seated. The driver demanded, “Why don't you stand up?” to which Rosa replied, “I don't think I should have to stand up.” The driver called the police and had her arrested. Later, she recalled that her refusal wasn't because she was physically tired, but that she was tired of giving in. The police arrested Rosa at the scene and charged her with violation of Chapter 6, section 11 of the Montgomery City code. She was taken to police headquarters where later that night she was released on bail. On December 8, Rosa faced trial and in a 30 minute hearing was found guilty of violating a local ordinance. She was fined $10, plus a $4 court fee.	<urn:uuid:b90320ff-8c01-47e6-966b-7ceb73651acf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2011/02/rosa-parks-1913-2005.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00515.warc.gz	en	0.985949	559	4.375	4	[ -0.3337867259979248, -0.10673055052757263, -0.034725625067949295, -0.023782063275575638, -0.4551442265510559, 0.2503499388694763, 0.7217788696289062, -0.0931357741355896, 0.02877499908208847, -0.010506385937333107, 0.06336532533168793, 0.3551478385925293, -0.31474578380584717, 0.0240315329...	7	This article is posted in honor of Black History Month: The Montgomery, Alabama city code required that all public transportation be segregated and that bus drivers had the “powers of a police officer of the city while in actual charge of any bus for the purposes of carrying out the provisions” of the code. While operating a bus, drivers were required to provide separate but equal accommodations for white and black passengers by assigning seats. This was accomplished with a line roughly in the middle of the bus separating white passengers in the front of the bus and African-American passengers in the back. When an African-American passenger boarded the bus, they had to get on at the front to pay their fare and then get off and re-board the bus at the back door. When the seats in the front of the bus filled up and more white passengers got on, the bus driver would move back the sign separating black and white passengers and, if necessary, ask black passengers give up their seat. On December 1, 1955, after a long day at work at the Montgomery Fair department store, Rosa Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus for home. She took a seat in the first of several rows designated for “colored” passengers. Though the city's bus ordinance did give drivers the authority to assign seats, it didn't specifically give them the authority to demand a passenger to give up a seat to anyone (regardless of color). However, Montgomery bus drivers had adopted the custom of requiring black passengers to give up their seats to white passengers, when no other seats were available. If the black passenger protested, the bus driver had the authority to refuse service and could call the police to have them removed. As the bus Rosa was riding continued on its route, it began to fill with white passengers. Eventually, the bus was full and the driver noticed that several white passengers were standing in the aisle. He stopped the bus and moved the sign separating the two sections back one row and asked four black passengers to give up their seats. Three complied, but Rosa refused and remained seated. The driver demanded, “Why don't you stand up?” to which Rosa replied, “I don't think I should have to stand up.” The driver called the police and had her arrested. Later, she recalled that her refusal wasn't because she was physically tired, but that she was tired of giving in. The police arrested Rosa at the scene and charged her with violation of Chapter 6, section 11 of the Montgomery City code. She was taken to police headquarters where later that night she was released on bail. On December 8, Rosa faced trial and in a 30 minute hearing was found guilty of violating a local ordinance. She was fined $10, plus a $4 court fee.	557	ENGLISH	1
Damages young Native Americans' self-esteem Seeing their culture mocked and laughed at damages the self-esteem of young Native Americans. Team names referencing Native Americans and the use of Native American mascots were not borne from a place of support and respect. They came from an era of racism and were designed to mock Native American culture and propagate negative stereotypes. The intent behind the names makes them offensive. The intent is what separates inoffensive comments from offensive ones. Names born from racism, no matter how innocuous or seemingly benign, become offensive. The Washington Redskns original owner, George Preston Marshall, chose to use the name Redskin in 1932. During this period, the American government was pursuing policies deliberately designed to terminate and marginalise Native American communities. Under the Civilian Regulations act, Native American dances and rituals were forbidden. The movement of Native American people was restricted, and they were confined to designated reservations. The act sought to outlaw Native American culture. George Preston Marshall knew this. He did give his team its name as a gesture of solidarity with the plight of the Native American people. In fact, he was a renowned segregationist and racist. He was instrumental in bringing about a 13-year, league-wide ban on African American players in 1933. Under his ownership, the Redskns were also one of the last NFL teams to integrate and allow black and white players to play on the same team. Marshall succumbed only when the league forced him to do so in 1963. They were not borne out of racism. Many were borne out of historical notions of masculinity. By the 1930s, the rugged cowboy and Indian imagery associated with the American West had become synonymous with stoicism, fortitude, bravery and resilience. Sports teams used these names, not to deprecate, but to tap into tap into this imagery and symbolism. For example, the Atlanta Braves originally assumed their name for these reasons. The team began in Boston as the Boston Braves in 1911. James Gaffney, the club’s president, was a member of the Tammany Hall political party, which had sourced its name from Tammamend, a renowned and respected Native American chief from the Delaware Valley. The Tammany Hall political party adopted the headdress as its logo and its supporters became known as the Braves. For the aristocratic Bostonians, the Braves and its link to democratic values resonated more than the Doves, the team’s former name. Not all teams’ Native American names and logos were borne from racism. Some were borne out of respect and the desire to pay homage to the Native American histories of the region. To dismiss all Native American team names and mascots as offensive overlooks this poignant fact. [P1] A comment or image is not inherently offensive, but if it is meant with bad intent, it becomes offensive. [P2] The names and mascots behind Native American sports teams were devised with racist intent. [P3] Therefore, they are offensive. [Rejecting P2] Not all sports teams carrying Native American nomenclature and imagery adopted it for racist purposes. [Rejecting P3] Many did so as a mark of respect. Therefore, the act alone is not offensive.	<urn:uuid:b28bf99f-ad9e-4013-a4ad-152b974d5cd8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://parlia.com/a/lVVtrFdLlzVhBKFjmBqfLjgGt/is-it-offensive-for-sports-teams-to-use-native-american-mascots-and-names/yes-it-is-offensive/borne-from-racism	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00256.warc.gz	en	0.981085	662	3.4375	3	[ -0.0839688703417778, 0.43379777669906616, 0.025367647409439087, -0.24587294459342957, -0.2718397378921509, 0.19492864608764648, 0.6232231855392456, 0.10031352937221527, -0.12502241134643555, 0.08809216320514679, 0.19903714954853058, 0.03555629029870033, 0.1285635530948639, -0.2560381293296...	1	Damages young Native Americans' self-esteem Seeing their culture mocked and laughed at damages the self-esteem of young Native Americans. Team names referencing Native Americans and the use of Native American mascots were not borne from a place of support and respect. They came from an era of racism and were designed to mock Native American culture and propagate negative stereotypes. The intent behind the names makes them offensive. The intent is what separates inoffensive comments from offensive ones. Names born from racism, no matter how innocuous or seemingly benign, become offensive. The Washington Redskns original owner, George Preston Marshall, chose to use the name Redskin in 1932. During this period, the American government was pursuing policies deliberately designed to terminate and marginalise Native American communities. Under the Civilian Regulations act, Native American dances and rituals were forbidden. The movement of Native American people was restricted, and they were confined to designated reservations. The act sought to outlaw Native American culture. George Preston Marshall knew this. He did give his team its name as a gesture of solidarity with the plight of the Native American people. In fact, he was a renowned segregationist and racist. He was instrumental in bringing about a 13-year, league-wide ban on African American players in 1933. Under his ownership, the Redskns were also one of the last NFL teams to integrate and allow black and white players to play on the same team. Marshall succumbed only when the league forced him to do so in 1963. They were not borne out of racism. Many were borne out of historical notions of masculinity. By the 1930s, the rugged cowboy and Indian imagery associated with the American West had become synonymous with stoicism, fortitude, bravery and resilience. Sports teams used these names, not to deprecate, but to tap into tap into this imagery and symbolism. For example, the Atlanta Braves originally assumed their name for these reasons. The team began in Boston as the Boston Braves in 1911. James Gaffney, the club’s president, was a member of the Tammany Hall political party, which had sourced its name from Tammamend, a renowned and respected Native American chief from the Delaware Valley. The Tammany Hall political party adopted the headdress as its logo and its supporters became known as the Braves. For the aristocratic Bostonians, the Braves and its link to democratic values resonated more than the Doves, the team’s former name. Not all teams’ Native American names and logos were borne from racism. Some were borne out of respect and the desire to pay homage to the Native American histories of the region. To dismiss all Native American team names and mascots as offensive overlooks this poignant fact. [P1] A comment or image is not inherently offensive, but if it is meant with bad intent, it becomes offensive. [P2] The names and mascots behind Native American sports teams were devised with racist intent. [P3] Therefore, they are offensive. [Rejecting P2] Not all sports teams carrying Native American nomenclature and imagery adopted it for racist purposes. [Rejecting P3] Many did so as a mark of respect. Therefore, the act alone is not offensive.	669	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (995 words) Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King, Jr. were brilliant men. The Declaration of Independence, written primarily by Jefferson, and the Letter From Birmingham Jail, written by King, are perfect examples of their intellect. Looking at these documents and observing the tactics they use while attempting to move their audience toward their ultimate goal, one can see the finesse that both Jefferson and King possessed. The Declaration of Independence had aspirations of obtaining a new form of government, away from the King of England, while the Letter From Birmingham Jail was intended to help move America toward a desegregated future. Jefferson was charged with moving the Colonists to armed revolution, as well as not alienating the King of England and his powerful allies. King’s priority, in the Letter From Birmingham Jail, was addressing the clergymen, who were primarily responsible for his jailing, but he was also attempting to draw the black community and, on a smaller scale, the white community, into the Civil Rights Movement. Many similar factors dictated how Jefferson and King attempted to move their respective audiences, including emotional and logical appeal, as well as appeals to authority, however; the extent to which each used specific strategies varied drastically: Jefferson was concise and cleverly subtle with his aim toward different parts of his audience, while King was very detailed and forthright with all of his audiences. In retrospect it is not inane to say that both Jefferson and King were excellent and effective rhetors, however; in their time they were both quite audacious in their endeavors. Jefferson was committing treason, a crime punishable by death, and he was asking his fellow countrymen to do the same. Similarly, King was asking people to follow him in breaking the law, taking the risk of going to jail or tolerating physical and verbal abuse. This, obviously, was not a simple task, but each was profoundly committed to their cause, and they never fell short of giving good reason for their strife. Both Jefferson and King used a significant amount of emotional and logical appeal, not necessarily to make their audience aware of their stance, but to sway them to feel the same and to take action. The style in which the Declaration of Independence was written was very formal and proper, and the emotional appeals are undertone to the logical facts that are stated about the tyrannical King of England. While the statement “He has…sent hither Swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance” was most likely meant to strike emotion in the colonists, it was stated in a very particular manner, which gave it a more logical appeal when read by one whom was not living in the colonies at that time. All of the statements made about the King placed strong emphasis on the fact that “HE” was the one responsible for these terrible acts on the colonies, and each statement was precisely constructed to appeal to different audiences in a different way. On the other hand, Dr. King is very direct when using emotional appeal. He used his greeting skillfully to disarm the clergymen who were responsible for his presence in jail, and then, to further build his character in their eyes, he says, “I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth.” As he progresses through the letter and shifts toward different audiences he uses emotional appeal accordingly. The 14th paragraph of his Letter From Birmingham Jail is almost entirely devoted to calamitous situations that a common black family endured in his day. This was done to make the white audience aware of a black man’s point of view, but also it was meant to hit home with the black community and, in turn, incite more of them to stand up against the everyday injustices. In addition to emotional and logical appeals, both Thomas Jefferson and Dr. King demonstrate their credibility with the use of appeals to authority via the use of religious or historical figures in their rhetoric. This particularly holds true for King, but Jefferson does mention “Nature’s God” and “Creator” in the course of his writing. To say that men are “endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights” was a bold assumption for Jefferson to make, considering that at that time the residents of the Thirteen Colonies were Puritans. Even though he was already a well-respected man, he used this approach to establish his credibility, since at that time there was no separation of church and state. Martin Luther King, Jr. took this technique one step further by including biblical and historical references throughout his speech. He compared his quest to those of the Apostle Paul and Socrates, he compared his civil disobedience to that of the early Christians who were willing to face excruciating pain before they would submit to injustice, and he compared the label of ‘extremist,’ given to him by the clergymen, to the “extremist” views of Martin Luther, Thomas Jefferson, and even Jesus Christ. Dr. King uses this type of appeal more than twenty times in this dissertation to make the readers aware of his extensive education. By making his audience aware of his intelligence, he thereby makes himself more credible. While, on the surface, the Declaration of Independence and the Letter From Birmingham Jail had completely different purposes, they were connected on a deeper level. The strategies used by Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King, Jr. were similar because they were essentially fighting for the same cause: freedom. Jefferson was fighting for the freedom of the American colonists, and King was fighting for the freedom of African Americans. Each is very eloquent, and while they use many of the same tactics, including emotional, logical, and authoritative appeals, the extent to which they use them differs. While King was very in depth and direct with all of his audience, Jefferson was concise and subtle with his intentions toward the varying parts of his audience. Cite this page Thomas Jefferson and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/thomas-jefferson-and-dr-martin-luther-king-jr-essay	<urn:uuid:6bc00b02-e4e8-4618-a8f3-72b4fc64f709>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/thomas-jefferson-and-dr-martin-luther-king-jr-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00458.warc.gz	en	0.986568	1,270	3.53125	4	[ -0.5066632628440857, 0.3027748465538025, 0.15876168012619019, -0.2763548493385315, -0.28442057967185974, 0.19232630729675293, 0.37748953700065613, 0.1739111989736557, -0.011883875355124474, 0.15698722004890442, 0.0910423994064331, 0.44627705216407776, 0.02584691159427166, -0.29552179574966...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (995 words) Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King, Jr. were brilliant men. The Declaration of Independence, written primarily by Jefferson, and the Letter From Birmingham Jail, written by King, are perfect examples of their intellect. Looking at these documents and observing the tactics they use while attempting to move their audience toward their ultimate goal, one can see the finesse that both Jefferson and King possessed. The Declaration of Independence had aspirations of obtaining a new form of government, away from the King of England, while the Letter From Birmingham Jail was intended to help move America toward a desegregated future. Jefferson was charged with moving the Colonists to armed revolution, as well as not alienating the King of England and his powerful allies. King’s priority, in the Letter From Birmingham Jail, was addressing the clergymen, who were primarily responsible for his jailing, but he was also attempting to draw the black community and, on a smaller scale, the white community, into the Civil Rights Movement. Many similar factors dictated how Jefferson and King attempted to move their respective audiences, including emotional and logical appeal, as well as appeals to authority, however; the extent to which each used specific strategies varied drastically: Jefferson was concise and cleverly subtle with his aim toward different parts of his audience, while King was very detailed and forthright with all of his audiences. In retrospect it is not inane to say that both Jefferson and King were excellent and effective rhetors, however; in their time they were both quite audacious in their endeavors. Jefferson was committing treason, a crime punishable by death, and he was asking his fellow countrymen to do the same. Similarly, King was asking people to follow him in breaking the law, taking the risk of going to jail or tolerating physical and verbal abuse. This, obviously, was not a simple task, but each was profoundly committed to their cause, and they never fell short of giving good reason for their strife. Both Jefferson and King used a significant amount of emotional and logical appeal, not necessarily to make their audience aware of their stance, but to sway them to feel the same and to take action. The style in which the Declaration of Independence was written was very formal and proper, and the emotional appeals are undertone to the logical facts that are stated about the tyrannical King of England. While the statement “He has…sent hither Swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance” was most likely meant to strike emotion in the colonists, it was stated in a very particular manner, which gave it a more logical appeal when read by one whom was not living in the colonies at that time. All of the statements made about the King placed strong emphasis on the fact that “HE” was the one responsible for these terrible acts on the colonies, and each statement was precisely constructed to appeal to different audiences in a different way. On the other hand, Dr. King is very direct when using emotional appeal. He used his greeting skillfully to disarm the clergymen who were responsible for his presence in jail, and then, to further build his character in their eyes, he says, “I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth.” As he progresses through the letter and shifts toward different audiences he uses emotional appeal accordingly. The 14th paragraph of his Letter From Birmingham Jail is almost entirely devoted to calamitous situations that a common black family endured in his day. This was done to make the white audience aware of a black man’s point of view, but also it was meant to hit home with the black community and, in turn, incite more of them to stand up against the everyday injustices. In addition to emotional and logical appeals, both Thomas Jefferson and Dr. King demonstrate their credibility with the use of appeals to authority via the use of religious or historical figures in their rhetoric. This particularly holds true for King, but Jefferson does mention “Nature’s God” and “Creator” in the course of his writing. To say that men are “endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights” was a bold assumption for Jefferson to make, considering that at that time the residents of the Thirteen Colonies were Puritans. Even though he was already a well-respected man, he used this approach to establish his credibility, since at that time there was no separation of church and state. Martin Luther King, Jr. took this technique one step further by including biblical and historical references throughout his speech. He compared his quest to those of the Apostle Paul and Socrates, he compared his civil disobedience to that of the early Christians who were willing to face excruciating pain before they would submit to injustice, and he compared the label of ‘extremist,’ given to him by the clergymen, to the “extremist” views of Martin Luther, Thomas Jefferson, and even Jesus Christ. Dr. King uses this type of appeal more than twenty times in this dissertation to make the readers aware of his extensive education. By making his audience aware of his intelligence, he thereby makes himself more credible. While, on the surface, the Declaration of Independence and the Letter From Birmingham Jail had completely different purposes, they were connected on a deeper level. The strategies used by Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King, Jr. were similar because they were essentially fighting for the same cause: freedom. Jefferson was fighting for the freedom of the American colonists, and King was fighting for the freedom of African Americans. Each is very eloquent, and while they use many of the same tactics, including emotional, logical, and authoritative appeals, the extent to which they use them differs. While King was very in depth and direct with all of his audience, Jefferson was concise and subtle with his intentions toward the varying parts of his audience. Cite this page Thomas Jefferson and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/thomas-jefferson-and-dr-martin-luther-king-jr-essay	1,250	ENGLISH	1
Learn about South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission and consider how it enabled the country to face a history of violence, hatred, and discrimination. Scholar Beth Van Schaack discusses the origins of the international justice system. International law is that law that governs the entire global community. This law comes from a variety of sources. It comes from treaties that get drafted between nations. So we have a Genocide Convention, for example, which is a multilateral treaty, which means that multiple states can join it. And that treaty has prohibited the crime of genocide and has committed all states to work towards not only its prosecution, but also its prevention. We have war crimes treaties. The so-called Geneva Conventions contain within them lists of war crimes, acts that must be punished if they are committed in the context of an armed conflict. So that's one of the sources of international law. We also have what's called custom, which is basically how nations interact with each other. And that's also a source of international law. We have the United Nations, which creates resolutions, which has programs that are also part and parcel of creating a system of international law and of international justice. Much of international law is geared towards finding ways to resolve conflicts between nations, and even within nations, peaceably, without resorting to armed force. So this is one of the huge legacies of the post-World War II period. [MEN SPEAKING IN BACKGROUND] [SHOUTING IN GERMAN] Prior to the end of World War II, there had never been a global system of human rights or of international justice. Countries were totally separate. They operated separately. They had bilateral relationships. They had multilateral relationships. But generally, things like criminal trials happened only at the domestic level. After World War II, the crimes were so horrific, both in terms of what happened during the war, the starting of the war, but also the suffering of the civilian populations throughout the globe. The suffering was so horrific that the international community got together and decided they needed to have an international response. These were not just local crimes. These were international crimes. And that decision laid the groundwork for creating an entire system of international justice. The two first institutions in this system were international tribunals in Nuremberg, Germany, and in Tokyo, Japan. There were three crimes at issue. The first was called crimes against the peace, which today we would call the crime of aggression. They also prosecuted war crimes. This was the one crime that had been already established. There were some international treaties that outlined what were called war crimes. It's often paradoxical to think about crimes of war, because we think war is about destruction. It's about chaos. It's about death. How can you then describe these as crimes? But for as long as human communities have been at war with each other, there have been rules governing those wars. And some of them are very simple and intuitive. For example, you can't target civilians. Wars happen between combatants. They happen between governments. And at all costs, these warring parties should endeavor to protect the civilian populations. The third crime was an innovation. And this is probably, I think, at least, the real legacy of the World War II period. And these are called crimes against humanity. The idea of crimes against humanity was to capture the targeting and mistreatment of individuals, regardless of whether there was a state of war or not, so for example, mass rape, mass killing of civilians, mass torture of civilians. This idea was completely new. There had been no such thing prior to World War II. And I think that this idea of crimes against humanity was really the foundation upon which the entire system of international human rights was ultimately built, because it didn't depend on the existence of a war between parties. The defense begins. Some make blanket denials of all guilt. One of the criticisms that has been leveled against the post-World War II proceedings is that the systems made up new crimes, acts that were not crimes at the time they were committed. It had never been argued that committing a war of aggression was a crime. There was some discussion after World War I of crimes against humanity, but it had never been prosecuted before at the international or a domestic level. The defendants made arguments in this respect. And they argued that these counts needed to be rejected, and they should be rejected by the tribunal, dismissed from the indictment. The judges agreed, however, that there was no way that these individuals could not have known that what they were doing was criminal. To launch a war of aggression and all the devastation that that would create, and to target for destruction and extermination civilian populations, to torture civilians, to rape civilians— under no system of law could those acts be lawful. And so it was not unfair to prosecute these individuals after the fact. So there were three crimes, as I mentioned, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes against the peace. The question is, how do we weight these, right? Is one more serious than another? In many respects, the post-World War II trials were meant to be the trials to end all war. This was a quote that was used. So both of those proceedings, in Nuremberg and in Tokyo, very much focused on the German aggression and the Japanese aggression. These were the centerpiece of those two trials. But crimes against humanity featured very prominently as well. What's interesting is, if you look at, for example, the German proceedings, the individuals who received the death penalty— the most serious penalty that could be given by that tribunal— were individuals who were convicted of crimes against humanity. So the judges reserved their most serious sentence for crimes against humanity. I think there was a recognition, as that evidence began to come out, that this was the true horror of World War II and that this deserved the most serious punishments available. And that's one of the real revolutions of the Nuremberg period, the idea that states owe their own citizens certain basic obligations of fair treatment and humane treatment. And so, in Nuremberg in particular, we saw German individuals prosecuted for crimes committed against other Germans, German Jews and German homosexuals and others who were considered undesirable members of the German populace. Prior to that point, what a country did, how a country treated its own nationals was not a subject of international law. International law did not discuss that. International law dealt with relations between states, not relations between a state and its citizens. And it was the World War II period that introduced the idea that, actually, international law had something to say about how a state could treat its own citizens. And that became the foundation for the entire edifice of international human rights. And so there's a dialogic process that happens in New York and in Geneva, in places where the United Nations happens, where slowly but surely, states are called to account. They have to answer for the accusations that have been made against them. They will sometimes make excuses, but often they will acknowledge that the situation is not as good as it should be. And they will be on record as making pledges to try and improve the situation. So it's a slow process. It's a diplomatic process. It's not a very robust process. But that's the process that we've been able to create to date. And every year, we strengthen it in a tiny little bit, a tiny way. We strengthen those tools that we have. We sharpen those tools. And so, gradually, the system is getting stronger and stronger.	<urn:uuid:9756255b-5317-41dd-8be4-d42fa96dea59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/video/nuremberg-and-tokyo-foundations-international-law	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00374.warc.gz	en	0.98473	1,561	4.125	4	[ -0.34471696615219116, 0.08472650498151779, 0.004811227321624756, -0.2337440550327301, 0.26519274711608887, -0.28371942043304443, 0.21683374047279358, -0.21806666254997253, 0.12528961896896362, 0.20329736173152924, 0.2660536766052246, 0.061156850308179855, -0.07563644647598267, 0.6249005198...	3	Learn about South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission and consider how it enabled the country to face a history of violence, hatred, and discrimination. Scholar Beth Van Schaack discusses the origins of the international justice system. International law is that law that governs the entire global community. This law comes from a variety of sources. It comes from treaties that get drafted between nations. So we have a Genocide Convention, for example, which is a multilateral treaty, which means that multiple states can join it. And that treaty has prohibited the crime of genocide and has committed all states to work towards not only its prosecution, but also its prevention. We have war crimes treaties. The so-called Geneva Conventions contain within them lists of war crimes, acts that must be punished if they are committed in the context of an armed conflict. So that's one of the sources of international law. We also have what's called custom, which is basically how nations interact with each other. And that's also a source of international law. We have the United Nations, which creates resolutions, which has programs that are also part and parcel of creating a system of international law and of international justice. Much of international law is geared towards finding ways to resolve conflicts between nations, and even within nations, peaceably, without resorting to armed force. So this is one of the huge legacies of the post-World War II period. [MEN SPEAKING IN BACKGROUND] [SHOUTING IN GERMAN] Prior to the end of World War II, there had never been a global system of human rights or of international justice. Countries were totally separate. They operated separately. They had bilateral relationships. They had multilateral relationships. But generally, things like criminal trials happened only at the domestic level. After World War II, the crimes were so horrific, both in terms of what happened during the war, the starting of the war, but also the suffering of the civilian populations throughout the globe. The suffering was so horrific that the international community got together and decided they needed to have an international response. These were not just local crimes. These were international crimes. And that decision laid the groundwork for creating an entire system of international justice. The two first institutions in this system were international tribunals in Nuremberg, Germany, and in Tokyo, Japan. There were three crimes at issue. The first was called crimes against the peace, which today we would call the crime of aggression. They also prosecuted war crimes. This was the one crime that had been already established. There were some international treaties that outlined what were called war crimes. It's often paradoxical to think about crimes of war, because we think war is about destruction. It's about chaos. It's about death. How can you then describe these as crimes? But for as long as human communities have been at war with each other, there have been rules governing those wars. And some of them are very simple and intuitive. For example, you can't target civilians. Wars happen between combatants. They happen between governments. And at all costs, these warring parties should endeavor to protect the civilian populations. The third crime was an innovation. And this is probably, I think, at least, the real legacy of the World War II period. And these are called crimes against humanity. The idea of crimes against humanity was to capture the targeting and mistreatment of individuals, regardless of whether there was a state of war or not, so for example, mass rape, mass killing of civilians, mass torture of civilians. This idea was completely new. There had been no such thing prior to World War II. And I think that this idea of crimes against humanity was really the foundation upon which the entire system of international human rights was ultimately built, because it didn't depend on the existence of a war between parties. The defense begins. Some make blanket denials of all guilt. One of the criticisms that has been leveled against the post-World War II proceedings is that the systems made up new crimes, acts that were not crimes at the time they were committed. It had never been argued that committing a war of aggression was a crime. There was some discussion after World War I of crimes against humanity, but it had never been prosecuted before at the international or a domestic level. The defendants made arguments in this respect. And they argued that these counts needed to be rejected, and they should be rejected by the tribunal, dismissed from the indictment. The judges agreed, however, that there was no way that these individuals could not have known that what they were doing was criminal. To launch a war of aggression and all the devastation that that would create, and to target for destruction and extermination civilian populations, to torture civilians, to rape civilians— under no system of law could those acts be lawful. And so it was not unfair to prosecute these individuals after the fact. So there were three crimes, as I mentioned, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes against the peace. The question is, how do we weight these, right? Is one more serious than another? In many respects, the post-World War II trials were meant to be the trials to end all war. This was a quote that was used. So both of those proceedings, in Nuremberg and in Tokyo, very much focused on the German aggression and the Japanese aggression. These were the centerpiece of those two trials. But crimes against humanity featured very prominently as well. What's interesting is, if you look at, for example, the German proceedings, the individuals who received the death penalty— the most serious penalty that could be given by that tribunal— were individuals who were convicted of crimes against humanity. So the judges reserved their most serious sentence for crimes against humanity. I think there was a recognition, as that evidence began to come out, that this was the true horror of World War II and that this deserved the most serious punishments available. And that's one of the real revolutions of the Nuremberg period, the idea that states owe their own citizens certain basic obligations of fair treatment and humane treatment. And so, in Nuremberg in particular, we saw German individuals prosecuted for crimes committed against other Germans, German Jews and German homosexuals and others who were considered undesirable members of the German populace. Prior to that point, what a country did, how a country treated its own nationals was not a subject of international law. International law did not discuss that. International law dealt with relations between states, not relations between a state and its citizens. And it was the World War II period that introduced the idea that, actually, international law had something to say about how a state could treat its own citizens. And that became the foundation for the entire edifice of international human rights. And so there's a dialogic process that happens in New York and in Geneva, in places where the United Nations happens, where slowly but surely, states are called to account. They have to answer for the accusations that have been made against them. They will sometimes make excuses, but often they will acknowledge that the situation is not as good as it should be. And they will be on record as making pledges to try and improve the situation. So it's a slow process. It's a diplomatic process. It's not a very robust process. But that's the process that we've been able to create to date. And every year, we strengthen it in a tiny little bit, a tiny way. We strengthen those tools that we have. We sharpen those tools. And so, gradually, the system is getting stronger and stronger.	1,540	ENGLISH	1
Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Lenape were foragers with a seasonal pattern of band aggregation and dispersion geared to effective recovery of naturally available resources within their range. In the early spring they set up their summer stations to take advantage of six species of anadromous fish which spawned in the fresh waters of the Delaware valley watershed. In March the shad were the first of these to arrive from the sea, with a run often lasting as long as four weeks. The other five species came in sequence throughout the summer and into early fall, with the last species spawning in September and October. These fish, plus the catadromous eel and migratory waterfowl resources, provided an abundant and extremely rich protein source for nearly eight months of the year. The winter months, during which deer hunting was the principal activity, were less rich, but sufficient to supply the population with food needs when supplemented/by extensive gathering. Aside from the period from 1640 to 1660 when Lenape bands cash-cropped maize, complex technology was available only through the sale of a few furs and the barter of venison and other native-made Products. After 1680 the Lenape became important in the fur trade, but the demand for this resource had declined. Lenape became known as expert and reliable guides and were Important in opening the frontier straight out to the Pacific Coast. Lenape adoption of the horse in the eighteenth century facilitated their movement west, and they also became horse Traders of note. The independence and individuality that characterized the foraging ancestors of these people are reflected today in a number of economic factors. Private ownership of their own homes, a reluctance to be part of big businesses, and avoidance of financial encumbrances make the Delaware appear to be secure members of the American mainstream. Although many collectively receive government payments for old treaty obligations, there are none of the difficulties that are noted among other Native American groups where such support has become the mainstay of the economy. Industrial Arts. The aboriginal Lenape were extraordinarily skilled at leather and quillwork and at carving wooden objects that were often traded to the colonists. Outstanding early examples of these crafts exist in European museum collections. Basketry was one of the skills used by Lenape settled among the seventeenth-century colonists, but aspects of this skill may have been European imports. Much later, ribbon-work applique became a major technique for decorating clothing among the Lenape as it did among many other Native American peoples. Trade. The Lenape always maintained a relatively low level of trade, both with their aboriginal neighbors and with the later European colonists. Although industrially produced metals, cloth, guns, and glass were immediately of interest to the Lenape, their low level of demand never generated a largescale trading dependence as was often the case with other Native cultures. Division of Labor. The women of the matrilineal Lenape performed traditional female roles and did whatever gardening was done at their summer stations, including preparing the small plots. Their gathering also included nestlings and eggs, and they shared in harvesting fish during the big runs. Men focused on fishing and were of greater economic importance during the winter hunting when they provided most of the winter food supply. These male roles expanded over the years as men became full-time trappers, guides, scouts, and horse traders. Land Tenure. Land usage was held in common among all the members of the band, which could be equated with the core members of the lineage and their in-marrying spouses. The aboriginal lands were sold by each of these bands, with all the adult males (over thirteen or fourteen years of age) signing the land transfer documents. After 1740 most of these groups held land in common among much larger social units, equated with towns. Land sales were made by these larger groups, and sometimes by a series of these groups acting as a single political body.	<urn:uuid:d4a028e7-41f3-4527-ae54-d1bc1cf7ec42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Delaware-Economy.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00522.warc.gz	en	0.984639	803	3.953125	4	[ -0.32977354526519775, -0.006248905789107084, 0.4911424219608307, -0.28612399101257324, 0.17857828736305237, -0.23800700902938843, 0.03497033193707466, 0.19244706630706787, -0.2896348536014557, -0.18417462706565857, 0.22553542256355286, -0.17483794689178467, 0.17347252368927002, 0.355271697...	3	Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Lenape were foragers with a seasonal pattern of band aggregation and dispersion geared to effective recovery of naturally available resources within their range. In the early spring they set up their summer stations to take advantage of six species of anadromous fish which spawned in the fresh waters of the Delaware valley watershed. In March the shad were the first of these to arrive from the sea, with a run often lasting as long as four weeks. The other five species came in sequence throughout the summer and into early fall, with the last species spawning in September and October. These fish, plus the catadromous eel and migratory waterfowl resources, provided an abundant and extremely rich protein source for nearly eight months of the year. The winter months, during which deer hunting was the principal activity, were less rich, but sufficient to supply the population with food needs when supplemented/by extensive gathering. Aside from the period from 1640 to 1660 when Lenape bands cash-cropped maize, complex technology was available only through the sale of a few furs and the barter of venison and other native-made Products. After 1680 the Lenape became important in the fur trade, but the demand for this resource had declined. Lenape became known as expert and reliable guides and were Important in opening the frontier straight out to the Pacific Coast. Lenape adoption of the horse in the eighteenth century facilitated their movement west, and they also became horse Traders of note. The independence and individuality that characterized the foraging ancestors of these people are reflected today in a number of economic factors. Private ownership of their own homes, a reluctance to be part of big businesses, and avoidance of financial encumbrances make the Delaware appear to be secure members of the American mainstream. Although many collectively receive government payments for old treaty obligations, there are none of the difficulties that are noted among other Native American groups where such support has become the mainstay of the economy. Industrial Arts. The aboriginal Lenape were extraordinarily skilled at leather and quillwork and at carving wooden objects that were often traded to the colonists. Outstanding early examples of these crafts exist in European museum collections. Basketry was one of the skills used by Lenape settled among the seventeenth-century colonists, but aspects of this skill may have been European imports. Much later, ribbon-work applique became a major technique for decorating clothing among the Lenape as it did among many other Native American peoples. Trade. The Lenape always maintained a relatively low level of trade, both with their aboriginal neighbors and with the later European colonists. Although industrially produced metals, cloth, guns, and glass were immediately of interest to the Lenape, their low level of demand never generated a largescale trading dependence as was often the case with other Native cultures. Division of Labor. The women of the matrilineal Lenape performed traditional female roles and did whatever gardening was done at their summer stations, including preparing the small plots. Their gathering also included nestlings and eggs, and they shared in harvesting fish during the big runs. Men focused on fishing and were of greater economic importance during the winter hunting when they provided most of the winter food supply. These male roles expanded over the years as men became full-time trappers, guides, scouts, and horse traders. Land Tenure. Land usage was held in common among all the members of the band, which could be equated with the core members of the lineage and their in-marrying spouses. The aboriginal lands were sold by each of these bands, with all the adult males (over thirteen or fourteen years of age) signing the land transfer documents. After 1740 most of these groups held land in common among much larger social units, equated with towns. Land sales were made by these larger groups, and sometimes by a series of these groups acting as a single political body.	805	ENGLISH	1
TODAY IN HISTORY, JANUARY 14, 1943: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the first US President to fly in an aircraft for official business. FDR was to meet Winston Churchill in Casablanca, Morocco to discuss strategy in WWII. For previous meetings the President and Prime Minister had travelled by warship, but the US military was concerned about heightened U-Boat activity in the Atlantic. As a result President Roosevelt agreed to make the trip by plane, specifically a Boeing 314 four engine flying boat named the Dixie Clipper. The flight flew from Florida to South America and crossed to North Africa. After the meeting, FDR celebrated his 61st birthday on the return flight. He was already in poor health and the 1700 mile trip took its toll. Thirty-three years earlier, FDR’s cousin Theodore Roosevelt had become the first president to fly in an aircraft. After having left office, TR was on a speaking tour when he encountered pilot Arch Hoxley at Kinloch Field in St. Louis, Missouri. The always adventurous TR could not resist the offer to go for a jaunt in the Wright built airplane…little more than a powered kite, and much less luxurious than the Clipper his cousin would use. In fact, TR’s pilot, Hoxley, would die in a plane crash the following December. I have to wonder if this is historic coincidence or much more. FDR grew up in TR’s very large shadow, and greatly admired him. FDR followed TR’s path as much as he could…Under Secretary of the Navy, the New York legislature and New York governor. While TR was a Republican and FDR was a Democrat, FDR traded on TR’s legend…and TR supported his prodigy. TR wanted to break tradition and serve a third term, which did not happen. FDR was into his fourth term when he died. So of course one has to wonder if from competitiveness or emulation, was the opportunity to follow up on a Presidentially pioneering flight just too much too pass up?	<urn:uuid:4fb373ca-e2c7-41c6-98c6-e2cb47de03f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://markloveshistory.com/2020/01/15/presidential-roosevelts-firsts-in-flight/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00545.warc.gz	en	0.981849	426	3.546875	4	[ -0.022398684173822403, 0.12658001482486725, 0.3832142949104309, -0.21068571507930756, 0.07871396839618683, 0.3261552155017853, 0.2749255895614624, 0.482231080532074, 0.13266310095787048, -0.14760816097259521, 0.4862241744995117, 0.07241415977478027, 0.1877642720937729, 0.9534257054328918, ...	8	TODAY IN HISTORY, JANUARY 14, 1943: President Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the first US President to fly in an aircraft for official business. FDR was to meet Winston Churchill in Casablanca, Morocco to discuss strategy in WWII. For previous meetings the President and Prime Minister had travelled by warship, but the US military was concerned about heightened U-Boat activity in the Atlantic. As a result President Roosevelt agreed to make the trip by plane, specifically a Boeing 314 four engine flying boat named the Dixie Clipper. The flight flew from Florida to South America and crossed to North Africa. After the meeting, FDR celebrated his 61st birthday on the return flight. He was already in poor health and the 1700 mile trip took its toll. Thirty-three years earlier, FDR’s cousin Theodore Roosevelt had become the first president to fly in an aircraft. After having left office, TR was on a speaking tour when he encountered pilot Arch Hoxley at Kinloch Field in St. Louis, Missouri. The always adventurous TR could not resist the offer to go for a jaunt in the Wright built airplane…little more than a powered kite, and much less luxurious than the Clipper his cousin would use. In fact, TR’s pilot, Hoxley, would die in a plane crash the following December. I have to wonder if this is historic coincidence or much more. FDR grew up in TR’s very large shadow, and greatly admired him. FDR followed TR’s path as much as he could…Under Secretary of the Navy, the New York legislature and New York governor. While TR was a Republican and FDR was a Democrat, FDR traded on TR’s legend…and TR supported his prodigy. TR wanted to break tradition and serve a third term, which did not happen. FDR was into his fourth term when he died. So of course one has to wonder if from competitiveness or emulation, was the opportunity to follow up on a Presidentially pioneering flight just too much too pass up?	427	ENGLISH	1
Presentation on theme: "Lesson Essential Questions: How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing."— Presentation transcript: Lesson Essential Questions: How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Athenian culture allow the development of a powerful city-state? How did Athenian culture allow the development of a powerful city-state? How did Athenian culture compare and contrast Spartan culture? How did Athenian culture compare and contrast Spartan culture? Spartan Male Newborns Spartan males were taken to the elders and inspected. If they were healthy, they were allowed to live. If newborn boys were not considered healthy, they were left to die on a sacred hillside. Sparta - Young Males At age 7, boys were sent to military camps. Boys were trained under teenage leaders. Their life was very organized. Boys had one piece of clothing to wear and had to go barefoot. Boys did not get much food. They were expected to steal food and not get caught. Sparta - Young Males They had to walk with their eyes to the ground, and spoke only when necessary. They learned to read, write, and used weapons. They slept outdoors without any cover. As they got older, punishments became more harsh. Sparta - Adult Males Only aristocrats could be citizens. At age 18, men would be chosen for particular army groups. If they were among the best, they were selected to join the Selected Service Brigade. One of their tests to become a man required Spartan males to sneak up on helot and kill them and not get caught! Spartan males were organized into messes, or a group of soldiers that live and eat together. Sparta - Adult Males Spartan males were expected to marry around age 20. Even though they were married, men still had to live with their mess, where they shared living expenses. At age 30, men could live with their families, but they were still in the military. When they were older, men would serve on garrison, or guard, duty. At age 60, they could retire from the army. Athenian Male Newborns Families would announce the birth of a boy by pinning olive leaves to the door. Olive leaves signified victory. If they were not wanted, they could also be left in a public spot to be picked up and adopted or raised as a slave. Ten days after a boy was born, there was a special ceremony to announce his name. Boys were also presented to their father’s deme, or their village, inside Athens. Athens - Young Males Boys began schooling around 6 or 7. Since there were no public schools, boys either had a tutor or attended private school. They learned reading, writing, and mathematics. They practiced sports and memorized the works of Homer and other Greek poets. They also learned music and practiced sports at a gymnasium. Along with their lessons, boys would also learn the trade, or job, of their father. Athens - Adult Males Males would become citizens at age 18. They would go to the temple of Zeus and take an oath of citizenship in front of their family and friends. In the oath, they promised to help make Athens a better place to live, be honorable in battle, follow the constitution, and respect their religion. Citizens could vote. Men would have to serve in the military for at least 2 years. Athens - Adult Males In their free time, men could hunt to obtain more meat, especially since meat was expensive to buy. Men in Athens would serve on juries as part of their duty as a citizen. Men in Athens would marry later in life, around age 30. Men would not often see their new bride’s face until after the wedding. Spartan Female Newborns Newborn girls were inspected by their mothers to see if they were healthy. The hope for girls were to grow strong and bear sons for Sparta. Sparta - Young Females If they had older brothers, they would not see them after the boys turned 7. Girls exercised and danced to keep fit. Girls wore simple clothing, like a chiton, but they could go naked. Helots did most of the housework, including weaving. At age 13, girls could participate in the Heraia, or “girl Olympics.” Sparta - Females: Marriage - Adulthood Spartan girls would marry around age 18. Their husbands would not be able to live with them until the age of 30. Spartan women would not see their husbands unless they snuck out of their military barracks. Spartan women would have children. The state, Sparta, would pay and provide their food. The ultimate goal for a Spartan woman was to have sons and send them off to war. Athenian Female Newborns When a girl was born, they put sheep's wool on the door to signify domestic or house life. If a girl was not wanted, they could be left in a public place to be adopted or taken as slaves. Athens - Young Females Girls were taught from an early age to take care of children. A girls’ brother’s needs were put above hers since boys were valued more. Girls did not go to school. Girls learned to weave cloth, wall hangings, and bed linens. If they did not need the cloth they made, they sold it. Athens - Young Females Girls learned to run a household. Girls were not allowed to socialize or exercise with boys because it was not ladylike. Girls in Athens did not participate in the Heraia. Athens - Females: Marriage - Adulthood At age 13, an Athenian girl’s childhood was over. Girls would take their toys to the temple of Artemis and give them to her. Girls would begin to wear a special girdle, or belt, that they had to wear until they married. This symbolized they were an adult. Girls could marry as young as 14. Marriages were arranged by their father, and it was common for the groom to be older, like 30 years old. A woman was considered her husband’s property. Athens - Females: Marriage - Adulthood If their husbands were wealthy, they would have slaves. Women would train the household slaves. Women did not have public roles, unless they were chosen as a temple priestess. When a family member died, it was the females’ job was to prepared the dead for burial. Spartan Government At first, Sparta was ruled by kings. Later, aristocrats took over the government, and two kings ruled jointly, but they had little power. The role of kings were to lead the army and conduct religious services. Define aristocrats : nobles Define oligarchy: a government in which a few people or a select group of people have the ruling power Spartan Government The Assembly All citizens over 20 were members of the Assembly. The Assembly made the laws and decided war and peace. Ephors The ephors were five managers chosen by the Assembly. The ephors managed the education of boys and took charge of public affairs. Council of Elders The Council of Elders was made up of men over 60 and they were chosen for life. Athenian Government At first, Athens was ruled by kings. Later, landowners, merchants, and nobles took over the government. They formed an oligarchy. Define oligarchy: a government in which a few people or a select group of people have the ruling power Later still – fights broke out over land ownership. The upper class did not want fights to turn into uprisings, so they decided to change their government. Define democracy: A type of government favoring the equality of all people. Athenian Government The Assembly The Assembly was eventually opened to all males over 20 years old. The Assembly passed the laws. Ten Generals Each year the Assembly chose ten generals. The ten generals ran the army and the navy and served as judges. One of the judges was chosen as commander-in-chief. Athenian Government Council of Five Hundred The Council of Five Hundred handled the daily business of Athens. Each year, members were chosen by drawing 500 names out of a pot. No one could serve more than twice. Every citizen had a chance to be a member.	<urn:uuid:3ea07084-5981-4f99-94a9-69993762c551>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://slideplayer.com/slide/6334972/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00370.warc.gz	en	0.990304	1,744	4.15625	4	[ 0.0020016818307340145, 0.687313437461853, 0.2901792526245117, -0.4361661672592163, -0.2300889939069748, -0.06877598911523819, -0.08027592301368713, 0.4532373547554016, -0.7874351739883423, 0.031118880957365036, -0.28650516271591187, 0.025897789746522903, 0.3972371816635132, 0.1491031050682...	1	Presentation on theme: "Lesson Essential Questions: How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing."— Presentation transcript: Lesson Essential Questions: How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Spartan culture prevent them from developing into a greater city-state? How did Athenian culture allow the development of a powerful city-state? How did Athenian culture allow the development of a powerful city-state? How did Athenian culture compare and contrast Spartan culture? How did Athenian culture compare and contrast Spartan culture? Spartan Male Newborns Spartan males were taken to the elders and inspected. If they were healthy, they were allowed to live. If newborn boys were not considered healthy, they were left to die on a sacred hillside. Sparta - Young Males At age 7, boys were sent to military camps. Boys were trained under teenage leaders. Their life was very organized. Boys had one piece of clothing to wear and had to go barefoot. Boys did not get much food. They were expected to steal food and not get caught. Sparta - Young Males They had to walk with their eyes to the ground, and spoke only when necessary. They learned to read, write, and used weapons. They slept outdoors without any cover. As they got older, punishments became more harsh. Sparta - Adult Males Only aristocrats could be citizens. At age 18, men would be chosen for particular army groups. If they were among the best, they were selected to join the Selected Service Brigade. One of their tests to become a man required Spartan males to sneak up on helot and kill them and not get caught! Spartan males were organized into messes, or a group of soldiers that live and eat together. Sparta - Adult Males Spartan males were expected to marry around age 20. Even though they were married, men still had to live with their mess, where they shared living expenses. At age 30, men could live with their families, but they were still in the military. When they were older, men would serve on garrison, or guard, duty. At age 60, they could retire from the army. Athenian Male Newborns Families would announce the birth of a boy by pinning olive leaves to the door. Olive leaves signified victory. If they were not wanted, they could also be left in a public spot to be picked up and adopted or raised as a slave. Ten days after a boy was born, there was a special ceremony to announce his name. Boys were also presented to their father’s deme, or their village, inside Athens. Athens - Young Males Boys began schooling around 6 or 7. Since there were no public schools, boys either had a tutor or attended private school. They learned reading, writing, and mathematics. They practiced sports and memorized the works of Homer and other Greek poets. They also learned music and practiced sports at a gymnasium. Along with their lessons, boys would also learn the trade, or job, of their father. Athens - Adult Males Males would become citizens at age 18. They would go to the temple of Zeus and take an oath of citizenship in front of their family and friends. In the oath, they promised to help make Athens a better place to live, be honorable in battle, follow the constitution, and respect their religion. Citizens could vote. Men would have to serve in the military for at least 2 years. Athens - Adult Males In their free time, men could hunt to obtain more meat, especially since meat was expensive to buy. Men in Athens would serve on juries as part of their duty as a citizen. Men in Athens would marry later in life, around age 30. Men would not often see their new bride’s face until after the wedding. Spartan Female Newborns Newborn girls were inspected by their mothers to see if they were healthy. The hope for girls were to grow strong and bear sons for Sparta. Sparta - Young Females If they had older brothers, they would not see them after the boys turned 7. Girls exercised and danced to keep fit. Girls wore simple clothing, like a chiton, but they could go naked. Helots did most of the housework, including weaving. At age 13, girls could participate in the Heraia, or “girl Olympics.” Sparta - Females: Marriage - Adulthood Spartan girls would marry around age 18. Their husbands would not be able to live with them until the age of 30. Spartan women would not see their husbands unless they snuck out of their military barracks. Spartan women would have children. The state, Sparta, would pay and provide their food. The ultimate goal for a Spartan woman was to have sons and send them off to war. Athenian Female Newborns When a girl was born, they put sheep's wool on the door to signify domestic or house life. If a girl was not wanted, they could be left in a public place to be adopted or taken as slaves. Athens - Young Females Girls were taught from an early age to take care of children. A girls’ brother’s needs were put above hers since boys were valued more. Girls did not go to school. Girls learned to weave cloth, wall hangings, and bed linens. If they did not need the cloth they made, they sold it. Athens - Young Females Girls learned to run a household. Girls were not allowed to socialize or exercise with boys because it was not ladylike. Girls in Athens did not participate in the Heraia. Athens - Females: Marriage - Adulthood At age 13, an Athenian girl’s childhood was over. Girls would take their toys to the temple of Artemis and give them to her. Girls would begin to wear a special girdle, or belt, that they had to wear until they married. This symbolized they were an adult. Girls could marry as young as 14. Marriages were arranged by their father, and it was common for the groom to be older, like 30 years old. A woman was considered her husband’s property. Athens - Females: Marriage - Adulthood If their husbands were wealthy, they would have slaves. Women would train the household slaves. Women did not have public roles, unless they were chosen as a temple priestess. When a family member died, it was the females’ job was to prepared the dead for burial. Spartan Government At first, Sparta was ruled by kings. Later, aristocrats took over the government, and two kings ruled jointly, but they had little power. The role of kings were to lead the army and conduct religious services. Define aristocrats : nobles Define oligarchy: a government in which a few people or a select group of people have the ruling power Spartan Government The Assembly All citizens over 20 were members of the Assembly. The Assembly made the laws and decided war and peace. Ephors The ephors were five managers chosen by the Assembly. The ephors managed the education of boys and took charge of public affairs. Council of Elders The Council of Elders was made up of men over 60 and they were chosen for life. Athenian Government At first, Athens was ruled by kings. Later, landowners, merchants, and nobles took over the government. They formed an oligarchy. Define oligarchy: a government in which a few people or a select group of people have the ruling power Later still – fights broke out over land ownership. The upper class did not want fights to turn into uprisings, so they decided to change their government. Define democracy: A type of government favoring the equality of all people. Athenian Government The Assembly The Assembly was eventually opened to all males over 20 years old. The Assembly passed the laws. Ten Generals Each year the Assembly chose ten generals. The ten generals ran the army and the navy and served as judges. One of the judges was chosen as commander-in-chief. Athenian Government Council of Five Hundred The Council of Five Hundred handled the daily business of Athens. Each year, members were chosen by drawing 500 names out of a pot. No one could serve more than twice. Every citizen had a chance to be a member.	1,749	ENGLISH	1
How come no one could take over the government. The Constitution was written in 1787 in Philadelphia. A Constitution tells how the government is going to work. How did the writers of the Constitution keep person or a group of people from getting too much power? A tyranny is a power held by I person or group of people. The Constitution guarded against tyranny in several ways which were federalism, separation of power, check and balances, and small and large states. The ? rst guard against tyranny was Federalism which means the central and state government. Both government has the power to tax and laws or enforce laws. The central government can provide an army, but the state government can establish school. Federalism protects against tyranny because the state and national governments have powers so no one become too powerful. It helps them work together. A second guard against tyranny was separation of power which means divided the government in to three branches. In order to not have a tyranny, you must separate the department of power. Each branch is need to make a decision Judicial Power is vetted in the supreme court goose to the president. Separation of Power protects tyranny because they could over power the president. The third guard against tyranny was check and balances which means that each branch is able to check up on the other branches. They want to keep the central government branches working together because they need each other. The 3 branches working cycle they all can do things they must all agree. Check and balances protects against tyranny because by having each branch check up on each other no one branch can over power the other. The fourth guard against tyranny was the issue of small and large state which means making everything fair for all states. The large state favor the H, of rep because they have a large population and small state has a favor the senate. The House of Representatives is based on population and each has 2 senators. The issue of small and large state protects against tyranny because the congress is far for both large and small states because they need each other to make a decision. In conclusion, federalism, separation of powers, check and balances, and issue of small and large states helped to guard against tyranny in the U. S. government. For example, the government is divided into 3 branches which are fair and equal. It is important to understand, to know that our constitution protect us from somebody taking over states. I think that is important today because in my future I? ll be able to achieve my goals.	<urn:uuid:094691ad-65da-4aba-840a-9d7af803c1c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lawaspect.com/federal-government-united-states-tyranny/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00117.warc.gz	en	0.980209	499	3.765625	4	[ -0.38811278343200684, -0.11363498121500015, -0.09374251961708069, -0.26157239079475403, -0.1547776609659195, 0.2978731393814087, 0.4770848751068115, 0.06091783195734024, -0.04663030430674553, 0.07283205538988113, -0.06187960505485535, 0.33572566509246826, 0.10319593548774719, 0.12179260700...	3	How come no one could take over the government. The Constitution was written in 1787 in Philadelphia. A Constitution tells how the government is going to work. How did the writers of the Constitution keep person or a group of people from getting too much power? A tyranny is a power held by I person or group of people. The Constitution guarded against tyranny in several ways which were federalism, separation of power, check and balances, and small and large states. The ? rst guard against tyranny was Federalism which means the central and state government. Both government has the power to tax and laws or enforce laws. The central government can provide an army, but the state government can establish school. Federalism protects against tyranny because the state and national governments have powers so no one become too powerful. It helps them work together. A second guard against tyranny was separation of power which means divided the government in to three branches. In order to not have a tyranny, you must separate the department of power. Each branch is need to make a decision Judicial Power is vetted in the supreme court goose to the president. Separation of Power protects tyranny because they could over power the president. The third guard against tyranny was check and balances which means that each branch is able to check up on the other branches. They want to keep the central government branches working together because they need each other. The 3 branches working cycle they all can do things they must all agree. Check and balances protects against tyranny because by having each branch check up on each other no one branch can over power the other. The fourth guard against tyranny was the issue of small and large state which means making everything fair for all states. The large state favor the H, of rep because they have a large population and small state has a favor the senate. The House of Representatives is based on population and each has 2 senators. The issue of small and large state protects against tyranny because the congress is far for both large and small states because they need each other to make a decision. In conclusion, federalism, separation of powers, check and balances, and issue of small and large states helped to guard against tyranny in the U. S. government. For example, the government is divided into 3 branches which are fair and equal. It is important to understand, to know that our constitution protect us from somebody taking over states. I think that is important today because in my future I? ll be able to achieve my goals.	501	ENGLISH	1
New research study reveals preservation efforts frequently spread out like illness, aiding researchers as well as policymakers style programs most likely to be occupied. The research, led by scientists at Imperial University London, designed exactly how preservation efforts are taken on throughout areas as well as nations till they get to ‘range’– at a degree where they can have actual influence on saving or enhancing biodiversity. By recognizing exactly how efforts have actually gotten to range, the group determined some means brand-new or existing efforts might increase their uptake, aiding the initiatives go better. The research study recommends that a person crucial element is to help with call in between those that have actually currently occupied a brand-new effort as well as those that could possibly embrace it. As an example, if one area that has actually developed neighborhood aquatic defenses speak about what they have actually done as well as what the advantages are to one more area taking into consideration doing something comparable. Dr Morena Mills, from the Centre for Environmental Plan at Imperial, claimed: “Preservation efforts like handling angling sources as well as balancing out land for nature are crucial for safeguarding biodiversity as well as the useful ecological communities that assist offer us with tidy water as well as air. ” We discovered that a lot of these efforts spread out like a condition, where they rely on a prospective adopter capturing the preservation ‘pest’ from an existing one. We wish our understandings right into exactly how biodiversity preservation efforts spread out will certainly enable specialists to develop them to make sure that they get to range, which is crucial for allowing them to make a concrete, long lasting influence.” The research study, released today in Nature Sustainability, considered 22 preservation efforts from around the world to see exactly how they spread out, as well as exactly how quickly. The research consisted of efforts covering land as well as water, those by reduced to high-income nations, as well as those at neighborhood, nationwide as well as global ranges. As an example, the efforts varied from towns presenting defenses around neighborhood aquatic websites to federal governments assigning locations as global Globe Heritage Sites, consisting of state as well as independently safeguarded locations. The group discovered that the majority of (83 percent) of the plans adhered to a slow-fast-slow design, where preliminary fostering is sluggish as couple of individuals take it up, however after that expands rapidly as a lot more very early adopters get in touch with possible adopters. Ultimately, the price reduces once again as all possible adopters have actually either occupied the plan or rejected it. One instance of a plan following this design was source administration systems within the neighborhood waters of areas throughout the Solomon Islands as well as Fiji. A comparable plan in Samoa adhered to a various trajectory of fast-slow, with a quicker earlier fostering most likely helped by the federal government, that gave watercrafts as well as tank farming sources to obtain even more areas aboard. This fast-slow trajectory is not based on communications amongst adopters. The group claim that more understandings right into what components make a preservation effort spread effectively are required, as no effort they researched had actually the wanted buildings of being occupied rapidly, as well as being occupied by the bulk of adopters. A lot of efforts had one or the various other of these buildings, with over half being taken on by much less than 30 percent of possible adopters. Dr Mills included: “In our research we did not discover any type of efforts that were occupied reasonably rapidly as well as by a huge percentage of the possible swimming pool of adopters. We are looking for to comprehend even more regarding exactly how neighborhood context helps with or prevents spread, to assist efforts that profit both nature as well as individuals get to range.”	<urn:uuid:8baa3071-3513-4ba0-a3ba-75d97116de07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://greot.com/2019/10/07/how-to-make-conservation-initiatives-more-contagious/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00243.warc.gz	en	0.982653	768	3.265625	3	[ -0.1830223798751831, 0.21628913283348083, 0.2899957299232483, -0.1588829904794693, 0.6468417048454285, -0.026444148272275925, -0.2706131935119629, 0.10751796513795853, -0.18120858073234558, 0.1029694527387619, 0.028413893654942513, -0.2844111919403076, 0.30300354957580566, 0.01682877913117...	2	New research study reveals preservation efforts frequently spread out like illness, aiding researchers as well as policymakers style programs most likely to be occupied. The research, led by scientists at Imperial University London, designed exactly how preservation efforts are taken on throughout areas as well as nations till they get to ‘range’– at a degree where they can have actual influence on saving or enhancing biodiversity. By recognizing exactly how efforts have actually gotten to range, the group determined some means brand-new or existing efforts might increase their uptake, aiding the initiatives go better. The research study recommends that a person crucial element is to help with call in between those that have actually currently occupied a brand-new effort as well as those that could possibly embrace it. As an example, if one area that has actually developed neighborhood aquatic defenses speak about what they have actually done as well as what the advantages are to one more area taking into consideration doing something comparable. Dr Morena Mills, from the Centre for Environmental Plan at Imperial, claimed: “Preservation efforts like handling angling sources as well as balancing out land for nature are crucial for safeguarding biodiversity as well as the useful ecological communities that assist offer us with tidy water as well as air. ” We discovered that a lot of these efforts spread out like a condition, where they rely on a prospective adopter capturing the preservation ‘pest’ from an existing one. We wish our understandings right into exactly how biodiversity preservation efforts spread out will certainly enable specialists to develop them to make sure that they get to range, which is crucial for allowing them to make a concrete, long lasting influence.” The research study, released today in Nature Sustainability, considered 22 preservation efforts from around the world to see exactly how they spread out, as well as exactly how quickly. The research consisted of efforts covering land as well as water, those by reduced to high-income nations, as well as those at neighborhood, nationwide as well as global ranges. As an example, the efforts varied from towns presenting defenses around neighborhood aquatic websites to federal governments assigning locations as global Globe Heritage Sites, consisting of state as well as independently safeguarded locations. The group discovered that the majority of (83 percent) of the plans adhered to a slow-fast-slow design, where preliminary fostering is sluggish as couple of individuals take it up, however after that expands rapidly as a lot more very early adopters get in touch with possible adopters. Ultimately, the price reduces once again as all possible adopters have actually either occupied the plan or rejected it. One instance of a plan following this design was source administration systems within the neighborhood waters of areas throughout the Solomon Islands as well as Fiji. A comparable plan in Samoa adhered to a various trajectory of fast-slow, with a quicker earlier fostering most likely helped by the federal government, that gave watercrafts as well as tank farming sources to obtain even more areas aboard. This fast-slow trajectory is not based on communications amongst adopters. The group claim that more understandings right into what components make a preservation effort spread effectively are required, as no effort they researched had actually the wanted buildings of being occupied rapidly, as well as being occupied by the bulk of adopters. A lot of efforts had one or the various other of these buildings, with over half being taken on by much less than 30 percent of possible adopters. Dr Mills included: “In our research we did not discover any type of efforts that were occupied reasonably rapidly as well as by a huge percentage of the possible swimming pool of adopters. We are looking for to comprehend even more regarding exactly how neighborhood context helps with or prevents spread, to assist efforts that profit both nature as well as individuals get to range.”	744	ENGLISH	1
The Roman government took on my different forms from its centuries-long existence, back to its legendary founding. For the sake of brevity, this article will skip over its city-state and kingdom periods to focus on its republican and imperial periods. From the time of Julius Caesar, 48 BC, Rome and the Roman Empire was ruled by an Emperor. The Emperor was wise if he listened to the advice of the Senate but some chose to be dictators and do what they wanted rather than follow the Senate’s advice. Before Julius Caesar took control in 48BC, the Roman Empire was not ruled by the Emperor but by two consuls who were elected by the citizens of Rome. Rome was then known as a Republic. Roman Government in the Republic Period People were divided into different classes. There were Patricians, Plebeians and Slaves. Patricians were wealthy citizens of Rome. They usually lived in grand houses and had slaves to do their work for them. Because they were citizens of Rome they were allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Plebeians were not wealthy but they were citizens of Rome. They were usually craftsmen or tradesmen and they worked for a living. Because they were citizens of Rome they were allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Slaves had no money, no rights, no freedom and were not citizens of Rome. Because they were not citizens of Rome they were not allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Patricians and Plebeians met in the Assembly and voted for consuls, tribunes and magistrates. Women and slaves were not allowed in the Assembly and could not vote. Roman Government: Consuls The citizens of Rome voted for two consuls. They were elected to serve for one year. It was the Consuls job to govern Rome. They had to both agree on all decisions. After they had served their year they were replaced. They were not allowed to be consuls again for ten years. The citizens of Rome voted for a number of magistrates. It was the magistrates job to keep law and order and also to manage Rome’s financial affairs. When magistrates retired they became senators and attended the Senate. The citizens of Rome voted for tribunes. It was the tribunes job to make sure that the people were treated fairly. Senators went to the Senate to discuss important government issues. Senators were retired magistrates and knew a lot about the government of Rome. It was the job of the senate to give advice to the two consuls. When Rome had an Emperor the senate still gave advice on governing Rome and the Empire. This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans. Cite This Article"The Romans – Roman Government" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 19, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-roman-government> More Citation Information.	<urn:uuid:a889acbb-1cb1-4a6c-bedf-3322f5799596>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-roman-government	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00072.warc.gz	en	0.991704	628	3.984375	4	[ -0.4961276054382324, 0.19910123944282532, 0.5584535598754883, -0.13693884015083313, -0.4417009651660919, -0.027981596067547798, 0.008514957502484322, 0.14638251066207886, 0.18850171566009521, 0.04354999586939812, 0.16653186082839966, -0.018939947709441185, -0.11826515942811966, 0.348056674...	1	The Roman government took on my different forms from its centuries-long existence, back to its legendary founding. For the sake of brevity, this article will skip over its city-state and kingdom periods to focus on its republican and imperial periods. From the time of Julius Caesar, 48 BC, Rome and the Roman Empire was ruled by an Emperor. The Emperor was wise if he listened to the advice of the Senate but some chose to be dictators and do what they wanted rather than follow the Senate’s advice. Before Julius Caesar took control in 48BC, the Roman Empire was not ruled by the Emperor but by two consuls who were elected by the citizens of Rome. Rome was then known as a Republic. Roman Government in the Republic Period People were divided into different classes. There were Patricians, Plebeians and Slaves. Patricians were wealthy citizens of Rome. They usually lived in grand houses and had slaves to do their work for them. Because they were citizens of Rome they were allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Plebeians were not wealthy but they were citizens of Rome. They were usually craftsmen or tradesmen and they worked for a living. Because they were citizens of Rome they were allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Slaves had no money, no rights, no freedom and were not citizens of Rome. Because they were not citizens of Rome they were not allowed to go to the Assembly to vote. Patricians and Plebeians met in the Assembly and voted for consuls, tribunes and magistrates. Women and slaves were not allowed in the Assembly and could not vote. Roman Government: Consuls The citizens of Rome voted for two consuls. They were elected to serve for one year. It was the Consuls job to govern Rome. They had to both agree on all decisions. After they had served their year they were replaced. They were not allowed to be consuls again for ten years. The citizens of Rome voted for a number of magistrates. It was the magistrates job to keep law and order and also to manage Rome’s financial affairs. When magistrates retired they became senators and attended the Senate. The citizens of Rome voted for tribunes. It was the tribunes job to make sure that the people were treated fairly. Senators went to the Senate to discuss important government issues. Senators were retired magistrates and knew a lot about the government of Rome. It was the job of the senate to give advice to the two consuls. When Rome had an Emperor the senate still gave advice on governing Rome and the Empire. This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans. Cite This Article"The Romans – Roman Government" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 19, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-roman-government> More Citation Information.	622	ENGLISH	1
Adusius (Gr. Αδούσιος) was, according to the account of Xenophon in his Cyropaedeia, sent by Cyrus the Great with an army into Caria, to put an end to the feuds which existed in the country. He afterwards assisted Hystaspes in subduing Phrygia, and was made satrap of Caria, as the inhabitants had requested. Xenophon of Athens was an ancient Greek philosopher, historian, soldier, mercenary, and student of Socrates. As a soldier, Xenophon became commander of the Ten Thousand at about 30, with noted military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge saying of him, “the centuries since have devised nothing to surpass the genius of this warrior.” He established the precedent for many logistical operations and was among the first to use flanking maneuvers, feints and attacks in depth. He was among the greatest commanders of antiquity. As a historian, Xenophon is known for recording the history of his time, the late-5th and early-4th centuries BC, in such works as the Hellenica, which covered the final seven years and the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War, thus representing a thematic continuation of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. Cyrus II of Persia, commonly known as Cyrus the Great, and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Western Asia and much of Central Asia. From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen. Under his successors, the empire eventually stretched at its maximum extent from parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. His regal titles in full were The Great King, King of Persia, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of the Four Corners of the World. The Nabonidus Chronicle notes the change in his title from simply "King of Anshan", a city, to "King of Persia". Assyriologist François Vallat wrote that "When Astyages marched against Cyrus, Cyrus is called ‘King of Anshan’, but when Cyrus crosses the Tigris on his way to Lydia, he is ‘King of Persia’. The coup therefore took place between these two events." Caria was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there. The inhabitants of Caria, known as Carians, had arrived there before the Ionian and Dorian Greeks. They were described by Herodotos as being of Minoan Greek descent, while the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians. The Carians did speak an Anatolian language, known as Carian, which does not necessarily reflect their geographic origin, as Anatolian once may have been widespread. Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges, which could be an earlier name for Carians or for a people who had preceded them in the region and continued to exist as part of their society in a reputedly second-class status. Agyrrhius was a native of Collytus in Attica, whom Andocides calls "the noble and the good" after being in prison many years for embezzlement of public money. He obtained around 395 BC the restoration of the Theorica, and also tripled the pay for attending the assembly, though he reduced the allowance previously given to the comic writers. By this expenditure of the public revenue Agyrrhius became so popular that he was appointed general (strategos) in 389. Amadocus I was a Thracian king of the Odrysae from 410 BC until the beginning of 4th century. He was a friend of the Athenian statesman Alcibiades, and is mentioned at the time of the Battle of Aegospotami in 405. During his reign he experienced attacks from the Triballians and lost many of his territories. Mithridates of Cius a Persian noble, succeeded his kinsman or father Ariobarzanes II in 337 BCE as ruler of the Greek town of Cius in Mysia. Diodorus assigns him a rule of thirty-five years, but it appears that his rule of Cius was interrupted during that period. What circumstances led to his expulsion or subjection are unknown; nothing is heard of him until his death in 302 BCE. However, it appears that he had submitted to the Macedonian Antigonus, who, to prevent him from joining the league of Cassander and his confederates, arranged for his assassination in Cius. Mithridates, son of Ariobarzanes prince of Cius, is mentioned by Xenophon as having betrayed his father, and the same circumstance is alluded to by Aristotle. Ariobarzanes, Ariobarzan or spelled as Ario Barzan or Aryo Barzan, perhaps signifying "exalting the Aryans", sometimes known as Ariobarzanes I of Cius, was a Persian Satrap of Phrygia and military commander, leader of an independence revolt, and the first known of the line of rulers of the Greek town of Cius from which were eventually to stem the kings of Pontus in the 3rd century BCE. Ariobarzanes was apparently a cadet member of the Achaemenid dynasty, possibly son of Pharnabazus II, and part of the Pharnacid dynasty which had settled to hold Dascylium of Hellespont in the 470s BCE. Cius is located near Dascylium, and Cius seemingly was a share of family holdings for the branch of Ariobarzanes. Myrmidon was an Athenian who commanded a force of ten thousand men, which formed part of the armament sent by Ptolemy I Soter, the son of Lagus, under his brother Menelaus, to effect the reduction of Cyprus, 315 BC. He was afterwards dispatched to the assistance of Asander in Caria, against the generals of Antigonus Monophthalmus. Eupolemus was one of the generals of Cassander; he was sent by him in 314 BC to invade Caria, but was surprised and taken prisoner by Ptolemy, a general who commanded that province for Antigonus. He must have been liberated again directly, as the next year we find him commanding the forces left by Cassander in Greece, when he moved northward against Antigonus. Asander was the son of Philotas and brother of Agathon. He was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great and satrap of Caria after Alexander's death. Agathon was the son of the Macedonian Philotas and the brother of Parmenion and Asander. He was given as a hostage to Antigonus in 313 BC, by his brother Asander, who was satrap of Caria, but was taken back again by Asander in a few days. Agathon had a son, named Asander, who is mentioned in a Greek inscription. Orontobates was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persia to succeed him. On the approach of Alexander the Great of Macedon Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. But at last, despairing of defending it, they set fire to the town, and under cover of the conflagration crossed over to Cos, whither they had previously removed their treasures. In addition to the island of Cos, Orontobates, retained control of the citadel at Salmacis, and the towns Myndus, Caunus, Thera and Callipolis together with Triopium. Idrieus, or Hidrieos was a ruler of Caria under the Achaemenid Empire, nominally a Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position his predecessors of the House of Hecatomnus created when they succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy. Autocles of Euonymeia, son of Strombichides, was one of the Athenian envoys empowered to negotiate peace with Sparta in 371 BC. Xenophon reports a somewhat injudicious speech of his, which was delivered on this occasion before the congress at Sparta, and which by no means confirms the character, ascribed to him in the same passage, of a skilful orator. It was perhaps this same Autocles who, in 362, was appointed to the command in Thrace, and was brought to trial for having caused, by his inactivity there, the triumph of Cotys over the rebel Miltocythes. Aristotle refers to a passage in a speech of Autocles against Mixidemides, as illustrating one of his rhetorical topoi. Themison was a tyrant of Eretria who in 366 BC assisted the exiles of Oropus in recovering possession of their native city. They succeeded in occupying it by surprise, but the Athenians having marched against them with their whole force, Themison was unable to cope with their power, and called in the Thebans to his assistance, who received possession of the city as a deposit, but afterwards refused to give it up. Adeimantus, son of Leucolophides, an Athenian, was one of the commanders with Alcibiades in the expedition against Andros in 407 BC. He was again appointed one of the Athenian generals after the Battle of Arginusae in 406, and continued in office until the Battle of Aegospotami in 404, where he was one of the commanders, and was taken prisoner. He was the only one of the Athenian prisoners who was not put to death, because he had opposed the decree for cutting off the right hands of the Lacedaemonians who might be taken in the battle. He was accused by many of treachery in this battle, and was afterwards impeached by Conon. Aristophanes speaks of Adeimantus in The Frogs, which was acted in the year of the battle, as one whose death was wished for; and he also calls him, apparently out of jest, the son of Leucolophus, that is, "White Crest". In Plato's Protagoras, Adeimantus is also spoken of as present on that occasion. Agasias was a Stymphalian of Arcadia who was frequently mentioned by Xenophon as a brave and active officer in the Army of the Ten Thousand. He was an acquaintance of both Hiero I of Syracuse and Xenophon. In his youth, he achieved an Olympic victory, and hired Pindar to compose a song of celebration. He was wounded while fighting against Asidates. Agathon is a given name. Timasitheus or Timesitheus was a citizen of Trapezus, and a proxenus of the Mossynoeci, between whom and the Cyrean Greeks he acted as interpreter, when the latter wished to make a treaty with the barbarians, and to obtain a passage through their country. Aribaeus, the king of the Cappadocians, was slain by the Hyrcanians, in the time of Cyrus the Great, according to Xenophon's Cyropaedia. Aridolis was a tyrant of Alabanda in Caria, who accompanied the Achaemenid king Xerxes I in his expedition against Greece, and was taken by the Greeks off Artemisium in 480 BCE, and sent to the isthmus of Corinth in chains. His successor may have been Amyntas II. "They took in one of these ships Aridolis, the despot of Alabanda in Caria, and in another the Paphian captain Penthylus son of Demonous; of twelve ships that he had brought from Paphos he had lost eleven in the storm off the Sepiad headland, and was in the one that remained when he was taken as he bore down on Artemisium. Having questioned these men and learnt what they desired to know of Xerxes' armament, the Greeks sent them away to the isthmus of Corinth in bonds." The public domain consists of all the creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable. Sir William Smith was an English lexicographer. He also made advances in the teaching of Greek and Latin in schools. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 pages. It is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. \|This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	<urn:uuid:8401cec2-454c-48d2-9b87-4d5525385251>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Adusius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00067.warc.gz	en	0.982707	2,867	3.640625	4	[ -0.10655463486909866, 0.4718054234981537, 0.7629515528678894, 0.003704930655658245, -0.5985556840896606, -0.6194921731948853, -0.12191183120012283, 0.6484408378601074, -0.21411435306072235, -0.11837814003229141, -0.16427910327911377, -0.47550055384635925, -0.36621376872062683, 0.6140655875...	1	Adusius (Gr. Αδούσιος) was, according to the account of Xenophon in his Cyropaedeia, sent by Cyrus the Great with an army into Caria, to put an end to the feuds which existed in the country. He afterwards assisted Hystaspes in subduing Phrygia, and was made satrap of Caria, as the inhabitants had requested. Xenophon of Athens was an ancient Greek philosopher, historian, soldier, mercenary, and student of Socrates. As a soldier, Xenophon became commander of the Ten Thousand at about 30, with noted military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge saying of him, “the centuries since have devised nothing to surpass the genius of this warrior.” He established the precedent for many logistical operations and was among the first to use flanking maneuvers, feints and attacks in depth. He was among the greatest commanders of antiquity. As a historian, Xenophon is known for recording the history of his time, the late-5th and early-4th centuries BC, in such works as the Hellenica, which covered the final seven years and the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War, thus representing a thematic continuation of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. Cyrus II of Persia, commonly known as Cyrus the Great, and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Western Asia and much of Central Asia. From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen. Under his successors, the empire eventually stretched at its maximum extent from parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. His regal titles in full were The Great King, King of Persia, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, and King of the Four Corners of the World. The Nabonidus Chronicle notes the change in his title from simply "King of Anshan", a city, to "King of Persia". Assyriologist François Vallat wrote that "When Astyages marched against Cyrus, Cyrus is called ‘King of Anshan’, but when Cyrus crosses the Tigris on his way to Lydia, he is ‘King of Persia’. The coup therefore took place between these two events." Caria was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there. The inhabitants of Caria, known as Carians, had arrived there before the Ionian and Dorian Greeks. They were described by Herodotos as being of Minoan Greek descent, while the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians. The Carians did speak an Anatolian language, known as Carian, which does not necessarily reflect their geographic origin, as Anatolian once may have been widespread. Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges, which could be an earlier name for Carians or for a people who had preceded them in the region and continued to exist as part of their society in a reputedly second-class status. Agyrrhius was a native of Collytus in Attica, whom Andocides calls "the noble and the good" after being in prison many years for embezzlement of public money. He obtained around 395 BC the restoration of the Theorica, and also tripled the pay for attending the assembly, though he reduced the allowance previously given to the comic writers. By this expenditure of the public revenue Agyrrhius became so popular that he was appointed general (strategos) in 389. Amadocus I was a Thracian king of the Odrysae from 410 BC until the beginning of 4th century. He was a friend of the Athenian statesman Alcibiades, and is mentioned at the time of the Battle of Aegospotami in 405. During his reign he experienced attacks from the Triballians and lost many of his territories. Mithridates of Cius a Persian noble, succeeded his kinsman or father Ariobarzanes II in 337 BCE as ruler of the Greek town of Cius in Mysia. Diodorus assigns him a rule of thirty-five years, but it appears that his rule of Cius was interrupted during that period. What circumstances led to his expulsion or subjection are unknown; nothing is heard of him until his death in 302 BCE. However, it appears that he had submitted to the Macedonian Antigonus, who, to prevent him from joining the league of Cassander and his confederates, arranged for his assassination in Cius. Mithridates, son of Ariobarzanes prince of Cius, is mentioned by Xenophon as having betrayed his father, and the same circumstance is alluded to by Aristotle. Ariobarzanes, Ariobarzan or spelled as Ario Barzan or Aryo Barzan, perhaps signifying "exalting the Aryans", sometimes known as Ariobarzanes I of Cius, was a Persian Satrap of Phrygia and military commander, leader of an independence revolt, and the first known of the line of rulers of the Greek town of Cius from which were eventually to stem the kings of Pontus in the 3rd century BCE. Ariobarzanes was apparently a cadet member of the Achaemenid dynasty, possibly son of Pharnabazus II, and part of the Pharnacid dynasty which had settled to hold Dascylium of Hellespont in the 470s BCE. Cius is located near Dascylium, and Cius seemingly was a share of family holdings for the branch of Ariobarzanes. Myrmidon was an Athenian who commanded a force of ten thousand men, which formed part of the armament sent by Ptolemy I Soter, the son of Lagus, under his brother Menelaus, to effect the reduction of Cyprus, 315 BC. He was afterwards dispatched to the assistance of Asander in Caria, against the generals of Antigonus Monophthalmus. Eupolemus was one of the generals of Cassander; he was sent by him in 314 BC to invade Caria, but was surprised and taken prisoner by Ptolemy, a general who commanded that province for Antigonus. He must have been liberated again directly, as the next year we find him commanding the forces left by Cassander in Greece, when he moved northward against Antigonus. Asander was the son of Philotas and brother of Agathon. He was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great and satrap of Caria after Alexander's death. Agathon was the son of the Macedonian Philotas and the brother of Parmenion and Asander. He was given as a hostage to Antigonus in 313 BC, by his brother Asander, who was satrap of Caria, but was taken back again by Asander in a few days. Agathon had a son, named Asander, who is mentioned in a Greek inscription. Orontobates was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping satrap of Caria, and was sent by the king of Persia to succeed him. On the approach of Alexander the Great of Macedon Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. But at last, despairing of defending it, they set fire to the town, and under cover of the conflagration crossed over to Cos, whither they had previously removed their treasures. In addition to the island of Cos, Orontobates, retained control of the citadel at Salmacis, and the towns Myndus, Caunus, Thera and Callipolis together with Triopium. Idrieus, or Hidrieos was a ruler of Caria under the Achaemenid Empire, nominally a Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue of the powerful position his predecessors of the House of Hecatomnus created when they succeeded the assassinated Persian Satrap Tissaphernes in the Carian satrapy. Autocles of Euonymeia, son of Strombichides, was one of the Athenian envoys empowered to negotiate peace with Sparta in 371 BC. Xenophon reports a somewhat injudicious speech of his, which was delivered on this occasion before the congress at Sparta, and which by no means confirms the character, ascribed to him in the same passage, of a skilful orator. It was perhaps this same Autocles who, in 362, was appointed to the command in Thrace, and was brought to trial for having caused, by his inactivity there, the triumph of Cotys over the rebel Miltocythes. Aristotle refers to a passage in a speech of Autocles against Mixidemides, as illustrating one of his rhetorical topoi. Themison was a tyrant of Eretria who in 366 BC assisted the exiles of Oropus in recovering possession of their native city. They succeeded in occupying it by surprise, but the Athenians having marched against them with their whole force, Themison was unable to cope with their power, and called in the Thebans to his assistance, who received possession of the city as a deposit, but afterwards refused to give it up. Adeimantus, son of Leucolophides, an Athenian, was one of the commanders with Alcibiades in the expedition against Andros in 407 BC. He was again appointed one of the Athenian generals after the Battle of Arginusae in 406, and continued in office until the Battle of Aegospotami in 404, where he was one of the commanders, and was taken prisoner. He was the only one of the Athenian prisoners who was not put to death, because he had opposed the decree for cutting off the right hands of the Lacedaemonians who might be taken in the battle. He was accused by many of treachery in this battle, and was afterwards impeached by Conon. Aristophanes speaks of Adeimantus in The Frogs, which was acted in the year of the battle, as one whose death was wished for; and he also calls him, apparently out of jest, the son of Leucolophus, that is, "White Crest". In Plato's Protagoras, Adeimantus is also spoken of as present on that occasion. Agasias was a Stymphalian of Arcadia who was frequently mentioned by Xenophon as a brave and active officer in the Army of the Ten Thousand. He was an acquaintance of both Hiero I of Syracuse and Xenophon. In his youth, he achieved an Olympic victory, and hired Pindar to compose a song of celebration. He was wounded while fighting against Asidates. Agathon is a given name. Timasitheus or Timesitheus was a citizen of Trapezus, and a proxenus of the Mossynoeci, between whom and the Cyrean Greeks he acted as interpreter, when the latter wished to make a treaty with the barbarians, and to obtain a passage through their country. Aribaeus, the king of the Cappadocians, was slain by the Hyrcanians, in the time of Cyrus the Great, according to Xenophon's Cyropaedia. Aridolis was a tyrant of Alabanda in Caria, who accompanied the Achaemenid king Xerxes I in his expedition against Greece, and was taken by the Greeks off Artemisium in 480 BCE, and sent to the isthmus of Corinth in chains. His successor may have been Amyntas II. "They took in one of these ships Aridolis, the despot of Alabanda in Caria, and in another the Paphian captain Penthylus son of Demonous; of twelve ships that he had brought from Paphos he had lost eleven in the storm off the Sepiad headland, and was in the one that remained when he was taken as he bore down on Artemisium. Having questioned these men and learnt what they desired to know of Xerxes' armament, the Greeks sent them away to the isthmus of Corinth in bonds." The public domain consists of all the creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired, been forfeited, expressly waived, or may be inapplicable. Sir William Smith was an English lexicographer. He also made advances in the teaching of Greek and Latin in schools. The Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 pages. It is a classic work of 19th-century lexicography. The work is a companion to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. \|This Achaemenid biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	2,892	ENGLISH	1
When we think of jeans, we think of Hollywood and World War I uniforms. This particular piece of clothing is a fashion staple — mostly everyone at some point in their lives has had a pair. What makes them so iconic? It’s not the design, but the material they are made from. Jeans are made from denim or dungaree. In fact, some often called jeans dungarees. It may surprise you that jeans were originally made for the working class. The dungaree material came from a dockside village, Dongri, near Mumbai, India. It is a think 2/2 twill-weave cotton that is sturdy enough to hold up against a day’s labor. The Hindi name for the cloth was dungri, which morphed to dungaree by the English, who shipped the cloth to other countries starting in the 1600s. The term jean comes from Genoa, Italy, where it (a blend of wool and cotton) was manufactured. Many often confuse denim with dungaree, but they are different. Denim comes from serge de Nimes in Nimes, France. The term denim is derived from “de-Nimes.” This town had a thriving textile industry due to the abundance of yarn, silk, and wool. Cevennes Shepards made sturdy clothing from weaving threads of indigo and yarn with white silk and wool per Culture Trip. However, in the late 1700s, manufacturers of denim soon switched to cotton instead of wool and silk due to rising costs. Although denim and dungaree are sturdy materials, their difference comes down to color. Denim is dyed indigo after the weaving process, whereas dungaree is made with pre-dyed (indigo) thread. So, how do we get the name “jeans”? In Nimes, workers tried to duplicate the famous jean material from Genoa but ended up developing denim. Denim proved to be a material that was just as durable was dungaree. The material caught the eye of Jacob Davis. During the Gold Rush in California, Levi Strauss opened up a branch of his family’s dry good store in San Francisco in 1853. Jacob Davis was a tailor who wanted to make clothing for the working class. He spotted the denim in Strauss’s store and made pants out of them. To make the pants stronger, he placed copper rivets in the places where the pants would rip. Soon, Strauss and Davis partnered to what would become Levi Strauss & Co. They received a patent for “Improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings” in 1873 and the pants became “blue jeans”. Nearly 150 years later, many styles have emerged, such as skinny, ripped, and mom jeans, as well as an array of colors from white to orange. Yet, the material has remained the same. What started out as pants for the working class have become a fashion staple for everyone.	<urn:uuid:76e1f214-7297-4881-bcdb-4162d2d6aa40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://lilawalter.com/blue-jeans-a-fashion-staple/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00538.warc.gz	en	0.980129	621	3.328125	3	[ -0.40581214427948, 0.48536980152130127, 0.013660065829753876, -0.09624367952346802, 0.12108287215232849, 0.3870108425617218, 0.254927396774292, 0.3151571750640869, -0.029533084481954575, -0.3948289155960083, 0.19425378739833832, 0.14865727722644806, -0.024612784385681152, 0.427158832550048...	15	When we think of jeans, we think of Hollywood and World War I uniforms. This particular piece of clothing is a fashion staple — mostly everyone at some point in their lives has had a pair. What makes them so iconic? It’s not the design, but the material they are made from. Jeans are made from denim or dungaree. In fact, some often called jeans dungarees. It may surprise you that jeans were originally made for the working class. The dungaree material came from a dockside village, Dongri, near Mumbai, India. It is a think 2/2 twill-weave cotton that is sturdy enough to hold up against a day’s labor. The Hindi name for the cloth was dungri, which morphed to dungaree by the English, who shipped the cloth to other countries starting in the 1600s. The term jean comes from Genoa, Italy, where it (a blend of wool and cotton) was manufactured. Many often confuse denim with dungaree, but they are different. Denim comes from serge de Nimes in Nimes, France. The term denim is derived from “de-Nimes.” This town had a thriving textile industry due to the abundance of yarn, silk, and wool. Cevennes Shepards made sturdy clothing from weaving threads of indigo and yarn with white silk and wool per Culture Trip. However, in the late 1700s, manufacturers of denim soon switched to cotton instead of wool and silk due to rising costs. Although denim and dungaree are sturdy materials, their difference comes down to color. Denim is dyed indigo after the weaving process, whereas dungaree is made with pre-dyed (indigo) thread. So, how do we get the name “jeans”? In Nimes, workers tried to duplicate the famous jean material from Genoa but ended up developing denim. Denim proved to be a material that was just as durable was dungaree. The material caught the eye of Jacob Davis. During the Gold Rush in California, Levi Strauss opened up a branch of his family’s dry good store in San Francisco in 1853. Jacob Davis was a tailor who wanted to make clothing for the working class. He spotted the denim in Strauss’s store and made pants out of them. To make the pants stronger, he placed copper rivets in the places where the pants would rip. Soon, Strauss and Davis partnered to what would become Levi Strauss & Co. They received a patent for “Improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings” in 1873 and the pants became “blue jeans”. Nearly 150 years later, many styles have emerged, such as skinny, ripped, and mom jeans, as well as an array of colors from white to orange. Yet, the material has remained the same. What started out as pants for the working class have become a fashion staple for everyone.	605	ENGLISH	1
STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY Our class is going on a field trip next month. Our teacher gave us three options. Our class took a vote. The majority of the class chose to go to the city's largest aquarium. We went to the zoo last year, so we decided to go to the aquarium this year. It's a huge place with so many water species. I can't wait! It's going to be so much fun! I love sea life, so the aquarium is very fun for me. I have been there several times, but it is never boring. My father is a marine biologist, so I know a lot about sea mammals. My favorite mammals are the dolphins and sea lions. I like seals and walruses too. You can see them swim at the aquarium. Sometimes, they swim in the same pool. You have to watch carefully because they come by so quickly. One of my favorite things to do at the aquarium is looking at the starfish. The staff will let you touch them too. You have to be very careful and gentle. It is so cool. My teacher knows that my dad is a marine biologist, so she asked if he could give a short presentation to the class. He is very excited to talk about marine life. It's his passion. He is going to talk to my class next week, so he is going to prepare his slideshow this weekend. We are all so excited about this field trip. Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson. If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session.	<urn:uuid:a67f946c-0d49-4e3a-b820-a4455ccb69e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://skesl.com/esl/lesson/field-trip-to-aquarium	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00423.warc.gz	en	0.981598	358	3.4375	3	[ -0.10591989010572433, -0.14940308034420013, 0.3447604775428772, -0.3879171311855316, -0.4838644862174988, 0.024156896397471428, 0.37401607632637024, 0.28833240270614624, -0.0903654396533966, -0.1729792207479477, -0.05136577785015106, -0.35255977511405945, -0.10611323267221451, 0.3049574494...	3	STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY Our class is going on a field trip next month. Our teacher gave us three options. Our class took a vote. The majority of the class chose to go to the city's largest aquarium. We went to the zoo last year, so we decided to go to the aquarium this year. It's a huge place with so many water species. I can't wait! It's going to be so much fun! I love sea life, so the aquarium is very fun for me. I have been there several times, but it is never boring. My father is a marine biologist, so I know a lot about sea mammals. My favorite mammals are the dolphins and sea lions. I like seals and walruses too. You can see them swim at the aquarium. Sometimes, they swim in the same pool. You have to watch carefully because they come by so quickly. One of my favorite things to do at the aquarium is looking at the starfish. The staff will let you touch them too. You have to be very careful and gentle. It is so cool. My teacher knows that my dad is a marine biologist, so she asked if he could give a short presentation to the class. He is very excited to talk about marine life. It's his passion. He is going to talk to my class next week, so he is going to prepare his slideshow this weekend. We are all so excited about this field trip. Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson. If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session.	356	ENGLISH	1
Henry III of England ruled from 1216 to 1272 CE. The son of the unpopular King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE), Henry was immediately faced with the ongoing Barons' War which had been fuelled by discontent over John’s rule and his failure to honour the Magna Carta charter of liberties. Henry and his regent Sir William Marshal defeated the rebel barons in battle at Lincoln in 1217 CE, but his reign was beset thereafter with problems. Traditionally viewed as a weak and often ineffectual king, Henry, like his father before him, wasted money on military campaigns without any results, and these necessitated such high taxes that the barons rebelled for a second time. The rebel leader Simon de Montfort (l. c. 1208-1265 CE) captured Henry and made himself the most powerful man in the kingdom in 1264 CE. Fortunately for Henry, his son Edward raised an army and defeated de Montfort at Evesham in 1265 CE. Henry was restored but spent much of his later years away from politics and improving the country’s architectural monuments such as Westminster Abbey and Lincoln Cathedral. Following Henry’s death from natural causes in 1272 CE, Prince Edward, who had in some respects been his father’s regent, became Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE). Henry was born on 1 October 1207 CE at Winchester Palace in Hampshire, the son of King John of England and Queen Isabella of Angouleme (c. 1188-1246 CE). The young prince would be thrust into the limelight of state before any preparation was possible. King John died of fever on 18 October 1216 CE when Henry was still only nine years old. John had died in the middle of the First Barons' War (1215-1217 CE) which was caused by the king not honouring the promises set out in the Magna Carta of June 1215 CE. This charter of liberties established that even the sovereign was subject to the rule of law and the barons should be consulted on matters affecting them. So upset were some of these aristocrats with their present king, they supported Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII of France, r. 1223-1226 CE) as a replacement. Louis had invaded southern England and captured many of its prime castles, including the Tower of London. In May 1216 CE, Louis had even proclaimed himself king based on the fact he was married to Blanche of Castile, granddaughter of Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189 CE). Amongst this turmoil, Henry III succeeded his father and was crowned king on 28 October 1216 CE in Gloucester Cathedral. The rush-job ceremony was further spoiled by the absence of the Archbishop of Canterbury (away in Rome) and the lack of any royal regalia, King John having lost the Crown Jewels in quicksand when he was fleeing from the rebel barons. In the absence of a crown with any pedigree, a gold torque necklace of Henry’s mother Queen Isabella was used instead. Henry’s first task, then, was to bring an end to the civil war that blighted his kingdom. Henry was only nine years old, but he did have help from such figures as Peter des Roches and Hubert de Burgh (d. 1243 CE), and one truly great ally: Sir William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke (c. 1146-1219 CE), often considered the greatest medieval knight of all. Marshal had served three kings already and he was now made the Protector of the Kingdom - in effect, regent of England for the young Henry. This unlikely pairing of a child-king and a 70-year old knight would prove to be a winning one. Barons' War & William Marshal Crucially, the king held on to Windsor Castle and Dover Castle so that Henry could face the remaining rebel barons and Prince Louis at Lincoln on 20 May 1217 CE. Marshal led the English army in person, and just before the battle he gave a rousing speech to his frontline troops, declaring that the enemy had so positioned their forces that he would win the day because he could attack with all his army at a single section of the opposition; and so it turned out. A French reinforcement fleet of 80 ships was sunk in the Channel on 24 August by an English fleet of 40 ships commanded by Hubert de Burgh. The English fleet feigned an attack but then manoeuvred to come at the French downwind. Crossbow fire and pots of quicklime were launched at the enemy and in the confusion, only 15 French ships escaped. After this double defeat, Louis renounced his claim to the English throne in a treaty signed in September 1217 CE. The victory permitted Henry to enjoy a proper, full-pomp-and-ceremony coronation at Westminster Abbey on 17 May 1220 CE. William Marshal, meanwhile, having now served four kings in his illustrious life, died on 14 May 1219 CE. The new regent was Hubert de Burgh, who had served as Justiciar as well as defeating the French navy, but he would be needed for only a few more years. Reign & Criticisms Henry took on direct rule in January 1227 CE, aged 20. The historian Dan Jones gives the following description of the king: The man that emerged from the long road out of childhood was a peculiar specimen. Henry was about 5’ 6” in height. He was said to have a drooping eyelid, which would have given his face a crooked solemnity to match his somewhat ponderous character. He was noticeably pious, even in an age where the rising fashion among kings was for asceticism and ostentatious religiosity. (236) What the king lacked in good looks he certainly made up for in longevity. However, the king quickly gained a reputation for being indecisive and easily swayed. Even worse, the barons never took to him, perceiving him as just as arrogant of his rights and disrespectful of theirs as King John had been. Another criticism was that the king was rather too generous with land grants to foreigners. This was worsened after his marriage to Eleanor of Provence (1223-1291 CE) on 20 January 1236 CE, and an influx of French in-laws took key positions at court, even becoming close advisors to the king and fuelling his incendiary idea that the monarch had absolute authority and need not listen to his barons. There were some good points to Henry, at least from posterity’s view. The king was a great patron of the arts and sponsored many important building projects such as the new St. Albans Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, Wells Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral. There was a major upgrade of Westminster Palace, making the traditional royal residence altogether more comfortable with new windows, fireplaces, wall paintings, and plumbing. Westminster Abbey was renovated in the Gothic style, and a magnificent new shrine was built therein to the former king, Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-1066 CE). The Abbey was also given by the king a crystal phial thought to contain the blood of Jesus Christ. Yet another building to receive the king’s attention was the Tower of London. Henry probably started the zoo there which would remain until 1835 CE. The first animals were usually diplomatic gifts such as leopards, an elephant, and even a polar bear. Finally, the king was very keen on education and, between 1249 and 1264 CE, he created or funded the first three colleges at Oxford University (Merton, Balliol, and University). Architectural and educational achievements were hardly the way to win over his subjects, though, and, in any case, these were mostly done in his final decade of rule. Certainly, they did nothing to stay the negative reaction to the king’s heavy taxation policies, a string of military defeats in Wales (1228, 1231, and 1232 CE) which led to Henry conferring on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223-1282 CE) the title of Prince of Wales, and a bungled attempt to collude with Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243-1254 CE) and make Henry’s second son, Prince Edmund, the king of Sicily. Then there were ineffectual campaigns across the Channel in 1228, 1230 CE (led by the king in person), and 1242 CE, resulting in the ultimate loss of territories in France, signed away in the Treaty of Paris in 1259 CE which left nothing to the English crown except Gascony. Finally, the king’s arrangement of the marriage of his sister Isabella to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220-1250 CE) - an act backed by the ruling council - necessitated a huge cash dowry that stretched the taxation system to its very limits. In short, Henry, on an annual income that was half that of his French counterpart Louis IX of France (r. 1226-1270 CE), was living beyond his means. Simon de Montfort & Civil War All of these disappointments exasperated the barons to such an extent that some supported the king’s brother-in-law Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester and made him, in effect, co-ruler with Henry. The Provisions of Oxford (June 1258 CE) set out that taxes should go to the Treasury and not be available for the king’s whims, and that a ruling council of 15 barons should advise the king. The council was also to control royal castles, supervise ministerial appointments (which Henry was notoriously lax at), and control local administration. Another body, which some historians credit de Montfort as calling a parlement, meaning a body for discussion of policy, was, when knights of the counties and burgesses of certain boroughs were invited to participate, the beginnings of the English Parliament. The parlement was also designed to ensure the council was performing its duty. In 1261 CE Henry called on the Pope to restore his full control of the kingdom, and he repudiated the Provisions of Oxford in 1262 CE, a decision backed by Louis IX of France. Consequently, civil war broke out. On 14 May 1264 CE de Montfort captured Henry and his son Prince Edward at the Battle of Lewes. For the next year, Henry has ignominiously shifted about as part of de Montfort’s travelling entourage. Although de Montfort claimed himself to be, in effect, king (he called himself 'Steward') and he forced Henry to sign laws and decrees in his favour, Edward managed to escape his captors in May 1265 CE. The prince then formed an army of loyal supporters of his father and those barons already disgruntled with the self-seeking de Montfort. On 4 August 1265 CE, at the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire, Edward was victorious thanks to his having a larger army than his opponent, de Montfort was killed and his body terribly mutilated. Edward reinstated his father as king but took over some aspects of the daily running of the kingdom himself. It seemed Henry was destined to share his power at both ends of his reign. Death & Successor Henry died, probably of a stroke, on 16 November 1272 CE aged 65; he had reigned for an impressive 56 years, a record that would not be beaten until George III of England (r. 1760-1820 CE). He was buried in Westminster Abbey and succeeded by his son who had already been ruling in his name and who now became Edward I of England. Edward was crowned on 19 August 1274 CE at Westminster Abbey and he would reign until 1307 CE. The new king would subdue Wales, have a good go at conquering Scotland, embark on what is sometimes called the Ninth Crusade (1271-2 CE), and build many fine castles which still survive today, particularly in North Wales.	<urn:uuid:b6a6511a-9441-47b3-a9ba-ad70c4e4a2d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient.eu/Henry_III_of_England/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00559.warc.gz	en	0.985515	2,493	3.875	4	[ -0.33344823122024536, 0.4597744941711426, 0.34854695200920105, -0.12045802175998688, -0.22206497192382812, -0.16153967380523682, 0.2767987549304962, -0.07813844084739685, -0.08660495281219482, 0.06297855079174042, -0.1910497546195984, -0.4040403366088867, 0.17825588583946228, 0.02851321175...	6	Henry III of England ruled from 1216 to 1272 CE. The son of the unpopular King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE), Henry was immediately faced with the ongoing Barons' War which had been fuelled by discontent over John’s rule and his failure to honour the Magna Carta charter of liberties. Henry and his regent Sir William Marshal defeated the rebel barons in battle at Lincoln in 1217 CE, but his reign was beset thereafter with problems. Traditionally viewed as a weak and often ineffectual king, Henry, like his father before him, wasted money on military campaigns without any results, and these necessitated such high taxes that the barons rebelled for a second time. The rebel leader Simon de Montfort (l. c. 1208-1265 CE) captured Henry and made himself the most powerful man in the kingdom in 1264 CE. Fortunately for Henry, his son Edward raised an army and defeated de Montfort at Evesham in 1265 CE. Henry was restored but spent much of his later years away from politics and improving the country’s architectural monuments such as Westminster Abbey and Lincoln Cathedral. Following Henry’s death from natural causes in 1272 CE, Prince Edward, who had in some respects been his father’s regent, became Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307 CE). Henry was born on 1 October 1207 CE at Winchester Palace in Hampshire, the son of King John of England and Queen Isabella of Angouleme (c. 1188-1246 CE). The young prince would be thrust into the limelight of state before any preparation was possible. King John died of fever on 18 October 1216 CE when Henry was still only nine years old. John had died in the middle of the First Barons' War (1215-1217 CE) which was caused by the king not honouring the promises set out in the Magna Carta of June 1215 CE. This charter of liberties established that even the sovereign was subject to the rule of law and the barons should be consulted on matters affecting them. So upset were some of these aristocrats with their present king, they supported Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII of France, r. 1223-1226 CE) as a replacement. Louis had invaded southern England and captured many of its prime castles, including the Tower of London. In May 1216 CE, Louis had even proclaimed himself king based on the fact he was married to Blanche of Castile, granddaughter of Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189 CE). Amongst this turmoil, Henry III succeeded his father and was crowned king on 28 October 1216 CE in Gloucester Cathedral. The rush-job ceremony was further spoiled by the absence of the Archbishop of Canterbury (away in Rome) and the lack of any royal regalia, King John having lost the Crown Jewels in quicksand when he was fleeing from the rebel barons. In the absence of a crown with any pedigree, a gold torque necklace of Henry’s mother Queen Isabella was used instead. Henry’s first task, then, was to bring an end to the civil war that blighted his kingdom. Henry was only nine years old, but he did have help from such figures as Peter des Roches and Hubert de Burgh (d. 1243 CE), and one truly great ally: Sir William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke (c. 1146-1219 CE), often considered the greatest medieval knight of all. Marshal had served three kings already and he was now made the Protector of the Kingdom - in effect, regent of England for the young Henry. This unlikely pairing of a child-king and a 70-year old knight would prove to be a winning one. Barons' War & William Marshal Crucially, the king held on to Windsor Castle and Dover Castle so that Henry could face the remaining rebel barons and Prince Louis at Lincoln on 20 May 1217 CE. Marshal led the English army in person, and just before the battle he gave a rousing speech to his frontline troops, declaring that the enemy had so positioned their forces that he would win the day because he could attack with all his army at a single section of the opposition; and so it turned out. A French reinforcement fleet of 80 ships was sunk in the Channel on 24 August by an English fleet of 40 ships commanded by Hubert de Burgh. The English fleet feigned an attack but then manoeuvred to come at the French downwind. Crossbow fire and pots of quicklime were launched at the enemy and in the confusion, only 15 French ships escaped. After this double defeat, Louis renounced his claim to the English throne in a treaty signed in September 1217 CE. The victory permitted Henry to enjoy a proper, full-pomp-and-ceremony coronation at Westminster Abbey on 17 May 1220 CE. William Marshal, meanwhile, having now served four kings in his illustrious life, died on 14 May 1219 CE. The new regent was Hubert de Burgh, who had served as Justiciar as well as defeating the French navy, but he would be needed for only a few more years. Reign & Criticisms Henry took on direct rule in January 1227 CE, aged 20. The historian Dan Jones gives the following description of the king: The man that emerged from the long road out of childhood was a peculiar specimen. Henry was about 5’ 6” in height. He was said to have a drooping eyelid, which would have given his face a crooked solemnity to match his somewhat ponderous character. He was noticeably pious, even in an age where the rising fashion among kings was for asceticism and ostentatious religiosity. (236) What the king lacked in good looks he certainly made up for in longevity. However, the king quickly gained a reputation for being indecisive and easily swayed. Even worse, the barons never took to him, perceiving him as just as arrogant of his rights and disrespectful of theirs as King John had been. Another criticism was that the king was rather too generous with land grants to foreigners. This was worsened after his marriage to Eleanor of Provence (1223-1291 CE) on 20 January 1236 CE, and an influx of French in-laws took key positions at court, even becoming close advisors to the king and fuelling his incendiary idea that the monarch had absolute authority and need not listen to his barons. There were some good points to Henry, at least from posterity’s view. The king was a great patron of the arts and sponsored many important building projects such as the new St. Albans Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, Wells Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral. There was a major upgrade of Westminster Palace, making the traditional royal residence altogether more comfortable with new windows, fireplaces, wall paintings, and plumbing. Westminster Abbey was renovated in the Gothic style, and a magnificent new shrine was built therein to the former king, Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-1066 CE). The Abbey was also given by the king a crystal phial thought to contain the blood of Jesus Christ. Yet another building to receive the king’s attention was the Tower of London. Henry probably started the zoo there which would remain until 1835 CE. The first animals were usually diplomatic gifts such as leopards, an elephant, and even a polar bear. Finally, the king was very keen on education and, between 1249 and 1264 CE, he created or funded the first three colleges at Oxford University (Merton, Balliol, and University). Architectural and educational achievements were hardly the way to win over his subjects, though, and, in any case, these were mostly done in his final decade of rule. Certainly, they did nothing to stay the negative reaction to the king’s heavy taxation policies, a string of military defeats in Wales (1228, 1231, and 1232 CE) which led to Henry conferring on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223-1282 CE) the title of Prince of Wales, and a bungled attempt to collude with Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243-1254 CE) and make Henry’s second son, Prince Edmund, the king of Sicily. Then there were ineffectual campaigns across the Channel in 1228, 1230 CE (led by the king in person), and 1242 CE, resulting in the ultimate loss of territories in France, signed away in the Treaty of Paris in 1259 CE which left nothing to the English crown except Gascony. Finally, the king’s arrangement of the marriage of his sister Isabella to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220-1250 CE) - an act backed by the ruling council - necessitated a huge cash dowry that stretched the taxation system to its very limits. In short, Henry, on an annual income that was half that of his French counterpart Louis IX of France (r. 1226-1270 CE), was living beyond his means. Simon de Montfort & Civil War All of these disappointments exasperated the barons to such an extent that some supported the king’s brother-in-law Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester and made him, in effect, co-ruler with Henry. The Provisions of Oxford (June 1258 CE) set out that taxes should go to the Treasury and not be available for the king’s whims, and that a ruling council of 15 barons should advise the king. The council was also to control royal castles, supervise ministerial appointments (which Henry was notoriously lax at), and control local administration. Another body, which some historians credit de Montfort as calling a parlement, meaning a body for discussion of policy, was, when knights of the counties and burgesses of certain boroughs were invited to participate, the beginnings of the English Parliament. The parlement was also designed to ensure the council was performing its duty. In 1261 CE Henry called on the Pope to restore his full control of the kingdom, and he repudiated the Provisions of Oxford in 1262 CE, a decision backed by Louis IX of France. Consequently, civil war broke out. On 14 May 1264 CE de Montfort captured Henry and his son Prince Edward at the Battle of Lewes. For the next year, Henry has ignominiously shifted about as part of de Montfort’s travelling entourage. Although de Montfort claimed himself to be, in effect, king (he called himself 'Steward') and he forced Henry to sign laws and decrees in his favour, Edward managed to escape his captors in May 1265 CE. The prince then formed an army of loyal supporters of his father and those barons already disgruntled with the self-seeking de Montfort. On 4 August 1265 CE, at the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire, Edward was victorious thanks to his having a larger army than his opponent, de Montfort was killed and his body terribly mutilated. Edward reinstated his father as king but took over some aspects of the daily running of the kingdom himself. It seemed Henry was destined to share his power at both ends of his reign. Death & Successor Henry died, probably of a stroke, on 16 November 1272 CE aged 65; he had reigned for an impressive 56 years, a record that would not be beaten until George III of England (r. 1760-1820 CE). He was buried in Westminster Abbey and succeeded by his son who had already been ruling in his name and who now became Edward I of England. Edward was crowned on 19 August 1274 CE at Westminster Abbey and he would reign until 1307 CE. The new king would subdue Wales, have a good go at conquering Scotland, embark on what is sometimes called the Ninth Crusade (1271-2 CE), and build many fine castles which still survive today, particularly in North Wales.	2,686	ENGLISH	1
The participants taking part in the games had to follow a rigorous routine to keep their bodies fit and well maintained. Body care was a daily routine for all young men who trained for the Olympics. Those who joined high school had to follow a hygiene ritual wherein they would have to rub their bodies with olive oil along with a layer of sand and dust. After they would finish with their training for the day, they would wash it off with water. Rubbing with olive oil and sand offered them protection against sun. Before each Olympic competitive event, this ritual would have to be completed. Body health and hygiene were given utmost priority as the games were considered sacred and also because athletes appeared nude in front of the public. So they had to look well maintained. 7. The Ancient Olympics were not an embodiment of honesty and incorruptibility Olympics were not different than modern games in the sense that cheating was a common practice even in ancient Greece. Quite unlike the stories that force readers to believe that Olympics were the embodiment of incorruptibility, the fact is they weren’t. The players or participants in these games would often engage in unscrupulous activities to gain victory. These would include bribing to the judges, blackmailing and threatening. 8. During the Olympic Games, wars or capital punishments were banned There was a truce known as ‘Ekecheiria’ that banned any kind of war, battle or capital punishment during the Olympic Games. The whole of Greece would come under this truce wherein all athletes and people coming for the games would be assured of their safety and security. The truce was applicable even to the spectators coming to Olympia for the games. However, a few stories about breach of conduct has surfaced wherein the Spartan army breached the truce and was punished with a hefty fine. 9. Ancient games were out of reach for women and slaves Olympics were very strict about women and slaves not competing in the sporting events. In fact they were both forbidden as ancient Greeks laid a lot of importance to family and social customs and the society was primarily a male dominated one. Slaves, women and non Greeks were considered second class citizens and had restrictions in many activities such as participation in prestigious games. However, in 6th century BC women’s games were started and came to be known as Hera’s Games. A winner in the Olympics was offered the same treatment as would be given to a god. He shared the same honor as that of gods. In ancient Greece, the winners of Olympic Games were honored with olive wreathes and red tunics. Any man who would return as a winner of the games would be gifted free meals and would have poems written in his honor from poets who would dedicate themselves singing praises upon him. The ancient Greeks believed that the winner was decided by the Goddess Nike and that person deserved all the honor. A man once declared a champion would remain a legend for the rest of his life.	<urn:uuid:af362143-9a34-43bf-9de9-622526090398>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyly.com/greek-history/ancient-olympics-facts/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00153.warc.gz	en	0.994068	597	3.640625	4	[ -0.10776136815547943, 0.5757385492324829, 0.34130430221557617, -0.27710992097854614, -0.304593026638031, -0.06527414917945862, 0.26218241453170776, 0.0068979887291789055, 0.038980528712272644, 0.3014707565307617, -0.4208068549633026, -0.6668953895568848, 0.05450592190027237, 0.289466738700...	2	The participants taking part in the games had to follow a rigorous routine to keep their bodies fit and well maintained. Body care was a daily routine for all young men who trained for the Olympics. Those who joined high school had to follow a hygiene ritual wherein they would have to rub their bodies with olive oil along with a layer of sand and dust. After they would finish with their training for the day, they would wash it off with water. Rubbing with olive oil and sand offered them protection against sun. Before each Olympic competitive event, this ritual would have to be completed. Body health and hygiene were given utmost priority as the games were considered sacred and also because athletes appeared nude in front of the public. So they had to look well maintained. 7. The Ancient Olympics were not an embodiment of honesty and incorruptibility Olympics were not different than modern games in the sense that cheating was a common practice even in ancient Greece. Quite unlike the stories that force readers to believe that Olympics were the embodiment of incorruptibility, the fact is they weren’t. The players or participants in these games would often engage in unscrupulous activities to gain victory. These would include bribing to the judges, blackmailing and threatening. 8. During the Olympic Games, wars or capital punishments were banned There was a truce known as ‘Ekecheiria’ that banned any kind of war, battle or capital punishment during the Olympic Games. The whole of Greece would come under this truce wherein all athletes and people coming for the games would be assured of their safety and security. The truce was applicable even to the spectators coming to Olympia for the games. However, a few stories about breach of conduct has surfaced wherein the Spartan army breached the truce and was punished with a hefty fine. 9. Ancient games were out of reach for women and slaves Olympics were very strict about women and slaves not competing in the sporting events. In fact they were both forbidden as ancient Greeks laid a lot of importance to family and social customs and the society was primarily a male dominated one. Slaves, women and non Greeks were considered second class citizens and had restrictions in many activities such as participation in prestigious games. However, in 6th century BC women’s games were started and came to be known as Hera’s Games. A winner in the Olympics was offered the same treatment as would be given to a god. He shared the same honor as that of gods. In ancient Greece, the winners of Olympic Games were honored with olive wreathes and red tunics. Any man who would return as a winner of the games would be gifted free meals and would have poems written in his honor from poets who would dedicate themselves singing praises upon him. The ancient Greeks believed that the winner was decided by the Goddess Nike and that person deserved all the honor. A man once declared a champion would remain a legend for the rest of his life.	592	ENGLISH	1
Born June 17, 1865, Susan La Flesche would become the first Native American in the United States to receive a medical degree as a doctor. The youngest of four daughters, Susan’s father was Omaha tribe Chief Joseph La Flesche, a.k.a. Iron Eye. Chief La Flesche and his wife Waoo-Winchatcha, a.k.a. Mary Gale, were of mixed race who raised their children to assimilate to both Native and white cultures. Susan began her education early at a mission school on the reservation. Native children were taught the culture and habits of whites there. This assimilation, supported by Susan’s parents, wasn’t new to the Omaha tribe. The previous leader, Chief Big Elk had been warning since the late 1830’s that they must adapt to the white’s world. Before his death, he appointed Chief La Flesche to continue his message. Susan’s father had been educated in St. Louis and adopted by Big Elk upon his return to the Nebraska reservation. Susan’s parents taught her the tribe’s Native traditions and heritage but kept her from receiving an Omaha tribal name and from any tribal markings. During her time at the reservation, Susan would experience poor living conditions. At one point, she watched another Native woman die after a white doctor refused her care. Experiences like this would guide La Flesche to her calling in the medical field. She attended the Elizabeth Institute in New Jersey for two years, returning to the reservation in 1882 where she taught at the agency school. Then in 1884, she returned to higher education at the Hampton Institute in Virginia for two more years. During her time there, she was encouraged to apply for a scholarship from the U.S. Office of Indian Affairs. While other female graduates were encouraged to return to their reservations to become Christian wives, Susan took her scholarship to the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania. It was one of the only medical schools on the East Coast to accept women as students in the late 1800’s. There she studied chemistry, pharmaceutical science, obstetrics, anatomy, and histology, along with general medicine. Overcoming the stigma of women being in higher education, and the racism against her native heritage, La Flesche thrived at the Philadelphia school, becoming valedictorian and graduating at the top of her class on March 14, 1889. She worked an internship for a year in Pennsylvania afterward. Susan then accepted a position as the attending physician at the government boarding school back on her Omaha reservation. There she was responsible for teaching students about hygiene, and often cared for other community members outside the school. She also helped other tribal members write letters and translate official documents. She quickly became the preferred doctor on the reservation, leading her white counterpart to quit, making her the only doctor for over 1300 square miles. She would spend several years making house calls, walking on foot in the harsh Nebraska weather, then later by horseback and buggy. Even with her education and determination to help the sick of the tribe, some rejected her diagnosis due to the tensions created by her father, which had split the Omaha to those who supported assimilation, and those who did not. All the while, La Flesche was paid only $500 a year and forced to buy her own supplies when the Bureau of Indian Affairs ran out. She received another $250 from the Women’s National Indian Association for her work as a medical missionary. In 1893, Susan’s busy schedule of tending to the medical needs of the tribe took it’s toll, forcing her to be bed-ridden for two months after a fall from a horse. In 1894, she married South Dakota Sioux Henry Picotte and the couple moved to Bancroft, Nebraska. Here she would set up a private practice and the couple would have two boys, Caryl born in 1895, and Pierre in 1896. She bucked the trend of women staying at home to raise their children, and her medical practice in Bancroft served both white and native patients. Her husband’s alcoholism, along with the prevailing alcohol abuse among her tribe, would lead to her involvement in the Temperance Movement. Henry died in 1905, and in 1906 Susan led a delegation to the nation’s capital to lobby for the prohibition of alcohol on Indian lands. She would become controversial though with her support of the Peyote Religion, a Native American religious movement that sought to introduce the drug peyote into their spiritual traditions. After her husband’s death, she would also spend the next couple of years battling the Bureau of Indian Affairs to prove she was more competent than her brother-in-law to oversee her husband’s estate, which had left about 185 acres of land in South Dakota to their two sons. Once the matter had been settled in her favor, Susan, acting for her sons, invested money from estate and sale of the land into rental properties and used the income to help support her family. In 1910, Susan would travel back to Washington D.C., this time to present argument to the Office of Indian Affairs that, while most of the Omaha tribesman were competent to manage their own affairs, the Indian Office had stifled them from learning business skills and assimilation into the white culture, and thus some of the tribe could not protect themselves from fraud and continued to need the Federal Government as guardians. This strategy was born from her opposition against the consolidation of the Omaha and Winnebago tribes. Susan La Flesche Picotte would continue her work with the tribe and would see her dream of a reservation hospital become reality in 1913, with it being built in Walthill, Nebraska. However by this time, her health was frail and she would succumb to what is suspected as bone cancer on September 15, 1915. She is buried in the Bancroft Cemetery near her parents, sisters, and an older half brother, Francis La Flesche, who became renowned as a Native American ethnologist, anthropologist, and musicologist who focused on Omaha and Osage culture. Her son Caryl served in World War II, eventually winding up in Detroit, Michigan. Her other son Pierre would live in Walthill where he raised a family of three children. The hospital in Walthill was named “Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte Memorial Hospital” and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993. ©Dave Alexander, Legends of America.Updated December 2019 Native American (main page) Nebraska (main page)	<urn:uuid:ec7fc2bb-1cce-455c-825a-f89114c7c41a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-susanlafleschepicotte/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00190.warc.gz	en	0.982431	1,361	3.5625	4	[ -0.0598217211663723, 0.38085949420928955, 0.1554976999759674, -0.03550657257437706, -0.4428481459617615, 0.23436705768108368, 0.19554530084133148, -0.011082448065280914, -0.44213706254959106, -0.24515624344348907, 0.1954542100429535, -0.11118689179420471, 0.07427331060171127, 0.07358163595...	8	Born June 17, 1865, Susan La Flesche would become the first Native American in the United States to receive a medical degree as a doctor. The youngest of four daughters, Susan’s father was Omaha tribe Chief Joseph La Flesche, a.k.a. Iron Eye. Chief La Flesche and his wife Waoo-Winchatcha, a.k.a. Mary Gale, were of mixed race who raised their children to assimilate to both Native and white cultures. Susan began her education early at a mission school on the reservation. Native children were taught the culture and habits of whites there. This assimilation, supported by Susan’s parents, wasn’t new to the Omaha tribe. The previous leader, Chief Big Elk had been warning since the late 1830’s that they must adapt to the white’s world. Before his death, he appointed Chief La Flesche to continue his message. Susan’s father had been educated in St. Louis and adopted by Big Elk upon his return to the Nebraska reservation. Susan’s parents taught her the tribe’s Native traditions and heritage but kept her from receiving an Omaha tribal name and from any tribal markings. During her time at the reservation, Susan would experience poor living conditions. At one point, she watched another Native woman die after a white doctor refused her care. Experiences like this would guide La Flesche to her calling in the medical field. She attended the Elizabeth Institute in New Jersey for two years, returning to the reservation in 1882 where she taught at the agency school. Then in 1884, she returned to higher education at the Hampton Institute in Virginia for two more years. During her time there, she was encouraged to apply for a scholarship from the U.S. Office of Indian Affairs. While other female graduates were encouraged to return to their reservations to become Christian wives, Susan took her scholarship to the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania. It was one of the only medical schools on the East Coast to accept women as students in the late 1800’s. There she studied chemistry, pharmaceutical science, obstetrics, anatomy, and histology, along with general medicine. Overcoming the stigma of women being in higher education, and the racism against her native heritage, La Flesche thrived at the Philadelphia school, becoming valedictorian and graduating at the top of her class on March 14, 1889. She worked an internship for a year in Pennsylvania afterward. Susan then accepted a position as the attending physician at the government boarding school back on her Omaha reservation. There she was responsible for teaching students about hygiene, and often cared for other community members outside the school. She also helped other tribal members write letters and translate official documents. She quickly became the preferred doctor on the reservation, leading her white counterpart to quit, making her the only doctor for over 1300 square miles. She would spend several years making house calls, walking on foot in the harsh Nebraska weather, then later by horseback and buggy. Even with her education and determination to help the sick of the tribe, some rejected her diagnosis due to the tensions created by her father, which had split the Omaha to those who supported assimilation, and those who did not. All the while, La Flesche was paid only $500 a year and forced to buy her own supplies when the Bureau of Indian Affairs ran out. She received another $250 from the Women’s National Indian Association for her work as a medical missionary. In 1893, Susan’s busy schedule of tending to the medical needs of the tribe took it’s toll, forcing her to be bed-ridden for two months after a fall from a horse. In 1894, she married South Dakota Sioux Henry Picotte and the couple moved to Bancroft, Nebraska. Here she would set up a private practice and the couple would have two boys, Caryl born in 1895, and Pierre in 1896. She bucked the trend of women staying at home to raise their children, and her medical practice in Bancroft served both white and native patients. Her husband’s alcoholism, along with the prevailing alcohol abuse among her tribe, would lead to her involvement in the Temperance Movement. Henry died in 1905, and in 1906 Susan led a delegation to the nation’s capital to lobby for the prohibition of alcohol on Indian lands. She would become controversial though with her support of the Peyote Religion, a Native American religious movement that sought to introduce the drug peyote into their spiritual traditions. After her husband’s death, she would also spend the next couple of years battling the Bureau of Indian Affairs to prove she was more competent than her brother-in-law to oversee her husband’s estate, which had left about 185 acres of land in South Dakota to their two sons. Once the matter had been settled in her favor, Susan, acting for her sons, invested money from estate and sale of the land into rental properties and used the income to help support her family. In 1910, Susan would travel back to Washington D.C., this time to present argument to the Office of Indian Affairs that, while most of the Omaha tribesman were competent to manage their own affairs, the Indian Office had stifled them from learning business skills and assimilation into the white culture, and thus some of the tribe could not protect themselves from fraud and continued to need the Federal Government as guardians. This strategy was born from her opposition against the consolidation of the Omaha and Winnebago tribes. Susan La Flesche Picotte would continue her work with the tribe and would see her dream of a reservation hospital become reality in 1913, with it being built in Walthill, Nebraska. However by this time, her health was frail and she would succumb to what is suspected as bone cancer on September 15, 1915. She is buried in the Bancroft Cemetery near her parents, sisters, and an older half brother, Francis La Flesche, who became renowned as a Native American ethnologist, anthropologist, and musicologist who focused on Omaha and Osage culture. Her son Caryl served in World War II, eventually winding up in Detroit, Michigan. Her other son Pierre would live in Walthill where he raised a family of three children. The hospital in Walthill was named “Dr. Susan La Flesche Picotte Memorial Hospital” and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1993. ©Dave Alexander, Legends of America.Updated December 2019 Native American (main page) Nebraska (main page)	1,383	ENGLISH	1
The Battle of Hastings: France's Most Important Battle French Roots of Conflict It has been said that France was born at Vouillé. At the Battle of Vouillé the King of the Franks, Clovis, killed the king of the Visigoths, Alaric II, which allowed the Franks to take over what became southern France. Frankish kings spread their influence over Europe in the years that followed the Battle of Vouillé. Another important battle in the history of France was the Battle of Tours. Tours stopped the Islamic invaders known as the Moors from moving north of the Iberian Peninsula. Victory at Tours allowed the Carolingians to take over the kingdom of the Franks, and created the Carolingian dynasty. The Battle of Hastings on the other hand is seen as the battle that created the Kingdom of England out of Saxon holdings, but Hastings is just as important for French history as it is for English history. At the time France was a collection of territories under dukes and princes. There was very little land in France that the King of France directly owned, and his dukes were able to effectively rule their own duchies inside of the Kingdom of France. Norman Conquest of England Duke William defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings and took the crown of England, but he was still a vassal of the King of France. William the Conqueror hastily took over England and revamped the tax system in England. This allowed William to quickly collect revenue from England. William's goal in conquering England was to create a large tax farm to fuel his conflicts in France. After defeating King Harold, Duke William quickly moved through England placing his Norman allies in charge of English lands while building forts and castles to house his garrisons and treasure. After short visits to England the duke would return to Normandy with new soldiers and treasure to fight wars in France to expand his authority in France. England was not the most important territory that William controlled, Normandy was. William was based in Normandy, he was buried there, and he gave it to his eldest son. England was merely a means to outdo his opponents on the continent. The Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years War The Norman conquest of England forced England to look south rather than east. Before the Normans invaded the English were more concerned with their Scandinavian neighbors and their old homeland in the Jutland. Danish kings constantly invaded England, and there was constant struggle between the established Saxons and the Danish invaders. William the Conqueror changed everything by making the king of England a vassal of the king of France. Angevin kings took over the crown of England after a period of anarchy in England. Henry II was made heir to to crown of England, but he was also Duke of Normandy and of Aquitaine and Count of Anjou.These titles combined to create an Angevin Empire that controlled more of France than the kings of France did. Under the Angevins England became the central piece of the Angevin Empire, but their entire goal was still to take over the throne of France. The Hundred Years war occurred as a result of the king of France finally being able to reclaim France from the Angevins. King John of England refused a request of the King of France, Philip II, which essentially broke their feudal relationship. Philip II was able to reclaim large portions of France, but this led to a series of conflicts between the two kingdoms now known as the Hundred Years War. The Angevins attempt to control the crown of France was nearly successful when Henry V made the French king agree to make Henry V his heir at the Treaty of Troyes. Unfortunately for the English the war turned against them and the French nobility were able to hold out long enough for the English to run out of money and they were unable to enforce the claim. The French were able to beat back the English and retook most of the territory by 1453 with the last English stronghold, Calais , falling in 1557. Legacy of Hastings Duke William won the Battle of Hastings, and his successors fought with France for almost four hundred years because of it. French and English kings pushed back and forth over the French territory, with France almost completely in the English kings hands and then it went back to the French. William had hoped to use England to fund his French campaigns, but under the Angevins it slowly became the centerpiece of the Angevin Empire. For France, the Norman conquest of England helped to centralize the French state. The kings of France were able to take over Angevin lands after John II failed to recognize his feudal responsibilities and the French added the Angevin territory to the crown. France became the most powerful kingdom in Europe because of the power of their monarchy by the end of the 16th century, and it dominated continental politics until the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. The story of England and France were woven together by the Battle of Hastings, and the outcome of this one battle helped to write the history of western Europe more than many others. Davies, Norman. Vanished kingdoms: the rise and fall of states and nations. New York: Penguin Books, 2012. Bradbury, Jim. The battle of Hastings. Stroud: Sutton publ., 1998. Questions & Answers Who won the Battle of Hastings? William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, won the Battle of Hastings. This led to the English crown falling out of the hands of the Saxon kings and tightly interlocking the French and English monarchies for five hundred years.	<urn:uuid:30180b1b-87ac-43a7-8aa3-bf0c3bfe35e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Battle-of-Hastings-Frances-Most-Important-Battle	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00093.warc.gz	en	0.980029	1,145	4.0625	4	[ -0.2633949816226959, 0.4769126772880554, -0.061037711799144745, -0.5631877183914185, -0.30616825819015503, -0.07318627089262009, 0.14428125321865082, 0.2686860263347626, 0.35575640201568604, 0.041974663734436035, -0.11466273665428162, -0.5746362209320068, 0.31031957268714905, 0.54478657245...	3	The Battle of Hastings: France's Most Important Battle French Roots of Conflict It has been said that France was born at Vouillé. At the Battle of Vouillé the King of the Franks, Clovis, killed the king of the Visigoths, Alaric II, which allowed the Franks to take over what became southern France. Frankish kings spread their influence over Europe in the years that followed the Battle of Vouillé. Another important battle in the history of France was the Battle of Tours. Tours stopped the Islamic invaders known as the Moors from moving north of the Iberian Peninsula. Victory at Tours allowed the Carolingians to take over the kingdom of the Franks, and created the Carolingian dynasty. The Battle of Hastings on the other hand is seen as the battle that created the Kingdom of England out of Saxon holdings, but Hastings is just as important for French history as it is for English history. At the time France was a collection of territories under dukes and princes. There was very little land in France that the King of France directly owned, and his dukes were able to effectively rule their own duchies inside of the Kingdom of France. Norman Conquest of England Duke William defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings and took the crown of England, but he was still a vassal of the King of France. William the Conqueror hastily took over England and revamped the tax system in England. This allowed William to quickly collect revenue from England. William's goal in conquering England was to create a large tax farm to fuel his conflicts in France. After defeating King Harold, Duke William quickly moved through England placing his Norman allies in charge of English lands while building forts and castles to house his garrisons and treasure. After short visits to England the duke would return to Normandy with new soldiers and treasure to fight wars in France to expand his authority in France. England was not the most important territory that William controlled, Normandy was. William was based in Normandy, he was buried there, and he gave it to his eldest son. England was merely a means to outdo his opponents on the continent. The Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years War The Norman conquest of England forced England to look south rather than east. Before the Normans invaded the English were more concerned with their Scandinavian neighbors and their old homeland in the Jutland. Danish kings constantly invaded England, and there was constant struggle between the established Saxons and the Danish invaders. William the Conqueror changed everything by making the king of England a vassal of the king of France. Angevin kings took over the crown of England after a period of anarchy in England. Henry II was made heir to to crown of England, but he was also Duke of Normandy and of Aquitaine and Count of Anjou.These titles combined to create an Angevin Empire that controlled more of France than the kings of France did. Under the Angevins England became the central piece of the Angevin Empire, but their entire goal was still to take over the throne of France. The Hundred Years war occurred as a result of the king of France finally being able to reclaim France from the Angevins. King John of England refused a request of the King of France, Philip II, which essentially broke their feudal relationship. Philip II was able to reclaim large portions of France, but this led to a series of conflicts between the two kingdoms now known as the Hundred Years War. The Angevins attempt to control the crown of France was nearly successful when Henry V made the French king agree to make Henry V his heir at the Treaty of Troyes. Unfortunately for the English the war turned against them and the French nobility were able to hold out long enough for the English to run out of money and they were unable to enforce the claim. The French were able to beat back the English and retook most of the territory by 1453 with the last English stronghold, Calais , falling in 1557. Legacy of Hastings Duke William won the Battle of Hastings, and his successors fought with France for almost four hundred years because of it. French and English kings pushed back and forth over the French territory, with France almost completely in the English kings hands and then it went back to the French. William had hoped to use England to fund his French campaigns, but under the Angevins it slowly became the centerpiece of the Angevin Empire. For France, the Norman conquest of England helped to centralize the French state. The kings of France were able to take over Angevin lands after John II failed to recognize his feudal responsibilities and the French added the Angevin territory to the crown. France became the most powerful kingdom in Europe because of the power of their monarchy by the end of the 16th century, and it dominated continental politics until the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. The story of England and France were woven together by the Battle of Hastings, and the outcome of this one battle helped to write the history of western Europe more than many others. Davies, Norman. Vanished kingdoms: the rise and fall of states and nations. New York: Penguin Books, 2012. Bradbury, Jim. The battle of Hastings. Stroud: Sutton publ., 1998. Questions & Answers Who won the Battle of Hastings? William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, won the Battle of Hastings. This led to the English crown falling out of the hands of the Saxon kings and tightly interlocking the French and English monarchies for five hundred years.	1,155	ENGLISH	1
Does anyone know of any battles where war elephants played either a major or decisive part in the victory of whoever had them? As far as I know, they were mostly used for the fear factor and were generally a liability rather than a benefit. There is some evidence that among the reasons for Alexander's army not wanting to march (and their subsequent widthdrawl) post their victory against King Porus was strong battalion of elephants (6000 as per one Plutarch's records) which Nandas could deploy. See Plutarch for example. Elephants were also an important factor in military conquests of the Mauryan empire against local and foreign rulers. See here for example. Both of the following accounts are from Polybius. At the Battle of Tunis, Xanthippus used his elephants to charge the Roman line. While some of the Romans avoided the elephants to charge the Carthaginian right and the formation held due to its depth, those at the front were trampled. The Romans were later flanked by cavalry and the elephants also accounted for the bulk of the casualties from then on. During the period before the Second Punic War when Carthage was consolidating power in Spain, Hannibal defeated a combined force of the Carpetani and other neighbouring tribes in a battle in which the majority of the killing was done by elephants. However, the Carpetani had to cross a river to attack the Carthaginians, so it's quite possible that the battle could have ended the same way without the elephants. Overall, I tend to concur with your estimate that the elephants usually proved to be more of a liability than an asset. However, they did have some successes. Two examples are: the Battle of Ipsus which was decided by a judicious deployment of an elephant reserve and the "Elephant Battle" in which Antiochus I routed the Galatians - I couldn't find a full-length description of it now on the web, but it's mentioned here. An archaeology book somewhat unexpectedly has a very nice overview on elephant warfare in antiquity. In the Battle of Heraclea (280 BC), Pyrrhus of Epirus used elephants decisively against the Romans. The trick for him was to use them as reserve forces. This is from the Wiki article: Unable to make any significant gains in action, Pyrrhus deployed his war elephants, held in reserve until now. The Roman cavalry was threatening his flank too strongly. Aghast at the sight of these strange and brooding creatures which none had seen before, the horses galloped away and threw the Roman legion into rout. (The Romans subsequently called elephants "Lucanian oxen", after the location of this first encounter.). Pyrrhus then launched his Thessalian cavalry among the disorganized legions, which completed the Romans' defeat. The Romans fell back across the river and Pyrrhus held the field. It's the first time Romans saw elephants though :) The Battle of Ipsus (301 BC) is also worth mentioning. Antigonus Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes commanded a strong infantry army, but their 75 elephants were a bit short for Seleucus 400-480. Again, from the Wiki: Demetrius found himself unable to return to the battlefield because of the deployment of 300 elephants in his path. The ancient sources repeatedly emphasise the effect of elephants on horses, which are alarmed by the smell and noise of elephants and are loath to approach them. Demetrius would not have been able to take his horses through the line of elephants, nor manoeuvre around such a large quantity of elephants. This 'elephant manoeuvre' was the decisive moment in the battle, but it is not clear how it came about; Plutarch only says that "the [allied] elephants were thrown in his way". If the elephants had indeed been held in reserve, then it might have been relatively straightforward to deploy them, but as discussed, it is not clear why so many elephants would have been held in reserve. However, it is also possible that the deployment of the elephants was a piece of improvisation during the battle, though moving such a large number of elephants in such a coordinated manoeuvre in the middle of the battle would have been difficult. Since he was the only allied commander with significant experience of handling elephants, it has been assumed that Seleucus was responsible for this manoeuvre. War elephants were constantly used in south Asia for over 2000 years. The last use was by Thai and Vietnamese forces in the late 1800s. Use of elephants for logistics continued into the 20th century. Some rulers had thousands of war elephants. Either elephants made important contributions to victory for thousands of years or every southern Asian ruler was a fool for thousands of years.	<urn:uuid:e60d9df2-3090-4144-980d-6df0fe24ac27>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/338/is-there-any-documentation-regarding-the-use-of-war-elephants-in-battles	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00209.warc.gz	en	0.984448	988	3.5625	4	[ -0.554747462272644, 0.2474002242088318, 0.4159334897994995, -0.015030639246106148, -0.2114613950252533, -0.3129842281341553, 0.3836703896522522, 0.3779507279396057, 0.11336825788021088, 0.07970567047595978, -0.0023535494692623615, -0.8008631467819214, -0.08087056875228882, 0.26002579927444...	13	Does anyone know of any battles where war elephants played either a major or decisive part in the victory of whoever had them? As far as I know, they were mostly used for the fear factor and were generally a liability rather than a benefit. There is some evidence that among the reasons for Alexander's army not wanting to march (and their subsequent widthdrawl) post their victory against King Porus was strong battalion of elephants (6000 as per one Plutarch's records) which Nandas could deploy. See Plutarch for example. Elephants were also an important factor in military conquests of the Mauryan empire against local and foreign rulers. See here for example. Both of the following accounts are from Polybius. At the Battle of Tunis, Xanthippus used his elephants to charge the Roman line. While some of the Romans avoided the elephants to charge the Carthaginian right and the formation held due to its depth, those at the front were trampled. The Romans were later flanked by cavalry and the elephants also accounted for the bulk of the casualties from then on. During the period before the Second Punic War when Carthage was consolidating power in Spain, Hannibal defeated a combined force of the Carpetani and other neighbouring tribes in a battle in which the majority of the killing was done by elephants. However, the Carpetani had to cross a river to attack the Carthaginians, so it's quite possible that the battle could have ended the same way without the elephants. Overall, I tend to concur with your estimate that the elephants usually proved to be more of a liability than an asset. However, they did have some successes. Two examples are: the Battle of Ipsus which was decided by a judicious deployment of an elephant reserve and the "Elephant Battle" in which Antiochus I routed the Galatians - I couldn't find a full-length description of it now on the web, but it's mentioned here. An archaeology book somewhat unexpectedly has a very nice overview on elephant warfare in antiquity. In the Battle of Heraclea (280 BC), Pyrrhus of Epirus used elephants decisively against the Romans. The trick for him was to use them as reserve forces. This is from the Wiki article: Unable to make any significant gains in action, Pyrrhus deployed his war elephants, held in reserve until now. The Roman cavalry was threatening his flank too strongly. Aghast at the sight of these strange and brooding creatures which none had seen before, the horses galloped away and threw the Roman legion into rout. (The Romans subsequently called elephants "Lucanian oxen", after the location of this first encounter.). Pyrrhus then launched his Thessalian cavalry among the disorganized legions, which completed the Romans' defeat. The Romans fell back across the river and Pyrrhus held the field. It's the first time Romans saw elephants though :) The Battle of Ipsus (301 BC) is also worth mentioning. Antigonus Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes commanded a strong infantry army, but their 75 elephants were a bit short for Seleucus 400-480. Again, from the Wiki: Demetrius found himself unable to return to the battlefield because of the deployment of 300 elephants in his path. The ancient sources repeatedly emphasise the effect of elephants on horses, which are alarmed by the smell and noise of elephants and are loath to approach them. Demetrius would not have been able to take his horses through the line of elephants, nor manoeuvre around such a large quantity of elephants. This 'elephant manoeuvre' was the decisive moment in the battle, but it is not clear how it came about; Plutarch only says that "the [allied] elephants were thrown in his way". If the elephants had indeed been held in reserve, then it might have been relatively straightforward to deploy them, but as discussed, it is not clear why so many elephants would have been held in reserve. However, it is also possible that the deployment of the elephants was a piece of improvisation during the battle, though moving such a large number of elephants in such a coordinated manoeuvre in the middle of the battle would have been difficult. Since he was the only allied commander with significant experience of handling elephants, it has been assumed that Seleucus was responsible for this manoeuvre. War elephants were constantly used in south Asia for over 2000 years. The last use was by Thai and Vietnamese forces in the late 1800s. Use of elephants for logistics continued into the 20th century. Some rulers had thousands of war elephants. Either elephants made important contributions to victory for thousands of years or every southern Asian ruler was a fool for thousands of years.	998	ENGLISH	1
The city of London is an incredibly old and complex beast. Founded back around 40 AD by the Romans, the city remains today as one of the most important cities in the world and an important economic powerhouse. Over the years, the city has received terms such as the most powerful, the most desirable and the most visited cities in the world. London managed to survive a large number of disasters since it was founded, going through periods such as the Black Plague that engulfed Europe as well as the Great Fire of London that destroyed major parts of the city. Londinium – Ancient London When the city was founded by the Romans, it consisted of 3 distinct city centers, an area which today is known simply as the City of London or the Square Mile. By 1800 the city reached a population of 1 million people and to 6.5 million by 1900. The years predating the Roman invasion there is no known evidence of a major settlement in the area where the city is located, leading to the conclusion that the Romans were the first ones to settle the area. The name of the city when it was first settled was Londinium and is the area where previously mentioned the City of London lies today. This area encompassed all of London from its founding in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages. As mentioned, the city faced a wide variety of problems, even during the Roman period. During this time, the city was also attacked by surrounding tribes such as the Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders. Around the 4th century AD, the city was almost, if not, completely abandoned and its buildings fell into disrepair and most of its population moved about 1 mile away from the city to the Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic, where the modern Covent Garden is located. After a few years, what remained of the city was regained by the Saxons and after that, the city became once again a settlement of great importance and continued to grow. Despite the city’s importance during the Roman period, Londinium was not the capital of Roman Britain. That title was maintained by Camulodunum, which is modern-day Colchester. Ancient Sites in London 1. Billingsgate Roman Bath House To this day, several sites are dating back to the time of Londinium and the Romans. An example would be the Billingsgate Roman Bath House which is suggested to have been used until the moment that the city fell into ruin during its abandonment. It was during the construction of the London Coal Exchange in 1848 that the bathhouse was discovered. After it was discovered, the ruin remains preserved in the basement and it was only during redevelopment that archeologists had the opportunity to further explore the ruin. During the excavation, it was determined that the bathhouse dated back in the 2nd century AD and once looked out onto the Thames. It continues to remain one of the best examples of Roman buildings in the city. 2. Roman London Wall As the name suggests, this ancient structure was built by the Romans around Londinium during the late 2nd century and it is now the name of a street in The City. It was one of the great construction projects undertaken by the Romans during their stay in Britain. The wall continued to be maintained until the 18th century. The wall was once a boundary for the city, however, once the city expanded to the west, this was no longer the case. Because the wall continued to be maintained until the 18th century, it is not entirely Roman, however, it does have Roman masonry at its core. 3. The Temple of Mithras The London Mithraeum was discovered during the construction of a building in 1954 and became one of the most important Roman discoveries in London. Here, figures that resembles Roman gods were found including, Minerva, Mercury, Mithras and Serapis, artifacts that are displayed at the Museum of London. There was an entire religion that was formed around the god Mithras and it is known to have been a rival religion to Christianity and was eliminated by the end of the 4th century. The religion known as Mithraism was very secretive and until today, 4 known temples have been discovered in the UK. The temple is built on one of London’s lost rivers known as Wallbrook which was gradually lost due to the expanding city. For those interested in the city’s ancient history, visiting the temple is a must as it contains a lot of information regarding the cult of Mithras as well as well-preserved artifacts. 4. London Roman Amphitheatre Built somewhere around the 1st century AD, the Roman Amphitheatre was discovered during the construction of the Guildhall Art Gallery in the 20th century and 3 excavations took place over 40 years. The first one was in 1951, the second in 1985, and lastly in 1987. All of the excavations were made under the direction of the Museum of London. It was discovered that the Amphitheatre went through extensive renovations during the 2nd century AD and its scale says a lot about the importance of Londinium during the Roman occupation of Britain. One impressive feature regarding this ancient structure is the timber-lined drain sump and how well they were preserved. Visiting the site today, tourists are able to see portions of the walls that composed the structure, the original wooden drains and 2 chambers which may have served as waiting rooms for gladiators. Today, the city is a major attraction for tourists around the world and the city has no shortage of activities. Besides visiting the ancient sites mentioned before, the city has many other attractions. The London Eye is an iconic landmark of the city from which offers a great view of the skyline, including iconic buildings such as Big Ben and Tower Bridge. Other places of interest include the famous Hippodrome Casino, which is one of London’s most popular entertainment venues, welcoming a large number of visitors since the casino opened in 2012. Many tables games such as poker, roulette and blackjack can be enjoyed here as well as a large number of the latest known slot games similar to the ones such as Diamond Link: Mighty Elephant. A more comfortable gambling alternative is the London Palm Beach Casino, a more modest resort that also offers a wide variety of gambling options. One last casino to mention would be the Colony Casino Club, however, entering the casino requires a membership. Compared to the previous 2 casinos mentioned it has a much more modern design and a premier destination in the world of casinos. The casino floor features around 22 gaming tables with many varieties of casino games that include American roulette, blackjack, and poker. One of the buildings that have greatly impacted the city skyline is 20 Fenchurch Street, more famously known as the “Walkie-Talkie” because of its distinctive shape. Many believe that the shape of the building has negatively impacted London’s skyline, however, the Sky Garden that occupies the 36th and 38th stories offers an unparalleled view of the city and it is described as a largely free, public viewing space. London remains to be a city that continues to change rapidly and will also continue to remain one of the most important cities in the world, as well as one of the most visited.	<urn:uuid:69021b3c-4f42-4640-8128-6205cb997a0e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.trendzer.com/4-ancient-sites-to-visit-in-london/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00122.warc.gz	en	0.984869	1,488	3.5	4	[ 0.3402332067489624, -0.34247487783432007, 0.8612434267997742, 0.2352115511894226, -0.149241104722023, -0.15220335125923157, -0.10613302141427994, -0.02305459789931774, 0.07935056835412979, -0.10561752319335938, 0.03508204594254494, -0.5352931618690491, 0.017846401780843735, 0.1974598467350...	3	The city of London is an incredibly old and complex beast. Founded back around 40 AD by the Romans, the city remains today as one of the most important cities in the world and an important economic powerhouse. Over the years, the city has received terms such as the most powerful, the most desirable and the most visited cities in the world. London managed to survive a large number of disasters since it was founded, going through periods such as the Black Plague that engulfed Europe as well as the Great Fire of London that destroyed major parts of the city. Londinium – Ancient London When the city was founded by the Romans, it consisted of 3 distinct city centers, an area which today is known simply as the City of London or the Square Mile. By 1800 the city reached a population of 1 million people and to 6.5 million by 1900. The years predating the Roman invasion there is no known evidence of a major settlement in the area where the city is located, leading to the conclusion that the Romans were the first ones to settle the area. The name of the city when it was first settled was Londinium and is the area where previously mentioned the City of London lies today. This area encompassed all of London from its founding in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages. As mentioned, the city faced a wide variety of problems, even during the Roman period. During this time, the city was also attacked by surrounding tribes such as the Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders. Around the 4th century AD, the city was almost, if not, completely abandoned and its buildings fell into disrepair and most of its population moved about 1 mile away from the city to the Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic, where the modern Covent Garden is located. After a few years, what remained of the city was regained by the Saxons and after that, the city became once again a settlement of great importance and continued to grow. Despite the city’s importance during the Roman period, Londinium was not the capital of Roman Britain. That title was maintained by Camulodunum, which is modern-day Colchester. Ancient Sites in London 1. Billingsgate Roman Bath House To this day, several sites are dating back to the time of Londinium and the Romans. An example would be the Billingsgate Roman Bath House which is suggested to have been used until the moment that the city fell into ruin during its abandonment. It was during the construction of the London Coal Exchange in 1848 that the bathhouse was discovered. After it was discovered, the ruin remains preserved in the basement and it was only during redevelopment that archeologists had the opportunity to further explore the ruin. During the excavation, it was determined that the bathhouse dated back in the 2nd century AD and once looked out onto the Thames. It continues to remain one of the best examples of Roman buildings in the city. 2. Roman London Wall As the name suggests, this ancient structure was built by the Romans around Londinium during the late 2nd century and it is now the name of a street in The City. It was one of the great construction projects undertaken by the Romans during their stay in Britain. The wall continued to be maintained until the 18th century. The wall was once a boundary for the city, however, once the city expanded to the west, this was no longer the case. Because the wall continued to be maintained until the 18th century, it is not entirely Roman, however, it does have Roman masonry at its core. 3. The Temple of Mithras The London Mithraeum was discovered during the construction of a building in 1954 and became one of the most important Roman discoveries in London. Here, figures that resembles Roman gods were found including, Minerva, Mercury, Mithras and Serapis, artifacts that are displayed at the Museum of London. There was an entire religion that was formed around the god Mithras and it is known to have been a rival religion to Christianity and was eliminated by the end of the 4th century. The religion known as Mithraism was very secretive and until today, 4 known temples have been discovered in the UK. The temple is built on one of London’s lost rivers known as Wallbrook which was gradually lost due to the expanding city. For those interested in the city’s ancient history, visiting the temple is a must as it contains a lot of information regarding the cult of Mithras as well as well-preserved artifacts. 4. London Roman Amphitheatre Built somewhere around the 1st century AD, the Roman Amphitheatre was discovered during the construction of the Guildhall Art Gallery in the 20th century and 3 excavations took place over 40 years. The first one was in 1951, the second in 1985, and lastly in 1987. All of the excavations were made under the direction of the Museum of London. It was discovered that the Amphitheatre went through extensive renovations during the 2nd century AD and its scale says a lot about the importance of Londinium during the Roman occupation of Britain. One impressive feature regarding this ancient structure is the timber-lined drain sump and how well they were preserved. Visiting the site today, tourists are able to see portions of the walls that composed the structure, the original wooden drains and 2 chambers which may have served as waiting rooms for gladiators. Today, the city is a major attraction for tourists around the world and the city has no shortage of activities. Besides visiting the ancient sites mentioned before, the city has many other attractions. The London Eye is an iconic landmark of the city from which offers a great view of the skyline, including iconic buildings such as Big Ben and Tower Bridge. Other places of interest include the famous Hippodrome Casino, which is one of London’s most popular entertainment venues, welcoming a large number of visitors since the casino opened in 2012. Many tables games such as poker, roulette and blackjack can be enjoyed here as well as a large number of the latest known slot games similar to the ones such as Diamond Link: Mighty Elephant. A more comfortable gambling alternative is the London Palm Beach Casino, a more modest resort that also offers a wide variety of gambling options. One last casino to mention would be the Colony Casino Club, however, entering the casino requires a membership. Compared to the previous 2 casinos mentioned it has a much more modern design and a premier destination in the world of casinos. The casino floor features around 22 gaming tables with many varieties of casino games that include American roulette, blackjack, and poker. One of the buildings that have greatly impacted the city skyline is 20 Fenchurch Street, more famously known as the “Walkie-Talkie” because of its distinctive shape. Many believe that the shape of the building has negatively impacted London’s skyline, however, the Sky Garden that occupies the 36th and 38th stories offers an unparalleled view of the city and it is described as a largely free, public viewing space. London remains to be a city that continues to change rapidly and will also continue to remain one of the most important cities in the world, as well as one of the most visited.	1,522	ENGLISH	1
When we enjoy entertainment or festivals that celebrate medieval life and times, it is the life of royalty, traveling bards, monks of knights that are most often the focus of our attention. Few of us would want to celebrate the lives of peasants and surfs during the middle ages. There is good reason for that. There was little to celebrate about the harsh life poor people endured during this time in history. For the poor, the dark ages really did not end in the way that it did for wealthy landowners, merchants and high ranking clergy during medieval times. It is not an exaggeration that the life of peasants was a constant struggle to survive. That struggle meant a daily life of hard work, harsh taxes and a lifestyle that was filthy and full of dangers of all kinds for themselves and for their families. Because peasants were the very bottom rung of medieval society, they were under the harsh authority of just about every other rung of society. They had to work the land of the Lord who owned it and then pay rent for working and living on that land as well. Peasants were required to swear an oath of allegiance to their Lord and to violate that Lord would bring harsh if not fatal punishments. To fulfill that oath, peasants had to do just about every kind if difficult manual labor imaginable including plowing the fields, planting and caring for crops, harvesting corn and other produce, storing it in barns and cutting and storing wood for the winter for themselves and the Lords who owned the land they lived on. The level that those in power exploited the peasant class during medieval times was truly appalling. In addition to coping with staggering poverty, peasants had to pay stiff taxes to their Lord and to the church in the form of the “tithe”. Often peasants had no money for their tithes so they paid them in the form of the produce they grew on the land they rented from their Lords. The Catholic Church realized such huge returns on the tithes from the peasant class that they had to build massive barns to hold all of the product that the peasants paid in. Daily life for peasants was a constant struggle for the basics of health, water and comfort. Their houses were called “crunk houses” and they were made of very basic materials such as straw, mud and manure. There was no glass or wood for doors and windows so those openings were covered with curtains which meant that the house was cold in the winter or stiflingly hot in the summertime. Furniture was a luxury for a peasant family so life took place on the floor. There were no toilets so usually a single bucket was used that was emptied each morning into the nearest stream or river. If the family owned animals, they were brought into the house at night as well. It was too dangerous to leave the animals outside at night as they could be stolen or killed by wild beasts that roamed the countryside without restriction. This lifestyle was filthy and uncomfortable at the least. Water was a tremendous premium so usually a small amount was carried to the home once a day and it was used for cooking or any cleaning that needed to be done. Water was retrieved from the same river or stream that the refuse was emptied into the previous morning. And since everyone in the village had the same habits, the likelihood that the family drinking water was contaminated was high. Peasants had no resources for bathing or maintaining the minimum of what we currently consider to be hygiene, which meant that disease and death were rampant. Small wonder that few movies or medieval fairs focus on the lives of peasants during medieval times. But it is good to take a few moments to realize that life during the highly romanticized medieval period was neither romantic nor luxurious for the majority of the populations of that era.	<urn:uuid:03ef05d1-cf91-44f8-98e9-b2454879e836>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Ancient-History/the-harsh-life-of-peasants-in-medieval-times.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00437.warc.gz	en	0.98932	763	3.5	4	[ -0.24130037426948547, 0.4662981927394867, 0.2713531255722046, 0.037057340145111084, 0.3353812098503113, -0.14960095286369324, -0.10486283898353577, -0.0077798981219530106, 0.025709301233291626, 0.16279642283916473, -0.14807072281837463, 0.1114717423915863, 0.4181039333343506, -0.0583924017...	7	When we enjoy entertainment or festivals that celebrate medieval life and times, it is the life of royalty, traveling bards, monks of knights that are most often the focus of our attention. Few of us would want to celebrate the lives of peasants and surfs during the middle ages. There is good reason for that. There was little to celebrate about the harsh life poor people endured during this time in history. For the poor, the dark ages really did not end in the way that it did for wealthy landowners, merchants and high ranking clergy during medieval times. It is not an exaggeration that the life of peasants was a constant struggle to survive. That struggle meant a daily life of hard work, harsh taxes and a lifestyle that was filthy and full of dangers of all kinds for themselves and for their families. Because peasants were the very bottom rung of medieval society, they were under the harsh authority of just about every other rung of society. They had to work the land of the Lord who owned it and then pay rent for working and living on that land as well. Peasants were required to swear an oath of allegiance to their Lord and to violate that Lord would bring harsh if not fatal punishments. To fulfill that oath, peasants had to do just about every kind if difficult manual labor imaginable including plowing the fields, planting and caring for crops, harvesting corn and other produce, storing it in barns and cutting and storing wood for the winter for themselves and the Lords who owned the land they lived on. The level that those in power exploited the peasant class during medieval times was truly appalling. In addition to coping with staggering poverty, peasants had to pay stiff taxes to their Lord and to the church in the form of the “tithe”. Often peasants had no money for their tithes so they paid them in the form of the produce they grew on the land they rented from their Lords. The Catholic Church realized such huge returns on the tithes from the peasant class that they had to build massive barns to hold all of the product that the peasants paid in. Daily life for peasants was a constant struggle for the basics of health, water and comfort. Their houses were called “crunk houses” and they were made of very basic materials such as straw, mud and manure. There was no glass or wood for doors and windows so those openings were covered with curtains which meant that the house was cold in the winter or stiflingly hot in the summertime. Furniture was a luxury for a peasant family so life took place on the floor. There were no toilets so usually a single bucket was used that was emptied each morning into the nearest stream or river. If the family owned animals, they were brought into the house at night as well. It was too dangerous to leave the animals outside at night as they could be stolen or killed by wild beasts that roamed the countryside without restriction. This lifestyle was filthy and uncomfortable at the least. Water was a tremendous premium so usually a small amount was carried to the home once a day and it was used for cooking or any cleaning that needed to be done. Water was retrieved from the same river or stream that the refuse was emptied into the previous morning. And since everyone in the village had the same habits, the likelihood that the family drinking water was contaminated was high. Peasants had no resources for bathing or maintaining the minimum of what we currently consider to be hygiene, which meant that disease and death were rampant. Small wonder that few movies or medieval fairs focus on the lives of peasants during medieval times. But it is good to take a few moments to realize that life during the highly romanticized medieval period was neither romantic nor luxurious for the majority of the populations of that era.	755	ENGLISH	1
There was, however, a serious problem that affected most of the Waldensian groups through the latter Middle Ages just as it had troubled the Paulicians. This was the tendency of many to allow Catholic priests to christen their children, as well as their willingness to participate in Catholic worship ceremonies. Knowing that such ceremonies were useless in gaining salvation, many felt that outward conformity with Rome would avoid persecution and allow them to privately practice the Truth. This tendency was prophesied of the Church in Thyatira in Revelation 2:20-24. From God's standpoint, what they were doing amounted to spiritual fornication and partaking of Catholic communion was "eating things sacrificed to idols." What happened to the Waldenses? "Waldenses slowly disappeared from the chief centers of population and took refuge in the retired valleys of the Alps. There, in the recesses of Piedmont, a settlement of the Waldensians was made who gave their name to these valleys of Vaudois At times attempts were made to suppress the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country which they inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made the difficulties of their suppression greater than the advantages to be gained from it" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., "Waldenses"). In 1487, Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull calling for their extermination and a serious attack was made on their stronghold. A fog settling over and encircling the Catholic armies saved the Waldenses from total destruction. However, most were simply worn out and had lapsed into a spirit of compromise. When the Reformation began a few years later, the Waldensian leadership sent emissaries to the Lutheran church. "Thus," as the Encyclopaedia Britannica writes, "the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism." As total apostasy swallowed up most remnants of the Waldenses by the end of 1500s, God preserved a faithful remnant. Individuals who were the fruit of the last seven years of Waldo's ministry had been converted in Bohemia and Germany in the thirteenth century. In remote areas of the Carpathian Mountain area of central and eastern Europe, individuals and small groups sur-vived—in fact a faithful remnant has survived in isolation in those areas down to modern times (cf. Revelation 2:24-25). As the seventeenth century approached, the next era of God's Church was ready to emerge on the stage. Remnants of German Waldensians, sometimes labeled Lollards by outsiders, had penetrated into Holland and England as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. However, it was only in the final decades of the sixteenth century that the Church could begin to emerge openly in Germany and Britain. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:081d09da-ddb9-4d3b-8858-06bbe3c53bb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/true-church/compromising-once-more.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00236.warc.gz	en	0.982004	579	3.265625	3	[ 0.10789280384778976, -0.10360871255397797, 0.05305127799510956, -0.08204365521669388, -0.04197594150900841, 0.11548377573490143, -0.22779130935668945, 0.2450314462184906, 0.054241959005594254, 0.015186923556029797, 0.04623619467020035, -0.2139531373977661, 0.04156046360731125, 0.1288641989...	1	There was, however, a serious problem that affected most of the Waldensian groups through the latter Middle Ages just as it had troubled the Paulicians. This was the tendency of many to allow Catholic priests to christen their children, as well as their willingness to participate in Catholic worship ceremonies. Knowing that such ceremonies were useless in gaining salvation, many felt that outward conformity with Rome would avoid persecution and allow them to privately practice the Truth. This tendency was prophesied of the Church in Thyatira in Revelation 2:20-24. From God's standpoint, what they were doing amounted to spiritual fornication and partaking of Catholic communion was "eating things sacrificed to idols." What happened to the Waldenses? "Waldenses slowly disappeared from the chief centers of population and took refuge in the retired valleys of the Alps. There, in the recesses of Piedmont, a settlement of the Waldensians was made who gave their name to these valleys of Vaudois At times attempts were made to suppress the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country which they inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made the difficulties of their suppression greater than the advantages to be gained from it" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., "Waldenses"). In 1487, Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull calling for their extermination and a serious attack was made on their stronghold. A fog settling over and encircling the Catholic armies saved the Waldenses from total destruction. However, most were simply worn out and had lapsed into a spirit of compromise. When the Reformation began a few years later, the Waldensian leadership sent emissaries to the Lutheran church. "Thus," as the Encyclopaedia Britannica writes, "the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism." As total apostasy swallowed up most remnants of the Waldenses by the end of 1500s, God preserved a faithful remnant. Individuals who were the fruit of the last seven years of Waldo's ministry had been converted in Bohemia and Germany in the thirteenth century. In remote areas of the Carpathian Mountain area of central and eastern Europe, individuals and small groups sur-vived—in fact a faithful remnant has survived in isolation in those areas down to modern times (cf. Revelation 2:24-25). As the seventeenth century approached, the next era of God's Church was ready to emerge on the stage. Remnants of German Waldensians, sometimes labeled Lollards by outsiders, had penetrated into Holland and England as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. However, it was only in the final decades of the sixteenth century that the Church could begin to emerge openly in Germany and Britain. Was this article helpful?	594	ENGLISH	1
Abigail Adams was and still is a hero and idle for many women in the United States. As the wife of John Adams, Abigail used her position to bring forth her own strong federalist and strong feminist views. Mrs. Adams was one of the earliest feminists and will always influence today's women. Abigail Adams was born Abigail Smith in 1744 at Weymouth, Massachusetts. She was a descendent of the Qunicys', a very prestigious family in the colonies, on her mothers' side. On her fathers' side Abigail was a descendent of Congressional Ministers. During a time when women did not receive a formal education, her grandmother at home taught Abigail. Her eagerness to learn and to read is what created a bond between John Adams and her. Abigail was married to John Adams in 1764. Their marriage has been described as one of the mind and the heart. The young couple moved to a small farm in Boston as Johns' law practice expanded. In the next ten years Abigail gave birth to three sons and two daughters. The main goal in her life had now become watching over the family and home without her husband. The time apart from John was spent teaching her children, dealing with wartime shortages, inflation, and running the farm with little help and writing letters to ease her loneliness. It was in these letters that Abigail Adams views on government and feminism were made apparent to John Adams. While John was away helping the country declare independence, Abigail wrote her most famous letter to him. On March 31, 1776 Abigail wrote: " I long to hear that you have declared an independency- and by the way in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I would desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors." "Remember all men would be tyrants if they could. If perticular care and attention is not paid to the ladies we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice, or representation." The reaction of John Adams was less than satisfactory. He responded by telling Abigail that he had laughed at her request. He called her letter saucy and told her he had more to deal with than the request of women. This angered Abigail and she wrote to Mercy Otis Warren on April 27, 1776: "He is very saucy to me in return for a List of Female Grievances which I transmitted to him. I think I will get you to join me in a petition to congress. I thought it was very probable our wise statesmen would erect a new government and form a new code of laws. I ventured to speak a word on behalf of our sex, who are rather hardly dealt with by the laws of England which gives such unlimited power to the husband to use his wife." "I believe I even threatened formenting a Rebellion in...	<urn:uuid:8cdb28f2-bbd3-4023-a23b-a674c465d1c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/abigail-adams	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00463.warc.gz	en	0.987026	627	3.953125	4	[ -0.15874938666820526, 0.4167012870311737, -0.07813368737697601, 0.07879607379436493, -0.26375752687454224, 0.28522205352783203, 0.28736191987991333, -0.184720978140831, 0.020864591002464294, -0.2239382117986679, -0.1850377470254898, 0.24974852800369263, 0.4320437014102936, 0.04488682746887...	1	Abigail Adams was and still is a hero and idle for many women in the United States. As the wife of John Adams, Abigail used her position to bring forth her own strong federalist and strong feminist views. Mrs. Adams was one of the earliest feminists and will always influence today's women. Abigail Adams was born Abigail Smith in 1744 at Weymouth, Massachusetts. She was a descendent of the Qunicys', a very prestigious family in the colonies, on her mothers' side. On her fathers' side Abigail was a descendent of Congressional Ministers. During a time when women did not receive a formal education, her grandmother at home taught Abigail. Her eagerness to learn and to read is what created a bond between John Adams and her. Abigail was married to John Adams in 1764. Their marriage has been described as one of the mind and the heart. The young couple moved to a small farm in Boston as Johns' law practice expanded. In the next ten years Abigail gave birth to three sons and two daughters. The main goal in her life had now become watching over the family and home without her husband. The time apart from John was spent teaching her children, dealing with wartime shortages, inflation, and running the farm with little help and writing letters to ease her loneliness. It was in these letters that Abigail Adams views on government and feminism were made apparent to John Adams. While John was away helping the country declare independence, Abigail wrote her most famous letter to him. On March 31, 1776 Abigail wrote: " I long to hear that you have declared an independency- and by the way in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I would desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors." "Remember all men would be tyrants if they could. If perticular care and attention is not paid to the ladies we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice, or representation." The reaction of John Adams was less than satisfactory. He responded by telling Abigail that he had laughed at her request. He called her letter saucy and told her he had more to deal with than the request of women. This angered Abigail and she wrote to Mercy Otis Warren on April 27, 1776: "He is very saucy to me in return for a List of Female Grievances which I transmitted to him. I think I will get you to join me in a petition to congress. I thought it was very probable our wise statesmen would erect a new government and form a new code of laws. I ventured to speak a word on behalf of our sex, who are rather hardly dealt with by the laws of England which gives such unlimited power to the husband to use his wife." "I believe I even threatened formenting a Rebellion in...	617	ENGLISH	1
Women and Men in Jane Eyre Jane Eyre is written by Charlotte Bronte in 1847 during Victorian Age. It is kind of Bildungsroman, the genre of the novel which focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adult hood. The story of Jane Eyre is about the journey of life of a girl named Jane Eyre. It tells the growing up of Jane Eyre who is looking for answer and experience. At the beginning, Jane stays with her aunt, Mrs. Reed because Uncle Reed makes her promise that she will raise Jane as her own child. She lives at Gateshead Hall along with the other members of Reed’s family, they are her cousins; John Reed, Georgiana Reed, and Eliza Reed. Jane often gets bad treats from John by bullying her. Jane starts her journey of life when she is 10 years old. She decides to leave Gateshead Hall and agrees to be sent away to school at Lowood. In this school, she meets her first best friend, a young girl named Helen Burns but later Helen died because of typhus. After Jane earns many experiences in years at Lowood, she moves to Thornfield to be a governess. She teaches a French girl named Adele. Later on, Jane finds herself falling in love with her employer, the master of Thornfield, Edward Rochester. They decide to get married, but it is cancelled because Rochester already has a wife. Knowing that, Jane decides to go away from Thornfield and meets three siblings of Riverses who take care of Jane at Marsh End and Moor House, they are St. John Rivers, Diana Rivers, and Mary Rivers. Accidently, Jane and Riverses are cousins because their uncle is John Eyre, who has already dead and left Jane a large fortune. St. John asks Jane to accompany him as his wife to go to India as a missionary, but she refuses it. At the end of the story, Jane rebuilds her relationship with Rochester at Ferndean and they soon marry. An analysis of the character “Jane Eyre” reveals the role of woman in Victorian Age is restricted by the domination of men and the rules of society. The life of Jane in Gateshead Hall shows that her life is dominated by male figure, it is John who always bullies her by doing violence or even insulting her as “rat”. Jane also realizes that her gender and status makes her lower than Reeds when Abbot says “You ought not to think yourself on an equality with Misses Reed and Master Reed. They will have a great deal of money, and you will have none. ” It shows that she has no right to against Reeds family because Abbot says that thing after Jane is locked in the red room as a punishment of her fight to John. In Lowood, Jane still receives male’s domination from Mr. Brocklehurst, a principal of school that uses his power to control Jane by embarrassing Jane in front of people at school. He says that Jane is a liar and punishes Jane to stand on stool for half an hour longer, with nobody be allowed to speak to her during the remainder of the day. When Jane becomes a governess at Thornfield, she also gets the domination of male power from Rochester when he offers Jane to be his wife even though Jane has already known that Rochester is already married. It shows that Rochester tries to keep Jane, but Jane decides to go away from Thornfield. Last but not least, St John tries to take control of Jane by asking her to be his wife and accompanying him as missionary in India. Jane always refuses it, but St John keep asking that things which seem to be a forcefulness. As you can see above, during Victorian Age, womens’ rights and freedoms are restricted. These can be seen in this novel. They can not hold a job unless it is a teacher. Men try to control them through the domination by using their power. Women are also in the under control of the rules of society which can make them be valued as an ideal women. With this kind of oppression, women try to fight against the domination and the rules of society by expressing it in the writing or literature at that time, as in this novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte.	<urn:uuid:664f3b22-2a5a-4ec2-bd65-01e246d3de88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/women-and-men-in-jane-eyre-115676	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00472.warc.gz	en	0.983393	882	3.40625	3	[ 0.15694580972194672, 0.29583263397216797, 0.0361236035823822, 0.44433337450027466, -0.08156052231788635, 0.06464080512523651, -0.06023438274860382, -0.15100987255573273, 0.12990830838680267, -0.4198116064071655, 0.16410870850086212, -0.234257772564888, 0.06595906615257263, 0.12015059590339...	1	Women and Men in Jane Eyre Jane Eyre is written by Charlotte Bronte in 1847 during Victorian Age. It is kind of Bildungsroman, the genre of the novel which focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adult hood. The story of Jane Eyre is about the journey of life of a girl named Jane Eyre. It tells the growing up of Jane Eyre who is looking for answer and experience. At the beginning, Jane stays with her aunt, Mrs. Reed because Uncle Reed makes her promise that she will raise Jane as her own child. She lives at Gateshead Hall along with the other members of Reed’s family, they are her cousins; John Reed, Georgiana Reed, and Eliza Reed. Jane often gets bad treats from John by bullying her. Jane starts her journey of life when she is 10 years old. She decides to leave Gateshead Hall and agrees to be sent away to school at Lowood. In this school, she meets her first best friend, a young girl named Helen Burns but later Helen died because of typhus. After Jane earns many experiences in years at Lowood, she moves to Thornfield to be a governess. She teaches a French girl named Adele. Later on, Jane finds herself falling in love with her employer, the master of Thornfield, Edward Rochester. They decide to get married, but it is cancelled because Rochester already has a wife. Knowing that, Jane decides to go away from Thornfield and meets three siblings of Riverses who take care of Jane at Marsh End and Moor House, they are St. John Rivers, Diana Rivers, and Mary Rivers. Accidently, Jane and Riverses are cousins because their uncle is John Eyre, who has already dead and left Jane a large fortune. St. John asks Jane to accompany him as his wife to go to India as a missionary, but she refuses it. At the end of the story, Jane rebuilds her relationship with Rochester at Ferndean and they soon marry. An analysis of the character “Jane Eyre” reveals the role of woman in Victorian Age is restricted by the domination of men and the rules of society. The life of Jane in Gateshead Hall shows that her life is dominated by male figure, it is John who always bullies her by doing violence or even insulting her as “rat”. Jane also realizes that her gender and status makes her lower than Reeds when Abbot says “You ought not to think yourself on an equality with Misses Reed and Master Reed. They will have a great deal of money, and you will have none. ” It shows that she has no right to against Reeds family because Abbot says that thing after Jane is locked in the red room as a punishment of her fight to John. In Lowood, Jane still receives male’s domination from Mr. Brocklehurst, a principal of school that uses his power to control Jane by embarrassing Jane in front of people at school. He says that Jane is a liar and punishes Jane to stand on stool for half an hour longer, with nobody be allowed to speak to her during the remainder of the day. When Jane becomes a governess at Thornfield, she also gets the domination of male power from Rochester when he offers Jane to be his wife even though Jane has already known that Rochester is already married. It shows that Rochester tries to keep Jane, but Jane decides to go away from Thornfield. Last but not least, St John tries to take control of Jane by asking her to be his wife and accompanying him as missionary in India. Jane always refuses it, but St John keep asking that things which seem to be a forcefulness. As you can see above, during Victorian Age, womens’ rights and freedoms are restricted. These can be seen in this novel. They can not hold a job unless it is a teacher. Men try to control them through the domination by using their power. Women are also in the under control of the rules of society which can make them be valued as an ideal women. With this kind of oppression, women try to fight against the domination and the rules of society by expressing it in the writing or literature at that time, as in this novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte.	869	ENGLISH	1
George Washington, a hero from the Revolutionary War, was amazingly elected as president despite the fact that he was not interested in politics. Fascinatingly, he did not campaign for the position as the first president of the United States of America. He was not even enthusiastic about politics (Gaines 19). Elected for president, George Washington had a tough decision ahead of him. He had to chose either to leave his beautiful home, Mount Vernon, and to accept the position of presidency or to decline the position. After accepting the position, Washington, who was fifty-seven years old at the time, was inaugurated on April 30, 1789 in New York City, which was the capital of the United States. Washington was the only president ever to be inaugurated in New York City. Washington’s years of presidency extended from 1789-1797. Picking Alexander Hamilton as his financial advisor and Thomas Jefferson as his secretary of state, Washington saved himself from a great amount of stress. George Washington instructed to: Be courteous to all, but intimate with few, and let those few be well tried before you give them your confidence. True friendship is a plant of slow growth, and must undergo and withstand the shocks of adversity before it is entitled to the appellation. (dictionary.com/quotes-George Washington). This quote shows his views on who he chose for his cabinet. During Washington’s first term as president, Hamilton began to form the conservative party and Jefferson started forming the liberal party. One important task Washington worked on during his first term was choosing the location of the new capital of The United States. When the time came for the election of 1793, Washington did not campaign. Amazingly, he was elected anyways. Washington’s second term was much harder than his first term because of disagreements between the conservatives and liberals and because Washington tried to maintain peace between the American citizens and the Native Americans. “George Washington is the only president who never lived in the White House” (Gaines 32). “In his farewell address, George Washington told…	<urn:uuid:56ab5a6e-720d-492a-bc6f-40cd2c110095>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/a-Renewed-Nation-George-Washington-598277.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00338.warc.gz	en	0.984026	431	3.703125	4	[ -0.1992185264825821, 0.43396124243736267, 0.43575406074523926, 0.032972950488328934, -0.7350844144821167, 0.5123767852783203, 0.4231552481651306, 0.18792316317558289, 0.12433090060949326, 0.22579684853553772, 0.31298643350601196, 0.671781599521637, 0.20591430366039276, 0.5996546149253845, ...	1	George Washington, a hero from the Revolutionary War, was amazingly elected as president despite the fact that he was not interested in politics. Fascinatingly, he did not campaign for the position as the first president of the United States of America. He was not even enthusiastic about politics (Gaines 19). Elected for president, George Washington had a tough decision ahead of him. He had to chose either to leave his beautiful home, Mount Vernon, and to accept the position of presidency or to decline the position. After accepting the position, Washington, who was fifty-seven years old at the time, was inaugurated on April 30, 1789 in New York City, which was the capital of the United States. Washington was the only president ever to be inaugurated in New York City. Washington’s years of presidency extended from 1789-1797. Picking Alexander Hamilton as his financial advisor and Thomas Jefferson as his secretary of state, Washington saved himself from a great amount of stress. George Washington instructed to: Be courteous to all, but intimate with few, and let those few be well tried before you give them your confidence. True friendship is a plant of slow growth, and must undergo and withstand the shocks of adversity before it is entitled to the appellation. (dictionary.com/quotes-George Washington). This quote shows his views on who he chose for his cabinet. During Washington’s first term as president, Hamilton began to form the conservative party and Jefferson started forming the liberal party. One important task Washington worked on during his first term was choosing the location of the new capital of The United States. When the time came for the election of 1793, Washington did not campaign. Amazingly, he was elected anyways. Washington’s second term was much harder than his first term because of disagreements between the conservatives and liberals and because Washington tried to maintain peace between the American citizens and the Native Americans. “George Washington is the only president who never lived in the White House” (Gaines 32). “In his farewell address, George Washington told…	429	ENGLISH	1
2 Greece’s Dark AgesNot long after the end of the Trojan War, the civilization of Greece collapsed. No one knows exactly why. Trade outside the borders stopped, art and writing stopped, and people only survived on what they could produce themselves. This however, became a good thing because the Greek’s found new places to settle and begin again. Between B.C. was known as the Dark Ages of Greece. 3 Rise of the Greek City-States Polis After a period of 400 years, life began to change in Greece. People started settling in areas with large hills where residents could find shelter and safety in times of war called an acropolis. These civilizations or city-states were called a polis and it usually revolved around one city. Citizens usually met in an area called an agora, which is a cleared, flat area where farmers and business people met and traded goods. 5 Greek City-States Polis As a city-state or polis developed, each polis had a different government. The leaders of each polis had to be a citizen. A citizen is a person who has certain rights and responsibilities in his or her country or community. However, in Greece only men could be citizens. Women and slaves were not considered for citizenship. 6 Greek City-States Polis Athens was governed by this type in 600 B.C. GovernmentRichestMaleCitizensOligarchy 7 Greek City-States Polis Remember a city-state is a self-governing area. There were several city-states and each one had its’ own government, army, and religion.Originally only the richest and most powerful families or aristocrats ruled the government. They controlled the best land and had money for horses, chariots, and the best weapons. This type of rule is called an oligarchy. 8 Greek City-States Polis Athens was governed by this type first. GovernmentOne ruler or kingMaleMeans-rule by oneMonarchy or tyrant 9 Greek City-State or Polis Due to the fact that the merchants were trading and becoming richer, they were able to develop an army of foot soldiers to overthrow aristocrats in government.As a result, the people were wanting more say in the government and a new leader took over. A monarchy emerged by one leader called a tyrant. This term means a ruler who seized power by force. Tyrants were supported by the middle class and were usually good rulers. Some were and some were not. 10 A New GovernmentEventually, the people of many city-states overthrew tyrants. Some of the cities adopted a form of government called a democracy.A democracy citizens govern themselves. In 594B. C. A leader named Solon won the power to reform the laws. His first laws canceled all debts and freed citizens who had been enslaved due to debt. 11 GovernmentAnother law allowed any male over the age of 18 to have a say in the debate of any laws. What does this remind you of?Unfortunately, women and slaves were not considered citizens and did not have a say in the democracy. 12 Greek City-State Sparta In 700 B. C. Sparta covered much of the southern Peloponnesus and was the largest city-state in Greece.A low mountain made up Sparta’s acropolis where the leaders made the decisions.Below in the agora, the farmers were conducting trade and selling crops. Many of the Spartan farmers were made up of slaves that were captured during invasions. 13 Greek City-State Sparta Slaves in Sparta numbered seven to one free person. In fact, there were so many slaves that they caused a revolt to try and overtake the government. The Spartans won, but decided then to make their army the strongest in the world.From then on, the people of Spartadevoted much of their lives to trainingand making their polis strong. 14 The People of SpartaLife in Sparta was harsh and cruel for the people of Sparta. The life of every Spartan was in the hands of the government. Only the strongest babies would be kept in Sparta. At the age of seven, the boys would leave their homes and sent to barracks to begin their training. They would be given a thin mat and one cloak and very little food. Boys learned how to steal, but if they got caught they would be severely beaten. 15 Spartan ChildrenBoys were expected to bear pain, hardship, and punishment in silence. When he reached age 20, he became a soldier, when he turned 30, he could take his place in the assembly and if he was married he could move in with his wife.The girls were also expected to trainand become strong so they could bearand raise strong children. 16 Spartan attitudesThe Spartans did not mingle with other Greeks. They were not allowed to travel, nor were they interested in the arts or desired wealth. The Spartans were known for their great military strength and bravery.Women however, were allowedto run farms or estates. 17 AthensLiving in Athens was completely different than life in Sparta. Where life was harsh in Sparta, life in Athens was much easier. Boys worked with their fathers in the fields or in their shops. Some went to school if their parents could afford it.The girls had life very different. They did not train for sports, and many helped their mothers at home or on the farm. They were raised to “see little, hear little, and ask no more questions than are absolutely necessary.” 18 Shared CultureThe people of Athens did not discuss politics everyday. They also were quite religious in their worship to their gods and goddesses. The Greek belief that many gods and goddesses lived on Mount Olympus and governed everything on the earth.We will study more about Greek mythology later. 19 Look on page 200 and 201Shoulder partners take turns reading to each other and be ready to discuss information in class.Terms to Know:Polis, acropolis, agora, citizen, oligarchy, monarchy, democracy, colony, Homer, Athens, Sparta, Mount Olympus 20 HomeworkIn addition to the reading on your study guide, also read the section on page 206 and answer the following questions.How does the life of the Spartan boy tell you about life in Sparta?What can you infer about the mentality of the people? Their expectations for their boys?	<urn:uuid:8392a707-7c82-43bc-929c-4eeee96309da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://slideplayer.com/slide/6297961/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00254.warc.gz	en	0.986292	1,313	3.8125	4	[ -0.18435218930244446, 0.25609290599823, 0.1271166056394577, -0.281737357378006, -0.14345276355743408, -0.24569417536258698, 0.04204048588871956, 0.3050171732902527, -0.2781033217906952, 0.20662151277065277, -0.29064613580703735, 0.0070978025905787945, -0.19991175830364227, 0.54302942752838...	2	2 Greece’s Dark AgesNot long after the end of the Trojan War, the civilization of Greece collapsed. No one knows exactly why. Trade outside the borders stopped, art and writing stopped, and people only survived on what they could produce themselves. This however, became a good thing because the Greek’s found new places to settle and begin again. Between B.C. was known as the Dark Ages of Greece. 3 Rise of the Greek City-States Polis After a period of 400 years, life began to change in Greece. People started settling in areas with large hills where residents could find shelter and safety in times of war called an acropolis. These civilizations or city-states were called a polis and it usually revolved around one city. Citizens usually met in an area called an agora, which is a cleared, flat area where farmers and business people met and traded goods. 5 Greek City-States Polis As a city-state or polis developed, each polis had a different government. The leaders of each polis had to be a citizen. A citizen is a person who has certain rights and responsibilities in his or her country or community. However, in Greece only men could be citizens. Women and slaves were not considered for citizenship. 6 Greek City-States Polis Athens was governed by this type in 600 B.C. GovernmentRichestMaleCitizensOligarchy 7 Greek City-States Polis Remember a city-state is a self-governing area. There were several city-states and each one had its’ own government, army, and religion.Originally only the richest and most powerful families or aristocrats ruled the government. They controlled the best land and had money for horses, chariots, and the best weapons. This type of rule is called an oligarchy. 8 Greek City-States Polis Athens was governed by this type first. GovernmentOne ruler or kingMaleMeans-rule by oneMonarchy or tyrant 9 Greek City-State or Polis Due to the fact that the merchants were trading and becoming richer, they were able to develop an army of foot soldiers to overthrow aristocrats in government.As a result, the people were wanting more say in the government and a new leader took over. A monarchy emerged by one leader called a tyrant. This term means a ruler who seized power by force. Tyrants were supported by the middle class and were usually good rulers. Some were and some were not. 10 A New GovernmentEventually, the people of many city-states overthrew tyrants. Some of the cities adopted a form of government called a democracy.A democracy citizens govern themselves. In 594B. C. A leader named Solon won the power to reform the laws. His first laws canceled all debts and freed citizens who had been enslaved due to debt. 11 GovernmentAnother law allowed any male over the age of 18 to have a say in the debate of any laws. What does this remind you of?Unfortunately, women and slaves were not considered citizens and did not have a say in the democracy. 12 Greek City-State Sparta In 700 B. C. Sparta covered much of the southern Peloponnesus and was the largest city-state in Greece.A low mountain made up Sparta’s acropolis where the leaders made the decisions.Below in the agora, the farmers were conducting trade and selling crops. Many of the Spartan farmers were made up of slaves that were captured during invasions. 13 Greek City-State Sparta Slaves in Sparta numbered seven to one free person. In fact, there were so many slaves that they caused a revolt to try and overtake the government. The Spartans won, but decided then to make their army the strongest in the world.From then on, the people of Spartadevoted much of their lives to trainingand making their polis strong. 14 The People of SpartaLife in Sparta was harsh and cruel for the people of Sparta. The life of every Spartan was in the hands of the government. Only the strongest babies would be kept in Sparta. At the age of seven, the boys would leave their homes and sent to barracks to begin their training. They would be given a thin mat and one cloak and very little food. Boys learned how to steal, but if they got caught they would be severely beaten. 15 Spartan ChildrenBoys were expected to bear pain, hardship, and punishment in silence. When he reached age 20, he became a soldier, when he turned 30, he could take his place in the assembly and if he was married he could move in with his wife.The girls were also expected to trainand become strong so they could bearand raise strong children. 16 Spartan attitudesThe Spartans did not mingle with other Greeks. They were not allowed to travel, nor were they interested in the arts or desired wealth. The Spartans were known for their great military strength and bravery.Women however, were allowedto run farms or estates. 17 AthensLiving in Athens was completely different than life in Sparta. Where life was harsh in Sparta, life in Athens was much easier. Boys worked with their fathers in the fields or in their shops. Some went to school if their parents could afford it.The girls had life very different. They did not train for sports, and many helped their mothers at home or on the farm. They were raised to “see little, hear little, and ask no more questions than are absolutely necessary.” 18 Shared CultureThe people of Athens did not discuss politics everyday. They also were quite religious in their worship to their gods and goddesses. The Greek belief that many gods and goddesses lived on Mount Olympus and governed everything on the earth.We will study more about Greek mythology later. 19 Look on page 200 and 201Shoulder partners take turns reading to each other and be ready to discuss information in class.Terms to Know:Polis, acropolis, agora, citizen, oligarchy, monarchy, democracy, colony, Homer, Athens, Sparta, Mount Olympus 20 HomeworkIn addition to the reading on your study guide, also read the section on page 206 and answer the following questions.How does the life of the Spartan boy tell you about life in Sparta?What can you infer about the mentality of the people? Their expectations for their boys?	1,308	ENGLISH	1
Class Teacher - Mrs Wilkinson Today we learnt how paper was made and we also looked at how paper is recycled. We used some already used paper and recycled it ourselves. Today we used the plastic bags we have collected and turned them into skipping ropes to play with. We had lots of fun and were happy that the plastic bags would not end up in landfill or the ocean. Safety Seymour came to school to help us all learn about carbon monoxide. All the children loved taking part in the activities and got to take home a carbon monoxide alarm for their home. We have explored how colour is made in our science lessons. The children enjoyed making a colour wheel and discussing what happens to the colours. Today we had a visit from the police. The children got to ask questions about their job and find out about how the police help the community.	<urn:uuid:1696c24f-bce8-4a20-a191-5044039dc647>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ightenhill.lancs.sch.uk/class-5/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00058.warc.gz	en	0.982175	173	3.375	3	[ -0.6148518919944763, -0.029923994094133377, 0.29984885454177856, -0.26866236329078674, -0.17033544182777405, 0.09017717093229294, 0.4584489166736603, 0.3235917389392853, -0.3578183650970459, 0.35024458169937134, 0.032842058688402176, -0.23335252702236176, -0.20558036863803864, 0.4511186182...	1	Class Teacher - Mrs Wilkinson Today we learnt how paper was made and we also looked at how paper is recycled. We used some already used paper and recycled it ourselves. Today we used the plastic bags we have collected and turned them into skipping ropes to play with. We had lots of fun and were happy that the plastic bags would not end up in landfill or the ocean. Safety Seymour came to school to help us all learn about carbon monoxide. All the children loved taking part in the activities and got to take home a carbon monoxide alarm for their home. We have explored how colour is made in our science lessons. The children enjoyed making a colour wheel and discussing what happens to the colours. Today we had a visit from the police. The children got to ask questions about their job and find out about how the police help the community.	169	ENGLISH	1
Essay on Shylock in William Shakespeare's Othello The Jews ancestral home-land, where they had lived for hundreds of years was Palestine. However, they were exiled from this land in about the year 400 AD. They scattered out and formed a Diaspora, a community of exiled people. Once the Roman Empire had deteriorated, a lot of them began to make their way back to Palestine, which was then invaded by the Turks, and ruled by them for 800 years until the British came. The Jews came over to Britain with William the Conqueror in 1066, and in 1217 they had to wear yellow badges to distinguish them. They were heavily discriminated against and were blamed in murder cases often involving Christian children, leading …show more content… Shylock's story begins when he's just starting to snap; all of his life has been a struggle. Not only have his fellow Jews and ancestors been persecuted for their religion, but so has he. The Christians have made it so that he can only do one job, then they slander him for charging interest and making a profit. In our first meeting with Shylock and Antonio together, Shylock complains that Antonio always insults him, spits on him and dismisses him. Antonio says: 'I am as like to call thee so again, to spit on thee again, to spurn thee too.' This blatantly shows his disrespect for Shylock and his open hatred for him. However, this doesn't represent clearly his hatred for Shylock's race, and when, Shylock says, in an aside, on his first sight of Antonio in the play, 'I hate him for he is a Christian' This is a general term of racism he uses, and it would be easy to	<urn:uuid:34c424e9-47b7-4505-8cf5-80c8199ce69a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/shylock-in-william-shakespeares-othello/FKJG54NNAC	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00041.warc.gz	en	0.991745	363	3.625	4	[ 0.22524286806583405, 0.3085116147994995, 0.0917358323931694, -0.09035904705524445, -0.28546229004859924, -0.40048032999038696, 0.22397853434085846, -0.14006052911281586, 0.4266241490840912, -0.3843209743499756, -0.1616256833076477, -0.15360182523727417, 0.03831467404961586, -0.013845033943...	1	Essay on Shylock in William Shakespeare's Othello The Jews ancestral home-land, where they had lived for hundreds of years was Palestine. However, they were exiled from this land in about the year 400 AD. They scattered out and formed a Diaspora, a community of exiled people. Once the Roman Empire had deteriorated, a lot of them began to make their way back to Palestine, which was then invaded by the Turks, and ruled by them for 800 years until the British came. The Jews came over to Britain with William the Conqueror in 1066, and in 1217 they had to wear yellow badges to distinguish them. They were heavily discriminated against and were blamed in murder cases often involving Christian children, leading …show more content… Shylock's story begins when he's just starting to snap; all of his life has been a struggle. Not only have his fellow Jews and ancestors been persecuted for their religion, but so has he. The Christians have made it so that he can only do one job, then they slander him for charging interest and making a profit. In our first meeting with Shylock and Antonio together, Shylock complains that Antonio always insults him, spits on him and dismisses him. Antonio says: 'I am as like to call thee so again, to spit on thee again, to spurn thee too.' This blatantly shows his disrespect for Shylock and his open hatred for him. However, this doesn't represent clearly his hatred for Shylock's race, and when, Shylock says, in an aside, on his first sight of Antonio in the play, 'I hate him for he is a Christian' This is a general term of racism he uses, and it would be easy to	373	ENGLISH	1
The Removal of the Cherokees After England’s acceptance of the terms of the peace made with France and Spain in 1763, in which France gave Louisiana to Spain, the grants formerly made to the six English colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon there after these former colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon thereafter these former colonies, now states of the Union, ceded their unoccupied western lands to the government of the United States, thereby establishing the so-called public domain. Of these states, the last to cede its western lands was Georgia, which in 1802 surrendered all claim to land included in the present states of Alabama and Mississippi. This cession was made by what was known as the Georgia Compact. It also provided that the United States should at its own expense extinguish for the use of Georgia the Indian title to all lands within the state as soon as it could be done peaceably and upon reasonable terms. The purchase of Louisiana the following year placed the United States in possession of a large amount of territory It seemed reasonable, at least to the white man, that these Georgia Indians, mainly the Cherokees and Creeks, might be induced to move. One reason given by President Jefferson for this purchase was that it would make a suitable area for a new home for large tribes east of the Mississippi owning fertile lands needed for settlement by the whites. Years earlier some parties of Cherokees had crossed the Mississippi and had gone into what is now northwestern Arkansas because of the abundance of game in that region. Some of them had settled there more or less permanently, and from time to time others came out to join them. President Jefferson believed that others, or perhaps the entire tribe, might be induced to migrate to the West. The year following the treaty for the purchase of Louisiana he instructed officials of the United States government residing in the Cherokee Nation to approach the chiefs and head men of the tribe with the suggestion that the Cherokees exchange their lands in Georgia for others beyond the Mississippi. The officials reported to the President, however, that the Indians showed no sympathy with the proposal and had expressed themselves as determined to retain their lands and remain in the east. Yet the suggestion had apparently not fallen upon altogether deaf ears; or perhaps the fact that a number of Cherokees were already living beyond the Mississippi as squatters upon land to which they had no title also had its effect. At any rate, in 1808 a small party of Cherokees appeared in Washington and called to see the President. They explained to him that many whites had settled along the borders of their country; that, as a result, game was growing scarce; and that, moreover, the livestock of these settlers trespassed upon their fields and caused the Indians much trouble and annoyance. At times, too, lawless white men preyed upon their people, sold them liquor, and often stole their horses and cattle. Under such circumstances the Indians were at a loss as to what they should do. Some thought that it would be better to give up their lands in Georgia and remove to the West where there was an abundance of game, and there, remote from the influence of the whites, to continue to live as their forefathers had in the past. Others believed it would be better to remain where they were, learn more of the white civilization and ways of life, and come ultimately to accept them as their own. Since the two groups could not agree, they asked President Jefferson to send surveyors to their country to establish a line separating the land of those who wished to remain from that of others who wanted to go, and to give to the latter in exchange for the lands they would cede in the East a new country beyond the Mississippi. Jefferson replied that it should be as they wished; he instructed them to return to their homes and send an exploring party to the West to look for a new home. When they had found lands suited to their needs, he would by treaty grant them this country, giving them “acre for acre as much land as they gave up in the East”. He would also pay them for any improvements which they might abandon, and would assist them to move by providing subsistence for the journey and a year’s supply of provisions after the new home had been reached in order that they might not be reduced to want before crops could be grown and harvested. President Jefferson went out of office, the following March, and the growing difficulties between the United States and Europe, culminating in 1812 with the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, served to delay the Cherokee affairs. Because of this the first Cherokee treaty of removal was not signed until 1817. By this treaty the Cherokees surrendered nearly one third of their land in the East in exchange for a new grant between the Arkansas and White rivers in what is now the northwestern part of Arkansas. By this time many Cherokees were already living in this area, and a great many more migrated westward under the terms of this treaty. In this way the Cherokee Nation became divided into two parts. Those residing in Arkansas, called the Cherokee West, numbered seven to eight thousand, and those still remaining east of the Mississippi, sometimes referred to as the Cherokee East, numbered about twice that number or slightly more. Accordingly, in 1828 the Cherokee West signed a treaty with the United States by which they agreed to give up their lands in Arkansas in exchange for a new grant of seven million acres farther west in what is now Oklahoma. The Indians where being pushed even farther west. The Cherokees realized only too well that only by the most desperate exertions could they hope to retain the land they loved and had occupied so long. Feeling that their living under a tribal form of government might be urged as a reason for forcing them to leave Georgia, they determined to adopt a written constitution and code of laws. In 1826 the Cherokee National Council called an election to be held the following year to choose delegates to a constitutional convention for the purpose of forming a fundamental law. This convention met in the summer of 1827, and framed a constitution remodeled on that of the United States. It provided for a principal chief, in whom the executive powers were to be vested, a second chief, a legislative body of two houses called the national council, a supreme court, inferior courts, and local officials. All lands were to be held in common, though any improvements were the property of the one who had made them. White persons who married Cherokees thereby became citizens, but were denied the right to hold office. The constitution was ratified by the Cherokee people at an election held for that purpose, and at the same time officers were chosen for the new government. To the surprise of the Cherokees, the adoption of this new form of government was urged by Georgia as an additional reason for removing them from its limits. The attention of the President of the United States was called to section of the Federal Constitution which declares that no state shall be formed within the limits of another state without the consent of the latter as well as of Congress. It was asserted that the Cherokees had, in adopting a constitution, sought to form a new state within the limits of Georgia. The President promptly asked Congress to provide for an investigation of this purported Indian state and for “arresting its designs”. The first Cherokee principal chief chosen under the terms of the new constitution was William Hicks, the brother of the beloved Chief Charles Hicks, who had authored the constatution but had died in January of 1827. William served but a short time, and in 1828 he was succeeded by John Ross who had been a protege of Charles Hicks for several years. Ross was only one eighth Cherokee and the rest Scottish, but he had been born and reared among the Cherokees, to whom he was deeply devoted. Well educated, with a keep mind and rare ability as a statesman, he served almost continuously as principal chief until his death nearly forty years later. During all these years he wielded a powerful influence in the affairs of the tribe; his life story during this long period is virtually a history of the Cherokee people.	<urn:uuid:d326caf8-e943-43aa-a161-d91a0befd26b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/the-removal-of-the-cherokees/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00434.warc.gz	en	0.987793	1,671	3.984375	4	[ -0.5668951869010925, 0.1342819184064865, 0.5169615149497986, -0.07863560318946838, -0.11556760221719742, -0.2380988448858261, 0.17255379259586334, -0.1745319664478302, 0.01026608981192112, 0.4835221767425537, 0.1966850757598877, 0.22153373062610626, 0.04688531160354614, 0.26171940565109253...	1	The Removal of the Cherokees After England’s acceptance of the terms of the peace made with France and Spain in 1763, in which France gave Louisiana to Spain, the grants formerly made to the six English colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon there after these former colonies were considered good only to the Mississippi River. During the American Revolution and soon thereafter these former colonies, now states of the Union, ceded their unoccupied western lands to the government of the United States, thereby establishing the so-called public domain. Of these states, the last to cede its western lands was Georgia, which in 1802 surrendered all claim to land included in the present states of Alabama and Mississippi. This cession was made by what was known as the Georgia Compact. It also provided that the United States should at its own expense extinguish for the use of Georgia the Indian title to all lands within the state as soon as it could be done peaceably and upon reasonable terms. The purchase of Louisiana the following year placed the United States in possession of a large amount of territory It seemed reasonable, at least to the white man, that these Georgia Indians, mainly the Cherokees and Creeks, might be induced to move. One reason given by President Jefferson for this purchase was that it would make a suitable area for a new home for large tribes east of the Mississippi owning fertile lands needed for settlement by the whites. Years earlier some parties of Cherokees had crossed the Mississippi and had gone into what is now northwestern Arkansas because of the abundance of game in that region. Some of them had settled there more or less permanently, and from time to time others came out to join them. President Jefferson believed that others, or perhaps the entire tribe, might be induced to migrate to the West. The year following the treaty for the purchase of Louisiana he instructed officials of the United States government residing in the Cherokee Nation to approach the chiefs and head men of the tribe with the suggestion that the Cherokees exchange their lands in Georgia for others beyond the Mississippi. The officials reported to the President, however, that the Indians showed no sympathy with the proposal and had expressed themselves as determined to retain their lands and remain in the east. Yet the suggestion had apparently not fallen upon altogether deaf ears; or perhaps the fact that a number of Cherokees were already living beyond the Mississippi as squatters upon land to which they had no title also had its effect. At any rate, in 1808 a small party of Cherokees appeared in Washington and called to see the President. They explained to him that many whites had settled along the borders of their country; that, as a result, game was growing scarce; and that, moreover, the livestock of these settlers trespassed upon their fields and caused the Indians much trouble and annoyance. At times, too, lawless white men preyed upon their people, sold them liquor, and often stole their horses and cattle. Under such circumstances the Indians were at a loss as to what they should do. Some thought that it would be better to give up their lands in Georgia and remove to the West where there was an abundance of game, and there, remote from the influence of the whites, to continue to live as their forefathers had in the past. Others believed it would be better to remain where they were, learn more of the white civilization and ways of life, and come ultimately to accept them as their own. Since the two groups could not agree, they asked President Jefferson to send surveyors to their country to establish a line separating the land of those who wished to remain from that of others who wanted to go, and to give to the latter in exchange for the lands they would cede in the East a new country beyond the Mississippi. Jefferson replied that it should be as they wished; he instructed them to return to their homes and send an exploring party to the West to look for a new home. When they had found lands suited to their needs, he would by treaty grant them this country, giving them “acre for acre as much land as they gave up in the East”. He would also pay them for any improvements which they might abandon, and would assist them to move by providing subsistence for the journey and a year’s supply of provisions after the new home had been reached in order that they might not be reduced to want before crops could be grown and harvested. President Jefferson went out of office, the following March, and the growing difficulties between the United States and Europe, culminating in 1812 with the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, served to delay the Cherokee affairs. Because of this the first Cherokee treaty of removal was not signed until 1817. By this treaty the Cherokees surrendered nearly one third of their land in the East in exchange for a new grant between the Arkansas and White rivers in what is now the northwestern part of Arkansas. By this time many Cherokees were already living in this area, and a great many more migrated westward under the terms of this treaty. In this way the Cherokee Nation became divided into two parts. Those residing in Arkansas, called the Cherokee West, numbered seven to eight thousand, and those still remaining east of the Mississippi, sometimes referred to as the Cherokee East, numbered about twice that number or slightly more. Accordingly, in 1828 the Cherokee West signed a treaty with the United States by which they agreed to give up their lands in Arkansas in exchange for a new grant of seven million acres farther west in what is now Oklahoma. The Indians where being pushed even farther west. The Cherokees realized only too well that only by the most desperate exertions could they hope to retain the land they loved and had occupied so long. Feeling that their living under a tribal form of government might be urged as a reason for forcing them to leave Georgia, they determined to adopt a written constitution and code of laws. In 1826 the Cherokee National Council called an election to be held the following year to choose delegates to a constitutional convention for the purpose of forming a fundamental law. This convention met in the summer of 1827, and framed a constitution remodeled on that of the United States. It provided for a principal chief, in whom the executive powers were to be vested, a second chief, a legislative body of two houses called the national council, a supreme court, inferior courts, and local officials. All lands were to be held in common, though any improvements were the property of the one who had made them. White persons who married Cherokees thereby became citizens, but were denied the right to hold office. The constitution was ratified by the Cherokee people at an election held for that purpose, and at the same time officers were chosen for the new government. To the surprise of the Cherokees, the adoption of this new form of government was urged by Georgia as an additional reason for removing them from its limits. The attention of the President of the United States was called to section of the Federal Constitution which declares that no state shall be formed within the limits of another state without the consent of the latter as well as of Congress. It was asserted that the Cherokees had, in adopting a constitution, sought to form a new state within the limits of Georgia. The President promptly asked Congress to provide for an investigation of this purported Indian state and for “arresting its designs”. The first Cherokee principal chief chosen under the terms of the new constitution was William Hicks, the brother of the beloved Chief Charles Hicks, who had authored the constatution but had died in January of 1827. William served but a short time, and in 1828 he was succeeded by John Ross who had been a protege of Charles Hicks for several years. Ross was only one eighth Cherokee and the rest Scottish, but he had been born and reared among the Cherokees, to whom he was deeply devoted. Well educated, with a keep mind and rare ability as a statesman, he served almost continuously as principal chief until his death nearly forty years later. During all these years he wielded a powerful influence in the affairs of the tribe; his life story during this long period is virtually a history of the Cherokee people.	1,692	ENGLISH	1
By Christopher Miskimon World War I was only a few days old when the German light cruiser SMS Emden, patrolling off the Korean Peninsula, spotted its first target. Shortly after 4 am on August 4, 1914, lookouts spotted what they believed to be the Russian cruiser Askold. The Emden’s crew readied for action. The Russian vessel fled before it, prompting Emden’s crew to fire a series of warning shots. The vessel slowed after the tenth round and stopped after two more. A boarding party from the Emden discovered that it had not overtaken the cruiser Askold, but instead the 3,500-ton Russian merchant vessel Ryazan. The vessel, which had 80 passengers, had no cargo aboard that would make it a valuable prize. But Captain Karl von Muller, the commander of the Emden, decided to bring the large, fast ship to the German naval base at Tsingtao, China, for conversion into an armed merchant cruiser. The boarders took control of the vessel and ran up the German flag. The two ships arrived in China on August 6. By the end of the month Ryazan would leave port, renamed the Cormoran and under German control. It was the German Navy’s first prize of the war, and it marked the beginning of an amazing record for the Emden. Although the U-boat is often seen as the star of the German Navy during the Great War, Kaiser Wilhelm II’s small force of ships scattered around the globe also gave good service. Some were warships built for specific purposes, and others were converted merchantmen. They had one thing in common, though. They all raided enemy shipping and tied up large numbers of Allied ships dedicated to hunting them. Of all Germany’s raiders, none had a career as bold as the Emden. In the early 20th century Germany controlled a small overseas empire and found itself in growing competition with other European powers, chief among them the United Kingdom. The German East Asiatic Squadron was based at Tsingtao and represented the bulk of German naval strength in the Pacific. The force was commanded by Konteradmiral Maximillian von Spee and included a number of cruisers and smaller vessels along with auxiliary vessels to carry coal, which was the lifeblood of warships during this period. Coal gave ships a great advantage in speed and maneuverability, but their endurance was limited by what they could carry in their bunkers. Among von Spee’s force was the Emden. The SMS that preceded the light cruiser’s name was the German acronym for “His Majesty’s Ship.” She was built in 1908 in Danzig on the Baltic Sea. Weighing in at 3,593 tons, Emden was 387 feet long with a beam of 43 feet. The cruiser was armed with 10 10.5cm cannons along with nine 5-pounders, four machine guns, and two torpedo tubes. Her steam engines provided 13,500 horsepower for a top speed of 24 knots. The 790 tons of coal she could carry gave her a range of 1,850 miles at 20 knots or 3,790 miles at 12 knots. Maximum armor thickness was four inches. Korvettenkapitan Karl von Muller initially commanded the Emden. Born in 1873, he was the son of a Prussian Army officer. When the war began he had 23 years of service in the German Navy and was known as a quiet, competent officer who had the respect of his crew. His second in command was Kapitanleutnant Helmuth von Mucke, who was born in 1881 and also was the son of an Army officer. Mucke had served 14 years and was an extroverted officer who had the crew’s undying admiration. His skills complemented those of von Muller. Emden had two other notable officers. The first was Leutnant zur See Franz Joseph, a nephew of Kaiser Wilhelm. He served as the ship’s torpedo officer. The other was Kapitanleutnant Julius Lauterbach, a reservist who had only recently joined the crew. Lauterbach had long plied the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans as an officer of the Hamburg-Amerika Line and had extensive knowledge of the region, the ships that serviced it, and the type of men who served as crew on those ships. Both von Mucke and Lauterbach would prove invaluable during Emden’s service as a commerce raider. On the war’s eve Emden was in port at Tsingtao. In June the British cruiser Minotaur paid a visit. The Emden’s crew helped host the event, which included balls, banquets, and an athletic event. The Germans won at gymnastics and the high jump while the British crew triumphed in the soccer match. Sailors from both countries got along so well that upon the Minotaur’s departure there were numerous protestations that the two nations would surely never fight one another. In the months preceding the war, many of the crew rotated home with the arrival of new replacements. Having new crew to train kept the officers busy. By the end of July 1914, war was imminent. Admiral von Spee was concerned about his ships becoming trapped at Tsingtao when war broke out. Japan was expected to join the Anglo-French alliance, and it had a substantial fleet nearby. To prevent the loss of his maneuver force von Spee took his fleet to sea on July 31 and soon after dispersed it. It was during this time Emden’s crew captured the Ryazan. After delivering that ship to Tsingtao for conversion to an armed merchant cruiser, Emden rejoined the fleet at Pagan in the Marianas Island chain on August 12. The admiral commanded two armored cruisers, four light cruisers (one of which was the Emden), and a number of supply ships. The challenge became the pressing need for coal to keep the ships sailing. The admiral did not believe there would be a steady supply for his force in the Western Pacific Ocean, so he decided to sail for the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Admiral von Spee expected his ships could readily replenish their coal supplies in the ports of South America. What is more, his ships would find plenty of British merchant vessels in the Eastern Pacific to prey on. Rather than leave the Western Pacific completely in Allied hands, von Spee decided to leave a single light cruiser, the Emden, behind to attack local shipping and other targets of opportunity. One supply ship, the Markomannia, would accompany the Emden. The Markomannia carried 6,000 tons of coal and would keep the cruiser going for some time. Eventually the ship would have to find new sources of fuel through captured ships or raids. Emden and Markomannia sailed southwest from Pagan Island on August 14. Captain von Muller had the crew rig a fake funnel amidships. Emden had three stacks but adding a fourth would make her physically resemble a British County-class cruiser to any distant inspection. Camouflaging her appearance was not only a survival tactic for a commerce raider but also would help lull target vessels into a false sense of security when she approached. The crew had to maintain constant watchfulness and be prepared to act swiftly, whether to attack a merchantman or flee a superior warship. Eight days after leaving Pagan, the two German ships slipped quietly through the Molucca Passage near Indonesia. They stopped where possible to take on water and provisions. On August 29 they moved into the Indian Ocean and entered the Bay of Bengal with its busy shipping lanes. Coal was running low and Emden needed to secure more before she was rendered adrift. Von Muller began hunting for ships as they approached Ceylon, and on the night of September 9 the crew spotted a light in the darkness. They quickly overtook a ship that turned out to be the Greek steamer Pontoporos. Although Greece was a neutral nation, Lieutenant Lauterbach boarded the ship to check its credentials and manifest and found the ship was under contract to deliver coal to the British naval base at Bombay. This marked the cargo as legitimate contraband. The Germans even offered the Greek captain the chance to sail with them under contract and the captain agreed. Von Muller integrated Pontoporos and its cargo of 6,500 tons of coal into his task force. The Emden arrival in the Indian Ocean was unexpected by the Allies and this gave the ship free rein for a time. Von Muller did not waste this advantage and quickly began striking at the merchantmen in the region. On the morning of September 10 smoke was spotted and the cruiser gave chase. Lookouts spotted what appeared to be a merchantman but had strange white structures on its deck that were feared to be gun emplacements. Von Muller took a chance and they moved in, signaling the ship to stop and not use its radio. The boarding party discovered they had taken the British ship Indus, under contract to transport troops of the Indian Army. The white structures were merely newly constructed horse stalls. The ship also carried luxury goods that were quickly confiscated. The ship’s streak of success continued into the next several months. In all Emden captured 23 vessels totaling 101,182 tons, which constituted an impressive record. Coal and other supplies were taken as necessary to keep the German ships going. Pontoporos was eventually sent off on other duties but Markomannia remained. Captain von Muller went to great lengths to treat captured crews with such civility as wartime allowed. Two of the ships he captured were used to take prisoners to neutral ports to be interned or exchanged. Even British newspapers heard of von Muller’s chivalry and wrote kind words about him, grudgingly admiring his success as well. Despite the respect accorded von Muller and his ship, the Allies spared no effort to find the Emden. At its height, a total of 78 British, French, Russian, and Japanese warships were scouring the seas for the German cruiser. Telegraph and radio stations were advised to watch for the vessel and signal immediately if she appeared. Many of these stations were remote and could not hope for timely rescue, but at least it would give the hunters a last location to renew their search. It was imperative to stop the Emden. Shipping in the Indian Ocean was brought to a stop within a short time, insurance rates skyrocketed, and much needed troop convoys from Australia and New Zealand were delayed for lack of suitable escorts. Along with its record of seizing enemy merchantmen, the Emden also conducted daring raids and attacks that only intensified the Allies efforts to end her cruise. On the evening of September 22, Emden cautiously approached the Indian city of Madras. No Indian coastal city had come under attack in centuries. The city was well lit with few precautions taken against attack from the sea. It was a calculated risk. Madras had powerful shore batteries that were sure to reply. The main target was the Burma Oil Company’s storage facility with its oil tanks. Just before 10 pm Emden sat a mere 3,000 meters offshore, her course designed so that errant shells would not strike civilian homes. Again, von Muller was showing his chivalry, though no doubt he also wished to avoid accusations of German barbarity. Minutes later the ship stopped engines, drifting into position at the port. The captain ordered the searchlights turned on and they lit the target ashore. Accompanying the order to illuminate the oil tanks was the command to fire. Emden starboard battery flashed to life, flames spilling from the muzzles of her cannon as explosive shells soared toward land. The first salvo went high, sailing over the oil tanks, though a few rounds found a shore battery. The second salvo landed short, near the water’s edge. The crew had bracketed their target, a good sign. The third salvo struck a tank, sending a cascade of black oil gushing forth as it ignited. Flames leapt into the sky, eliciting a hearty cheer from the German sailors. The gunnery officer adjusted his aim. Another salvo crashed into the next tank, yet nothing happened because the tank was empty. The third tank was full, though, and it exploded, sending flames skyward. The shore batteries returned fire but scored no hits. Their mission accomplished, von Muller ordered a cease fire and Emden quickly withdrew. He kept his ship’s lights on as it headed north. Once out of sight, the lights were extinguished, and she changed course to the south. Approximately 5,000 tons of oil was destroyed, and the citizens of Madras were sent into a panic. Many of the panicked citizens fled the city. It was a daring raid that caused the British great consternation and increased the Emden’s reputation. Just over a month later Emden struck again, this time against an enemy naval force. The Russian cruiser Zhemchug and four French torpedo boats were in port near Penang, Malaya. They were part of the force detailed to hunt for the German raider. The Zhemchug’s crew was cleaning her boilers. Three of the four French torpedo boats were unable to respond quickly because their boilers were cold; however, the fourth torpedo boat, Mousquet, was actively patrolling the area. The Emden, which was disguised as a British light cruiser, sailed into the area without being challenged at 5:15 am on October 22. When it closed to within 500 meters of the Zhemchug, the Emden’s crew raised the German flag. The German cruiser fired a torpedo from 200 meters that struck the Russian cruiser’s engine room. The German sailors simultaneously raked the enemy ship’s crew quarters with their guns. The Russian sailors fired a few rounds in response, but scored no hits. The Emden swung around for another pass. This time it put a second torpedo into the enemy cruiser, which detonated its magazines. The resulting explosion blanketed the area in smoke. In the one-sided surface engagement, the Zhemchug had suffered 91 killed and 106 wounded. Emden stalked the harbor for other targets but soon Mousquet appeared on the horizon. Von Muller ordered an attack and cannon fire lashed out at the small French ship. At 4,000 meters one round struck one of Mousquet’s boilers, covering the ship in a fog of steam. In return, the French ship launched a torpedo and replied with a single gun. Within 10 minutes the battle was over, and the torpedo boat sank. Emden was chased briefly by two of the other torpedo boats but quickly made her escape. This successful raid further increased Emden reputation, especially after the Germans rescued 36 survivors. The ship’s next target was the Cocos Islands, where the British maintained a cable station. Radio intercepts led the crew to believe no enemy ships were close enough to interfere. Unknown to them, one of the troop convoys was nearby, strongly escorted and under radio silence. By this time Emden consort was the coal ship Buresk, captured earlier near Ceylon. Buresk was sent away to await developments and Emden moved on Direction Island, home to the cable and radio station. Arriving just after dawn on November 9, von Mucke led a 50-man landing party in three boats. Emden’s crew did not think they had been spotted, but a Chinese worker saw the ship and warned the British. The British challenged the ship and then sent out a message: “SOS Emden Here.” Von Muller had the transmission jammed, but it was too late. Both radio and telegraph distress calls were already out. In the mistaken belief that no help was nearby, the Germans proceeded with their plan. The Allied troop convoy was 55 miles away. It received the SOS signal, and the commander sent the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney to investigate. The ship was armed with eight 6-inch guns and was well armored. Moreover, she was faster than the Emden. At 9 am Sydney arrived near Direction Island, but the Germans initially mistook her for the Buresk. They realized their error 15 minutes later and quickly got underway, leaving the shore party behind. Unfortunately for von Muller, all 10 of his gunlayers, that is, the men who aimed the ship’s guns, were ashore. There was no time to retrieve them. At 9:40 am she opened fire on Sydney and despite the absence of the gunlayers her first salvo bracketed the Australian ship. Emden had to close the distance to make her guns more effective and use her torpedoes. Sydney’s Captain John Glossop knew this and turned his ship to keep the distance open. Still, Emden’s third salvo struck, knocking out both of Sydney’s fire control stations. This slowed down the Australian’s fire and hindered accuracy, but her armor was shrugging off the German shells. Sydney’s first hit came 20 minutes later, destroying Emden’s radio room. Glossop kept turning his ship to increase the range, giving his 6-inch cannons the edge. An ad-hoc fire control station was set up and soon shells were pounding the Emden. First, the electrical system was knocked out. Then, the steering gear suffered extensive damage, thus reducing the vessel’s maneuverability. The fire from the Australian ship became more accurate as a result. Even worse, a shell landed among the aft guns and detonated their ammunition, killing the crew and causing a large fire. Shell after shell landed on the Emden, crumpling the upper decks and bringing down the foremast. The killing blow was a salvo that hit all three funnels, collapsing them. This denied air to the boilers, reducing the ship’s speed. Emden was defeated. Von Muller knew he had to quit the fight. Rather than abandon ship, he directed it to nearby North Keeling Island. He beached the Emden on the island’s reef. Sydney fired two more salvos before realizing the Emden was finished. At that point, the Australian ship went in pursuit of the Buresk, which appeared nearby. The crew of that ship scuttled and abandoned her. Von Muller and his surviving crew became prisoners. German casualties numbered 134 sailors. The prisoners were generally treated well and many Allied officers personally visited the German officers to congratulate them on their valor and accomplishment, despite their status as enemies. Von Mucke and the landing party managed to sneak off in a schooner. They sailed across the Indian Ocean to Arabia. From there, they continued overland to Turkey, where they arrived in May 1915. As for the Emden, she lay stuck on the reef where she had been ditched until the 1950s, when a Japanese salvage company removed what was left of the hull. The Emden’s career, which ended in what became known as the Battle of Cocos, was brief but brilliant. It was marked not only by its impressive prizes, but also by the humanity and chivalry of its crew.	<urn:uuid:e5e0ed07-a564-4783-bb74-5ffb26576a77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2019/12/20/germanys-bold-naval-raider/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00414.warc.gz	en	0.984216	3,982	3.484375	3	[ -0.15114650130271912, 0.39694637060165405, 0.1589057743549347, -0.42729055881500244, -0.12760791182518005, -0.2602222263813019, 0.03314092382788658, 0.3072337210178375, -0.29437658190727234, -0.1457507163286209, 0.16397973895072937, -0.25172245502471924, -0.0570090152323246, 0.245265409350...	10	By Christopher Miskimon World War I was only a few days old when the German light cruiser SMS Emden, patrolling off the Korean Peninsula, spotted its first target. Shortly after 4 am on August 4, 1914, lookouts spotted what they believed to be the Russian cruiser Askold. The Emden’s crew readied for action. The Russian vessel fled before it, prompting Emden’s crew to fire a series of warning shots. The vessel slowed after the tenth round and stopped after two more. A boarding party from the Emden discovered that it had not overtaken the cruiser Askold, but instead the 3,500-ton Russian merchant vessel Ryazan. The vessel, which had 80 passengers, had no cargo aboard that would make it a valuable prize. But Captain Karl von Muller, the commander of the Emden, decided to bring the large, fast ship to the German naval base at Tsingtao, China, for conversion into an armed merchant cruiser. The boarders took control of the vessel and ran up the German flag. The two ships arrived in China on August 6. By the end of the month Ryazan would leave port, renamed the Cormoran and under German control. It was the German Navy’s first prize of the war, and it marked the beginning of an amazing record for the Emden. Although the U-boat is often seen as the star of the German Navy during the Great War, Kaiser Wilhelm II’s small force of ships scattered around the globe also gave good service. Some were warships built for specific purposes, and others were converted merchantmen. They had one thing in common, though. They all raided enemy shipping and tied up large numbers of Allied ships dedicated to hunting them. Of all Germany’s raiders, none had a career as bold as the Emden. In the early 20th century Germany controlled a small overseas empire and found itself in growing competition with other European powers, chief among them the United Kingdom. The German East Asiatic Squadron was based at Tsingtao and represented the bulk of German naval strength in the Pacific. The force was commanded by Konteradmiral Maximillian von Spee and included a number of cruisers and smaller vessels along with auxiliary vessels to carry coal, which was the lifeblood of warships during this period. Coal gave ships a great advantage in speed and maneuverability, but their endurance was limited by what they could carry in their bunkers. Among von Spee’s force was the Emden. The SMS that preceded the light cruiser’s name was the German acronym for “His Majesty’s Ship.” She was built in 1908 in Danzig on the Baltic Sea. Weighing in at 3,593 tons, Emden was 387 feet long with a beam of 43 feet. The cruiser was armed with 10 10.5cm cannons along with nine 5-pounders, four machine guns, and two torpedo tubes. Her steam engines provided 13,500 horsepower for a top speed of 24 knots. The 790 tons of coal she could carry gave her a range of 1,850 miles at 20 knots or 3,790 miles at 12 knots. Maximum armor thickness was four inches. Korvettenkapitan Karl von Muller initially commanded the Emden. Born in 1873, he was the son of a Prussian Army officer. When the war began he had 23 years of service in the German Navy and was known as a quiet, competent officer who had the respect of his crew. His second in command was Kapitanleutnant Helmuth von Mucke, who was born in 1881 and also was the son of an Army officer. Mucke had served 14 years and was an extroverted officer who had the crew’s undying admiration. His skills complemented those of von Muller. Emden had two other notable officers. The first was Leutnant zur See Franz Joseph, a nephew of Kaiser Wilhelm. He served as the ship’s torpedo officer. The other was Kapitanleutnant Julius Lauterbach, a reservist who had only recently joined the crew. Lauterbach had long plied the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans as an officer of the Hamburg-Amerika Line and had extensive knowledge of the region, the ships that serviced it, and the type of men who served as crew on those ships. Both von Mucke and Lauterbach would prove invaluable during Emden’s service as a commerce raider. On the war’s eve Emden was in port at Tsingtao. In June the British cruiser Minotaur paid a visit. The Emden’s crew helped host the event, which included balls, banquets, and an athletic event. The Germans won at gymnastics and the high jump while the British crew triumphed in the soccer match. Sailors from both countries got along so well that upon the Minotaur’s departure there were numerous protestations that the two nations would surely never fight one another. In the months preceding the war, many of the crew rotated home with the arrival of new replacements. Having new crew to train kept the officers busy. By the end of July 1914, war was imminent. Admiral von Spee was concerned about his ships becoming trapped at Tsingtao when war broke out. Japan was expected to join the Anglo-French alliance, and it had a substantial fleet nearby. To prevent the loss of his maneuver force von Spee took his fleet to sea on July 31 and soon after dispersed it. It was during this time Emden’s crew captured the Ryazan. After delivering that ship to Tsingtao for conversion to an armed merchant cruiser, Emden rejoined the fleet at Pagan in the Marianas Island chain on August 12. The admiral commanded two armored cruisers, four light cruisers (one of which was the Emden), and a number of supply ships. The challenge became the pressing need for coal to keep the ships sailing. The admiral did not believe there would be a steady supply for his force in the Western Pacific Ocean, so he decided to sail for the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Admiral von Spee expected his ships could readily replenish their coal supplies in the ports of South America. What is more, his ships would find plenty of British merchant vessels in the Eastern Pacific to prey on. Rather than leave the Western Pacific completely in Allied hands, von Spee decided to leave a single light cruiser, the Emden, behind to attack local shipping and other targets of opportunity. One supply ship, the Markomannia, would accompany the Emden. The Markomannia carried 6,000 tons of coal and would keep the cruiser going for some time. Eventually the ship would have to find new sources of fuel through captured ships or raids. Emden and Markomannia sailed southwest from Pagan Island on August 14. Captain von Muller had the crew rig a fake funnel amidships. Emden had three stacks but adding a fourth would make her physically resemble a British County-class cruiser to any distant inspection. Camouflaging her appearance was not only a survival tactic for a commerce raider but also would help lull target vessels into a false sense of security when she approached. The crew had to maintain constant watchfulness and be prepared to act swiftly, whether to attack a merchantman or flee a superior warship. Eight days after leaving Pagan, the two German ships slipped quietly through the Molucca Passage near Indonesia. They stopped where possible to take on water and provisions. On August 29 they moved into the Indian Ocean and entered the Bay of Bengal with its busy shipping lanes. Coal was running low and Emden needed to secure more before she was rendered adrift. Von Muller began hunting for ships as they approached Ceylon, and on the night of September 9 the crew spotted a light in the darkness. They quickly overtook a ship that turned out to be the Greek steamer Pontoporos. Although Greece was a neutral nation, Lieutenant Lauterbach boarded the ship to check its credentials and manifest and found the ship was under contract to deliver coal to the British naval base at Bombay. This marked the cargo as legitimate contraband. The Germans even offered the Greek captain the chance to sail with them under contract and the captain agreed. Von Muller integrated Pontoporos and its cargo of 6,500 tons of coal into his task force. The Emden arrival in the Indian Ocean was unexpected by the Allies and this gave the ship free rein for a time. Von Muller did not waste this advantage and quickly began striking at the merchantmen in the region. On the morning of September 10 smoke was spotted and the cruiser gave chase. Lookouts spotted what appeared to be a merchantman but had strange white structures on its deck that were feared to be gun emplacements. Von Muller took a chance and they moved in, signaling the ship to stop and not use its radio. The boarding party discovered they had taken the British ship Indus, under contract to transport troops of the Indian Army. The white structures were merely newly constructed horse stalls. The ship also carried luxury goods that were quickly confiscated. The ship’s streak of success continued into the next several months. In all Emden captured 23 vessels totaling 101,182 tons, which constituted an impressive record. Coal and other supplies were taken as necessary to keep the German ships going. Pontoporos was eventually sent off on other duties but Markomannia remained. Captain von Muller went to great lengths to treat captured crews with such civility as wartime allowed. Two of the ships he captured were used to take prisoners to neutral ports to be interned or exchanged. Even British newspapers heard of von Muller’s chivalry and wrote kind words about him, grudgingly admiring his success as well. Despite the respect accorded von Muller and his ship, the Allies spared no effort to find the Emden. At its height, a total of 78 British, French, Russian, and Japanese warships were scouring the seas for the German cruiser. Telegraph and radio stations were advised to watch for the vessel and signal immediately if she appeared. Many of these stations were remote and could not hope for timely rescue, but at least it would give the hunters a last location to renew their search. It was imperative to stop the Emden. Shipping in the Indian Ocean was brought to a stop within a short time, insurance rates skyrocketed, and much needed troop convoys from Australia and New Zealand were delayed for lack of suitable escorts. Along with its record of seizing enemy merchantmen, the Emden also conducted daring raids and attacks that only intensified the Allies efforts to end her cruise. On the evening of September 22, Emden cautiously approached the Indian city of Madras. No Indian coastal city had come under attack in centuries. The city was well lit with few precautions taken against attack from the sea. It was a calculated risk. Madras had powerful shore batteries that were sure to reply. The main target was the Burma Oil Company’s storage facility with its oil tanks. Just before 10 pm Emden sat a mere 3,000 meters offshore, her course designed so that errant shells would not strike civilian homes. Again, von Muller was showing his chivalry, though no doubt he also wished to avoid accusations of German barbarity. Minutes later the ship stopped engines, drifting into position at the port. The captain ordered the searchlights turned on and they lit the target ashore. Accompanying the order to illuminate the oil tanks was the command to fire. Emden starboard battery flashed to life, flames spilling from the muzzles of her cannon as explosive shells soared toward land. The first salvo went high, sailing over the oil tanks, though a few rounds found a shore battery. The second salvo landed short, near the water’s edge. The crew had bracketed their target, a good sign. The third salvo struck a tank, sending a cascade of black oil gushing forth as it ignited. Flames leapt into the sky, eliciting a hearty cheer from the German sailors. The gunnery officer adjusted his aim. Another salvo crashed into the next tank, yet nothing happened because the tank was empty. The third tank was full, though, and it exploded, sending flames skyward. The shore batteries returned fire but scored no hits. Their mission accomplished, von Muller ordered a cease fire and Emden quickly withdrew. He kept his ship’s lights on as it headed north. Once out of sight, the lights were extinguished, and she changed course to the south. Approximately 5,000 tons of oil was destroyed, and the citizens of Madras were sent into a panic. Many of the panicked citizens fled the city. It was a daring raid that caused the British great consternation and increased the Emden’s reputation. Just over a month later Emden struck again, this time against an enemy naval force. The Russian cruiser Zhemchug and four French torpedo boats were in port near Penang, Malaya. They were part of the force detailed to hunt for the German raider. The Zhemchug’s crew was cleaning her boilers. Three of the four French torpedo boats were unable to respond quickly because their boilers were cold; however, the fourth torpedo boat, Mousquet, was actively patrolling the area. The Emden, which was disguised as a British light cruiser, sailed into the area without being challenged at 5:15 am on October 22. When it closed to within 500 meters of the Zhemchug, the Emden’s crew raised the German flag. The German cruiser fired a torpedo from 200 meters that struck the Russian cruiser’s engine room. The German sailors simultaneously raked the enemy ship’s crew quarters with their guns. The Russian sailors fired a few rounds in response, but scored no hits. The Emden swung around for another pass. This time it put a second torpedo into the enemy cruiser, which detonated its magazines. The resulting explosion blanketed the area in smoke. In the one-sided surface engagement, the Zhemchug had suffered 91 killed and 106 wounded. Emden stalked the harbor for other targets but soon Mousquet appeared on the horizon. Von Muller ordered an attack and cannon fire lashed out at the small French ship. At 4,000 meters one round struck one of Mousquet’s boilers, covering the ship in a fog of steam. In return, the French ship launched a torpedo and replied with a single gun. Within 10 minutes the battle was over, and the torpedo boat sank. Emden was chased briefly by two of the other torpedo boats but quickly made her escape. This successful raid further increased Emden reputation, especially after the Germans rescued 36 survivors. The ship’s next target was the Cocos Islands, where the British maintained a cable station. Radio intercepts led the crew to believe no enemy ships were close enough to interfere. Unknown to them, one of the troop convoys was nearby, strongly escorted and under radio silence. By this time Emden consort was the coal ship Buresk, captured earlier near Ceylon. Buresk was sent away to await developments and Emden moved on Direction Island, home to the cable and radio station. Arriving just after dawn on November 9, von Mucke led a 50-man landing party in three boats. Emden’s crew did not think they had been spotted, but a Chinese worker saw the ship and warned the British. The British challenged the ship and then sent out a message: “SOS Emden Here.” Von Muller had the transmission jammed, but it was too late. Both radio and telegraph distress calls were already out. In the mistaken belief that no help was nearby, the Germans proceeded with their plan. The Allied troop convoy was 55 miles away. It received the SOS signal, and the commander sent the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney to investigate. The ship was armed with eight 6-inch guns and was well armored. Moreover, she was faster than the Emden. At 9 am Sydney arrived near Direction Island, but the Germans initially mistook her for the Buresk. They realized their error 15 minutes later and quickly got underway, leaving the shore party behind. Unfortunately for von Muller, all 10 of his gunlayers, that is, the men who aimed the ship’s guns, were ashore. There was no time to retrieve them. At 9:40 am she opened fire on Sydney and despite the absence of the gunlayers her first salvo bracketed the Australian ship. Emden had to close the distance to make her guns more effective and use her torpedoes. Sydney’s Captain John Glossop knew this and turned his ship to keep the distance open. Still, Emden’s third salvo struck, knocking out both of Sydney’s fire control stations. This slowed down the Australian’s fire and hindered accuracy, but her armor was shrugging off the German shells. Sydney’s first hit came 20 minutes later, destroying Emden’s radio room. Glossop kept turning his ship to increase the range, giving his 6-inch cannons the edge. An ad-hoc fire control station was set up and soon shells were pounding the Emden. First, the electrical system was knocked out. Then, the steering gear suffered extensive damage, thus reducing the vessel’s maneuverability. The fire from the Australian ship became more accurate as a result. Even worse, a shell landed among the aft guns and detonated their ammunition, killing the crew and causing a large fire. Shell after shell landed on the Emden, crumpling the upper decks and bringing down the foremast. The killing blow was a salvo that hit all three funnels, collapsing them. This denied air to the boilers, reducing the ship’s speed. Emden was defeated. Von Muller knew he had to quit the fight. Rather than abandon ship, he directed it to nearby North Keeling Island. He beached the Emden on the island’s reef. Sydney fired two more salvos before realizing the Emden was finished. At that point, the Australian ship went in pursuit of the Buresk, which appeared nearby. The crew of that ship scuttled and abandoned her. Von Muller and his surviving crew became prisoners. German casualties numbered 134 sailors. The prisoners were generally treated well and many Allied officers personally visited the German officers to congratulate them on their valor and accomplishment, despite their status as enemies. Von Mucke and the landing party managed to sneak off in a schooner. They sailed across the Indian Ocean to Arabia. From there, they continued overland to Turkey, where they arrived in May 1915. As for the Emden, she lay stuck on the reef where she had been ditched until the 1950s, when a Japanese salvage company removed what was left of the hull. The Emden’s career, which ended in what became known as the Battle of Cocos, was brief but brilliant. It was marked not only by its impressive prizes, but also by the humanity and chivalry of its crew.	4,087	ENGLISH	1
The colourful character of the medieval 'Black Prince' perhaps owes as much to legend as to fact, and many places in France have a legacy to the English Prince who conquered so much of France in the early decades of the Hundred Years War. In many places in France you are likely to come across mention of the Black Prince, from a quiet town in Gascony to the site of a battlefield in central France, and a little knowledge of the 'life and times' of the Black Prince makes a visit more interesting We explore France through the towns that the Black Prince knew, and visit the sights of the great battles, by travelling the length of France from his first important battle as a young man at Crécy in the north, then continuing down to southern France and across the Spanish border, before heading perhaps to Limoges in central France - site of the brutal Siege of Limoges almost 25 years after the Black Prince first set foot in France. A brief background history Deep in the heart of the Middle Ages the French and the English were battling for control of much of France. These battles over territory were the cause of what is now known as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) - a very long and difficult series of wars and conflicts if not one continuous war - and over the years both sides had notable victories and defeats, covering much of western and southern France. Who was the Black Prince? Son of King Edward the Third and father to King Richard the Second, the Black Prince himself was never crowned King because he was outlived by his father. He had several 'official' titles: among them Earl of Chester, Prince of Wales, Prince and Duke of Aquitaine and Duke of Cornwall, and his 'real' name was Edward of Woodstock. The most important role held by the Black Prince was as the representative of the King of England in Aquitaine (south-west France) where he lived with his wife (and cousin), Joan of Kent. The name 'Black Prince' is thought to have been given to the Prince long after his death, almost certainly because he was often shown wearing black armour into battle. The Black Prince in France - the earlier excursion The 14th century was a time of great conflict between the French and the English, who at that time held large amounts of territory in France. These battles over territory were the cause of the Hundred Years War (1337 - 1453) between the English and the French. It was as a successful military leader in the battles between France and England that the Black Prince gained his reputation and popularity, and he played a key role in several very important battles. The first major experience of battle for the Black Prince was at The Battle of Crecy (near Calais) in 1346. At this battle, when the Prince was only 16 years old but still played an important role in the battle, troops under Edward III had a great victory over the French army, despite being outnumbered by three to one. It took the French many years to recover from their defeat, during which time England substantially increased their foothold in northern France. Their position was helped by their conquest of Calais, after a siege that lasted almost a year and which gave the English a defended port, enabling provisions to be delivered to France. * suggested travel destination: Crecy-en-Ponthieu, south of Calais - the site of the battle is marked by a memorial next to the road between Crécy and Estrées-les-Crécy The Black Prince in France - the later excursion After returning to England, it was in the years from 1355 onwards that the Black Prince returned to France, this time based in the south-west of the country. Several places and buildings in the region have associations with the Prince - one of our favourites is Monflanquin, where the house of the Black Prince can be seen on the corner of the main square. The excursions of the Black Prince in 1355 moved from Gascony to Aquitaine and then south through Languedoc and Aquitaine. The following year (1356) the Black Prince headed north from Bergerac, eventually reaching as far north as the Loire Valley. The extensive excursions by the Black Prince into French territory were sometimes welcomed, sometimes not. It was a withdrawal from the Loire region that led the Prince to be at Nouaillé-Maupertuis near near Poitiers in 1356 - site for the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, one of England's greatest victories in the Hundred Years War. By now the Black Prince was an experienced military leader, who also remembered the lesson from Crecy that tactics are more important than numbers of soldiers. The French, who outnumbered the English at Poitiers, were soundly defeated and the French King John II was captured. The English forces continued to reinforce their postion over the coming years, although failing in their attempts to seize the important city of Reims (1360), and it was with the Treaty of Bretigny signed in 1360 near Chartres that these gains were consolidated - England now controlled much of western France, from Brittany to Perigord and south to Spain, but their claim to the French throne was rejected. The last major battle under the Black Prince was the Siege of Limoges in 1370. Limoges had recently fallen to the French, but after a siege the Black Prince managed to reclaim the city - at which point several thousand residents were slaughtered. * suggested travel destinations: the historical centres of Reims and Chartres and also Limoges, where there is little trace of the original city which was largely destroyed in the siege but there is an interesting historical centre to the town Not such a happy ending Shortly after this a combination of health problems and money problems forced the Black Prince to return to England. It is thought that the Prince had contracted an illness in France (or possible Spain during an incursion there) although it is also thought possible he had cancer or multiple sclerosis. He died a few years later, in 1377, a year before the death of his father Kind Edward III. With his withdrawal the early conquests of the Hundred Years War came to an end, although it was not until the middle of the 15th century that the Hundred Years War was to end and the last English were driven out of France, notably when the French had the help of Joan of Arc.	<urn:uuid:a30f32ab-c939-489c-a725-4dba602867d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.francethisway.com/tourism/black-prince.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00546.warc.gz	en	0.985606	1,328	3.328125	3	[ -0.31714338064193726, 0.8446742296218872, 0.12906014919281006, -0.12597402930259705, -0.21614685654640198, -0.16930222511291504, 0.2530555725097656, 0.10767810046672821, -0.19374415278434753, -0.10253769159317017, 0.2185773104429245, -0.47523289918899536, 0.11768609285354614, 0.28716191649...	1	The colourful character of the medieval 'Black Prince' perhaps owes as much to legend as to fact, and many places in France have a legacy to the English Prince who conquered so much of France in the early decades of the Hundred Years War. In many places in France you are likely to come across mention of the Black Prince, from a quiet town in Gascony to the site of a battlefield in central France, and a little knowledge of the 'life and times' of the Black Prince makes a visit more interesting We explore France through the towns that the Black Prince knew, and visit the sights of the great battles, by travelling the length of France from his first important battle as a young man at Crécy in the north, then continuing down to southern France and across the Spanish border, before heading perhaps to Limoges in central France - site of the brutal Siege of Limoges almost 25 years after the Black Prince first set foot in France. A brief background history Deep in the heart of the Middle Ages the French and the English were battling for control of much of France. These battles over territory were the cause of what is now known as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) - a very long and difficult series of wars and conflicts if not one continuous war - and over the years both sides had notable victories and defeats, covering much of western and southern France. Who was the Black Prince? Son of King Edward the Third and father to King Richard the Second, the Black Prince himself was never crowned King because he was outlived by his father. He had several 'official' titles: among them Earl of Chester, Prince of Wales, Prince and Duke of Aquitaine and Duke of Cornwall, and his 'real' name was Edward of Woodstock. The most important role held by the Black Prince was as the representative of the King of England in Aquitaine (south-west France) where he lived with his wife (and cousin), Joan of Kent. The name 'Black Prince' is thought to have been given to the Prince long after his death, almost certainly because he was often shown wearing black armour into battle. The Black Prince in France - the earlier excursion The 14th century was a time of great conflict between the French and the English, who at that time held large amounts of territory in France. These battles over territory were the cause of the Hundred Years War (1337 - 1453) between the English and the French. It was as a successful military leader in the battles between France and England that the Black Prince gained his reputation and popularity, and he played a key role in several very important battles. The first major experience of battle for the Black Prince was at The Battle of Crecy (near Calais) in 1346. At this battle, when the Prince was only 16 years old but still played an important role in the battle, troops under Edward III had a great victory over the French army, despite being outnumbered by three to one. It took the French many years to recover from their defeat, during which time England substantially increased their foothold in northern France. Their position was helped by their conquest of Calais, after a siege that lasted almost a year and which gave the English a defended port, enabling provisions to be delivered to France. * suggested travel destination: Crecy-en-Ponthieu, south of Calais - the site of the battle is marked by a memorial next to the road between Crécy and Estrées-les-Crécy The Black Prince in France - the later excursion After returning to England, it was in the years from 1355 onwards that the Black Prince returned to France, this time based in the south-west of the country. Several places and buildings in the region have associations with the Prince - one of our favourites is Monflanquin, where the house of the Black Prince can be seen on the corner of the main square. The excursions of the Black Prince in 1355 moved from Gascony to Aquitaine and then south through Languedoc and Aquitaine. The following year (1356) the Black Prince headed north from Bergerac, eventually reaching as far north as the Loire Valley. The extensive excursions by the Black Prince into French territory were sometimes welcomed, sometimes not. It was a withdrawal from the Loire region that led the Prince to be at Nouaillé-Maupertuis near near Poitiers in 1356 - site for the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, one of England's greatest victories in the Hundred Years War. By now the Black Prince was an experienced military leader, who also remembered the lesson from Crecy that tactics are more important than numbers of soldiers. The French, who outnumbered the English at Poitiers, were soundly defeated and the French King John II was captured. The English forces continued to reinforce their postion over the coming years, although failing in their attempts to seize the important city of Reims (1360), and it was with the Treaty of Bretigny signed in 1360 near Chartres that these gains were consolidated - England now controlled much of western France, from Brittany to Perigord and south to Spain, but their claim to the French throne was rejected. The last major battle under the Black Prince was the Siege of Limoges in 1370. Limoges had recently fallen to the French, but after a siege the Black Prince managed to reclaim the city - at which point several thousand residents were slaughtered. * suggested travel destinations: the historical centres of Reims and Chartres and also Limoges, where there is little trace of the original city which was largely destroyed in the siege but there is an interesting historical centre to the town Not such a happy ending Shortly after this a combination of health problems and money problems forced the Black Prince to return to England. It is thought that the Prince had contracted an illness in France (or possible Spain during an incursion there) although it is also thought possible he had cancer or multiple sclerosis. He died a few years later, in 1377, a year before the death of his father Kind Edward III. With his withdrawal the early conquests of the Hundred Years War came to an end, although it was not until the middle of the 15th century that the Hundred Years War was to end and the last English were driven out of France, notably when the French had the help of Joan of Arc.	1,353	ENGLISH	1
Feast Day of St. Martin of Tours A conscientious objector who wanted to be a monk; a monk who was maneuvered into being a bishop; a bishop who fought paganism as well as pleaded for mercy to heretics—such was Martin of Tours, one of the most popular of saints and one of the first not to be a martyr. Born of pagan parents in what is now Hungary, and raised in Italy, this son of a veteran was forced at the age of 15 to serve in the army. Martin became a Christian catechumen and was baptized when he was 18. It was said that he lived more like a monk than a soldier. At 23, he refused a war bonus and told his commander: “I have served you as a soldier; now let me serve Christ. Give the bounty to those who are going to fight. But I am a soldier of Christ and it is not lawful for me to fight.” After great difficulties, he was discharged and went to be a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers. He was ordained an exorcist and worked with great zeal against the Arians. Martin became a monk, living first at Milan and later on a small island. When Hilary was restored to his see following his exile, Martin returned to France and established what may have been the first French monastery near Poitiers. He lived there for 10 years, forming his disciples and preaching throughout the countryside. The people of Tours demanded that he become their bishop. Martin was drawn to that city by a ruse—the need of a sick person—and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop. Some of the consecrating bishops thought his rumpled appearance and unkempt hair indicated that he was not dignified enough for the office. Along with Saint Ambrose, Martin rejected Bishop Ithacius’s principle of putting heretics to death—as well as the intrusion of the emperor into such matters. He prevailed upon the emperor to spare the life of the heretic Priscillian. For his efforts, Martin was accused of the same heresy, and Priscillian was executed after all. Martin then pleaded for a cessation of the persecution of Priscillian’s followers in Spain. He still felt he could cooperate with Ithacius in other areas, but afterwards his conscience troubled him about this decision. As death approached, Martin’s followers begged him not to leave them. He prayed, “Lord, if your people still need me, I do not refuse the work. Your will be done.” Martin’s worry about cooperation with evil reminds us that almost nothing is either all black or all white. The saints are not creatures of another world: They face the same perplexing decisions that we do. Any decision of conscience always involves some risk. If we choose to go north, we may never know what would have happened had we gone east, west, or south. A hyper-cautious withdrawal from all perplexing situations is not the virtue of prudence; it is in fact, a bad decision, for “not to decide is to decide.” St. Martin of Tours, pray for us.	<urn:uuid:bfe00440-c340-49ea-a7c4-b20e461642e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailybeatitude.com/index.php?archive=2019-11-11	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00269.warc.gz	en	0.987552	665	3.28125	3	[ -0.026027340441942215, 0.5740172863006592, 0.18862482905387878, -0.23391062021255493, -0.17924067378044128, -0.10200859606266022, 0.22110103070735931, 0.338559091091156, 0.2727415859699249, 0.07838475704193115, -0.27125194668769836, 0.015062236227095127, 0.452301561832428, 0.21840207278728...	2	Feast Day of St. Martin of Tours A conscientious objector who wanted to be a monk; a monk who was maneuvered into being a bishop; a bishop who fought paganism as well as pleaded for mercy to heretics—such was Martin of Tours, one of the most popular of saints and one of the first not to be a martyr. Born of pagan parents in what is now Hungary, and raised in Italy, this son of a veteran was forced at the age of 15 to serve in the army. Martin became a Christian catechumen and was baptized when he was 18. It was said that he lived more like a monk than a soldier. At 23, he refused a war bonus and told his commander: “I have served you as a soldier; now let me serve Christ. Give the bounty to those who are going to fight. But I am a soldier of Christ and it is not lawful for me to fight.” After great difficulties, he was discharged and went to be a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers. He was ordained an exorcist and worked with great zeal against the Arians. Martin became a monk, living first at Milan and later on a small island. When Hilary was restored to his see following his exile, Martin returned to France and established what may have been the first French monastery near Poitiers. He lived there for 10 years, forming his disciples and preaching throughout the countryside. The people of Tours demanded that he become their bishop. Martin was drawn to that city by a ruse—the need of a sick person—and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop. Some of the consecrating bishops thought his rumpled appearance and unkempt hair indicated that he was not dignified enough for the office. Along with Saint Ambrose, Martin rejected Bishop Ithacius’s principle of putting heretics to death—as well as the intrusion of the emperor into such matters. He prevailed upon the emperor to spare the life of the heretic Priscillian. For his efforts, Martin was accused of the same heresy, and Priscillian was executed after all. Martin then pleaded for a cessation of the persecution of Priscillian’s followers in Spain. He still felt he could cooperate with Ithacius in other areas, but afterwards his conscience troubled him about this decision. As death approached, Martin’s followers begged him not to leave them. He prayed, “Lord, if your people still need me, I do not refuse the work. Your will be done.” Martin’s worry about cooperation with evil reminds us that almost nothing is either all black or all white. The saints are not creatures of another world: They face the same perplexing decisions that we do. Any decision of conscience always involves some risk. If we choose to go north, we may never know what would have happened had we gone east, west, or south. A hyper-cautious withdrawal from all perplexing situations is not the virtue of prudence; it is in fact, a bad decision, for “not to decide is to decide.” St. Martin of Tours, pray for us.	647	ENGLISH	1
This movie came out shortly after American Sign Language was recognized as an official language in the United States And Your Name Is Jonah is a movie made in 1979 about a deaf boy who was mistakenly diagnosed as mentally challenged. He grew up in a hospital until his mother figured out that he was deaf. The movie shows his transition from a childhood in the special needs home to learning language for the first time and being introduced to the Deaf community. This film came out shortly after ASL was recognized as a “real, genuine language with its own grammar and syntax” in 1974. Before that, it was widely believed by the hearing and professional community a gestural language with no real structure. And Your Name Is Jonah shows that ASL is a thriving language with a culture connected to it and that it goes way back before 1979. As seen with this depiction of the average American family in the movie, the dangers of a misdiagnosis to a child’s future wellbeing are presented. The main problem at the time and how society failed to address it are presented in the film: no one thought of the possibility that Jonah was deaf, not even the medical professionals and instead locked him up in a mental hospital. For the first formative years of Jonah’s life, he had no language. This situation rang true for many deaf babies born into uneducated environments with limited access to resources, the United States has come a long way from this with the passing of the ADA law. However, it is still an ongoing process of educating and awareness. Even today, the film And Your Name Is Jonah still reminds us of the ongoing issues. What we do know is that the rewards, like Jonah finally being able to go to school with his peers at the end, are well worth the fight.	<urn:uuid:e3be95d8-8971-4de5-8e80-d43fdb3cb388>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://deafniche.com/remembering-name-jonah/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00316.warc.gz	en	0.983012	365	3.3125	3	[ -0.4300333559513092, 0.22113195061683655, -0.5152037143707275, -0.09136559069156647, -0.6153976917266846, 0.531883716583252, 0.11540205031633377, -0.10637283325195312, -0.19557929039001465, -0.13198664784431458, 0.45882681012153625, -0.2586706280708313, 0.17329935729503632, 0.4090553820133...	11	This movie came out shortly after American Sign Language was recognized as an official language in the United States And Your Name Is Jonah is a movie made in 1979 about a deaf boy who was mistakenly diagnosed as mentally challenged. He grew up in a hospital until his mother figured out that he was deaf. The movie shows his transition from a childhood in the special needs home to learning language for the first time and being introduced to the Deaf community. This film came out shortly after ASL was recognized as a “real, genuine language with its own grammar and syntax” in 1974. Before that, it was widely believed by the hearing and professional community a gestural language with no real structure. And Your Name Is Jonah shows that ASL is a thriving language with a culture connected to it and that it goes way back before 1979. As seen with this depiction of the average American family in the movie, the dangers of a misdiagnosis to a child’s future wellbeing are presented. The main problem at the time and how society failed to address it are presented in the film: no one thought of the possibility that Jonah was deaf, not even the medical professionals and instead locked him up in a mental hospital. For the first formative years of Jonah’s life, he had no language. This situation rang true for many deaf babies born into uneducated environments with limited access to resources, the United States has come a long way from this with the passing of the ADA law. However, it is still an ongoing process of educating and awareness. Even today, the film And Your Name Is Jonah still reminds us of the ongoing issues. What we do know is that the rewards, like Jonah finally being able to go to school with his peers at the end, are well worth the fight.	367	ENGLISH	1
For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. From the 1820s to the 1870s, one of the most significant land routes in the United States was the Santa Fe Trail. It was located southeast of Canton. Two DAR markers were located on the trail near Canton, one at the Jones Cemetery east of Canton, and another south of Canton. The trail was active across McPherson County from 1821 to 1866. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state. In 1867, McPherson County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Canton. As early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company. In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion through Canton to McPherson was abandoned and removed. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, Ellinwood. After the railroad was built through the area in 1879, a village was established that grew to over 300 inhabitants, then it was incorporated as a city in 1880 and named after Canton, Ohio because an early settler came from Ohio. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a main line from Herington through Canton to Pratt. In 1888, this line was extended to Liberal. Later, it was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. It foreclosed in 1891 and taken over by Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, which shut down in 1980 and reorganized as Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas Railroad, merged in 1988 with Missouri Pacific Railroad, merged in 1997 with Union Pacific Railroad. Most locals still refer to this railroad as the "Rock Island". Canton is located at 38°23′14″N 97°25′40″W (38.387129, -97.427853). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.50 square miles (1.29 km2), all of it land.Canton is the site of the McPherson County Fairgrounds. The McPherson County Fair has been held in Canton since 1948. Six miles north of Canton on 27th Avenue and one half-mile west on Pueblo Rd is the Maxwell Wildlife Refuge. In fact, Canton has been identified as the "Gateway to Maxwell Wildlife Refuge." This section of land is preserved natural prairie, comprising rolling hills, creeks, springs, and beautiful prairie grasses and wildflowers. Here 200 head of bison and 50 elk roam free. It was established in 1859 by John Gault Maxwell to allow future generations to experience Kansas as it was in the 1800s, prior to settlement. This 2,254 acres (9.12 km2) refuge is owned and managed by the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Canton has two water towers, labeled "HOT" (in red) and "COLD" (in blue). The words were painted on as a tourist attraction in 1956 at the suggestion of local real estate agent Mrs. M.D. Fisher. In fact, both tanks hold water at an ambient temperature. As of the census of 2010, there were 748 people, 301 households, and 205 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,496.0 inhabitants per square mile (577.6/km2). There were 336 housing units at an average density of 672.0 per square mile (259.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.9% White, 0.4% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population. There were 301 households of which 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.9% were non-families. 25.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.96. The median age in the city was 37.9 years. 25.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.8% male and 53.2% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 829 people, 315 households, and 230 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,669.0 people per square mile (640.2/km²). There were 342 housing units at an average density of 688.5 per square mile (264.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.71% White, 0.24% African American (two people), 0.12% Native American, 0.36% Asian (three people), 0.12% Pacific Islander (1 Native Hawaiian), and 1.45% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.72% of the population. There were 315 households out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.9% were married couples living together, 5.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 24.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.94. In the city, the population was spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $34,808, and the median income for a family was $45,357. Males had a median income of $30,556 versus $20,588 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,428. About 4.2% of families and 4.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over. The Canton consists of a mayor and five council members. The council meets the 1st Monday of each month at 7PM.City Hall, 100 South Main St. Canton is part of USD 419 Canton-Galva. This school district includes:Canton-Galva Elementary School, located in Canton Canton-Galva Middle School, located in Galva Canton-Galva High School, located in Canton Canton and Galva schools unified in 1972 forming Canton-Galva High School with the Eagles mascot. Prior to unification, the Canton High School mascot was Canton Tigers.Internet Wireless is provided by Pixius Communications. Satellite is provided by HughesNet, StarBand, WildBlue. Satellite is provided by DirecTV, Dish Network. Terrestrial is provided by regional digital TV stations. City is provided by Westar Energy. Service is provided by Kansas Gas Service. City is provided by City of Canton. Rural is provided by Marion County RWD #4. Service is provided by City of Canton. Service is provided by McPherson Area Solid Waste Utility. On July 21, 2008, Stephen Colbert made a comment on The Colbert Report about John McCain making a campaign stop in Canton, Ohio, and "not the crappy Canton in Georgia." The comment resulted in a local uproar, which prompted Stephen to apologize for the story during his July 30, 2008, show, insisting that he was incorrect and that the "real" crappy Canton was Canton, Kansas, after which he made several jokes at the town's expense. Reaction from Mayor Brad Smiley and local residents was negative and Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius invited Colbert to "spend a night" in Canton's historic jail. On August 5, 2008, Colbert apologized to citizens of Canton, Kansas, then continued the running gag by directing his mock derision in successive weeks towards Canton, South Dakota and Canton, Texas. On October 28, Colbert turned his attention back to Canton, Ohio after Barack Obama made a campaign stop there, forcing Colbert to find it "crappy".	<urn:uuid:80144493-6e14-4780-9de6-affb3b0bda5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Canton%2C-Kansas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00161.warc.gz	en	0.983161	2,206	3.453125	3	[ -0.07959476113319397, 0.12469344586133957, 0.43715059757232666, 0.06566876173019409, -0.09671226143836975, -0.5996121168136597, -0.11230744421482086, 0.07812939584255219, -0.3707320988178253, 0.04400809481739998, 0.24392007291316986, -0.3531513512134552, -0.024218250066041946, -0.114977061...	1	For many millennia, the Great Plains of North America was inhabited by nomadic Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of large parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, per the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. From the 1820s to the 1870s, one of the most significant land routes in the United States was the Santa Fe Trail. It was located southeast of Canton. Two DAR markers were located on the trail near Canton, one at the Jones Cemetery east of Canton, and another south of Canton. The trail was active across McPherson County from 1821 to 1866. In 1854, the Kansas Territory was organized, then in 1861 Kansas became the 34th U.S. state. In 1867, McPherson County was established within the Kansas Territory, which included the land for modern day Canton. As early as 1875, city leaders of Marion held a meeting to consider a branch railroad from Florence. In 1878, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and parties from Marion County and McPherson County chartered the Marion and McPherson Railway Company. In 1879, a branch line was built from Florence to McPherson, in 1880 it was extended to Lyons, in 1881 it was extended to Ellinwood. The line was leased and operated by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The line from Florence to Marion, was abandoned in 1968. In 1992, the line from Marion to McPherson was sold to Central Kansas Railway. In 1993, after heavy flood damage, the line from Marion through Canton to McPherson was abandoned and removed. The original branch line connected Florence, Marion, Canada, Hillsboro, Lehigh, Canton, Galva, McPherson, Conway, Windom, Little River, Mitchell, Lyons, Chase, Ellinwood. After the railroad was built through the area in 1879, a village was established that grew to over 300 inhabitants, then it was incorporated as a city in 1880 and named after Canton, Ohio because an early settler came from Ohio. In 1887, the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway built a main line from Herington through Canton to Pratt. In 1888, this line was extended to Liberal. Later, it was extended to Tucumcari, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. It foreclosed in 1891 and taken over by Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway, which shut down in 1980 and reorganized as Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas Railroad, merged in 1988 with Missouri Pacific Railroad, merged in 1997 with Union Pacific Railroad. Most locals still refer to this railroad as the "Rock Island". Canton is located at 38°23′14″N 97°25′40″W (38.387129, -97.427853). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.50 square miles (1.29 km2), all of it land.Canton is the site of the McPherson County Fairgrounds. The McPherson County Fair has been held in Canton since 1948. Six miles north of Canton on 27th Avenue and one half-mile west on Pueblo Rd is the Maxwell Wildlife Refuge. In fact, Canton has been identified as the "Gateway to Maxwell Wildlife Refuge." This section of land is preserved natural prairie, comprising rolling hills, creeks, springs, and beautiful prairie grasses and wildflowers. Here 200 head of bison and 50 elk roam free. It was established in 1859 by John Gault Maxwell to allow future generations to experience Kansas as it was in the 1800s, prior to settlement. This 2,254 acres (9.12 km2) refuge is owned and managed by the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks. Canton has two water towers, labeled "HOT" (in red) and "COLD" (in blue). The words were painted on as a tourist attraction in 1956 at the suggestion of local real estate agent Mrs. M.D. Fisher. In fact, both tanks hold water at an ambient temperature. As of the census of 2010, there were 748 people, 301 households, and 205 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,496.0 inhabitants per square mile (577.6/km2). There were 336 housing units at an average density of 672.0 per square mile (259.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.9% White, 0.4% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population. There were 301 households of which 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.9% were non-families. 25.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.96. The median age in the city was 37.9 years. 25.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.8% male and 53.2% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 829 people, 315 households, and 230 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,669.0 people per square mile (640.2/km²). There were 342 housing units at an average density of 688.5 per square mile (264.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 97.71% White, 0.24% African American (two people), 0.12% Native American, 0.36% Asian (three people), 0.12% Pacific Islander (1 Native Hawaiian), and 1.45% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.72% of the population. There were 315 households out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.9% were married couples living together, 5.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 24.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.94. In the city, the population was spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $34,808, and the median income for a family was $45,357. Males had a median income of $30,556 versus $20,588 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,428. About 4.2% of families and 4.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over. The Canton consists of a mayor and five council members. The council meets the 1st Monday of each month at 7PM.City Hall, 100 South Main St. Canton is part of USD 419 Canton-Galva. This school district includes:Canton-Galva Elementary School, located in Canton Canton-Galva Middle School, located in Galva Canton-Galva High School, located in Canton Canton and Galva schools unified in 1972 forming Canton-Galva High School with the Eagles mascot. Prior to unification, the Canton High School mascot was Canton Tigers.Internet Wireless is provided by Pixius Communications. Satellite is provided by HughesNet, StarBand, WildBlue. Satellite is provided by DirecTV, Dish Network. Terrestrial is provided by regional digital TV stations. City is provided by Westar Energy. Service is provided by Kansas Gas Service. City is provided by City of Canton. Rural is provided by Marion County RWD #4. Service is provided by City of Canton. Service is provided by McPherson Area Solid Waste Utility. On July 21, 2008, Stephen Colbert made a comment on The Colbert Report about John McCain making a campaign stop in Canton, Ohio, and "not the crappy Canton in Georgia." The comment resulted in a local uproar, which prompted Stephen to apologize for the story during his July 30, 2008, show, insisting that he was incorrect and that the "real" crappy Canton was Canton, Kansas, after which he made several jokes at the town's expense. Reaction from Mayor Brad Smiley and local residents was negative and Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius invited Colbert to "spend a night" in Canton's historic jail. On August 5, 2008, Colbert apologized to citizens of Canton, Kansas, then continued the running gag by directing his mock derision in successive weeks towards Canton, South Dakota and Canton, Texas. On October 28, Colbert turned his attention back to Canton, Ohio after Barack Obama made a campaign stop there, forcing Colbert to find it "crappy".	2,521	ENGLISH	1
As Calvinists, the New England Puritans believed that education was a principal avenue through which children would become conversant with Scripture. They also considered it essential for society to achieve social and religious stability and to develop a particularly well-read clergy." In 1636, John Harvard, "a godly Gentleman and a lover of Learning, established Harvard College to "raise up a class of learned men for the Christian ministry" so that "the tongues and arts" might be taught and learning and piety maintained." It has been said that 123 of this nation's first 126 colleges were of Christian origin. In order to prepare children for college, town governments established Latin grammar schools. The clergy sometimes participated in the educational process by teaching certain children the classics, either by tutoring them or by taking them into their families as boarding pupils. At first, education was entirely voluntary, but people soon became concerned that too many were neglecting the religious instruction necessary to undergird society and civil government. Such parental negligence as there was in educating children was more a result of difficult living conditions than religious apathy. To keep matters from getting worse, Puritan leaders approached the state governing bodies, which in their world were subordinate to the Church, to pass a law requiring parents and masters to tend to their educational and religious duties. In response, the colonial legislature of Massachusetts passed the Massachusetts Law of 1642, directing town officials to determine whether children were being trained "in learning and labor and other employments profitable to the Commonwealth," and if they were being instructed "to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country." Violators were subject to fines. This was the first time in the English-speaking world that a representative body of a state government had ordered mandatory reading instruction for all children. Notably, the 1642 measure had nothing to do with schools or teachers, just instruction, the responsibility for which remained with parents. But this law didn't produce the desired results, so the colonial legislature passed another law in 1647, known as the "Old Deluder Satan Act," which gets its name from its preamble. The preamble recited the colonists' belief that "one chief point of that old deluder, Satan, [was] to keep men from a knowledge of the Scriptures." Learning, it said, was in jeopardy of "being buried in the grave of our fathers in church and commonwealth." As the Puritans believed that ignorant people were more susceptible to Satan's corruptive power, the law required every town of fifty householders to appoint and compensate a reading and writing teacher. Towns of one hundred householders were to establish Latin grammar schools to train children for college. If they did not, they would be assessed a fine. It has been said that these two laws of 1642 and 1647, along with the earlier laws of 1634 and 1638-establishing the principle of common taxation of all property for town and colony benefits-were the bedrock upon which the public school system was later founded in America. But in no way did these laws establish an educational system remotely approximating today's level of government support and control of education. It is ironic, given today's hostile climate toward any presence of Christianity in public schools, that the impetus for compulsory education was the colonists' determination to instruct their children in the Christian religion. This legislative scheme provided the model for education laws throughout New England, with the exception of Rhode Island, as its founding was grounded in a broader interpretation of religious freedom. Gradually, compulsory school laws were less stringently enforced and private schools began to flourish, so that by 1720, Boston, for example, had more private schools than taxpayer-supported ones. By the end of the Revolutionary War, many towns in Massachusetts had no publicly supported schools. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:b586e157-cfb9-4efe-90b9-4660bd4c01a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/religious-freedom/new-england-colonies.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00284.warc.gz	en	0.982286	776	3.359375	3	[ 0.04160774499177933, -0.15567779541015625, 0.17028269171714783, -0.6485632658004761, -0.3164949417114258, -0.036523014307022095, -0.31723862886428833, -0.18685956299304962, 0.01494314894080162, 0.28322651982307434, -0.20631654560565948, -0.05958482623100281, 0.1464354395866394, 0.349689066...	1	As Calvinists, the New England Puritans believed that education was a principal avenue through which children would become conversant with Scripture. They also considered it essential for society to achieve social and religious stability and to develop a particularly well-read clergy." In 1636, John Harvard, "a godly Gentleman and a lover of Learning, established Harvard College to "raise up a class of learned men for the Christian ministry" so that "the tongues and arts" might be taught and learning and piety maintained." It has been said that 123 of this nation's first 126 colleges were of Christian origin. In order to prepare children for college, town governments established Latin grammar schools. The clergy sometimes participated in the educational process by teaching certain children the classics, either by tutoring them or by taking them into their families as boarding pupils. At first, education was entirely voluntary, but people soon became concerned that too many were neglecting the religious instruction necessary to undergird society and civil government. Such parental negligence as there was in educating children was more a result of difficult living conditions than religious apathy. To keep matters from getting worse, Puritan leaders approached the state governing bodies, which in their world were subordinate to the Church, to pass a law requiring parents and masters to tend to their educational and religious duties. In response, the colonial legislature of Massachusetts passed the Massachusetts Law of 1642, directing town officials to determine whether children were being trained "in learning and labor and other employments profitable to the Commonwealth," and if they were being instructed "to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country." Violators were subject to fines. This was the first time in the English-speaking world that a representative body of a state government had ordered mandatory reading instruction for all children. Notably, the 1642 measure had nothing to do with schools or teachers, just instruction, the responsibility for which remained with parents. But this law didn't produce the desired results, so the colonial legislature passed another law in 1647, known as the "Old Deluder Satan Act," which gets its name from its preamble. The preamble recited the colonists' belief that "one chief point of that old deluder, Satan, [was] to keep men from a knowledge of the Scriptures." Learning, it said, was in jeopardy of "being buried in the grave of our fathers in church and commonwealth." As the Puritans believed that ignorant people were more susceptible to Satan's corruptive power, the law required every town of fifty householders to appoint and compensate a reading and writing teacher. Towns of one hundred householders were to establish Latin grammar schools to train children for college. If they did not, they would be assessed a fine. It has been said that these two laws of 1642 and 1647, along with the earlier laws of 1634 and 1638-establishing the principle of common taxation of all property for town and colony benefits-were the bedrock upon which the public school system was later founded in America. But in no way did these laws establish an educational system remotely approximating today's level of government support and control of education. It is ironic, given today's hostile climate toward any presence of Christianity in public schools, that the impetus for compulsory education was the colonists' determination to instruct their children in the Christian religion. This legislative scheme provided the model for education laws throughout New England, with the exception of Rhode Island, as its founding was grounded in a broader interpretation of religious freedom. Gradually, compulsory school laws were less stringently enforced and private schools began to flourish, so that by 1720, Boston, for example, had more private schools than taxpayer-supported ones. By the end of the Revolutionary War, many towns in Massachusetts had no publicly supported schools. Was this article helpful?	804	ENGLISH	1
William Joseph Hartley Written by Brenda Shackleton (daughter). The Rescue Ships - Arctic & Atlantic Convoys My Father - Bill Hartley (1905-1999) My Dad served in the Merchant Navy and during the War he was Captain of 2 Rescue Ships- the COPELAND and GOODWIN. They were deployed to the Arctic and Atlantic Convoys. The concept of a Rescue ship came about in 1940 when Sir Max Horton (Commander-in-Chief – Western Approaches) first suggested it to the Admiralty. The principal task of a Rescue Ship was to save the lives of Seamen whose ships were sunk by enemy action. Also to provide succour, care and comfort and any Surgical, medical or other treatment that might be necessary. Ships are soon replaced but not the lives of skilled seamen. The Admiralty looked for vessels that were small and easily manoeuvrable with a good speed. They were to sail at the rear of a Convoy and to pick up survivors from the sea. These ships were used in peacetime for coast-wise passenger traffic and many were drawn from the Clyde Shipping Company. They were not built to serve in the Atlantic nor the Arctic but were required to be sound and seaworthy. No Rescue Ship was lost in an Atlantic storm, although one was "iced-up" and foundered off the coast of Newfoundland. The ships were manned by Merchant Navy Masters, Officers and Seamen for the duration of the War. This was important because the Rescue Ship could work independently during an attack and move immediately to the rescue of the ship-wrecked without prompting or orders from the Admiralty. The first Rescue Ship was the BEACHY and my father, BILL HARTLEY, was the Chief Officer. In January 1941 the BEACHY was attacked by a German Foche-Wulf bomber west of Ireland, and sunk. Dad then joined the RATHLIN and then COPELAND in July 1942 .He was promoted Master of this vessel in August 1942. On his first command he was ordered to North Russia in Convoy PQ18; one of the most heavily attacked Convoys of the war. During almost continuous attacks over 5 days, COPELAND was officially credited with shooting down one enemy bomber and damaging several others. In circumstances of great difficulty and danger, his vessel picked up 205 survivors sunk by enemy action. Namely the crew of the burning tanker Atheltemplar and the ammunition ship, Oliver Ellsworth. For his courage and service in PQ18, CAPTAIN HARTLEY was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and Lloyds Medal for bravery at Sea. ( Ministry of War report ) On the night of 16th May 1943 sailing with Convoy ONS7, the British ship AYMERIC was torpedoed by a U-boat and COPELAND at once went to her assistance. While she was approaching, a second torpedo struck the AYMERIC, showing that the U-boat was still in the vicinity. Not only did Dad have to contend with this hazard, but one of the Allied ships in the convoy opened fire in his direction; fortunately the shots fell short! The survivors of the AYMERIC were widely scattered. Some were in rafts, some in water-logged boats; but from the number of red lights showing he could see that the majority of them were in the sea, the surface of which was burning with oil. As the temperature of the sea was only 36ºF the crew of the COPELAND set to with a will to save the men, jumping on to the rafts as they came alongside and bending on lines to haul the survivors on board. There were 53 dead and 25 survivors. 4 died from exposure on COPELAND and were buried later at sea. During this operation a rescued seaman was hanging over the rail shouting and pointing to a man still in the water. Dad turned COPELAND in the dark and went back for him. A few days later the survivors were landed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada and two young men came to say, "Thank you". The first said, "This is my brother whom you went back for. I could not have faced my mother without him." After this rescue Dad went several times to the Mediterranean and back to Russia. In February 1944 he took command of another Rescue Ship; the GOODWIN. In April 1944 the crew of the Norwegian tanker, SOUTH AMERICA were rescued by GOODWIN. This tanker was torpedoed and immediately burst into flames masthead high. Dad decided that the only way to save the crew was to go alongside the burning vessel. When GOODWIN was 70 yards astern the tanker was hit by a second torpedo, which had the effect of quenching the fire. GOODWIN stopped about 40 feet astern and all 42 crew were rescued in 37 minutes. The sequel to this story is that I made contact with a Radio Officer – Robbie Roberts – from the GOODWIN via a Merchant Navy web site. 16 years previously he had met up with one of the rescued Radio Officers from the SOUTH AMERICA, Bob Cobb. In May 2005 the Captain’s daughter (me) and the 2 Radio Officers met and I made recordings of their memories. Robbie Roberts said, "Captain Hartley was a brilliant seaman – there was no two ways about it. I also remember that he was always smiling – always smiling." Dad never mentioned any of the horrors of the war. When he referred to his War Service he always said, "I thank God that I was in the business of saving lives and not taking them". 362 survivors have reason to be thankful to him. In 1992 I was watching the Memorial Service for the Battle of the Atlantic with Dad. He turned to me and said, "It was a terrible day (rescue of SS Aymeric) I just wanted to cry". I was quite horrified as I had never heard him say anything like this and had certainly never seen him cry. He then wept bitterly. I know, now, that it was not his medals – D.S.C.( Distinguished Service Cross) and the Lloyds Medal for Bravery at Sea – awarded for the rescue of men in the Arctic and Atlantic that marked him as a brave man. It was the fact that he encouraged his crew by smiling; when all the time he wanted to cry.	<urn:uuid:a8cfecdb-a307-4615-94cb-ebc61896d0e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://racmp.co.uk/william-joseph-hartley.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00345.warc.gz	en	0.989771	1,308	3.3125	3	[ -0.11471252143383026, -0.031096234917640686, 0.36633896827697754, -0.5186690092086792, 0.06677175313234329, -0.11899939179420471, 0.0749821588397026, 0.15375396609306335, -0.5286179780960083, -0.325544536113739, 0.5014424324035645, -0.2584254741668701, 0.14357760548591614, 0.24955576658248...	4	William Joseph Hartley Written by Brenda Shackleton (daughter). The Rescue Ships - Arctic & Atlantic Convoys My Father - Bill Hartley (1905-1999) My Dad served in the Merchant Navy and during the War he was Captain of 2 Rescue Ships- the COPELAND and GOODWIN. They were deployed to the Arctic and Atlantic Convoys. The concept of a Rescue ship came about in 1940 when Sir Max Horton (Commander-in-Chief – Western Approaches) first suggested it to the Admiralty. The principal task of a Rescue Ship was to save the lives of Seamen whose ships were sunk by enemy action. Also to provide succour, care and comfort and any Surgical, medical or other treatment that might be necessary. Ships are soon replaced but not the lives of skilled seamen. The Admiralty looked for vessels that were small and easily manoeuvrable with a good speed. They were to sail at the rear of a Convoy and to pick up survivors from the sea. These ships were used in peacetime for coast-wise passenger traffic and many were drawn from the Clyde Shipping Company. They were not built to serve in the Atlantic nor the Arctic but were required to be sound and seaworthy. No Rescue Ship was lost in an Atlantic storm, although one was "iced-up" and foundered off the coast of Newfoundland. The ships were manned by Merchant Navy Masters, Officers and Seamen for the duration of the War. This was important because the Rescue Ship could work independently during an attack and move immediately to the rescue of the ship-wrecked without prompting or orders from the Admiralty. The first Rescue Ship was the BEACHY and my father, BILL HARTLEY, was the Chief Officer. In January 1941 the BEACHY was attacked by a German Foche-Wulf bomber west of Ireland, and sunk. Dad then joined the RATHLIN and then COPELAND in July 1942 .He was promoted Master of this vessel in August 1942. On his first command he was ordered to North Russia in Convoy PQ18; one of the most heavily attacked Convoys of the war. During almost continuous attacks over 5 days, COPELAND was officially credited with shooting down one enemy bomber and damaging several others. In circumstances of great difficulty and danger, his vessel picked up 205 survivors sunk by enemy action. Namely the crew of the burning tanker Atheltemplar and the ammunition ship, Oliver Ellsworth. For his courage and service in PQ18, CAPTAIN HARTLEY was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and Lloyds Medal for bravery at Sea. ( Ministry of War report ) On the night of 16th May 1943 sailing with Convoy ONS7, the British ship AYMERIC was torpedoed by a U-boat and COPELAND at once went to her assistance. While she was approaching, a second torpedo struck the AYMERIC, showing that the U-boat was still in the vicinity. Not only did Dad have to contend with this hazard, but one of the Allied ships in the convoy opened fire in his direction; fortunately the shots fell short! The survivors of the AYMERIC were widely scattered. Some were in rafts, some in water-logged boats; but from the number of red lights showing he could see that the majority of them were in the sea, the surface of which was burning with oil. As the temperature of the sea was only 36ºF the crew of the COPELAND set to with a will to save the men, jumping on to the rafts as they came alongside and bending on lines to haul the survivors on board. There were 53 dead and 25 survivors. 4 died from exposure on COPELAND and were buried later at sea. During this operation a rescued seaman was hanging over the rail shouting and pointing to a man still in the water. Dad turned COPELAND in the dark and went back for him. A few days later the survivors were landed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada and two young men came to say, "Thank you". The first said, "This is my brother whom you went back for. I could not have faced my mother without him." After this rescue Dad went several times to the Mediterranean and back to Russia. In February 1944 he took command of another Rescue Ship; the GOODWIN. In April 1944 the crew of the Norwegian tanker, SOUTH AMERICA were rescued by GOODWIN. This tanker was torpedoed and immediately burst into flames masthead high. Dad decided that the only way to save the crew was to go alongside the burning vessel. When GOODWIN was 70 yards astern the tanker was hit by a second torpedo, which had the effect of quenching the fire. GOODWIN stopped about 40 feet astern and all 42 crew were rescued in 37 minutes. The sequel to this story is that I made contact with a Radio Officer – Robbie Roberts – from the GOODWIN via a Merchant Navy web site. 16 years previously he had met up with one of the rescued Radio Officers from the SOUTH AMERICA, Bob Cobb. In May 2005 the Captain’s daughter (me) and the 2 Radio Officers met and I made recordings of their memories. Robbie Roberts said, "Captain Hartley was a brilliant seaman – there was no two ways about it. I also remember that he was always smiling – always smiling." Dad never mentioned any of the horrors of the war. When he referred to his War Service he always said, "I thank God that I was in the business of saving lives and not taking them". 362 survivors have reason to be thankful to him. In 1992 I was watching the Memorial Service for the Battle of the Atlantic with Dad. He turned to me and said, "It was a terrible day (rescue of SS Aymeric) I just wanted to cry". I was quite horrified as I had never heard him say anything like this and had certainly never seen him cry. He then wept bitterly. I know, now, that it was not his medals – D.S.C.( Distinguished Service Cross) and the Lloyds Medal for Bravery at Sea – awarded for the rescue of men in the Arctic and Atlantic that marked him as a brave man. It was the fact that he encouraged his crew by smiling; when all the time he wanted to cry.	1,355	ENGLISH	1
1. He was the first poet to address a US Presidential Inauguration John F. Kennedy had a personal relationship with Robert Frost and the poet had helped create momentum to elect Kennedy during his campaign. Kennedy chose Frost to recite a poem at his inauguration and he intended on reading a new poem entitled "Dedication." In the end he could not read his poem due to snow, sun and faltering eyesight, and instead recited from memory The Gift Outright". 2. When his future wife first refused his marriage proposal he contemplated suicide. Robert Frost attended high school with his future wife Elinor White. After selling his first poem Frost excitedly proposed marriage to Elinor who was studying in college at the time. Elinor was intent on finishing college first and refused, but would later accept his second proposal after she had graduated. 3. He was named after Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Frost was born in San Francisco to William Prescott Frost, Jr. and Isabelle Moodie. Both of his parents were teachers, but after moving to San Francisco his father became a journalist. The Frost parents decided to honor the Confederate General Robert E. Lee by naming their son Robert Lee Frost. 4. He received four Pulitzers for his poetry and a US Congressional Gold medal. John F. Kennedy awarded Frost the US Congressional Gold medal in 1960 for his contribution to the culture of the United States. He is one of only four individuals to have also won four Pulitzer prizes for his poetry collections in 1924,1931,1937, and 1943. Photo of Kennedy Awarding Frost the US Congressional Gold Medal 5. English publishers first recognized his poetic talent. While writing his poetry Frost worked as a farmer, and then as an English teacher in America to support himself. Finding only limited success and resistance from publishers Frost moved to England believing British publishers would be more receptive to his work. It was a gamble that paid off when his first book of poetry was published in England in 1913. 6. The poet's life was marred by a series of tragedies. There was no limit to the grief Frost endured in his lifetime. He lost his father to tuberculosis when he was 11, and his mother to cancer when she was just 26. His younger sister died in a mental hospital, and his wife Elinor suffered from cancer then died due to heart failure. He outlived four of the six children he fathered with Elinor. 7. The epitaph on his gravestone is taken from his poem "The Lesson for Today" It is unclear if Frost intended "The Lesson for Today" to be used as the epitaph on his gravestone. It was presented to the public on June 20, 1941 and included in the collection A Witness Tree in 1942. The last two lines of the poem read: I would have written of me on my stone: I had a lover's quarrel with the world. Gravestone of Robert Frost 8. He was a valedictorian of his high school class. Despite the tragic loss of his father Robert Frost was an excellent student. He went to high school in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Both he and his future wife Elinor White were co-valedictorians in the 1892 graduating class. 9. He died from complications with surgery. Robert Frost was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1962. In the same year he went through an extensive surgery. He died due to complications from that surgery in 1963. 10. He is regarded as one of the most popular 20th century poets. Robert Frost's poetry earned him immense recognition and appreciation from readers worldwide. He lived his life as a champion of naturalism and the arts. His poetry is accessible for all ages, yet contains a deeper layer that questions mortality and the human condition.	<urn:uuid:fc3afa97-8d60-49eb-844e-b6bd14b24c0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.robertfrost.org/robert-frost-facts.jsp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00138.warc.gz	en	0.992679	788	3.328125	3	[ -0.4588841199874878, 0.2956463694572449, 0.19216161966323853, 0.11515620350837708, 0.13139666616916656, 0.5555239915847778, 0.1391225904226303, 0.20165497064590454, -0.03463360667228699, -0.043488599359989166, -0.0919712483882904, 0.36155426502227783, 0.15737804770469666, 0.350784838199615...	2	1. He was the first poet to address a US Presidential Inauguration John F. Kennedy had a personal relationship with Robert Frost and the poet had helped create momentum to elect Kennedy during his campaign. Kennedy chose Frost to recite a poem at his inauguration and he intended on reading a new poem entitled "Dedication." In the end he could not read his poem due to snow, sun and faltering eyesight, and instead recited from memory The Gift Outright". 2. When his future wife first refused his marriage proposal he contemplated suicide. Robert Frost attended high school with his future wife Elinor White. After selling his first poem Frost excitedly proposed marriage to Elinor who was studying in college at the time. Elinor was intent on finishing college first and refused, but would later accept his second proposal after she had graduated. 3. He was named after Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Frost was born in San Francisco to William Prescott Frost, Jr. and Isabelle Moodie. Both of his parents were teachers, but after moving to San Francisco his father became a journalist. The Frost parents decided to honor the Confederate General Robert E. Lee by naming their son Robert Lee Frost. 4. He received four Pulitzers for his poetry and a US Congressional Gold medal. John F. Kennedy awarded Frost the US Congressional Gold medal in 1960 for his contribution to the culture of the United States. He is one of only four individuals to have also won four Pulitzer prizes for his poetry collections in 1924,1931,1937, and 1943. Photo of Kennedy Awarding Frost the US Congressional Gold Medal 5. English publishers first recognized his poetic talent. While writing his poetry Frost worked as a farmer, and then as an English teacher in America to support himself. Finding only limited success and resistance from publishers Frost moved to England believing British publishers would be more receptive to his work. It was a gamble that paid off when his first book of poetry was published in England in 1913. 6. The poet's life was marred by a series of tragedies. There was no limit to the grief Frost endured in his lifetime. He lost his father to tuberculosis when he was 11, and his mother to cancer when she was just 26. His younger sister died in a mental hospital, and his wife Elinor suffered from cancer then died due to heart failure. He outlived four of the six children he fathered with Elinor. 7. The epitaph on his gravestone is taken from his poem "The Lesson for Today" It is unclear if Frost intended "The Lesson for Today" to be used as the epitaph on his gravestone. It was presented to the public on June 20, 1941 and included in the collection A Witness Tree in 1942. The last two lines of the poem read: I would have written of me on my stone: I had a lover's quarrel with the world. Gravestone of Robert Frost 8. He was a valedictorian of his high school class. Despite the tragic loss of his father Robert Frost was an excellent student. He went to high school in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Both he and his future wife Elinor White were co-valedictorians in the 1892 graduating class. 9. He died from complications with surgery. Robert Frost was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1962. In the same year he went through an extensive surgery. He died due to complications from that surgery in 1963. 10. He is regarded as one of the most popular 20th century poets. Robert Frost's poetry earned him immense recognition and appreciation from readers worldwide. He lived his life as a champion of naturalism and the arts. His poetry is accessible for all ages, yet contains a deeper layer that questions mortality and the human condition.	817	ENGLISH	1
Buffalo had many advantages that helped it succeed in the 1900s. The advantages made it easy for Buffalo to become one of the “best cities to live in”. The developing waterfront, located downtown, and Niagara Falls had a lot to do with the rise of Buffalo. Niagara Falls was a “powerhouse” of rushing water that made it a great source of energy. The falls produced electricity that went through tunnels that powered the city. Buffalo eventually got called the City of Light because of this. Between 1804-1975 Buffalo had many successes, one of them being Niagara square. In 1804 Joseph Ellicott mapped out a town on the banks of Lake Erie near the Buffalo Creek. This area was first named New Amsterdam but is now called the Niagara Square. It became the center from which eight streets emitted from it in different directions. The streets that passed through Niagara Square was Delaware Avenue, Court Street, Genesee Street, and Niagara Street. For a period of time in the nineteenth century Buffalo remained a small village. As time went by the population and wealth grew which made Niagara Square a more interesting and popular place. Then came the well known Erie Canal which was completed in 1825 and used to bring goods and eventually passengers from one place to another. The canal started at the Hudson River near Albany, New York and ended near the Niagara River in Buffalo, New York. At the time this was the most cost effective way to ship a vast amount of goods. Today the Erie Canal is considered the most successful hand made waterway in North America. These two advances were not only major successes in Buffalos development as a city but a big part of its globalization as a whole. By 1975 Buffalo had gone through the age of sailboats, mules, trains, steel and bombs. These two advances between stages one and three in globalization helped towards the rise of Buffalo. In 1975-1992 Buffalo went through the “Perfect Economic Storm” that caused Buffalo a large amount of economic distress. The Vietnam War, which started in 1955, had the most severe impact on the U.S. economy. The government’s military spending was causing many problems for the American economy and led to the rise of inflation in the 1970s. The Oil Embargo also put a strain on the U.S. economy because we were very dependent on foreign oil. When the U.S. was denied the foreign oil the oil prices skyrocketed and caused a global recession. Nixon introduced a new strategy to help reduce the need for foreign oil and ease the tension of the oil shortages. OPEC fixed the price of crude oil which led to inflation. At the time of this Detroit’s big automobile companies had to downsize their vehicles because of inflation. The other thing that contributed to the “Perfect Storm” was the Welland Canal. It ran through Buffalo and connected to Canada. Before, any ships would stop off at Buffalo and drop off their shipment there. But, after the canal was built any of those ships trying to make shipments would now use the Wellen Canal. The ships would sail through Buffalo without making a stop and go right to Canada which was where most of Buffalos shipments would be found. This meant that Buffalo was now missing out on resources that could’ve helped its economy grow. Globalization stage 4 was the worst stage for Buffalo to undergo. It was the time of one of our worst blizzards since the blizzard of ’77. Although we are used to these snow storms this one was especially bad because James D. Griffin, also known as “Jimmy Six Pack”, was the mayor. Griffin was the most outspoken and controversial politician in Buffalo history. He was the type of person that wouldn’t let anyone stand in the way of what he thought was best for the city of Buffalo. At the time Griffin was Buffalo’s Streets Commissioner, taking care of the removal of the snow and the equipment. You may be wondering why and that is because the Common Council rejected the nomination of Joseph Scinta as Streets Commissioner. Griffin told the residents of Buffalo to blame their councilmen when the snow would begin to pile up on the city streets. A month or two after the blizzard happened Griffin was decisive on showing Buffalonians how serious he was about the clean up of the streets. He was crazy enough to go out and plow the streets himself. Even though Griffin didn’t set us up for globalization stage 5 he really did put a lot of time and effort into the city. With Buffalo in debt, waterfront looking bad, downtown empty, and residents leaving Griffin still believed that Buffalo was worth saving and he never gave up on the city. Near the end of globalization stage 4 and the beginning of globalization stage 5 Bill Clinton signed NAFTA allowing free trade between Mexico, Canada, and the United States. NAFTA has many pros to it, the first one being that the trade between the three countries quadrupled from billions of dollars to one trillion. It increased the economic growth and jobs for all three countries. It also increased trade by getting rid of tariffs between the three countries. It created more jobs and lowered economic spending. NAFTA also has some cons, one being that it led to the decrease of jobs in the United States. It also abolished wages leaving the United States asking for higher wages and put farmers out of business which made them lose their farms. Also at this time new forms of communication developed allowing people to do business. The internet was a big part of globalization stage 5 because it was a good way for companies to advertise their products. So the increase in technology actually helped increase jobs. Towards the end of globalization stage 5 and the beginning of globalization stage 6 was when Buffalo began to rebuild its city back up. The development of Canalside and KeyBank Center have been very beneficial additions to Buffalo. These places attract many people because of the many activities that they put on. Things such as concerts, hockey games, ice skating, carnivals and so much more. These places have been a successful representation that our economic leaders are trying to do something good for Buffalo’s economy. Also Governor Cuomo has announced Buffalo Billion II, the idea of this is to help create more successful and thriving businesses which creates more jobs and having more jobs will hopefully attract more people. If we have more people wanting to move to Buffalo that means that there will more people to help rebuild Buffalo’s economy. The goal for Buffalo should be to focus on repairing and building up on the businesses and buildings that are already there. Those places like Canalside, KeyBank Center, Niagara Falls, HarborCenter, and so many others that made Buffalo such an attraction. Without those things Buffalo wouldn’t be where it is today. Although new places could attract more people, focusing on what we have now and perfecting those places will attract people for a longer period of time. It’s not just the places that need fixing its the streets in downtown Buffalo that could also use some fixing too. The tall buildings aren’t the only thing that has to look appealing. Not to mention Buffalo’s downtown area barely seems to not have enough room for what is already there. Also these days and for awhile now downtown streets have been looking quiet trashy and not desirable to walk around. Buffalo has one of the steepest population decreases of any county in the nation. You would think that that percentage of people leaving was older people who have retired but sadly it isn’t. Majority of the people fleeing from here are young adults and middle age people who can’t seem to find a job or are going elsewhere for a better one. That definitely doesn’t help our economy grow and flourish. Throughout all of Buffalo’s ups and downs, it has been able to bounce back. From the “Perfect Economic Storm” to “Jimmy Six Pack” Buffalo has been able to resolve and move forward from these hardships. The developments that have occured in Buffalo have definitely made Buffalo the city to be in. They have given many opportunities to people that need jobs and given people places to make memories. Although this city seems to be decreasing in population and places seem run down if Buffalo focuses on what matters like the building that already are standing we’ll be on the track for success.	<urn:uuid:b635f886-9350-49b2-97e7-655b2ce2a327>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://michiganboergoat.org/buffalo-a-period-of-time-in-the-nineteenth-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00522.warc.gz	en	0.983751	1,692	3.453125	3	[ -0.300712525844574, -0.4767339825630188, 0.49621662497520447, 0.10943187028169632, 0.06197650358080864, -0.24868595600128174, 0.16958144307136536, 0.28209051489830017, -0.544077455997467, 0.18369095027446747, -0.16588342189788818, 0.3535369336605072, -0.22731748223304749, -0.08435365557670...	2	Buffalo had many advantages that helped it succeed in the 1900s. The advantages made it easy for Buffalo to become one of the “best cities to live in”. The developing waterfront, located downtown, and Niagara Falls had a lot to do with the rise of Buffalo. Niagara Falls was a “powerhouse” of rushing water that made it a great source of energy. The falls produced electricity that went through tunnels that powered the city. Buffalo eventually got called the City of Light because of this. Between 1804-1975 Buffalo had many successes, one of them being Niagara square. In 1804 Joseph Ellicott mapped out a town on the banks of Lake Erie near the Buffalo Creek. This area was first named New Amsterdam but is now called the Niagara Square. It became the center from which eight streets emitted from it in different directions. The streets that passed through Niagara Square was Delaware Avenue, Court Street, Genesee Street, and Niagara Street. For a period of time in the nineteenth century Buffalo remained a small village. As time went by the population and wealth grew which made Niagara Square a more interesting and popular place. Then came the well known Erie Canal which was completed in 1825 and used to bring goods and eventually passengers from one place to another. The canal started at the Hudson River near Albany, New York and ended near the Niagara River in Buffalo, New York. At the time this was the most cost effective way to ship a vast amount of goods. Today the Erie Canal is considered the most successful hand made waterway in North America. These two advances were not only major successes in Buffalos development as a city but a big part of its globalization as a whole. By 1975 Buffalo had gone through the age of sailboats, mules, trains, steel and bombs. These two advances between stages one and three in globalization helped towards the rise of Buffalo. In 1975-1992 Buffalo went through the “Perfect Economic Storm” that caused Buffalo a large amount of economic distress. The Vietnam War, which started in 1955, had the most severe impact on the U.S. economy. The government’s military spending was causing many problems for the American economy and led to the rise of inflation in the 1970s. The Oil Embargo also put a strain on the U.S. economy because we were very dependent on foreign oil. When the U.S. was denied the foreign oil the oil prices skyrocketed and caused a global recession. Nixon introduced a new strategy to help reduce the need for foreign oil and ease the tension of the oil shortages. OPEC fixed the price of crude oil which led to inflation. At the time of this Detroit’s big automobile companies had to downsize their vehicles because of inflation. The other thing that contributed to the “Perfect Storm” was the Welland Canal. It ran through Buffalo and connected to Canada. Before, any ships would stop off at Buffalo and drop off their shipment there. But, after the canal was built any of those ships trying to make shipments would now use the Wellen Canal. The ships would sail through Buffalo without making a stop and go right to Canada which was where most of Buffalos shipments would be found. This meant that Buffalo was now missing out on resources that could’ve helped its economy grow. Globalization stage 4 was the worst stage for Buffalo to undergo. It was the time of one of our worst blizzards since the blizzard of ’77. Although we are used to these snow storms this one was especially bad because James D. Griffin, also known as “Jimmy Six Pack”, was the mayor. Griffin was the most outspoken and controversial politician in Buffalo history. He was the type of person that wouldn’t let anyone stand in the way of what he thought was best for the city of Buffalo. At the time Griffin was Buffalo’s Streets Commissioner, taking care of the removal of the snow and the equipment. You may be wondering why and that is because the Common Council rejected the nomination of Joseph Scinta as Streets Commissioner. Griffin told the residents of Buffalo to blame their councilmen when the snow would begin to pile up on the city streets. A month or two after the blizzard happened Griffin was decisive on showing Buffalonians how serious he was about the clean up of the streets. He was crazy enough to go out and plow the streets himself. Even though Griffin didn’t set us up for globalization stage 5 he really did put a lot of time and effort into the city. With Buffalo in debt, waterfront looking bad, downtown empty, and residents leaving Griffin still believed that Buffalo was worth saving and he never gave up on the city. Near the end of globalization stage 4 and the beginning of globalization stage 5 Bill Clinton signed NAFTA allowing free trade between Mexico, Canada, and the United States. NAFTA has many pros to it, the first one being that the trade between the three countries quadrupled from billions of dollars to one trillion. It increased the economic growth and jobs for all three countries. It also increased trade by getting rid of tariffs between the three countries. It created more jobs and lowered economic spending. NAFTA also has some cons, one being that it led to the decrease of jobs in the United States. It also abolished wages leaving the United States asking for higher wages and put farmers out of business which made them lose their farms. Also at this time new forms of communication developed allowing people to do business. The internet was a big part of globalization stage 5 because it was a good way for companies to advertise their products. So the increase in technology actually helped increase jobs. Towards the end of globalization stage 5 and the beginning of globalization stage 6 was when Buffalo began to rebuild its city back up. The development of Canalside and KeyBank Center have been very beneficial additions to Buffalo. These places attract many people because of the many activities that they put on. Things such as concerts, hockey games, ice skating, carnivals and so much more. These places have been a successful representation that our economic leaders are trying to do something good for Buffalo’s economy. Also Governor Cuomo has announced Buffalo Billion II, the idea of this is to help create more successful and thriving businesses which creates more jobs and having more jobs will hopefully attract more people. If we have more people wanting to move to Buffalo that means that there will more people to help rebuild Buffalo’s economy. The goal for Buffalo should be to focus on repairing and building up on the businesses and buildings that are already there. Those places like Canalside, KeyBank Center, Niagara Falls, HarborCenter, and so many others that made Buffalo such an attraction. Without those things Buffalo wouldn’t be where it is today. Although new places could attract more people, focusing on what we have now and perfecting those places will attract people for a longer period of time. It’s not just the places that need fixing its the streets in downtown Buffalo that could also use some fixing too. The tall buildings aren’t the only thing that has to look appealing. Not to mention Buffalo’s downtown area barely seems to not have enough room for what is already there. Also these days and for awhile now downtown streets have been looking quiet trashy and not desirable to walk around. Buffalo has one of the steepest population decreases of any county in the nation. You would think that that percentage of people leaving was older people who have retired but sadly it isn’t. Majority of the people fleeing from here are young adults and middle age people who can’t seem to find a job or are going elsewhere for a better one. That definitely doesn’t help our economy grow and flourish. Throughout all of Buffalo’s ups and downs, it has been able to bounce back. From the “Perfect Economic Storm” to “Jimmy Six Pack” Buffalo has been able to resolve and move forward from these hardships. The developments that have occured in Buffalo have definitely made Buffalo the city to be in. They have given many opportunities to people that need jobs and given people places to make memories. Although this city seems to be decreasing in population and places seem run down if Buffalo focuses on what matters like the building that already are standing we’ll be on the track for success.	1,684	ENGLISH	1
Mughal paintings evolved from the Persian school of paintings and were usually made as miniature paintings either as book illustrations or single work. Mughals were not only good rulers but were also famous for paintings, art and architecture. The monuments built during Mughal period are world famous even to this date. The best example is Taj Mahal. Similarly Mughals were famous even for the paintings and clothing. paintings became famous during Mughal period around 16th to 18th century. It can be said that the Mughal paintings were in collaboration of Persian and Indian painters. Mughals can be given full credit for spreading the Islam art and architecture and also the faith across South Asia. paintings became much better and bigger than the Persian paintings. Animal, plants, victory in the war, hunting scenes, royal life, mythological stories etc were some of the main themes in the paintings. The Mughal paintings spread to other Indian courts of Hindus, Sikh rulers as well. Miniature paintings were not new to India. It was already present in India since 10th century. The miniature paintings also flourished during Delhi Sultanate period. Even though Babur is the Founder of the vast Mughal Empire but nothing is found about the miniature paintings during his period even in his autobiography Baburnama. actual foundation laid to Mughal Painting was by Humayun during his period. After Humayun returned from exile he was accompanied by two Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad. These two artists created many beautiful paintings including Khamsa of Nizami which had 36 illuminated pages which has different styles of various artists. are not many Mughal Paintings during Humayun’s period. One of the famous painting which he commissioned during his exile was the Princess if House of Timur which is now in British museum. The Mughal paintings flourished mainly during the period of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. After the death of Humayun his son Akbar further carried and expanded Mughal art and architecture along with many paintings. painting further improved and flourished during Akbar period. It became more Indianized. Since his childhood Akbar had very interest in the art and culture. He learnt about painting under the guidance of Abd-as-Samad. He encouraged art and culture during his reign and there were many painters during his period. Between 1560 -1570 he commissioned a number of paintings. of the famous paintings which Akbar commissioned was “Tutinama” which means “tales of Parrot”. Tutinama is a 14th century Persian stories of 52 stories. It contained 250 miniature paintings. It took almost five years to complete the paintings by Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sammad. Tutinama is presently kept in Cleveland museum of Art in Ohio major work which was commissioned by Akbar was Hamzanama. It narrates about the legendary of Amir Hamza. Akbar had enjoyed these stories during his childhood and hence he ordered the court to recreate Hamzanama. Most of the characters in this were fictitious and it had 46 volumes with 4800 pages. It also included 1400 pages of Mughal paintings that were larger in size. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sammad supervised the work which included around 30 senior artists and around 100’s of men worked in different aspects. of the other important works during Akbar period include Gulisthan which was commissioned at Fatehpur Sikri in the year 1582, A Darab Nama, the Khamsa of Nizamiand Jami’s Baharisthan. Akbar also helped around 100 of painters to practice Mughal painting. paintings got further boost during Jahangir’s period. The paintings got further improved and the brush work got thinner with light colours. Jahangir was influenced by the British art and European paintings hence he ordered for single point perspective which was used by European artists. Jahangir had great interest and fascination towards nature and animals. of the paintings during his period included portraits of his life, birds, animals and flowers. One of the best examples is the portrait of Jahangir who is holding a picture of Virgin Mary. The major painting commissioned during his period was Jahangirnameh. It was a poem written during his life time about his on Rostam. It was written in Persian Language and had 3600 couplets. It had several paintings which included union of saint and tigress and also fight between two spiders. Mansur was the famous painter in the court of Jahangir who did beautiful paintings of plants and animals. He gained the title of ustad during the end reign of Akbar. Bishandas was another important painter in Jahangir’s court. Not much is known about this great painter however it is understood that he was a Hindu. In 1613, Bishandas travelled to Persia to do painting of Shah’s Jahan had not only interest in architecture but also had lot of interest in painting. The world famous Taj Mahal was built during his period to his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The paintings during his period became more rigid and formal. Most of the themes of the paintings were garden or nature. It also had lovers in intimate position and musical parties. The Mughal paintings further grew and became more refined during Shah Jahan most important work that was commissioned during his period is known as “Padshanama”. It is a contemporary chronicle which was commissioned by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. Padshanama contained several paintings explaining the achievements of the king. It had beautiful portraits of even the courtiers, king’s paintings were so clear and neat that even minute details could be identified. However the paintings of the king and nobles were adhere to strict profile and principles. The servants and the other court officials were painted in front view technique or method. The paintings were very grand and golden colour paint was the most used paint. Under Shah Jahan period both the architecture and paintings grew immensely. Many of the paintings during his period are kept in neither encouraged nor further developed the Mughal Paintings during his period. As already the Mughal Paintings had got huge support and encouragement from public it did not affect much without Aurangzeb support. But it is believed that some of the best paintings were done during his period. It is understood and believed that during his period Aurangzeb would order for closure of all the workshops so all the painters worked hard and did some of the best paintings. After a slight fall of Mughal Paintings during Aurangzeb period again it regained during Muhammad Shah period. He encouraged artists like Nidha Mal and Chitraman to do some best paintings. The best painting during his period was Rangeela. the Mughal painting lost its charm and glory. Many other Indian Paintings had developed by that time. But with the arrival of British East India Company all the Indian paintings got influenced with the Western Paintings. Basawan: He flourished between1580-1600. He was the famous miniature painter during Mughal period and became the court painter during Akbar rule. Very little is known about him. He has contributed to more than 100 paintings and some of the great works are illustrations for the Raznama, Akbar-nama, Darab-nama and the Timur-nama. He was one of the first Indian artists to be interested in western art and its technique. was the son of Basawan who was a noted painter during Akbar time. Some of his great paintings are kept in British museum and Victoria and Albert Museum. He was in both Akbar and Jahangir court. He was the son of Bhavani Das who was also a great painter. Govardhan worked under three rulers Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. He was one of the illustrators in Baburnama which is currently located in British museum. than these there were many other important painters like Miskin, Lal along with Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad. Mughal paintings are still being created and are still passed from one generation to another. Check out for other pages If you make any purchase via a link on this site, I may receive a small commission with no added cost to you. As an Amazon Associate I earn a small commission from qualifying purchases. Other links on this site may lead to other companies that I am associated with	<urn:uuid:2e6b65e1-51c6-4a62-9f9f-71b390a849a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.india-a2z.com/mughal-painting.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00060.warc.gz	en	0.986248	1,895	3.703125	4	[ 0.044390611350536346, 0.39603590965270996, 0.40599721670150757, 0.05365392938256264, -0.32948359847068787, -0.17043359577655792, 0.2023215889930725, -0.13575220108032227, 0.13322466611862183, -0.22075264155864716, 0.27711135149002075, -0.27130138874053955, 0.07205455005168915, 0.4284964203...	6	Mughal paintings evolved from the Persian school of paintings and were usually made as miniature paintings either as book illustrations or single work. Mughals were not only good rulers but were also famous for paintings, art and architecture. The monuments built during Mughal period are world famous even to this date. The best example is Taj Mahal. Similarly Mughals were famous even for the paintings and clothing. paintings became famous during Mughal period around 16th to 18th century. It can be said that the Mughal paintings were in collaboration of Persian and Indian painters. Mughals can be given full credit for spreading the Islam art and architecture and also the faith across South Asia. paintings became much better and bigger than the Persian paintings. Animal, plants, victory in the war, hunting scenes, royal life, mythological stories etc were some of the main themes in the paintings. The Mughal paintings spread to other Indian courts of Hindus, Sikh rulers as well. Miniature paintings were not new to India. It was already present in India since 10th century. The miniature paintings also flourished during Delhi Sultanate period. Even though Babur is the Founder of the vast Mughal Empire but nothing is found about the miniature paintings during his period even in his autobiography Baburnama. actual foundation laid to Mughal Painting was by Humayun during his period. After Humayun returned from exile he was accompanied by two Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad. These two artists created many beautiful paintings including Khamsa of Nizami which had 36 illuminated pages which has different styles of various artists. are not many Mughal Paintings during Humayun’s period. One of the famous painting which he commissioned during his exile was the Princess if House of Timur which is now in British museum. The Mughal paintings flourished mainly during the period of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. After the death of Humayun his son Akbar further carried and expanded Mughal art and architecture along with many paintings. painting further improved and flourished during Akbar period. It became more Indianized. Since his childhood Akbar had very interest in the art and culture. He learnt about painting under the guidance of Abd-as-Samad. He encouraged art and culture during his reign and there were many painters during his period. Between 1560 -1570 he commissioned a number of paintings. of the famous paintings which Akbar commissioned was “Tutinama” which means “tales of Parrot”. Tutinama is a 14th century Persian stories of 52 stories. It contained 250 miniature paintings. It took almost five years to complete the paintings by Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sammad. Tutinama is presently kept in Cleveland museum of Art in Ohio major work which was commissioned by Akbar was Hamzanama. It narrates about the legendary of Amir Hamza. Akbar had enjoyed these stories during his childhood and hence he ordered the court to recreate Hamzanama. Most of the characters in this were fictitious and it had 46 volumes with 4800 pages. It also included 1400 pages of Mughal paintings that were larger in size. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sammad supervised the work which included around 30 senior artists and around 100’s of men worked in different aspects. of the other important works during Akbar period include Gulisthan which was commissioned at Fatehpur Sikri in the year 1582, A Darab Nama, the Khamsa of Nizamiand Jami’s Baharisthan. Akbar also helped around 100 of painters to practice Mughal painting. paintings got further boost during Jahangir’s period. The paintings got further improved and the brush work got thinner with light colours. Jahangir was influenced by the British art and European paintings hence he ordered for single point perspective which was used by European artists. Jahangir had great interest and fascination towards nature and animals. of the paintings during his period included portraits of his life, birds, animals and flowers. One of the best examples is the portrait of Jahangir who is holding a picture of Virgin Mary. The major painting commissioned during his period was Jahangirnameh. It was a poem written during his life time about his on Rostam. It was written in Persian Language and had 3600 couplets. It had several paintings which included union of saint and tigress and also fight between two spiders. Mansur was the famous painter in the court of Jahangir who did beautiful paintings of plants and animals. He gained the title of ustad during the end reign of Akbar. Bishandas was another important painter in Jahangir’s court. Not much is known about this great painter however it is understood that he was a Hindu. In 1613, Bishandas travelled to Persia to do painting of Shah’s Jahan had not only interest in architecture but also had lot of interest in painting. The world famous Taj Mahal was built during his period to his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The paintings during his period became more rigid and formal. Most of the themes of the paintings were garden or nature. It also had lovers in intimate position and musical parties. The Mughal paintings further grew and became more refined during Shah Jahan most important work that was commissioned during his period is known as “Padshanama”. It is a contemporary chronicle which was commissioned by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. Padshanama contained several paintings explaining the achievements of the king. It had beautiful portraits of even the courtiers, king’s paintings were so clear and neat that even minute details could be identified. However the paintings of the king and nobles were adhere to strict profile and principles. The servants and the other court officials were painted in front view technique or method. The paintings were very grand and golden colour paint was the most used paint. Under Shah Jahan period both the architecture and paintings grew immensely. Many of the paintings during his period are kept in neither encouraged nor further developed the Mughal Paintings during his period. As already the Mughal Paintings had got huge support and encouragement from public it did not affect much without Aurangzeb support. But it is believed that some of the best paintings were done during his period. It is understood and believed that during his period Aurangzeb would order for closure of all the workshops so all the painters worked hard and did some of the best paintings. After a slight fall of Mughal Paintings during Aurangzeb period again it regained during Muhammad Shah period. He encouraged artists like Nidha Mal and Chitraman to do some best paintings. The best painting during his period was Rangeela. the Mughal painting lost its charm and glory. Many other Indian Paintings had developed by that time. But with the arrival of British East India Company all the Indian paintings got influenced with the Western Paintings. Basawan: He flourished between1580-1600. He was the famous miniature painter during Mughal period and became the court painter during Akbar rule. Very little is known about him. He has contributed to more than 100 paintings and some of the great works are illustrations for the Raznama, Akbar-nama, Darab-nama and the Timur-nama. He was one of the first Indian artists to be interested in western art and its technique. was the son of Basawan who was a noted painter during Akbar time. Some of his great paintings are kept in British museum and Victoria and Albert Museum. He was in both Akbar and Jahangir court. He was the son of Bhavani Das who was also a great painter. Govardhan worked under three rulers Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. He was one of the illustrators in Baburnama which is currently located in British museum. than these there were many other important painters like Miskin, Lal along with Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad. Mughal paintings are still being created and are still passed from one generation to another. Check out for other pages If you make any purchase via a link on this site, I may receive a small commission with no added cost to you. As an Amazon Associate I earn a small commission from qualifying purchases. Other links on this site may lead to other companies that I am associated with	1,889	ENGLISH	1
Lesson Plan - Get It! First they lived on top of the mesas (flat topped mountains). Then they built dwellings underneath the cliffs. Eventually their homes were abandoned. - Who were these native Americans? - What happened to them? Let's explore Mesa Verde National Park to find out. Mesa Verde National Park, in southwestern Colorado, was established in 1906 to preserve over 5,000 archaeological sites, including 600 cliff dwellings that were home to the Ancestral Pueblo people. Mesa Verde is just one of several interesting remains of the Ancestral Pueblo people that can be found and explored in the southwest of the United States. Image by Yuchitown, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license. - Who were the Ancestral Pueblo people? The Ancestral Pueblo people, also known as Anasazi, were an ancient Native American civilization. Their culture is believed to have emerged in 1200 BC, and they were originally known as Basketmakers due to their skill in this craft. The Basketmakers lived on the mesa tops as nomadic hunters and gatherers. Around 500 AD, the first permanent villages were established. The homes they built were called pithouses and were made of poles and mud. Image by Andreas F. Borchert, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 DE license. The Basketmakers begin experimenting with pottery, and 750-900 AD is known as a transitional period where their artful expression in pottery becomes more complex and they develop their architectural skills. By 1000 AD, the Ancestral Pueblo people were using stone masonry to build large pueblos or cliff dwellings. As their population grew, these cliff dwellings became more elaborate and were built in alcoves below the canyon rim for safety. - What were the homes like at Mesa Verde? The homes at Mesa Verde were built of sandstone bricks which were affixed to each other using a mortar made of mud and water. Rooms averaged about 6 feet by 8 feet. In addition to living space, there were rooms for storing crops and underground kivas or ceremonial chambers. Image by Allisunee, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license. - How did the Ancestral Pueblo people live? They spent much of their time farming corn, beans, and squash in the valley below. They also gathered wild plants and hunted deer, rabbits, squirrels, and other game. - Why did the Ancestral Pueblo people abandon Mesa Verde? Interestingly, the Ancestral Pueblo people inhabited Mesa Verde for a very short time. The cliff dwellings were abandoned by 1300 AD. The reason why, however, remains a mystery. Some archaeologists speculate that the Ancestral Pueblo people were affected by drought or crop failure, or perhaps there were political or social problems. Watch The Mesa Verde mystery from nature video and decide what you think happened. Today at Mesa Verde, you can visit several cliff houses; most notably the Cliff Palace, shown above, and Balcony House, shown below. You can also learn more about Mesa Verde and the Ancestral Pueblo people at the visitor center and archaeological museum. Think you've got it? Click NEXT to create an Ancestral Pueblo people timeline in the Got It? section.	<urn:uuid:b78552ee-f7a3-4ce8-8043-c9498c87919d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.elephango.com/index.cfm/pg/k12learning/lcid/13160/Mesa_Verde:_Unearthing_Ancient_Culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00168.warc.gz	en	0.980968	721	3.84375	4	[ -0.034272052347660065, 0.06661079823970795, 0.6131905317306519, 0.32226455211639404, -0.15462015569210052, -0.031420983374118805, -0.11843432486057281, 0.13210639357566833, -0.18906332552433014, -0.20652930438518524, 0.037397608160972595, -0.042556021362543106, 0.07759444415569305, 0.16610...	1	Lesson Plan - Get It! First they lived on top of the mesas (flat topped mountains). Then they built dwellings underneath the cliffs. Eventually their homes were abandoned. - Who were these native Americans? - What happened to them? Let's explore Mesa Verde National Park to find out. Mesa Verde National Park, in southwestern Colorado, was established in 1906 to preserve over 5,000 archaeological sites, including 600 cliff dwellings that were home to the Ancestral Pueblo people. Mesa Verde is just one of several interesting remains of the Ancestral Pueblo people that can be found and explored in the southwest of the United States. Image by Yuchitown, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license. - Who were the Ancestral Pueblo people? The Ancestral Pueblo people, also known as Anasazi, were an ancient Native American civilization. Their culture is believed to have emerged in 1200 BC, and they were originally known as Basketmakers due to their skill in this craft. The Basketmakers lived on the mesa tops as nomadic hunters and gatherers. Around 500 AD, the first permanent villages were established. The homes they built were called pithouses and were made of poles and mud. Image by Andreas F. Borchert, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 DE license. The Basketmakers begin experimenting with pottery, and 750-900 AD is known as a transitional period where their artful expression in pottery becomes more complex and they develop their architectural skills. By 1000 AD, the Ancestral Pueblo people were using stone masonry to build large pueblos or cliff dwellings. As their population grew, these cliff dwellings became more elaborate and were built in alcoves below the canyon rim for safety. - What were the homes like at Mesa Verde? The homes at Mesa Verde were built of sandstone bricks which were affixed to each other using a mortar made of mud and water. Rooms averaged about 6 feet by 8 feet. In addition to living space, there were rooms for storing crops and underground kivas or ceremonial chambers. Image by Allisunee, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license. - How did the Ancestral Pueblo people live? They spent much of their time farming corn, beans, and squash in the valley below. They also gathered wild plants and hunted deer, rabbits, squirrels, and other game. - Why did the Ancestral Pueblo people abandon Mesa Verde? Interestingly, the Ancestral Pueblo people inhabited Mesa Verde for a very short time. The cliff dwellings were abandoned by 1300 AD. The reason why, however, remains a mystery. Some archaeologists speculate that the Ancestral Pueblo people were affected by drought or crop failure, or perhaps there were political or social problems. Watch The Mesa Verde mystery from nature video and decide what you think happened. Today at Mesa Verde, you can visit several cliff houses; most notably the Cliff Palace, shown above, and Balcony House, shown below. You can also learn more about Mesa Verde and the Ancestral Pueblo people at the visitor center and archaeological museum. Think you've got it? Click NEXT to create an Ancestral Pueblo people timeline in the Got It? section.	719	ENGLISH	1
Wordsworth Classics: The Merchant of Venice The Merchant of Venice is one of Shakespeare’s most popular comedies, but it remains deeply controversial. The text may seem anti-Semitic; yet repeatedly, in performance, it has revealed a contrasting nature. Shylock, though vanquished in the law-court, often triumphs in the theatre. In his intensity he can dominate the play, challenging abrasively its romantic and lyrical affirmations. What results is a bitter-sweet drama. Though The Merchant of Venice offers some of the traditional pleasures of romantic comedy, it also exposes the operations of prejudice. Thus Shakespeare remains our contemporary. About the Author William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire and was baptised on 26 April 1564. Thought to have been educated at the local grammar school, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he went on to have three children, at the age of eighteen, before moving to London to work in the theatre. Two erotic poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece were published in 1593 and 1594 and records of his plays begin to appear in 1594 for Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI. Shakespeare's tragic period lasted from around 1600 to 1608, during which period he wrote plays including Hamlet and Othello. The first editions of the sonnets were published in 1609 but evidence suggests that Shakespeare had been writing them for years for a private readership.	<urn:uuid:4c14345d-33db-4a51-a516-36f49cf2084f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://1ty.vn/Wordsworth-Classics-The-Merchant-of-Venice-80_PRI1299160_LWP	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00479.warc.gz	en	0.982476	406	3.671875	4	[ 0.3192685544490814, -0.4795808792114258, 0.33229437470436096, 0.1352270394563675, -0.3051842749118805, -0.2124619483947754, 0.2347470372915268, 0.02992667816579342, -0.1891034096479416, -0.2918655276298523, -0.0528867281973362, -0.12713219225406647, 0.00036211838596500456, 0.32374992966651...	1	Wordsworth Classics: The Merchant of Venice The Merchant of Venice is one of Shakespeare’s most popular comedies, but it remains deeply controversial. The text may seem anti-Semitic; yet repeatedly, in performance, it has revealed a contrasting nature. Shylock, though vanquished in the law-court, often triumphs in the theatre. In his intensity he can dominate the play, challenging abrasively its romantic and lyrical affirmations. What results is a bitter-sweet drama. Though The Merchant of Venice offers some of the traditional pleasures of romantic comedy, it also exposes the operations of prejudice. Thus Shakespeare remains our contemporary. About the Author William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire and was baptised on 26 April 1564. Thought to have been educated at the local grammar school, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he went on to have three children, at the age of eighteen, before moving to London to work in the theatre. Two erotic poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece were published in 1593 and 1594 and records of his plays begin to appear in 1594 for Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI. Shakespeare's tragic period lasted from around 1600 to 1608, during which period he wrote plays including Hamlet and Othello. The first editions of the sonnets were published in 1609 but evidence suggests that Shakespeare had been writing them for years for a private readership.	425	ENGLISH	1
Arrival Of Portuguese In Sri Lanka In 1505 eight years after Vasco da Gama had doubled the Cape of Good Hope when Vira Parakrama Bahu 8 was king of Kottw, Vikrama Bahu, king of the Hill Country, and Pararasa Sekaran, king of Jaffna, a Portuguese fleet was forced by winds and waves to the island of Ceylon. The captain-major of the fleet was a young nobleman named Don Lourenco de Almeida, son of the first Portuguese viceroy of India. He had set out from Cochin to intercept the richly laden Muslim ships which, bound from China to the Persian Gulf, were avoiding the usual route, now infested by the Portuguese and were passing by the Maldives Island. Being caught in a storm, Don Lourenco was tossed to the southern coast of Ceylon unawares and put into the harbour of Galle (about Galle). When he learned that this unknown country was the far-famed island of Ceylon, he coasted on to Colombo which he was told was the port to the capital of the island. Colombo, then called Kolamba or Kolomtota, was the chief anchorage for ships and the mart of the island’s trade. This trade, chiefly in cinnamon, coconut, and elephants was in the hands of Muslim traders, the descendant of the seafaring Arabs. They had many storehouses of bangasalas in which they stocked their merchandise. The population of the town was largely Muslim, and there was a mosque together with a Muslim cemetery and a court of justice to settle disputes according to Muslim law. The township lay on the bank of a rivulet, an outlet of the Kelani River, which entered the sea near the modern Pettah. Over the rivulet was a bridge, and large and broad streets intersected the town. At the mouth of this rivulet, there was a fairly safe anchorage for ships. The Muslims were an object of hatred to the Portuguese. The latter was Christians, the former Mohammedans, and between the two for many centuries past had raged the wars known as the Crusades. Moreover, the object of the Portuguese explorations was to wrest the trade of India and its profit from the Muslims who had been masters of Indian seas for many centuries. Nowadays rival traders oust each other by peaceful competition, but in those rough times, they did so by sheer might and open piracy. The Portuguese and the Muslims, therefore, fought each other wherever they met, and merchantmen always carried guns and generally sailed together for common help. When Don Lourenco appeared off Colombo, there were Muslims ships engaged in lading or Landing cargo, and all took alarm at the unexpected appearance of the hated rival. The captain-major, however, who had so recently been storm-tossed and had come to hold communication with the king of the country, did not wish to be hostile and assured the Muslims of his peaceful intentions. He had heard of Ceylon, of its spices and elephants and pearls and his king had even directed his father, the viceroy, to explore Ceylon. Glad, therefore, to have come unexpectedly upon the island, he desired to send an embassy to the king, and sought information from the Muslim captains. They were not disposed to let their rivals know how fruitful and fair this island was, and tried to dissuade the Portuguese commander from entering into negotiations with the Sinhalese king. At their instigation, the townspeople of Colombo set upon a party of the sailor who had gone on shore for wood and water, but a volley from the ship’s cannon soon cleared the shores. Vasco Da Gama arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505 and the King of Sri Lanka was Vira Parakrama Bahu. The king was informed upon the arrival of strangers to the port of Colombo. According to a Sinhalese chronicle, the Rajavaliya, the message was counched in this form. “There is in our harbour of Colombo a race of people, fair of skin and comely withal. They don jackets and hats of iron; rest not a minute in one place but walk here and there. They eat hunks of stone and drink blood. They give two or three pieces of gold and silver for one fish or one lime. The report of their cannon is louder than thunder when it burst upon the rock of Yugandhara. The king promptly summoned his council and on its advice decided to receive the newcomer. Messengers were accordingly sent with the fruit of the country to bid the visitors welcome in the name of the king. Don Lourenco was so pleased with the message that he dispatched Fernao Custrim, one of the captains of the fleet, as an envoy to Kotte. The royal councillors, however, had thought it unsafe to let the foreigner see that Kotte was so near Colombo, and the Portuguese envoy was led by a circuitous route, uphill and down dale, for three days. The people of Ceylon who heard about the ruse thought that the Portuguese were misled and to this day a circuitous route is called in Sinhalese “ as the Portuguese went to Kotte”, But a ship’s captain who had found his way over the wide ocean from Lisbon to India could not be easily deceived in his bearings. Don Lourenco, moreover, had taken the precaution of retaining hostage for the safe return of his envoy and had agreed to fire a gun at every turn of the hour-glass. From the report of the gun, Cutrim saw quite clearly that he was being led in a roundabout way but took no notice, as no harm seemed to be intended. He was commissioned to pay the commander’s compliments and inquire whether the king would enter into a treaty with Portuguese. Though he did not see the king or converse with him he was assured that the king would be pleased to form an alliance. With this message, Curtrim returned along with some of the king’s people and elephants to conduct an ambassador. Payo de Souza was thereupon chosen by Don Lourenco to wait upon the king to negotiate a treaty. To understand the object of this treaty one must know the purpose of the Portuguese was the trade, and that trade, and that trade a monopoly. The kings and princes of India were invited to give this monopoly to the king of Portugal, in return for the protection of their shores. If they accepted, a treaty was drawn up expressing this bargain in terms of feudal vassalage. Such a treaty Payo de Souza proposed to the king of Kotte at an audience. Of, this the first European embassy to a Sinhalese king, there exists a classic description given by the king of Portugal to the Pope of Rome when he announced to the pointiff the discovery of Taprobane. King of Kotte and Portuguese grip on Sri Lanka The nominal emperor of Ceylon at the arrival of Portuguese in Sri Lanka was Vira Parakrama Bahu (1484-1509) who was an old man and had entrusted the government of his realm to his sons. The eldest afterwards Dharma Parakrama Bahu, ruled at Kotte; Vijaya Bahu was at Dondra in the south, Rajasinghe was at Menikkadavara in the Four Korales, and another whose name is not known at Raigama. Two of the king’s nephews, Sakalakala Valla and Taniya Valla, ruled at Udugampola and Madampe. The two elder sons were rival claimants to the empire and both assert in their grants that they were the Chakravarti of Ceylon in the year 1509, which is apparently the year of their father’s death. Vira Parkarama Bahu’s reign was disturbed in various ways. A Malabar pirate from Kayalpatanam invaded the north-west coast and fished for the Gulf of Mannar. The princes of Madampe and Udugampola marched against him with a large force of man and elephants and utterly defeated the Malabars. Vikrama Bahu, the king of the hill-country, began to assert his independence by withholding the usual tribute, but the prince of the Four Korale invaded his kingdom and demanded the payment of two lacks of fanams and elephants and the king’s daughter to wife, subsequently he made an attempt to invade the Four Korales, but was again subdued by the prince of Udugampola and forced to send a pearl umbrella, a counch, a shield, and a necklace. On the death of the aged king, the two elder sons disputed the succession. Dharma Parakrama Bahu, who had been ruling at Kotte in his father’s lifetime and had received the Portuguese ambassador, had many supporters in Kotte. Wishing to obtain Portuguese troops to intimidate his brother, he sent a message to the viceroy fro troops and offered to give a site for a fortress in Colombo. As the Portuguese were too busy at the time, nothing came of the offer. The Portuguese were then engaged in trying to oust the Muslim rival from the Indian waters by erecting fortresses at Malacca, Ormuz, and Aden. Malacca, situated between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, commanded the Indian trade with China. Ormuz commanded the sea route to Basra through the Persian Gulf and the caravan traffic from Basra to Aleppo, Trebizond, and Damascus, whence Venetian ships fetched the Indian products for distribution in Europe. Aden, in like manner, guarded the sea route to Suez whence merchandise was carried by camels to Cairo and down the Nile to Alexandria and finally to Venice. Thus Malacca, Ormuz, and Aden were the keys to the Indian trade. Alfonso de Albuquerque, who had succeeded Almeida as viceroy, made Goa the headquarters of the Portuguese state in India and fortified Malacca and Ormuz. His successor, Lopo Soarz, de Albergaria, endeavoured to take Aden, but failing in this he hastened to carry out the orders he had received from his to erect a fortress in Ceylon which lay on the trade route to the Far East and was the well-known landmark of Eastern navigation.	<urn:uuid:cdbea8a3-c340-4120-a564-3646ac2df75d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.urlaub-sr-lanka.info/sri-lanka-portuguese-arrival-of-portuguese-in-sri-lanka/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00377.warc.gz	en	0.982559	2,165	3.515625	4	[ 0.03805043175816536, 0.145055890083313, 0.1010899692773819, -0.36748236417770386, -0.003002393990755081, 0.13082903623580933, 0.36191052198410034, -0.18237534165382385, 0.0597991980612278, 0.1426619589328766, 0.10703420639038086, -0.4604327082633972, -0.23594024777412415, 0.560888350009918...	2	Arrival Of Portuguese In Sri Lanka In 1505 eight years after Vasco da Gama had doubled the Cape of Good Hope when Vira Parakrama Bahu 8 was king of Kottw, Vikrama Bahu, king of the Hill Country, and Pararasa Sekaran, king of Jaffna, a Portuguese fleet was forced by winds and waves to the island of Ceylon. The captain-major of the fleet was a young nobleman named Don Lourenco de Almeida, son of the first Portuguese viceroy of India. He had set out from Cochin to intercept the richly laden Muslim ships which, bound from China to the Persian Gulf, were avoiding the usual route, now infested by the Portuguese and were passing by the Maldives Island. Being caught in a storm, Don Lourenco was tossed to the southern coast of Ceylon unawares and put into the harbour of Galle (about Galle). When he learned that this unknown country was the far-famed island of Ceylon, he coasted on to Colombo which he was told was the port to the capital of the island. Colombo, then called Kolamba or Kolomtota, was the chief anchorage for ships and the mart of the island’s trade. This trade, chiefly in cinnamon, coconut, and elephants was in the hands of Muslim traders, the descendant of the seafaring Arabs. They had many storehouses of bangasalas in which they stocked their merchandise. The population of the town was largely Muslim, and there was a mosque together with a Muslim cemetery and a court of justice to settle disputes according to Muslim law. The township lay on the bank of a rivulet, an outlet of the Kelani River, which entered the sea near the modern Pettah. Over the rivulet was a bridge, and large and broad streets intersected the town. At the mouth of this rivulet, there was a fairly safe anchorage for ships. The Muslims were an object of hatred to the Portuguese. The latter was Christians, the former Mohammedans, and between the two for many centuries past had raged the wars known as the Crusades. Moreover, the object of the Portuguese explorations was to wrest the trade of India and its profit from the Muslims who had been masters of Indian seas for many centuries. Nowadays rival traders oust each other by peaceful competition, but in those rough times, they did so by sheer might and open piracy. The Portuguese and the Muslims, therefore, fought each other wherever they met, and merchantmen always carried guns and generally sailed together for common help. When Don Lourenco appeared off Colombo, there were Muslims ships engaged in lading or Landing cargo, and all took alarm at the unexpected appearance of the hated rival. The captain-major, however, who had so recently been storm-tossed and had come to hold communication with the king of the country, did not wish to be hostile and assured the Muslims of his peaceful intentions. He had heard of Ceylon, of its spices and elephants and pearls and his king had even directed his father, the viceroy, to explore Ceylon. Glad, therefore, to have come unexpectedly upon the island, he desired to send an embassy to the king, and sought information from the Muslim captains. They were not disposed to let their rivals know how fruitful and fair this island was, and tried to dissuade the Portuguese commander from entering into negotiations with the Sinhalese king. At their instigation, the townspeople of Colombo set upon a party of the sailor who had gone on shore for wood and water, but a volley from the ship’s cannon soon cleared the shores. Vasco Da Gama arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505 and the King of Sri Lanka was Vira Parakrama Bahu. The king was informed upon the arrival of strangers to the port of Colombo. According to a Sinhalese chronicle, the Rajavaliya, the message was counched in this form. “There is in our harbour of Colombo a race of people, fair of skin and comely withal. They don jackets and hats of iron; rest not a minute in one place but walk here and there. They eat hunks of stone and drink blood. They give two or three pieces of gold and silver for one fish or one lime. The report of their cannon is louder than thunder when it burst upon the rock of Yugandhara. The king promptly summoned his council and on its advice decided to receive the newcomer. Messengers were accordingly sent with the fruit of the country to bid the visitors welcome in the name of the king. Don Lourenco was so pleased with the message that he dispatched Fernao Custrim, one of the captains of the fleet, as an envoy to Kotte. The royal councillors, however, had thought it unsafe to let the foreigner see that Kotte was so near Colombo, and the Portuguese envoy was led by a circuitous route, uphill and down dale, for three days. The people of Ceylon who heard about the ruse thought that the Portuguese were misled and to this day a circuitous route is called in Sinhalese “ as the Portuguese went to Kotte”, But a ship’s captain who had found his way over the wide ocean from Lisbon to India could not be easily deceived in his bearings. Don Lourenco, moreover, had taken the precaution of retaining hostage for the safe return of his envoy and had agreed to fire a gun at every turn of the hour-glass. From the report of the gun, Cutrim saw quite clearly that he was being led in a roundabout way but took no notice, as no harm seemed to be intended. He was commissioned to pay the commander’s compliments and inquire whether the king would enter into a treaty with Portuguese. Though he did not see the king or converse with him he was assured that the king would be pleased to form an alliance. With this message, Curtrim returned along with some of the king’s people and elephants to conduct an ambassador. Payo de Souza was thereupon chosen by Don Lourenco to wait upon the king to negotiate a treaty. To understand the object of this treaty one must know the purpose of the Portuguese was the trade, and that trade, and that trade a monopoly. The kings and princes of India were invited to give this monopoly to the king of Portugal, in return for the protection of their shores. If they accepted, a treaty was drawn up expressing this bargain in terms of feudal vassalage. Such a treaty Payo de Souza proposed to the king of Kotte at an audience. Of, this the first European embassy to a Sinhalese king, there exists a classic description given by the king of Portugal to the Pope of Rome when he announced to the pointiff the discovery of Taprobane. King of Kotte and Portuguese grip on Sri Lanka The nominal emperor of Ceylon at the arrival of Portuguese in Sri Lanka was Vira Parakrama Bahu (1484-1509) who was an old man and had entrusted the government of his realm to his sons. The eldest afterwards Dharma Parakrama Bahu, ruled at Kotte; Vijaya Bahu was at Dondra in the south, Rajasinghe was at Menikkadavara in the Four Korales, and another whose name is not known at Raigama. Two of the king’s nephews, Sakalakala Valla and Taniya Valla, ruled at Udugampola and Madampe. The two elder sons were rival claimants to the empire and both assert in their grants that they were the Chakravarti of Ceylon in the year 1509, which is apparently the year of their father’s death. Vira Parkarama Bahu’s reign was disturbed in various ways. A Malabar pirate from Kayalpatanam invaded the north-west coast and fished for the Gulf of Mannar. The princes of Madampe and Udugampola marched against him with a large force of man and elephants and utterly defeated the Malabars. Vikrama Bahu, the king of the hill-country, began to assert his independence by withholding the usual tribute, but the prince of the Four Korale invaded his kingdom and demanded the payment of two lacks of fanams and elephants and the king’s daughter to wife, subsequently he made an attempt to invade the Four Korales, but was again subdued by the prince of Udugampola and forced to send a pearl umbrella, a counch, a shield, and a necklace. On the death of the aged king, the two elder sons disputed the succession. Dharma Parakrama Bahu, who had been ruling at Kotte in his father’s lifetime and had received the Portuguese ambassador, had many supporters in Kotte. Wishing to obtain Portuguese troops to intimidate his brother, he sent a message to the viceroy fro troops and offered to give a site for a fortress in Colombo. As the Portuguese were too busy at the time, nothing came of the offer. The Portuguese were then engaged in trying to oust the Muslim rival from the Indian waters by erecting fortresses at Malacca, Ormuz, and Aden. Malacca, situated between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, commanded the Indian trade with China. Ormuz commanded the sea route to Basra through the Persian Gulf and the caravan traffic from Basra to Aleppo, Trebizond, and Damascus, whence Venetian ships fetched the Indian products for distribution in Europe. Aden, in like manner, guarded the sea route to Suez whence merchandise was carried by camels to Cairo and down the Nile to Alexandria and finally to Venice. Thus Malacca, Ormuz, and Aden were the keys to the Indian trade. Alfonso de Albuquerque, who had succeeded Almeida as viceroy, made Goa the headquarters of the Portuguese state in India and fortified Malacca and Ormuz. His successor, Lopo Soarz, de Albergaria, endeavoured to take Aden, but failing in this he hastened to carry out the orders he had received from his to erect a fortress in Ceylon which lay on the trade route to the Far East and was the well-known landmark of Eastern navigation.	2,146	ENGLISH	1
By James Bilder The south of Ireland, officially known as Eire and often referred to by many residing there as the “Free State,” declared its neutrality when World War II erupted suddenly in September 1939. The Irish would remain neutral throughout the war but were universally viewed as far more sympathetic and helpful to the Allies than the Axis. Despite their formal neutrality, the Irish experienced a number of aerial bomb attacks from German planes in 1940 and 1941. The Germans insisted that any damage to Irish property or casualties among the Irish populace could not have been the result of German ordnance since there simply were not any German military planes flying in Ireland’s airspace. They blamed British skullduggery for these attacks. According to the Nazis, it was Churchill and not Hitler who wanted to drag Ireland into war. The ordnance and planes involved in these attacks would prove to be unmistakably German and, while it may be true that some of these incidents were in fact accidental, it appears more likely than not that Nazi Germany was both punishing and warning Ireland regarding its relationship with the Allies. Neutrality was a difficult thing to maintain in World War II, especially for any nation in Europe. When the war began in September 1939, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, and Norway had all proclaimed their neutrality only to have the Germans quickly gobble them up the following spring. The Baltic States and Finland had done much the same, only to be forcibly occupied or invaded by the Soviet Union that same year or the next. Sweden and Switzerland had both been neutral states since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, although both nations at least seemed to cooperate more with Germany than the Allies in the subsequent world wars. Ireland was a different matter altogether. Ireland had Britain and the sea between her and any potential hostile powers like Nazi Germany or Communist Russia. It was no simple matter for a foreign power, save Britain, to invade Ireland, which was thought to be relatively safe from attack. It was also fairly easy for Ireland to avoid any argument for entering the war. Ireland had no military alliances, strategic interests, colonial holdings, or financial ties that would force it into becoming a belligerent. So the Irish were officially neutral—even if that neutrality happened to favor the Allies. This was not an easy a task because English-Irish relations had, for centuries, been “strained,” to say the least. Ireland had been under British rule since the 1100s, but after the Protestant Reformation in the mid-1500s under Henry VIII the two nations were in a virtual and perpetual state of war. Formal laws denying basic civil rights to Catholics and Protestant dissenters of English rule were passed in the early 1700s. This resulted in much bloodshed, including a failed Irish insurrection in 1798. Irish-English relations remained strained in the early 20th century, but most Irish were supportive of Great Britain during World War I, with roughly 200,000 Irishmen serving in British ranks. These men were all volunteers, as Britain did not draft Irishmen even though Parliament passed a law in April 1918 authorizing them to do just that. Amongst this uneasy peace, the more militant Irish rose up in arms to defy British rule during the Easter Rebellion of 1916. The fighting was primarily in Dublin and was quelled by the British in less than a week. In January 1919, two months after the curtain came down on the Great War, Ireland moved to declare itself an independent state. The British responded with the infamous “Black and Tans”—an ill-clad group of mostly unemployed war veterans not unlike the German Freikorps (Free Corps), who were then busy putting down communist uprisings throughout post-World War I Germany. Both organizations could be absolutely ruthless in their reprisals against innocent civilians, and the horror stories understandably survive to the present day. A partial solution was reached in December 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It granted the 23 mostly Catholic counties in the south of Ireland independence in a year and let the nine mostly Protestant counties of the north vote to opt out of the treaty (which six did) in order to remain in the United Kingdom. The German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, brought a declaration of war from the United Kingdom within 48 hours. That declaration of war was limited to the UK and did not involve other nations of the British Commonwealth. The UK’s authority for war powers over its citizens included the Isle of Britain, England, Scotland, and Wales as well as, the six counties in Northern Ireland known as Ulster. The south of Ireland (Eire) had been a “self-governing dominion” of the British Empire from 1922-1937. The Irish, acting under British authority, had drafted a new constitution in 1937 and passed it in a plebiscite, making them a fully independent state. The authority enabling the Irish Free State to draft a new constitution came from Britain’s Statute of Westminster, passed in 1931. On September 1, 1939, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland quickly convened an emergency session of the Dail (parliament) to deal with the crisis. The Taoiseach then was none other than Éamon de Valera, an American by birth who was brought by his uncle to Ireland at the tender age of two after his father died. He had been part of the leadership involved in the 1916 Easter Rebellion and almost certainly was spared execution because he was an American by birth. The Brits in 1916 did not want to risk angering the large Irish-American population while they were courting America as a potential ally in the Great War. De Valera was both an athlete and a scholar. He was something of an Irish version of Horatio Alger—a man who rose to prominence by picking himself up by his own bootstraps. He would be a powerful force in Irish politics from 1917 until his retirement in 1973 at the age of 90. De Valera’s supporters regarded him as a supreme diplomat. Whether dealing with the Brits or the Germans, they thought him a tough and wise negotiator who could secure an agreement beneficial to his people and avoid conflict in the process. His detractors regarded him as a “typical” politician—that is, noncommittal, evasive, and selfserving. Most of the Irish populace fell into the former category while U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, David Gray (Roosevelt’s envoy to Ireland), and Churchill fell into the latter. When the war broke out de Valera and his government knew that Ireland was not only free from any obligation to provide military assistance to anyone, but was completely incapable of offering any. The Irish Army had only 7,500 men in its ranks. While undoubtedly courageous, it was far from being combat ready and was regarded by most observers as more ceremonial in nature and best suited for parades. The Irish Navy, moreover, consisted of a mere two motorized torpedo boats (they would have six by the end of 1940) used for coastal patrol. As for the Irish Air Corps, its combat capability consisted of four 1938 British Gloster Gladiators (biplanes), 16 twin-engine British Avro Ansons used for training and maritime reconnaissance (they could drop bombs, assuming the Irish had any), three Supermarine Amphibious Walruses (biplane boats) used for maritime recon, and three British Westland Lysanders, which could be used for land-based observation and reconnaissance or to shuttle a VIP or two. As the British parliament was approving a declaration of war against Germany on September 3, 1939, the Irish Dail was busy passing the Emergency Powers Act. The Irish armed forces, sparse as they were, were now mobilized. As prime minister, de Valera now had almost unchecked authority in regard to military matters and preparedness, but the Emergency Powers Act stopped short of granting him the authority to take the nation into war. He could, in effect, do whatever was necessary to protect Ireland from aggression, but the parliament made clear that the nation was neutral in the conflict and intended to remain as such. This was all fine with de Valera, who had long embraced these same sentiments. De Valera wasn’t limiting his worries about aggression against Ireland to just Germany. There was a real fear that the British would seize a neutral Eire and occupy it as a protectorate. The Brits would reason that if the Irish didn’t have enough sense to throw in with Britain, then they could be forced to do so for their own good. Any such anxiety on de Valera’s part would soon prove to be justified. The irony cannot be lost that on the very day that Hitler’s armies were storming into the neutral Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium (May 10, 1940), the British Royal Marines were landing in neutral Iceland to take control of it. Whatever Hitler and Churchill were thinking in regard to the Emerald Isle, de Valera’s sentiments were clear to both sides: Ireland would fight to the last against any invader—Axis or Allied. Just two weeks after the fall of France on June 25, 1940, the Brits began to feel the full wrath of Hitler’s fury as the Battle of Britain commenced. Hitler’s Operation Sea Lion called for an invasion and subsequent conquest of Great Britain in the fall of 1940. Before the Germans could hope to move their troops and vehicles across the English Channel they would need to subdue the mighty British Royal Navy, and the only way to do that would be to have control of the air. German control of the air could only be achieved by first wiping out the British Royal Air Force. From early July until the end of October 1940, German bombers hit British cities, seaports, industry, air bases, and the all-important radar stations, which provided the only effective early warning of incoming enemy planes. Meanwhile, German fighters engaged their British counterparts in harrowing aerial dogfights over the Channel and Britain itself. The 31/2months of aerial combat did not wipe out the RAF or force Britain into submission, but it seemed to come awfully close. The Irish people, and perhaps even their own government, may not have appreciated just how much intrigue was now swirling around their tiny island. In August 1940, the German high command completed plans for an invasion of Ireland (Operation Green). It called for landing roughly 4,000 troops along an 85-mile stretch of the southern coast between Wexford and Dungarvan. Even an element of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was convinced that a German victory could end the British “toehold” of Northern Ireland and bring about a united nation. They had developed “Plan Kathleen” and sent it to German Intelligence with the hope that a joint effort between the two would allow each to obtain their primary objective. German military leaders of all service branches knew these far-fetched plans could only be pulled off if Sea Lion were successful. Many regarded Operation Green as little more than a ruse designed to throw off Allied intelligence regarding Hitler’s planned invasion of Russia. Still, de Valera knew that while he had reason to be wary of the intentions of both sides, there was every common bond with Britain—especially when compared to Nazi Germany. First, there were between 40,000 and 50,000 Irishmen voluntarily serving in British ranks. Second, de Valera had advocated as early as 1921 for coordination between Ireland and Britain in regard to their mutual defense. This coordination included Ireland availing its key ports to the British if such an extreme emergency arose. Much to Churchill’s chagrin, de Valera refused to do so during World War II. The ante was upped in May 1940 after Churchill became prime minister and France was under attack. Malcolm MacDonald, who had served as British Secretary of State for the colonies, was dispatched to Dublin to offer de Valera the six counties of Ireland in exchange for Ireland’s entry into the war as an ally. The catch was that Ireland would be reunited after an Allied victory over Germany. De Valera never seriously considered the offer. He doubted the Brits would honor the pledge and, even if they did, it would mean a new civil war for Ireland as the Catholic south would have to incorporate the Protestant north into a new nation. All one had to do was to look at what happened to Russia in 1919 to get an idea of where that prospect led. De Valera liked and respected MacDonald but dispatched him with a cheery goodbye. The Irish cooperated extensively, although not formally, with the Brits throughout the war. They would avail a corridor of their airspace for British use, move decisively to crack down on German and German-leaning IRA espionage, keep the Brits informed of U-boat activity, allow Irishmen (not already serving in the Irish military) to join the British military, agree to return to the British any German prisoners who escaped from POW camps in the north and to black out coastal cities that were obviously being used as navigational points for German bombers headed toward Belfast. (The blackouts, however were normally limited to businesses and did not begin until April 1941.) In August 1940, the Battle of Britain was at its height, and it seemed to many that Britain would fall. Perhaps for that reason the Germans felt they could afford to be more cavalier about possibly offending Irish neutrality. That month saw the first of several military incidents by the German Luftwaffe involving the Irish. The Germans had maritime patrol bombers from Kampsgeschwader (KG) 40 attacking Allied merchant shipping along the northwest coast of Ireland. From bases in Trondheim, Norway, and Cognac, France, as well as Amsterdam, the German Focke-Wulf Fw-200 Condors flew their missions with near impunity. On August 20, 1940, a condor from KG 40 was in the process of attacking a freighter (probably the SS Macville) off Blackround Island in County Mayo when it strafed an Irish lighthouse. When two fragmentation bombs dropped from the Condor failed to sink the ship, the German pilot probably swung around to pepper it with machine-gun fire. In addition to whatever damage the bursts did to the ship, they also shot up some roof shingles and lantern panes on the lighthouse, but no one on the ground was hurt. This apparently did nothing more than raise some eyebrows. It was a mere six days later that something a lot more serious, and seemingly a lot more deliberate, happened. Irish Lookout Posts (LOPs) in the southeastern part of the country reported at 1:40 pm that two planes, identified minutes later as German Heinkel He-111 bombers, had entered Irish airspace over County Wexford. They had come from over the Irish Sea and were flying relatively low at about 10,000 feet and heading in a northeasterly direction. Twelve minutes after first being spotted by Irish Defense Force (IDF) observers, the planes circled over the town of Campile after having followed rail lines to their destination. It was a bright, sunny summer’s day providing a clear view to the German pilots as well as to the civilians on the ground. One plane came in at lower altitude and dropped four 1,000-pound bombs on Duncormick. A private home was damaged, and a railway viaduct was just missed, but no one was hurt. The second Heinkel would have a more lethal effect. In clear view of numerous civilian witnesses, the second bomber came in near the ground before releasing a bundle of delayed-action bombs. The Campile Creamery was hit, and three young women employed there were killed. The censors were able to keep the matter out of the news for the most part, but word still got out among the populace. Some IRA members and other defenders of Germany said it was the RAF using captured German planes and bombs or the result of exhausted German pilots screwing up their navigation. The Heinkel crews would have had to be trained by Wrong Way Corrigan for anything like the latter to have been true. The Germans offered no explanation (what could they possibly say?) but paid £9,000 in compensation three years later. Some incendiaries and high explosives fell in County Wicklow on October 25, but there were no casualties or serious damage to property. This could be attributed to a crew’s “dumping” ordnance before returning home; bombers of that era did not normally return with anything left from a payload for numerous reasons: pride, fuel conservation, danger to flight crews on landing, and danger to ground personnel having to unload live ordnance. The ocean and open spaces on the ground were often the recipients of unused bombs. There was also an incident at sea that same year in early December when the Cambria, a large Irish steamer that carried mail back and forth across the Irish Sea, was machine gunned by a German plane 20 minutes after leaving port. Like the bombing in Wicklow almost two months earlier, this too could be reasoned to be unintentional on the part of some German pilot. The Germans seemed far more deliberate on December 20 when, at 7:26 pm, they dropped two small bombs on the Sandycove train station in Dublin County, injuring three people. A few minutes later and they would have hit a train just pulling into the station. Careful timing? Possibly, and if it was it was certainly the type of precision that the Nazis prided themselves on. There were, however, three factors regarding this incident that make it difficult to attribute it to mere navigational error or ordnance dumping. First, the dropping of “Molotov chandeliers” had preceded the bombs. Molotov chandeliers (sometimes called “fairy lights” by the Irish) were navigational flares dropped to identify and clearly mark a target before releasing ordnance. Pilots as good as those in the Luftwaffe in late 1940 were hardly apt to make that kind of mistake. Second, while there was a bombing attack against Liverpool that same night the distance from Liverpool to Dublin is 135 miles, which at cruising speed would take an He 111 roughly 25-30 additional minutes to cover. Any German pilots crossing over Britain and overshooting Liverpool would have noticed as they approached Dublin not only the extended flight time but that the city assigned as a target was not blacked out. Third, and most important, de Valera had the previous day denied a demand from Berlin to increase its diplomatic staff in Dublin with four additional personnel. It was obvious to everyone that the primary purpose of the added German staff was espionage, and de Valera was not about to allow it. This was an especially gutsy move on de Valera’s part since in December 1940 Hitler and Stalin were still military allies. Nazi Germany was at the near zenith of its power and, between its allies and its conquests, had influence or direct control over almost everything from Spain eastward all the way into the Japanese Pacific. Despite this intimidating power, the Nazis eventually acquiesced to de Valera’s firmness and relented on their demands for added diplomatic staff in Dublin. German bombers appeared again over the south of Ireland on New Year’s Day, 1941. In County Meath, three bombs fell on Julianstown and five on Duleek. Damage was minimal, and there were no casualties. Considering there were no potential targets of importance anywhere near where the bombs fell, it could have been a case of ordnance dumping. The action by German planes on the following day, however, appeared more deliberate and punitive in nature. At about 6 am, in bitterly cold air and over snow-covered ground, German bombers appeared over County Dublin and dropped two bombs in Terenure, which pulverized a couple of homes and produced seven civilian casualties (none fatal). Another person was injured nearby when two bombs fell on a construction site. Forty-five minutes later in County Carlow another German bomber dropped eight low-caliber bombs in a straight line with one hitting the farm home of the Shannon family in Knockroe. Sisters Mary Ellen and Bridgid, along with their 16-year-old niece Kathleen, were killed instantly as they slept. Two other family members were injured but survived. Considering the Shannon farmhouse stood out among more than 40 acres of open farm fields and the pattern of attack used by the German pilot was exactly like that used during Blitz attacks on UK targets, it would be hard to chalk this up to navigational error or ordnance dumping. Counties Wicklow, Kildare, and Wexford were also struck that same day with little or no damage to property and no casualties. It was also reported that the Germans parachuted two sea mines near Enniskerry in County Kildare. They were disarmed the following day without incident. Witnesses said in all these instances that German insignia on the planes were clearly visible and that both the silhouette and engine sounds of the attackers were unmistakable. The attacking planes even followed the German procedure of briefly cutting their engines in order to glide in silently toward their targets before starting them up again and striking. Dublin was hit yet again on January 3, 1941. This time it was on Donore along South Circular Road. A stick of 10 bombs was dropped that destroyed two homes and damaged 50 others (typical row housing of the era). Amazingly, this caused only 20 injuries and did not kill anyone. The area where most of the damage occurred was known as “Little Jerusalem” due to the sizable Jewish population that resided there. Despite the statements of eyewitnesses and the fact that physical examination of spent ordnance all verified the attack as German in origin, the Nazis continued to deny any involvement. Others speculated that these incidents were the result of German pilots flying in the dark and mistaking the east coast of Ireland for the west coast of Britain. Such explanations overlooked the fact that the Irish Sea provides some 45 to 50 miles of water separating the south of Ireland from the west of Britain (to the north, Belfast is some 30 miles closer to the British coast). The German He 111 bombers had a ceiling of just of over 21,000 feet. Even if the planes were flying at maximum altitude, navigational charts, wide variance in distance, travel time, and the amount of fuel consumed would have allowed all but an occasional aircrew to avoid overshooting (or undershooting, if dispatched from Norway) their designated target. The Germans did send their bombers out against Cardiff, Wales, on January 2 and 3, 1941, but Cardiff’s distance to Dublin is 182 miles. Unlike Liverpool, which one could attempt to justify as something of a straight westerly run to Dublin (or vice versa), Cardiff is well to the southeast of Dublin. How does a well-trained military pilot make that kind of error? These realities coupled with the fact that the attackers were notexperiencing things like British fighter planes in the sky, blackout conditions on the ground, search lights scanning the skies, roaring air-raid sirens, barrage balloons, and flak. They all should have given any German pilot a clue that he was not, in fact, over the west of Britain. After the January bombings of 1941, things over Ireland quieted down for a few months, and all concerned welcomed the reprieve. Hitler had much bigger fish to fry. Realizing the Luftwaffe was unable to eradicate the RAF (the Germans lost almost 2,000 aircraft and the British just under 1,800), Hitler had abandoned Sea Lion back in mid-October 1940, and the Battle of Britain concluded a few weeks later having given the Germans their first real defeat of the war. Hitler’s Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—now consumed him. He reasoned that a quick victory in the East would allow him to return even stronger to face Britain with a new peace offer or a new plan of conquest. Since the war began, Britain could look to Belfast’s industry to make a real contribution to the war effort. Short & Harland Ltd. had tens of thousands working to produce military aircraft for the RAF, while another Belfast company, Harland and Wolff, had nearly double that number of workers producing warships in their yards for the Royal Navy. German aerial reconnaissance at the end of November 1940 had confirmed just how poorly prepared Belfast was for attack by air. Despite this, Belfast still had something of a false sense of security. There was the thought that Britain would serve as a buffer between Ulster and Germany. There was also something in Eire’s constitution of 1937 that made many think that a German attack on Belfast was unlikely, as it could jeopardize Ireland’s neutrality. Articles 2 and 3 of the 1937 constitution made reference to a single “national territory.” It spoke of the “whole Island of Ireland, its Islands, and territorial seas.” While this angered many Protestants in the north at the time of the constitution’s ratification, now that the UK was at war, it provided some feeling of comfort to those in Ulster who hoped it might force the Nazis to refrain from hitting Belfast lest the “national territory” be attacked and Eire drawn into war. Both the Germans and de Valera’s government regarded any such notions as fanciful. A need to keep the world’s attention focused on Western Europe, heavy wartime industry, poor defenses, and a mind-set still stuck in the “phony war” all made Belfast an ideal target to satisfy Hitler’s aims. The subsequent air raids in the spring of 1941 would come to be known as the Belfast Blitz. On the night of April 7, 1941, hundreds of German planes (bombers and fighter escorts) took off from their bases in the Netherlands to attack targets in Scotland. Their Scottish targets included Greenock, Clydeside, and Dumbarton, with secondary targets being Liverpool and Newcastle, located in England. The pathfinders from Kampfgruppe 26 had taken off from their base near Sosterberg with the assignment of identifying and illuminating targets with their Molotov chandeliers and low-caliber incendiaries. When both the primary and secondary targets of KG-26 were thought inaccessible to them, as many as 15 planes were diverted and veered off to Belfast. This strike would allow the Germans to probe Belfast’s defenses (the Germans would find those defenses to be sorely inadequate). In what became known as the Dockside Raid, some six or seven German bombers attacked from an altitude of 7,000 feet, dropping more than 800 incendiary bombs on the city, primarily along the docks. The Harland and Wolff Shipyards and Pollock Dock were hit, as were several nearby homes and lumberyards, and a peripheral section of the Short aircraft factory. Of the 13 fatalities that night, 12 were on the docks; two part-time firefighters were also among the dead. The only military death that night was a soldier whose antiaircraft gun misfired, producing what turned out to be a fatal explosion on the ground. There was no doubt that the aerial defenses of Belfast were every bit as bad as the Germans had hoped—and the Brits and Irish had feared. The lack of preparedness on Belfast’s part apparently made it too inviting a target for the Germans to avoid. The next raid on the city took place on Tuesday, April 15, 1941. This time the Germans decided to make Belfast a primary target and hit a lot harder, sending out some 150-200 bombers. The bombers took off from Luftwaffe bases in northern France and the Netherlands and included not only the Heinkel He-111s but also Dornier Do-17s and Junkers Ju-88s. The mission was codenamed Etappe, which in German means stage or leg (as in a journey). Belfast would soon learn that this second strike was no probe. The German planes neared Belfast at about 10:30 pm as air raid sirens blared incessantly. Within 10 minutes the bombers began their attack. The city was set ablaze as incendiary bombs rained down on those below. Belfast’s firefighting abilities were quickly overwhelmed, and its ability to deliver emergency medical care rendered almost useless as some 900 people perished and another 1,500 were injured, 400 seriously. It was the largest number of deaths outside London of any night raid the Germans carried out during their Blitz on the United Kingdom. The sole RAF squadron near Belfast was not equipped for night action and never scrambled its fighters, while only a third of the 22 antiaircraft guns defending Belfast briefly returned fire at the attacking enemy. Ironically, The antiaircraft gunners kept their fire limited since they expected British Spitfires to come to their aid at any moment. The Germans pounded the city for roughly five hours. Belfast was ablaze and sent out an emergency call to Britain for assistance, but the beleaguered city would have to wait as additional firefighters and equipment had to be delivered from across the sea. In desperation, Belfast turned to Dublin for emergency aid. They had to contact them by telegraph as the bombings and subsequent fires had effectively eliminated the city’s telephone service. De Valera was reviewing the request with his advisers just after 5 am and in less than an hour authorized Dublin’s firefighters and their equipment to be sent north to aid their Irish brethren. There was never any doubt as to what de Valera would do. He regarded, at least in principle, all of Ireland as a single nation. How could he possibly deny his fellow countrymen in need? Also, de Valera was a devout Catholic. Basic Christianity obligates one to help others in need and this alone would have been enough for de Valera, but in such a dire circumstance any Catholic willfully denying help to people in such mortal peril would, in a moral sense, have to consider themselves something of a murderer—certainly closer to murder than the German pilots who carried out a military mission. Most of de Valera’s countrymen shared his sentiments and preferred to see their country’s neutrality put at risk rather than turn their backs on their Protestant cousins. De Valera even went to the length of authorizing the Great Northern Railway (GNR) to bring Belfast’s newly homeless into Dublin, where they could take refuge. De Valera’s public comments on the matter were clear and unequivocal. He even made them on Hitler’s birthday (April 20) to effectively spit in the Führer’s eye. “They [the Irish in Ulster] are our people, their sorrow is our sorrow,” de Valera said. He added, “Any help we can give them will be given whole-heartedly!” De Valera had no ulterior motive in helping the people of Belfast. His intention was really nothing beyond a desire to help fellow Irish in need, and perhaps for this reason both he and the Dublin firefighters were heaped with praise by the international press for their courage and selfless devotion to those in peril. Even the British press and politicians joined the chorus. The jovial mood created by Irish cooperation in Belfast was soon tempered by one of the propaganda broadcasts from the infamous British traitor William Joyce, better known as Lord Haw-Haw. From the safety of his radio studio in Hamburg, Joyce broadcast a prediction that Dublin—Amiens Street Station in particular—would be a target of German bombs. This was cause for concern as even the bombastic Joyce seemingly had his remarks reviewed by his Nazi overseers before making them on the air. Also, the station at Amiens Street was often crowded with women and children who were fleeing Belfast for the safety of Dublin. The preference of safety over sorrow dominated the day as Dublin City Manager P.J. Hernon announced on April 22 that Dublin’s businesses would now be required to go into blackout mode at night. Dubliners heard German bombers overhead on May 4,but they flew out over the sea and continued on to their primary target—Liverpool. The next day Dubliners held their breath again as German bombers flew overhead. This time they did not veer eastward to strike some target in Britain or Wales but continued to fly north over Ireland as they moved on Belfast. This raid killed 150, and once again de Valera sent firefighters and their equipment north as he continued to welcome refugees fleeing south. The Germans hit Belfast yet again on the night of May 5. Their bombing raids had effectively made half of Belfast’s residents homeless. Like their counterparts in London, the citizens of Belfast had shown that they, too, could “take it.” The Irish in the south were looking forward to Whit (Pentecost) Weekend. It traditionally heralded the beginning of spring, new life, outdoor activity, and social activities of all kind. It had been three weeks since the last attack on Belfast, and it looked like the beleaguered city to the north might be spared further suffering. It also looked to Dublin and its citizens that they had avoided any retribution from the Nazis for the assistance they had provided to Belfast during the air attacks. Little did they know what circumstance, or design, had in store for them. Whit Weekend in 1941 began as midnight ushered in Saturday, May 31. No doubt countless people were looking forward to a few days of celebration and joy. It was just a couple of minutes after midnight when the sounds of German engines were heard above Dublin, and searchlights went on immediately to scan the skies. What the defense forces observed was baffling, to say the least. German planes were seemingly flying back and forth over the city—first flying north, presumably to strike Belfast, and then turning back south. Even stranger, the highly regimented Germans were breaking their normal tight-knit formations with some planes appearing almost scattered in the sky above. Something like this had occurred three days earlier, but nothing had come of it. When the planes did not veer off by 12:20 am, the Irish sent up three red flares (“flaming onions”), which was the established signal to let German planes know they were over neutral Ireland. Irish gunners manning antiaircraft batteries near Dublin (Dalkey, Ballyfremont, Collinstown, Clontarf, Stillorgan, and Ringsend) all stood at the ready. The batteries had minimal live-fire training due to the severe shortage of shells. Any firing would serve merely as a warning and absent any real intent to hit the bombers. When the German planes had not dispersed by 12:35, the order was given to open fire. For reasons unknown to this day, the Irish gunners fired mostly heavy rather than lighter caliber shells. The German probably took this to be hostile rather than cautionary fire. The episode quickly became a form of public show and went on unabated for almost an hour. The audience on the ground had grown bored and had started to disperse of their own accord when suddenly the whistle of a falling bomb scattered those remaining in the streets. It exploded on North Circular Road, causing homes to collapse, a fire to start, and power to fail. A second bomb, probably from the same plane, fell less than a minute later on Summerhill Parade with similar results. A third bomb fell two minutes later into Phoenix Park, creating a hysterical reaction among the animals in the nearby zoo and enabling an elephant to temporarily escape. The bombing initially appeared to be just another bizarre incident of near misses, minor injuries, and limited excitement. Most of the bombers had departed, but some remained seeming to fly aimlessly about. The bombers then turned north and left Dublin airspace presumably en route to some UK target. As the bombers continued on their way, the antiaircraft battery at Collinstown opened fire on them. One German bomber did an immediate 180 and headed back toward Dublin. He circled and buzzed the city and seemed to focus on the Amiens Station—the very thing that Lord Haw-Haw had announced would be targeted. The Irish forces on the ground opened up with everything they had, including Hotchkiss machine guns. The pilot continued to circle and taunt those on the ground before swooping down and dropping a 450-pound landmine over North Strand. These bombs were among the most powerful and deadly of the era, being akin to today’s bunker busters. The explosion was horrific and the damage incredible. Bodies and homes were simultaneously ripped apart as if made of paper. Twenty-seven civilians of neutral Ireland were killed in the attack (an additional person died shortly after from wounds), with another 45 injured. The property damage included 25 obliterated homes and some 300 damaged to the point where they were uninhabitable. The outrage was palpable. Churchill, Roosevelt, and Roosevelt’s envoy to Ireland may have expected, if not hoped, that this would finally bring Eire into the war. The Germans were concerned that not only Ireland, but also the United States might now enter the war in response to angry Irish-American voters. A mass funeral was held for 12 of the dead on June 5; de Valera himself was in attendance. Grieving for the victims took up the entire first week of June, during which time the town of Arklow in County Wicklow was bombed (June 2). There were no injuries or serious property damage, so this incident was largely ignored. Protests regarding the May 31 attack were sent from Dublin to Berlin; the Germans responded that it was “absurd” to think that Dublin had intentionally been targeted. (In 1958 the West German government used money from their Marshall Plan Aid to pay £327,000 in compensation to Eire.) Ireland remained neutral throughout the war, although there was one final German attack on Irish soil. On July 4, 1941, the port city of Dundalk in County Louth was bombed. There were no casualties, and Hitler’s invasion of Russia the previous month took his attention away from the Emerald Isle seemingly for good. Churchill expected Eire to enter the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor. “Now,” he cabled de Valera, “it’s now or never.” De Valera chose never. The Whit bombing had drained any iota of bloodlust that may have existed in Ireland. Any Irish wanting to fight that badly could join the British ranks. Many Irish did, including some who deserted from their own ranks to do so. Both the Germans and Brits suspected each other of obtaining the use of the ports on Ireland’s west coast. The Brits feared that the Germans were being allowed to refuel U-boats there while the Germans suspected that the Royal Navy was doing the same with its surface ships. The fears and suspicions were groundless as Ireland denied both Axis and Allied forces use of the ports. The Irish and British Isles are often covered in fog. That fog gives them an aura of intrigue and mystery. In regard to the truth, whether or not the bombings were deliberate, it too will probably remain intriguing and forever a mystery shrouded in the fog of war.	<urn:uuid:71702200-fad3-470a-b4f7-5e4418bfb1bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2020/01/10/ireland-in-world-war-ii-the-swastika-vs-the-shamrock/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00041.warc.gz	en	0.98268	8,122	3.765625	4	[ -0.42513489723205566, 0.3136358857154846, 0.06714793294668198, -0.23952621221542358, -0.059402890503406525, 0.03284437209367752, 0.2620488107204437, -0.009737025015056133, 0.1213340014219284, -0.08323483169078827, -0.261793851852417, -0.2429557740688324, 0.1236172690987587, 0.5940265059471...	7	By James Bilder The south of Ireland, officially known as Eire and often referred to by many residing there as the “Free State,” declared its neutrality when World War II erupted suddenly in September 1939. The Irish would remain neutral throughout the war but were universally viewed as far more sympathetic and helpful to the Allies than the Axis. Despite their formal neutrality, the Irish experienced a number of aerial bomb attacks from German planes in 1940 and 1941. The Germans insisted that any damage to Irish property or casualties among the Irish populace could not have been the result of German ordnance since there simply were not any German military planes flying in Ireland’s airspace. They blamed British skullduggery for these attacks. According to the Nazis, it was Churchill and not Hitler who wanted to drag Ireland into war. The ordnance and planes involved in these attacks would prove to be unmistakably German and, while it may be true that some of these incidents were in fact accidental, it appears more likely than not that Nazi Germany was both punishing and warning Ireland regarding its relationship with the Allies. Neutrality was a difficult thing to maintain in World War II, especially for any nation in Europe. When the war began in September 1939, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, and Norway had all proclaimed their neutrality only to have the Germans quickly gobble them up the following spring. The Baltic States and Finland had done much the same, only to be forcibly occupied or invaded by the Soviet Union that same year or the next. Sweden and Switzerland had both been neutral states since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, although both nations at least seemed to cooperate more with Germany than the Allies in the subsequent world wars. Ireland was a different matter altogether. Ireland had Britain and the sea between her and any potential hostile powers like Nazi Germany or Communist Russia. It was no simple matter for a foreign power, save Britain, to invade Ireland, which was thought to be relatively safe from attack. It was also fairly easy for Ireland to avoid any argument for entering the war. Ireland had no military alliances, strategic interests, colonial holdings, or financial ties that would force it into becoming a belligerent. So the Irish were officially neutral—even if that neutrality happened to favor the Allies. This was not an easy a task because English-Irish relations had, for centuries, been “strained,” to say the least. Ireland had been under British rule since the 1100s, but after the Protestant Reformation in the mid-1500s under Henry VIII the two nations were in a virtual and perpetual state of war. Formal laws denying basic civil rights to Catholics and Protestant dissenters of English rule were passed in the early 1700s. This resulted in much bloodshed, including a failed Irish insurrection in 1798. Irish-English relations remained strained in the early 20th century, but most Irish were supportive of Great Britain during World War I, with roughly 200,000 Irishmen serving in British ranks. These men were all volunteers, as Britain did not draft Irishmen even though Parliament passed a law in April 1918 authorizing them to do just that. Amongst this uneasy peace, the more militant Irish rose up in arms to defy British rule during the Easter Rebellion of 1916. The fighting was primarily in Dublin and was quelled by the British in less than a week. In January 1919, two months after the curtain came down on the Great War, Ireland moved to declare itself an independent state. The British responded with the infamous “Black and Tans”—an ill-clad group of mostly unemployed war veterans not unlike the German Freikorps (Free Corps), who were then busy putting down communist uprisings throughout post-World War I Germany. Both organizations could be absolutely ruthless in their reprisals against innocent civilians, and the horror stories understandably survive to the present day. A partial solution was reached in December 1921 with the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It granted the 23 mostly Catholic counties in the south of Ireland independence in a year and let the nine mostly Protestant counties of the north vote to opt out of the treaty (which six did) in order to remain in the United Kingdom. The German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, brought a declaration of war from the United Kingdom within 48 hours. That declaration of war was limited to the UK and did not involve other nations of the British Commonwealth. The UK’s authority for war powers over its citizens included the Isle of Britain, England, Scotland, and Wales as well as, the six counties in Northern Ireland known as Ulster. The south of Ireland (Eire) had been a “self-governing dominion” of the British Empire from 1922-1937. The Irish, acting under British authority, had drafted a new constitution in 1937 and passed it in a plebiscite, making them a fully independent state. The authority enabling the Irish Free State to draft a new constitution came from Britain’s Statute of Westminster, passed in 1931. On September 1, 1939, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland quickly convened an emergency session of the Dail (parliament) to deal with the crisis. The Taoiseach then was none other than Éamon de Valera, an American by birth who was brought by his uncle to Ireland at the tender age of two after his father died. He had been part of the leadership involved in the 1916 Easter Rebellion and almost certainly was spared execution because he was an American by birth. The Brits in 1916 did not want to risk angering the large Irish-American population while they were courting America as a potential ally in the Great War. De Valera was both an athlete and a scholar. He was something of an Irish version of Horatio Alger—a man who rose to prominence by picking himself up by his own bootstraps. He would be a powerful force in Irish politics from 1917 until his retirement in 1973 at the age of 90. De Valera’s supporters regarded him as a supreme diplomat. Whether dealing with the Brits or the Germans, they thought him a tough and wise negotiator who could secure an agreement beneficial to his people and avoid conflict in the process. His detractors regarded him as a “typical” politician—that is, noncommittal, evasive, and selfserving. Most of the Irish populace fell into the former category while U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, David Gray (Roosevelt’s envoy to Ireland), and Churchill fell into the latter. When the war broke out de Valera and his government knew that Ireland was not only free from any obligation to provide military assistance to anyone, but was completely incapable of offering any. The Irish Army had only 7,500 men in its ranks. While undoubtedly courageous, it was far from being combat ready and was regarded by most observers as more ceremonial in nature and best suited for parades. The Irish Navy, moreover, consisted of a mere two motorized torpedo boats (they would have six by the end of 1940) used for coastal patrol. As for the Irish Air Corps, its combat capability consisted of four 1938 British Gloster Gladiators (biplanes), 16 twin-engine British Avro Ansons used for training and maritime reconnaissance (they could drop bombs, assuming the Irish had any), three Supermarine Amphibious Walruses (biplane boats) used for maritime recon, and three British Westland Lysanders, which could be used for land-based observation and reconnaissance or to shuttle a VIP or two. As the British parliament was approving a declaration of war against Germany on September 3, 1939, the Irish Dail was busy passing the Emergency Powers Act. The Irish armed forces, sparse as they were, were now mobilized. As prime minister, de Valera now had almost unchecked authority in regard to military matters and preparedness, but the Emergency Powers Act stopped short of granting him the authority to take the nation into war. He could, in effect, do whatever was necessary to protect Ireland from aggression, but the parliament made clear that the nation was neutral in the conflict and intended to remain as such. This was all fine with de Valera, who had long embraced these same sentiments. De Valera wasn’t limiting his worries about aggression against Ireland to just Germany. There was a real fear that the British would seize a neutral Eire and occupy it as a protectorate. The Brits would reason that if the Irish didn’t have enough sense to throw in with Britain, then they could be forced to do so for their own good. Any such anxiety on de Valera’s part would soon prove to be justified. The irony cannot be lost that on the very day that Hitler’s armies were storming into the neutral Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium (May 10, 1940), the British Royal Marines were landing in neutral Iceland to take control of it. Whatever Hitler and Churchill were thinking in regard to the Emerald Isle, de Valera’s sentiments were clear to both sides: Ireland would fight to the last against any invader—Axis or Allied. Just two weeks after the fall of France on June 25, 1940, the Brits began to feel the full wrath of Hitler’s fury as the Battle of Britain commenced. Hitler’s Operation Sea Lion called for an invasion and subsequent conquest of Great Britain in the fall of 1940. Before the Germans could hope to move their troops and vehicles across the English Channel they would need to subdue the mighty British Royal Navy, and the only way to do that would be to have control of the air. German control of the air could only be achieved by first wiping out the British Royal Air Force. From early July until the end of October 1940, German bombers hit British cities, seaports, industry, air bases, and the all-important radar stations, which provided the only effective early warning of incoming enemy planes. Meanwhile, German fighters engaged their British counterparts in harrowing aerial dogfights over the Channel and Britain itself. The 31/2months of aerial combat did not wipe out the RAF or force Britain into submission, but it seemed to come awfully close. The Irish people, and perhaps even their own government, may not have appreciated just how much intrigue was now swirling around their tiny island. In August 1940, the German high command completed plans for an invasion of Ireland (Operation Green). It called for landing roughly 4,000 troops along an 85-mile stretch of the southern coast between Wexford and Dungarvan. Even an element of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was convinced that a German victory could end the British “toehold” of Northern Ireland and bring about a united nation. They had developed “Plan Kathleen” and sent it to German Intelligence with the hope that a joint effort between the two would allow each to obtain their primary objective. German military leaders of all service branches knew these far-fetched plans could only be pulled off if Sea Lion were successful. Many regarded Operation Green as little more than a ruse designed to throw off Allied intelligence regarding Hitler’s planned invasion of Russia. Still, de Valera knew that while he had reason to be wary of the intentions of both sides, there was every common bond with Britain—especially when compared to Nazi Germany. First, there were between 40,000 and 50,000 Irishmen voluntarily serving in British ranks. Second, de Valera had advocated as early as 1921 for coordination between Ireland and Britain in regard to their mutual defense. This coordination included Ireland availing its key ports to the British if such an extreme emergency arose. Much to Churchill’s chagrin, de Valera refused to do so during World War II. The ante was upped in May 1940 after Churchill became prime minister and France was under attack. Malcolm MacDonald, who had served as British Secretary of State for the colonies, was dispatched to Dublin to offer de Valera the six counties of Ireland in exchange for Ireland’s entry into the war as an ally. The catch was that Ireland would be reunited after an Allied victory over Germany. De Valera never seriously considered the offer. He doubted the Brits would honor the pledge and, even if they did, it would mean a new civil war for Ireland as the Catholic south would have to incorporate the Protestant north into a new nation. All one had to do was to look at what happened to Russia in 1919 to get an idea of where that prospect led. De Valera liked and respected MacDonald but dispatched him with a cheery goodbye. The Irish cooperated extensively, although not formally, with the Brits throughout the war. They would avail a corridor of their airspace for British use, move decisively to crack down on German and German-leaning IRA espionage, keep the Brits informed of U-boat activity, allow Irishmen (not already serving in the Irish military) to join the British military, agree to return to the British any German prisoners who escaped from POW camps in the north and to black out coastal cities that were obviously being used as navigational points for German bombers headed toward Belfast. (The blackouts, however were normally limited to businesses and did not begin until April 1941.) In August 1940, the Battle of Britain was at its height, and it seemed to many that Britain would fall. Perhaps for that reason the Germans felt they could afford to be more cavalier about possibly offending Irish neutrality. That month saw the first of several military incidents by the German Luftwaffe involving the Irish. The Germans had maritime patrol bombers from Kampsgeschwader (KG) 40 attacking Allied merchant shipping along the northwest coast of Ireland. From bases in Trondheim, Norway, and Cognac, France, as well as Amsterdam, the German Focke-Wulf Fw-200 Condors flew their missions with near impunity. On August 20, 1940, a condor from KG 40 was in the process of attacking a freighter (probably the SS Macville) off Blackround Island in County Mayo when it strafed an Irish lighthouse. When two fragmentation bombs dropped from the Condor failed to sink the ship, the German pilot probably swung around to pepper it with machine-gun fire. In addition to whatever damage the bursts did to the ship, they also shot up some roof shingles and lantern panes on the lighthouse, but no one on the ground was hurt. This apparently did nothing more than raise some eyebrows. It was a mere six days later that something a lot more serious, and seemingly a lot more deliberate, happened. Irish Lookout Posts (LOPs) in the southeastern part of the country reported at 1:40 pm that two planes, identified minutes later as German Heinkel He-111 bombers, had entered Irish airspace over County Wexford. They had come from over the Irish Sea and were flying relatively low at about 10,000 feet and heading in a northeasterly direction. Twelve minutes after first being spotted by Irish Defense Force (IDF) observers, the planes circled over the town of Campile after having followed rail lines to their destination. It was a bright, sunny summer’s day providing a clear view to the German pilots as well as to the civilians on the ground. One plane came in at lower altitude and dropped four 1,000-pound bombs on Duncormick. A private home was damaged, and a railway viaduct was just missed, but no one was hurt. The second Heinkel would have a more lethal effect. In clear view of numerous civilian witnesses, the second bomber came in near the ground before releasing a bundle of delayed-action bombs. The Campile Creamery was hit, and three young women employed there were killed. The censors were able to keep the matter out of the news for the most part, but word still got out among the populace. Some IRA members and other defenders of Germany said it was the RAF using captured German planes and bombs or the result of exhausted German pilots screwing up their navigation. The Heinkel crews would have had to be trained by Wrong Way Corrigan for anything like the latter to have been true. The Germans offered no explanation (what could they possibly say?) but paid £9,000 in compensation three years later. Some incendiaries and high explosives fell in County Wicklow on October 25, but there were no casualties or serious damage to property. This could be attributed to a crew’s “dumping” ordnance before returning home; bombers of that era did not normally return with anything left from a payload for numerous reasons: pride, fuel conservation, danger to flight crews on landing, and danger to ground personnel having to unload live ordnance. The ocean and open spaces on the ground were often the recipients of unused bombs. There was also an incident at sea that same year in early December when the Cambria, a large Irish steamer that carried mail back and forth across the Irish Sea, was machine gunned by a German plane 20 minutes after leaving port. Like the bombing in Wicklow almost two months earlier, this too could be reasoned to be unintentional on the part of some German pilot. The Germans seemed far more deliberate on December 20 when, at 7:26 pm, they dropped two small bombs on the Sandycove train station in Dublin County, injuring three people. A few minutes later and they would have hit a train just pulling into the station. Careful timing? Possibly, and if it was it was certainly the type of precision that the Nazis prided themselves on. There were, however, three factors regarding this incident that make it difficult to attribute it to mere navigational error or ordnance dumping. First, the dropping of “Molotov chandeliers” had preceded the bombs. Molotov chandeliers (sometimes called “fairy lights” by the Irish) were navigational flares dropped to identify and clearly mark a target before releasing ordnance. Pilots as good as those in the Luftwaffe in late 1940 were hardly apt to make that kind of mistake. Second, while there was a bombing attack against Liverpool that same night the distance from Liverpool to Dublin is 135 miles, which at cruising speed would take an He 111 roughly 25-30 additional minutes to cover. Any German pilots crossing over Britain and overshooting Liverpool would have noticed as they approached Dublin not only the extended flight time but that the city assigned as a target was not blacked out. Third, and most important, de Valera had the previous day denied a demand from Berlin to increase its diplomatic staff in Dublin with four additional personnel. It was obvious to everyone that the primary purpose of the added German staff was espionage, and de Valera was not about to allow it. This was an especially gutsy move on de Valera’s part since in December 1940 Hitler and Stalin were still military allies. Nazi Germany was at the near zenith of its power and, between its allies and its conquests, had influence or direct control over almost everything from Spain eastward all the way into the Japanese Pacific. Despite this intimidating power, the Nazis eventually acquiesced to de Valera’s firmness and relented on their demands for added diplomatic staff in Dublin. German bombers appeared again over the south of Ireland on New Year’s Day, 1941. In County Meath, three bombs fell on Julianstown and five on Duleek. Damage was minimal, and there were no casualties. Considering there were no potential targets of importance anywhere near where the bombs fell, it could have been a case of ordnance dumping. The action by German planes on the following day, however, appeared more deliberate and punitive in nature. At about 6 am, in bitterly cold air and over snow-covered ground, German bombers appeared over County Dublin and dropped two bombs in Terenure, which pulverized a couple of homes and produced seven civilian casualties (none fatal). Another person was injured nearby when two bombs fell on a construction site. Forty-five minutes later in County Carlow another German bomber dropped eight low-caliber bombs in a straight line with one hitting the farm home of the Shannon family in Knockroe. Sisters Mary Ellen and Bridgid, along with their 16-year-old niece Kathleen, were killed instantly as they slept. Two other family members were injured but survived. Considering the Shannon farmhouse stood out among more than 40 acres of open farm fields and the pattern of attack used by the German pilot was exactly like that used during Blitz attacks on UK targets, it would be hard to chalk this up to navigational error or ordnance dumping. Counties Wicklow, Kildare, and Wexford were also struck that same day with little or no damage to property and no casualties. It was also reported that the Germans parachuted two sea mines near Enniskerry in County Kildare. They were disarmed the following day without incident. Witnesses said in all these instances that German insignia on the planes were clearly visible and that both the silhouette and engine sounds of the attackers were unmistakable. The attacking planes even followed the German procedure of briefly cutting their engines in order to glide in silently toward their targets before starting them up again and striking. Dublin was hit yet again on January 3, 1941. This time it was on Donore along South Circular Road. A stick of 10 bombs was dropped that destroyed two homes and damaged 50 others (typical row housing of the era). Amazingly, this caused only 20 injuries and did not kill anyone. The area where most of the damage occurred was known as “Little Jerusalem” due to the sizable Jewish population that resided there. Despite the statements of eyewitnesses and the fact that physical examination of spent ordnance all verified the attack as German in origin, the Nazis continued to deny any involvement. Others speculated that these incidents were the result of German pilots flying in the dark and mistaking the east coast of Ireland for the west coast of Britain. Such explanations overlooked the fact that the Irish Sea provides some 45 to 50 miles of water separating the south of Ireland from the west of Britain (to the north, Belfast is some 30 miles closer to the British coast). The German He 111 bombers had a ceiling of just of over 21,000 feet. Even if the planes were flying at maximum altitude, navigational charts, wide variance in distance, travel time, and the amount of fuel consumed would have allowed all but an occasional aircrew to avoid overshooting (or undershooting, if dispatched from Norway) their designated target. The Germans did send their bombers out against Cardiff, Wales, on January 2 and 3, 1941, but Cardiff’s distance to Dublin is 182 miles. Unlike Liverpool, which one could attempt to justify as something of a straight westerly run to Dublin (or vice versa), Cardiff is well to the southeast of Dublin. How does a well-trained military pilot make that kind of error? These realities coupled with the fact that the attackers were notexperiencing things like British fighter planes in the sky, blackout conditions on the ground, search lights scanning the skies, roaring air-raid sirens, barrage balloons, and flak. They all should have given any German pilot a clue that he was not, in fact, over the west of Britain. After the January bombings of 1941, things over Ireland quieted down for a few months, and all concerned welcomed the reprieve. Hitler had much bigger fish to fry. Realizing the Luftwaffe was unable to eradicate the RAF (the Germans lost almost 2,000 aircraft and the British just under 1,800), Hitler had abandoned Sea Lion back in mid-October 1940, and the Battle of Britain concluded a few weeks later having given the Germans their first real defeat of the war. Hitler’s Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—now consumed him. He reasoned that a quick victory in the East would allow him to return even stronger to face Britain with a new peace offer or a new plan of conquest. Since the war began, Britain could look to Belfast’s industry to make a real contribution to the war effort. Short & Harland Ltd. had tens of thousands working to produce military aircraft for the RAF, while another Belfast company, Harland and Wolff, had nearly double that number of workers producing warships in their yards for the Royal Navy. German aerial reconnaissance at the end of November 1940 had confirmed just how poorly prepared Belfast was for attack by air. Despite this, Belfast still had something of a false sense of security. There was the thought that Britain would serve as a buffer between Ulster and Germany. There was also something in Eire’s constitution of 1937 that made many think that a German attack on Belfast was unlikely, as it could jeopardize Ireland’s neutrality. Articles 2 and 3 of the 1937 constitution made reference to a single “national territory.” It spoke of the “whole Island of Ireland, its Islands, and territorial seas.” While this angered many Protestants in the north at the time of the constitution’s ratification, now that the UK was at war, it provided some feeling of comfort to those in Ulster who hoped it might force the Nazis to refrain from hitting Belfast lest the “national territory” be attacked and Eire drawn into war. Both the Germans and de Valera’s government regarded any such notions as fanciful. A need to keep the world’s attention focused on Western Europe, heavy wartime industry, poor defenses, and a mind-set still stuck in the “phony war” all made Belfast an ideal target to satisfy Hitler’s aims. The subsequent air raids in the spring of 1941 would come to be known as the Belfast Blitz. On the night of April 7, 1941, hundreds of German planes (bombers and fighter escorts) took off from their bases in the Netherlands to attack targets in Scotland. Their Scottish targets included Greenock, Clydeside, and Dumbarton, with secondary targets being Liverpool and Newcastle, located in England. The pathfinders from Kampfgruppe 26 had taken off from their base near Sosterberg with the assignment of identifying and illuminating targets with their Molotov chandeliers and low-caliber incendiaries. When both the primary and secondary targets of KG-26 were thought inaccessible to them, as many as 15 planes were diverted and veered off to Belfast. This strike would allow the Germans to probe Belfast’s defenses (the Germans would find those defenses to be sorely inadequate). In what became known as the Dockside Raid, some six or seven German bombers attacked from an altitude of 7,000 feet, dropping more than 800 incendiary bombs on the city, primarily along the docks. The Harland and Wolff Shipyards and Pollock Dock were hit, as were several nearby homes and lumberyards, and a peripheral section of the Short aircraft factory. Of the 13 fatalities that night, 12 were on the docks; two part-time firefighters were also among the dead. The only military death that night was a soldier whose antiaircraft gun misfired, producing what turned out to be a fatal explosion on the ground. There was no doubt that the aerial defenses of Belfast were every bit as bad as the Germans had hoped—and the Brits and Irish had feared. The lack of preparedness on Belfast’s part apparently made it too inviting a target for the Germans to avoid. The next raid on the city took place on Tuesday, April 15, 1941. This time the Germans decided to make Belfast a primary target and hit a lot harder, sending out some 150-200 bombers. The bombers took off from Luftwaffe bases in northern France and the Netherlands and included not only the Heinkel He-111s but also Dornier Do-17s and Junkers Ju-88s. The mission was codenamed Etappe, which in German means stage or leg (as in a journey). Belfast would soon learn that this second strike was no probe. The German planes neared Belfast at about 10:30 pm as air raid sirens blared incessantly. Within 10 minutes the bombers began their attack. The city was set ablaze as incendiary bombs rained down on those below. Belfast’s firefighting abilities were quickly overwhelmed, and its ability to deliver emergency medical care rendered almost useless as some 900 people perished and another 1,500 were injured, 400 seriously. It was the largest number of deaths outside London of any night raid the Germans carried out during their Blitz on the United Kingdom. The sole RAF squadron near Belfast was not equipped for night action and never scrambled its fighters, while only a third of the 22 antiaircraft guns defending Belfast briefly returned fire at the attacking enemy. Ironically, The antiaircraft gunners kept their fire limited since they expected British Spitfires to come to their aid at any moment. The Germans pounded the city for roughly five hours. Belfast was ablaze and sent out an emergency call to Britain for assistance, but the beleaguered city would have to wait as additional firefighters and equipment had to be delivered from across the sea. In desperation, Belfast turned to Dublin for emergency aid. They had to contact them by telegraph as the bombings and subsequent fires had effectively eliminated the city’s telephone service. De Valera was reviewing the request with his advisers just after 5 am and in less than an hour authorized Dublin’s firefighters and their equipment to be sent north to aid their Irish brethren. There was never any doubt as to what de Valera would do. He regarded, at least in principle, all of Ireland as a single nation. How could he possibly deny his fellow countrymen in need? Also, de Valera was a devout Catholic. Basic Christianity obligates one to help others in need and this alone would have been enough for de Valera, but in such a dire circumstance any Catholic willfully denying help to people in such mortal peril would, in a moral sense, have to consider themselves something of a murderer—certainly closer to murder than the German pilots who carried out a military mission. Most of de Valera’s countrymen shared his sentiments and preferred to see their country’s neutrality put at risk rather than turn their backs on their Protestant cousins. De Valera even went to the length of authorizing the Great Northern Railway (GNR) to bring Belfast’s newly homeless into Dublin, where they could take refuge. De Valera’s public comments on the matter were clear and unequivocal. He even made them on Hitler’s birthday (April 20) to effectively spit in the Führer’s eye. “They [the Irish in Ulster] are our people, their sorrow is our sorrow,” de Valera said. He added, “Any help we can give them will be given whole-heartedly!” De Valera had no ulterior motive in helping the people of Belfast. His intention was really nothing beyond a desire to help fellow Irish in need, and perhaps for this reason both he and the Dublin firefighters were heaped with praise by the international press for their courage and selfless devotion to those in peril. Even the British press and politicians joined the chorus. The jovial mood created by Irish cooperation in Belfast was soon tempered by one of the propaganda broadcasts from the infamous British traitor William Joyce, better known as Lord Haw-Haw. From the safety of his radio studio in Hamburg, Joyce broadcast a prediction that Dublin—Amiens Street Station in particular—would be a target of German bombs. This was cause for concern as even the bombastic Joyce seemingly had his remarks reviewed by his Nazi overseers before making them on the air. Also, the station at Amiens Street was often crowded with women and children who were fleeing Belfast for the safety of Dublin. The preference of safety over sorrow dominated the day as Dublin City Manager P.J. Hernon announced on April 22 that Dublin’s businesses would now be required to go into blackout mode at night. Dubliners heard German bombers overhead on May 4,but they flew out over the sea and continued on to their primary target—Liverpool. The next day Dubliners held their breath again as German bombers flew overhead. This time they did not veer eastward to strike some target in Britain or Wales but continued to fly north over Ireland as they moved on Belfast. This raid killed 150, and once again de Valera sent firefighters and their equipment north as he continued to welcome refugees fleeing south. The Germans hit Belfast yet again on the night of May 5. Their bombing raids had effectively made half of Belfast’s residents homeless. Like their counterparts in London, the citizens of Belfast had shown that they, too, could “take it.” The Irish in the south were looking forward to Whit (Pentecost) Weekend. It traditionally heralded the beginning of spring, new life, outdoor activity, and social activities of all kind. It had been three weeks since the last attack on Belfast, and it looked like the beleaguered city to the north might be spared further suffering. It also looked to Dublin and its citizens that they had avoided any retribution from the Nazis for the assistance they had provided to Belfast during the air attacks. Little did they know what circumstance, or design, had in store for them. Whit Weekend in 1941 began as midnight ushered in Saturday, May 31. No doubt countless people were looking forward to a few days of celebration and joy. It was just a couple of minutes after midnight when the sounds of German engines were heard above Dublin, and searchlights went on immediately to scan the skies. What the defense forces observed was baffling, to say the least. German planes were seemingly flying back and forth over the city—first flying north, presumably to strike Belfast, and then turning back south. Even stranger, the highly regimented Germans were breaking their normal tight-knit formations with some planes appearing almost scattered in the sky above. Something like this had occurred three days earlier, but nothing had come of it. When the planes did not veer off by 12:20 am, the Irish sent up three red flares (“flaming onions”), which was the established signal to let German planes know they were over neutral Ireland. Irish gunners manning antiaircraft batteries near Dublin (Dalkey, Ballyfremont, Collinstown, Clontarf, Stillorgan, and Ringsend) all stood at the ready. The batteries had minimal live-fire training due to the severe shortage of shells. Any firing would serve merely as a warning and absent any real intent to hit the bombers. When the German planes had not dispersed by 12:35, the order was given to open fire. For reasons unknown to this day, the Irish gunners fired mostly heavy rather than lighter caliber shells. The German probably took this to be hostile rather than cautionary fire. The episode quickly became a form of public show and went on unabated for almost an hour. The audience on the ground had grown bored and had started to disperse of their own accord when suddenly the whistle of a falling bomb scattered those remaining in the streets. It exploded on North Circular Road, causing homes to collapse, a fire to start, and power to fail. A second bomb, probably from the same plane, fell less than a minute later on Summerhill Parade with similar results. A third bomb fell two minutes later into Phoenix Park, creating a hysterical reaction among the animals in the nearby zoo and enabling an elephant to temporarily escape. The bombing initially appeared to be just another bizarre incident of near misses, minor injuries, and limited excitement. Most of the bombers had departed, but some remained seeming to fly aimlessly about. The bombers then turned north and left Dublin airspace presumably en route to some UK target. As the bombers continued on their way, the antiaircraft battery at Collinstown opened fire on them. One German bomber did an immediate 180 and headed back toward Dublin. He circled and buzzed the city and seemed to focus on the Amiens Station—the very thing that Lord Haw-Haw had announced would be targeted. The Irish forces on the ground opened up with everything they had, including Hotchkiss machine guns. The pilot continued to circle and taunt those on the ground before swooping down and dropping a 450-pound landmine over North Strand. These bombs were among the most powerful and deadly of the era, being akin to today’s bunker busters. The explosion was horrific and the damage incredible. Bodies and homes were simultaneously ripped apart as if made of paper. Twenty-seven civilians of neutral Ireland were killed in the attack (an additional person died shortly after from wounds), with another 45 injured. The property damage included 25 obliterated homes and some 300 damaged to the point where they were uninhabitable. The outrage was palpable. Churchill, Roosevelt, and Roosevelt’s envoy to Ireland may have expected, if not hoped, that this would finally bring Eire into the war. The Germans were concerned that not only Ireland, but also the United States might now enter the war in response to angry Irish-American voters. A mass funeral was held for 12 of the dead on June 5; de Valera himself was in attendance. Grieving for the victims took up the entire first week of June, during which time the town of Arklow in County Wicklow was bombed (June 2). There were no injuries or serious property damage, so this incident was largely ignored. Protests regarding the May 31 attack were sent from Dublin to Berlin; the Germans responded that it was “absurd” to think that Dublin had intentionally been targeted. (In 1958 the West German government used money from their Marshall Plan Aid to pay £327,000 in compensation to Eire.) Ireland remained neutral throughout the war, although there was one final German attack on Irish soil. On July 4, 1941, the port city of Dundalk in County Louth was bombed. There were no casualties, and Hitler’s invasion of Russia the previous month took his attention away from the Emerald Isle seemingly for good. Churchill expected Eire to enter the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor. “Now,” he cabled de Valera, “it’s now or never.” De Valera chose never. The Whit bombing had drained any iota of bloodlust that may have existed in Ireland. Any Irish wanting to fight that badly could join the British ranks. Many Irish did, including some who deserted from their own ranks to do so. Both the Germans and Brits suspected each other of obtaining the use of the ports on Ireland’s west coast. The Brits feared that the Germans were being allowed to refuel U-boats there while the Germans suspected that the Royal Navy was doing the same with its surface ships. The fears and suspicions were groundless as Ireland denied both Axis and Allied forces use of the ports. The Irish and British Isles are often covered in fog. That fog gives them an aura of intrigue and mystery. In regard to the truth, whether or not the bombings were deliberate, it too will probably remain intriguing and forever a mystery shrouded in the fog of war.	8,281	ENGLISH	1
I have always wondered what it would be like at the end of a battle or siege on the defeated side at the point of no return. What does someone do when they realize all is lost? Is it the survival instinct that causes them to fight on? Or does a sense of hopelessness bring about complete collapse? Historically – at least until modern times – death or enslavement would almost certainly be their fate. A lucky few might escape with their lives, but they would also be branded eternal cowards and/or fugitives. Life or death, victory or loss, freedom or fear, determination or surrender, these were the uncompromising situations that the unlucky citizens of Thessaloniki were faced with in the final days of the Ottoman siege in 1430. Tragically, this was nothing new for them, Thessalonians had lived under siege for years. The Possession – Getting Territorial Sultan Murad II had always believed that Thessaloniki was Ottoman territory. A sixteen year period straddling the 14th and 15th centuries of Ottoman rule over Thessaloniki sealed the city’s fate in Murad’s mind. Though the Byzantines eventually recovered the city, it was due to internal Ottoman tensions rather than Byzantine strength. To Murad’s way of thinking, once an Ottoman possession always an Ottoman possession. The Byzantines did not help matters when they supported a rival claimant to Murad’s throne. This stiffened his resolve to conquer their territory, especially Thessaloniki. It would not be easy. Byzantine power had been evaporating for centuries, but the city’s ruler at the time, Andronikos Palaiologos, decided to gift the city to Venice. While the Republic of Venice was certainly a formidable power, they had little interest in relieving Thessaloniki’s woes. Instead, they could use the city as another barrier to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan could focus his efforts on the city rather than more important Venetian territories. And Murad certainly knew how to focus on Thessaloniki. The Siege of Thessaloniki was a long and tedious affair that stretched over an eight year period (1422 – 1430). During much of that time, the Venetians treated the city with utter contempt. Corruption, mismanagement, waste, fraud and abuse all came at the expense of Thessalonians. The Venetians’ administrative incompetence was such that many Thessalonians began to long for Ottoman rule. Food supplies dwindled and famine gripped much of the populace. Thousands fled the city during this time going over to Ottoman territory. The only hope for many Thessalonians stuck inside the city walls was Archbishop Symeon. He fiercely resisted any calls to surrender the city to Ottoman control. Such an idea was tantamount to heresy in Symeon’s mind. His resistance was on a spiritual level, he could never stomach the idea of handing over Thessaloniki to infidels. Unfortunately, for the Orthodox Christian faithful he died in 1429. Toward A Bad Ending – Threats of Violence After Symeon’s death the population continued to melt away. The Venetians decided to keep defending the city, but only in support of their own narrow self-interests. Mercenary troops ensured that Thessalonians were sufficiently cowed into giving up the idea of surrender. Of course, by this point the population was much easier to control. It had dropped by 75% since the siege began, from 40,000 to approximately 10,000 bedraggled, depressed and demoralized citizens. An overwhelming majority of Thessalonians wanted to surrender, but they were being held hostage inside their own city. The Venetians, who had supposedly come to defend them, made matters much worse. This was a sad irony, that turned more tragic by the day. It was a situation bound to end bad and that is exactly what happened in the spring of 1430. During the siege’s last days the defenders repeatedly rejected offers by Sultan Murad to spare the city and its inhabitants if they surrendered. These rejections sealed the fate of thousands. Knowing that death or slavery awaited them when the Turks finally took the city, what were Thessalonians thinking when they turned down the Sultan’s offer. The reality was that they were not being allowed to think for themselves. If Thessalonians had their choice, the city would have been handed over several years earlier. It would have spared the population famine, disease and a multitude of privations. The Venetians administering the city were holding out hope that a relief expedition would arrive to lift the siege. At the same time, mercenaries were holding the city’s citizens hostage. Thessalonians had little to no say in their fate even though pro-surrender forces had been in the majority for quite some time, their voices were silenced by the threat of violence. Thessalonians faced two foes during the siege, the Venetians who were fighting to protect their own interests and the Ottomans whose determination to take the city kept the populace in a state of perpetual tension. The final, fatal blow occurred along the northeast section of the city walls near the Trigonian Tower. The defenders were driven from their positions by a storm of arrows unleashed by Ottoman archers. Legend has it that the first Ottoman soldier to get over the walls beheaded a wounded Venetian and tossed the head to his comrades who then came over the top en masse. The Venetian administrators, in an act of cowardice characteristic of their rule, escaped by ship along with some of the mercenaries. The unlucky Thessalonians left in the city were subjected to rape, pillage and indiscriminate brutality. Their efforts to resist were hopeless, any who fought on were cut down. Those who capitulated would either be killed or enslaved. Collateral Damage – A Mere Footnote The Ottomans viewed Thessalonians as either collateral damage or war booty. Their rampage lasted for three days before Murad called a halt to these excesses. He was then magnanimous, inviting property owners back and offering protection to the remaining inhabitants. The problem was that only a couple of thousand were left alive. Byzantine Thessaloniki ceased to exist. Thessalonians worst fears had finally been realized. Whatever courage they displayed in trying to survive the siege had come to naught. The courage and cowardice, heroism and hysteria they displayed for eight long years no longer mattered. They ended up on the wrong side of history, a mere footnote that no one would notice. History was written by the winners, in this case the Ottomans. As for the losers, they were all but forgotten.	<urn:uuid:a3b98904-2761-45b2-88f2-45c0c938cc65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://europebetweeneastandwest.wordpress.com/category/greece-an-eastern-perspective/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00111.warc.gz	en	0.98176	1,400	3.265625	3	[ -0.3886372447013855, 0.03146756812930107, 0.3903581202030182, 0.025029536336660385, -0.14984408020973206, -0.29254207015037537, 0.03209591284394264, 0.576193630695343, -0.021213360130786896, 0.03741666302084923, -0.1783025562763214, -0.2463296353816986, 0.06664779782295227, 0.3345699906349...	3	I have always wondered what it would be like at the end of a battle or siege on the defeated side at the point of no return. What does someone do when they realize all is lost? Is it the survival instinct that causes them to fight on? Or does a sense of hopelessness bring about complete collapse? Historically – at least until modern times – death or enslavement would almost certainly be their fate. A lucky few might escape with their lives, but they would also be branded eternal cowards and/or fugitives. Life or death, victory or loss, freedom or fear, determination or surrender, these were the uncompromising situations that the unlucky citizens of Thessaloniki were faced with in the final days of the Ottoman siege in 1430. Tragically, this was nothing new for them, Thessalonians had lived under siege for years. The Possession – Getting Territorial Sultan Murad II had always believed that Thessaloniki was Ottoman territory. A sixteen year period straddling the 14th and 15th centuries of Ottoman rule over Thessaloniki sealed the city’s fate in Murad’s mind. Though the Byzantines eventually recovered the city, it was due to internal Ottoman tensions rather than Byzantine strength. To Murad’s way of thinking, once an Ottoman possession always an Ottoman possession. The Byzantines did not help matters when they supported a rival claimant to Murad’s throne. This stiffened his resolve to conquer their territory, especially Thessaloniki. It would not be easy. Byzantine power had been evaporating for centuries, but the city’s ruler at the time, Andronikos Palaiologos, decided to gift the city to Venice. While the Republic of Venice was certainly a formidable power, they had little interest in relieving Thessaloniki’s woes. Instead, they could use the city as another barrier to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan could focus his efforts on the city rather than more important Venetian territories. And Murad certainly knew how to focus on Thessaloniki. The Siege of Thessaloniki was a long and tedious affair that stretched over an eight year period (1422 – 1430). During much of that time, the Venetians treated the city with utter contempt. Corruption, mismanagement, waste, fraud and abuse all came at the expense of Thessalonians. The Venetians’ administrative incompetence was such that many Thessalonians began to long for Ottoman rule. Food supplies dwindled and famine gripped much of the populace. Thousands fled the city during this time going over to Ottoman territory. The only hope for many Thessalonians stuck inside the city walls was Archbishop Symeon. He fiercely resisted any calls to surrender the city to Ottoman control. Such an idea was tantamount to heresy in Symeon’s mind. His resistance was on a spiritual level, he could never stomach the idea of handing over Thessaloniki to infidels. Unfortunately, for the Orthodox Christian faithful he died in 1429. Toward A Bad Ending – Threats of Violence After Symeon’s death the population continued to melt away. The Venetians decided to keep defending the city, but only in support of their own narrow self-interests. Mercenary troops ensured that Thessalonians were sufficiently cowed into giving up the idea of surrender. Of course, by this point the population was much easier to control. It had dropped by 75% since the siege began, from 40,000 to approximately 10,000 bedraggled, depressed and demoralized citizens. An overwhelming majority of Thessalonians wanted to surrender, but they were being held hostage inside their own city. The Venetians, who had supposedly come to defend them, made matters much worse. This was a sad irony, that turned more tragic by the day. It was a situation bound to end bad and that is exactly what happened in the spring of 1430. During the siege’s last days the defenders repeatedly rejected offers by Sultan Murad to spare the city and its inhabitants if they surrendered. These rejections sealed the fate of thousands. Knowing that death or slavery awaited them when the Turks finally took the city, what were Thessalonians thinking when they turned down the Sultan’s offer. The reality was that they were not being allowed to think for themselves. If Thessalonians had their choice, the city would have been handed over several years earlier. It would have spared the population famine, disease and a multitude of privations. The Venetians administering the city were holding out hope that a relief expedition would arrive to lift the siege. At the same time, mercenaries were holding the city’s citizens hostage. Thessalonians had little to no say in their fate even though pro-surrender forces had been in the majority for quite some time, their voices were silenced by the threat of violence. Thessalonians faced two foes during the siege, the Venetians who were fighting to protect their own interests and the Ottomans whose determination to take the city kept the populace in a state of perpetual tension. The final, fatal blow occurred along the northeast section of the city walls near the Trigonian Tower. The defenders were driven from their positions by a storm of arrows unleashed by Ottoman archers. Legend has it that the first Ottoman soldier to get over the walls beheaded a wounded Venetian and tossed the head to his comrades who then came over the top en masse. The Venetian administrators, in an act of cowardice characteristic of their rule, escaped by ship along with some of the mercenaries. The unlucky Thessalonians left in the city were subjected to rape, pillage and indiscriminate brutality. Their efforts to resist were hopeless, any who fought on were cut down. Those who capitulated would either be killed or enslaved. Collateral Damage – A Mere Footnote The Ottomans viewed Thessalonians as either collateral damage or war booty. Their rampage lasted for three days before Murad called a halt to these excesses. He was then magnanimous, inviting property owners back and offering protection to the remaining inhabitants. The problem was that only a couple of thousand were left alive. Byzantine Thessaloniki ceased to exist. Thessalonians worst fears had finally been realized. Whatever courage they displayed in trying to survive the siege had come to naught. The courage and cowardice, heroism and hysteria they displayed for eight long years no longer mattered. They ended up on the wrong side of history, a mere footnote that no one would notice. History was written by the winners, in this case the Ottomans. As for the losers, they were all but forgotten.	1,408	ENGLISH	1
Despite facing ongoing anti-Semitism, journalist Henriette Katzenstein Fürth remained a passionate and vocal German patriot throughout her life. Fürth’s father denied her permission to study for her teaching credentials, since Jews couldn’t be hired as teachers, but after she married in 1880 and moved to Frankfurt, she studied social economics at the Free German Higher Institute. She began publishing articles on social criticism while raising eight children, eventually writing 200 articles and 30 monographs, earning both an income and a reputation for insightful journalism. In 1901 she and Bertha Pappenheim co-founded the Women’s Care Association, and Fürth was also active in advocating for maternity leave and preventing the persecution of gays and lesbians. During WWI she ran a soup kitchen with her daughters. She spoke out against those who claimed Jews were not doing their duty, saying that Jews had made great sacrifices and were an integral part of Germany—two of her own sons had been badly wounded at the front. From 1919–1924 she served on the Frankfurt municipal council, and in 1932 she was honored by the city of Frankfurt for her 70th anniversary. In the prevailing anti-Semitic environment of 1938, however, her death went unremarked, and two of her daughters later died in the Holocaust. More on Henriette Furth How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Henriette Furth." (Viewed on January 21, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/f-rth-henriette>.	<urn:uuid:e19f153e-6e8a-4fe2-8d1e-a9f77488553a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qa.jwa.org/people/f-rth-henriette	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00013.warc.gz	en	0.98044	321	3.375	3	[ -0.050319328904151917, 0.625298798084259, -0.4565794765949249, 0.11364009231328964, -0.026057248935103416, 0.6122986078262329, -0.2641617953777313, 0.26393359899520874, -0.25382426381111145, -0.18966498970985413, -0.07101724296808243, -0.1690819412469864, 0.127435564994812, 0.3726283013820...	1	Despite facing ongoing anti-Semitism, journalist Henriette Katzenstein Fürth remained a passionate and vocal German patriot throughout her life. Fürth’s father denied her permission to study for her teaching credentials, since Jews couldn’t be hired as teachers, but after she married in 1880 and moved to Frankfurt, she studied social economics at the Free German Higher Institute. She began publishing articles on social criticism while raising eight children, eventually writing 200 articles and 30 monographs, earning both an income and a reputation for insightful journalism. In 1901 she and Bertha Pappenheim co-founded the Women’s Care Association, and Fürth was also active in advocating for maternity leave and preventing the persecution of gays and lesbians. During WWI she ran a soup kitchen with her daughters. She spoke out against those who claimed Jews were not doing their duty, saying that Jews had made great sacrifices and were an integral part of Germany—two of her own sons had been badly wounded at the front. From 1919–1924 she served on the Frankfurt municipal council, and in 1932 she was honored by the city of Frankfurt for her 70th anniversary. In the prevailing anti-Semitic environment of 1938, however, her death went unremarked, and two of her daughters later died in the Holocaust. More on Henriette Furth How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Henriette Furth." (Viewed on January 21, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/f-rth-henriette>.	338	ENGLISH	1
As a 15-year-old, he escaped the roundup by German occupying troops of Rome's Jews in 1943 and went into hiding with his family. But the next year he was arrested and deported to the complex of Auschwitz-Birkenau camps with his family, where his parents, three siblings and other relatives perished. Terracina's recounting of the horrors suffered there won praise by Italian leaders. Noemi Di Segni, president of the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, hailed Terracina as a"true light in these dark times" which she described as being marked by words of hate and denial of the Holocaust. Terracina was described as the last Roman Jew among Italy's Holocaust survivors at the time of his death. Even before many of them were hauled off to death camps by Nazi occupiers, the nation's Jews were already suffering under Fascist leader Benito Mussolini, whose regime, in 1938, enacted anti-Jewish laws. Among other things, the laws banned Jews from holding public positions, including teaching, and forcing Jewish-owned stores to put signs in their windows identifying them as such. There has been a surge in anti-Semitic incidents in Italy in recent years. Recently, a police escort was assigned to another Holocaust survivor among Italian Jews, Liliana Segre, who received death threats and hundreds of anti-Semitic insults. She was named a senator-for-life for speaking to Italian schoolchildren about the horrors of the concentration camps.	<urn:uuid:5292663e-747b-4d6b-958b-8ba9acff1723>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mail.com/int/news/world/9586652-piero-terracina-rome-jew-who-survived-nazi-death-c.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00304.warc.gz	en	0.988465	302	3.296875	3	[ -0.3173138201236725, 0.7549400925636292, -0.012496997602283955, 0.2206457257270813, -0.04445827007293701, 0.38426658511161804, 0.43862491846084595, 0.07930874079465866, 0.026871271431446075, 0.05631144344806671, 0.4018374979496002, -0.08576329797506332, -0.03600055351853371, 0.781202018260...	2	As a 15-year-old, he escaped the roundup by German occupying troops of Rome's Jews in 1943 and went into hiding with his family. But the next year he was arrested and deported to the complex of Auschwitz-Birkenau camps with his family, where his parents, three siblings and other relatives perished. Terracina's recounting of the horrors suffered there won praise by Italian leaders. Noemi Di Segni, president of the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, hailed Terracina as a"true light in these dark times" which she described as being marked by words of hate and denial of the Holocaust. Terracina was described as the last Roman Jew among Italy's Holocaust survivors at the time of his death. Even before many of them were hauled off to death camps by Nazi occupiers, the nation's Jews were already suffering under Fascist leader Benito Mussolini, whose regime, in 1938, enacted anti-Jewish laws. Among other things, the laws banned Jews from holding public positions, including teaching, and forcing Jewish-owned stores to put signs in their windows identifying them as such. There has been a surge in anti-Semitic incidents in Italy in recent years. Recently, a police escort was assigned to another Holocaust survivor among Italian Jews, Liliana Segre, who received death threats and hundreds of anti-Semitic insults. She was named a senator-for-life for speaking to Italian schoolchildren about the horrors of the concentration camps.	301	ENGLISH	1
\|Papacy began\|\|6 or 13 March 251\| \|Papacy ended\|\|June 253\| Civitavecchia, Roman Empire \|Feast day\|\|16 September\| Pope Cornelius (died June 253) was the Bishop of Rome from 6 or 13 March 251 to his martyrdom in 253. He was pope during and following a period of persecution of the church and a schism occurred over how repentant church members who had practiced pagan sacrifices to protect themselves could be readmitted to the church. Cornelius agreed with Cyprian of Carthage that those who had lapsed could be restored to communion after varying forms of penance. That position was in contrast to the Novationists, who held that those who failed to maintain their confession of faith under persecution would not be received again into communion with the church. That resulted in a schism in the Church of Rome that spread as each side sought to gather support. Cornelius held a synod that confirmed his election and excommunicated Novatian, but the controversy regarding lapsed members continued for years. The persecutions resumed in 251 under Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. Cornelius was sent into exile and may have died from the rigours of his banishment, but later accounts say that he was beheaded. Emperor Decius, who ruled from 249 to 251 AD, persecuted Christians in the Roman Empire rather sporadically and locally, but starting in January of the year 250, he ordered all citizens to perform a religious sacrifice in the presence of commissioners, or else face death.Many Christians refused and were martyred, (including Pope Fabian on 20 January 250), while others partook in the sacrifices in order to save their own lives. Two schools of thought arose after the persecution. One side, led by Novatian, a priest in the diocese of Rome, believed that those who had stopped practising Christianity during the persecution could not be accepted back into the church, even if they repented. He held that idolatry was an unpardonable sin, and that the Church had no authority to forgive apostates, but that their forgiveness must be left to God; it could not be pronounced in this world.The opposing side, including Cornelius and Cyprian of Carthage, believed that the lapsi could be restored to communion through repentance, demonstrated by a period of penance. During the persecution it proved impossible to elect a successor, and the papal seat remained vacant for a year. During this period the church was governed by several priests, including Novatian. However, when Decius left Rome to fight the invading Goths, the Roman clergy chose a new bishop.In the fourteen months without a pope, the leading candidate, Moses, had died under the persecution. Novatian believed that he would be elected; however, the more moderate Cornelius was unwillingly elected the twenty-first pope in March 251. Those who supported a more rigorist position had Novatian consecrated bishop and refused to recognize Cornelius as Bishop of Rome.Both sides sent out letters to other bishops seeking recognition and support. Cornelius had the support of Cyprian, Dionysius, and most African and Eastern bishops while Novatian had the support of a minority of clergy and laymen in Rome. Cornelius's next action was to convene a synod of 60 bishops to acknowledge him as the rightful pope and the council excommunicated Novatian as well as all Novatianists. Also addressed in the synod was that Christians who stopped practising during Emperor Decius's persecution could be re-admitted into the Christian community only after doing penance. The verdict of the synod was sent to the Christian bishops, most notably the bishop of Antioch, a fierce Novatian supporter, in order to convince him to accept Cornelius as bishop of Rome. The letters that Cornelius sent to surrounding bishops provide information of the size of the church in Rome at that time. Cornelius mentions that the Roman Church had, "forty six priests, seven deacons, seven sub-deacons, forty two acolytes, fifty two ostiarii, and over one thousand five hundred widows and persons in distress."His letters also inform that Cornelius had a staff of over 150 clergy members and the church fed over 1,500 people daily. From these numbers, it has been estimated that there were at least 50,000 Christians in Rome during the papacy of Pope Cornelius. In June 251, Decius was killed in battle with the Goths; and persecutions resumed under his successor, Trebonianus Gallus. Cornelius was exiled to Centumcellae, Italy, where he died in June 253. The Liberian catalogue lists his death as being from the hardships of banishment; however, later sources claim he was beheaded. Cornelius is not buried in the chapel of the popes, but in a nearby catacomb, and the inscription on his tomb is in Latin, instead of the Greek of his predecessor Pope Fabian and successor Lucius I. It reads, "Cornelius Martyr." The letters Cornelius sent while in exile are all written in the colloquial Latin of the period instead of the classical style used by the educated such as Cyprian, a theologian as well as a bishop, and Novatian, who was also a philosopher.This suggests that Cornelius did not come from an extremely wealthy family and thus was not given a sophisticated education as a child. A letter from Cornelius while in exile mentions an office of "exorcist" in the church for the first time. Canon law has since then required each diocese to have an exorcist. \|Pope and Martyr\| Civitavecchia, Roman Empire \|Venerated in\|\|Catholic Church\| Some of his relics were taken to Germany during the Middle Ages; his head was claimed by Kornelimünster Abbey near Aachen.In the Rhineland, he was also a patron saint of lovers. A legend associated with Cornelius tells of a young artist who was commissioned to decorate the Corneliuskapelle in the Selikum quarter of Neuss. The daughter of a local townsman fell in love with the artist, but her father forbade the marriage, remarking that he would only consent if the pope did as well. Miraculously, the statue of Cornelius leaned forward from the altar and blessed the pair, and the two lovers were thus married. Cornelius, along with Quirinus of Neuss, Hubertus and Anthony the Great, was venerated as one of the Four Holy Marshals in the Rhineland during the late Middle Ages. A legend told at Carnac states that its stones were once pagan soldiers who had been turned into stone by Cornelius, who was fleeing from them. The Catholic Church commemorated Cornelius by venerating him, with his Saint's Day on 16 September, which he shares with his friend Cyprian.His Saint's Day was originally on 14 September, the date on which both Cyprian and Cornelius were martyred, according to Jerome. Cornelius's saintly name means "battle horn", and he is represented in icons by a pope either holding some form of cow's horn or with a cow nearby. He is the patron against earache, epilepsy, fever, twitching, and also of cattle, domestic animals, earache sufferers, epileptics, and the town of Kornelimünster, Germany, where his head is enshrined. Pope Cornelius, a reconciler, had a hard road. Pope Alexander I was the Bishop of Rome from c. 107 to his death c. 115. The Holy See's Annuario Pontificio (2012) identifies him as a Roman who reigned from 108 or 109 to 116 or 119. Some believe he suffered martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Trajan or Hadrian, but this is improbable. Pope Stephen I was the Bishop of Rome of the Roman Catholic Church from 12 May 254 to his death in 257. Of Roman birth but of Greek ancestry, he became bishop after serving as archdeacon of Pope Lucius I, who appointed Stephen his successor. Pope Eusebius was the Bishop of Rome from 18 April 310 until his death four months later. The 250s decade ran from January 1, 250, to December 31, 259. Cyprian was bishop of Carthage and a notable Early Christian writer of Berber descent, many of whose Latin works are extant. He is also recognised as a saint in the Christian churches. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education. Soon after converting to Christianity, he became a bishop in 249. A controversial figure during his lifetime, his strong pastoral skills, firm conduct during the Novatianist heresy and outbreak of the Plague of Cyprian, and eventual martyrdom at Carthage established his reputation and proved his sanctity in the eyes of the Church. His skillful Latin rhetoric led to his being considered the pre-eminent Latin writer of Western Christianity until Jerome and Augustine. Pope Pontian was Pope from 21 July 230 to 28 September 235. In 235, during the persecution of Christians in the reign of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, Pontian was arrested and sent to the island of Sardinia. He resigned to make the election of a new pope possible. Pope Fabian was the Bishop of Rome from 10 January 236 to his death in 250, succeeding Anterus. He is famous for the miraculous nature of his election, in which a dove is said to have descended on his head to mark him as the Holy Spirit's unexpected choice to become the next pope. He was succeeded by Cornelius. Hippolytus was one of the most important second-third century Christian theologians, whose provenance, identity and corpus remain elusive to scholars and historians. Suggested communities include Palestine, Egypt, Anatolia, Rome and regions of the mideast. The best historians of literature in the ancient church, including Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome, openly confess they cannot name where Hippolytus the biblical commentator and theologian served in leadership. They had read his works but did not possess evidence of his community. Photios I of Constantinople describes him in his Bibliotheca as a disciple of Irenaeus, who was said to be a disciple of Polycarp, and from the context of this passage it is supposed that he suggested that Hippolytus so styled himself. This assertion is doubtful. One older theory asserts he came into conflict with the popes of his time and seems to have headed a schismatic group as a rival to the Bishop of Rome, thus becoming an Antipope. In this view, he opposed the Roman Popes who softened the penitential system to accommodate the large number of new pagan converts. However, he was reconciled to the Church before he died as a martyr. Decius, also known as Trajan Decius, was Roman Emperor from 249 to 251. Trebonianus Gallus, also known as Gallus, was Roman Emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. Novatianism was an Early Christian sect devoted to the theologian Novatian that held a strict view that refused readmission to communion of Lapsi. The Church of Rome declared the Novatianists heretical following the letters of Saint Cyprian of Carthage. Novatian was a scholar, priest, theologian and antipope between 251 and 258. Some Greek authors give his name as Novatus, who was an African presbyter. Volusianus, also known as Volusian, was a Roman Emperor from November 251 to August 253. His father, Trebonianus Gallus, became Roman Emperor after being elected in the field by the legion, following the deaths of the previous co-emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus. Trebonianus Gallus raised Hostilian, the son of Decius, to augustus, making him his co-emperor in June 251. Volusianus was elevated to caesar in the same month. After the death, or murder, of Hostilian in November 251, Volusianus was raised to augustus, co-ruling with his father. The short reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus was notable for the outbreak of a plague, which is said by some to be the reason for Hostilian's death, the invasion of the Sasanian Empire, and the raids of the Goths. Volusianus was killed alongside his father in August 253 by their own soldiers, who were terrified of the forces of the usurper Aemilian which were marching towards Rome. Saint Dionysius the Great was the 14th Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria from 28 December 248 until his death on 22 March 264. Most information known about him comes from his large surviving correspondence. Only one original letter survives to this day; the remaining letters are excerpted in the works of Eusebius. The Councils of Carthage were church synods held during the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries in the city of Carthage in Africa. The most important of these are described below. Saint Firmilian, Bishop of Caesarea Mazaca from ca. 232, was a disciple of Origen. He had a contemporary reputation comparable to that of Dionysius of Alexandria or Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. He took an active part in the mid-3rd century controversies over rebaptising heretics and readmitting lapsed Christians after the persecutions of Decius and was excommunicated by Pope Stephen I for his position. A single letter of Firmilian to Cyprian survives among Cyprian's correspondence. Jerome omits Firmilian from De viris illustribus. "To his contemporaries his forty years of influential episcopate, his friendship with Origen and Dionysius, the appeal to him of Cyprian, and his censure of Stephanus might well make him seem the most conspicuous figure of his time" (Wace). Papal supremacy is the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that the Pope, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ and as the visible foundation and source of unity, and as pastor of the entire Christian Church, has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered: that, in brief, "the Pope enjoys, by divine institution, supreme, full, immediate, and universal power in the care of souls." Saints Cyprian and Justina are honored in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy as Christians of Antioch, who in 304, during the persecution of Diocletian, suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia on September 26. According to Roman Catholic sources, no Bishop of Antioch bore the name of Cyprian. Lay communion is a term applied in the Catholic Church, to describe the status of a cleric who is in communion with the Church, but only with the standing of a lay person. In modern times lay communion is sometimes imposed, but only in exceptional cases. The Archdiocese of Carthage, also known as the Church of Carthage, was a Latin Catholic diocese established in Carthage, Roman Empire, in the 2nd century. Agrippin was the first named bishop, around 230 A.D. The importance of the city of Carthage had previously been restored by Julius Caesar and Augustus. When Christianity became firmly established around the Roman province of Africa Proconsulare, Carthage became its natural ecclesiastical seat. Carthage subsequently exercised informal primacy as an archdiocese, being the most important center of Christianity in the whole of Roman Africa, corresponding to most of today's Mediterranean coast and inland of Northern Africa. As such, it enjoyed honorary title of patriarch as well as primate of Africa: Pope Leo I confirmed the primacy of the bishop of Carthage in 446: "Indeed, after the Roman Bishop, the leading Bishop and metropolitan for all Africa is the Bishop of Carthage." \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pope Cornelius .\| \|Titles of the Great Christian Church\| \| Bishop of Rome \|	<urn:uuid:743cab5b-05e1-4010-8768-4f47910187dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Pope_Cornelius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00000.warc.gz	en	0.985897	3,419	3.75	4	[ -0.17537522315979004, 0.450556218624115, 0.2002372443675995, -0.08466115593910217, -0.5620414018630981, -0.14958271384239197, -0.2229209840297699, 0.27925652265548706, 0.2802377939224243, -0.10079603642225266, 0.01646955870091915, -0.18254485726356506, 0.044959571212530136, 0.0863465517759...	1	\|Papacy began\|\|6 or 13 March 251\| \|Papacy ended\|\|June 253\| Civitavecchia, Roman Empire \|Feast day\|\|16 September\| Pope Cornelius (died June 253) was the Bishop of Rome from 6 or 13 March 251 to his martyrdom in 253. He was pope during and following a period of persecution of the church and a schism occurred over how repentant church members who had practiced pagan sacrifices to protect themselves could be readmitted to the church. Cornelius agreed with Cyprian of Carthage that those who had lapsed could be restored to communion after varying forms of penance. That position was in contrast to the Novationists, who held that those who failed to maintain their confession of faith under persecution would not be received again into communion with the church. That resulted in a schism in the Church of Rome that spread as each side sought to gather support. Cornelius held a synod that confirmed his election and excommunicated Novatian, but the controversy regarding lapsed members continued for years. The persecutions resumed in 251 under Emperor Trebonianus Gallus. Cornelius was sent into exile and may have died from the rigours of his banishment, but later accounts say that he was beheaded. Emperor Decius, who ruled from 249 to 251 AD, persecuted Christians in the Roman Empire rather sporadically and locally, but starting in January of the year 250, he ordered all citizens to perform a religious sacrifice in the presence of commissioners, or else face death.Many Christians refused and were martyred, (including Pope Fabian on 20 January 250), while others partook in the sacrifices in order to save their own lives. Two schools of thought arose after the persecution. One side, led by Novatian, a priest in the diocese of Rome, believed that those who had stopped practising Christianity during the persecution could not be accepted back into the church, even if they repented. He held that idolatry was an unpardonable sin, and that the Church had no authority to forgive apostates, but that their forgiveness must be left to God; it could not be pronounced in this world.The opposing side, including Cornelius and Cyprian of Carthage, believed that the lapsi could be restored to communion through repentance, demonstrated by a period of penance. During the persecution it proved impossible to elect a successor, and the papal seat remained vacant for a year. During this period the church was governed by several priests, including Novatian. However, when Decius left Rome to fight the invading Goths, the Roman clergy chose a new bishop.In the fourteen months without a pope, the leading candidate, Moses, had died under the persecution. Novatian believed that he would be elected; however, the more moderate Cornelius was unwillingly elected the twenty-first pope in March 251. Those who supported a more rigorist position had Novatian consecrated bishop and refused to recognize Cornelius as Bishop of Rome.Both sides sent out letters to other bishops seeking recognition and support. Cornelius had the support of Cyprian, Dionysius, and most African and Eastern bishops while Novatian had the support of a minority of clergy and laymen in Rome. Cornelius's next action was to convene a synod of 60 bishops to acknowledge him as the rightful pope and the council excommunicated Novatian as well as all Novatianists. Also addressed in the synod was that Christians who stopped practising during Emperor Decius's persecution could be re-admitted into the Christian community only after doing penance. The verdict of the synod was sent to the Christian bishops, most notably the bishop of Antioch, a fierce Novatian supporter, in order to convince him to accept Cornelius as bishop of Rome. The letters that Cornelius sent to surrounding bishops provide information of the size of the church in Rome at that time. Cornelius mentions that the Roman Church had, "forty six priests, seven deacons, seven sub-deacons, forty two acolytes, fifty two ostiarii, and over one thousand five hundred widows and persons in distress."His letters also inform that Cornelius had a staff of over 150 clergy members and the church fed over 1,500 people daily. From these numbers, it has been estimated that there were at least 50,000 Christians in Rome during the papacy of Pope Cornelius. In June 251, Decius was killed in battle with the Goths; and persecutions resumed under his successor, Trebonianus Gallus. Cornelius was exiled to Centumcellae, Italy, where he died in June 253. The Liberian catalogue lists his death as being from the hardships of banishment; however, later sources claim he was beheaded. Cornelius is not buried in the chapel of the popes, but in a nearby catacomb, and the inscription on his tomb is in Latin, instead of the Greek of his predecessor Pope Fabian and successor Lucius I. It reads, "Cornelius Martyr." The letters Cornelius sent while in exile are all written in the colloquial Latin of the period instead of the classical style used by the educated such as Cyprian, a theologian as well as a bishop, and Novatian, who was also a philosopher.This suggests that Cornelius did not come from an extremely wealthy family and thus was not given a sophisticated education as a child. A letter from Cornelius while in exile mentions an office of "exorcist" in the church for the first time. Canon law has since then required each diocese to have an exorcist. \|Pope and Martyr\| Civitavecchia, Roman Empire \|Venerated in\|\|Catholic Church\| Some of his relics were taken to Germany during the Middle Ages; his head was claimed by Kornelimünster Abbey near Aachen.In the Rhineland, he was also a patron saint of lovers. A legend associated with Cornelius tells of a young artist who was commissioned to decorate the Corneliuskapelle in the Selikum quarter of Neuss. The daughter of a local townsman fell in love with the artist, but her father forbade the marriage, remarking that he would only consent if the pope did as well. Miraculously, the statue of Cornelius leaned forward from the altar and blessed the pair, and the two lovers were thus married. Cornelius, along with Quirinus of Neuss, Hubertus and Anthony the Great, was venerated as one of the Four Holy Marshals in the Rhineland during the late Middle Ages. A legend told at Carnac states that its stones were once pagan soldiers who had been turned into stone by Cornelius, who was fleeing from them. The Catholic Church commemorated Cornelius by venerating him, with his Saint's Day on 16 September, which he shares with his friend Cyprian.His Saint's Day was originally on 14 September, the date on which both Cyprian and Cornelius were martyred, according to Jerome. Cornelius's saintly name means "battle horn", and he is represented in icons by a pope either holding some form of cow's horn or with a cow nearby. He is the patron against earache, epilepsy, fever, twitching, and also of cattle, domestic animals, earache sufferers, epileptics, and the town of Kornelimünster, Germany, where his head is enshrined. Pope Cornelius, a reconciler, had a hard road. Pope Alexander I was the Bishop of Rome from c. 107 to his death c. 115. The Holy See's Annuario Pontificio (2012) identifies him as a Roman who reigned from 108 or 109 to 116 or 119. Some believe he suffered martyrdom under the Roman Emperor Trajan or Hadrian, but this is improbable. Pope Stephen I was the Bishop of Rome of the Roman Catholic Church from 12 May 254 to his death in 257. Of Roman birth but of Greek ancestry, he became bishop after serving as archdeacon of Pope Lucius I, who appointed Stephen his successor. Pope Eusebius was the Bishop of Rome from 18 April 310 until his death four months later. The 250s decade ran from January 1, 250, to December 31, 259. Cyprian was bishop of Carthage and a notable Early Christian writer of Berber descent, many of whose Latin works are extant. He is also recognised as a saint in the Christian churches. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education. Soon after converting to Christianity, he became a bishop in 249. A controversial figure during his lifetime, his strong pastoral skills, firm conduct during the Novatianist heresy and outbreak of the Plague of Cyprian, and eventual martyrdom at Carthage established his reputation and proved his sanctity in the eyes of the Church. His skillful Latin rhetoric led to his being considered the pre-eminent Latin writer of Western Christianity until Jerome and Augustine. Pope Pontian was Pope from 21 July 230 to 28 September 235. In 235, during the persecution of Christians in the reign of the Emperor Maximinus Thrax, Pontian was arrested and sent to the island of Sardinia. He resigned to make the election of a new pope possible. Pope Fabian was the Bishop of Rome from 10 January 236 to his death in 250, succeeding Anterus. He is famous for the miraculous nature of his election, in which a dove is said to have descended on his head to mark him as the Holy Spirit's unexpected choice to become the next pope. He was succeeded by Cornelius. Hippolytus was one of the most important second-third century Christian theologians, whose provenance, identity and corpus remain elusive to scholars and historians. Suggested communities include Palestine, Egypt, Anatolia, Rome and regions of the mideast. The best historians of literature in the ancient church, including Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome, openly confess they cannot name where Hippolytus the biblical commentator and theologian served in leadership. They had read his works but did not possess evidence of his community. Photios I of Constantinople describes him in his Bibliotheca as a disciple of Irenaeus, who was said to be a disciple of Polycarp, and from the context of this passage it is supposed that he suggested that Hippolytus so styled himself. This assertion is doubtful. One older theory asserts he came into conflict with the popes of his time and seems to have headed a schismatic group as a rival to the Bishop of Rome, thus becoming an Antipope. In this view, he opposed the Roman Popes who softened the penitential system to accommodate the large number of new pagan converts. However, he was reconciled to the Church before he died as a martyr. Decius, also known as Trajan Decius, was Roman Emperor from 249 to 251. Trebonianus Gallus, also known as Gallus, was Roman Emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. Novatianism was an Early Christian sect devoted to the theologian Novatian that held a strict view that refused readmission to communion of Lapsi. The Church of Rome declared the Novatianists heretical following the letters of Saint Cyprian of Carthage. Novatian was a scholar, priest, theologian and antipope between 251 and 258. Some Greek authors give his name as Novatus, who was an African presbyter. Volusianus, also known as Volusian, was a Roman Emperor from November 251 to August 253. His father, Trebonianus Gallus, became Roman Emperor after being elected in the field by the legion, following the deaths of the previous co-emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus. Trebonianus Gallus raised Hostilian, the son of Decius, to augustus, making him his co-emperor in June 251. Volusianus was elevated to caesar in the same month. After the death, or murder, of Hostilian in November 251, Volusianus was raised to augustus, co-ruling with his father. The short reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus was notable for the outbreak of a plague, which is said by some to be the reason for Hostilian's death, the invasion of the Sasanian Empire, and the raids of the Goths. Volusianus was killed alongside his father in August 253 by their own soldiers, who were terrified of the forces of the usurper Aemilian which were marching towards Rome. Saint Dionysius the Great was the 14th Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria from 28 December 248 until his death on 22 March 264. Most information known about him comes from his large surviving correspondence. Only one original letter survives to this day; the remaining letters are excerpted in the works of Eusebius. The Councils of Carthage were church synods held during the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries in the city of Carthage in Africa. The most important of these are described below. Saint Firmilian, Bishop of Caesarea Mazaca from ca. 232, was a disciple of Origen. He had a contemporary reputation comparable to that of Dionysius of Alexandria or Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. He took an active part in the mid-3rd century controversies over rebaptising heretics and readmitting lapsed Christians after the persecutions of Decius and was excommunicated by Pope Stephen I for his position. A single letter of Firmilian to Cyprian survives among Cyprian's correspondence. Jerome omits Firmilian from De viris illustribus. "To his contemporaries his forty years of influential episcopate, his friendship with Origen and Dionysius, the appeal to him of Cyprian, and his censure of Stephanus might well make him seem the most conspicuous figure of his time" (Wace). Papal supremacy is the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that the Pope, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ and as the visible foundation and source of unity, and as pastor of the entire Christian Church, has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered: that, in brief, "the Pope enjoys, by divine institution, supreme, full, immediate, and universal power in the care of souls." Saints Cyprian and Justina are honored in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy as Christians of Antioch, who in 304, during the persecution of Diocletian, suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia on September 26. According to Roman Catholic sources, no Bishop of Antioch bore the name of Cyprian. Lay communion is a term applied in the Catholic Church, to describe the status of a cleric who is in communion with the Church, but only with the standing of a lay person. In modern times lay communion is sometimes imposed, but only in exceptional cases. The Archdiocese of Carthage, also known as the Church of Carthage, was a Latin Catholic diocese established in Carthage, Roman Empire, in the 2nd century. Agrippin was the first named bishop, around 230 A.D. The importance of the city of Carthage had previously been restored by Julius Caesar and Augustus. When Christianity became firmly established around the Roman province of Africa Proconsulare, Carthage became its natural ecclesiastical seat. Carthage subsequently exercised informal primacy as an archdiocese, being the most important center of Christianity in the whole of Roman Africa, corresponding to most of today's Mediterranean coast and inland of Northern Africa. As such, it enjoyed honorary title of patriarch as well as primate of Africa: Pope Leo I confirmed the primacy of the bishop of Carthage in 446: "Indeed, after the Roman Bishop, the leading Bishop and metropolitan for all Africa is the Bishop of Carthage." \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pope Cornelius .\| \|Titles of the Great Christian Church\| \| Bishop of Rome \|	3,585	ENGLISH	1
Saqqara Pyramid is one of the most extensive sites in Egypt. It was also the cemetery for Memphis. It is dominated by the Step Pyramid of King Zoser “Sakkara Pyramid”. The Pyramid goes back to 2700 BC. It is one of the oldest stone structures in the world. Sakkara site is rich with a lot of tombs from the 1st and 2nd Dynasties. Most of these tombs are made of mud bricks, but some tombs are made of limestone and decorated with their daily life scenes. This extensive site is divided into, the Southern side and the northern side. The Southern side is dominated by Sakkara Pyramid and the Northern one contains the Pyramid of King Titi, and Mastaba tombs of the old kingdom. On the northern side is the original entrance of the Pyramid. And you will notice a little room that is built with a gradient angle, similar to the Pyramid itself. In there was found a beautiful statue of King Zoser made of limestone, it was moved to the Egyptian museum in Cairo and replaced by a replica. Down Sakkara Pyramid there is a maze of little corridors and tunnels! Found in some of these tunnels more than 30, 000 jars, which were made out of several types of stone, alabaster, marble, diorite and slate. The Pyramid is surrounded by a rectangular enclosure wall that measure 277m by 544m, mostly ruined today, but it was originally 10m high. You can see parts of it today. In the southeastern part of the wall you will find the entrance to the complex, the entrance leads you to a colonnade that has 40 columns. Each column is attached to the wall behind, the style is called engaged columns, and they were built to ensure that they would be able to endure the heavy weight of the ceiling. Sakkara Pyramid was built for King Zoser, one of the greatest Kings of the third dynasty (2721-2780 BC). The Pyramid was designed and built by his great architect Imhotep. It was built as a step Pyramid, 60m high, and consisting of 6 steps; each one built on top of each other and smaller than the one below. Today it is considered as one of the oldest stone structures built by man, and the first time the Ancient Egyptians would attempt to use limestone. Zoser's Pyramid is entirely built of limestone, small bricks of limestone, and not of the best quality, and yet it has remained for more than 4700 years.	<urn:uuid:1d3bcf2d-86ba-491b-80a1-8b4f452fc390>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.egyptomania777.com/saqqara-tour-c1r6u	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00021.warc.gz	en	0.981828	521	3.28125	3	[ -0.22692349553108215, 0.40546321868896484, 0.02596905827522278, 0.3055407404899597, -0.7465792298316956, -0.06787624210119247, -0.0005098681431263685, -0.0024983545299619436, -0.48879504203796387, 0.4375029504299164, 0.29701000452041626, -0.5752689242362976, 0.03298962116241455, 0.31945779...	6	Saqqara Pyramid is one of the most extensive sites in Egypt. It was also the cemetery for Memphis. It is dominated by the Step Pyramid of King Zoser “Sakkara Pyramid”. The Pyramid goes back to 2700 BC. It is one of the oldest stone structures in the world. Sakkara site is rich with a lot of tombs from the 1st and 2nd Dynasties. Most of these tombs are made of mud bricks, but some tombs are made of limestone and decorated with their daily life scenes. This extensive site is divided into, the Southern side and the northern side. The Southern side is dominated by Sakkara Pyramid and the Northern one contains the Pyramid of King Titi, and Mastaba tombs of the old kingdom. On the northern side is the original entrance of the Pyramid. And you will notice a little room that is built with a gradient angle, similar to the Pyramid itself. In there was found a beautiful statue of King Zoser made of limestone, it was moved to the Egyptian museum in Cairo and replaced by a replica. Down Sakkara Pyramid there is a maze of little corridors and tunnels! Found in some of these tunnels more than 30, 000 jars, which were made out of several types of stone, alabaster, marble, diorite and slate. The Pyramid is surrounded by a rectangular enclosure wall that measure 277m by 544m, mostly ruined today, but it was originally 10m high. You can see parts of it today. In the southeastern part of the wall you will find the entrance to the complex, the entrance leads you to a colonnade that has 40 columns. Each column is attached to the wall behind, the style is called engaged columns, and they were built to ensure that they would be able to endure the heavy weight of the ceiling. Sakkara Pyramid was built for King Zoser, one of the greatest Kings of the third dynasty (2721-2780 BC). The Pyramid was designed and built by his great architect Imhotep. It was built as a step Pyramid, 60m high, and consisting of 6 steps; each one built on top of each other and smaller than the one below. Today it is considered as one of the oldest stone structures built by man, and the first time the Ancient Egyptians would attempt to use limestone. Zoser's Pyramid is entirely built of limestone, small bricks of limestone, and not of the best quality, and yet it has remained for more than 4700 years.	540	ENGLISH	1
The task was to replace part of a circuit with corresponding Norton's generator. To calculate the current of the generator, I had to calculate the current going through the short circuited nodes 1 and 2, pictured below: There are a couple of things I do not understand. First, let's look at the node 3. Current I is going in, and currents through R4 and R1 are going out. Then, those two currents are going in nodes 1 and 2, respectively. But if there is a short circuit between 1 and 2, currents have the option to go through the path with the least resistance, short circuit, and avoid R5 and R3 completely. In that case, current through the short circuit will be the difference between them, since they are of opposite direction. Current through R4 and R1 can be calculated by considering a current divider, that is, by combining Kirchoff's Laws. However, according to my textbook, this would not be the solution to the problem. Another thing that I don't understand is, if currents don't go through R5 and R3 at all, then they must come back where they came from, node 3, but this current would colide with one of the ideal generator. I have a feeling that the ideal current source pushes them to go to R5 and R3 as well and come through the other side, node 4. My question is: What is the current through short circuited nodes 1 and 2?	<urn:uuid:9ab7fe63-604e-47b6-9027-f543214f0193>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/213026/current-through-a-short-circuit-in-the-wheatstone-bridge-configuration	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00063.warc.gz	en	0.980159	306	3.546875	4	[ -0.14679129421710968, 0.15930262207984924, 0.2137792855501175, 0.12947559356689453, -0.1507156640291214, -0.16496625542640686, -0.23959599435329437, -0.31556153297424316, 0.31681564450263977, -0.009453408420085907, 0.020809508860111237, -0.2461480051279068, 0.6060766577720642, -0.072505995...	3	The task was to replace part of a circuit with corresponding Norton's generator. To calculate the current of the generator, I had to calculate the current going through the short circuited nodes 1 and 2, pictured below: There are a couple of things I do not understand. First, let's look at the node 3. Current I is going in, and currents through R4 and R1 are going out. Then, those two currents are going in nodes 1 and 2, respectively. But if there is a short circuit between 1 and 2, currents have the option to go through the path with the least resistance, short circuit, and avoid R5 and R3 completely. In that case, current through the short circuit will be the difference between them, since they are of opposite direction. Current through R4 and R1 can be calculated by considering a current divider, that is, by combining Kirchoff's Laws. However, according to my textbook, this would not be the solution to the problem. Another thing that I don't understand is, if currents don't go through R5 and R3 at all, then they must come back where they came from, node 3, but this current would colide with one of the ideal generator. I have a feeling that the ideal current source pushes them to go to R5 and R3 as well and come through the other side, node 4. My question is: What is the current through short circuited nodes 1 and 2?	312	ENGLISH	1
Sodomy and prostitution had similar public status in eighteenth-century London, and are vices that have likely existed since the humans began living in collective societies. Social and legal perceptions of these two acts, or lifestyles, have varied greatly through time and culture. The legal and social perceptions of sodomy and prostitution in eighteenth-century London were studied extensively by Randolph Trumbach of Baruch College, City University of New York and written about in his article “Sex, Gender, and Sexual Identity in Modern Culture: Male Sodomy and Female Prostitution in Enlightenment London.” Enlightenment London was a crucial time in social development because the ideas of marriage, sex, gender, and identity were changing. Trumbach’s thesis is that “though it may not seem so at first, it is very likely that this fear of male passivity and the new sodomitical role that it had produced in the early Enlightenment was also a consequence of the anxieties induced by the new ideal of closer, intimate, more nearly equal relations with women” (Trumbach, 106). The definition of marriage was changing in London during the eighteenth-century. Marriage was no longer just a relationship for procreation and family stability. Marriage was now expected to be relationships of intimacy and love, which put men and women on closer sexual ground. This affected male sexual identity because males felt as though they needed a sexual outlet where they were not required to be intimate, which led to outlets such as prostitution or sodomy. But as sex and gender perceptions were changing, prostitution and sodomy played key roles in the shaping of the male gender identity. Before 1750, men, especially those in aristocratic positions, were known to have wives, take mistresses, and take adolescent boys without it affecting their gender identity, if they took the active or insertive role. After 1720, this course of action was mainly found in gender segregated environments such as prisons, colleges, or at sea. Following 1750, men who were found to live this lifestyle were thought to use marriage and mistresses to cover up their desire for men, whether adult or adolescent. These men, especially non-aristocratic males, were ostracized and blackmailed by men whose desires were only for women (Trumbach, 91). This change in the definition of males from the seventeenth century, where males were defined for their anatomy, not their sexual desires, decomposed of the thought that someone who engaged in same gender sexual activities was still attracted to those of the opposite gender. In the seventeenth-century same gender sexual encounters did not influence a person’s gender standing. Before 1750, there were only two sexual acts that could endanger a person’s gender standing, and those were seen as defying the gender role that a person is delegated at birth. These two acts were for men to take the passive, receptive role in same gender sex, and for women to take the...	<urn:uuid:67646bf7-9bbc-4f97-a95d-72a34f4a4d99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/sodomy-and-prostitution-in-eighteenth-century-london	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00093.warc.gz	en	0.983949	604	3.421875	3	[ 0.4749012589454651, 0.20818209648132324, 0.3948099613189697, -0.2653595209121704, -0.09598163515329361, 0.4138363301753998, 0.27437257766723633, -0.19583961367607117, 0.4184790551662445, -0.14146170020103455, 0.16600807011127472, 0.09617691487073898, 0.2205183207988739, -0.0325028896331787...	1	Sodomy and prostitution had similar public status in eighteenth-century London, and are vices that have likely existed since the humans began living in collective societies. Social and legal perceptions of these two acts, or lifestyles, have varied greatly through time and culture. The legal and social perceptions of sodomy and prostitution in eighteenth-century London were studied extensively by Randolph Trumbach of Baruch College, City University of New York and written about in his article “Sex, Gender, and Sexual Identity in Modern Culture: Male Sodomy and Female Prostitution in Enlightenment London.” Enlightenment London was a crucial time in social development because the ideas of marriage, sex, gender, and identity were changing. Trumbach’s thesis is that “though it may not seem so at first, it is very likely that this fear of male passivity and the new sodomitical role that it had produced in the early Enlightenment was also a consequence of the anxieties induced by the new ideal of closer, intimate, more nearly equal relations with women” (Trumbach, 106). The definition of marriage was changing in London during the eighteenth-century. Marriage was no longer just a relationship for procreation and family stability. Marriage was now expected to be relationships of intimacy and love, which put men and women on closer sexual ground. This affected male sexual identity because males felt as though they needed a sexual outlet where they were not required to be intimate, which led to outlets such as prostitution or sodomy. But as sex and gender perceptions were changing, prostitution and sodomy played key roles in the shaping of the male gender identity. Before 1750, men, especially those in aristocratic positions, were known to have wives, take mistresses, and take adolescent boys without it affecting their gender identity, if they took the active or insertive role. After 1720, this course of action was mainly found in gender segregated environments such as prisons, colleges, or at sea. Following 1750, men who were found to live this lifestyle were thought to use marriage and mistresses to cover up their desire for men, whether adult or adolescent. These men, especially non-aristocratic males, were ostracized and blackmailed by men whose desires were only for women (Trumbach, 91). This change in the definition of males from the seventeenth century, where males were defined for their anatomy, not their sexual desires, decomposed of the thought that someone who engaged in same gender sexual activities was still attracted to those of the opposite gender. In the seventeenth-century same gender sexual encounters did not influence a person’s gender standing. Before 1750, there were only two sexual acts that could endanger a person’s gender standing, and those were seen as defying the gender role that a person is delegated at birth. These two acts were for men to take the passive, receptive role in same gender sex, and for women to take the...	605	ENGLISH	1
After my kiddos suggested that we purchase 3D printers for our classroom, I was honestly a little nervous. I thought the idea sounded cool, but I didn’t know the first thing about 3D printing. I knew: - I love to learn and am pretty competent with technology. - I teach an amazing group of students that thrive when challenged. Because of these factors, I knew that together we could make it work! Thus began Phase #1 of researching and buying two 3D printers, choosing a program to teach my students and I how to build 3D objects, and creating a unit plan where that allowed for differentiation, levels of complexity, and that was also engaging. You can read all about Phase #1 in my blog post HERE. After my kiddos had a strong foundation, I knew they were ready to take what they learned to the next level by creating their own original designs. And what better way to do that than creating their own board games. Why board games? Well, there are several reasons: - My family loves board games (not monopoly but more modern games like Pandemic Legacy). - My students LOVE board games just as much as I do so I knew had would have buy-in. - Board games would allow kiddos to have a lot of choice (theme, characters, rules, etc). - Game pieces could easily be 3D printed. The first step was for students to evaluate different board games and come up with several lists: - Essential elements needed by all board games. - Elements Liked - Elements Not Liked Story and theme was determined to be the number one element needed by all board games. Skill vs. chance, mechanics, playability, ascetics, and cooperative vs. competitive we’re also listed. Students spent weeks planning their board games with their teams. Along the way, I provided guidance as I conferenced with each group. Teams had to complete a planning guide with their game’s story, rules, game pieces , and a first draft of what their game would look like. This is also the stage where kiddos had to determine which game pieces would be 3D printed. Once the first draft and planning guide were reviewed by me, students divided responsibilities and began working. One requirement was that all students in the group had to design at least four 3D printed game piece on Tinkercad. Some kiddos felt more confident with the technology but it was important that ALL student spent time with the software creating their own original designs. Other jobs and responsibilities were… - Making the game board - Creating the player’s guide - Decorating the 3D printed game pieces with paint, 3D pens, or whatever else they wanted to use. - Designing and making the game board. - Creating all the other non-3D printed game pieces like cards, tokens, currency, etc. I purchased blank game boards and game boxes because I wanted to make this experience as authentic and personal as possible. This process took my kiddos about a month meeting daily for 35 minutes. Time management was definitely the most difficult part of this unit for students. It took them two or three times longer than anticipated to do just about everything. The 3D pieces they created though were absolutely amazing. I was so impressed but the originality, creativity, and ingenuity of their designs. Once all the games were done, we invited my kiddos’ families to come in and test out the games. Players were asked to rate the ascetics, story, mechanics, and overall playability of the game. I only heard amazing feedback! Some games definitely played better than other and were more thought out, but everyone who played agreed that the effort and creativity of these games were off the charts! I broke my scoring rubric into three sections. The first assessed the game development and process, while the second section looked at the game as a whole. I included the feedback given by families at the game board night as well as my own thoughts. The final part only evaluated the 3D printed game pieces groups created. In the end, students walked away from this project with more experience making 3D printed objects, as well as practiced engaging in explanatory writing, working cooperatively, and creating a final published product! After this unit, my students had all of the skills necessary for our last and final 3D printing unit: PINBALL MACHINES!	<urn:uuid:ba03838e-469d-4859-8a8a-fe04d95802b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://simon-says-school.com/category/technology/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00349.warc.gz	en	0.983743	935	3.390625	3	[ -0.11250946670770645, 0.021391574293375015, 0.15273980796337128, -0.44155412912368774, -0.24558627605438232, 0.12018471211194992, -0.2942201495170593, 0.6217140555381775, -0.28837788105010986, 0.056760210543870926, -0.2603156864643097, 0.17014211416244507, 0.11218161880970001, 0.1937165856...	25	After my kiddos suggested that we purchase 3D printers for our classroom, I was honestly a little nervous. I thought the idea sounded cool, but I didn’t know the first thing about 3D printing. I knew: - I love to learn and am pretty competent with technology. - I teach an amazing group of students that thrive when challenged. Because of these factors, I knew that together we could make it work! Thus began Phase #1 of researching and buying two 3D printers, choosing a program to teach my students and I how to build 3D objects, and creating a unit plan where that allowed for differentiation, levels of complexity, and that was also engaging. You can read all about Phase #1 in my blog post HERE. After my kiddos had a strong foundation, I knew they were ready to take what they learned to the next level by creating their own original designs. And what better way to do that than creating their own board games. Why board games? Well, there are several reasons: - My family loves board games (not monopoly but more modern games like Pandemic Legacy). - My students LOVE board games just as much as I do so I knew had would have buy-in. - Board games would allow kiddos to have a lot of choice (theme, characters, rules, etc). - Game pieces could easily be 3D printed. The first step was for students to evaluate different board games and come up with several lists: - Essential elements needed by all board games. - Elements Liked - Elements Not Liked Story and theme was determined to be the number one element needed by all board games. Skill vs. chance, mechanics, playability, ascetics, and cooperative vs. competitive we’re also listed. Students spent weeks planning their board games with their teams. Along the way, I provided guidance as I conferenced with each group. Teams had to complete a planning guide with their game’s story, rules, game pieces , and a first draft of what their game would look like. This is also the stage where kiddos had to determine which game pieces would be 3D printed. Once the first draft and planning guide were reviewed by me, students divided responsibilities and began working. One requirement was that all students in the group had to design at least four 3D printed game piece on Tinkercad. Some kiddos felt more confident with the technology but it was important that ALL student spent time with the software creating their own original designs. Other jobs and responsibilities were… - Making the game board - Creating the player’s guide - Decorating the 3D printed game pieces with paint, 3D pens, or whatever else they wanted to use. - Designing and making the game board. - Creating all the other non-3D printed game pieces like cards, tokens, currency, etc. I purchased blank game boards and game boxes because I wanted to make this experience as authentic and personal as possible. This process took my kiddos about a month meeting daily for 35 minutes. Time management was definitely the most difficult part of this unit for students. It took them two or three times longer than anticipated to do just about everything. The 3D pieces they created though were absolutely amazing. I was so impressed but the originality, creativity, and ingenuity of their designs. Once all the games were done, we invited my kiddos’ families to come in and test out the games. Players were asked to rate the ascetics, story, mechanics, and overall playability of the game. I only heard amazing feedback! Some games definitely played better than other and were more thought out, but everyone who played agreed that the effort and creativity of these games were off the charts! I broke my scoring rubric into three sections. The first assessed the game development and process, while the second section looked at the game as a whole. I included the feedback given by families at the game board night as well as my own thoughts. The final part only evaluated the 3D printed game pieces groups created. In the end, students walked away from this project with more experience making 3D printed objects, as well as practiced engaging in explanatory writing, working cooperatively, and creating a final published product! After this unit, my students had all of the skills necessary for our last and final 3D printing unit: PINBALL MACHINES!	900	ENGLISH	1
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus was now sole ruler of the vast Roman Empire, or rather: the sole legitimate ruler. Most western provinces were in the hands of Postumus, ruler of the ‘Gallic Empire’, while Gallienus soon had to deal with usurpers and rebels in the eastern provinces as well. He would spend much of the remaining eight years of his reign on campaign, fighting enemies from within and outside the Empire. But Gallienus certainly did not persecute Christians. Perhaps because he had too many problems on his mind, or perhaps because he was genuinely tolerant and did not see the Christians as enemies, the emperor quickly abolished the two Edicts issued by his father Valerianus. Church possessions that had been confiscated were returned and Christians were also granted access to their cemeteries again. They were basically allowed to practice their religion freely and it has been hypothesised that Christianity became a religio licita – an allowed religion – under Gallienus. After Valerianus’ defeat and capture at Edessa in 260, the Persian army roamed freely through the Roman provinces of Syria, Cilicia and Cappadocia. In his Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Shapur claims to have captured 36 cities and towns. Once again the Persians sacked Antiochia, which can only have barely recovered from the previous sack in 253. It seems likely that the Persians divided their forces and sent smaller columns to all corners of the Roman provinces to do as much damage as possible. Perhaps a second Persian army invaded Cappadocia through Armenia and dealt with cities on the other side of the Taurus Mountains, such as Sebaste (Sivas), Caesarea (Kayseri) and Iconium (Konya). It should be noted that the Persians never intended to annex the territories they ravaged. Like the Romans, the Persians had many borders to defend and they simply lacked the means and the manpower to enlarge their already overextended empire. They did take many prisoners during their raid and deported these people to Persis, Parthia, Elam and Assyria. As some of the Persian columns retreated east with their loot, they came under attack from the surviving Roman forces in the region. The Roman successes were just little pinpricks, but enough for the soldiers to proclaim their commander Macrianus emperor. According to the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta, this Macrianus was the captured emperor’s most important general. The authors of the Historia were likely exaggerating, and he may have been no more than a quartermaster, but Macrianus did get support from Ballista, presumably one of the praetorian prefects (Shapur claimed to have captured the other one). Macrianus had his sons Macrianus junior and Quietus made co-emperors, and one of the reasons may have been that he was already quite old and lame to boot. The two Macriani assembled an army, crossed over to Europe and in 261 met an army sent by Gallienus somewhere in Illyricum or Thrace. The latter army was led by two of Gallienus’ generals, Aureolus and Domitianus. No details of the ensuing battle have been recorded, but the force of the usurpers was destroyed and father and son were killed. In the meantime, the struggle against the remaining Persian forces had been led by one Septimius Odaenathus. Both a Roman citizen and a native of Palmyra, he was the self-proclaimed ras (‘lord’) of this famous desert city. We do not know whether he held any formal political or military office, but it is clear that he rallied the Roman forces in the region and combined them with troops from Palmyra, a city whose archers, camel riders and cataphracts had an excellent reputation. After clearing the Roman provinces of invaders, Odaenathus went on the offensive. In 262 he recaptured Nisibis and invaded Sassanid territory. He then chased the Persians all the way back to Ctesiphon on the Tigris, before returning to Syria where he had Quietus and Ballista murdered. In spite of these successes, Odaenathus never seems to have pondered to declare himself emperor. He was loyal to the bone to Gallienus and never minted any coins with his own image. Gallienus was lucky to have such an ally, for his throne was never secure. In Egypt, the prefect Mussius Aemilianus revolted, but his rebellion was short-lived. It was crushed, in 261 or 262, by Theodotus, a general loyal to Gallienus who became the new prefect of this most vital province. Aemilianus was captured, sent to Rome and strangled in prison. All of these successes allowed Gallienus to celebrate his decennalia, his first decade as emperor, in 262. The Historia Augusta has left us a vivid description of the celebration which, for once, has a ring of truth to it: “First of all, he repaired to the Capitol with the senators and the equestrian order dressed in their togas and with the soldiers dressed all in white, and with all the populace going ahead, while the slaves of almost all and the women preceded them, bearing waxen flambeaux and torches. There preceded them, too, on each side one hundred white oxen, having their horns bound with golden cords and resplendent in many-coloured silken covers; also two hundred lambs of glistening white went ahead on each side, besides ten elephants, which were then in Rome, and twelve hundred gladiators decked with all pomp, and matrons in golden cloaks, and two hundred tamed beasts of divers kinds, tricked out with the greatest splendour, and waggons bearing pantomimists and actors of every sort, and boxers who fought, not in genuine combat, but with the softer straps. All the buffoons also acted a Cyclops-performance, giving exhibitions that were marvellous and astonishing. So all the streets resounded with merry-making and shouts and applause, and in the midst the Emperor himself, wearing the triumphal toga and the tunic embroidered with palms, and accompanied, as I have said, by the senators and with all the priests dressed in bordered togas, proceeded to the Capitol. On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded spears and one hundred banners, besides those which belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries and the statues from the sanctuaries and the standards of all the legions. There marched, furthermore, men dressed to represent foreign nations, as Goths and Sarmatians, Franks and Persians, and no fewer than two hundred paraded in a single group.” Later, in 264, Gallienus also held a triumph to celebrate Odaenathus’ successful campaign against the Persians. The Historia Augusta claims he also had his father Valerianus deified, but there is every reason to doubt this claim. It is not mentioned in any other source, and Valerianus was likely still alive by 264. Gallienus’ chief opponent closest to Rome was Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus, a Batavian who ruled the so-called ‘Gallic Empire’, but was a Roman through and through. Even though Postumus never attempted to march on Rome to depose his rival, Gallienus had stationed an army close to Mediolanum (Milan) to keep a wary eye on his opponent. It was an army which, as is demonstrated by coins, was composed of vexillationes from at least thirteen different legions. There was a particularly strong cavalry detachment at Mediolanum as well. Sometimes this Milanese army is seen as part of Gallienus’ reform of the Roman army, as a mobile reserve behind the stationary borders further to the north and with a stronger emphasis on cavalry. All of this has been challenged, and it seems more likely that the main purpose of this army was to guard the frontier with the Gallic Empire, which was just a little further to the west. In the 260s, Gallienus attacked Postumus at least once (perhaps in 265) and probably more often, but despite some victories, he never achieved any lasting success. The Historia Augusta even claims he was wounded by an arrow during a siege. Postumus was a competent general, who did not just protect his provinces against attacks from Gallienus, but also from the Germanic tribes living to the north of the Empire. He is credited with creating a second line of defences behind the traditional limes. This second line ran along the road from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) on the Channel to Bagacum (Bavay), Atuatuca (Tongeren) and finally Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) in present-day Germany. Modern historians refer to this road as the Via Belgica, but we do not know what it was called in Antiquity. Many of the castella along the Rhine, such as Matilo and Praetorium Agrippinae, seem to have been abandoned around this time. Nevertheless, the Rhine remained the border of the Roman Empire until shortly after 400. In the East, Odaenathus launched a second offensive against the Persians. In 266, his army again reached Ctesiphon and again Gallienus took credit for the Palmyrene success. The emperor was not ungrateful though. He rewarded his ally by granting him the titles of dux and corrector totius orientis. The latter title was likely more or less the same as the one granted to Gaius Julius Priscus, the emperor Philippus Arabs’ brother (see Philippus Arabs: The Years 244-249). It basically made Odaenathus governor of all the eastern provinces, his authority superseding that of all the individual governors. Even though he had not himself fought the Persians, Gallienus began styling himself ‘Persicus Maximus’ in inscriptions and papyri. Coins minted in Antiochia demonstrate that he also considered himself the RESTITVT[OR] ORIENTIS, the restorer of the Roman East. Odaenathus was hardly more modest: he named himself the King of Kings, a conscious attempt to mimic the defeated Shapur. In 267, King Odaenathus and his son Herodes were murdered, probably at Emesa (modern Homs in Syria). The motives behind the murder will likely never become clear. There may have been a family feud, as the assassin was reported to be the king’s cousin. According to another theory, Gallienus had orchestrated the murder because he feared that Odaenathus was becoming too powerful. The king was succeeded by his young son Vaballathus, but actual power lay with the boy’s mother, Odaenathus’ second wife Zenobia, who acted as the boy’s regent. She is sometimes accused of involvement in her husband’s assassination, and the fact that her son profited from the murder of his stepbrother and heir to throne may be seen as circumstantial evidence. Young Vaballathus inherited his father’s titles of King of Kings and corrector totius orientis, even though Gallienus had never consented to this. There were plenty of disasters during Gallienus’ eight-year reign as sole emperor. One of them was an earthquake in Asia, probably in 262, which caused massive damage. Gallienus proceeded to consult the Sibylline Books and make many conciliatory sacrifices to Jupiter. The earthquake damaged the city of Ephesus, which also became the victim of a new Gothic invasion in about 267. On that occasion, the Goths damaged the famous temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the Ancient World. The attack on Ephesus was part of a series of large-scale raids by the Goths, who were now joined by the Heruli, another Germanic tribe. They seem to have built or commandeered another fleet and sailed through the Bosporus, attacking Byzantium and Cyzicus. Although they may have suffered a defeat against a Roman fleet led by a certain Venerianus (who was killed), this did not stop them from continuing their raids. The islands between modern Greece and Turkey were an easy prey. While some groups of Goths and Heruli swung into Asia and attacked Ephesus, others raided the provinces of Macedonia, Epirus and Achaea. Several cities were captured and pillaged, the most famous among them Athens, which was taken by a band of Heruli. This was more than a little ironic, as the Athenians had repaired their walls just a few years previously. While retreating from Athens, the Heruli were suddenly attacked by some Athenian militia under the command of Publius Herennius Dexippus. The Athenians inflicted some casualties, raising Roman morale, but the invading army remained more or less intact. Dexippus would go on to write a history about the Gothic Wars, of which unfortunately only fragments survive. The Germanic invasions had drawn the emperor Gallienus and his competent general Marcianus to the region (the latter is not to be confused with the usurper Macrianus). When the Heruli tried to cross the Rhodope Mountains, they were defeated near the river Nestos, probably in 268. Their defeat cannot have been total though. A late source, the ninth century chronicler Syncellus, claims that the Herulic leader Naulobatus made a deal with the Romans. He was given senatorial rank and in return probably had some of his men join the Roman army. Although Syncellus wrote centuries after the facts, he may still have had access to Dexippus’ work, and the story may very well be true. Then news reached the emperor about another rebellion. This time it was Aureolus who had renounced his loyalty to his emperor. Several years ago, he had been involved in the defeat of the usurpers Macrianus senior and junior (see above), and now he was commander of the emperor’s cavalry at Mediolanum. The fact that Gallienus was far away and that he had many good men under his command likely contributed to the rebellion. Leaving Marcianus behind to do the mopping-up, Gallienus raced back to Italy and confronted the usurper between Mediolanum and Bergomum (modern Bergamo). Aureolus was thoroughly defeated at a bridge which was later named after him: Pons Aureolus, or Pontirolo. He did manage to escape with his life and fled back to Mediolanum, where Gallienus put him under siege. During that siege the emperor was killed by his own men. The assassination was not a spontaneous action, but the result of a well-organised conspiracy. When the fake news was reported to him that Aureolus had launched an attack, Gallienus rushed out of his tent without his bodyguards and was subsequently stabbed to death. Several important officers seem to have been involved in the plot. All of them had an Illyrian background (Illyricum was a generic term for the Balkan provinces). The praetorian prefect Heraclianus was certainly involved, and so was a Dalmatian cavalry officer named Cecropius, who dealt the emperor the final blow. Two future emperors may have participated in the plot as well. Marcus Aurelius Claudius (the future emperor Claudius Gothicus) was one of them, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (the future emperor Aurelianus) the other. The Historia Augusta also mentions general Marcianus among the chief conspirators, but since he was still in the Balkan region this seems a bit unlikely. Gallienus’ third son Marinianus was later killed as well, as was his brother Valerianus Minor. This was a clear attempt to eradicate the entire imperial family. According to the anonymous Epitome De Caesaribus, Gallienus was interred in a tomb along the Via Appia, near the ninth milestone. A building identified as the Mausoleum of Gallienus still exists. - Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 33 (translated and annotated by H.W. Bird); - Epitome de Caesaribus 33; - Historia Augusta, The Two Gallieni; - Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders (Odaenathus); - Res Gestae Divi Saporis; - Zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 1.36-41. - Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 114-118 and p. 123-125; - Henk Singor, Constantijn, p. 106-107. Henk Singor, Constantijn, p. 106-107. Most, if not all, of the years given in this post are conjectural. The chronology of events during the Crisis of the Third Century is often hazy. The Two Gallieni 8. See Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 117-118.	<urn:uuid:dd6193c4-3fec-4460-a98f-65c1c5146237>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://corvinus.nl/2020/01/10/gallienus-the-years-260-268/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00117.warc.gz	en	0.980023	3,656	3.65625	4	[ 0.061866044998168945, 0.37399041652679443, 0.4366648197174072, -0.16709090769290924, -0.30265018343925476, -0.43374958634376526, -0.051079679280519485, 0.514284074306488, 0.08291931450366974, -0.13017991185188293, -0.36753353476524353, -0.4958719313144684, -0.027834901586174965, 0.14407914...	10	Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus was now sole ruler of the vast Roman Empire, or rather: the sole legitimate ruler. Most western provinces were in the hands of Postumus, ruler of the ‘Gallic Empire’, while Gallienus soon had to deal with usurpers and rebels in the eastern provinces as well. He would spend much of the remaining eight years of his reign on campaign, fighting enemies from within and outside the Empire. But Gallienus certainly did not persecute Christians. Perhaps because he had too many problems on his mind, or perhaps because he was genuinely tolerant and did not see the Christians as enemies, the emperor quickly abolished the two Edicts issued by his father Valerianus. Church possessions that had been confiscated were returned and Christians were also granted access to their cemeteries again. They were basically allowed to practice their religion freely and it has been hypothesised that Christianity became a religio licita – an allowed religion – under Gallienus. After Valerianus’ defeat and capture at Edessa in 260, the Persian army roamed freely through the Roman provinces of Syria, Cilicia and Cappadocia. In his Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Shapur claims to have captured 36 cities and towns. Once again the Persians sacked Antiochia, which can only have barely recovered from the previous sack in 253. It seems likely that the Persians divided their forces and sent smaller columns to all corners of the Roman provinces to do as much damage as possible. Perhaps a second Persian army invaded Cappadocia through Armenia and dealt with cities on the other side of the Taurus Mountains, such as Sebaste (Sivas), Caesarea (Kayseri) and Iconium (Konya). It should be noted that the Persians never intended to annex the territories they ravaged. Like the Romans, the Persians had many borders to defend and they simply lacked the means and the manpower to enlarge their already overextended empire. They did take many prisoners during their raid and deported these people to Persis, Parthia, Elam and Assyria. As some of the Persian columns retreated east with their loot, they came under attack from the surviving Roman forces in the region. The Roman successes were just little pinpricks, but enough for the soldiers to proclaim their commander Macrianus emperor. According to the notoriously unreliable Historia Augusta, this Macrianus was the captured emperor’s most important general. The authors of the Historia were likely exaggerating, and he may have been no more than a quartermaster, but Macrianus did get support from Ballista, presumably one of the praetorian prefects (Shapur claimed to have captured the other one). Macrianus had his sons Macrianus junior and Quietus made co-emperors, and one of the reasons may have been that he was already quite old and lame to boot. The two Macriani assembled an army, crossed over to Europe and in 261 met an army sent by Gallienus somewhere in Illyricum or Thrace. The latter army was led by two of Gallienus’ generals, Aureolus and Domitianus. No details of the ensuing battle have been recorded, but the force of the usurpers was destroyed and father and son were killed. In the meantime, the struggle against the remaining Persian forces had been led by one Septimius Odaenathus. Both a Roman citizen and a native of Palmyra, he was the self-proclaimed ras (‘lord’) of this famous desert city. We do not know whether he held any formal political or military office, but it is clear that he rallied the Roman forces in the region and combined them with troops from Palmyra, a city whose archers, camel riders and cataphracts had an excellent reputation. After clearing the Roman provinces of invaders, Odaenathus went on the offensive. In 262 he recaptured Nisibis and invaded Sassanid territory. He then chased the Persians all the way back to Ctesiphon on the Tigris, before returning to Syria where he had Quietus and Ballista murdered. In spite of these successes, Odaenathus never seems to have pondered to declare himself emperor. He was loyal to the bone to Gallienus and never minted any coins with his own image. Gallienus was lucky to have such an ally, for his throne was never secure. In Egypt, the prefect Mussius Aemilianus revolted, but his rebellion was short-lived. It was crushed, in 261 or 262, by Theodotus, a general loyal to Gallienus who became the new prefect of this most vital province. Aemilianus was captured, sent to Rome and strangled in prison. All of these successes allowed Gallienus to celebrate his decennalia, his first decade as emperor, in 262. The Historia Augusta has left us a vivid description of the celebration which, for once, has a ring of truth to it: “First of all, he repaired to the Capitol with the senators and the equestrian order dressed in their togas and with the soldiers dressed all in white, and with all the populace going ahead, while the slaves of almost all and the women preceded them, bearing waxen flambeaux and torches. There preceded them, too, on each side one hundred white oxen, having their horns bound with golden cords and resplendent in many-coloured silken covers; also two hundred lambs of glistening white went ahead on each side, besides ten elephants, which were then in Rome, and twelve hundred gladiators decked with all pomp, and matrons in golden cloaks, and two hundred tamed beasts of divers kinds, tricked out with the greatest splendour, and waggons bearing pantomimists and actors of every sort, and boxers who fought, not in genuine combat, but with the softer straps. All the buffoons also acted a Cyclops-performance, giving exhibitions that were marvellous and astonishing. So all the streets resounded with merry-making and shouts and applause, and in the midst the Emperor himself, wearing the triumphal toga and the tunic embroidered with palms, and accompanied, as I have said, by the senators and with all the priests dressed in bordered togas, proceeded to the Capitol. On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded spears and one hundred banners, besides those which belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries and the statues from the sanctuaries and the standards of all the legions. There marched, furthermore, men dressed to represent foreign nations, as Goths and Sarmatians, Franks and Persians, and no fewer than two hundred paraded in a single group.” Later, in 264, Gallienus also held a triumph to celebrate Odaenathus’ successful campaign against the Persians. The Historia Augusta claims he also had his father Valerianus deified, but there is every reason to doubt this claim. It is not mentioned in any other source, and Valerianus was likely still alive by 264. Gallienus’ chief opponent closest to Rome was Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus, a Batavian who ruled the so-called ‘Gallic Empire’, but was a Roman through and through. Even though Postumus never attempted to march on Rome to depose his rival, Gallienus had stationed an army close to Mediolanum (Milan) to keep a wary eye on his opponent. It was an army which, as is demonstrated by coins, was composed of vexillationes from at least thirteen different legions. There was a particularly strong cavalry detachment at Mediolanum as well. Sometimes this Milanese army is seen as part of Gallienus’ reform of the Roman army, as a mobile reserve behind the stationary borders further to the north and with a stronger emphasis on cavalry. All of this has been challenged, and it seems more likely that the main purpose of this army was to guard the frontier with the Gallic Empire, which was just a little further to the west. In the 260s, Gallienus attacked Postumus at least once (perhaps in 265) and probably more often, but despite some victories, he never achieved any lasting success. The Historia Augusta even claims he was wounded by an arrow during a siege. Postumus was a competent general, who did not just protect his provinces against attacks from Gallienus, but also from the Germanic tribes living to the north of the Empire. He is credited with creating a second line of defences behind the traditional limes. This second line ran along the road from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) on the Channel to Bagacum (Bavay), Atuatuca (Tongeren) and finally Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) in present-day Germany. Modern historians refer to this road as the Via Belgica, but we do not know what it was called in Antiquity. Many of the castella along the Rhine, such as Matilo and Praetorium Agrippinae, seem to have been abandoned around this time. Nevertheless, the Rhine remained the border of the Roman Empire until shortly after 400. In the East, Odaenathus launched a second offensive against the Persians. In 266, his army again reached Ctesiphon and again Gallienus took credit for the Palmyrene success. The emperor was not ungrateful though. He rewarded his ally by granting him the titles of dux and corrector totius orientis. The latter title was likely more or less the same as the one granted to Gaius Julius Priscus, the emperor Philippus Arabs’ brother (see Philippus Arabs: The Years 244-249). It basically made Odaenathus governor of all the eastern provinces, his authority superseding that of all the individual governors. Even though he had not himself fought the Persians, Gallienus began styling himself ‘Persicus Maximus’ in inscriptions and papyri. Coins minted in Antiochia demonstrate that he also considered himself the RESTITVT[OR] ORIENTIS, the restorer of the Roman East. Odaenathus was hardly more modest: he named himself the King of Kings, a conscious attempt to mimic the defeated Shapur. In 267, King Odaenathus and his son Herodes were murdered, probably at Emesa (modern Homs in Syria). The motives behind the murder will likely never become clear. There may have been a family feud, as the assassin was reported to be the king’s cousin. According to another theory, Gallienus had orchestrated the murder because he feared that Odaenathus was becoming too powerful. The king was succeeded by his young son Vaballathus, but actual power lay with the boy’s mother, Odaenathus’ second wife Zenobia, who acted as the boy’s regent. She is sometimes accused of involvement in her husband’s assassination, and the fact that her son profited from the murder of his stepbrother and heir to throne may be seen as circumstantial evidence. Young Vaballathus inherited his father’s titles of King of Kings and corrector totius orientis, even though Gallienus had never consented to this. There were plenty of disasters during Gallienus’ eight-year reign as sole emperor. One of them was an earthquake in Asia, probably in 262, which caused massive damage. Gallienus proceeded to consult the Sibylline Books and make many conciliatory sacrifices to Jupiter. The earthquake damaged the city of Ephesus, which also became the victim of a new Gothic invasion in about 267. On that occasion, the Goths damaged the famous temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the Ancient World. The attack on Ephesus was part of a series of large-scale raids by the Goths, who were now joined by the Heruli, another Germanic tribe. They seem to have built or commandeered another fleet and sailed through the Bosporus, attacking Byzantium and Cyzicus. Although they may have suffered a defeat against a Roman fleet led by a certain Venerianus (who was killed), this did not stop them from continuing their raids. The islands between modern Greece and Turkey were an easy prey. While some groups of Goths and Heruli swung into Asia and attacked Ephesus, others raided the provinces of Macedonia, Epirus and Achaea. Several cities were captured and pillaged, the most famous among them Athens, which was taken by a band of Heruli. This was more than a little ironic, as the Athenians had repaired their walls just a few years previously. While retreating from Athens, the Heruli were suddenly attacked by some Athenian militia under the command of Publius Herennius Dexippus. The Athenians inflicted some casualties, raising Roman morale, but the invading army remained more or less intact. Dexippus would go on to write a history about the Gothic Wars, of which unfortunately only fragments survive. The Germanic invasions had drawn the emperor Gallienus and his competent general Marcianus to the region (the latter is not to be confused with the usurper Macrianus). When the Heruli tried to cross the Rhodope Mountains, they were defeated near the river Nestos, probably in 268. Their defeat cannot have been total though. A late source, the ninth century chronicler Syncellus, claims that the Herulic leader Naulobatus made a deal with the Romans. He was given senatorial rank and in return probably had some of his men join the Roman army. Although Syncellus wrote centuries after the facts, he may still have had access to Dexippus’ work, and the story may very well be true. Then news reached the emperor about another rebellion. This time it was Aureolus who had renounced his loyalty to his emperor. Several years ago, he had been involved in the defeat of the usurpers Macrianus senior and junior (see above), and now he was commander of the emperor’s cavalry at Mediolanum. The fact that Gallienus was far away and that he had many good men under his command likely contributed to the rebellion. Leaving Marcianus behind to do the mopping-up, Gallienus raced back to Italy and confronted the usurper between Mediolanum and Bergomum (modern Bergamo). Aureolus was thoroughly defeated at a bridge which was later named after him: Pons Aureolus, or Pontirolo. He did manage to escape with his life and fled back to Mediolanum, where Gallienus put him under siege. During that siege the emperor was killed by his own men. The assassination was not a spontaneous action, but the result of a well-organised conspiracy. When the fake news was reported to him that Aureolus had launched an attack, Gallienus rushed out of his tent without his bodyguards and was subsequently stabbed to death. Several important officers seem to have been involved in the plot. All of them had an Illyrian background (Illyricum was a generic term for the Balkan provinces). The praetorian prefect Heraclianus was certainly involved, and so was a Dalmatian cavalry officer named Cecropius, who dealt the emperor the final blow. Two future emperors may have participated in the plot as well. Marcus Aurelius Claudius (the future emperor Claudius Gothicus) was one of them, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (the future emperor Aurelianus) the other. The Historia Augusta also mentions general Marcianus among the chief conspirators, but since he was still in the Balkan region this seems a bit unlikely. Gallienus’ third son Marinianus was later killed as well, as was his brother Valerianus Minor. This was a clear attempt to eradicate the entire imperial family. According to the anonymous Epitome De Caesaribus, Gallienus was interred in a tomb along the Via Appia, near the ninth milestone. A building identified as the Mausoleum of Gallienus still exists. - Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 33 (translated and annotated by H.W. Bird); - Epitome de Caesaribus 33; - Historia Augusta, The Two Gallieni; - Historia Augusta, The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders (Odaenathus); - Res Gestae Divi Saporis; - Zosimus, Historia Nova, Book 1.36-41. - Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 114-118 and p. 123-125; - Henk Singor, Constantijn, p. 106-107. Henk Singor, Constantijn, p. 106-107. Most, if not all, of the years given in this post are conjectural. The chronology of events during the Crisis of the Third Century is often hazy. The Two Gallieni 8. See Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, p. 117-118.	3,671	ENGLISH	1

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