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The early life and times of julius caesar
This allowed him to build a bigger military and begin the kind of campaigns that would cement his status as one of Rome's all-time great leaders. He altered the Roman calendar and reorganized the construction of local government. Pompey, on the other hand, had remained in Rome and strengthened his political position by appearing as a leader in a time of chaos.
Julius caesar parents
Between 58 and 50 B. Vercingetorix made the mistake of taking refuge in the fortress of Alesia, however. At the same time Caesar's conquests were well publicized. Our Videos Caesar and Cleopatra seemed to have become lovers shortly after meeting, perhaps even that very night, and he remained in Egypt with her nine months. One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a province , which gave ample opportunity for plunder. He made allies with powerful men such as the general Pompey the Great and the wealthy Crassus. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce, and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. Just a year later, as Cinna prepared to meet Sulla's victorious legions as they returned to Rome, his own troops mutinied and Cinna was killed. However, he also wanted to stand for consul , the most senior magistracy in the republic. Disguised and assumedly with the help of substantial bribes, he escaped Rome and went into hiding in the Italian countryside. In doing so, he initiated the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. How did Julius Caesar change the world? As Pompey further aligned himself with nobility, who increasingly saw Caesar as a national threat, civil war between the two leaders proved to be inevitable.
At the same time, the political situation in Rome was equally chaotic. He had made vast additions to the Roman Empire aboutsquare miles at the expense of peoples who had long been enemies of Rome.
The early life and times of julius caesar
This partial financial recovery enabled him, after his return to Rome in 60 bce, to stand for the consulship for 59 bce. The pirates were greatly entertained by his arrogance, which they attributed to the young man's age. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce, and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. Caesar's forces lost several battles to Vercingetorix and the Arverni. In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad.
Caesar was assassinated by political rivals on the Ides of March March 15th44 B. In time, the former allies went to war and met in final battle. In 67 B.
Julius caesar military career
Caesar sought to place his conquests in the best possible light, and the Commentaries stressed the importance of defending the friends and allies of Rome against traditional Roman enemies. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. A number of politicians saw Caesar as an aspiring king. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power. Thanks for watching! Pontifex Maximus[ edit ] The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus , chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius , who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He was now a military hero from his years in the army. He became the head of the family and was responsible for his mother Aurelia and his sister Julia. According to Suetonius, the dictator in relenting on Caesar's proscription said, "Take him then, my masters, since you must have it so; but know this, that he whose life you so much desire will one day be the overthrow of the part of nobles, whose cause you have sustained with me; for in this one Caesar, you will find many a Marius. The conspiracy progressed with Caesar either ignorant of it or not recognizing the warning signs. He conquered all of Gaul. After having Pompey's assassins put to death, he met with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. At the same time, Caesar was also careful to solidify his power and rule. For More Information Gelzer, Matthias.
There were accusations of bribery by all sides.
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0.405827820301... | 1 | The early life and times of julius caesar
This allowed him to build a bigger military and begin the kind of campaigns that would cement his status as one of Rome's all-time great leaders. He altered the Roman calendar and reorganized the construction of local government. Pompey, on the other hand, had remained in Rome and strengthened his political position by appearing as a leader in a time of chaos.
Julius caesar parents
Between 58 and 50 B. Vercingetorix made the mistake of taking refuge in the fortress of Alesia, however. At the same time Caesar's conquests were well publicized. Our Videos Caesar and Cleopatra seemed to have become lovers shortly after meeting, perhaps even that very night, and he remained in Egypt with her nine months. One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a province , which gave ample opportunity for plunder. He made allies with powerful men such as the general Pompey the Great and the wealthy Crassus. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce, and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. Just a year later, as Cinna prepared to meet Sulla's victorious legions as they returned to Rome, his own troops mutinied and Cinna was killed. However, he also wanted to stand for consul , the most senior magistracy in the republic. Disguised and assumedly with the help of substantial bribes, he escaped Rome and went into hiding in the Italian countryside. In doing so, he initiated the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. How did Julius Caesar change the world? As Pompey further aligned himself with nobility, who increasingly saw Caesar as a national threat, civil war between the two leaders proved to be inevitable.
At the same time, the political situation in Rome was equally chaotic. He had made vast additions to the Roman Empire aboutsquare miles at the expense of peoples who had long been enemies of Rome.
The early life and times of julius caesar
This partial financial recovery enabled him, after his return to Rome in 60 bce, to stand for the consulship for 59 bce. The pirates were greatly entertained by his arrogance, which they attributed to the young man's age. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce, and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. Caesar's forces lost several battles to Vercingetorix and the Arverni. In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad.
Caesar was assassinated by political rivals on the Ides of March March 15th44 B. In time, the former allies went to war and met in final battle. In 67 B.
Julius caesar military career
Caesar sought to place his conquests in the best possible light, and the Commentaries stressed the importance of defending the friends and allies of Rome against traditional Roman enemies. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. A number of politicians saw Caesar as an aspiring king. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power. Thanks for watching! Pontifex Maximus[ edit ] The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus , chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius , who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He was now a military hero from his years in the army. He became the head of the family and was responsible for his mother Aurelia and his sister Julia. According to Suetonius, the dictator in relenting on Caesar's proscription said, "Take him then, my masters, since you must have it so; but know this, that he whose life you so much desire will one day be the overthrow of the part of nobles, whose cause you have sustained with me; for in this one Caesar, you will find many a Marius. The conspiracy progressed with Caesar either ignorant of it or not recognizing the warning signs. He conquered all of Gaul. After having Pompey's assassins put to death, he met with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. At the same time, Caesar was also careful to solidify his power and rule. For More Information Gelzer, Matthias.
There were accusations of bribery by all sides.
based on 78 review | 988 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How were different groups treated by the Nazis in Germany and how Hitler used the racism and the anti-Semitism against them. This essay will be on how different minority groups were treated by the Nazis after they came into power in 1933. It will also assess what groups were targeted by the Nazis who they sought to be unworthy of life and how Hitler used racism and anti-Semitism against them and how they were treated.
For example, homosexuals, the disabled and mentally ill, gypsies and finally communists where all targets of the Nazi regime. The worst enemies of Hitler were the Jews as he had strong anti-Semitic views against them as he saw the Jews as an obstacle in his plan to establish his master race. This treatment started in 1933 with moderate policies made by the Nazis which were branded as the Nuremburg laws and ended in 1941 with the Final solution being put into action which caused the execution of six million Jews, or known as the Holocaust.
Throughout Nazi Germany in the period 1928 through to 1941, racism was utilized by Hitler, and in turn his Nazi party, most predominantly to secure Hitlers position as dictator, and secondly to unite the German people against a common enemy, which would lead to a united powerful state, ready and able to exert its national will. The aims for racial purification and domination over Eastern Europe are made obvious primarily in the racist crude writings of Mein Kampf.
His racist and in part incoherent rambling in Mein Kampf underline his ideas of Jews and Bolsheviks as parasites, and maggots eating away at the German people of the racial level of the highest peoples. Hitlers use of racism is continually evident from the beginning of his comings to power. Racism was initially used by Hitler to identify his sympathizers, and most predominant to unite the German people again public internal enemy number one The Jews. Anti-semitism, anti-communism and attacks on several other minority groups ranging from slavs to democrats, were provided as an excuse for defeat in WW1 and the treaty of Versailles.
Hitler used racism to appeal to the pre existing aggressive side of German nature, thus securing his position as dictator and reuniting his people. Firstly, homosexuals before the war were tolerated by the German population and even had a thriving community in Berlin itself, but when the Nazis came into power in 1933 they saw a drastic change.
Hitler thought homosexuals damaged his plan for his master race as they could not reproduce along with the trepidation that members of he Nazi party might have been polluted by a gay gene. The Nazis begun their oppression of homosexuals with the purge in February 1933 with the prohibition of gay clubs and organised groups. In May of the same year the Hitler youth organised a burning of any un-German books mainly by Jewish or homosexual authors. The Gestapo where also involved in the oppression by compiling a list of identified gay men which led to the construction of the department for combating homosexuality by Himmler in 1936.
This led to widespread targeting of gay men within Germany, with many being sentenced to prison or even castration. Many where also sent to concentration camps where as many as fifteen thousand died from either extreme treatment or execution. This treatment however was extreme and unnecessary it showed that Hitler and the Nazis had an immediate purge on homosexuals and wanted to rid of them as soon as possible, unlike the Jews where they just oppressed them in the hope to make them leave Germany.
The disabled and mentally ill were also a target of the Nazi regime. The law for the prevention of hereditarily diseased offspring in 1933, stated that any person with a hereditary disease was to be sterilised so they could not reproduce. Also abortions were decriminalised to stop babies being born with a disease, but on the other hand it was forbidden for healthy babies to be aborted. The Nazis policy on racial hygiene brought them to introduce the T4 program.
This program could be said to be the first step towards the holocaust as it attempted to cleanse the German population of people who were disabled or had learning difficulties by the method of euthanasia. Nearly half a million people were killed by the Nazis in clinics that were considered unworthy of life. Hitler and the Nazis had a clear and distinct goal for the disabled and mentally ill which was to destroy and cut them from the root and branches to stop the birth of more diseased offspring.
It could be said that the treatment of them could had been a stepping stone towards the Holocaust as the method of euthanasia was quick and effective and was probably widely used throughout the death camps. The Gypsies, another hated group of people who moved around a lot, had been getting killed for centuries by other people because they were also disliked. The Nazis just continued to kill them, seeing the Gypsies as both selfish and pests to Germans because they thought that the Gypsies practiced witchcraft. The triangle that they wear was black and had a T on it.
The Nazis began sending the Gypsies to concentration camps. Hundreds of thousands of Gypsies were killed during the Holocaust. The Jehovahs Witnesses, a religious group, had a population of about 20,000 in Germany. This groups triangle was purple and had a B on it. Although their religious meetings were banned after the Nazis rose to power, many of them continued to practice their religion. The Jehovahs Witnesses that ignored the ban went to concentration camps. About 10,000 Jehovahs Witnesses were sent to concentration camps and died.
The Jews in Nazi Germany suffered appallingly after January 1933. Hitler wrote about how the Jews planned to contaminate the blood of pure Germans: The Jewish youth lies in wait for hours on end spying on the unsuspicious German girl he plans to seduce; He wants to contaminate her blood and remove her from the bosom of her own people. The Jew hates the white race and wants to lower its cultural level so that the Jews might dominate. The triangle which Jews should wear was yellow, and it had a P on it. German Jews werent allowed to go to theaters, swimming pools, and resorts.
Jews had to carry identification cards around with them, they were forced to add Sarah and Israel to their existing names for identification and also always had to wear a Star of David badge everywhere they went. There was a time called Kristallnacht, when the Nazis burned down synagogues, places where the Jews practiced their religion, and they destroyed Jewish businesses and homes. Jewish children were not allowed to go to school anymore. The Jews had curfews for how late they could be out, and then they werent allowed in public places. Finally, Germany started kicking them out of the country.
The next step for the Nazis was to send the Jews to concentration and death camps. About six million Jews died for one simple reason: they were Jewish. The Nazi party, utilized the powerful force of racism and anti Semitism in a naturally aggressive society, to further his power, unify the nation and perhaps achieve totalitarianism, in several different ways. From the mere exclusion of Jews and other minorities from the Volksgemienshaft, to the systematic genocide, the German people were united against public enemy number one, by a luck man hoping to further his positions as leader and Fuhrer of the whole world. | <urn:uuid:9f84bbc4-ef37-4f15-8d1a-c0991919fbe6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://burningessays.com/essay/how-were-different-groups-treated-by-the-nazis-in-germany-essay-18420 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.989147 | 1,485 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.03476697579026... | 1 | How were different groups treated by the Nazis in Germany and how Hitler used the racism and the anti-Semitism against them. This essay will be on how different minority groups were treated by the Nazis after they came into power in 1933. It will also assess what groups were targeted by the Nazis who they sought to be unworthy of life and how Hitler used racism and anti-Semitism against them and how they were treated.
For example, homosexuals, the disabled and mentally ill, gypsies and finally communists where all targets of the Nazi regime. The worst enemies of Hitler were the Jews as he had strong anti-Semitic views against them as he saw the Jews as an obstacle in his plan to establish his master race. This treatment started in 1933 with moderate policies made by the Nazis which were branded as the Nuremburg laws and ended in 1941 with the Final solution being put into action which caused the execution of six million Jews, or known as the Holocaust.
Throughout Nazi Germany in the period 1928 through to 1941, racism was utilized by Hitler, and in turn his Nazi party, most predominantly to secure Hitlers position as dictator, and secondly to unite the German people against a common enemy, which would lead to a united powerful state, ready and able to exert its national will. The aims for racial purification and domination over Eastern Europe are made obvious primarily in the racist crude writings of Mein Kampf.
His racist and in part incoherent rambling in Mein Kampf underline his ideas of Jews and Bolsheviks as parasites, and maggots eating away at the German people of the racial level of the highest peoples. Hitlers use of racism is continually evident from the beginning of his comings to power. Racism was initially used by Hitler to identify his sympathizers, and most predominant to unite the German people again public internal enemy number one The Jews. Anti-semitism, anti-communism and attacks on several other minority groups ranging from slavs to democrats, were provided as an excuse for defeat in WW1 and the treaty of Versailles.
Hitler used racism to appeal to the pre existing aggressive side of German nature, thus securing his position as dictator and reuniting his people. Firstly, homosexuals before the war were tolerated by the German population and even had a thriving community in Berlin itself, but when the Nazis came into power in 1933 they saw a drastic change.
Hitler thought homosexuals damaged his plan for his master race as they could not reproduce along with the trepidation that members of he Nazi party might have been polluted by a gay gene. The Nazis begun their oppression of homosexuals with the purge in February 1933 with the prohibition of gay clubs and organised groups. In May of the same year the Hitler youth organised a burning of any un-German books mainly by Jewish or homosexual authors. The Gestapo where also involved in the oppression by compiling a list of identified gay men which led to the construction of the department for combating homosexuality by Himmler in 1936.
This led to widespread targeting of gay men within Germany, with many being sentenced to prison or even castration. Many where also sent to concentration camps where as many as fifteen thousand died from either extreme treatment or execution. This treatment however was extreme and unnecessary it showed that Hitler and the Nazis had an immediate purge on homosexuals and wanted to rid of them as soon as possible, unlike the Jews where they just oppressed them in the hope to make them leave Germany.
The disabled and mentally ill were also a target of the Nazi regime. The law for the prevention of hereditarily diseased offspring in 1933, stated that any person with a hereditary disease was to be sterilised so they could not reproduce. Also abortions were decriminalised to stop babies being born with a disease, but on the other hand it was forbidden for healthy babies to be aborted. The Nazis policy on racial hygiene brought them to introduce the T4 program.
This program could be said to be the first step towards the holocaust as it attempted to cleanse the German population of people who were disabled or had learning difficulties by the method of euthanasia. Nearly half a million people were killed by the Nazis in clinics that were considered unworthy of life. Hitler and the Nazis had a clear and distinct goal for the disabled and mentally ill which was to destroy and cut them from the root and branches to stop the birth of more diseased offspring.
It could be said that the treatment of them could had been a stepping stone towards the Holocaust as the method of euthanasia was quick and effective and was probably widely used throughout the death camps. The Gypsies, another hated group of people who moved around a lot, had been getting killed for centuries by other people because they were also disliked. The Nazis just continued to kill them, seeing the Gypsies as both selfish and pests to Germans because they thought that the Gypsies practiced witchcraft. The triangle that they wear was black and had a T on it.
The Nazis began sending the Gypsies to concentration camps. Hundreds of thousands of Gypsies were killed during the Holocaust. The Jehovahs Witnesses, a religious group, had a population of about 20,000 in Germany. This groups triangle was purple and had a B on it. Although their religious meetings were banned after the Nazis rose to power, many of them continued to practice their religion. The Jehovahs Witnesses that ignored the ban went to concentration camps. About 10,000 Jehovahs Witnesses were sent to concentration camps and died.
The Jews in Nazi Germany suffered appallingly after January 1933. Hitler wrote about how the Jews planned to contaminate the blood of pure Germans: The Jewish youth lies in wait for hours on end spying on the unsuspicious German girl he plans to seduce; He wants to contaminate her blood and remove her from the bosom of her own people. The Jew hates the white race and wants to lower its cultural level so that the Jews might dominate. The triangle which Jews should wear was yellow, and it had a P on it. German Jews werent allowed to go to theaters, swimming pools, and resorts.
Jews had to carry identification cards around with them, they were forced to add Sarah and Israel to their existing names for identification and also always had to wear a Star of David badge everywhere they went. There was a time called Kristallnacht, when the Nazis burned down synagogues, places where the Jews practiced their religion, and they destroyed Jewish businesses and homes. Jewish children were not allowed to go to school anymore. The Jews had curfews for how late they could be out, and then they werent allowed in public places. Finally, Germany started kicking them out of the country.
The next step for the Nazis was to send the Jews to concentration and death camps. About six million Jews died for one simple reason: they were Jewish. The Nazi party, utilized the powerful force of racism and anti Semitism in a naturally aggressive society, to further his power, unify the nation and perhaps achieve totalitarianism, in several different ways. From the mere exclusion of Jews and other minorities from the Volksgemienshaft, to the systematic genocide, the German people were united against public enemy number one, by a luck man hoping to further his positions as leader and Fuhrer of the whole world. | 1,522 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the sport of Short Track?
Short track is one of two different speed skating distances. Like its name suggests it is the shorter of the two, with the longer race being called long track. The distance of a short track race varies but is between 500 meters and 3000 meters long.
In the sport, skaters race around the track trying to be the first one to cross the finish line. The race begins with every skater on the starting line, waiting for the sound to indicate they can start. False starts are very common, and the first offense results in no punishment. Once the race begins, the skaters all go around the track at the same time in what is known as a pack.
The track is an oval shape, measuring 200 feet by 98 feet, roughly the same size as a hockey rink. The track consists of two long straightaways and four turns. Each race requires skaters to go around the track multiple times, and usually lasts about two minutes or less.
Short track is considered a newer sport, with its first recorded race happening just over 100 years ago. Short track started gaining popularity during the 1920s as a dramatic and exciting race. Though it was not until 1988 that the sport was included in the Olympic Games, as an exhibition event. Four years later, at the next Olympic Games, it was awarded full medal status, which is where it stands today.
Short track is included in the Winter Olympics and has four events for both men and women. Each event is a different length race, with some even being relay races. Both men and women compete in the 500 meter, 1000 meter, and 1500 meter races as an individual. The length of team relay differs though, with men racing 5000 meters and women racing 3000 meters. | <urn:uuid:5344bb74-3bcd-42c6-b6d3-7073c1b7c0d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rookieroad.com/short-track/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.980022 | 358 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3139185011... | 1 | What is the sport of Short Track?
Short track is one of two different speed skating distances. Like its name suggests it is the shorter of the two, with the longer race being called long track. The distance of a short track race varies but is between 500 meters and 3000 meters long.
In the sport, skaters race around the track trying to be the first one to cross the finish line. The race begins with every skater on the starting line, waiting for the sound to indicate they can start. False starts are very common, and the first offense results in no punishment. Once the race begins, the skaters all go around the track at the same time in what is known as a pack.
The track is an oval shape, measuring 200 feet by 98 feet, roughly the same size as a hockey rink. The track consists of two long straightaways and four turns. Each race requires skaters to go around the track multiple times, and usually lasts about two minutes or less.
Short track is considered a newer sport, with its first recorded race happening just over 100 years ago. Short track started gaining popularity during the 1920s as a dramatic and exciting race. Though it was not until 1988 that the sport was included in the Olympic Games, as an exhibition event. Four years later, at the next Olympic Games, it was awarded full medal status, which is where it stands today.
Short track is included in the Winter Olympics and has four events for both men and women. Each event is a different length race, with some even being relay races. Both men and women compete in the 500 meter, 1000 meter, and 1500 meter races as an individual. The length of team relay differs though, with men racing 5000 meters and women racing 3000 meters. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The line between fact and fiction has always been really, really blurry, but the common thread running through all of it is good storytelling. Each student draws a heart, then divides it into sections based on what matters most to them: family, hobbies, friends, special events, and more.
You have 30 minutes. Mad Skills. Updated July 12, Students in fourth grade need a variety of practice developing their writing skills. In upper elementary school and beyond, students should know how to write a narrative. If you had a friend visit from another state, what is the one place in your city you would insist he or she had to see?
But when we study storytelling with our students, we forget all that. Imagine you could travel back in time to live through one event from history. | <urn:uuid:dd22d230-4f34-4083-984f-2006516abd99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pesatekukepizuw.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/writing-a-narrative-essay-fourth-grade635269331wa.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.983979 | 159 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.17971991002559662... | 2 | The line between fact and fiction has always been really, really blurry, but the common thread running through all of it is good storytelling. Each student draws a heart, then divides it into sections based on what matters most to them: family, hobbies, friends, special events, and more.
You have 30 minutes. Mad Skills. Updated July 12, Students in fourth grade need a variety of practice developing their writing skills. In upper elementary school and beyond, students should know how to write a narrative. If you had a friend visit from another state, what is the one place in your city you would insist he or she had to see?
But when we study storytelling with our students, we forget all that. Imagine you could travel back in time to live through one event from history. | 161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In every encounter Lewis and Clark had with Indian people, material goods played a significant role. Jefferson and Lewis recognized that large quantities of "Indian presents" were extremely important to the success of the mission. Indian and white relations on the American frontier were based on the mechanism of gift exchange, the idea being that the relationship would falter unless both sides demonstrated their commitment to alliance through the exchange of material goods. The presents that Lewis and Clark distributed and received along the trail were designed to symbolize the opening of relations between western tribes and the new American republic.
The gifts they received from the tribes they met provided members of the Corps with examples of Indian art and culture, but Lewis and Clark did not systematically "collect" Native American objects as they did plant and animal specimens. As important new research conducted by Dr. Castle McLaughlin at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University suggests, the Native American expedition objects that ended up in Jefferson's "Indian Hall" at Monticello and in Charles Willson Peale's museum in Philadelphia (the surviving examples from the Peale Museum are today in the Peabody Museum) should be understood as results of exchanges made in diplomatic and social contexts rather than as products of collecting in an anthropological sense. In this way, the objects represent the choices of their makers rather than those of explorers unfamiliar with the material culture of native people.
A letter Jefferson wrote to Lewis at the end of the expedition signals his understanding that the goods received by Lewis and Clark were diplomatic gifts, and not simply examples of the arts of Northern Plains Indians gathered by the explorers. When Lewis returned to the east in the last days of 1806, his party included Sheheke (Big White), a chief of the Mandan nation. As their route to Washington would take him through central Virginia, Jefferson wrote Lewis before their arrival in the capital, "Perhaps while in our neighborhood, it may be gratifying to him [Sheheke], & not otherwise to yourself to take a ride to Monticello and see in what manner I have arranged the tokens of friendship I have received from his country particularly as well as from other Indian friends: that I am in fact preparing a kind of Indian hall." | <urn:uuid:b911cb88-0981-4aa5-80f8-2390be161589> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/framing-the-west-at-monticello/tokens-of-friendship/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.981389 | 452 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.02732670307159... | 4 | In every encounter Lewis and Clark had with Indian people, material goods played a significant role. Jefferson and Lewis recognized that large quantities of "Indian presents" were extremely important to the success of the mission. Indian and white relations on the American frontier were based on the mechanism of gift exchange, the idea being that the relationship would falter unless both sides demonstrated their commitment to alliance through the exchange of material goods. The presents that Lewis and Clark distributed and received along the trail were designed to symbolize the opening of relations between western tribes and the new American republic.
The gifts they received from the tribes they met provided members of the Corps with examples of Indian art and culture, but Lewis and Clark did not systematically "collect" Native American objects as they did plant and animal specimens. As important new research conducted by Dr. Castle McLaughlin at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University suggests, the Native American expedition objects that ended up in Jefferson's "Indian Hall" at Monticello and in Charles Willson Peale's museum in Philadelphia (the surviving examples from the Peale Museum are today in the Peabody Museum) should be understood as results of exchanges made in diplomatic and social contexts rather than as products of collecting in an anthropological sense. In this way, the objects represent the choices of their makers rather than those of explorers unfamiliar with the material culture of native people.
A letter Jefferson wrote to Lewis at the end of the expedition signals his understanding that the goods received by Lewis and Clark were diplomatic gifts, and not simply examples of the arts of Northern Plains Indians gathered by the explorers. When Lewis returned to the east in the last days of 1806, his party included Sheheke (Big White), a chief of the Mandan nation. As their route to Washington would take him through central Virginia, Jefferson wrote Lewis before their arrival in the capital, "Perhaps while in our neighborhood, it may be gratifying to him [Sheheke], & not otherwise to yourself to take a ride to Monticello and see in what manner I have arranged the tokens of friendship I have received from his country particularly as well as from other Indian friends: that I am in fact preparing a kind of Indian hall." | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Striking full color example of the first edition David Burr's map of New York, which appeared in his Universal Atlas, first issued in 1836.
A highly detailed map, owing undoubtedly to Burr's prior New York Atlas and separate county pocket maps which had began publishing in the 1820s. Shows towns, rivers, roads, railroads, canals, lakes, islands and substantial other detail. Large inset of Long Island. One of the scarcest maps of NY issued during the period. Burr's Atlas was perhaps the most elegant American commercially published atlas of its time, utilizing wonderful wash colors and elegant engraving style. Burr studied under Simeon DeWitt in New York. His first atlas was an Atlas of New York State, the second state atlas to be issued in the US (after Mills Atlas of South Carolina in 1826).
In the 1830s,Burr served as topographer for the US Post Office, producing a series of rare and highly sought after large format state maps during this period. Later, he was appointed as the Geographer of the House of Representatives, where he served during the later part of the 1830s. Burr is widely regarded as one of the most important names in American Cartographic history. | <urn:uuid:2ebd7a85-bce8-4d7e-abcb-7b19da94177c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/m0177/new-york-drawn-published-by-david-h-burr-burr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.981639 | 257 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.5596769452... | 2 | Striking full color example of the first edition David Burr's map of New York, which appeared in his Universal Atlas, first issued in 1836.
A highly detailed map, owing undoubtedly to Burr's prior New York Atlas and separate county pocket maps which had began publishing in the 1820s. Shows towns, rivers, roads, railroads, canals, lakes, islands and substantial other detail. Large inset of Long Island. One of the scarcest maps of NY issued during the period. Burr's Atlas was perhaps the most elegant American commercially published atlas of its time, utilizing wonderful wash colors and elegant engraving style. Burr studied under Simeon DeWitt in New York. His first atlas was an Atlas of New York State, the second state atlas to be issued in the US (after Mills Atlas of South Carolina in 1826).
In the 1830s,Burr served as topographer for the US Post Office, producing a series of rare and highly sought after large format state maps during this period. Later, he was appointed as the Geographer of the House of Representatives, where he served during the later part of the 1830s. Burr is widely regarded as one of the most important names in American Cartographic history. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Snail is a general name that is related mainly often to territory of them, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the frequent name “snail” is also applied to generally of the elements of the molluscan group Gastropoda that have a curled shell that is big enough for the being to pull back finally into. When the phrase is used in this most common nous, it comprises not just land of the species but as well lots of varieties of sea and freshwater species. Infrequently a few other molluscs that are not really gastropods, such as the Monoplacophora, which apparently look like little limpets, may also casually be demoted to as “snails”. Species like creatures that naturally lack a shell, or have only an internal shell, are usually called slugs, and land species that have only a very small shell (that they cannot retract into) are often called semislugs. | <urn:uuid:cd1e367a-30f9-4b69-adf4-e5f60c7419fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.televisionsworld.com/snail/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00521.warc.gz | en | 0.984398 | 202 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.20754559338... | 4 | Snail is a general name that is related mainly often to territory of them, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the frequent name “snail” is also applied to generally of the elements of the molluscan group Gastropoda that have a curled shell that is big enough for the being to pull back finally into. When the phrase is used in this most common nous, it comprises not just land of the species but as well lots of varieties of sea and freshwater species. Infrequently a few other molluscs that are not really gastropods, such as the Monoplacophora, which apparently look like little limpets, may also casually be demoted to as “snails”. Species like creatures that naturally lack a shell, or have only an internal shell, are usually called slugs, and land species that have only a very small shell (that they cannot retract into) are often called semislugs. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most important legacies of the Patent Act of 1836 was its creation of the first USA Patent Office. The creation of a new administration within the Department of State allowed for the patent application and registration procedures to the sole responsibility of an organization that was created for specialized task of overlooking every aspect of patents. Previously, the responsibility feel on important positions, such as the Secretary of State, and Secretary of War, which would prove to be too much of a demand on their already crucial responsibilities and duties.
The Patent Office and the instating of new positions and titles within the organization would delegate the tasks of patent registrations solely to one entity or faction. The first Patent Office Commissioner was Henry Leavitt Ellsworth. Once the Patent Act of 1836 managed to establish the new patent organization, once of the first things the Commissioner set out to do was provide for a base of operations for the new Patent Office. Construction of what was deemed as a fire-proof building began the same year, while the Patent Office would share its first building with the General Post Office and Washington City Post Office.
Within this shared building, over ten thousand patent records were housed and stored, along with thousands of patent models all located on the first three floors of the structure. The shared building was known as Blodgett’s Hotel, and provided sufficient enough facilities for the newly implemented Patent Office to start its operations. The Blodgett’s Hotel was situated within walking distance a fire house, which was not a mere coincidence. What was then considered at the USA Patent Office, a threat of fire due to acts of war put the organization in jeopardy in 1814.
Dr. William Thornton managed to convince members of the British armed forces to leave the building intact. After all was said and done, the Patent Office was the only governmental building still standing. Therefore, such threat provided for the temporary location of the Patent Office to be located in such close proximity to a fire house. After all, all the records of patents and patent drafting were all done on paper.
The United States Congress decided to provide for the fire house about sixteen years before the Patent Office moved to this location, but the other two organizations situated in the building would also benefit from a fire house being near by. It was no coincidence that the Patent Office chose this location, for the fire house provided a sense of security from an unfortunate fire incident.
However, common sense would not prove enough in preventing a catastrophic occurrence that would render the Patent Office in shambles. Early in the morning on December 15th, 1836, a fire would break out that would eventually engulf and destroy all of the patent records, models, and plans housed and stored at the Blodgett’s Hotel building. A messenger who was housed in the building was the first to notice the fire, and did the best to round up others inside to enter the Patent Office section of the building. After various attempts to save the patent records, all attempts were in vain.
Logic would serve to believe that the fire station located so nearby would be able to competently battle the flames, and if not save the USA Patent Office, at least provide for time to save the patent records. However, because the fire station was constructed sixteen years prior, and was rarely used, all the equipment for fail to properly work. Volunteer fire fighters would resort to using buckets to put out the flames, which would prove to be an exercise in futility.
It took less than twenty minutes for the fire to completely consume the Blodgett’s Hotel building, along with it the USA Patent Office and all patent drafting records. Out the thousands of records stored in the USA Patent Office, less than 3,000 were managed to be restored through private files and models provided by the original patent holders. All others had to be canceled. Even though the first USA Patent Office ended in disaster, its legacy continues, for it would eventually lead to the creation of the United States Patent and Trademark Office, which is the faction and organization that handles all patent matters in the U.S. today. | <urn:uuid:bf4fa526-2451-407a-a006-01457e7d6025> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://patent.laws.com/patent-act-of-1836/patent-act-of-1836-patent-fire-of-1836 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.981422 | 836 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.299070894718... | 6 | One of the most important legacies of the Patent Act of 1836 was its creation of the first USA Patent Office. The creation of a new administration within the Department of State allowed for the patent application and registration procedures to the sole responsibility of an organization that was created for specialized task of overlooking every aspect of patents. Previously, the responsibility feel on important positions, such as the Secretary of State, and Secretary of War, which would prove to be too much of a demand on their already crucial responsibilities and duties.
The Patent Office and the instating of new positions and titles within the organization would delegate the tasks of patent registrations solely to one entity or faction. The first Patent Office Commissioner was Henry Leavitt Ellsworth. Once the Patent Act of 1836 managed to establish the new patent organization, once of the first things the Commissioner set out to do was provide for a base of operations for the new Patent Office. Construction of what was deemed as a fire-proof building began the same year, while the Patent Office would share its first building with the General Post Office and Washington City Post Office.
Within this shared building, over ten thousand patent records were housed and stored, along with thousands of patent models all located on the first three floors of the structure. The shared building was known as Blodgett’s Hotel, and provided sufficient enough facilities for the newly implemented Patent Office to start its operations. The Blodgett’s Hotel was situated within walking distance a fire house, which was not a mere coincidence. What was then considered at the USA Patent Office, a threat of fire due to acts of war put the organization in jeopardy in 1814.
Dr. William Thornton managed to convince members of the British armed forces to leave the building intact. After all was said and done, the Patent Office was the only governmental building still standing. Therefore, such threat provided for the temporary location of the Patent Office to be located in such close proximity to a fire house. After all, all the records of patents and patent drafting were all done on paper.
The United States Congress decided to provide for the fire house about sixteen years before the Patent Office moved to this location, but the other two organizations situated in the building would also benefit from a fire house being near by. It was no coincidence that the Patent Office chose this location, for the fire house provided a sense of security from an unfortunate fire incident.
However, common sense would not prove enough in preventing a catastrophic occurrence that would render the Patent Office in shambles. Early in the morning on December 15th, 1836, a fire would break out that would eventually engulf and destroy all of the patent records, models, and plans housed and stored at the Blodgett’s Hotel building. A messenger who was housed in the building was the first to notice the fire, and did the best to round up others inside to enter the Patent Office section of the building. After various attempts to save the patent records, all attempts were in vain.
Logic would serve to believe that the fire station located so nearby would be able to competently battle the flames, and if not save the USA Patent Office, at least provide for time to save the patent records. However, because the fire station was constructed sixteen years prior, and was rarely used, all the equipment for fail to properly work. Volunteer fire fighters would resort to using buckets to put out the flames, which would prove to be an exercise in futility.
It took less than twenty minutes for the fire to completely consume the Blodgett’s Hotel building, along with it the USA Patent Office and all patent drafting records. Out the thousands of records stored in the USA Patent Office, less than 3,000 were managed to be restored through private files and models provided by the original patent holders. All others had to be canceled. Even though the first USA Patent Office ended in disaster, its legacy continues, for it would eventually lead to the creation of the United States Patent and Trademark Office, which is the faction and organization that handles all patent matters in the U.S. today. | 831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
→Accuracy of Events
==Accuracy of Events==
The film has a general accuracy on the wider events of 303 squadron, but many
details lack accuracy. For instance, Jan was showing as stealing a German plane to arrive in England in 1940. In reality, he escaped France by boat, like many other Poles as they evacuated from the advancing Germans. Gabriel Horodyszcz, one of the characters, is fictional, who is shown as a pilot who is reluctant to shoot the enemy. He, instead, wants to pray for his enemies and is shown as devout Catholic where he sets up a shrine for the pilots. Also, 303 squadron is shown as coming up with the idea of putting cameras in the cockpits of aircraft, but that was not their innovation. František is shown as having crashed in Dover, on the famous white cliffs, but in reality, his plane crashed in Surrey, well away from Dover. Zumbach also never watched the victory parade in England after the war, as he went to Switzerland after his release as a prisoner.
However, many other
issues were accurate. The Polish fighters did not only have to deal with discrimination but also language barriers and having to deal with the English measuring system rather than the metric system they were used to. For instance, it was important for the fighters to convert liters to gallons to gauge fuel. They also had to adapt to using landing gears that were retractable, where the Polish aircraft did not have this feature. The movie does not mention what the 303 squadron did after the Battle of Britain, where the squadron actively participated in the Western European theater for the remainder of the war. There were many changes to the squadron throughout its history, although its service in the Battle of Britain might have been its most famous. | <urn:uuid:6f7c6ac4-8296-4102-af99-0d1e7d57ecc4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dailyhistory.org/Special:MobileDiff/17417 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.989578 | 364 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3092732429... | 3 | →Accuracy of Events
==Accuracy of Events==
The film has a general accuracy on the wider events of 303 squadron, but many
details lack accuracy. For instance, Jan was showing as stealing a German plane to arrive in England in 1940. In reality, he escaped France by boat, like many other Poles as they evacuated from the advancing Germans. Gabriel Horodyszcz, one of the characters, is fictional, who is shown as a pilot who is reluctant to shoot the enemy. He, instead, wants to pray for his enemies and is shown as devout Catholic where he sets up a shrine for the pilots. Also, 303 squadron is shown as coming up with the idea of putting cameras in the cockpits of aircraft, but that was not their innovation. František is shown as having crashed in Dover, on the famous white cliffs, but in reality, his plane crashed in Surrey, well away from Dover. Zumbach also never watched the victory parade in England after the war, as he went to Switzerland after his release as a prisoner.
However, many other
issues were accurate. The Polish fighters did not only have to deal with discrimination but also language barriers and having to deal with the English measuring system rather than the metric system they were used to. For instance, it was important for the fighters to convert liters to gallons to gauge fuel. They also had to adapt to using landing gears that were retractable, where the Polish aircraft did not have this feature. The movie does not mention what the 303 squadron did after the Battle of Britain, where the squadron actively participated in the Western European theater for the remainder of the war. There were many changes to the squadron throughout its history, although its service in the Battle of Britain might have been its most famous. | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Captain John Smith reported that the first church services were held outdoors "under an awning (which was an old saile)" fastened to three or four trees. As part of a rebuilding effort following a fire that burned much of the fort in January 1608, the settlers built the first church building. Smith said it was "a homely thing like a barn set on crachetts, covered with rafts, sedge and earth." Made of wood, it needed constant repair. Pocahontas and John Rolfe were married in the first church.
In 1617-1619 when Samuel Argall was governor, he had the inhabitants of Jamestown build a new church "50 foot long and twenty foot broad." This close-studded church was built on a one-foot-wide foundation of cobblestones capped by a wall one brick thick. Visitors can see these foundations under the glass on the floor of the present building. The First Assembly was held in this church in 1619.
In January 1639 Governor John Harvey reported that he, the Council, the ablest planters, and some sea captains "had contributed to the building of a brick church" at Jamestown. This church was slightly larger than the second church and was built around it. It was still unfinished in November 1647 when efforts were made to complete it. The third church burned during Bacon's Rebellion on September 19, 1676.
Ten years after Bacon's Rebellion, a fourth church was functioning, probably using the walls and foundations of the third church. Sometime after it was finished, a brick church tower was added. The tower is the only above-ground 17th-century structure still standing at Jamestown.
The tower is slightly over 18 feet square and the walls are 3 feet thick at the base. Originally the tower was about 46 feet high, 10 feet taller than it is today, and was crowned with a wooden roof and belfry. It had 2 upper floors as indicated by the large beam notches on the inside. Six small openings at the top permitted light to enter and the sound of a bell or bells to carry across river and town. This church was used until the 1750s when it was abandoned. Although the tower remained intact, the building fell into ruins by the 1790s when the bricks were salvaged and used to build the present graveyard wall. Throughout the 19th century the tower remained a silent symbol to Americans of their early heritage. It was strengthened and preserved shortly after the APVA acquired it in the 1890s.
The present-day Memorial Church building was constructed in 1906 by the National Society, Colonial Dames of America just outside the foundations of the earlier churches. It was dedicated May 13, 1907.explore the artifacts | <urn:uuid:43af5607-47ad-47df-864c-b91d57046df8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicjamestowne.org/archaeology/map-of-discoveries/jamestown-churches/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.990058 | 568 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.162016928... | 1 | Captain John Smith reported that the first church services were held outdoors "under an awning (which was an old saile)" fastened to three or four trees. As part of a rebuilding effort following a fire that burned much of the fort in January 1608, the settlers built the first church building. Smith said it was "a homely thing like a barn set on crachetts, covered with rafts, sedge and earth." Made of wood, it needed constant repair. Pocahontas and John Rolfe were married in the first church.
In 1617-1619 when Samuel Argall was governor, he had the inhabitants of Jamestown build a new church "50 foot long and twenty foot broad." This close-studded church was built on a one-foot-wide foundation of cobblestones capped by a wall one brick thick. Visitors can see these foundations under the glass on the floor of the present building. The First Assembly was held in this church in 1619.
In January 1639 Governor John Harvey reported that he, the Council, the ablest planters, and some sea captains "had contributed to the building of a brick church" at Jamestown. This church was slightly larger than the second church and was built around it. It was still unfinished in November 1647 when efforts were made to complete it. The third church burned during Bacon's Rebellion on September 19, 1676.
Ten years after Bacon's Rebellion, a fourth church was functioning, probably using the walls and foundations of the third church. Sometime after it was finished, a brick church tower was added. The tower is the only above-ground 17th-century structure still standing at Jamestown.
The tower is slightly over 18 feet square and the walls are 3 feet thick at the base. Originally the tower was about 46 feet high, 10 feet taller than it is today, and was crowned with a wooden roof and belfry. It had 2 upper floors as indicated by the large beam notches on the inside. Six small openings at the top permitted light to enter and the sound of a bell or bells to carry across river and town. This church was used until the 1750s when it was abandoned. Although the tower remained intact, the building fell into ruins by the 1790s when the bricks were salvaged and used to build the present graveyard wall. Throughout the 19th century the tower remained a silent symbol to Americans of their early heritage. It was strengthened and preserved shortly after the APVA acquired it in the 1890s.
The present-day Memorial Church building was constructed in 1906 by the National Society, Colonial Dames of America just outside the foundations of the earlier churches. It was dedicated May 13, 1907.explore the artifacts | 606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A team of researchers from the Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital on 149 people conducted the study, and it suggests a person's genes may make them more susceptible to wrinkles and COPD. Publishing their writings in the issue of 'Thorax' they explain that the facial lining could give a clue to the risk of acquiring COPD.
COPD is a general term for a variety of progressive chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and bronchitis, which block the airways and restrict oxygen flow around the body. It is reported that more than a million people in the UK are thought to have COPD, and with many yet to be diagnosed.
According to estimates by the World Health Organization COPD will become the third leading cause of death in the world by 2020. It was explained that Smoking is already known to cause premature ageing of the skin. The habit is also known to cause COPD in some of the smokers; leading scientists have always speculated that there must be a reason why some smokers are more at risk.
The researchers studied 149 current and former smokers, aged 45 to 70, from 78 different families. They found that a total of 68 people had COPD, and of the 25 people who had severe wrinkling 21 were found to have the lung condition. The researchers took the age and the number of years a person had been smocking into account, and found that smokers with wrinkled faces were five times more likely to have COPD. They also found that facial wrinkling was also associated with three times the risk of more severe emphysema.
Dr Bipen Patel, of the department of respiratory medicine at the Royal Devon and Exeter, who led the research, said, they think that there is a genetic susceptibility to COPD. Stating that this research clearly shows that those people who are prone to COPD are also prone to wrinkles, he explained that if there is a gene that could cause the development of COPD then there should also be a gene for developing wrinkles.
Dr Patel stated that wrinkles could be seen as a sign that someone was at increased risk of developing COPD. Professor Chris Griffiths, of the University of Manchester and a spokesman for the British Skin Foundation said that it is well documented that smoking is linked to skin wrinkling, and this is associated with smoking-induced stimulation of enzymes that break down collagen and elastic tissue in the skin.
He explained that the chronic lung condition, emphysema is also associated with loss of elasticity in the lungs and is equivalent to wrinkling in the skin. He further stated that it would be interesting thought for the scientific community to speculate that the susceptibility to sun induced skin wrinkles and the presence of emphysema are determined by similar mechanisms.
Dr Richard Russell of the British Thoracic Society said that it was crucial to have an early diagnosis. He further stated that they should encourage smokers, GPs and nurses to look out for any signs of premature heavy wrinkling in addition to the other symptoms of COPD such as persistent smokers cough and breathlessness. | <urn:uuid:4d34ff2c-250b-4efd-8c05-ae434e9bc1fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=11292 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.983464 | 622 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3995073735713959... | 1 | A team of researchers from the Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital on 149 people conducted the study, and it suggests a person's genes may make them more susceptible to wrinkles and COPD. Publishing their writings in the issue of 'Thorax' they explain that the facial lining could give a clue to the risk of acquiring COPD.
COPD is a general term for a variety of progressive chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and bronchitis, which block the airways and restrict oxygen flow around the body. It is reported that more than a million people in the UK are thought to have COPD, and with many yet to be diagnosed.
According to estimates by the World Health Organization COPD will become the third leading cause of death in the world by 2020. It was explained that Smoking is already known to cause premature ageing of the skin. The habit is also known to cause COPD in some of the smokers; leading scientists have always speculated that there must be a reason why some smokers are more at risk.
The researchers studied 149 current and former smokers, aged 45 to 70, from 78 different families. They found that a total of 68 people had COPD, and of the 25 people who had severe wrinkling 21 were found to have the lung condition. The researchers took the age and the number of years a person had been smocking into account, and found that smokers with wrinkled faces were five times more likely to have COPD. They also found that facial wrinkling was also associated with three times the risk of more severe emphysema.
Dr Bipen Patel, of the department of respiratory medicine at the Royal Devon and Exeter, who led the research, said, they think that there is a genetic susceptibility to COPD. Stating that this research clearly shows that those people who are prone to COPD are also prone to wrinkles, he explained that if there is a gene that could cause the development of COPD then there should also be a gene for developing wrinkles.
Dr Patel stated that wrinkles could be seen as a sign that someone was at increased risk of developing COPD. Professor Chris Griffiths, of the University of Manchester and a spokesman for the British Skin Foundation said that it is well documented that smoking is linked to skin wrinkling, and this is associated with smoking-induced stimulation of enzymes that break down collagen and elastic tissue in the skin.
He explained that the chronic lung condition, emphysema is also associated with loss of elasticity in the lungs and is equivalent to wrinkling in the skin. He further stated that it would be interesting thought for the scientific community to speculate that the susceptibility to sun induced skin wrinkles and the presence of emphysema are determined by similar mechanisms.
Dr Richard Russell of the British Thoracic Society said that it was crucial to have an early diagnosis. He further stated that they should encourage smokers, GPs and nurses to look out for any signs of premature heavy wrinkling in addition to the other symptoms of COPD such as persistent smokers cough and breathlessness. | 633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(If you want to avoid reading the article and prefer video format, here is essentially this article on YouTube…with cool dogfight clips!)
The Gloster F.5/34 is one of many intriguing “what-if” fighter aircraft that aviation historians and enthusiasts still discuss today.
First flying in 1936, the initial prototype was modelled as a monoplane development of Gloster’s Gladiator biplane fighter, which was just then about to enter service with the Royal Air Force.
Such an evolution was natural. This course had already been followed by the Hawker company when they developed their famous Hurricane fighter, which was evolved from the Fury.
Like the Hurricane, the F.5 was a major update on its biplane predecessor. Designed to carry eight machine guns in its wings and built with a stressed metal skin construction, the F.5 was at the cutting edge of aero engineering at the time.
With a retractable landing gear, the design was well steam lined and also featured an excellent canopy, which provided superb all round visibility for the pilot. It was also a much more “proper” looking aircraft when compared to the rival designs that were competing against it; the Bristol Type 146 the Vickers Venom and the Martin Baker MB.2.
During trials in 1937, the F.5 was praised by the test pilots, who said that the aircraft had excellent handling and agility, as well as better visibility than contemporary aircraft.
Despite this the F.5 never made it to production. Only 2 prototypes were built and these were soon relegated to instructional purposes.
So, what happened? How come the Hurricanes and Spitfires were the heroes of the Battle of Britain, and still renowned today, whilst the F.5 is relegated to being a foot note in aviation history?
The answer is twofold.
First, the F.5 was designed to use a radial engine. In fact the test prototypes used the same Mercury engine as the Gladiator.
Providing only 840 horse power, the Mercury was a good fighter engine in 1935, but by 1937 it was obvious to the British that their new inline engines, principally the Rolls Royce Merlin, were the best bets for the future.
Additionally, the F.5 was ironically hindered by the success of its predecessor, the Gladiator biplane.
That aircraft would be ordered in, what was for the time, considerable numbers. This meant that Gloster already had more than enough work and as a result were slow to get the prototypes built for testing. The second F.5 only flew in 1938, by which time the Hurricane was already entering service.
So, that should be the end of that, surely? The F.5 was an aircraft that was doomed from its conception, made obsolete by an engine that meant it would never be able to compete against contemporaries equipped with stream lined, liquid-cooled inline engines.
The Mitsubishi A6M, the infamous “Zero”. This fighter was designed slightly after the F.5, first flying in 1939 and entering service in 1940. Like the F.5, it had a heavy armament for the time, was strongly built with an emphasis on agility, had a canopy with excellent visibility…and had an air-cooled radial engine which, on paper at least, was inferior to contemporary inline ones.
Yet the Zero was not inferior to any aircraft of its day; far from it. Using the Zero, the Japanese hacked Allied aircraft from the skies of Asia in 1941 and ‘42, and the basic design stayed dangerous as a dogfighter through to the end of the war.
There is also, and this is what gets most people excited, more than a passing resemblance between the A6M and the F.5. And on paper, they had similarities as well. Wing loading was slightly heavier on the F.5 than the Zero, but still considerably less than on the Spitfire and Hurricane, let alone the German Bf-109!
So, this raises an additional couple of talking points. Did the Royal Air Force miss out on the opportunity to have their own “Zero”, an agile dogfighter that would have made mincemeat of the Luftwaffe’s best at the beginning of the war?
And did the Japanese copy the F.5 to make the Zero?
To answer the first point, it seems unlikely that the F.5 would have been spectacularly successful in the European theatre. While it certainly may have been useful and a capable dogfighter, the Royal Air Force’s requirements were aimed more at interceptor types that could deal with bombers and hold their own against similar aircraft. In other words, the Spitfire.
It’s noticeable that some other agile, radial engine fighters, like those fielded by the Italian’s early in the Second World War, did poorly in Europe and Africa against inline-engine fighters. Radial fighters that did do well tended to have the same protection and heavier build priorities, such as the Focke-Wulf, Grumman and Yak designs.
These could utilise the same performance based tactics as the inline fighters, which could negate the turning abilities of aircraft such as the Zero and other fighters designed with a focus on all out agility.
As for the Japanese copying the F.5, this seems unlikely. Though they probably were aware of the design, with the F.5 flying at the Hendon air show in 1937, the resemblance is likely more an example of convergent evolution in design as both aircraft were built to similar requirements.
In fact the assertion that the Zero is a copy of the F.5 simply ignores the fact that the Japanese in the late-1930s had an aero design industry that was second to none. Western designs acquired by them at that time were all generally considered inferior to their own fighters – something that the events of early 1942 seems to bear out.
Ed Nash has spent years traveling around the world. Between June 2015 and July 2016 he volunteered with the Kurdish YPG in its battle against ISIS in Syria; his book on his experiences, Desert Sniper, was published in the UK by Little, Brown in September 2018. | <urn:uuid:cbb12e77-5d05-4ecc-bce1-f1004ed5a7bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://militarymatters.online/the-gloster-f-5-34-inspiration-for-the-mitsubishi-a6m-zero/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.985699 | 1,270 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.51972687... | 2 | (If you want to avoid reading the article and prefer video format, here is essentially this article on YouTube…with cool dogfight clips!)
The Gloster F.5/34 is one of many intriguing “what-if” fighter aircraft that aviation historians and enthusiasts still discuss today.
First flying in 1936, the initial prototype was modelled as a monoplane development of Gloster’s Gladiator biplane fighter, which was just then about to enter service with the Royal Air Force.
Such an evolution was natural. This course had already been followed by the Hawker company when they developed their famous Hurricane fighter, which was evolved from the Fury.
Like the Hurricane, the F.5 was a major update on its biplane predecessor. Designed to carry eight machine guns in its wings and built with a stressed metal skin construction, the F.5 was at the cutting edge of aero engineering at the time.
With a retractable landing gear, the design was well steam lined and also featured an excellent canopy, which provided superb all round visibility for the pilot. It was also a much more “proper” looking aircraft when compared to the rival designs that were competing against it; the Bristol Type 146 the Vickers Venom and the Martin Baker MB.2.
During trials in 1937, the F.5 was praised by the test pilots, who said that the aircraft had excellent handling and agility, as well as better visibility than contemporary aircraft.
Despite this the F.5 never made it to production. Only 2 prototypes were built and these were soon relegated to instructional purposes.
So, what happened? How come the Hurricanes and Spitfires were the heroes of the Battle of Britain, and still renowned today, whilst the F.5 is relegated to being a foot note in aviation history?
The answer is twofold.
First, the F.5 was designed to use a radial engine. In fact the test prototypes used the same Mercury engine as the Gladiator.
Providing only 840 horse power, the Mercury was a good fighter engine in 1935, but by 1937 it was obvious to the British that their new inline engines, principally the Rolls Royce Merlin, were the best bets for the future.
Additionally, the F.5 was ironically hindered by the success of its predecessor, the Gladiator biplane.
That aircraft would be ordered in, what was for the time, considerable numbers. This meant that Gloster already had more than enough work and as a result were slow to get the prototypes built for testing. The second F.5 only flew in 1938, by which time the Hurricane was already entering service.
So, that should be the end of that, surely? The F.5 was an aircraft that was doomed from its conception, made obsolete by an engine that meant it would never be able to compete against contemporaries equipped with stream lined, liquid-cooled inline engines.
The Mitsubishi A6M, the infamous “Zero”. This fighter was designed slightly after the F.5, first flying in 1939 and entering service in 1940. Like the F.5, it had a heavy armament for the time, was strongly built with an emphasis on agility, had a canopy with excellent visibility…and had an air-cooled radial engine which, on paper at least, was inferior to contemporary inline ones.
Yet the Zero was not inferior to any aircraft of its day; far from it. Using the Zero, the Japanese hacked Allied aircraft from the skies of Asia in 1941 and ‘42, and the basic design stayed dangerous as a dogfighter through to the end of the war.
There is also, and this is what gets most people excited, more than a passing resemblance between the A6M and the F.5. And on paper, they had similarities as well. Wing loading was slightly heavier on the F.5 than the Zero, but still considerably less than on the Spitfire and Hurricane, let alone the German Bf-109!
So, this raises an additional couple of talking points. Did the Royal Air Force miss out on the opportunity to have their own “Zero”, an agile dogfighter that would have made mincemeat of the Luftwaffe’s best at the beginning of the war?
And did the Japanese copy the F.5 to make the Zero?
To answer the first point, it seems unlikely that the F.5 would have been spectacularly successful in the European theatre. While it certainly may have been useful and a capable dogfighter, the Royal Air Force’s requirements were aimed more at interceptor types that could deal with bombers and hold their own against similar aircraft. In other words, the Spitfire.
It’s noticeable that some other agile, radial engine fighters, like those fielded by the Italian’s early in the Second World War, did poorly in Europe and Africa against inline-engine fighters. Radial fighters that did do well tended to have the same protection and heavier build priorities, such as the Focke-Wulf, Grumman and Yak designs.
These could utilise the same performance based tactics as the inline fighters, which could negate the turning abilities of aircraft such as the Zero and other fighters designed with a focus on all out agility.
As for the Japanese copying the F.5, this seems unlikely. Though they probably were aware of the design, with the F.5 flying at the Hendon air show in 1937, the resemblance is likely more an example of convergent evolution in design as both aircraft were built to similar requirements.
In fact the assertion that the Zero is a copy of the F.5 simply ignores the fact that the Japanese in the late-1930s had an aero design industry that was second to none. Western designs acquired by them at that time were all generally considered inferior to their own fighters – something that the events of early 1942 seems to bear out.
Ed Nash has spent years traveling around the world. Between June 2015 and July 2016 he volunteered with the Kurdish YPG in its battle against ISIS in Syria; his book on his experiences, Desert Sniper, was published in the UK by Little, Brown in September 2018. | 1,284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Gordon Byron, or commonly known as Lord Byron was one of the greatest British poets of all time. He was a key figure during the Romantic movement.
Byron had it rough as a child. He was abandoned by his father, and he was raised by a schizophrenic mother. These events were key to his flamboyant attitude and undisciplined behavior that he showed later in life.
He received the title Lord in 1798, when he was just 10 years old. By the age of 20, he was already a well-known figure in the world of literature. He published his satirical poem “English Bards and Scotch Reviewers” in 1808, one of his first famous works.
He was known as a promiscuous writer who had a bit of a problem with gambling. But he was mostly known for his love of animals.
During his life, he lived in several countries in Europe, including Italy, Greece, and Switzerland. He always kept animals with him in the house.
He died at the young age of 36, leaving behind several masterpieces. Lord Byron was buried at the cemetery in the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, England.
It is always nice when you see ordinary people do spectacular things. And when the media focuses on ordinary people and their stories.This is one such story. Stefan Hadfeld w... | <urn:uuid:dd1db12b-466d-4b9b-a30f-b1ba6ea69633> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.documentarytube.com/videos/biography-lord-byron-full-documentary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.996059 | 285 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.136199623346... | 1 | George Gordon Byron, or commonly known as Lord Byron was one of the greatest British poets of all time. He was a key figure during the Romantic movement.
Byron had it rough as a child. He was abandoned by his father, and he was raised by a schizophrenic mother. These events were key to his flamboyant attitude and undisciplined behavior that he showed later in life.
He received the title Lord in 1798, when he was just 10 years old. By the age of 20, he was already a well-known figure in the world of literature. He published his satirical poem “English Bards and Scotch Reviewers” in 1808, one of his first famous works.
He was known as a promiscuous writer who had a bit of a problem with gambling. But he was mostly known for his love of animals.
During his life, he lived in several countries in Europe, including Italy, Greece, and Switzerland. He always kept animals with him in the house.
He died at the young age of 36, leaving behind several masterpieces. Lord Byron was buried at the cemetery in the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, England.
It is always nice when you see ordinary people do spectacular things. And when the media focuses on ordinary people and their stories.This is one such story. Stefan Hadfeld w... | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This paper discusses the character and behavior of two Heroes in the Iliad with the aim of explaining the Geeks’ concept of pride. Considering the lives of Achilles and Patroclus, as presented in the Iliad, it is clear that for ancient Greek heroes, honor meant everything.
In actual sense, a Greek warrior or man would rather choose to die than be ashamed or embarrassed by someone else. Honor meant so much to them that they did everything to attain it. Honor was the lifetime goal of every ancient Greek man and people sought it at all costs.
Unfortunately, their concept of honor could be interpreted as foolhardy pride in our days. As will be shown through focus on Achilles and Patroclus, had they not been driven by their pride, they would not have met with their downfall; the way they did.
Achilles was a great Greek warrior who had helped the Greek with his might and skills. Like all Greek men, he wanted to do his people proud and the people were proud of him. However, his desire for honor leads to his downfall when he confronts the king over a woman. He had been given the woman as a prize for his valor in war against the Trojans.
When the king takes away the woman (prize he had given to Achilles), Achilles out of pride challenges the king and refuses to go to war. His decision not to go to war against the Trojans is what prompted Patroclus to pick up his armor to face Hector. Moreover, apart from refusing to fight for the Greek, Achilles out of pride chooses to argue or disobey the gods.
Priam, his mother intervenes, and again out of pride, Achilles chooses glory over a long life. In the life of Achilles, one can see pride or honor being prioritized over every other important thing. For instance, it is out of pride that Achilles refuses to go to battle prompting his friend Patroclus to stand in to lead the Greek armies against the Trojans.
Patroclus, just like Achilles, was a great warrior. He was one of the great warriors from the Greek side and would have been instrumental in defeating Hectors on behalf of the Achaeans.
However, desire for honor and pride got the better of him. Hectors was more skilled and the only person who could match him from the Greek side was Achilles. Patroclus had been warned against engaging or fighting Hector because he was not his match. However, as it would have been expected of any Greek hero, Patroclus goes against every warning that he should not engage Hectors in a battle.
Having won a number of battles, he is so full of himself that he thinks not engaging or fighting Hectors is a cowardly act. Secondly, he also stands up to Hectors to save himself the shame of having failed his people in a battle. Consequently, this willfulness leads him into dying at the hands of Hectors.
In conclusion, from the two examples given, it is clear that the Greek priced pride over all other values such as safety. It can also be noted that desire for honor and pride, among Greek heroes, was what propelled them to great heights but also what led to their downfall. In search for honor, the heroes did their people proud but out of pride they often became willful and untactful leading to their downfall. | <urn:uuid:9e186107-f757-4f3b-91b9-7ba8149f5eaf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/pride-in-ancient-greek/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.987802 | 695 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.22429303824901... | 3 | This paper discusses the character and behavior of two Heroes in the Iliad with the aim of explaining the Geeks’ concept of pride. Considering the lives of Achilles and Patroclus, as presented in the Iliad, it is clear that for ancient Greek heroes, honor meant everything.
In actual sense, a Greek warrior or man would rather choose to die than be ashamed or embarrassed by someone else. Honor meant so much to them that they did everything to attain it. Honor was the lifetime goal of every ancient Greek man and people sought it at all costs.
Unfortunately, their concept of honor could be interpreted as foolhardy pride in our days. As will be shown through focus on Achilles and Patroclus, had they not been driven by their pride, they would not have met with their downfall; the way they did.
Achilles was a great Greek warrior who had helped the Greek with his might and skills. Like all Greek men, he wanted to do his people proud and the people were proud of him. However, his desire for honor leads to his downfall when he confronts the king over a woman. He had been given the woman as a prize for his valor in war against the Trojans.
When the king takes away the woman (prize he had given to Achilles), Achilles out of pride challenges the king and refuses to go to war. His decision not to go to war against the Trojans is what prompted Patroclus to pick up his armor to face Hector. Moreover, apart from refusing to fight for the Greek, Achilles out of pride chooses to argue or disobey the gods.
Priam, his mother intervenes, and again out of pride, Achilles chooses glory over a long life. In the life of Achilles, one can see pride or honor being prioritized over every other important thing. For instance, it is out of pride that Achilles refuses to go to battle prompting his friend Patroclus to stand in to lead the Greek armies against the Trojans.
Patroclus, just like Achilles, was a great warrior. He was one of the great warriors from the Greek side and would have been instrumental in defeating Hectors on behalf of the Achaeans.
However, desire for honor and pride got the better of him. Hectors was more skilled and the only person who could match him from the Greek side was Achilles. Patroclus had been warned against engaging or fighting Hector because he was not his match. However, as it would have been expected of any Greek hero, Patroclus goes against every warning that he should not engage Hectors in a battle.
Having won a number of battles, he is so full of himself that he thinks not engaging or fighting Hectors is a cowardly act. Secondly, he also stands up to Hectors to save himself the shame of having failed his people in a battle. Consequently, this willfulness leads him into dying at the hands of Hectors.
In conclusion, from the two examples given, it is clear that the Greek priced pride over all other values such as safety. It can also be noted that desire for honor and pride, among Greek heroes, was what propelled them to great heights but also what led to their downfall. In search for honor, the heroes did their people proud but out of pride they often became willful and untactful leading to their downfall. | 681 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Judaism, G-d is neither male nor female The Talmud says both good and bad things about women Women are not required to perform certain commandments Certain commandments are reserved specifically for women The first of the month is a minor festival for women Men and women sit separately in traditional synagogues The idea of Lilith as a feminist hero is based on a questionable source The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah Jewish Law that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil law as recently as a century ago. Many of the important feminist leaders of the 20th century Gloria Steinem, for example, and Betty Friedan are Jewish women, and some commentators have suggested that this is no coincidence: In traditional Judaism, women are for the most part seen as separate but equal.
Women in the Bible Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. A common phenomenon in the bible is the pivotal role that women take in subverting man-made power structures.
The result is often a more just outcome than what would have taken place under ordinary circumstances.
The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai; however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements, and to ensure that the members of their household wives, children, and slaves met these requirements as well.
In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. Levirate marriage is not performed in our times.
Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times; however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.
These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.
Women as well as men were required to make a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem once a year men each of the three main festivals if they could and offer the Passover sacrifice. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a todah "thanksgiving" offering after childbirth.
Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non- Levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale. Women depended on men economically.
Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings". Halacha also provides women with material and emotional protections that most non-Jewish women did not enjoy during the first millennium of the Common Era.
The Talmud states that: Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the righteous women than to righteous men Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine Women are light on raw knowledge — i.
Let me arise before the approach of the divine presence Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its Israel righteous women A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong Women have greater faith than men Women have greater powers of discernment Women are especially tenderhearted While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands.
Occasionally they have a public persona. When Eleazar ben Arach was asked to assume the role of Nasi "Prince" or President of the Sanhedrinhe replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.
Avraham Grossman argues in his book, Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe, that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood.
The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under US civil law as . Women in Judaism on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
Particular issues "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy", Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson.
The Role of Women From ancient times to modern times, the position of women in Jewish society has often been challenged and reformed. From the first century when women had no rights, to recent history where women are granted the right to become ordained rabbis, they are in a constant motion to fight for more equality among the men.
Jewish Women in the Bible. Traditional Jewish Sources on Women. Jewish Gender Relations and Feminism.
Not surprisingly, in a patriarchal culture in which women function primarily as daughters, wives, and mothers of particular men, women have virtually no property rights. two spheres in which women played an active role, were central to.
The Jewish Oral Tradition provides us with a fascinating insight into this grammatical oddity. The first human, it tells us, was really an androgynous being, both male and female in one body, sophisticated and self-sufficient.
The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil . | <urn:uuid:ea7f36c8-acfb-4372-826e-eeee02e81e0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puhonuhuciqugide.barnweddingvt.com/role-of-women-in-jewish-culture-8039gp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.98072 | 1,244 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.003142585... | 1 | In Judaism, G-d is neither male nor female The Talmud says both good and bad things about women Women are not required to perform certain commandments Certain commandments are reserved specifically for women The first of the month is a minor festival for women Men and women sit separately in traditional synagogues The idea of Lilith as a feminist hero is based on a questionable source The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah Jewish Law that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil law as recently as a century ago. Many of the important feminist leaders of the 20th century Gloria Steinem, for example, and Betty Friedan are Jewish women, and some commentators have suggested that this is no coincidence: In traditional Judaism, women are for the most part seen as separate but equal.
Women in the Bible Relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. A common phenomenon in the bible is the pivotal role that women take in subverting man-made power structures.
The result is often a more just outcome than what would have taken place under ordinary circumstances.
The Torah relates that both Israelite men and Israelite women were present at Sinai; however, the covenant was worded in such a way that it bound men to act upon its requirements, and to ensure that the members of their household wives, children, and slaves met these requirements as well.
In this sense, the covenant bound women as well, though indirectly. For example, a husband could divorce a wife if he chose to, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. Levirate marriage is not performed in our times.
Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that women were subordinate to men during biblical times; however, they also suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount.
These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual relations to their wives.
Women as well as men were required to make a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem once a year men each of the three main festivals if they could and offer the Passover sacrifice. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a todah "thanksgiving" offering after childbirth.
Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non- Levitical men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and generally more discreet scale. Women depended on men economically.
Even "in such cases, women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings". Halacha also provides women with material and emotional protections that most non-Jewish women did not enjoy during the first millennium of the Common Era.
The Talmud states that: Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the righteous women than to righteous men Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine Women are light on raw knowledge — i.
Let me arise before the approach of the divine presence Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its Israel righteous women A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong Women have greater faith than men Women have greater powers of discernment Women are especially tenderhearted While few women are mentioned by name in rabbinic literature, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands.
Occasionally they have a public persona. When Eleazar ben Arach was asked to assume the role of Nasi "Prince" or President of the Sanhedrinhe replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.
Avraham Grossman argues in his book, Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe, that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by the society around them: Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood.
The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under US civil law as . Women in Judaism on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
Particular issues "Wuhsha the Broker: Jewish Women in the Medieval Economy", Jewish History Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson.
The Role of Women From ancient times to modern times, the position of women in Jewish society has often been challenged and reformed. From the first century when women had no rights, to recent history where women are granted the right to become ordained rabbis, they are in a constant motion to fight for more equality among the men.
Jewish Women in the Bible. Traditional Jewish Sources on Women. Jewish Gender Relations and Feminism.
Not surprisingly, in a patriarchal culture in which women function primarily as daughters, wives, and mothers of particular men, women have virtually no property rights. two spheres in which women played an active role, were central to.
The Jewish Oral Tradition provides us with a fascinating insight into this grammatical oddity. The first human, it tells us, was really an androgynous being, both male and female in one body, sophisticated and self-sufficient.
The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil . | 1,236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We hear a lot right now about tensions between different generations: baby-boomers versus millennials, for example. But those born 200 years ago combined characteristics of both these modern generations.
The most famous person born in 1819 is probably Queen Victoria – but she had many important contemporaries. One of these was George Eliot, a pioneering woman writer who would have turned 200 this week, and whose life and work helps us understand her world and ours.
The 1819 cohort was part of a post-war baby boom. The previous decades had been dominated by a world war, which broke out in the wake of the French Revolution and raged across Europe and parts of Africa, Asia and the Americas for more than 20 years.
In some ways, they were much less fortunate than 20th-century baby boomers. Their childhoods did not see the foundation of a post-war welfare state. On the contrary, the repressive government continued to forbid protests. In August 1819, working people met at St Peter’s Fields near Manchester for a political rally, but the local cavalry charged in to clear the crowd. At least ten people were killed and hundreds were injured.
This became known as the Peterloo Massacre, emphasising that violence and suffering had not ended with Waterloo. 1819 was not an auspicious time to be born.
The Peterloo massacre in Manchester on August 16, 1819, in which at least ten people were killed.Richard Carlile (1790 - 1843)
The Victorian era saw a huge population boom and mass migration within Britain. George Eliot was born Mary Ann Evans in the rural Midlands, at a point when most people lived outside of towns. But, by the 1850s, for the first time more than half of people in Britain were urban. And Eliot became one of them – like many contemporaries she left for the big city, and never went back.
The life she made for herself in London, however, was very unusual. She seized the chance of a career when very few Victorian women had such a thing, and took on a new identity as a translator and journalist. Then she and a married man fell in love.
They set up home together, and while she saw her life-partnership with GH Lewes as a marriage, she would always be seen by polite society as “living in sin”.
When she started to write novels in her late 30s, she wrote under a male disguise. She was found out before long, but the name George Eliot stuck. It enabled her to write with the kind of masculine authority often denied to other women writers of her generation.
Class of 1819
Few millennials have a “job for life” – and many are by necessity juggling portfolio careers. We might think of this as a new phenomenon, but both elements would have been familiar to the generation born 200 years ago. At that time, few people had much choice over what they did for a living. They followed their parents’ or local trades, working on farms, as servants or in the new steam-powered mills and factories.
In all these sectors, security was minimal and many migrated to follow the work. On the other hand, if you were educated and could afford it, there was freedom to explore.
It was quite a cohort. Among the notable individuals turning 200 this year are several others who had enormous influence on the world around them. John Ruskin made his name as an art critic, but was also an impassioned social commentator who wrote on everything from geology to economics. Ernest Jones grew up around royal courts and trained as a lawyer, but became a poet. He joined the radical Chartist movement that campaigned for the working-class vote, was imprisoned for it, and ended up a politician.
Meanwhile, Charles Kingsley’s novel The Water Babies (1863) successfully helped stop young boys being forced to work as chimney sweeps.
Joseph Bazalgette was a civil engineer who rescued London from the Great Stink by building a majestic sewer system, but he also enjoyed art and designed the Crossness Pumping Station to look like a medieval cathedral.
These people’s careers often spanned arts and sciences, invention and creativity, theory and activism, in ways few do today.
Today’s millennials have seen the arrival and all-encompassing spread of the internet. The 1819 generation also navigated new communication networks: their teenage years were the years of the first railways. They made the most of this new technology, and by the end of their lives train travel had become normal – it’s what enabled Queen Victoria to make regular trips to her highland home at Balmoral.
But industrialisation and railway building also caused huge upheaval. In her masterpiece novel Middlemarch (1871-72) – set in the Midlands during her teenage years – Eliot depicts this upheaval. She initially presents the anti-railway protesters as narrow-minded yokels, but eventually acknowledges that these men “are in possession of an undeniable truth” – the fact that they wouldn’t see any of the “social benefit” from the railways. Eliot knew that technological “progress” would damage the rural communities it left behind.
We often think of generational identities and divides as new, but the generation born 200 years ago also often found itself in a generation gap. Millennials and baby-boomers both share experiences with the 1819 generation – which suggests that these two living groups are not opposites after all.
Helen Kingstone is the Surrey Research Fellow, University of Surrey.
This article originally appeared on The Conversation. | <urn:uuid:b1779da4-099a-45da-af48-3b7084262cc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scroll.in/article/944685/writer-george-eliot-has-valuable-lessons-for-todays-millennials-and-baby-boomers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.986178 | 1,158 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.19842326641... | 3 | We hear a lot right now about tensions between different generations: baby-boomers versus millennials, for example. But those born 200 years ago combined characteristics of both these modern generations.
The most famous person born in 1819 is probably Queen Victoria – but she had many important contemporaries. One of these was George Eliot, a pioneering woman writer who would have turned 200 this week, and whose life and work helps us understand her world and ours.
The 1819 cohort was part of a post-war baby boom. The previous decades had been dominated by a world war, which broke out in the wake of the French Revolution and raged across Europe and parts of Africa, Asia and the Americas for more than 20 years.
In some ways, they were much less fortunate than 20th-century baby boomers. Their childhoods did not see the foundation of a post-war welfare state. On the contrary, the repressive government continued to forbid protests. In August 1819, working people met at St Peter’s Fields near Manchester for a political rally, but the local cavalry charged in to clear the crowd. At least ten people were killed and hundreds were injured.
This became known as the Peterloo Massacre, emphasising that violence and suffering had not ended with Waterloo. 1819 was not an auspicious time to be born.
The Peterloo massacre in Manchester on August 16, 1819, in which at least ten people were killed.Richard Carlile (1790 - 1843)
The Victorian era saw a huge population boom and mass migration within Britain. George Eliot was born Mary Ann Evans in the rural Midlands, at a point when most people lived outside of towns. But, by the 1850s, for the first time more than half of people in Britain were urban. And Eliot became one of them – like many contemporaries she left for the big city, and never went back.
The life she made for herself in London, however, was very unusual. She seized the chance of a career when very few Victorian women had such a thing, and took on a new identity as a translator and journalist. Then she and a married man fell in love.
They set up home together, and while she saw her life-partnership with GH Lewes as a marriage, she would always be seen by polite society as “living in sin”.
When she started to write novels in her late 30s, she wrote under a male disguise. She was found out before long, but the name George Eliot stuck. It enabled her to write with the kind of masculine authority often denied to other women writers of her generation.
Class of 1819
Few millennials have a “job for life” – and many are by necessity juggling portfolio careers. We might think of this as a new phenomenon, but both elements would have been familiar to the generation born 200 years ago. At that time, few people had much choice over what they did for a living. They followed their parents’ or local trades, working on farms, as servants or in the new steam-powered mills and factories.
In all these sectors, security was minimal and many migrated to follow the work. On the other hand, if you were educated and could afford it, there was freedom to explore.
It was quite a cohort. Among the notable individuals turning 200 this year are several others who had enormous influence on the world around them. John Ruskin made his name as an art critic, but was also an impassioned social commentator who wrote on everything from geology to economics. Ernest Jones grew up around royal courts and trained as a lawyer, but became a poet. He joined the radical Chartist movement that campaigned for the working-class vote, was imprisoned for it, and ended up a politician.
Meanwhile, Charles Kingsley’s novel The Water Babies (1863) successfully helped stop young boys being forced to work as chimney sweeps.
Joseph Bazalgette was a civil engineer who rescued London from the Great Stink by building a majestic sewer system, but he also enjoyed art and designed the Crossness Pumping Station to look like a medieval cathedral.
These people’s careers often spanned arts and sciences, invention and creativity, theory and activism, in ways few do today.
Today’s millennials have seen the arrival and all-encompassing spread of the internet. The 1819 generation also navigated new communication networks: their teenage years were the years of the first railways. They made the most of this new technology, and by the end of their lives train travel had become normal – it’s what enabled Queen Victoria to make regular trips to her highland home at Balmoral.
But industrialisation and railway building also caused huge upheaval. In her masterpiece novel Middlemarch (1871-72) – set in the Midlands during her teenage years – Eliot depicts this upheaval. She initially presents the anti-railway protesters as narrow-minded yokels, but eventually acknowledges that these men “are in possession of an undeniable truth” – the fact that they wouldn’t see any of the “social benefit” from the railways. Eliot knew that technological “progress” would damage the rural communities it left behind.
We often think of generational identities and divides as new, but the generation born 200 years ago also often found itself in a generation gap. Millennials and baby-boomers both share experiences with the 1819 generation – which suggests that these two living groups are not opposites after all.
Helen Kingstone is the Surrey Research Fellow, University of Surrey.
This article originally appeared on The Conversation. | 1,179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When young students go to school, there are many things they are typically taught. They are all important in one way or the other. Reading is one of the essential skills that have to be among the lessons. Quite a number of students will generally have a challenge with this. It is generally because of the fact that it is a different language from the first one they had when they were growing. This calls for the teacher to use different skills and techniques to ensure they teach the students how to read.
The initial stages of this process are to ensure they develop that interest in the students. When students become interested in reading, they will become more motivated. The more they are motivated, the more they will work hard towards acquiring that skill. There are many students who are able to gain the ability and read well after they are motivated towards reading. There are various ways through which a teacher can motivate the students to become good readers. This can be done by doing the reading in class. When the teacher reads loudly in class, the students will also want to read like their teacher.
The teacher can also start introducing this to the other students who are able to read. When the students also read in class, the other students who are not yet ready to read, they can also look forward to becoming good readers. This will be a good challenge for them. They will also want to read like the other students. This kind of competition is essential to students who are on the same level. Those who are able to read should also be motivated to improve their reading skills. When this process continues, the students will keep growing and becoming better in their reading.
There is a need for the teacher also to introduce interesting books to the students. The teacher should also ask the students to select the book they would want to read. When a student understands the publication of their choice, they will also be better readers and will also be motivated to learn. The books that are introduced to learners should be clear books that are easy to understand. The stories in the books should also be educative. This way, their reading will sharpen their reading skills and also help in impacting them with different lessons.
There is a need for the teacher also to be able to have a good relationship with the student. This will help in ensuring the students will be free to express themselves to the teacher. The teacher should also be kind to the students. They should also not be harsh to slow learners. They should preferably be patient with them. They should also be helpful and supportive. With these kinds of teaching, there is no leaner who will be having a challenge with reading. There are those who can take longer, but eventually, they will all be able to read. With these skills, it will be easy for a teacher to teach students to read. | <urn:uuid:f647bf0c-806b-4073-add7-12e571792da8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://upx100.com/category/travel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.988224 | 568 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.304023504257... | 25 | When young students go to school, there are many things they are typically taught. They are all important in one way or the other. Reading is one of the essential skills that have to be among the lessons. Quite a number of students will generally have a challenge with this. It is generally because of the fact that it is a different language from the first one they had when they were growing. This calls for the teacher to use different skills and techniques to ensure they teach the students how to read.
The initial stages of this process are to ensure they develop that interest in the students. When students become interested in reading, they will become more motivated. The more they are motivated, the more they will work hard towards acquiring that skill. There are many students who are able to gain the ability and read well after they are motivated towards reading. There are various ways through which a teacher can motivate the students to become good readers. This can be done by doing the reading in class. When the teacher reads loudly in class, the students will also want to read like their teacher.
The teacher can also start introducing this to the other students who are able to read. When the students also read in class, the other students who are not yet ready to read, they can also look forward to becoming good readers. This will be a good challenge for them. They will also want to read like the other students. This kind of competition is essential to students who are on the same level. Those who are able to read should also be motivated to improve their reading skills. When this process continues, the students will keep growing and becoming better in their reading.
There is a need for the teacher also to introduce interesting books to the students. The teacher should also ask the students to select the book they would want to read. When a student understands the publication of their choice, they will also be better readers and will also be motivated to learn. The books that are introduced to learners should be clear books that are easy to understand. The stories in the books should also be educative. This way, their reading will sharpen their reading skills and also help in impacting them with different lessons.
There is a need for the teacher also to be able to have a good relationship with the student. This will help in ensuring the students will be free to express themselves to the teacher. The teacher should also be kind to the students. They should also not be harsh to slow learners. They should preferably be patient with them. They should also be helpful and supportive. With these kinds of teaching, there is no leaner who will be having a challenge with reading. There are those who can take longer, but eventually, they will all be able to read. With these skills, it will be easy for a teacher to teach students to read. | 563 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Pool of Siloam (Hebrew: בריכת השילוח, Breikhat Hashiloah) was a rock-cut pool on the southern slope of the City of David, the original site of Jerusalem, located outside the walls of the Old City to the southeast. The pool was fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, carried there by two aqueducts.
The Pool of Siloam was first built during the reign of Hezekiah (715–687/6 BCE), to provide a water supply inside the City to protect it from a siege. The pool was fed by the newly constructed Siloam tunnel. Prior to this, the Gihon Spring had emptied in a large open basin at its source, before being conveyed to the City by an aqueduct. This basin is sometimes known as the Upper Pool (2 Kings 18:17, Isaiah 7:3). This aqueduct was very vulnerable to attackers, so, under threat from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, Hezekiah sealed up the old outlet of the Gihon Spring and the Upper Pool, and built the underground Siloam tunnel in place of the aqueduct (2 Chronicles 32:2-4). During this period the Pool of Siloam was therefore sometimes known as the Lower Pool (Isaiah 22:9). It seems likely that during the Governorship of Nehemiah (from 445 BCE), the pool was also known as the King's Pool (Nehemiah 2:14).
The pool was reconstructed no earlier than the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), although it is not clear whether this pool was in the same location as Hezekiah's pool — if so, all traces of the earlier construction have been destroyed. The pool remained in use during the time of Jesus. According to the Gospel of John, Jesus sent "a man blind from birth" in order to complete his healing. As a freshwater reservoir, the pool would have been a major gathering place for ancient Jews making religious pilgrimages to the city. Some scholars, influenced by Jesus commanding the blind man to wash in the pool, suggest that it was probably used as a mikvah (ritual bath).
Now as Jesus passed by, He saw a man who was blind from birth. 2 And His disciples asked Him, saying, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” 3 Jesus answered, “Neither this man nor his parents sinned, but that the works of God should be revealed in him. 4 I must work the works of Him who sent Me while it is day; the night is coming when no one can work. 5 As long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world.” 6 When He had said these things, He spat on the ground and made clay with the saliva; and He anointed the eyes of the blind man with the clay. 7 And He said to him, “Go, wash in the pool of Siloam” (which is translated, Sent). So he went and washed, and came back seeing. 8 Therefore the neighbors and those who previously had seen that he was blind said, “Is not this he who sat and begged?” 9 Some said, “This is he.” Others said, “He is like him.” He said, “I am he.” 10 Therefore they said to him, “How were your eyes opened?” 11 He answered and said, “A Man called Jesus made clay and anointed my eyes and said to me, ‘Go to the pool of Siloam and wash.’ So I went and washed, and I received sight.” 12 Then they said to him, “Where is He?” He said, “I do not know.” 13 They brought him who formerly was blind to the Pharisees. 14 Now it was a Sabbath when Jesus made the clay and opened his eyes. 15 Then the Pharisees also asked him again how he had received his sight. He said to them, “He put clay on my eyes, and I washed, and I see.” 16 Therefore some of the Pharisees said, “This Man is not from God, because He does not keep the Sabbath.” Others said, “How can a man who is a sinner do such signs?” And there was a division among them. 17 They said to the blind man again, “What do you say about Him because He opened your eyes?” He said, “He is a prophet.” 18 But the Jews did not believe concerning him, that he had been blind and received his sight, until they called the parents of him who had received his sight. 19 And they asked them, saying, “Is this your son, who you say was born blind? How then does he now see?” 20 His parents answered them and said, “We know that this is our son, and that he was born blind; 21 but by what means he now sees we do not know, or who opened his eyes we do not know. He is of age; ask him. He will speak for himself.” 22 His parents said these things because they feared the Jews, for the Jews had agreed already that if anyone confessed that He was Christ, he would be put out of the synagogue. 23 Therefore his parents said, “He is of age; ask him.” 24 So they again called the man who was blind, and said to him, “Give God the glory! We know that this Man is a sinner.” 25 He answered and said, “Whether He is a sinner or not I do not know. One thing I know: that though I was blind, now I see.” 26 Then they said to him again, “What did He do to you? How did He open your eyes?” 27 He answered them, “I told you already, and you did not listen. Why do you want to hear it again? Do you also want to become His disciples?” 28 Then they reviled him and said, “You are His disciple, but we are Moses’ disciples. 29 We know that God spoke to Moses; as for this fellow,we do not know where He is from.” 30 The man answered and said to them, “Why, this is a marvelous thing, that you do not know where He is from; yet He has opened my eyes! 31 Now we know that God does not hear sinners; but if anyone is a worshiper of God and does His will, He hears him. 32 Since the world began it has been unheard of that anyone opened the eyes of one who was born blind. 33 If this Man were not from God, He could do nothing.” 34 They answered and said to him, “You were completely born in sins, and are you teaching us?” And they cast him out. 35 Jesus heard that they had cast him out; and when He had found him, He said to him, “Do you believe in the Son of God?” 36 He answered and said, “Who is He, Lord, that I may believe in Him?” 37 And Jesus said to him, “You have both seen Him and it is He who is talking with you.” 38 Then he said, “Lord, I believe!” And he worshiped Him. 39 And Jesus said, “For judgment I have come into this world, that those who do not see may see, and that those who see may be made blind.” 40 Then some of the Pharisees who were with Him heard these words, and said to Him, “Are we blind also?” 41 Jesus said to them, “If you were blind, you would have no sin; but now you say, ‘We see.’ Therefore your sin remains.
Map Link: HERE
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0.16744104027748108,... | 11 | The Pool of Siloam (Hebrew: בריכת השילוח, Breikhat Hashiloah) was a rock-cut pool on the southern slope of the City of David, the original site of Jerusalem, located outside the walls of the Old City to the southeast. The pool was fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, carried there by two aqueducts.
The Pool of Siloam was first built during the reign of Hezekiah (715–687/6 BCE), to provide a water supply inside the City to protect it from a siege. The pool was fed by the newly constructed Siloam tunnel. Prior to this, the Gihon Spring had emptied in a large open basin at its source, before being conveyed to the City by an aqueduct. This basin is sometimes known as the Upper Pool (2 Kings 18:17, Isaiah 7:3). This aqueduct was very vulnerable to attackers, so, under threat from the Assyrian king Sennacherib, Hezekiah sealed up the old outlet of the Gihon Spring and the Upper Pool, and built the underground Siloam tunnel in place of the aqueduct (2 Chronicles 32:2-4). During this period the Pool of Siloam was therefore sometimes known as the Lower Pool (Isaiah 22:9). It seems likely that during the Governorship of Nehemiah (from 445 BCE), the pool was also known as the King's Pool (Nehemiah 2:14).
The pool was reconstructed no earlier than the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), although it is not clear whether this pool was in the same location as Hezekiah's pool — if so, all traces of the earlier construction have been destroyed. The pool remained in use during the time of Jesus. According to the Gospel of John, Jesus sent "a man blind from birth" in order to complete his healing. As a freshwater reservoir, the pool would have been a major gathering place for ancient Jews making religious pilgrimages to the city. Some scholars, influenced by Jesus commanding the blind man to wash in the pool, suggest that it was probably used as a mikvah (ritual bath).
Now as Jesus passed by, He saw a man who was blind from birth. 2 And His disciples asked Him, saying, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?” 3 Jesus answered, “Neither this man nor his parents sinned, but that the works of God should be revealed in him. 4 I must work the works of Him who sent Me while it is day; the night is coming when no one can work. 5 As long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world.” 6 When He had said these things, He spat on the ground and made clay with the saliva; and He anointed the eyes of the blind man with the clay. 7 And He said to him, “Go, wash in the pool of Siloam” (which is translated, Sent). So he went and washed, and came back seeing. 8 Therefore the neighbors and those who previously had seen that he was blind said, “Is not this he who sat and begged?” 9 Some said, “This is he.” Others said, “He is like him.” He said, “I am he.” 10 Therefore they said to him, “How were your eyes opened?” 11 He answered and said, “A Man called Jesus made clay and anointed my eyes and said to me, ‘Go to the pool of Siloam and wash.’ So I went and washed, and I received sight.” 12 Then they said to him, “Where is He?” He said, “I do not know.” 13 They brought him who formerly was blind to the Pharisees. 14 Now it was a Sabbath when Jesus made the clay and opened his eyes. 15 Then the Pharisees also asked him again how he had received his sight. He said to them, “He put clay on my eyes, and I washed, and I see.” 16 Therefore some of the Pharisees said, “This Man is not from God, because He does not keep the Sabbath.” Others said, “How can a man who is a sinner do such signs?” And there was a division among them. 17 They said to the blind man again, “What do you say about Him because He opened your eyes?” He said, “He is a prophet.” 18 But the Jews did not believe concerning him, that he had been blind and received his sight, until they called the parents of him who had received his sight. 19 And they asked them, saying, “Is this your son, who you say was born blind? How then does he now see?” 20 His parents answered them and said, “We know that this is our son, and that he was born blind; 21 but by what means he now sees we do not know, or who opened his eyes we do not know. He is of age; ask him. He will speak for himself.” 22 His parents said these things because they feared the Jews, for the Jews had agreed already that if anyone confessed that He was Christ, he would be put out of the synagogue. 23 Therefore his parents said, “He is of age; ask him.” 24 So they again called the man who was blind, and said to him, “Give God the glory! We know that this Man is a sinner.” 25 He answered and said, “Whether He is a sinner or not I do not know. One thing I know: that though I was blind, now I see.” 26 Then they said to him again, “What did He do to you? How did He open your eyes?” 27 He answered them, “I told you already, and you did not listen. Why do you want to hear it again? Do you also want to become His disciples?” 28 Then they reviled him and said, “You are His disciple, but we are Moses’ disciples. 29 We know that God spoke to Moses; as for this fellow,we do not know where He is from.” 30 The man answered and said to them, “Why, this is a marvelous thing, that you do not know where He is from; yet He has opened my eyes! 31 Now we know that God does not hear sinners; but if anyone is a worshiper of God and does His will, He hears him. 32 Since the world began it has been unheard of that anyone opened the eyes of one who was born blind. 33 If this Man were not from God, He could do nothing.” 34 They answered and said to him, “You were completely born in sins, and are you teaching us?” And they cast him out. 35 Jesus heard that they had cast him out; and when He had found him, He said to him, “Do you believe in the Son of God?” 36 He answered and said, “Who is He, Lord, that I may believe in Him?” 37 And Jesus said to him, “You have both seen Him and it is He who is talking with you.” 38 Then he said, “Lord, I believe!” And he worshiped Him. 39 And Jesus said, “For judgment I have come into this world, that those who do not see may see, and that those who see may be made blind.” 40 Then some of the Pharisees who were with Him heard these words, and said to Him, “Are we blind also?” 41 Jesus said to them, “If you were blind, you would have no sin; but now you say, ‘We see.’ Therefore your sin remains.
Map Link: HERE
Click photo to see larger image and longer description: | 1,686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lecture 26: Greek Manuscripts behind the KJV
Course: Why We Trust Our Bible
Lecture: Greek Manuscripts behind the KJV
I. Why is the KJV different from all the modern translations?
The King James Bible was essentially based on Desiderius Erasmus Greek New Testament which was published in 1516. Erasmus was in a rush to get this published as there were Catholics in Spain who were trying to get one published also. The printing press had already been invented in 1454 and the New Testament had not yet been printed. He worked in Basal, Switzerland to get this done while examining eight different manuscripts only. This is all he had access to and of those eight, he really only used three. He only consulted the others a little. He produced this Greek New Testament on March 1st, 1516 nearly five hundred years ago. It was a very important event because this was the material basis for the reformation. That is what Luther used to start the reformation. But that text was so rushed that a later scholar said that it was the most erroneous published text he had ever seen. It had more mistakes in it than any other printed text he had seen. And that is the basis behind the King James; that was his first edition; he went through a second edition and then the third edition came out in 1522.
II. Give us a History of Textual Receptus
In the meantime, there was a great uproar by a number of people who said, ‘you don’t have the Trinitarian formula in 1st John 5:7, ‘the Father, the Word, and the Spirit, these three are one.’ He didn’t have any manuscripts that said that nor did he make a promise to put it in but he justified why he didn’t. It just so happened in 1520, a scribe by the name of Roy working in English wrote out the entire Greek New Testament and then took from a Latin manuscript those words and put it into 1st John 5:7. Erasmus found out about this and so he was getting a lot of pressure from the Catholic Church; he was a Roman Catholic priest himself. So, he put it into his third, fourth and fifth edition and that is what ended up in the King James Bible.
Altogether, we have found nine manuscripts that either have that wording in the text or in the margin; none of them, earlier than the 11th century. So the earliest manuscript to have this in the text is from the 14th century. It doesn’t go back to the original Greek New Testament. There is no scholar that believes that this is what the original Greek New Testament says. So this was added to the King James and that has been the biggest uproar about modern translations. You are taking out the trinity, they say. Well, what scholars are doing is simply trying to follow what the evidence actually says. We are not taking out the trinity, but instead, an explicit statement about the trinity. But the early church didn’t have that explicit statement. How could they ever have come up with the doctrine of the Trinity unless they had this verse? Well, they did. There is a kind of a myth; people think that if scribes copy a manuscript, they then destroyed them and so on. That didn’t happen nor has it ever happened, that is not what the scribes did. Others have said that the Bible has been translated and retranslated so many times that we can’t possibly tell what the original says. That presupposes that when you translate it, you throw away the original language and then you work with the second language, etc. It doesn’t take but a few seconds of thinking to realize that this is stupid. That is not what happens; the King James Bible, we still have those manuscripts today that the King James New Testament was based on. The oldest is from the 11th century. Eight manuscripts were essentially used.
Today, we have over five thousand and eight hundred Greek New Testament manuscripts. Somewhere between fifteen and twenty thousand manuscripts in other languages; so we have more than a thousand times as many manuscripts, almost in Greek alone than what the King James translators relied on. And our earliest manuscripts don’t go back to the 11th century; they go back to the 2nd century. Almost a thousand times as many manuscripts, almost a thousand years earlier; so modern New Testaments are not based on later data, but the longer we go and as time goes on, we are getting closer and closer to the original text.
III. What is the Difference between Majority Text, Received Text, and TR?
TR, Textual Receptus was an advertising burb in the 1633 Elsevier Text that an uncle and nephew put together. This is the text received by all. The TR is just an abbreviation of that. So the Received Text and TR are synonymous. The ‘majority text’ means that text is based on the majority of manuscripts which in almost every place, there are several places where we have no majority; but in almost every place, it is the Byzantine text. When Erasmus was using eight manuscripts for his translation, since the Byzantine text is eighty to ninety percent of our Greek manuscripts; you would expect him to use them even though there was one manuscript that wasn’t Byzantine. What he did, there was a text that virtually duplicates the Byzantine text or the majority text, except in nearly two thousand places, it differs from the majority text. But the majority text is based on the majority of manuscripts and it wasn’t even published until the 1980s; it was the first time we had a printed text based on the Byzantine manuscripts. Even though it was in the majority of manuscripts, it hasn’t been in the majority of people’s understanding in what those manuscripts actually said. It is especially the King James only people who are adamant and vehement about this issue.
IV. Why do Modern Translations Unanimously Follow the Alexandrian Text Type?
I have actually met people in different parts of the states who have said things like, ‘if the King James Bible is good enough for Paul, it is good enough for me.’ One person wrote to me, emailed me one time, arguing against me and I said that we probably need to deal with the larger issue of why you are Roman Catholic. He wasn’t a Catholic but he was elevating tradition above the text and especially with the KJV which isn’t easily understandable and you are calling this the inspired text, you are assuming there is inspiration that is taking place fifteen hundred years after the original. That is Catholic theology and methodology. The Vulgate was considered the inspired text, the Latin text; that was the only one that was inspired until the 20th century until the Catholic Church in Vatican II said that you can translate from Greek and Hebrew now. Finally, they could do that. It paralleled the methodology of what Catholicism was all about until Vatican II. These people think they fit into Protestantism and are the only upholders of Protestantism when their method is much more Catholic because of this idea of tradition. Erasmus had no basis for some of his readings and there are several places where he had no basis at all; some say that he wrote under inspiration. This is not the Protestant doctrine of inspiration; it is just the apostles and their associates who were inspired.
V. Practical Suggestions for how we Should Respond to Others in this Debate?
There are two ways to approach such people; first you have to show love; you have to be charitable, but secondly, you show them evidence and the kind of evidence that you show them is evidence that causes them to have to choose one of two positions. And like I just said their methodology is that of a Catholic. A lot of them have come out of this realizing the history of the Textual Receptus and the King James and the original preface to the King James where these translators said that it wasn’t the final word on the Word. This is our best effort and we think that it is a good effort. When they understand a little bit more about the history of the King James and the Greek text behind it, and then they come out of this darkness. It is not rational to think that you must be able to read the King James Version of the Bible to even be saved as some think. And I think that one of the problems that I strongly have with those who consider only the King James Version is that it is put above Jesus Christ. The Bible is an infallible pointer to Christ, but the Bible did not die on the Cross in our place. It was not raised from the dead. The Bible is what directs us to him so that we can worship him. | <urn:uuid:a33ce28f-1caa-47c5-a333-fdcc90ccc220> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/lesson26/why_we_trust_our_bible/team_taught | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.984571 | 1,831 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.011832684278... | 9 | Lecture 26: Greek Manuscripts behind the KJV
Course: Why We Trust Our Bible
Lecture: Greek Manuscripts behind the KJV
I. Why is the KJV different from all the modern translations?
The King James Bible was essentially based on Desiderius Erasmus Greek New Testament which was published in 1516. Erasmus was in a rush to get this published as there were Catholics in Spain who were trying to get one published also. The printing press had already been invented in 1454 and the New Testament had not yet been printed. He worked in Basal, Switzerland to get this done while examining eight different manuscripts only. This is all he had access to and of those eight, he really only used three. He only consulted the others a little. He produced this Greek New Testament on March 1st, 1516 nearly five hundred years ago. It was a very important event because this was the material basis for the reformation. That is what Luther used to start the reformation. But that text was so rushed that a later scholar said that it was the most erroneous published text he had ever seen. It had more mistakes in it than any other printed text he had seen. And that is the basis behind the King James; that was his first edition; he went through a second edition and then the third edition came out in 1522.
II. Give us a History of Textual Receptus
In the meantime, there was a great uproar by a number of people who said, ‘you don’t have the Trinitarian formula in 1st John 5:7, ‘the Father, the Word, and the Spirit, these three are one.’ He didn’t have any manuscripts that said that nor did he make a promise to put it in but he justified why he didn’t. It just so happened in 1520, a scribe by the name of Roy working in English wrote out the entire Greek New Testament and then took from a Latin manuscript those words and put it into 1st John 5:7. Erasmus found out about this and so he was getting a lot of pressure from the Catholic Church; he was a Roman Catholic priest himself. So, he put it into his third, fourth and fifth edition and that is what ended up in the King James Bible.
Altogether, we have found nine manuscripts that either have that wording in the text or in the margin; none of them, earlier than the 11th century. So the earliest manuscript to have this in the text is from the 14th century. It doesn’t go back to the original Greek New Testament. There is no scholar that believes that this is what the original Greek New Testament says. So this was added to the King James and that has been the biggest uproar about modern translations. You are taking out the trinity, they say. Well, what scholars are doing is simply trying to follow what the evidence actually says. We are not taking out the trinity, but instead, an explicit statement about the trinity. But the early church didn’t have that explicit statement. How could they ever have come up with the doctrine of the Trinity unless they had this verse? Well, they did. There is a kind of a myth; people think that if scribes copy a manuscript, they then destroyed them and so on. That didn’t happen nor has it ever happened, that is not what the scribes did. Others have said that the Bible has been translated and retranslated so many times that we can’t possibly tell what the original says. That presupposes that when you translate it, you throw away the original language and then you work with the second language, etc. It doesn’t take but a few seconds of thinking to realize that this is stupid. That is not what happens; the King James Bible, we still have those manuscripts today that the King James New Testament was based on. The oldest is from the 11th century. Eight manuscripts were essentially used.
Today, we have over five thousand and eight hundred Greek New Testament manuscripts. Somewhere between fifteen and twenty thousand manuscripts in other languages; so we have more than a thousand times as many manuscripts, almost in Greek alone than what the King James translators relied on. And our earliest manuscripts don’t go back to the 11th century; they go back to the 2nd century. Almost a thousand times as many manuscripts, almost a thousand years earlier; so modern New Testaments are not based on later data, but the longer we go and as time goes on, we are getting closer and closer to the original text.
III. What is the Difference between Majority Text, Received Text, and TR?
TR, Textual Receptus was an advertising burb in the 1633 Elsevier Text that an uncle and nephew put together. This is the text received by all. The TR is just an abbreviation of that. So the Received Text and TR are synonymous. The ‘majority text’ means that text is based on the majority of manuscripts which in almost every place, there are several places where we have no majority; but in almost every place, it is the Byzantine text. When Erasmus was using eight manuscripts for his translation, since the Byzantine text is eighty to ninety percent of our Greek manuscripts; you would expect him to use them even though there was one manuscript that wasn’t Byzantine. What he did, there was a text that virtually duplicates the Byzantine text or the majority text, except in nearly two thousand places, it differs from the majority text. But the majority text is based on the majority of manuscripts and it wasn’t even published until the 1980s; it was the first time we had a printed text based on the Byzantine manuscripts. Even though it was in the majority of manuscripts, it hasn’t been in the majority of people’s understanding in what those manuscripts actually said. It is especially the King James only people who are adamant and vehement about this issue.
IV. Why do Modern Translations Unanimously Follow the Alexandrian Text Type?
I have actually met people in different parts of the states who have said things like, ‘if the King James Bible is good enough for Paul, it is good enough for me.’ One person wrote to me, emailed me one time, arguing against me and I said that we probably need to deal with the larger issue of why you are Roman Catholic. He wasn’t a Catholic but he was elevating tradition above the text and especially with the KJV which isn’t easily understandable and you are calling this the inspired text, you are assuming there is inspiration that is taking place fifteen hundred years after the original. That is Catholic theology and methodology. The Vulgate was considered the inspired text, the Latin text; that was the only one that was inspired until the 20th century until the Catholic Church in Vatican II said that you can translate from Greek and Hebrew now. Finally, they could do that. It paralleled the methodology of what Catholicism was all about until Vatican II. These people think they fit into Protestantism and are the only upholders of Protestantism when their method is much more Catholic because of this idea of tradition. Erasmus had no basis for some of his readings and there are several places where he had no basis at all; some say that he wrote under inspiration. This is not the Protestant doctrine of inspiration; it is just the apostles and their associates who were inspired.
V. Practical Suggestions for how we Should Respond to Others in this Debate?
There are two ways to approach such people; first you have to show love; you have to be charitable, but secondly, you show them evidence and the kind of evidence that you show them is evidence that causes them to have to choose one of two positions. And like I just said their methodology is that of a Catholic. A lot of them have come out of this realizing the history of the Textual Receptus and the King James and the original preface to the King James where these translators said that it wasn’t the final word on the Word. This is our best effort and we think that it is a good effort. When they understand a little bit more about the history of the King James and the Greek text behind it, and then they come out of this darkness. It is not rational to think that you must be able to read the King James Version of the Bible to even be saved as some think. And I think that one of the problems that I strongly have with those who consider only the King James Version is that it is put above Jesus Christ. The Bible is an infallible pointer to Christ, but the Bible did not die on the Cross in our place. It was not raised from the dead. The Bible is what directs us to him so that we can worship him. | 1,819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The lode stone's attraction for iron was well known to the Greeks as early as 500 B.C., and is mentioned by Homer, Plato and Aristotle in their writings. It was the original magnet, and was followed, in course of time, by a suspending needle, which has been touched by a lode stone, in order to give it magnetic properties. This was the elementary compass, and was used by Chinese mariners about 1000 A.D. At that time people considered these two magnets as bewitched, and it was not until William Gilbert. a scientist, in the year 1600 A.D., announced that the earth itself was an enormous magnet, that people began to realize the possibilities of magnetism. Today there are two kinds of magnets in common use, the electro-magnet and the steel magnet. The steel magnet is a bar of steel that appears to hold its charge of magnetic force indefinitely, although the force actually is diminishing, but never seems to arrive at a zero quantity. This magnet is used for light work, where electricity is ...
Moving Picture World synopsis | <urn:uuid:14ac3830-5b97-4d97-bfd9-afa32e343f59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0477402/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.984621 | 219 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.23610210418701172... | 1 | The lode stone's attraction for iron was well known to the Greeks as early as 500 B.C., and is mentioned by Homer, Plato and Aristotle in their writings. It was the original magnet, and was followed, in course of time, by a suspending needle, which has been touched by a lode stone, in order to give it magnetic properties. This was the elementary compass, and was used by Chinese mariners about 1000 A.D. At that time people considered these two magnets as bewitched, and it was not until William Gilbert. a scientist, in the year 1600 A.D., announced that the earth itself was an enormous magnet, that people began to realize the possibilities of magnetism. Today there are two kinds of magnets in common use, the electro-magnet and the steel magnet. The steel magnet is a bar of steel that appears to hold its charge of magnetic force indefinitely, although the force actually is diminishing, but never seems to arrive at a zero quantity. This magnet is used for light work, where electricity is ...
Moving Picture World synopsis | 225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Term for a contract between England and Portugal which was completed in Lisbon on December 27, 1703. It is named after the English politician and Lord Chancellor John Methuen (1650-1706), who negotiated this historically important agreement as an extraordinary ambassador to Portugal. The main issue was tariff reductions for Portuguese wine imports into England. Specifically, the treaty provided that England could freely export textiles to Portugal (and its colonies) while Portugal port wine exported to England. It was particularly advantageous for England because it acquired a market for its products during the beginning of the industrial revolution and made Portugal economically dependent on England.
Sales for Portuguese wines were at the expense of all other European wines, in particular France, promoted. England got the wine at a third cheaper price than French or European wines. The contract was the cause of a boom in port wine production and displaced the wines from the Bordeaux and Burgundy to the rear seats. The treaty was a great disadvantage for Portugal because its textile industry was destroyed and as a result the industrial revolution took place much later and to a lesser extent. See also under Factory house,
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0.1398791670799... | 3 | Term for a contract between England and Portugal which was completed in Lisbon on December 27, 1703. It is named after the English politician and Lord Chancellor John Methuen (1650-1706), who negotiated this historically important agreement as an extraordinary ambassador to Portugal. The main issue was tariff reductions for Portuguese wine imports into England. Specifically, the treaty provided that England could freely export textiles to Portugal (and its colonies) while Portugal port wine exported to England. It was particularly advantageous for England because it acquired a market for its products during the beginning of the industrial revolution and made Portugal economically dependent on England.
Sales for Portuguese wines were at the expense of all other European wines, in particular France, promoted. England got the wine at a third cheaper price than French or European wines. The contract was the cause of a boom in port wine production and displaced the wines from the Bordeaux and Burgundy to the rear seats. The treaty was a great disadvantage for Portugal because its textile industry was destroyed and as a result the industrial revolution took place much later and to a lesser extent. See also under Factory house,
Image: By Adrien Carpentiers, public domain, link | 242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay on World War II : A Different Look
Imagine a world in which America had actually lost World War II. Consider the impact the Nazi’s would have had on the world if they were to win. It can be hard to determine as there can be multiple scenarios to how this would play out. Along with this, there is no true way to determine what would have happened. The book, “The Man in The High Castle” takes a look at what the world would be like if the Axis powers had won World War II. The story takes place about twenty years after the war had finished. The Man in the High Castle is contrasting to World
War II because both had different outcomes of the war, both events left the world in a different state than when it started, and each war saw different approaches to the war.
The events that took place before the war in both stories set the stage for how the war would play out. Many people have thought of different scenarios of how the world would have been if the Nazi’s had won World War II. This scenario is discussed in a video at fifty eight seconds where in 1933 FDR is assassinated during a speech he was giving to the public in Miami
Florida (“The World of ‘The Man in the High Castle”). This event ultimately led the United
States to an economic and socioeconomic downfall as the policies set in place by FDR would not happen. In addition, FDR would not be able to pull the United States out of the Great
Depression. This led to the US not having enough to fund their military, or help fund the USSR… | <urn:uuid:2183081e-fe7a-4319-a2a4-caa12166ae75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/World-War-II-A-Different-Look/PKKYL7P2M5ZW | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.983146 | 333 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.342866957187... | 1 | Essay on World War II : A Different Look
Imagine a world in which America had actually lost World War II. Consider the impact the Nazi’s would have had on the world if they were to win. It can be hard to determine as there can be multiple scenarios to how this would play out. Along with this, there is no true way to determine what would have happened. The book, “The Man in The High Castle” takes a look at what the world would be like if the Axis powers had won World War II. The story takes place about twenty years after the war had finished. The Man in the High Castle is contrasting to World
War II because both had different outcomes of the war, both events left the world in a different state than when it started, and each war saw different approaches to the war.
The events that took place before the war in both stories set the stage for how the war would play out. Many people have thought of different scenarios of how the world would have been if the Nazi’s had won World War II. This scenario is discussed in a video at fifty eight seconds where in 1933 FDR is assassinated during a speech he was giving to the public in Miami
Florida (“The World of ‘The Man in the High Castle”). This event ultimately led the United
States to an economic and socioeconomic downfall as the policies set in place by FDR would not happen. In addition, FDR would not be able to pull the United States out of the Great
Depression. This led to the US not having enough to fund their military, or help fund the USSR… | 328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What does the legislature do?
The Legislature is the group of men and women that work to create laws that govern us. Every member of the legislature was chosen by the citizens of South Carolina to represent them and the area they live. These areas are called districts and members have to live in their district to get elected.
The South Carolina legislature is divided into two parts called bodies; the House of Representatives and the Senate. Together they form what we call the General Assembly. The House of Representatives has 124 members. The Senate has 46 members.
Every year from January to May, the General Assembly goes into session where they make new laws and change old ones. Each member is also a part of several committees where they study how law changes will affect the state.
Any member can make suggestions for new laws. These suggestions are called bills. After a bill is suggested, it is read for everyone and then sent to a committee to be studied. Committees can accept, change or reject a bill. When a bill is accepted by everyone of one body, it is considered passed.
The passed bill must then be sent to the other body of the General Assembly for their review. For example, if a bill is passed in the House, it must be sent to the Senate for their review.
If a bill is passed by both parties, it is then sent to the Governor for their signature. When the Governor signs a bill it becomes a law. The signed bill is then called an act. All the laws are combines to form the South Carolina Code of Laws. | <urn:uuid:1de984a7-febf-44bb-8eac-8de1cd73c76b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studentconnection.scstatehouse.gov/what-do-they-do | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.980723 | 314 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.039728172123... | 6 | What does the legislature do?
The Legislature is the group of men and women that work to create laws that govern us. Every member of the legislature was chosen by the citizens of South Carolina to represent them and the area they live. These areas are called districts and members have to live in their district to get elected.
The South Carolina legislature is divided into two parts called bodies; the House of Representatives and the Senate. Together they form what we call the General Assembly. The House of Representatives has 124 members. The Senate has 46 members.
Every year from January to May, the General Assembly goes into session where they make new laws and change old ones. Each member is also a part of several committees where they study how law changes will affect the state.
Any member can make suggestions for new laws. These suggestions are called bills. After a bill is suggested, it is read for everyone and then sent to a committee to be studied. Committees can accept, change or reject a bill. When a bill is accepted by everyone of one body, it is considered passed.
The passed bill must then be sent to the other body of the General Assembly for their review. For example, if a bill is passed in the House, it must be sent to the Senate for their review.
If a bill is passed by both parties, it is then sent to the Governor for their signature. When the Governor signs a bill it becomes a law. The signed bill is then called an act. All the laws are combines to form the South Carolina Code of Laws. | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With the "garden city" movement, wall gardens experienced a boom, because beautiful green trellises and the self-sufficienct trellis fruit were the main pillars of this new greening movement. The settlements built in Jena, Weimar, Leipzig, and elsewhere still show trellises from this period. Typical were trellises (bars and lattices) in chessboard design / chequered pattern, without accentuation of the vertical and without strongly protruding ends of the laths/battens. The lattices were trimmed for style.
The idea of a "green city" became somewhat contagious... initially, it was adopted exclusively in the neo-Germanic (revival) style. Soon thousands of simple single-family houses were built, as well as "social housing buildings" (promoted by the new building societies/savings and loan associations), and with them, wall trellises. The 'green city' idea married itself here with the the international style from time to time. Even hospitals and industrial buildings then became greened, mostly with self-clinging climbers that didn't need a cable or wire system.
The wave of facade greening subsided when it became clear that roses and clematis needed care, pruning, and the time for both. The same was true with the fashionable fruit trellises: without consistent care, no 'prize' (fruit yield) was to be won here. It was finally World War II, circa 1940, which halted the facade gardens and threw them back by a decade. With what was left of facade greening by then in the 1950's, heirs and successors often had no idea about the care and pruning of the climbing plants. 'Greened' buildings and houses therefore became a peripheral theme until the environmental movement was born. | <urn:uuid:53f973ba-68f7-4a56-8d6e-9b9336154c26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fassadengruen.de/en/garden-city-movement.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.982862 | 376 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.38454473018... | 3 | With the "garden city" movement, wall gardens experienced a boom, because beautiful green trellises and the self-sufficienct trellis fruit were the main pillars of this new greening movement. The settlements built in Jena, Weimar, Leipzig, and elsewhere still show trellises from this period. Typical were trellises (bars and lattices) in chessboard design / chequered pattern, without accentuation of the vertical and without strongly protruding ends of the laths/battens. The lattices were trimmed for style.
The idea of a "green city" became somewhat contagious... initially, it was adopted exclusively in the neo-Germanic (revival) style. Soon thousands of simple single-family houses were built, as well as "social housing buildings" (promoted by the new building societies/savings and loan associations), and with them, wall trellises. The 'green city' idea married itself here with the the international style from time to time. Even hospitals and industrial buildings then became greened, mostly with self-clinging climbers that didn't need a cable or wire system.
The wave of facade greening subsided when it became clear that roses and clematis needed care, pruning, and the time for both. The same was true with the fashionable fruit trellises: without consistent care, no 'prize' (fruit yield) was to be won here. It was finally World War II, circa 1940, which halted the facade gardens and threw them back by a decade. With what was left of facade greening by then in the 1950's, heirs and successors often had no idea about the care and pruning of the climbing plants. 'Greened' buildings and houses therefore became a peripheral theme until the environmental movement was born. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NAKED-EYE SUNSPOTS.— A large circular or ‘regular’ spot has recently been in transit across the sun's disc. This is the second appearance of the spot which began its existence more than a month ago in the previous rotation. Its area measured on July 25 was a little more than 500 millionths of the sun's hemisphere, which is about the limit at which spots become naked-eye objects to keen eyesight. Owing probably to its regular outline, the spot was seen without difficulty by several observers. Particulars of its position are given in the table below, including another spot, No. 6, which was on the disc about a month ago. This spot was seen on one or two days only, partly on account of unfavourable weather, but as its area exceeded that of the more recent spot, it has also been tabulated. Spot No. 6 represents the third and last appearance of a naked-eye group whose earlier history is given in NATURE, May 21, p. 759, and June 18, p. 903. | <urn:uuid:4b83a4bd-affb-4783-a4c2-a9bb827df31a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nature.com/articles/120201a0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=313afa4f-9464-4527-8211-74481a6a3796 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.988979 | 221 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.5838788747787... | 1 | NAKED-EYE SUNSPOTS.— A large circular or ‘regular’ spot has recently been in transit across the sun's disc. This is the second appearance of the spot which began its existence more than a month ago in the previous rotation. Its area measured on July 25 was a little more than 500 millionths of the sun's hemisphere, which is about the limit at which spots become naked-eye objects to keen eyesight. Owing probably to its regular outline, the spot was seen without difficulty by several observers. Particulars of its position are given in the table below, including another spot, No. 6, which was on the disc about a month ago. This spot was seen on one or two days only, partly on account of unfavourable weather, but as its area exceeded that of the more recent spot, it has also been tabulated. Spot No. 6 represents the third and last appearance of a naked-eye group whose earlier history is given in NATURE, May 21, p. 759, and June 18, p. 903. | 231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A.D. 96 to 180: "adoptive emperors" era
- Published: May 26, 2011, 8 PM
The 18th century historian Edward Gibbon characterized the period A.D. 96 to 180 as the happiest and most prosperous time the world had ever known. Throughout that time Rome was ruled by the “adoptive emperors,” under whom the empire rose to its height of achievement and then started on the pathway of its long, humbling decline.
The period of the adoptive emperors begins in A.D. 96 with the murder of Domitian (reigned 81 to 96), the last of the “Twelve Caesars.” Until this time in imperial history, emperors had been members of the Julio-Claudian or the Flavian dynasties, or had come to power during civil war.
Collectors rejoice in coins of the adoptive emperors because the series is short, interesting and comparatively affordable. With the exception of gold aurei of the first member, Nerva (A.D. 96 to 98), the gold, silver and base metal coins are comparatively plentiful.
Since Nerva’s predecessor was murdered in a palace coup, the senate took the initiative to select as the new emperor one of their own, an elderly lawyer and legislator named Nerva, who twice had held the office of consul before he ascended the throne.
Perhaps one of his strongest attributes in the eyes of the senate was the fact that he had no children to whom he could aspire to pass the throne. The senate had survived two hereditary monarchies and probably didn’t have the stomach for another.
Some problems loomed, though: The army had been a strong supporter of Domitian, and when their emperor was slain and replaced by a candidate from the senate, without consultation, it was not well received. For this reason, Nerva’s regime was never secure. After surviving plots on his life, Nerva tried to placate the army by adopting as his son (and heir) the general Trajan, then the governor of Upper Germany.
Four months later Trajan became emperor after what is thought to have been the natural death of Nerva, who was elderly. This was the first time in Roman history that an emperor was not succeeded by a close family relative or ousted by a rebel, and it set a precedent for the next few decades.
Trajan (98 to 117) was an effective emperor remembered principally for his building projects and his aggressive expansion of Roman territory — indeed, the size of the empire reached its zenith near the end of his reign.
Except for a few special reverse types on brass sestertii, Nerva’s coinage was rather mundane. The opposite can be said of Trajan’s issues, which were often exciting. He used coinage to chronicle his wars and building projects, all the while honoring the gods with a wide variety of standard reverse types.
Trajan was also childless, which allowed for the perpetuation of the adoptive sequence. The record of Trajan’s succession by a distant relative, Hadrian, is murky. Several ancient sources suggest Trajan did not want Hadrian to succeed him, but that Trajan’s widow, Plotina, orchestrated his succession after her husband’s death.
Whatever the truth, Hadrian (117 to 138) was hailed emperor and ruled for more than two decades. He immediately shrank the empire by pulling back from more remote regions that were difficult (or impossible) to defend, and he better fortified the new borders.
Hadrian is famous for having traveled for most of his reign, and his coinage has some remarkable reverse types, many of which are devoted to his travels and to the provinces he visited.
Near the end of his life Hadrian adopted the nobleman Aelius (who may have been Hadrian’s illegitimate son) as heir, but Aelius died unexpectedly in 138, leaving Hadrian in a bind. He then selected two young men, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, as his successors.
Since they were too young by the standards of the day to rule, Hadrian adopted a mature senator, Antoninus Pius, as his immediate heir. Antoninus Pius (138 to 161) became emperor as a place-holder for Hadrian’s intended heirs but lived far longer than Hadrian probably would have expected.
Unlike Hadrian, who was enamored with Greek culture and traveled for most of his reign, Pius was a thoroughly patriotic Roman for whom there is no record of travels outside Italy during his reign of 23 years.
The coinage of Antoninus Pius is less colorful than that of Trajan or Hadrian, but it nonetheless contains a fascinating series devoted to the 900th anniversary of the foundation of Rome, which occurred under his watch in 148.
Finally, in 161, the reins of power passed to Hadrian’s intended heirs, Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180) and Lucius Verus, who ruled jointly (until Verus died in 169). Their duties were divided, with Aurelius based in the West to guard the northern frontiers of Europe and Verus in the East to keep the Persians at bay.
The coinage of Verus is relatively straightforward, with his notable reverse types devoted to victories against Persia. Aurelius reigned longer, and has some interesting types related to his successes in war and to honors earned during his long reign.
In 180 Marcus Aurelius became the first emperor since Vespasian (69 to 79) to pass the throne to a blood-relative son upon his death. The adoptive emperors are often celebrated for choosing successors based on merit, but the truth is that none of them had blood-relative sons to inherit the throne. Indeed, the first time one of them did, the throne remained in the family.
The saddest commentary on this development is that Marcus Aurelius, renowned as a philosopher-emperor, must have been aware of the poor moral character of his chosen heir, Commodus (sole reign, 180 to 192), and yet could not summon the strength to find a more suitable successor.
The reign of Commodus was among the most depraved in Roman history and when he was murdered in a palace coup on New Year’s Eve, 192, the era of the adoptive emperors came to an end. From that point onward, emperors were elected the old-fashioned way: through family ties or force of arms. ¦
US Coins Jan 24, 2020, 2 PM
US Coins Jan 24, 2020, 2 PM
World Coins Jan 23, 2020, 10 PM
US Coins Jan 23, 2020, 2 PM | <urn:uuid:b786f88a-966e-4487-ba33-e81d1e5ce38d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coinworld.com/news/world-coins/a-d-96-to-180-adoptive-emperors-era.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.984539 | 1,401 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0485175475478172... | 1 | A.D. 96 to 180: "adoptive emperors" era
- Published: May 26, 2011, 8 PM
The 18th century historian Edward Gibbon characterized the period A.D. 96 to 180 as the happiest and most prosperous time the world had ever known. Throughout that time Rome was ruled by the “adoptive emperors,” under whom the empire rose to its height of achievement and then started on the pathway of its long, humbling decline.
The period of the adoptive emperors begins in A.D. 96 with the murder of Domitian (reigned 81 to 96), the last of the “Twelve Caesars.” Until this time in imperial history, emperors had been members of the Julio-Claudian or the Flavian dynasties, or had come to power during civil war.
Collectors rejoice in coins of the adoptive emperors because the series is short, interesting and comparatively affordable. With the exception of gold aurei of the first member, Nerva (A.D. 96 to 98), the gold, silver and base metal coins are comparatively plentiful.
Since Nerva’s predecessor was murdered in a palace coup, the senate took the initiative to select as the new emperor one of their own, an elderly lawyer and legislator named Nerva, who twice had held the office of consul before he ascended the throne.
Perhaps one of his strongest attributes in the eyes of the senate was the fact that he had no children to whom he could aspire to pass the throne. The senate had survived two hereditary monarchies and probably didn’t have the stomach for another.
Some problems loomed, though: The army had been a strong supporter of Domitian, and when their emperor was slain and replaced by a candidate from the senate, without consultation, it was not well received. For this reason, Nerva’s regime was never secure. After surviving plots on his life, Nerva tried to placate the army by adopting as his son (and heir) the general Trajan, then the governor of Upper Germany.
Four months later Trajan became emperor after what is thought to have been the natural death of Nerva, who was elderly. This was the first time in Roman history that an emperor was not succeeded by a close family relative or ousted by a rebel, and it set a precedent for the next few decades.
Trajan (98 to 117) was an effective emperor remembered principally for his building projects and his aggressive expansion of Roman territory — indeed, the size of the empire reached its zenith near the end of his reign.
Except for a few special reverse types on brass sestertii, Nerva’s coinage was rather mundane. The opposite can be said of Trajan’s issues, which were often exciting. He used coinage to chronicle his wars and building projects, all the while honoring the gods with a wide variety of standard reverse types.
Trajan was also childless, which allowed for the perpetuation of the adoptive sequence. The record of Trajan’s succession by a distant relative, Hadrian, is murky. Several ancient sources suggest Trajan did not want Hadrian to succeed him, but that Trajan’s widow, Plotina, orchestrated his succession after her husband’s death.
Whatever the truth, Hadrian (117 to 138) was hailed emperor and ruled for more than two decades. He immediately shrank the empire by pulling back from more remote regions that were difficult (or impossible) to defend, and he better fortified the new borders.
Hadrian is famous for having traveled for most of his reign, and his coinage has some remarkable reverse types, many of which are devoted to his travels and to the provinces he visited.
Near the end of his life Hadrian adopted the nobleman Aelius (who may have been Hadrian’s illegitimate son) as heir, but Aelius died unexpectedly in 138, leaving Hadrian in a bind. He then selected two young men, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, as his successors.
Since they were too young by the standards of the day to rule, Hadrian adopted a mature senator, Antoninus Pius, as his immediate heir. Antoninus Pius (138 to 161) became emperor as a place-holder for Hadrian’s intended heirs but lived far longer than Hadrian probably would have expected.
Unlike Hadrian, who was enamored with Greek culture and traveled for most of his reign, Pius was a thoroughly patriotic Roman for whom there is no record of travels outside Italy during his reign of 23 years.
The coinage of Antoninus Pius is less colorful than that of Trajan or Hadrian, but it nonetheless contains a fascinating series devoted to the 900th anniversary of the foundation of Rome, which occurred under his watch in 148.
Finally, in 161, the reins of power passed to Hadrian’s intended heirs, Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180) and Lucius Verus, who ruled jointly (until Verus died in 169). Their duties were divided, with Aurelius based in the West to guard the northern frontiers of Europe and Verus in the East to keep the Persians at bay.
The coinage of Verus is relatively straightforward, with his notable reverse types devoted to victories against Persia. Aurelius reigned longer, and has some interesting types related to his successes in war and to honors earned during his long reign.
In 180 Marcus Aurelius became the first emperor since Vespasian (69 to 79) to pass the throne to a blood-relative son upon his death. The adoptive emperors are often celebrated for choosing successors based on merit, but the truth is that none of them had blood-relative sons to inherit the throne. Indeed, the first time one of them did, the throne remained in the family.
The saddest commentary on this development is that Marcus Aurelius, renowned as a philosopher-emperor, must have been aware of the poor moral character of his chosen heir, Commodus (sole reign, 180 to 192), and yet could not summon the strength to find a more suitable successor.
The reign of Commodus was among the most depraved in Roman history and when he was murdered in a palace coup on New Year’s Eve, 192, the era of the adoptive emperors came to an end. From that point onward, emperors were elected the old-fashioned way: through family ties or force of arms. ¦
US Coins Jan 24, 2020, 2 PM
US Coins Jan 24, 2020, 2 PM
World Coins Jan 23, 2020, 10 PM
US Coins Jan 23, 2020, 2 PM | 1,456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CBSE Class 8 English Sample Paper Set 11.Sample Papers are the very important for every student. The sample papers should be practiced to gain extra marks in examinations. The sample papers have been prepared based on summative assessment1 and summative assessment 2 pattern. The sample papers have been prepared based on pattern of last year examinations and as per latest changes in the syllabus. Students, teachers and parents can download all CBSE educational material and very well prepared worksheets from this website. All CBSE educational material is developed by our panel of teachers, have also been submitted by CBSE teachers and students.
Q1 Read the following passage carefully:
A certain king once fell ill and the doctors declared that only a sudden fright would restore him to health, but the king was not a man for anyone to play tricks on, except his fool. One day, when the fool was with him in his boat, he cleverly pushed the king into the water. Help had been previously provided and the king was drawn ashore and put to bed. The fright, the bath and the bed cured the diseased king ; but he was so angry with the fool that he turned him out of the country. The fool returned, however, and the king ordered him to be put to death. Saying privately that he would only repay fright with fright, he directed the executioner not to use the axe but let fall a single drop of water on the fool’s neck. Then fool was led to the jail. The executioner dropped a drop of water on the fool’s neck. The amid shouts and laughter, the fool was asked to rise and thank the king for his kindness. But the fool never moved ; he was dead-killed by his master’s joke.
1.1 Complete the following on the basis of your reading of the 8 passage:
a. The king would recover from his illness only if _______.
b. The fool played a trick on the king and he ________ .
c. The king turned the fool out of the country because_____.
d. The fool did not rise to thank the king for his kindness____.
1.2 Find out words from the passage which mean the same as: 2
a. bring back to former condition.
b. Public official who carries out death sentence.
Please click the below link to access CBSE Class 8 English Sample Paper Set 11. | <urn:uuid:f144966f-7d2f-4723-b37f-29f2e06e5d8e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studiestoday.com/sample-papers-english-cbse-class-8-english-sample-paper-set-11-217266.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.981352 | 494 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.036642212420... | 1 | CBSE Class 8 English Sample Paper Set 11.Sample Papers are the very important for every student. The sample papers should be practiced to gain extra marks in examinations. The sample papers have been prepared based on summative assessment1 and summative assessment 2 pattern. The sample papers have been prepared based on pattern of last year examinations and as per latest changes in the syllabus. Students, teachers and parents can download all CBSE educational material and very well prepared worksheets from this website. All CBSE educational material is developed by our panel of teachers, have also been submitted by CBSE teachers and students.
Q1 Read the following passage carefully:
A certain king once fell ill and the doctors declared that only a sudden fright would restore him to health, but the king was not a man for anyone to play tricks on, except his fool. One day, when the fool was with him in his boat, he cleverly pushed the king into the water. Help had been previously provided and the king was drawn ashore and put to bed. The fright, the bath and the bed cured the diseased king ; but he was so angry with the fool that he turned him out of the country. The fool returned, however, and the king ordered him to be put to death. Saying privately that he would only repay fright with fright, he directed the executioner not to use the axe but let fall a single drop of water on the fool’s neck. Then fool was led to the jail. The executioner dropped a drop of water on the fool’s neck. The amid shouts and laughter, the fool was asked to rise and thank the king for his kindness. But the fool never moved ; he was dead-killed by his master’s joke.
1.1 Complete the following on the basis of your reading of the 8 passage:
a. The king would recover from his illness only if _______.
b. The fool played a trick on the king and he ________ .
c. The king turned the fool out of the country because_____.
d. The fool did not rise to thank the king for his kindness____.
1.2 Find out words from the passage which mean the same as: 2
a. bring back to former condition.
b. Public official who carries out death sentence.
Please click the below link to access CBSE Class 8 English Sample Paper Set 11. | 485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in 1266
Born in 1266, Giotto di Bondone was an extremely important painter and architect from Florence, Italy, and worked during the Gothic/Proto-Renaissance era. Today, many of his works are considered some of the best from this time. Little is known about Giotto in his younger years. Today, it is commonly accepted that he was born in a village called Vespigano. “The year of his birth is calculated from the fact that Antonio Pucci, the town crier of Florence, wrote a poem in Giotto’s honor which stated that he was seventy at the time of his death.” (Eimerl) He grew up displaying an amazing art talent, which may have earned him apprenticeship under Florentine painter Cimabue. Many say that Cimabue saw a lifelike drawing of some sheep that belonged to Giotto, which prompted Cimabue to ask Giotto’s father if he could become his apprentice. Though he was a citizen of Florence, he also worked in Assisi, Rome, Padua, Milan and Naples.
Giotto was believed to be almost completely self-taught. Giotto’s style of work resembled a medieval style incorporating both gothic and byzantine. His work began to evolve to be less stylized than his master Cimabue, who painted in a manner that is distinctly medieval, having aspects of both the Byzantine and the Gothic. Giotto’s style drew from Arnolfo di Cambio, another famous Italian painter and architect; focusing on the quality of realness in his art, which was unique and new at the time. Throughout his early career, he experimented with tighter than normal brush strokes; in hopes of creating more realistic looking artwork.
One of his first known work, the frescoes on the life of St. Francis at the church of Assisi, demonstrate the use of this technique. However, many scholars debate whether Giotto was present or not during these creations as it is only documented that Cimabue went to Assisi during the mid to late 1290’s to paint several frescoes. Texts from Riccobaldo Ferrarese, an Italian notary, mentions that Giotto painted at Assisi but does not specify the works done at St. Francis: “What kind of art Giotto made is testified to by works done by him in the Franciscan churches at Assisi, Rimini, Padua…” (Hankey) Although his unique realistic style was still growing, many assumed Giotto would explode in popularity around Italy in the next few years.
At the age of 20, Giotto married Ricevuta di Lapo del Pela, and had numerous children. (Emirel) As Giotto grew older, he travelled much of Italy with his master and sparked an increase in his reputation. He worked in Rome from 1297-1300, but little evidence exists today of his works there. According to documents from 1301 and 1304, Giotto possessed large estates in Florence, and it is possible that he was already had a large workshop and was receiving commissions from throughout Italy. (Emirel) As Giotto’s fame as a painter spread, he was called to work in Padua, and in Rimini, where today only a Crucifix remains in the Church of St. Francis, painted before 1309.
While in Padua, Giotto executed his most influential work, the painted decoration of the interior of the Scrovegni Chapel. Giotto attempted to express as much of a story in his paintings of the frescoes as possible, due to many Europeans being illiterate during the 14th century. The only way many people learned the stories of the Bible was by hearing the words of the priest in the church, and by looking at paintings and sculptures. Several painters from Italy were influenced by Giotto following his work in Padua, such as Guariento, Jacopo Avanzi, and Altichiero. Soon enough, poets like Dante were praising him in verse, claiming that he had surpassed Cimabue in his abilities. According to Dante, Giotto’s reputation had surpassed Cimabue’s, even though Cimabue was also considered a revolutionary painter at the time. (Keene)
In 1306, Giotto arrived in Assisi to start painting the frescoes in the transparent area of the Lower Church of the St. Basilica of St. Francis. By 1311 Giotto has completed “The Life of Christ”, “Franciscan Allegories” and the Maddalena Chapel, drawing on stories from the Golden Legend and the portrait of Bishop Teobaldo Pontano, who commissioned the work. Around 1320, Giotto completed the painting “Stefaneschi Triptych” for Cardinal Jacopo who also commissioned him for decoration of St. Peter’s apse. Giorgio Vasari, another famous Italian painter from the 15th century states in his “Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects” Giotto stayed in Rome for six years, receiving numerous commissions in Italy.
In 1328, he was called by King Robert of Anjou to Naples, where he remained with a group of pupils until 1333. In 1332, King Robert named him the first court painter, with a yearly pension included. Two years later, Giotto was appointed chief architect to Florence Cathedral. Soon after, he designed the bell tower, known as Giotto’s Campanile; though it was not completed entirely to his design. Approaching his final years, Giotto had become friends with Boccaccio and Sacchetti, two Italian poets who featured him in their stories. In January of 1337, Giotto passed away at the presumed age of seventy. He was buried in Santa Maria del Fiore, the Cathedral of Florence, on the left of the entrance with the spot marked by a white marble plaque.
Giotto provided a new take during the Gothic/Proto-Renaissance era on an existing style and revised it to his liking and taste. He influenced the Italian Renaissance movement vastly. Italy’s embracement of Giotto’s work sparked a new type of art to be viewed and appreciated around Italy. His hard work and beautiful creations helped him to be known as one of the most important Italian artists of the 14th century. Giotto managed to earn the interest of people from the late 1200’s to the late 1300’s and still manages to spark interest today. The Renaissance era, with Giotto’s help, was just beginning to take shape. | <urn:uuid:4bd9b8d8-d206-4dc4-9332-ebeed08db9db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://machirurgie-esthetique.com/born-in-1266/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.987798 | 1,411 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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Born in 1266, Giotto di Bondone was an extremely important painter and architect from Florence, Italy, and worked during the Gothic/Proto-Renaissance era. Today, many of his works are considered some of the best from this time. Little is known about Giotto in his younger years. Today, it is commonly accepted that he was born in a village called Vespigano. “The year of his birth is calculated from the fact that Antonio Pucci, the town crier of Florence, wrote a poem in Giotto’s honor which stated that he was seventy at the time of his death.” (Eimerl) He grew up displaying an amazing art talent, which may have earned him apprenticeship under Florentine painter Cimabue. Many say that Cimabue saw a lifelike drawing of some sheep that belonged to Giotto, which prompted Cimabue to ask Giotto’s father if he could become his apprentice. Though he was a citizen of Florence, he also worked in Assisi, Rome, Padua, Milan and Naples.
Giotto was believed to be almost completely self-taught. Giotto’s style of work resembled a medieval style incorporating both gothic and byzantine. His work began to evolve to be less stylized than his master Cimabue, who painted in a manner that is distinctly medieval, having aspects of both the Byzantine and the Gothic. Giotto’s style drew from Arnolfo di Cambio, another famous Italian painter and architect; focusing on the quality of realness in his art, which was unique and new at the time. Throughout his early career, he experimented with tighter than normal brush strokes; in hopes of creating more realistic looking artwork.
One of his first known work, the frescoes on the life of St. Francis at the church of Assisi, demonstrate the use of this technique. However, many scholars debate whether Giotto was present or not during these creations as it is only documented that Cimabue went to Assisi during the mid to late 1290’s to paint several frescoes. Texts from Riccobaldo Ferrarese, an Italian notary, mentions that Giotto painted at Assisi but does not specify the works done at St. Francis: “What kind of art Giotto made is testified to by works done by him in the Franciscan churches at Assisi, Rimini, Padua…” (Hankey) Although his unique realistic style was still growing, many assumed Giotto would explode in popularity around Italy in the next few years.
At the age of 20, Giotto married Ricevuta di Lapo del Pela, and had numerous children. (Emirel) As Giotto grew older, he travelled much of Italy with his master and sparked an increase in his reputation. He worked in Rome from 1297-1300, but little evidence exists today of his works there. According to documents from 1301 and 1304, Giotto possessed large estates in Florence, and it is possible that he was already had a large workshop and was receiving commissions from throughout Italy. (Emirel) As Giotto’s fame as a painter spread, he was called to work in Padua, and in Rimini, where today only a Crucifix remains in the Church of St. Francis, painted before 1309.
While in Padua, Giotto executed his most influential work, the painted decoration of the interior of the Scrovegni Chapel. Giotto attempted to express as much of a story in his paintings of the frescoes as possible, due to many Europeans being illiterate during the 14th century. The only way many people learned the stories of the Bible was by hearing the words of the priest in the church, and by looking at paintings and sculptures. Several painters from Italy were influenced by Giotto following his work in Padua, such as Guariento, Jacopo Avanzi, and Altichiero. Soon enough, poets like Dante were praising him in verse, claiming that he had surpassed Cimabue in his abilities. According to Dante, Giotto’s reputation had surpassed Cimabue’s, even though Cimabue was also considered a revolutionary painter at the time. (Keene)
In 1306, Giotto arrived in Assisi to start painting the frescoes in the transparent area of the Lower Church of the St. Basilica of St. Francis. By 1311 Giotto has completed “The Life of Christ”, “Franciscan Allegories” and the Maddalena Chapel, drawing on stories from the Golden Legend and the portrait of Bishop Teobaldo Pontano, who commissioned the work. Around 1320, Giotto completed the painting “Stefaneschi Triptych” for Cardinal Jacopo who also commissioned him for decoration of St. Peter’s apse. Giorgio Vasari, another famous Italian painter from the 15th century states in his “Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects” Giotto stayed in Rome for six years, receiving numerous commissions in Italy.
In 1328, he was called by King Robert of Anjou to Naples, where he remained with a group of pupils until 1333. In 1332, King Robert named him the first court painter, with a yearly pension included. Two years later, Giotto was appointed chief architect to Florence Cathedral. Soon after, he designed the bell tower, known as Giotto’s Campanile; though it was not completed entirely to his design. Approaching his final years, Giotto had become friends with Boccaccio and Sacchetti, two Italian poets who featured him in their stories. In January of 1337, Giotto passed away at the presumed age of seventy. He was buried in Santa Maria del Fiore, the Cathedral of Florence, on the left of the entrance with the spot marked by a white marble plaque.
Giotto provided a new take during the Gothic/Proto-Renaissance era on an existing style and revised it to his liking and taste. He influenced the Italian Renaissance movement vastly. Italy’s embracement of Giotto’s work sparked a new type of art to be viewed and appreciated around Italy. His hard work and beautiful creations helped him to be known as one of the most important Italian artists of the 14th century. Giotto managed to earn the interest of people from the late 1200’s to the late 1300’s and still manages to spark interest today. The Renaissance era, with Giotto’s help, was just beginning to take shape. | 1,429 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ostrogoths, or East Goths , who had settled in Southern Russia , at length pushed southward and westward to the mouth of the Danube .
They were continually invading countries belonging to the Romans and their warlike raids were dreaded by the emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire , who lived at Constantinople . One emperor gave them land and money, and thus stopped their invasions for a time.
The most famous of the Ostrogoth kings was Theodoric (The-od'-or-ic) the Great. He was the son of Theodemir (The-od'-e-mir), who was also a king of the Ostrogoths. When Theodoric was eight years old he was sent to Constantinople to be held as a hostage by Leo, the Emperor of the East. In former times, when kings made treaties with one another, it was customary for one to give to the other a pledge or security that he would fulfill the conditions of the treaty. The pledge usually given was some important person or persons, perhaps the king's son or a number of his chief men. Persons so given as a security were called hostages. When Theodoric was a boy he was given as a hostage for his father's good faith in carrying out a treaty with the Emperor and was sent to Constantinople to live. Here the youth was well treated by Leo. He was educated with great care and trained in all the exercises of war.
Theodemir died in 475, and then Theodoric returned to his own country and became king of the Ostrogoths. At this time he was eighteen years of age. He was handsome and brave and people loved him, for in those days a man who was tall and strong and brave was liked by everybody. | <urn:uuid:314d1773-4056-4fe3-b06d-35f9b2c9802f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/22/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.993967 | 361 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.205941095948... | 1 | The Ostrogoths, or East Goths , who had settled in Southern Russia , at length pushed southward and westward to the mouth of the Danube .
They were continually invading countries belonging to the Romans and their warlike raids were dreaded by the emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire , who lived at Constantinople . One emperor gave them land and money, and thus stopped their invasions for a time.
The most famous of the Ostrogoth kings was Theodoric (The-od'-or-ic) the Great. He was the son of Theodemir (The-od'-e-mir), who was also a king of the Ostrogoths. When Theodoric was eight years old he was sent to Constantinople to be held as a hostage by Leo, the Emperor of the East. In former times, when kings made treaties with one another, it was customary for one to give to the other a pledge or security that he would fulfill the conditions of the treaty. The pledge usually given was some important person or persons, perhaps the king's son or a number of his chief men. Persons so given as a security were called hostages. When Theodoric was a boy he was given as a hostage for his father's good faith in carrying out a treaty with the Emperor and was sent to Constantinople to live. Here the youth was well treated by Leo. He was educated with great care and trained in all the exercises of war.
Theodemir died in 475, and then Theodoric returned to his own country and became king of the Ostrogoths. At this time he was eighteen years of age. He was handsome and brave and people loved him, for in those days a man who was tall and strong and brave was liked by everybody. | 367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War I and St. Louis
Missourians were well represented in each branch of the Military during World War I. Approximately 174,085 men and women from Missouri served our country with 156,232 serving in the Army; 14,132 in the US Navy; and 3,721 serving in the Marine Corps. About half of these were sent overseas with the rest remaining in the U.S. at training locations. Missouri suffered 11,172 casualties during the length of the war.
During World War I, St. Louis had an Army training encampment of the 12th Engineers named "Camp Gaillard." The camp was located along the Mississippi River in what in now the location of North Riverfront Park, a St. Louis City park. No tents were available to house the soldiers so the men were housed in "quarter boats" that were moored on the river. The soldiers of the 12th Engineers were trained to build, operate and to maintain a light railway system which would supply the front lines of the British and American forces with additional troops, supplies and artillery. Camp Gaillard was occupied from May 25th until July 25th, 1917 when troops were ordered to New York where the soldiers would then be sent to France. The Camp was named in honor of Col. David Du Bose Gaillard who commanded the 3rd U.S. Volunteer Engineers from the Spanish American War that was also organized in St. Louis.
Missouri Aeronautical Society Balloon School
St. Louis was also the home to another type of training during World War I. In April of 1917, the Missouri Aeronautical Society was established in St. Louis to train balloon pilots for war. The Missouri Aeronautical Society Balloon School was the first training school in the nation to be officially recognized by the War Department as a training school for the United States Army Aeronautical Corps.
Scott Air Force Base
Scott Field, now known as Scott Air Force Base, was built during World War I and was one of the first aviation stations in the United States. Construction was completed on the base in August of 1917 and the 11th and 21st Aero Squadrons of the American Expeditionary Forces Air Services were the first to arrive. Scott Field was used as a flight instruction base. Because of the demand for pilots in wartime, the airmen's flight instruction only lasted several weeks. Scott Field was well received by the community and dances and receptions were held for the soldiers, even establishing a library branch on the field. In return, Scott Field hosted sporting events and Scott's first Air Show was held on August 17, 1918 with the community invited.
St. Louis had a medical unit during WWI that sent volunteer doctors and nurses to France, the St. Louis Base Hospital Unit, No. 21. The Barnes Hospital Unit was organized by the St. Louis Red Cross and went to France in the Spring of 1917 with 500 beds. Of 1,499 volunteer doctors, 496 of them being from St. Louis, a fourth of them went to France while the rest cared for the wounded in the United States. The Army officers that staffed Unit 21 were doctors from the Washington University Medical School. The ambulance service in France was operated by doctors from the University of Missouri. Unit 21 suffered 15 casualties during WWI, 6 of them being nurses.
"Special" Missouri Military Forces
A special group of military troops were sent from Missouri to France to aid in the war. The Missouri mule was used during World War I in France to move heavy field artillery. The mule was exported there and was considered the world's best breed for this type of duty.
Missouri had many distinguished soldiers in the World War I. Some of their names are well known today because of what they went on to become. Harry S. Truman was a captain of Battery D, 129th Field Artillery who later became the 33rd President of the United States of America. Walt Disney called Missouri home for a time and even though he was too young to enlist as a soldier, he still went to France and enlisted with the Red Cross and became an ambulance driver. He was the founder of the Disney "empire." William H. Danforth served with the YMCA in France caring for the wounded and distributing supplies. He later started the Ralston Purina, now known as the Nestle Purina corporation in St. Louis and served as its president.
St. Louis has a World War I memorial in downtown. The Soldiers Memorial Military Museum was opened on Memorial Day, May 30, 1938. It was built as a memorial honoring all the men and women of Missouri and St. Louis that died in World War I. Today, the Memorial honors all Missouri soldiers that have given the ultimate sacrifice in all the wars the United States has been involved in.
Photo Gallery for World War I and St Louis - click thumbnails
Soldiers Memorial Military Museum-South side
Events in St Louis History
St Louis Missouri Real Estate For Sale
Condos For Sale: 1019
New Construction For Sale: 631
Commercial For Sale: 2304
Acreage For Sale: 1750
Multi-Family 5+ For Sale: 96
Multi-Family 2-4 For Sale: 434
Lots For Sale: 4447
Total Properties For Sale: 24144 | <urn:uuid:5c4a2ce8-e3c5-474d-a2c7-981a74c162e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aboutstlouis.com/local/history/world-war-1-st-louis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.985199 | 1,082 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.651743650436... | 1 | World War I and St. Louis
Missourians were well represented in each branch of the Military during World War I. Approximately 174,085 men and women from Missouri served our country with 156,232 serving in the Army; 14,132 in the US Navy; and 3,721 serving in the Marine Corps. About half of these were sent overseas with the rest remaining in the U.S. at training locations. Missouri suffered 11,172 casualties during the length of the war.
During World War I, St. Louis had an Army training encampment of the 12th Engineers named "Camp Gaillard." The camp was located along the Mississippi River in what in now the location of North Riverfront Park, a St. Louis City park. No tents were available to house the soldiers so the men were housed in "quarter boats" that were moored on the river. The soldiers of the 12th Engineers were trained to build, operate and to maintain a light railway system which would supply the front lines of the British and American forces with additional troops, supplies and artillery. Camp Gaillard was occupied from May 25th until July 25th, 1917 when troops were ordered to New York where the soldiers would then be sent to France. The Camp was named in honor of Col. David Du Bose Gaillard who commanded the 3rd U.S. Volunteer Engineers from the Spanish American War that was also organized in St. Louis.
Missouri Aeronautical Society Balloon School
St. Louis was also the home to another type of training during World War I. In April of 1917, the Missouri Aeronautical Society was established in St. Louis to train balloon pilots for war. The Missouri Aeronautical Society Balloon School was the first training school in the nation to be officially recognized by the War Department as a training school for the United States Army Aeronautical Corps.
Scott Air Force Base
Scott Field, now known as Scott Air Force Base, was built during World War I and was one of the first aviation stations in the United States. Construction was completed on the base in August of 1917 and the 11th and 21st Aero Squadrons of the American Expeditionary Forces Air Services were the first to arrive. Scott Field was used as a flight instruction base. Because of the demand for pilots in wartime, the airmen's flight instruction only lasted several weeks. Scott Field was well received by the community and dances and receptions were held for the soldiers, even establishing a library branch on the field. In return, Scott Field hosted sporting events and Scott's first Air Show was held on August 17, 1918 with the community invited.
St. Louis had a medical unit during WWI that sent volunteer doctors and nurses to France, the St. Louis Base Hospital Unit, No. 21. The Barnes Hospital Unit was organized by the St. Louis Red Cross and went to France in the Spring of 1917 with 500 beds. Of 1,499 volunteer doctors, 496 of them being from St. Louis, a fourth of them went to France while the rest cared for the wounded in the United States. The Army officers that staffed Unit 21 were doctors from the Washington University Medical School. The ambulance service in France was operated by doctors from the University of Missouri. Unit 21 suffered 15 casualties during WWI, 6 of them being nurses.
"Special" Missouri Military Forces
A special group of military troops were sent from Missouri to France to aid in the war. The Missouri mule was used during World War I in France to move heavy field artillery. The mule was exported there and was considered the world's best breed for this type of duty.
Missouri had many distinguished soldiers in the World War I. Some of their names are well known today because of what they went on to become. Harry S. Truman was a captain of Battery D, 129th Field Artillery who later became the 33rd President of the United States of America. Walt Disney called Missouri home for a time and even though he was too young to enlist as a soldier, he still went to France and enlisted with the Red Cross and became an ambulance driver. He was the founder of the Disney "empire." William H. Danforth served with the YMCA in France caring for the wounded and distributing supplies. He later started the Ralston Purina, now known as the Nestle Purina corporation in St. Louis and served as its president.
St. Louis has a World War I memorial in downtown. The Soldiers Memorial Military Museum was opened on Memorial Day, May 30, 1938. It was built as a memorial honoring all the men and women of Missouri and St. Louis that died in World War I. Today, the Memorial honors all Missouri soldiers that have given the ultimate sacrifice in all the wars the United States has been involved in.
Photo Gallery for World War I and St Louis - click thumbnails
Soldiers Memorial Military Museum-South side
Events in St Louis History
St Louis Missouri Real Estate For Sale
Condos For Sale: 1019
New Construction For Sale: 631
Commercial For Sale: 2304
Acreage For Sale: 1750
Multi-Family 5+ For Sale: 96
Multi-Family 2-4 For Sale: 434
Lots For Sale: 4447
Total Properties For Sale: 24144 | 1,180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the Ocoee Dams
Ocoee Dam number one was the first hydroelectric dam built in the state of Tennessee and one of the first in the country. Construction was started in 1910 and in January 1912 the plant initially began generating electrical power. This was 21 years before TVA was formed by the TVA act by Congress. Household electricity was first introduced in 1905 so Ocoee number one was built to satisfy the earliest initial demand for home electricity. It was not until 1930 that a milestone was reached with 70% of households having electrical service. The location chosen for Ocoee Dam No. 1 was just to the east of the more mountainous region currently known as the Cherokee National Forest. The area was a small community called Parksville and a Grist mill stood on the actual dam site at the time. The Dam construction took 18 months and the cost to build was less than three million dollars. A unique facet of the project is that a small town was actually built to house the workers and dam builders. 1500 workers and their families lived in the town which featured its own waterworks department, fire and police, several stores and a hospital. Foundations of some of the town’s buildings are still existing and can be seen from the east end of the lake. Powerlines were then built to transport electricity to Chattanooga, Knoxville and even Nashville, TN.
Ocoee Dam Number Two was completed in 2013 just one year after Dam number one started generation. Dam Number two has unique construction. It is a relatively low dam, only 30 feet in height and originally was a timber structure filled with rock and boulders. On one side of dam is a gate and a wooden flume. The water from the small lake above Ocoee number two enters the flume through the gate. The flume is almost five miles long and only drops 18 feet in elevation in that five miles. Once it reaches the end of the flume the water drops 250 feet down a large metal pipe to reach the generators of power house number two. The drop gives water the force of a much higher dam.
Ocoee Dam Number Three has a construction that is even different from the first two dams. The dam is upstream of Ocoee Dam number two by over four miles and is a concrete dam roughly 110 feet high. Rather than generate electricity at the bottom of the dam however they drilled a tunnel through the mountain to reach the powerhouse four miles downstream. This allowed the engineers to create even more power by utilizing the elevation drop of the river. At the end of the tunnel is a large pipe 180 feet above the powerhouse which releases water for the turbines. The dam and the river in this upper stretch are located in a valley between two major mountains in the area. Big Frog mountain to the south and Little Frog mountain to the north. Number Three was built in 1940 to supply additional power for the area manufacturing expansion for World War II. | <urn:uuid:8c53efb3-c9da-49f0-a85b-94e736f2fcd6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ocoeeriverrafting.com/history-of-the-ocoee-dams/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.981039 | 594 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.123032368719... | 1 | History of the Ocoee Dams
Ocoee Dam number one was the first hydroelectric dam built in the state of Tennessee and one of the first in the country. Construction was started in 1910 and in January 1912 the plant initially began generating electrical power. This was 21 years before TVA was formed by the TVA act by Congress. Household electricity was first introduced in 1905 so Ocoee number one was built to satisfy the earliest initial demand for home electricity. It was not until 1930 that a milestone was reached with 70% of households having electrical service. The location chosen for Ocoee Dam No. 1 was just to the east of the more mountainous region currently known as the Cherokee National Forest. The area was a small community called Parksville and a Grist mill stood on the actual dam site at the time. The Dam construction took 18 months and the cost to build was less than three million dollars. A unique facet of the project is that a small town was actually built to house the workers and dam builders. 1500 workers and their families lived in the town which featured its own waterworks department, fire and police, several stores and a hospital. Foundations of some of the town’s buildings are still existing and can be seen from the east end of the lake. Powerlines were then built to transport electricity to Chattanooga, Knoxville and even Nashville, TN.
Ocoee Dam Number Two was completed in 2013 just one year after Dam number one started generation. Dam Number two has unique construction. It is a relatively low dam, only 30 feet in height and originally was a timber structure filled with rock and boulders. On one side of dam is a gate and a wooden flume. The water from the small lake above Ocoee number two enters the flume through the gate. The flume is almost five miles long and only drops 18 feet in elevation in that five miles. Once it reaches the end of the flume the water drops 250 feet down a large metal pipe to reach the generators of power house number two. The drop gives water the force of a much higher dam.
Ocoee Dam Number Three has a construction that is even different from the first two dams. The dam is upstream of Ocoee Dam number two by over four miles and is a concrete dam roughly 110 feet high. Rather than generate electricity at the bottom of the dam however they drilled a tunnel through the mountain to reach the powerhouse four miles downstream. This allowed the engineers to create even more power by utilizing the elevation drop of the river. At the end of the tunnel is a large pipe 180 feet above the powerhouse which releases water for the turbines. The dam and the river in this upper stretch are located in a valley between two major mountains in the area. Big Frog mountain to the south and Little Frog mountain to the north. Number Three was built in 1940 to supply additional power for the area manufacturing expansion for World War II. | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|About the Book|
Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) was an American novelist. She is best known for the novel Little Women, published in 1868. Due to the familys poverty, she began work at an early age as an occasional teacher, seamstress, governess, domestic helper, and writer - her first book was Flower Fables (1854). As she grew older, she developed as both an abolitionist and a feminist. A lesserknown part of her work are the passionate, fiery novels and stories she wrote, usually under the pseudonym A. M. Barnard, such as A Long Fatal Love Chase (1866). Alcott also produced moralistic and wholesome stories for children, and a semi-autobiographical tale Work (1873). In her later life, Alcott became an advocate of womens suffrage and was part of a group of female authors during the U. S. Gilded Age to address womens issues in a modern and candid manner. Despite worsening health, Alcott wrote through the rest of her life. | <urn:uuid:0f926840-5848-48f4-a01a-7b6a238a5699> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpenhof-zillertal.com/academic3ti/aunt-jos-scrap-bag-134.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.984183 | 221 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-... | 1 | |About the Book|
Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) was an American novelist. She is best known for the novel Little Women, published in 1868. Due to the familys poverty, she began work at an early age as an occasional teacher, seamstress, governess, domestic helper, and writer - her first book was Flower Fables (1854). As she grew older, she developed as both an abolitionist and a feminist. A lesserknown part of her work are the passionate, fiery novels and stories she wrote, usually under the pseudonym A. M. Barnard, such as A Long Fatal Love Chase (1866). Alcott also produced moralistic and wholesome stories for children, and a semi-autobiographical tale Work (1873). In her later life, Alcott became an advocate of womens suffrage and was part of a group of female authors during the U. S. Gilded Age to address womens issues in a modern and candid manner. Despite worsening health, Alcott wrote through the rest of her life. | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Election of 1864: Constitutional Issues Raised by Lincoln’s Conduct of the War
The 1864 election pitted the incumbent, Republican President Abraham Lincoln, against George McClellan of the Democratic Party. It was the first election since 1840 in which an incumbent was renominated by his own party. A major focus of the election was the Civil War and the divided Union. Lincoln’s actions as President would also be considered by the electorate, which reelected him in a landslide.
Abraham Lincoln was the Republican incumbent in 1864. His election in 1860 was followed by Southern secession by a number of states before he was sworn in as President. Shortly after his first inauguration, the Civil War commenced with the attack on Fort Sumter. Lincoln declared martial law and suspended the right to writs of habeas corpus. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his now famous Emancipation Proclamation. The war was still in full force when Lincoln was faced with the additional burden of a re-election campaign. Seeking unity of a nation divided, Lincoln ran under the National Union Party label.
In the summer of 1864, the North, under the leadership of General Ulysses S. Grant, was facing tough fights and a military stalemate with the South. Some political leaders, such as Salmon P. Chase (who would become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in late 1864) and Benjamin Wade, opposed Lincoln’s renomination believing he could not win reelection. Indeed, Lincoln himself did not believe that he would be reelected. Fearing defeat, Lincoln signed a pledge and placed it in a sealed envelope and asked each of his Cabinet members to sign that envelope without first reading its contents. The pledge made it clear that Lincoln intended to win and end the Civil War regardless of whether he was reelected:
This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.
Lincoln easily won the nomination for reelection by the Republican Party.
Democrats were split between those favoring continuing the Civil War and those who desired immediate peace without Union victory. McClellan was a longtime member of the United States Army and, when former Presidential candidate Winfield Scott retired, McClellan became Commander-in-Chief of the Union Army. Seeking a candidate that would unite the party, Democrats nominated pro-war candidate McClellan for President and anti-war candidate George Pendleton for Vice President.
The Election Campaign
Not since the War of 1812 had an election campaign taken place during a time of war. Lincoln made emancipation the central issue. Only 25 states participated in the election, and when the votes were tallied, Lincoln had decisively won reelection with 55% of the popular vote and the Electoral College victory by a vote of 212-21. Union soldiers, many of whom were permitted to vote by their home states, mostly voted to reelect Lincoln.
Lincoln’s Conduct of the War and Impact on the Constitution
President Lincoln aggressively exercised his Presidential powers. Early in his first term, just after the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln asserted unprecedented war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate shipments, used funds not yet appropriated by Congress, and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. Many asserted that Lincoln’s actions were unconstitutional. Chief Justice Roger Taney was one, ruling Lincoln had no power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Lincoln ignored that ruling (which was upheld by a new court five years later) and countered to his critics that his acts were taken in order to suppress a rebellion, which is specifically mentioned in Article I, Section 9, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, rather than in connection with fighting a war.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, setting free all slaves in Confederate states. Many questioned the constitutional authority of a President to issue such a proclamation; Lincoln asserted that it was within his authority as a “war power.” On November 19, 1863, Lincoln gave the Gettysburg Address, one of the most quoted speeches in our country’s history, in which he assured the nation that the bloodshed would not be in vain, but that there would be an end to slavery. In the summer of 1864, he declared martial law by Proclamation 113.
Lincoln was a vocal enemy of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Roger B. Taney. The relationship was extremely contentious – the two disagreed on the issue of habeas corpus as well as slavery. When Taney died on October 12, 1864, Lincoln made no public announcement and did not attend the funeral.
The Civil War and the divided Union were main focuses of the 1864 Presidential Election. Months later, the war all but over, and three days after giving a speech advocating voting rights for blacks, Lincoln would be dead, assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. The end of slavery would come in 1865 with ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment. No President since has exercised Presidential powers as aggressively as Lincoln.
Dan Cotter is a Partner at Butler Rubin Saltarelli & Boyd LLP and an Adjunct Professor at The John Marshall Law School, where he teaches SCOTUS Judicial Biographies. He is also Immediate Past President of The Chicago Bar Association. The article contains his opinions and is not to be attributed to Butler Rubin or any of its clients, The Chicago Bar Association, or John Marshall. | <urn:uuid:14840d1f-9f95-46d7-b91e-6c321479da94> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://constitutingamerica.org/1864-abraham-lincoln-defeats-george-mcclellan-constitutional-issues-raised-by-lincolns-conduct-of-the-war-guest-essayist-daniel-a-cotter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.984302 | 1,160 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.46786588430404... | 15 | The Election of 1864: Constitutional Issues Raised by Lincoln’s Conduct of the War
The 1864 election pitted the incumbent, Republican President Abraham Lincoln, against George McClellan of the Democratic Party. It was the first election since 1840 in which an incumbent was renominated by his own party. A major focus of the election was the Civil War and the divided Union. Lincoln’s actions as President would also be considered by the electorate, which reelected him in a landslide.
Abraham Lincoln was the Republican incumbent in 1864. His election in 1860 was followed by Southern secession by a number of states before he was sworn in as President. Shortly after his first inauguration, the Civil War commenced with the attack on Fort Sumter. Lincoln declared martial law and suspended the right to writs of habeas corpus. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his now famous Emancipation Proclamation. The war was still in full force when Lincoln was faced with the additional burden of a re-election campaign. Seeking unity of a nation divided, Lincoln ran under the National Union Party label.
In the summer of 1864, the North, under the leadership of General Ulysses S. Grant, was facing tough fights and a military stalemate with the South. Some political leaders, such as Salmon P. Chase (who would become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in late 1864) and Benjamin Wade, opposed Lincoln’s renomination believing he could not win reelection. Indeed, Lincoln himself did not believe that he would be reelected. Fearing defeat, Lincoln signed a pledge and placed it in a sealed envelope and asked each of his Cabinet members to sign that envelope without first reading its contents. The pledge made it clear that Lincoln intended to win and end the Civil War regardless of whether he was reelected:
This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.
Lincoln easily won the nomination for reelection by the Republican Party.
Democrats were split between those favoring continuing the Civil War and those who desired immediate peace without Union victory. McClellan was a longtime member of the United States Army and, when former Presidential candidate Winfield Scott retired, McClellan became Commander-in-Chief of the Union Army. Seeking a candidate that would unite the party, Democrats nominated pro-war candidate McClellan for President and anti-war candidate George Pendleton for Vice President.
The Election Campaign
Not since the War of 1812 had an election campaign taken place during a time of war. Lincoln made emancipation the central issue. Only 25 states participated in the election, and when the votes were tallied, Lincoln had decisively won reelection with 55% of the popular vote and the Electoral College victory by a vote of 212-21. Union soldiers, many of whom were permitted to vote by their home states, mostly voted to reelect Lincoln.
Lincoln’s Conduct of the War and Impact on the Constitution
President Lincoln aggressively exercised his Presidential powers. Early in his first term, just after the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln asserted unprecedented war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate shipments, used funds not yet appropriated by Congress, and suspended the writ of habeas corpus. Many asserted that Lincoln’s actions were unconstitutional. Chief Justice Roger Taney was one, ruling Lincoln had no power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Lincoln ignored that ruling (which was upheld by a new court five years later) and countered to his critics that his acts were taken in order to suppress a rebellion, which is specifically mentioned in Article I, Section 9, Clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution, rather than in connection with fighting a war.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, setting free all slaves in Confederate states. Many questioned the constitutional authority of a President to issue such a proclamation; Lincoln asserted that it was within his authority as a “war power.” On November 19, 1863, Lincoln gave the Gettysburg Address, one of the most quoted speeches in our country’s history, in which he assured the nation that the bloodshed would not be in vain, but that there would be an end to slavery. In the summer of 1864, he declared martial law by Proclamation 113.
Lincoln was a vocal enemy of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Roger B. Taney. The relationship was extremely contentious – the two disagreed on the issue of habeas corpus as well as slavery. When Taney died on October 12, 1864, Lincoln made no public announcement and did not attend the funeral.
The Civil War and the divided Union were main focuses of the 1864 Presidential Election. Months later, the war all but over, and three days after giving a speech advocating voting rights for blacks, Lincoln would be dead, assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. The end of slavery would come in 1865 with ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment. No President since has exercised Presidential powers as aggressively as Lincoln.
Dan Cotter is a Partner at Butler Rubin Saltarelli & Boyd LLP and an Adjunct Professor at The John Marshall Law School, where he teaches SCOTUS Judicial Biographies. He is also Immediate Past President of The Chicago Bar Association. The article contains his opinions and is not to be attributed to Butler Rubin or any of its clients, The Chicago Bar Association, or John Marshall. | 1,208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cajun people first came to Louisiana in the Great Upheaval or Expulsion, which was a mass deportation of thousands of people from Acadie by the British in early 1755. Hundreds were imprisoned; many were separated from their homes and families, and thousands of people died in the expulsion. This is the soul-stirring story of the Cajuns, their battle against assimilation, and their victory in reclaiming their heritage and culture.
A quaint French-speaking people, the Cajuns or Acadians initially settled down in the areas of Canada, which are known to us today as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. This settlement of theirs was known as Acadie. Content and happy to be living in their remote home, the Acadians did not bother with their French and British colonial governments, nor did they ask for much. More than happy to be ignored or neglected, the Acadians were repeatedly subjected to a number of sieges in the wars of the British empire.
From 1710 to 1750 the French Acadians under siege refused to sign the oath of allegiance to the British empire. However, after the defeat of the French, they were forcefully exiled and then shipped to a number of different destinations. Many of these people found a home in the bayous and swamps of southern Louisiana in around 1765. Here, they managed to settle down once again into a life of contentment and isolation. As they adapted to the life in Louisiana, they as people along with their culture began to change and evolve. As young America fought in the war and won their much-deserved freedom, the Acadians established for themselves permanent settlements that were left untouched and unspoiled till the dawn of the 20th century, and the end of the Civil War.
A Struggle For Identity
With the industrial revolution in full flow, the Acadians once again had to battle against assimilation. At the end of it all, they once again stood on the edge of cultural overthrow, but they fought their way out and managed to reclaim their proud heritage. The result of this revolution was the Cajun culture, which is more or less a hybrid form of the original Acadian culture mixed with modern culture of the new United States of America.
The end of the Civil War marked the beginning of the battle on the part of the Cajun’s to resist as well as reclaim their cultural heritage. For many Southerners and Louisianans on the whole, the devastating impact of the war on the economy, property, and pride continued for many years. The Cajuns, who were grateful for the end of all the fighting, unknowingly entered into a very strange period of history wherein their own cultural identity suffered greatly because of the various assimilation efforts made by the Americans throughout the South. Only when they finally confronted and battled their Americanization in the 60’s did a revitalization of their culture occur.
Conflict of Ideologies
The attempt at assimilation left a deep scar on the Cajun people. During the reconstruction era, the differences between the Cajuns and the other Louisianans increased twofold. Many stereotypes that are till date associated with the Cajuns developed during this era: ignorant, lazy, simple-minded, and illiterate. However, on their part, since they remained unassociated, the Cajuns managed to act in precisely the same manners as they did before the war. Like most of the Southerners, they loved parties, games, playing cards, and communal gatherings. Unlike the Americans, the Cajuns continued to work at their own slow pace, which is a work ethic that stands in complete contrast to the modern American ideals of work and progress.
Cajuns were described as dreamers and idlers; someone who would rather dream away than actually get any work done. The Cajun who worked hard was considered to be a rarity and the rest of them were considered to be mere squatters. Southerners on the whole, did not think much of the Cajun people and their culture because their values greatly negated the close-knit American values of wealth and progress. Coming from a different background, the Cajuns saw the American standards regarding education as an intrusion of their traditions. This attitude of theirs concerning education posed as another reason as to why the Americans looked down on them as ‘poor stupid souls’.
Positives of Cajun Culture
Despite all these traits, historians, and observers have repeatedly remarked upon two of their distinct ethnic qualities in a very positive light, namely: family ties and hospitality. Travelers in the south have commented on the friendliness with which the Cajun people welcomed guests and strangers into their homes, and also their willingness to share whatever they had, even if it was just a little. Inspired not by charity, but more by hospitality (which is an inherited trait), these people opened the doors to their homes to all and sundry that cared to grace their doorsteps.
Their culture however, continued to flourish solely because of the female population and the roles that were played by the mothers in preserving age-old traditions and customs. The average Cajun woman would strictly bring up her children to respect and appreciate their heritage and traditions.
Challenges Faced by the Cajun Community
During the early 20th century, many attempts were made to suppress Cajun culture by introducing measures such as forbidding the use of Cajun French in schools, and when the parents of Cajun children stopped sending their children to English schools, an Act was passed to make school attendance compulsory.
Most of the younger men enrolled themselves in the armed services during the world wars, and began to get influenced by Anglo-American values. Returning home from the war, these men started to believe in the inferiority of their ethnicity and forced their opinions upon their children and wives, so that the coming generations were more ashamed than the first of their cultural heritage. In this period, bilingual parents stopped speaking with their children in Cajun French and many of their descendants grew up completely ignorant of their language and customs. This failure on the part of Cajun parents, to communicate with their children in their cultural language came as the biggest blow to Cajun culture.
With the advent of multi-storied supermarkets and grocery stores, the need for traditional ingredients deteriorated, and the variety of foods that were freely available in these markets undermined their traditional cuisine. Cajun music also came under attack when people started calling this type of music ‘chanky-chanky’ music, suggesting that the instrumentation and rhythm were essentially simple.
Attempts to Preserve Cajun Culture
In 1968 an organization called the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana was founded. Cajuns gradually fought and successfully appealed for their legal rights. Cajuns from all across the nation renewed their ties to each other, and their culture and traditions became stronger for it. Towards the start of the 21st century, the word ‘Cajun’ which was considered as an insult till that time, turned into a source of pride.
Yes, Americanization has definitely resulted in a sharp decline in the ethnic culture of the Cajun people. Faced with almost going extinct, the Cajun culture has displayed its most impressive ethnic trait by surviving such tests and by prospering in the face of adversity. | <urn:uuid:d4332809-1875-41a7-8ef5-25a9c429b2d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/cajun-history-people-culture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.982732 | 1,520 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.01831188... | 8 | The Cajun people first came to Louisiana in the Great Upheaval or Expulsion, which was a mass deportation of thousands of people from Acadie by the British in early 1755. Hundreds were imprisoned; many were separated from their homes and families, and thousands of people died in the expulsion. This is the soul-stirring story of the Cajuns, their battle against assimilation, and their victory in reclaiming their heritage and culture.
A quaint French-speaking people, the Cajuns or Acadians initially settled down in the areas of Canada, which are known to us today as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. This settlement of theirs was known as Acadie. Content and happy to be living in their remote home, the Acadians did not bother with their French and British colonial governments, nor did they ask for much. More than happy to be ignored or neglected, the Acadians were repeatedly subjected to a number of sieges in the wars of the British empire.
From 1710 to 1750 the French Acadians under siege refused to sign the oath of allegiance to the British empire. However, after the defeat of the French, they were forcefully exiled and then shipped to a number of different destinations. Many of these people found a home in the bayous and swamps of southern Louisiana in around 1765. Here, they managed to settle down once again into a life of contentment and isolation. As they adapted to the life in Louisiana, they as people along with their culture began to change and evolve. As young America fought in the war and won their much-deserved freedom, the Acadians established for themselves permanent settlements that were left untouched and unspoiled till the dawn of the 20th century, and the end of the Civil War.
A Struggle For Identity
With the industrial revolution in full flow, the Acadians once again had to battle against assimilation. At the end of it all, they once again stood on the edge of cultural overthrow, but they fought their way out and managed to reclaim their proud heritage. The result of this revolution was the Cajun culture, which is more or less a hybrid form of the original Acadian culture mixed with modern culture of the new United States of America.
The end of the Civil War marked the beginning of the battle on the part of the Cajun’s to resist as well as reclaim their cultural heritage. For many Southerners and Louisianans on the whole, the devastating impact of the war on the economy, property, and pride continued for many years. The Cajuns, who were grateful for the end of all the fighting, unknowingly entered into a very strange period of history wherein their own cultural identity suffered greatly because of the various assimilation efforts made by the Americans throughout the South. Only when they finally confronted and battled their Americanization in the 60’s did a revitalization of their culture occur.
Conflict of Ideologies
The attempt at assimilation left a deep scar on the Cajun people. During the reconstruction era, the differences between the Cajuns and the other Louisianans increased twofold. Many stereotypes that are till date associated with the Cajuns developed during this era: ignorant, lazy, simple-minded, and illiterate. However, on their part, since they remained unassociated, the Cajuns managed to act in precisely the same manners as they did before the war. Like most of the Southerners, they loved parties, games, playing cards, and communal gatherings. Unlike the Americans, the Cajuns continued to work at their own slow pace, which is a work ethic that stands in complete contrast to the modern American ideals of work and progress.
Cajuns were described as dreamers and idlers; someone who would rather dream away than actually get any work done. The Cajun who worked hard was considered to be a rarity and the rest of them were considered to be mere squatters. Southerners on the whole, did not think much of the Cajun people and their culture because their values greatly negated the close-knit American values of wealth and progress. Coming from a different background, the Cajuns saw the American standards regarding education as an intrusion of their traditions. This attitude of theirs concerning education posed as another reason as to why the Americans looked down on them as ‘poor stupid souls’.
Positives of Cajun Culture
Despite all these traits, historians, and observers have repeatedly remarked upon two of their distinct ethnic qualities in a very positive light, namely: family ties and hospitality. Travelers in the south have commented on the friendliness with which the Cajun people welcomed guests and strangers into their homes, and also their willingness to share whatever they had, even if it was just a little. Inspired not by charity, but more by hospitality (which is an inherited trait), these people opened the doors to their homes to all and sundry that cared to grace their doorsteps.
Their culture however, continued to flourish solely because of the female population and the roles that were played by the mothers in preserving age-old traditions and customs. The average Cajun woman would strictly bring up her children to respect and appreciate their heritage and traditions.
Challenges Faced by the Cajun Community
During the early 20th century, many attempts were made to suppress Cajun culture by introducing measures such as forbidding the use of Cajun French in schools, and when the parents of Cajun children stopped sending their children to English schools, an Act was passed to make school attendance compulsory.
Most of the younger men enrolled themselves in the armed services during the world wars, and began to get influenced by Anglo-American values. Returning home from the war, these men started to believe in the inferiority of their ethnicity and forced their opinions upon their children and wives, so that the coming generations were more ashamed than the first of their cultural heritage. In this period, bilingual parents stopped speaking with their children in Cajun French and many of their descendants grew up completely ignorant of their language and customs. This failure on the part of Cajun parents, to communicate with their children in their cultural language came as the biggest blow to Cajun culture.
With the advent of multi-storied supermarkets and grocery stores, the need for traditional ingredients deteriorated, and the variety of foods that were freely available in these markets undermined their traditional cuisine. Cajun music also came under attack when people started calling this type of music ‘chanky-chanky’ music, suggesting that the instrumentation and rhythm were essentially simple.
Attempts to Preserve Cajun Culture
In 1968 an organization called the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana was founded. Cajuns gradually fought and successfully appealed for their legal rights. Cajuns from all across the nation renewed their ties to each other, and their culture and traditions became stronger for it. Towards the start of the 21st century, the word ‘Cajun’ which was considered as an insult till that time, turned into a source of pride.
Yes, Americanization has definitely resulted in a sharp decline in the ethnic culture of the Cajun people. Faced with almost going extinct, the Cajun culture has displayed its most impressive ethnic trait by surviving such tests and by prospering in the face of adversity. | 1,483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, we live in the diverse melting pot known as America, but it hasn’t always been this way. Those that came before us had to make enormous sacrifices, ones that paved the way for us – the children of immigrants – to enjoy the privileges that we do today. So, as part of Asian Pacific American Heritage Month, let’s take it allll the way back. Currently, there are over 20 million people of Asian descent in America, but how did we all get here?
Asians, primarily Filipinos, Chinese, and Indians, came to the U.S. as early as the 1500s, but it wasn’t until the 1800s that the first wave of mass immigration of Asians began, with the Chinese being the first to come to America in droves. In the 1840s, China was plagued with widespread poverty, economic instability, and starvation. As tales of this magical land called America made its way to China, naturally many were drawn to it by the promises of prosperity that came with the Gold Rush and the prospect of finding jobs that weren’t available at home. As a result, thousands of Chinese people – mostly men – left for America in search of greater wealth, but what they encountered in the supposed “land of opportunity” was more than they had bargained for.
When the Chinese arrived, the majority of them settled on the West Coast – mostly California, but other western states as well. To this day, the Golden State is home to a large population of Asian Americans, many who are the descendants of these early immigrants. While at first, they were welcomed because they were willing to take on jobs that nobody wanted in exchange for low pay, this sentiment changed among white Americans as the number of Chinese immigrants increased and the gold that was initially found everywhere became more scarce. In the late 1840s, there were just over 300 Chinese people in America, but by the 1880s, that number increased exponentially.
As the number of Chinese immigrants increased, unfortunately, so did the racism against these individuals that white Americans regarded as “foreign, degraded, inferior, and dangerous”. Sometimes, this racism was in the form of taking away rights and resources from the Chinese. They were taxed a special foreign miner tax, which took away approximately half of their income each month. To add insult to injury, they were not allowed to marry interracially or become U.S. citizens.
Many other times, this racism turned violent. In 1887, a gang of white men ambushed a group of 34 Chinese miners, attacking, torturing, mutilating, and killing them, in an event that became known as the Snake River Massacre. Although it was one of the deadliest crimes against Asians during this time period, the Snake River Massacre was far from being the only one. Miners were constantly attacked, assaulted, killed, and robbed of their gold. If the miners couldn’t pay the foreign miner tax, they were often shot or stabbed by the tax collectors. As crimes against the Chinese continued, it became illegal for anyone Chinese to testify in court against a white person, and as a result, most crimes against Chinese people went unpunished.
This anti-Chinese sentiment grew and continued well into the early 1900s. In fact, the Chinatowns across the nation that we now see as beautiful meccas of Chinese culture were first established because the Chinese people had nowhere else to go. They flocked to neighborhoods where they could find safety in numbers to protect themselves from violence by Americans, as well as to find an escape from the constant harassment and discrimination.
As the Gold Rush died down and the mining industry became obsolete, the Chinese immigrants had to find a source of money elsewhere. Some turned to the agriculture industry or worked for fisheries. Others worked as servants, housekeepers, or laborers, or opened their own laundry and restaurant businesses. Eventually, many of them were recruited as railroad workers, which paved the way for the Chinese to work on the transcontinental railroad, another integral chapter in Asian-American history.
1,529 total views, 0 views today | <urn:uuid:5b513ca5-aee8-49b5-8a20-869b96bbab97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://diaryofaquietasiangirl.com/fools-gold-rush-the-early-immigration-of-asians-to-america | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.988013 | 841 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.1659459471... | 1 | Today, we live in the diverse melting pot known as America, but it hasn’t always been this way. Those that came before us had to make enormous sacrifices, ones that paved the way for us – the children of immigrants – to enjoy the privileges that we do today. So, as part of Asian Pacific American Heritage Month, let’s take it allll the way back. Currently, there are over 20 million people of Asian descent in America, but how did we all get here?
Asians, primarily Filipinos, Chinese, and Indians, came to the U.S. as early as the 1500s, but it wasn’t until the 1800s that the first wave of mass immigration of Asians began, with the Chinese being the first to come to America in droves. In the 1840s, China was plagued with widespread poverty, economic instability, and starvation. As tales of this magical land called America made its way to China, naturally many were drawn to it by the promises of prosperity that came with the Gold Rush and the prospect of finding jobs that weren’t available at home. As a result, thousands of Chinese people – mostly men – left for America in search of greater wealth, but what they encountered in the supposed “land of opportunity” was more than they had bargained for.
When the Chinese arrived, the majority of them settled on the West Coast – mostly California, but other western states as well. To this day, the Golden State is home to a large population of Asian Americans, many who are the descendants of these early immigrants. While at first, they were welcomed because they were willing to take on jobs that nobody wanted in exchange for low pay, this sentiment changed among white Americans as the number of Chinese immigrants increased and the gold that was initially found everywhere became more scarce. In the late 1840s, there were just over 300 Chinese people in America, but by the 1880s, that number increased exponentially.
As the number of Chinese immigrants increased, unfortunately, so did the racism against these individuals that white Americans regarded as “foreign, degraded, inferior, and dangerous”. Sometimes, this racism was in the form of taking away rights and resources from the Chinese. They were taxed a special foreign miner tax, which took away approximately half of their income each month. To add insult to injury, they were not allowed to marry interracially or become U.S. citizens.
Many other times, this racism turned violent. In 1887, a gang of white men ambushed a group of 34 Chinese miners, attacking, torturing, mutilating, and killing them, in an event that became known as the Snake River Massacre. Although it was one of the deadliest crimes against Asians during this time period, the Snake River Massacre was far from being the only one. Miners were constantly attacked, assaulted, killed, and robbed of their gold. If the miners couldn’t pay the foreign miner tax, they were often shot or stabbed by the tax collectors. As crimes against the Chinese continued, it became illegal for anyone Chinese to testify in court against a white person, and as a result, most crimes against Chinese people went unpunished.
This anti-Chinese sentiment grew and continued well into the early 1900s. In fact, the Chinatowns across the nation that we now see as beautiful meccas of Chinese culture were first established because the Chinese people had nowhere else to go. They flocked to neighborhoods where they could find safety in numbers to protect themselves from violence by Americans, as well as to find an escape from the constant harassment and discrimination.
As the Gold Rush died down and the mining industry became obsolete, the Chinese immigrants had to find a source of money elsewhere. Some turned to the agriculture industry or worked for fisheries. Others worked as servants, housekeepers, or laborers, or opened their own laundry and restaurant businesses. Eventually, many of them were recruited as railroad workers, which paved the way for the Chinese to work on the transcontinental railroad, another integral chapter in Asian-American history.
1,529 total views, 0 views today | 857 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Elizabeth of Hungary
1207 – 1231
In the year 1207, there was born to Queen Gertrude and King Andrew II of Hungary, a daughter whom they named Elizabeth. At the age of four, an agreement was made for her to marry the son of the Landgrave of Thurginia in southern Germany where Elizabeth went to live.
Elizabeth, prayerful beyond her years, was charitable, almost to a fault. She was so moved by the plight of the poor that she often laid siege to the Landgraves purse and ransacked the castle kitchen in order to provide for those in need.
When the landgrave died, Ludwig, his eldest son, became the Duke of Thurginia. The young duke, at the age of 21, made Princess Elizabeth his wife and the first duchess of the realm. Elizabeth and Ludwig were very much in love and Elizabeth was deeply aware that God was truly the source of all love.
During this time, the Third Order of Saint Francis and the Order of the Poor Clares swept the country. Elizabeth welcomed the spirit of St. Francis and eagerly became enrolled in the army of mortification and mercy. Her devotion to the poor deepened.
In March 1222, Elizabeth gave birth to a son, Herman, and during the next three years, two daughters were born, Sophia and Gertrude.
Elizabeth’s piety and charity flamed brighter than ever. Because her husband’s resources were proving insufficient to meet the needs of the poor, she gave away her own personal gems and jewels.
No longer content with just almsgiving, she sought out the sick and the infirmed. No object of Elizabeth’s charity received more compassion than those afflicted with leprosy. The duchess was delighted to go on errands of mercy in secret.
It is told that one day, while carrying a quantity of bread for the poor under her cloak, she came face-to-face with her husband who was on his way home from the hunt. Surprised to see his wife toiling and heavily burdened along an unfrequented mountain path, he said to her, “Let us see what you carry.” Drawing aside her cloak, he was astonished to see, in the folds of her dress, a mass of beautiful, red roses instead of the bread she was carrying.
Another time, Elizabeth placed a leper in her own bed to care for him. Her mother-in-law was enraged and informed Ludwig about the situation. Annoyed, Ludwig removed the bedclothes and instantly the "Almighty God opened the eyes of his soul, and instead of a leper he saw the figure of Christ crucified stretched upon the bed."
When Ludwig died at the age of 27, Elizabeth was forced to leave the castle by his younger brother, Henry. She refused the offer of a second marriage to the Emperor Frederick II. She promised her widowhood to God.
The remainder of her very short life was spent in devotion and works of charity. Elizabeth died at the age of 24.
(Article adapted from St. Elizabeth Parish directory 2015.) | <urn:uuid:0de9c58d-942c-47b1-b956-355d860970b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.sercc.org/st-elizabeth-church/our-parish/st-elizabeth-of-hungary-bio/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.987229 | 652 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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1207 – 1231
In the year 1207, there was born to Queen Gertrude and King Andrew II of Hungary, a daughter whom they named Elizabeth. At the age of four, an agreement was made for her to marry the son of the Landgrave of Thurginia in southern Germany where Elizabeth went to live.
Elizabeth, prayerful beyond her years, was charitable, almost to a fault. She was so moved by the plight of the poor that she often laid siege to the Landgraves purse and ransacked the castle kitchen in order to provide for those in need.
When the landgrave died, Ludwig, his eldest son, became the Duke of Thurginia. The young duke, at the age of 21, made Princess Elizabeth his wife and the first duchess of the realm. Elizabeth and Ludwig were very much in love and Elizabeth was deeply aware that God was truly the source of all love.
During this time, the Third Order of Saint Francis and the Order of the Poor Clares swept the country. Elizabeth welcomed the spirit of St. Francis and eagerly became enrolled in the army of mortification and mercy. Her devotion to the poor deepened.
In March 1222, Elizabeth gave birth to a son, Herman, and during the next three years, two daughters were born, Sophia and Gertrude.
Elizabeth’s piety and charity flamed brighter than ever. Because her husband’s resources were proving insufficient to meet the needs of the poor, she gave away her own personal gems and jewels.
No longer content with just almsgiving, she sought out the sick and the infirmed. No object of Elizabeth’s charity received more compassion than those afflicted with leprosy. The duchess was delighted to go on errands of mercy in secret.
It is told that one day, while carrying a quantity of bread for the poor under her cloak, she came face-to-face with her husband who was on his way home from the hunt. Surprised to see his wife toiling and heavily burdened along an unfrequented mountain path, he said to her, “Let us see what you carry.” Drawing aside her cloak, he was astonished to see, in the folds of her dress, a mass of beautiful, red roses instead of the bread she was carrying.
Another time, Elizabeth placed a leper in her own bed to care for him. Her mother-in-law was enraged and informed Ludwig about the situation. Annoyed, Ludwig removed the bedclothes and instantly the "Almighty God opened the eyes of his soul, and instead of a leper he saw the figure of Christ crucified stretched upon the bed."
When Ludwig died at the age of 27, Elizabeth was forced to leave the castle by his younger brother, Henry. She refused the offer of a second marriage to the Emperor Frederick II. She promised her widowhood to God.
The remainder of her very short life was spent in devotion and works of charity. Elizabeth died at the age of 24.
(Article adapted from St. Elizabeth Parish directory 2015.) | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Humans and most animals are known to cry and when they do, they release a clear salty liquid from their eyes which are called tears. This phenomena also occurs when the eye is irritated. We have atleast once in our life tried to taste our tear. Most of us have tried this when we were kids as that is the age when we cry the most but if you remember the taste, you would recall that it was salty. Most of us have always wondered why. Let’s look at some facts about them and try to determine why.
Tears formed through crying are usually associated with strong emotions such as sorrow, happiness, pleasure. Even yawning can lead to the secretion of tears.
Basal tear helps in keeping our cornea nourished and lubricated. They also keep our corneas dust free.
Irritation to our eyes due to any foreign particles or irritating presence such as onion results in the formation of reflex tear. | <urn:uuid:eecf538e-74d4-4e7a-ab47-d250f146efd5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sarcasm.co/wondered-reasons-tears-salty/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.981557 | 195 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.209637641906738... | 5 | Humans and most animals are known to cry and when they do, they release a clear salty liquid from their eyes which are called tears. This phenomena also occurs when the eye is irritated. We have atleast once in our life tried to taste our tear. Most of us have tried this when we were kids as that is the age when we cry the most but if you remember the taste, you would recall that it was salty. Most of us have always wondered why. Let’s look at some facts about them and try to determine why.
Tears formed through crying are usually associated with strong emotions such as sorrow, happiness, pleasure. Even yawning can lead to the secretion of tears.
Basal tear helps in keeping our cornea nourished and lubricated. They also keep our corneas dust free.
Irritation to our eyes due to any foreign particles or irritating presence such as onion results in the formation of reflex tear. | 186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Depiction of Wulfhere on the right at Lichfield Cathedral.
|King of Mercia|
|Reign||658 - 675 AD|
Wulfhere or Wulfar (died 675) was King of Mercia from 658 until 675 AD. He was the first Christian king of all of Mercia, though it is not known when or how he converted from Anglo-Saxon paganism. His accession marked the end of Oswiu of Northumbria's overlordship of southern England, and Wulfhere extended his influence over much of that region. His campaigns against the West Saxons led to Mercian control of much of the Thames valley. He conquered the Isle of Wight and the Meon valley and gave them to King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. He also had influence in Surrey, Essex, and Kent. He married Eormenhild, the daughter of King Eorcenberht of Kent.
Wulfhere's father, Penda, was killed in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed, fighting against Oswiu of Northumbria. Penda's son Peada became king under Oswiu's overlordship but was murdered six months later. Wulfhere came to the throne when Mercian nobles organized a revolt against Northumbrian rule in 658 and drove out Oswiu's governors.
By 670, when Oswiu died, Wulfhere was the most powerful king in southern England. He was effectively the overlord of England south of the Humber from the early 660s, although not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been. In 674, he challenged Oswiu's son Ecgfrith of Northumbria, but was defeated. He died, probably of disease, in 675. Wulfhere was succeeded as King of Mercia by his brother, Æthelred. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid describes Wulfhere as "a man of proud mind, and insatiable will".
England in AD 600 was ruled almost entirely by the Anglo-Saxon peoples who had come to Britain from northwestern Europe over the previous 200 years. The monk Bede, writing in about AD 731, considered the Mercians to be descended from the Angles, one of the invading groups; the Saxons and Jutes settled in the south of Britain, while the Angles settled in the north. Little is known about the origins of the kingdom of Mercia, in what is now the English Midlands, but according to genealogies preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection the early kings were descended from Icel; the dynasty is therefore known as the Iclingas. The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia, Wulfhere's father.
According to Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, a history of the English church, there were seven early Anglo-Saxon rulers who held imperium, or overlordship, over the other kingdoms. The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria, who was killed at the Battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon, a British king of Gwynedd and Penda. At the time of this victory, Penda was probably not yet king of Mercia. His children included two future kings of Mercia: Wulfhere and Æthelred.
After Edwin's death, Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two constituent kingdoms. Within a year Oswald killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms, and subsequently re-established Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England. However, on 5 August 642, Penda killed Oswald at the Battle of Maserfield, probably at Oswestry in the northwest midlands. Penda is not recorded as overlord of the other southern Anglo-Saxon kings, but he became the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings after he defeated Oswald. On Oswald's death, Northumbria was divided again: Oswald's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia, and Osric's son Oswine to Deira, the southern of the two kingdoms.
The main source for this period is Bede's History, completed in about 731. Despite its focus on the history of the church, this work also provides valuable information about the early pagan kingdoms. For other kingdoms than his native Northumbria, such as Wessex and Kent, Bede had an informant within the ecclesiastical establishment who supplied him with additional information. This does not seem to have been the case with Mercia, about which Bede is less informative than about other kingdoms. Further sources for this period include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex. The Chronicle's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods.
Wulfhere was the son of Penda of Mercia. Penda's queen, Cynewise, is named by Bede, who does not mention her children; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Wulfhere's mother. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives Penda's age as fifty in 626, and credits him with a thirty-year reign, but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death, which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons (Wulfhere and Æthelred) are recorded as being young when he was killed. It is thought at least as likely that Penda was 50 years old at his death, rather than at his accession. Wulfhere's date of birth is unknown, but Bede describes him as a youth at the time of his accession in 658, so it is likely he was in his middle teens at that time; Penda would then have been in his thirties at the time Wulfhere was born.
Nothing is known of Wulfhere's childhood. He had two brothers, Peada and Æthelred, and two sisters, Cyneburh and Cyneswith; it is also possible that Merewalh, king of the Magonsæte, was Wulfhere's brother. He married Eormenhild of Kent; no date is recorded for the marriage and there is no record of any children in the earliest sources, though Coenred, who was king of Mercia from 704 to 709, is recorded in John of Worcester's 12th-century chronicle as Wulfhere's son. Another possible child is Berhtwald, a subking who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred, and a third child, Werburh, is recorded in an 11th-century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere. An 11th-century history of St. Peter's Monastery in Gloucester names two other women, Eadburh and Eafe, as queens of Wulfhere, but neither claim is plausible.
In 655 Penda besieged Oswiu of Northumbria at Iudeu, the location of which is unknown but which may have been Stirling, in Scotland. Penda took Oswiu's son, Ecgfrith, as hostage, and Oswiu paid tribute, in the form of treasure, to secure Penda's departure. On the way back to Mercia, Oswiu overtook Penda and on 15 November 655 Oswiu and Penda fought on the banks of the (unidentified) River Winwaed. Penda was killed and beheaded by Oswiu, who divided Mercia into northern and southern halves. The northern portion was kept under direct Northumbrian control; the southern kingdom was given to Penda's son Peada, who had married Oswiu's daughter Ealhflæd ca 653.
Peada did not remain king long. He was murdered at Easter in 656, perhaps with the connivance of his wife, Oswiu's daughter. Oswiu then ruled all Mercia himself. Bede lists Oswiu as the seventh and last king to hold imperium (or bretwalda in the language of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Overlordship was a common relationship between kingdoms at this time, often taking the form of a lesser king under the domination of a stronger one. Oswiu went further than this, however, and installed his own governors in Mercia after the deaths of Penda and Peada. This attempt to establish close control of Mercia failed in 658 when three Mercian leaders, Immin, Eafa and Eadbert, rebelled against the Northumbrians. Bede reports that they had kept Wulfhere in hiding, and when the revolt succeeded Wulfhere became king. It has been suggested that the Mercian revolt succeeded because Oswiu may have been occupied with fighting in Pictland, in northern Britain. His nephew the Pictish king Talorgan, son of Eanfrith, had died in 657.
How much direct control Oswiu exerted over the southern kingdoms during his imperium is unclear. Bede describes Oswiu's friendship and influence over Sigeberht of the East Saxons, but generally the pattern in the southeast is of more local domination, with Oswiu's influence unlikely to have been particularly strong. Wulfhere appears to have taken over Oswiu's position in many instances. Bede does not list him as one of the rulers who exercised imperium, but modern historians consider that the rise to primacy of the kingdom of Mercia began in his reign. He seems to have been the effective overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s, though not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been.
A document called the Tribal Hidage may date from Wulfhere's reign. Drawn up before many smaller groups of peoples were absorbed into the larger kingdoms, such as Mercia, it records the peoples of Anglo-Saxon England, along with an assessment in hides, a unit of land. The Tribal Hidage is difficult to date precisely; it may have been written down in Wulfhere's reign, but other suggested origins include the reign of Offa of Mercia, or Edwin or Oswiu of Northumbria.
Britain had been Christianised under the Romans, but the incoming Anglo-Saxons practiced their indigenous religion (Anglo-Saxon paganism) and the church in Great Britain was limited to the surviving British kingdoms in Scotland and Wales, and the kingdom of Dumnonia in the southwest of England. Missionaries from Rome began converting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity at the end of the 6th century, and this process was well under way in Penda's reign, though Penda himself remained pagan throughout his life. Records survive of the baptism of other kings at this time--Cynegils of Wessex was baptised in about 640, for example, and Edwin of Northumbria was converted in the mid 620s. However, later kings, such as Cædwalla of Wessex, who ruled in the 680s, are recorded as pagan at their accession.
Bede writes that after Wulfhere became king: "Free under their own king, they [the Mercians] gave willing allegiance to Christ their true king, so that they might win his eternal kingdom in heaven". While Wulfhere's father had refused to convert to Christianity, and Peada had apparently converted in order to marry Oswiu's daughter, the date and the circumstances of Wulfhere's conversion are unknown. It has been suggested that he adopted Christianity as part of a settlement with Oswiu. Bede records that two years before Penda's death, his son Peada converted to Christianity, influenced partly by Oswiu's son Ealhfrith, who had married Peada's sister Cyneburh. Peada brought a Christian mission into Mercia, and it is possible that this was when Wulfhere became a Christian. Wulfhere's marriage to Eormenhild of Kent would have brought Mercia into close contact with the Christian kingdoms of Kent and Merovingian Gaul, which were connected by kinship and trade. The political and economic benefits of the marriage may therefore also have been a factor in Wulfhere's Christianisation of his kingdom.
Wulfhere's relationship with Bishop Wilfrid is recorded in Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid. During the years 667-69, while Wilfrid was at Ripon, Wulfhere frequently invited him to come to Mercia when there was need of the services of a bishop. According to Stephen, Wulfhere rewarded Wilfrid with "many tracts of land", in which Wilfrid "soon established minsters for servants of God".
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Wulfhere endowed a major monastery at Medeshamstede, in modern Peterborough. The monastery had initially been endowed by Peada; for the dedication of Wulfhere's gift both Archbishop Deusdedit (died 664), and Bishop Jaruman (held office from 663), were present. The endowment was signed by Wulfhere and Oswiu, and by Sigehere and Sæbbi, the Kings of Essex.
In 661, Wulfhere is recorded in the Chronicle as harrying Ashdown, in West Saxon territory. The Gewisse, thought to be the original group from which the West Saxons came, appear to have originally settled in the upper Thames valley, and what records survive of the 6th century show them active in that region. The Mercian resurgence under Wulfhere placed them under severe pressure. Also in the early 660s, the West Saxon see of Dorchester, in the same area, was divided, and a new bishopric set up at Winchester. This decision was probably a reaction to the advance of the Mercians into the traditional heartland of the West Saxons, leaving Dorchester dangerously close to the border. Within a few years, the Dorchester see was abandoned; the exact date is not known, but it was probably in the mid 660s.
In addition to the attack on Ashdown, Wulfhere raided the Isle of Wight in 661. He subsequently gave both the island and the territory of the Meonware, which lay along the river Meon, on the mainland north of the Isle of Wight, to his godson King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. It seems likely that the ruling dynasty on the island found these arrangements acceptable to some degree, since the West Saxons, under Cædwalla, exterminated the whole family when they launched their own attack on the island in 686. After the conquest of the Isle of Wight, Wulfhere ordered the priest Eoppa to provide baptism to the inhabitants. According to the Chronicle, this was the first time Christian baptism had reached the island.
In the early 670s, Cenwealh of Wessex died, and perhaps as a result of the stress caused by Wulfhere's military activity the West Saxon kingdom fragmented and came to be ruled by underkings, according to Bede. Eventually these underkings were defeated and the kingdom reunited, probably by Cædwalla but possibly by Centwine. A decade after Wulfhere's death, the West Saxons under Cædwalla began an aggressive expansion to the east, reversing much of the Mercian advance.
In addition to being Wulfhere's godson, King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons had a connection to the Mercians via marriage. His wife was Queen Eafe, the daughter of Eanfrith of the Hwicce, a tribe whose territory lay to the southwest of Mercia. The Hwicce had their own royal family, but it appears that at this date they were already subordinate to Wulfhere: the marriage between Æthelwealh and Eafe may well have taken place at Wulfhere's court, since it is known Æthelwealh was converted there. The kingdom of the Hwicce is sometimes regarded as a creation of Penda's, but it is equally likely that the kingdom existed independently of Mercia, and that Penda and Wulfhere's increasing influence in the area represented an extension of Mercian power rather than the creation of a separate entity.
In 664, Æthelwald of East Anglia died, and was succeeded by Ealdwulf, who reigned for fifty years. Almost nothing is known of Mercian relations with East Anglia during this time; East Anglia had previously been dominated by Northumbria, but there is no evidence that this continued after Wulfhere's accession. Swithhelm of the East Saxons also died in 664; he was succeeded by his two sons, Sigehere and Sæbbi, and Bede describes their accession as "rulers ... under Wulfhere, king of the Mercians". A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity, and according to Bede, Wulfhere sent Jaruman, the bishop of Lichfield, to reconvert the East Saxons. Jaruman was not the first bishop of Lichfield; Bede mentions a predecessor, Trumhere, but nothing is known about Trumhere's activities or who appointed him.
It is apparent from these events that Oswiu's influence in the south had waned by this time, if not before, and that Wulfhere now dominated the area. This becomes even clearer in the next few years, as some time between 665 and 668 Wulfhere sold the see of London to Wine, who had been expelled from his West Saxon bishopric by Cenwealh. London fell within the East Saxons' territory in that period. From the archaeological evidence, it appears to be about this time that the Middle Saxon settlement in London began to expand significantly; the centre of Anglo-Saxon London was not at the old Roman centre, but about a mile west of that, near what is now the location of the Strand. Wulfhere may have been in control of the city when this expansion began.
Eorcenberht was the king of Kent at Wulfhere's accession, and the two families became connected when Wulfhere married Eorcenberht's daughter Eormenhild. In 664 Eorcenberht's son Egbert succeeded to the Kentish throne. The situation in Kent at Egbert's death in 673 is not clearly recorded. It appears that a year passed before Hlothhere, Egbert's brother, became king. Wulfhere may have had an interest in the succession, as through his marriage to Eormenhild he was the uncle of Egbert's two sons, Eadric and Wihtred. It has been speculated that Wulfhere acted as the effective ruler of Kent in the interregnum between Egbert's death and Hlothhere's accession. Another Mercian connection to Kent was through Merewalh, the king of the Magonsæte, and hence a subking under Wulfhere. Merewalh, who may have been Wulfhere's brother, was married to Hlothhere's sister, Eormenburh.
Surrey is not recorded as ever having been an independent kingdom, but was at least a province that was under the control of different neighbours at different times. It was ruled by Egbert until the early 670s, when a charter shows Wulfhere confirming a grant made to Bishop Eorcenwald by Frithuwold, a sub-king in Surrey, which may have extended north into modern Buckinghamshire. Frithuwold himself was probably married to Wilburh, Wulfhere's sister. The charter, made from Thame, is dated between 673 and 675, and it was probably Egbert's death that triggered Wulfhere's intervention. A witness named Frithuric is recorded on a charter in the reign of Wulfhere's successor, Æthelred, making a grant to the monastery of Peterborough, and the alliteration common in Anglo-Saxon dynasties has led to speculation that the two men may have both come from a Middle Anglian dynasty, with Wulfhere perhaps having placed Frithuwold on the throne of Surrey. The charter is witnessed by three other subkings, named Osric, Wigheard, and Æthelwold; their kingdoms are not identified but the charter mentions Sonning, a province in what is now eastern Berkshire, and it may be that one of these subkings was a ruler of the Sunningas, the people of that province. This would in turn imply Wulfhere's domination of that province by that time.
Wulfhere's influence among the Lindesfara, whose territory, Lindsey, lay in what is now Lincolnshire, is known from information about episcopal authority. At least one of the Mercian bishops of Lichfield is known to have exercised authority there: Wynfrith, who became bishop on Chad's death in 672. In addition it is known that Wulfhere gave land at Barrow upon Humber, in Lindsey, to Chad, for a monastery. It is possible that Chad also had authority there as bishop, probably no later than 669. It may be that the political basis for Mercian episcopal control of the Lindesfara was laid early in Wulfhere's reign, under Trumhere and Jaruman, the two bishops who preceded Chad.
When Wulfhere attacked Oswiu's son Ecgfrith in 674, he did so from a position of strength. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid says that Wulfhere "stirred up all the southern nations against [Northumbria]". Bede does not report the fighting, nor is it mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but according to Stephen, Ecgfrith defeated Wulfhere, forcing him to surrender Lindsey, and to pay tribute.
Wulfhere survived the defeat but evidently lost some degree of control over the south as a result; in 675, Æscwine, one of the kings of the West Saxons, fought him at Biedanheafde. It is not known where this battle was, or who was the victor. Henry of Huntingdon, a 12th-century historian who had access to versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle now lost, believed that Mercians had been the victors in a "terrible battle" and remarks upon Wulfhere having inherited "the valour of his father and grandfather". Kirby, however, presumes Æscwine was sufficiently successful to break Wulfhere's hold over Wessex.
Wulfhere died later in 675. The cause of death, according to Henry of Huntingdon, was disease. He would have been in his mid-thirties. His widow, Eormenhild, is thought to have later become the abbess of Ely. Æthelred, Wulfhere's brother, succeeded to the throne and reigned for nearly thirty years. Æthelred recovered Lindsey from the Northumbrians a few years after his accession, but he was generally unable to maintain the domination of the south achieved by Wulfhere.
At an unrecorded date Wulfhere married Eormenhild (alias Ermenilda, etc.), a daughter of Eorcenberht, King of Kent, who survived him and is thought after his death to have become the Abbess of Ely. No issue from the marriage are recorded in the earliest sources, however the following children are recorded by various other sources: | <urn:uuid:38d54767-41f1-4bb2-a1d4-434fbb434f8e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Wulfhere_of_Mercia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.98055 | 4,973 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.240206629037... | 1 | Depiction of Wulfhere on the right at Lichfield Cathedral.
|King of Mercia|
|Reign||658 - 675 AD|
Wulfhere or Wulfar (died 675) was King of Mercia from 658 until 675 AD. He was the first Christian king of all of Mercia, though it is not known when or how he converted from Anglo-Saxon paganism. His accession marked the end of Oswiu of Northumbria's overlordship of southern England, and Wulfhere extended his influence over much of that region. His campaigns against the West Saxons led to Mercian control of much of the Thames valley. He conquered the Isle of Wight and the Meon valley and gave them to King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. He also had influence in Surrey, Essex, and Kent. He married Eormenhild, the daughter of King Eorcenberht of Kent.
Wulfhere's father, Penda, was killed in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed, fighting against Oswiu of Northumbria. Penda's son Peada became king under Oswiu's overlordship but was murdered six months later. Wulfhere came to the throne when Mercian nobles organized a revolt against Northumbrian rule in 658 and drove out Oswiu's governors.
By 670, when Oswiu died, Wulfhere was the most powerful king in southern England. He was effectively the overlord of England south of the Humber from the early 660s, although not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been. In 674, he challenged Oswiu's son Ecgfrith of Northumbria, but was defeated. He died, probably of disease, in 675. Wulfhere was succeeded as King of Mercia by his brother, Æthelred. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid describes Wulfhere as "a man of proud mind, and insatiable will".
England in AD 600 was ruled almost entirely by the Anglo-Saxon peoples who had come to Britain from northwestern Europe over the previous 200 years. The monk Bede, writing in about AD 731, considered the Mercians to be descended from the Angles, one of the invading groups; the Saxons and Jutes settled in the south of Britain, while the Angles settled in the north. Little is known about the origins of the kingdom of Mercia, in what is now the English Midlands, but according to genealogies preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection the early kings were descended from Icel; the dynasty is therefore known as the Iclingas. The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia, Wulfhere's father.
According to Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, a history of the English church, there were seven early Anglo-Saxon rulers who held imperium, or overlordship, over the other kingdoms. The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria, who was killed at the Battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon, a British king of Gwynedd and Penda. At the time of this victory, Penda was probably not yet king of Mercia. His children included two future kings of Mercia: Wulfhere and Æthelred.
After Edwin's death, Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two constituent kingdoms. Within a year Oswald killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms, and subsequently re-established Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England. However, on 5 August 642, Penda killed Oswald at the Battle of Maserfield, probably at Oswestry in the northwest midlands. Penda is not recorded as overlord of the other southern Anglo-Saxon kings, but he became the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings after he defeated Oswald. On Oswald's death, Northumbria was divided again: Oswald's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia, and Osric's son Oswine to Deira, the southern of the two kingdoms.
The main source for this period is Bede's History, completed in about 731. Despite its focus on the history of the church, this work also provides valuable information about the early pagan kingdoms. For other kingdoms than his native Northumbria, such as Wessex and Kent, Bede had an informant within the ecclesiastical establishment who supplied him with additional information. This does not seem to have been the case with Mercia, about which Bede is less informative than about other kingdoms. Further sources for this period include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex. The Chronicle's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods.
Wulfhere was the son of Penda of Mercia. Penda's queen, Cynewise, is named by Bede, who does not mention her children; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Wulfhere's mother. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives Penda's age as fifty in 626, and credits him with a thirty-year reign, but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death, which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons (Wulfhere and Æthelred) are recorded as being young when he was killed. It is thought at least as likely that Penda was 50 years old at his death, rather than at his accession. Wulfhere's date of birth is unknown, but Bede describes him as a youth at the time of his accession in 658, so it is likely he was in his middle teens at that time; Penda would then have been in his thirties at the time Wulfhere was born.
Nothing is known of Wulfhere's childhood. He had two brothers, Peada and Æthelred, and two sisters, Cyneburh and Cyneswith; it is also possible that Merewalh, king of the Magonsæte, was Wulfhere's brother. He married Eormenhild of Kent; no date is recorded for the marriage and there is no record of any children in the earliest sources, though Coenred, who was king of Mercia from 704 to 709, is recorded in John of Worcester's 12th-century chronicle as Wulfhere's son. Another possible child is Berhtwald, a subking who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred, and a third child, Werburh, is recorded in an 11th-century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere. An 11th-century history of St. Peter's Monastery in Gloucester names two other women, Eadburh and Eafe, as queens of Wulfhere, but neither claim is plausible.
In 655 Penda besieged Oswiu of Northumbria at Iudeu, the location of which is unknown but which may have been Stirling, in Scotland. Penda took Oswiu's son, Ecgfrith, as hostage, and Oswiu paid tribute, in the form of treasure, to secure Penda's departure. On the way back to Mercia, Oswiu overtook Penda and on 15 November 655 Oswiu and Penda fought on the banks of the (unidentified) River Winwaed. Penda was killed and beheaded by Oswiu, who divided Mercia into northern and southern halves. The northern portion was kept under direct Northumbrian control; the southern kingdom was given to Penda's son Peada, who had married Oswiu's daughter Ealhflæd ca 653.
Peada did not remain king long. He was murdered at Easter in 656, perhaps with the connivance of his wife, Oswiu's daughter. Oswiu then ruled all Mercia himself. Bede lists Oswiu as the seventh and last king to hold imperium (or bretwalda in the language of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Overlordship was a common relationship between kingdoms at this time, often taking the form of a lesser king under the domination of a stronger one. Oswiu went further than this, however, and installed his own governors in Mercia after the deaths of Penda and Peada. This attempt to establish close control of Mercia failed in 658 when three Mercian leaders, Immin, Eafa and Eadbert, rebelled against the Northumbrians. Bede reports that they had kept Wulfhere in hiding, and when the revolt succeeded Wulfhere became king. It has been suggested that the Mercian revolt succeeded because Oswiu may have been occupied with fighting in Pictland, in northern Britain. His nephew the Pictish king Talorgan, son of Eanfrith, had died in 657.
How much direct control Oswiu exerted over the southern kingdoms during his imperium is unclear. Bede describes Oswiu's friendship and influence over Sigeberht of the East Saxons, but generally the pattern in the southeast is of more local domination, with Oswiu's influence unlikely to have been particularly strong. Wulfhere appears to have taken over Oswiu's position in many instances. Bede does not list him as one of the rulers who exercised imperium, but modern historians consider that the rise to primacy of the kingdom of Mercia began in his reign. He seems to have been the effective overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s, though not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been.
A document called the Tribal Hidage may date from Wulfhere's reign. Drawn up before many smaller groups of peoples were absorbed into the larger kingdoms, such as Mercia, it records the peoples of Anglo-Saxon England, along with an assessment in hides, a unit of land. The Tribal Hidage is difficult to date precisely; it may have been written down in Wulfhere's reign, but other suggested origins include the reign of Offa of Mercia, or Edwin or Oswiu of Northumbria.
Britain had been Christianised under the Romans, but the incoming Anglo-Saxons practiced their indigenous religion (Anglo-Saxon paganism) and the church in Great Britain was limited to the surviving British kingdoms in Scotland and Wales, and the kingdom of Dumnonia in the southwest of England. Missionaries from Rome began converting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity at the end of the 6th century, and this process was well under way in Penda's reign, though Penda himself remained pagan throughout his life. Records survive of the baptism of other kings at this time--Cynegils of Wessex was baptised in about 640, for example, and Edwin of Northumbria was converted in the mid 620s. However, later kings, such as Cædwalla of Wessex, who ruled in the 680s, are recorded as pagan at their accession.
Bede writes that after Wulfhere became king: "Free under their own king, they [the Mercians] gave willing allegiance to Christ their true king, so that they might win his eternal kingdom in heaven". While Wulfhere's father had refused to convert to Christianity, and Peada had apparently converted in order to marry Oswiu's daughter, the date and the circumstances of Wulfhere's conversion are unknown. It has been suggested that he adopted Christianity as part of a settlement with Oswiu. Bede records that two years before Penda's death, his son Peada converted to Christianity, influenced partly by Oswiu's son Ealhfrith, who had married Peada's sister Cyneburh. Peada brought a Christian mission into Mercia, and it is possible that this was when Wulfhere became a Christian. Wulfhere's marriage to Eormenhild of Kent would have brought Mercia into close contact with the Christian kingdoms of Kent and Merovingian Gaul, which were connected by kinship and trade. The political and economic benefits of the marriage may therefore also have been a factor in Wulfhere's Christianisation of his kingdom.
Wulfhere's relationship with Bishop Wilfrid is recorded in Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid. During the years 667-69, while Wilfrid was at Ripon, Wulfhere frequently invited him to come to Mercia when there was need of the services of a bishop. According to Stephen, Wulfhere rewarded Wilfrid with "many tracts of land", in which Wilfrid "soon established minsters for servants of God".
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Wulfhere endowed a major monastery at Medeshamstede, in modern Peterborough. The monastery had initially been endowed by Peada; for the dedication of Wulfhere's gift both Archbishop Deusdedit (died 664), and Bishop Jaruman (held office from 663), were present. The endowment was signed by Wulfhere and Oswiu, and by Sigehere and Sæbbi, the Kings of Essex.
In 661, Wulfhere is recorded in the Chronicle as harrying Ashdown, in West Saxon territory. The Gewisse, thought to be the original group from which the West Saxons came, appear to have originally settled in the upper Thames valley, and what records survive of the 6th century show them active in that region. The Mercian resurgence under Wulfhere placed them under severe pressure. Also in the early 660s, the West Saxon see of Dorchester, in the same area, was divided, and a new bishopric set up at Winchester. This decision was probably a reaction to the advance of the Mercians into the traditional heartland of the West Saxons, leaving Dorchester dangerously close to the border. Within a few years, the Dorchester see was abandoned; the exact date is not known, but it was probably in the mid 660s.
In addition to the attack on Ashdown, Wulfhere raided the Isle of Wight in 661. He subsequently gave both the island and the territory of the Meonware, which lay along the river Meon, on the mainland north of the Isle of Wight, to his godson King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. It seems likely that the ruling dynasty on the island found these arrangements acceptable to some degree, since the West Saxons, under Cædwalla, exterminated the whole family when they launched their own attack on the island in 686. After the conquest of the Isle of Wight, Wulfhere ordered the priest Eoppa to provide baptism to the inhabitants. According to the Chronicle, this was the first time Christian baptism had reached the island.
In the early 670s, Cenwealh of Wessex died, and perhaps as a result of the stress caused by Wulfhere's military activity the West Saxon kingdom fragmented and came to be ruled by underkings, according to Bede. Eventually these underkings were defeated and the kingdom reunited, probably by Cædwalla but possibly by Centwine. A decade after Wulfhere's death, the West Saxons under Cædwalla began an aggressive expansion to the east, reversing much of the Mercian advance.
In addition to being Wulfhere's godson, King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons had a connection to the Mercians via marriage. His wife was Queen Eafe, the daughter of Eanfrith of the Hwicce, a tribe whose territory lay to the southwest of Mercia. The Hwicce had their own royal family, but it appears that at this date they were already subordinate to Wulfhere: the marriage between Æthelwealh and Eafe may well have taken place at Wulfhere's court, since it is known Æthelwealh was converted there. The kingdom of the Hwicce is sometimes regarded as a creation of Penda's, but it is equally likely that the kingdom existed independently of Mercia, and that Penda and Wulfhere's increasing influence in the area represented an extension of Mercian power rather than the creation of a separate entity.
In 664, Æthelwald of East Anglia died, and was succeeded by Ealdwulf, who reigned for fifty years. Almost nothing is known of Mercian relations with East Anglia during this time; East Anglia had previously been dominated by Northumbria, but there is no evidence that this continued after Wulfhere's accession. Swithhelm of the East Saxons also died in 664; he was succeeded by his two sons, Sigehere and Sæbbi, and Bede describes their accession as "rulers ... under Wulfhere, king of the Mercians". A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity, and according to Bede, Wulfhere sent Jaruman, the bishop of Lichfield, to reconvert the East Saxons. Jaruman was not the first bishop of Lichfield; Bede mentions a predecessor, Trumhere, but nothing is known about Trumhere's activities or who appointed him.
It is apparent from these events that Oswiu's influence in the south had waned by this time, if not before, and that Wulfhere now dominated the area. This becomes even clearer in the next few years, as some time between 665 and 668 Wulfhere sold the see of London to Wine, who had been expelled from his West Saxon bishopric by Cenwealh. London fell within the East Saxons' territory in that period. From the archaeological evidence, it appears to be about this time that the Middle Saxon settlement in London began to expand significantly; the centre of Anglo-Saxon London was not at the old Roman centre, but about a mile west of that, near what is now the location of the Strand. Wulfhere may have been in control of the city when this expansion began.
Eorcenberht was the king of Kent at Wulfhere's accession, and the two families became connected when Wulfhere married Eorcenberht's daughter Eormenhild. In 664 Eorcenberht's son Egbert succeeded to the Kentish throne. The situation in Kent at Egbert's death in 673 is not clearly recorded. It appears that a year passed before Hlothhere, Egbert's brother, became king. Wulfhere may have had an interest in the succession, as through his marriage to Eormenhild he was the uncle of Egbert's two sons, Eadric and Wihtred. It has been speculated that Wulfhere acted as the effective ruler of Kent in the interregnum between Egbert's death and Hlothhere's accession. Another Mercian connection to Kent was through Merewalh, the king of the Magonsæte, and hence a subking under Wulfhere. Merewalh, who may have been Wulfhere's brother, was married to Hlothhere's sister, Eormenburh.
Surrey is not recorded as ever having been an independent kingdom, but was at least a province that was under the control of different neighbours at different times. It was ruled by Egbert until the early 670s, when a charter shows Wulfhere confirming a grant made to Bishop Eorcenwald by Frithuwold, a sub-king in Surrey, which may have extended north into modern Buckinghamshire. Frithuwold himself was probably married to Wilburh, Wulfhere's sister. The charter, made from Thame, is dated between 673 and 675, and it was probably Egbert's death that triggered Wulfhere's intervention. A witness named Frithuric is recorded on a charter in the reign of Wulfhere's successor, Æthelred, making a grant to the monastery of Peterborough, and the alliteration common in Anglo-Saxon dynasties has led to speculation that the two men may have both come from a Middle Anglian dynasty, with Wulfhere perhaps having placed Frithuwold on the throne of Surrey. The charter is witnessed by three other subkings, named Osric, Wigheard, and Æthelwold; their kingdoms are not identified but the charter mentions Sonning, a province in what is now eastern Berkshire, and it may be that one of these subkings was a ruler of the Sunningas, the people of that province. This would in turn imply Wulfhere's domination of that province by that time.
Wulfhere's influence among the Lindesfara, whose territory, Lindsey, lay in what is now Lincolnshire, is known from information about episcopal authority. At least one of the Mercian bishops of Lichfield is known to have exercised authority there: Wynfrith, who became bishop on Chad's death in 672. In addition it is known that Wulfhere gave land at Barrow upon Humber, in Lindsey, to Chad, for a monastery. It is possible that Chad also had authority there as bishop, probably no later than 669. It may be that the political basis for Mercian episcopal control of the Lindesfara was laid early in Wulfhere's reign, under Trumhere and Jaruman, the two bishops who preceded Chad.
When Wulfhere attacked Oswiu's son Ecgfrith in 674, he did so from a position of strength. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid says that Wulfhere "stirred up all the southern nations against [Northumbria]". Bede does not report the fighting, nor is it mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but according to Stephen, Ecgfrith defeated Wulfhere, forcing him to surrender Lindsey, and to pay tribute.
Wulfhere survived the defeat but evidently lost some degree of control over the south as a result; in 675, Æscwine, one of the kings of the West Saxons, fought him at Biedanheafde. It is not known where this battle was, or who was the victor. Henry of Huntingdon, a 12th-century historian who had access to versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle now lost, believed that Mercians had been the victors in a "terrible battle" and remarks upon Wulfhere having inherited "the valour of his father and grandfather". Kirby, however, presumes Æscwine was sufficiently successful to break Wulfhere's hold over Wessex.
Wulfhere died later in 675. The cause of death, according to Henry of Huntingdon, was disease. He would have been in his mid-thirties. His widow, Eormenhild, is thought to have later become the abbess of Ely. Æthelred, Wulfhere's brother, succeeded to the throne and reigned for nearly thirty years. Æthelred recovered Lindsey from the Northumbrians a few years after his accession, but he was generally unable to maintain the domination of the south achieved by Wulfhere.
At an unrecorded date Wulfhere married Eormenhild (alias Ermenilda, etc.), a daughter of Eorcenberht, King of Kent, who survived him and is thought after his death to have become the Abbess of Ely. No issue from the marriage are recorded in the earliest sources, however the following children are recorded by various other sources: | 5,052 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The original Tapestry is over 70 metres long and depicts 626 human figures, 190 horses, 35 dogs, 506 other birds and animals, 33 buildings, 37 ships and 37 trees or groups and trees, with 57 Latin inscriptions. Here is more information about a few of the people that appear in the Tapestry - the three kings, the clerics, and the three women that are shown on the main narrative of the Tapestry:
Edward was the son of the Saxon King Ethelred (the Unready) and Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy. Emma later married Cnut, King of Denmark. Cnut became King of England and Edward went to live in exile in Normandy.
When Cnut died in 1042 his son Harthacnut was made King of England. But Harthacnut died without leaving an heir so Edward became King in 1042 and was crowned at Winchester in 1043. He ruled with the help of the powerful Saxon earls and married Edith, daughter of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. Edward invited many of his Norman friends to come to England; he gave them important jobs and land. He ordered the building of Westminster Abbey.
Because Edward had no children, he had to choose someone to succeed him. There were many claimants to the throne. One was Harold, Earl of Wessex, Edward's brother-in-law; another was Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, and a third was William, Duke of Normandy. The strongest claim was from Edgar Aetheling, Edward's great nephew who had been raised by Edward since 1057 when he was 4 years old. The Normans said that Edward had promised the throne to William, but Harold Godwinson was chosen to succeed Edward who died in January 1066.
Harold had no hereditary claim on the throne - he was not of royal birth. He was the son of Godwin of Wessex, in his time the most powerful Saxon earl. Harold's sister, Emma, was married to Edward the Confessor and had at least five brothers. The tapestry shows us that Harold had fought with William against the Duke of Brittany and shows him swearing upon holy relics. When Edward the Confessor died Harold was chosen to be King of England by the leading Saxon noblemen.
Right away Harold had problems. His brother Tostig accompanied Harold Hardrada King of Norway when he invaded England. Both Hardrada and Tostig were killed by Harold's army at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. At the same time William of Normandy had brought his army to England to claim the throne. Harold marched from Stamford Bridge to London then on to Hastings where William's army waited.
The English and Norman armies fought bravely, but Harold with his brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were all killed. The tapestry tells us "here King Harold has been killed" - struck down by the sword of a mounted Norman soldier. After the Battle of Hastings Williams had an abbey built on the place where the battle had been fought, and the high altar is supposed to mark the spot where Harold was killed.
William's father was Duke Robert and his mother was Herleva who was a tanner's daughter. Duke Robert's great-great-grandfather was Rollo, a Viking who invaded France in 911. Although he was illegitimate William became Duke of Normandy when he was only seven years old - his father died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. William's mother married the Viscount of Conteville and had two more sons - Odo and Robert.
William was a strong leader and wanted to become King of England. William led his army at the Battle of Hastings where Harold was killed and his army defeated. William then set about the conquest of England; he gave Norman barons pieces of land all over the country and in return they supported him in war and administered regions of England on the king's behalf.
During his reign William ordered the collection of information about the people in Britain and how much property they owned. This information was recorded in the Domesday Book. William died in 1087 after being injured when fighting in France.
Odo's father was Herluin, Viscount of Conteville and his mother was Herleva who was also the mother of Duke William of Normandy. When Odo was only nineteen years old, William made him Bishop of Bayeux. He built a cathedral there.
When William was planning to invade England, Odo was at his side. He went with the Norman army and, as well as leading the prayers for victory, he fought in the battle. He carried a mace rather than a sword, because although men of the church were not allowed to spill blood, they were permitted to batter their opponents with a club.
Odo was made Earl of Kent and often ruled England when William was in Normandy. He was given great areas of land and he granted some of these areas to his knights. The tapestry may have been made in England to record the Norman victory and the part Odo played in it. The tapestry was later hung in his cathedral at Bayeux.
By 1082 William and Odo had fallen out. Odo was sent to prison in Rouen, and only released shortly before William died. He returned to England and plotted against William Rufus, the Conqueror's son, but was captured and banished to Bayeux. He died in Sicily in 1097 on a crusade to the Holy Land.
He is shown on the Tapestry playing a prominent position at Harold's coronation. Because his appointment as Archbishop was disputed by the Pope, this may have been a Norman attempt to discredit Harold's kingship.
Edith, the wife of King Edward the Confessor and sister of King Harold, is thought to the women shown in Edward's deathbed scene at Westminster. The author of the Life of Edward, written soon after his death, records that she was present at Edward's deathbed when he commended her to Harold's protection.
A woman and child area shown either trapped inside or fleeing from a burning building at Hastings when William's troops were harrying the area immediately after his invasion force lands at Pevensey.
A mysterious lady appears called Aelfgyva appears in a scene with a cleric near the start of the tapestry. The mysterious incident seems to have nothing to do with the main story, but it may have been well known in the 11th century. It might refer to a sexual scandal as the man in the lower border is naked in the original tapestry, but he has been provided with shorts in the Victorian copy. Aelfgyva was a widely used Saxon name. | <urn:uuid:cdd14c2e-a882-4812-bc84-7eca0a92c818> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.readingmuseum.org.uk/people-tapestry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.991437 | 1,386 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1857300102... | 3 | The original Tapestry is over 70 metres long and depicts 626 human figures, 190 horses, 35 dogs, 506 other birds and animals, 33 buildings, 37 ships and 37 trees or groups and trees, with 57 Latin inscriptions. Here is more information about a few of the people that appear in the Tapestry - the three kings, the clerics, and the three women that are shown on the main narrative of the Tapestry:
Edward was the son of the Saxon King Ethelred (the Unready) and Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy. Emma later married Cnut, King of Denmark. Cnut became King of England and Edward went to live in exile in Normandy.
When Cnut died in 1042 his son Harthacnut was made King of England. But Harthacnut died without leaving an heir so Edward became King in 1042 and was crowned at Winchester in 1043. He ruled with the help of the powerful Saxon earls and married Edith, daughter of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. Edward invited many of his Norman friends to come to England; he gave them important jobs and land. He ordered the building of Westminster Abbey.
Because Edward had no children, he had to choose someone to succeed him. There were many claimants to the throne. One was Harold, Earl of Wessex, Edward's brother-in-law; another was Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, and a third was William, Duke of Normandy. The strongest claim was from Edgar Aetheling, Edward's great nephew who had been raised by Edward since 1057 when he was 4 years old. The Normans said that Edward had promised the throne to William, but Harold Godwinson was chosen to succeed Edward who died in January 1066.
Harold had no hereditary claim on the throne - he was not of royal birth. He was the son of Godwin of Wessex, in his time the most powerful Saxon earl. Harold's sister, Emma, was married to Edward the Confessor and had at least five brothers. The tapestry shows us that Harold had fought with William against the Duke of Brittany and shows him swearing upon holy relics. When Edward the Confessor died Harold was chosen to be King of England by the leading Saxon noblemen.
Right away Harold had problems. His brother Tostig accompanied Harold Hardrada King of Norway when he invaded England. Both Hardrada and Tostig were killed by Harold's army at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. At the same time William of Normandy had brought his army to England to claim the throne. Harold marched from Stamford Bridge to London then on to Hastings where William's army waited.
The English and Norman armies fought bravely, but Harold with his brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were all killed. The tapestry tells us "here King Harold has been killed" - struck down by the sword of a mounted Norman soldier. After the Battle of Hastings Williams had an abbey built on the place where the battle had been fought, and the high altar is supposed to mark the spot where Harold was killed.
William's father was Duke Robert and his mother was Herleva who was a tanner's daughter. Duke Robert's great-great-grandfather was Rollo, a Viking who invaded France in 911. Although he was illegitimate William became Duke of Normandy when he was only seven years old - his father died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. William's mother married the Viscount of Conteville and had two more sons - Odo and Robert.
William was a strong leader and wanted to become King of England. William led his army at the Battle of Hastings where Harold was killed and his army defeated. William then set about the conquest of England; he gave Norman barons pieces of land all over the country and in return they supported him in war and administered regions of England on the king's behalf.
During his reign William ordered the collection of information about the people in Britain and how much property they owned. This information was recorded in the Domesday Book. William died in 1087 after being injured when fighting in France.
Odo's father was Herluin, Viscount of Conteville and his mother was Herleva who was also the mother of Duke William of Normandy. When Odo was only nineteen years old, William made him Bishop of Bayeux. He built a cathedral there.
When William was planning to invade England, Odo was at his side. He went with the Norman army and, as well as leading the prayers for victory, he fought in the battle. He carried a mace rather than a sword, because although men of the church were not allowed to spill blood, they were permitted to batter their opponents with a club.
Odo was made Earl of Kent and often ruled England when William was in Normandy. He was given great areas of land and he granted some of these areas to his knights. The tapestry may have been made in England to record the Norman victory and the part Odo played in it. The tapestry was later hung in his cathedral at Bayeux.
By 1082 William and Odo had fallen out. Odo was sent to prison in Rouen, and only released shortly before William died. He returned to England and plotted against William Rufus, the Conqueror's son, but was captured and banished to Bayeux. He died in Sicily in 1097 on a crusade to the Holy Land.
He is shown on the Tapestry playing a prominent position at Harold's coronation. Because his appointment as Archbishop was disputed by the Pope, this may have been a Norman attempt to discredit Harold's kingship.
Edith, the wife of King Edward the Confessor and sister of King Harold, is thought to the women shown in Edward's deathbed scene at Westminster. The author of the Life of Edward, written soon after his death, records that she was present at Edward's deathbed when he commended her to Harold's protection.
A woman and child area shown either trapped inside or fleeing from a burning building at Hastings when William's troops were harrying the area immediately after his invasion force lands at Pevensey.
A mysterious lady appears called Aelfgyva appears in a scene with a cleric near the start of the tapestry. The mysterious incident seems to have nothing to do with the main story, but it may have been well known in the 11th century. It might refer to a sexual scandal as the man in the lower border is naked in the original tapestry, but he has been provided with shorts in the Victorian copy. Aelfgyva was a widely used Saxon name. | 1,417 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Celebrated on December 20th every year
|2019||December 20||Friday||United States|
|2020||December 20||Sunday||United States|
|2021||December 20||Monday||United States|
Why Mudd Day?
Mudd Day is observed to celebrate the birth of Dr.Samuel Mudd, a man who gave treatment to the disguised John Wilkes Booth in his home after President Lincoln’s assassination. But it’s still unclear why this day was created and by whom, as it’s not still clear whether Mudd is not involved in the plot of assassination of President Lincoln. Dr.Mudd’s name is dragged through the mud since his sentencing. It gave the phrase “Your name is mud” a new meaning.
How to celebrate Mudd Day?
- Post various information regarding Dr.Samuel Mudd on social media, using hashtag #MuddDay.
- If you are interested in knowing about Dr.Mudd, you can pay a visit the cell in which Mudd was locked at Fort Jefferson.
- Post about the phrase ‘Your name is mud’ and how Dr.Mudd’s life added to the meaning of the phrase.
Interesting facts on Mudd Day:
- Dr.Samuel Mudd was a son of a large plantation owner, graduated from the University of Maryland, where he studied medicine. He was an advocate of slavery and supported the Confederacy during the Civil War, and often expressed his hatred for Abraham Lincoln and his policies.
- Dr.Mudd is infamously known for his involvement in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Dr.Mudd helped John Wilkes Booth who assassinated the President in 1865 by providing treatment to Booth’s broken leg after Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln. He also provided stay for Booth and David Harold who was also involved in the assassination at his residence.
- When Dr.Mudd was interrogated by the Military Commission, he lied to them regarding the conspiracy and his contacts with Booth and others, before the assassination. His answers were contradictory, and were found that he was in contact with Booth earlier, and had met him four times before the assassination, according to witnesses.
- Mudd was arrested for the conspiracy and for harboring Booth and David Harold, and was sentenced to life imprisonment after many trials. He was sent to the prison at Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas. He escaped the death penalty by a single vote shortage.
- Dr.Mudd also tried to escape prison but failed and was sent to the carpentry shop in the prison. During this time his wife kept on writing letters to the President to release her husband as he was innocent. Later when an epidemic of yellow fever spread in the prison in 1867, the heroic action of Dr.Mudd in helping the sick and treating them, gained him pardon and was released on March 8, 1869.
- Though Mudd was released he was not announced innocent. His family members tried repeatedly to prove him innocent. But, Mudd’s conviction was neither overturned nor his record expunged.
- The phrase “Your name is mud” was given a new meaning after the sentencing of Dr.Samuel Mudd. Mud referred to something worthless since the 16th century. But by the 19th century, the word applied to people who were seen as foolish and hence the phrase ‘Your name is mud’ became popular.
- Dr.Samuel Mudd, though a doctor by profession was involved in the assassination of a U.S. President and hence his name was dragged into mud and all his lies and contradictory answers during the trial proven him to be a part of the conspiracy and the assassination.
- Dr.Mudd died in 1883 due to pneumonia.
History of Mudd Day:
The origin of the celebration of Mudd Day is unknown. | <urn:uuid:cf1f75f9-2bcf-4561-8bb8-60eec7cf69d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationaldaystoday.com/mudd-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.983916 | 809 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.182195335626602... | 1 | Celebrated on December 20th every year
|2019||December 20||Friday||United States|
|2020||December 20||Sunday||United States|
|2021||December 20||Monday||United States|
Why Mudd Day?
Mudd Day is observed to celebrate the birth of Dr.Samuel Mudd, a man who gave treatment to the disguised John Wilkes Booth in his home after President Lincoln’s assassination. But it’s still unclear why this day was created and by whom, as it’s not still clear whether Mudd is not involved in the plot of assassination of President Lincoln. Dr.Mudd’s name is dragged through the mud since his sentencing. It gave the phrase “Your name is mud” a new meaning.
How to celebrate Mudd Day?
- Post various information regarding Dr.Samuel Mudd on social media, using hashtag #MuddDay.
- If you are interested in knowing about Dr.Mudd, you can pay a visit the cell in which Mudd was locked at Fort Jefferson.
- Post about the phrase ‘Your name is mud’ and how Dr.Mudd’s life added to the meaning of the phrase.
Interesting facts on Mudd Day:
- Dr.Samuel Mudd was a son of a large plantation owner, graduated from the University of Maryland, where he studied medicine. He was an advocate of slavery and supported the Confederacy during the Civil War, and often expressed his hatred for Abraham Lincoln and his policies.
- Dr.Mudd is infamously known for his involvement in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Dr.Mudd helped John Wilkes Booth who assassinated the President in 1865 by providing treatment to Booth’s broken leg after Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln. He also provided stay for Booth and David Harold who was also involved in the assassination at his residence.
- When Dr.Mudd was interrogated by the Military Commission, he lied to them regarding the conspiracy and his contacts with Booth and others, before the assassination. His answers were contradictory, and were found that he was in contact with Booth earlier, and had met him four times before the assassination, according to witnesses.
- Mudd was arrested for the conspiracy and for harboring Booth and David Harold, and was sentenced to life imprisonment after many trials. He was sent to the prison at Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas. He escaped the death penalty by a single vote shortage.
- Dr.Mudd also tried to escape prison but failed and was sent to the carpentry shop in the prison. During this time his wife kept on writing letters to the President to release her husband as he was innocent. Later when an epidemic of yellow fever spread in the prison in 1867, the heroic action of Dr.Mudd in helping the sick and treating them, gained him pardon and was released on March 8, 1869.
- Though Mudd was released he was not announced innocent. His family members tried repeatedly to prove him innocent. But, Mudd’s conviction was neither overturned nor his record expunged.
- The phrase “Your name is mud” was given a new meaning after the sentencing of Dr.Samuel Mudd. Mud referred to something worthless since the 16th century. But by the 19th century, the word applied to people who were seen as foolish and hence the phrase ‘Your name is mud’ became popular.
- Dr.Samuel Mudd, though a doctor by profession was involved in the assassination of a U.S. President and hence his name was dragged into mud and all his lies and contradictory answers during the trial proven him to be a part of the conspiracy and the assassination.
- Dr.Mudd died in 1883 due to pneumonia.
History of Mudd Day:
The origin of the celebration of Mudd Day is unknown. | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Water has been most important element of human being life since we have been here. Earlier settlements were founded nearby river banks in history. Transferring water became an vital issue in the past. The title of this article became a smart solution for this issue. Here is the story;
We are going back to 330 AD. New Rome (Constantinople) was founding but there was an important issue for this new city; water sources. So East Romans decided to develop a project in order to transfer water to New Rome. A water transfer line was being constructed. The water source was 242 km. far away from the capital. They constructed aqueducts and water transfer stations. Thracian mountains were the water source ( Same situation is available today.). This line was around 242 km long. The construction finished around 345 AD. So this engineering wonder became true and New Rome or Constantinople became real capital. The system was damaged due to some campaigns in some periods.
Water has been main element of human being life for centuries. So human being has been resided nearby river banks. Roman Empire developed wise projects for water transfer. Legacy of Roman engineering world had a deep impact on developing this sort of projects.
Today we have similar issues in the world. Fresh water is required to have a balanced life. | <urn:uuid:d4215d82-70ea-4650-b649-d16e121f55bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://amateurtourismvolunteer.com/2019/04/28/water-transfer-systems-the-oldest-system-is-in-thrace/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.98729 | 262 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.0022804064210... | 6 | Water has been most important element of human being life since we have been here. Earlier settlements were founded nearby river banks in history. Transferring water became an vital issue in the past. The title of this article became a smart solution for this issue. Here is the story;
We are going back to 330 AD. New Rome (Constantinople) was founding but there was an important issue for this new city; water sources. So East Romans decided to develop a project in order to transfer water to New Rome. A water transfer line was being constructed. The water source was 242 km. far away from the capital. They constructed aqueducts and water transfer stations. Thracian mountains were the water source ( Same situation is available today.). This line was around 242 km long. The construction finished around 345 AD. So this engineering wonder became true and New Rome or Constantinople became real capital. The system was damaged due to some campaigns in some periods.
Water has been main element of human being life for centuries. So human being has been resided nearby river banks. Roman Empire developed wise projects for water transfer. Legacy of Roman engineering world had a deep impact on developing this sort of projects.
Today we have similar issues in the world. Fresh water is required to have a balanced life. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Kinship System of the Australian Aborigines
In the following paper I will be discussing the kinship of the Australian Aborigines. I will be discussing how this culture impacts the way they behave such as how the act and live. I will also be comparing this behavior to that of my life. I hope that you find this paper to be interesting as well as informative. I will start out by giving a little background on the Australian Aborigines. They are a group of several hundred Indigenous people that reside in Australia. They have existed before the British annexation of Australia in 1788, before that the number of people was over four hundred.
In many cases the people or groups will talk about their “people” and their “country”. The countries are ethnographic areas. In many cases each country had extended families that lived in them. It was common to have cousins that marry. I would now like to talk about how the Aborigines dress. In many cases by early settlers they were observed to be naked. Some of the tribes had men and women that wore a belt around their waste that was used to carry tools and weapons. This belt was made of animal hair, animal fur, skin or fiber.
Before the colonization of the Europeans it was just a simple flap in the front but, after they had to modify it. In the winter months the Aboriginal people made cloaks to keep warm. Next I would like to talk about their language. There were somewhere between 200 to 250 different Aboriginal languages spoken. Now there are fewer than 200 that still remain and all but 20 are considered to be endangered. In 1888 the language was proof that it was necessary to refer to the Aboriginal names and locations throughout the colonies. There are actually some Aboriginal words that are still used today.
Next I will talk about the diet of the Aboriginal people. They will hunt or fish for their meat, gather fruits, berries, eggs, plants and insects as well. Some of the meats that they eat are kangaroos, wallabies, echidnas and possums as well as some reptiles and birds. When hunting they would use spears and boomerangs to catch and kill their food. The women were normally responsible for picking the berries as well as caring for the younger children. These are just a few things that the Aboriginal people did and still do today.
I will now be talking about their society compares to my own. I do not think that it compares to my society very much. Some of the things that they do are similar to my society in the respect of hunting. I come from a family of people that enjoy hunting for a source of food. Many times these family members will share the food with other family if they are unable to hunt for one reason or another. My family also likes to fish which is another way that we are similar. The ways that their society differs from mine is that we do not believe in marring within our family.
In many families though out the United States this is seen as incest and is punishable by law. The other way that we are not similar is that we wear a full body of clothes and always have. I have had the chance to meet some Aboriginal people through the work that my mother used to do. I enjoyed hearing stories of how their ancestors did things and how some of these things have changed throughout time. They still practice the hunting as well as the gathering of their food but, many times can be found wearing clothing.
In conclusion I hope that you have found this paper informational as well as informative. I have talked about their diet, how they live as well as I touched on their marring practices. I also have told you why I think that their society is close to my own as well as how it is different from my own. References Anonymous. (n. d. ). Australian aborigines- indigenous Australians. http://www. crystalinks. com/aboriginals. html Nowak, B. , & Laird, P. (2010). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, Bridgepoint Education, Inc. https://content. ashford. edu | <urn:uuid:c9467ab4-0d54-42d4-8a86-11cbd2ece221> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/the-kinship-system-of-the-australian-aborigines/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.990224 | 840 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.3883274197578... | 1 | The Kinship System of the Australian Aborigines
In the following paper I will be discussing the kinship of the Australian Aborigines. I will be discussing how this culture impacts the way they behave such as how the act and live. I will also be comparing this behavior to that of my life. I hope that you find this paper to be interesting as well as informative. I will start out by giving a little background on the Australian Aborigines. They are a group of several hundred Indigenous people that reside in Australia. They have existed before the British annexation of Australia in 1788, before that the number of people was over four hundred.
In many cases the people or groups will talk about their “people” and their “country”. The countries are ethnographic areas. In many cases each country had extended families that lived in them. It was common to have cousins that marry. I would now like to talk about how the Aborigines dress. In many cases by early settlers they were observed to be naked. Some of the tribes had men and women that wore a belt around their waste that was used to carry tools and weapons. This belt was made of animal hair, animal fur, skin or fiber.
Before the colonization of the Europeans it was just a simple flap in the front but, after they had to modify it. In the winter months the Aboriginal people made cloaks to keep warm. Next I would like to talk about their language. There were somewhere between 200 to 250 different Aboriginal languages spoken. Now there are fewer than 200 that still remain and all but 20 are considered to be endangered. In 1888 the language was proof that it was necessary to refer to the Aboriginal names and locations throughout the colonies. There are actually some Aboriginal words that are still used today.
Next I will talk about the diet of the Aboriginal people. They will hunt or fish for their meat, gather fruits, berries, eggs, plants and insects as well. Some of the meats that they eat are kangaroos, wallabies, echidnas and possums as well as some reptiles and birds. When hunting they would use spears and boomerangs to catch and kill their food. The women were normally responsible for picking the berries as well as caring for the younger children. These are just a few things that the Aboriginal people did and still do today.
I will now be talking about their society compares to my own. I do not think that it compares to my society very much. Some of the things that they do are similar to my society in the respect of hunting. I come from a family of people that enjoy hunting for a source of food. Many times these family members will share the food with other family if they are unable to hunt for one reason or another. My family also likes to fish which is another way that we are similar. The ways that their society differs from mine is that we do not believe in marring within our family.
In many families though out the United States this is seen as incest and is punishable by law. The other way that we are not similar is that we wear a full body of clothes and always have. I have had the chance to meet some Aboriginal people through the work that my mother used to do. I enjoyed hearing stories of how their ancestors did things and how some of these things have changed throughout time. They still practice the hunting as well as the gathering of their food but, many times can be found wearing clothing.
In conclusion I hope that you have found this paper informational as well as informative. I have talked about their diet, how they live as well as I touched on their marring practices. I also have told you why I think that their society is close to my own as well as how it is different from my own. References Anonymous. (n. d. ). Australian aborigines- indigenous Australians. http://www. crystalinks. com/aboriginals. html Nowak, B. , & Laird, P. (2010). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, Bridgepoint Education, Inc. https://content. ashford. edu | 852 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Provenance: the place of origin or earliest known history of something. It is also the focus of this assignment.
The following is a released question which appeared on an AP test a few years ago. Your assignment is to fully answer the question being asked of you, as if you were taking an AP test. You are allowed, and encouraged, to do any and all research needed to answer this question. Like with all good AP writing, you need to cite specific artworks as examples for the points you are trying to make.
This is due Monday, 1/13, by 11:00 p.m. This is a formative grade. You are to submit your responses to me via email.
In order to understand works of art fully, one must understand their original or intended settings. For example, most works of art in museums have been removed from their original settings. Often a work’s original setting has been altered or destroyed or was never completed as planned.
Fully identify two works of art that have been removed from their original settings. Each example must come from different original or intended settings. Discuss how knowledge of the original settings contributes to a more complete understanding of each work. | <urn:uuid:f33efce4-b8de-4fae-88f2-cfc2ea344901> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://elamarthistory.com/2020/01/06/ap-where-the-red-art-grows-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.98239 | 245 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.380437225103... | 3 | Provenance: the place of origin or earliest known history of something. It is also the focus of this assignment.
The following is a released question which appeared on an AP test a few years ago. Your assignment is to fully answer the question being asked of you, as if you were taking an AP test. You are allowed, and encouraged, to do any and all research needed to answer this question. Like with all good AP writing, you need to cite specific artworks as examples for the points you are trying to make.
This is due Monday, 1/13, by 11:00 p.m. This is a formative grade. You are to submit your responses to me via email.
In order to understand works of art fully, one must understand their original or intended settings. For example, most works of art in museums have been removed from their original settings. Often a work’s original setting has been altered or destroyed or was never completed as planned.
Fully identify two works of art that have been removed from their original settings. Each example must come from different original or intended settings. Discuss how knowledge of the original settings contributes to a more complete understanding of each work. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in 1182 in Assisi, Italy, part of the Holy Roman Empire, St. Francis was a Catholic friar and preacher who eventually became one of the most important religious figures in the Middle Ages, if not throughout all of history. Canonized by Pope Gregory IX in 1228, St. Francis became the patron saint of Italy, as well as that of animals and the natural world. In 1209, he founded the Order of Friars Minor, aka the Franciscan Order; he also founded the Order of Saint Claire and the Third Order of Saint Francis.
St. Francis is also known for his veneration and celebration of the Eucharist; he also arranged the first live nativity scene at Christmas in 1223. Perhaps similar in stature to St. Paul, who, according to the Christian tradition, was the first to manifest the wounds of Christ, aka the stigmata, St. Francis did the same while in a state of transcendental rapture, attended by the Seraphic angels, in 1224.
St. Francis also had a passion for all things French, acquiring the nickname Francesco by his father. Further, in the early 1200s, Francis, long before sainthood, became a soldier and spent a year as a captive, an experience perhaps leading to his eventual religious convictions. And, according to hagiographic records, Francis eventually grew away from the pleasures of conventional, secular living, deciding that he would never marry; instead, his bride would be “Lady Poverty.” | <urn:uuid:be59a081-eb4a-408d-a18e-72d6165c6bfc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theologyz.com/figure/unlocation/christianity/saint-francis-of-assisi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.981317 | 311 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.324652910232... | 2 | Born in 1182 in Assisi, Italy, part of the Holy Roman Empire, St. Francis was a Catholic friar and preacher who eventually became one of the most important religious figures in the Middle Ages, if not throughout all of history. Canonized by Pope Gregory IX in 1228, St. Francis became the patron saint of Italy, as well as that of animals and the natural world. In 1209, he founded the Order of Friars Minor, aka the Franciscan Order; he also founded the Order of Saint Claire and the Third Order of Saint Francis.
St. Francis is also known for his veneration and celebration of the Eucharist; he also arranged the first live nativity scene at Christmas in 1223. Perhaps similar in stature to St. Paul, who, according to the Christian tradition, was the first to manifest the wounds of Christ, aka the stigmata, St. Francis did the same while in a state of transcendental rapture, attended by the Seraphic angels, in 1224.
St. Francis also had a passion for all things French, acquiring the nickname Francesco by his father. Further, in the early 1200s, Francis, long before sainthood, became a soldier and spent a year as a captive, an experience perhaps leading to his eventual religious convictions. And, according to hagiographic records, Francis eventually grew away from the pleasures of conventional, secular living, deciding that he would never marry; instead, his bride would be “Lady Poverty.” | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A brief history of English part four: Modern English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Modern English’.
Now we arrive at the fourteenth century, and we find that English was now being widely spoken across England. But it was not always the same kind of English.
The problem was that communities were not the metropolises we have now, and those that did have large populations tended to be a distance from other communities. Travelling between these places was only available by horse (or on foot), and not everybody was able to afford a horse (or the time taken to walk between places!). So it was only natural that, because of their relative isolation, these areas subsequently developed their own accents, dialects and spellings as regards the English language. Writing certainly existed, but there was still nothing agreed as to how English should be expressed nationally. Spelling and grammar varied widely. For now, certainly among the well-educated, Greek and Latin were still considered as 'superior' languages, the latter still very much used by the Catholic church.
Many events took place after the fifteenth century that had their effect on English: the Rennaissance (or a period known as 'the revival of learning'), increasing trade with other European nations, the Reformation (the breaking away from the Roman Catholic faith), and the increase in scientific research. But the real trigger for most of these events to happen began when Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe. This started the printing revolution, and was - and is - widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period.
William Caxton was making regular trips to Europe where he observed the printing industry take shape, and eventually set up his own printing press in 1476; the first book was Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories by a group of pilgrims as part of a contest. Many more books followed, and although there were many that were translations from Europe, most were printed in English. But apart from the problems faced with translations, Caxton had another problem - with his own native language.
The English language was changing all the time, and the books Caxton was given for printing were written and presented in all kinds of styles and dialects. What we would regard as Standard English did not exist. So to unify the books to make them available for anyone to read, Caxton had to choose a standard, one form of the language to be used in all the books he would print - and the dialect he settled on was East Midlands English. Standardisation had begun - and so did the era of modern English.
There were other events that were to have further effects on the language. As mentioned, the Renaissance was a period where all forms of artistic, literature, and scientific learning increased, and the need to get the results down on paper. As a result, many new words came into the language; between 1500 and 1700 over 30,000 words were added. (That does not seem many by today's standards, but there was not so much to think about in those early days.) Words were adopted from Greek and Latin; many were invented and many were old words that were no longer used but were brought back, often with new meanings. This period saw writers develop a sense of loyalty and pride in the English language.
Another period with linguistic consequences was the Reformation. Henry VIII had broken away from the Catholic Church and set up his own Church of England. There were many religious consequences that lasted for generations afterwards, but the effects on the language were immense. Catholic laws presented in Latin were now being translated. Old English manuscripts in the now-closed Catholic monasteries were translated into modern English, along with the Bible. The focus was now on English and not Latin, Greek or other European languages. English was a serious subject of study; it was now being taught at schools.
As far as the teaching of grammar, many of the books in this period still had their roots and rules based on Latin. Despite the increased interest in speaking and writing, many scholars of English at the time would stick to Latin rules as regards grammar. That particular influence is still being felt today (the split infinitive, for example), despite the fact that English and Latin are two different languages. However, the long-term effects of the Reformation led to a rapid growth in scientific discovery, and the need to find new words other than those provided by Latin. The Puritans (so-named as they favoured an even 'purer' form of worship) favoured English over Latin as this celebrated Anglo-Saxon culture and uniting all English people in the eyes of God.
Even during this period, the word 'standard' was still being given to the classical languages such as Latin or Greek, but around the 18th century the writer Jonathan Swift applied the term to English. He was also concerned that the language was continually changing, not often in the way of his liking; and so he proposed some kind of academy that would 'fix' and standardise the language. Although nothing was done to address this, it was Doctor Samuel Johnson who came up with the idea of a definitive dictionary. His desire to do so came from the fact that at the time the only books that dealt with vocabulary were only specialised, so he took it on himself to study the works of various writers as his main source for word definitions. His dictionary was followed by - from other scholars - several new grammar books that recommended 'correct' usages, but many of these have their roots from an idea that 'standardisation' was an expression of God's order, and to not use the correct grammar would be seen to displease him. In other words, the first prescriptive books had appeared: authors telling people what they think they should write and say. Just as Latin, these books still have their influence today and are the subject of much debate and considerable argument as to what is logical and what was a rule that was 'simply made up'.
The 19th century saw changes in technology and social life. The term 'Standard English' was now well used, people felt a sense of national identity, and the British Empire was spreading. National institutions and societies were increasing. However, there was still a sense of disapproval in the many dialects around the country, particularly among the wealthy and well-educated who had been taught using 'Received Pronunciation', a highly-focussed form of pronunciation. State education was aimed at teaching Standard English across the country, including Scotland.
But there was still a sense of pride in the dialects within the regions away from London and the South of England, and a lot of literature was being produced and sold by local publishers in the North of England around this time. Industrial cities such as Liverpool and Sheffield were proud of their traditions. Indeed, this difference in pronunciation was reflected well into the 20th century, and the split between the North and the South was very much reflected in the early days of the BBC as the London-based organisation set itself out to be an instructor on how the English language should be spoken.
The BBC would only took on those proficient in RP in the early days of radio and television, with its then boss - or director general as he was called - insisting that all its presenters has a uniform accent. In effect, they were telling the listening public that their English was right and their English was wrong.
Indeed, many of the old newsreel films shown in cinemas during the first half of the 20th century and into the fifties followed this policy with commentary only by RP speakers, leading to the long-held myth that English was 'plummy' - i.e. the language was spoken as if you had plums in your mouth. Only a few British movies showed the regional accents and dialects as they were (e.g. George Formby), and it was perhaps not until the early sixties that Lancastrian - or Manchester, to be precise - accents and dialects were exposed to a national TV audience in the form of ITV's Coronation Street - a soap opera that still continues to the present day. (The BBC would quickly follow, its best known example of the day was a police series called Z-Cars, based near Liverpool and so bringing the 'scouse,' i.e. the accent widely used around the Liverpool area, to national exposure). Eventually the BBC saw sense, and if you ever get the chance of watching early David Attenborough documentaries from the late fifties and early sixties (bound to be examples on YouTube), the difference is obvious..
But we are getting ahead of ourselves here. We need to step back to the 19th century for one more major influence on the language...
In 1858 the Philogical Society forwarded the idea of a dictionary that truly reflected the national language and setting strict rules as to how they should be compiled. It had to be thoroughly researched: all English books that were available at the time were treated as authorities; quotations would be included, and the origins of each word and its relationship with other words would also be added. It would be a descriptive guide - that is, a book that would describe the grammatical patterns that speakers and writers follow, and that occur regularly, even if they are not necessarily correct (as opposed to prescriptive which sets out rules about what are the correct and incorrect stylistic choices, but are not always in the ways that many people understand). These were the basic principles of the Oxford English Dictionary, or OED, and it is perhaps the closest thing we have to an authoritative guide to the English language. It was not published until 1884, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. The second edition was not published until 1989. A print version of a third edition is believed to be unlikely, and is almost certain to be made available only electronically.
In the final section, we look at the language today, its spread across the world and its future. | <urn:uuid:399702a1-79cb-4d50-92a1-5766a57b7da0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.typicalerrorsinenglish.com/modern-english | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.990147 | 2,057 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.26395... | 12 | A brief history of English part four: Modern English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Modern English’.
Now we arrive at the fourteenth century, and we find that English was now being widely spoken across England. But it was not always the same kind of English.
The problem was that communities were not the metropolises we have now, and those that did have large populations tended to be a distance from other communities. Travelling between these places was only available by horse (or on foot), and not everybody was able to afford a horse (or the time taken to walk between places!). So it was only natural that, because of their relative isolation, these areas subsequently developed their own accents, dialects and spellings as regards the English language. Writing certainly existed, but there was still nothing agreed as to how English should be expressed nationally. Spelling and grammar varied widely. For now, certainly among the well-educated, Greek and Latin were still considered as 'superior' languages, the latter still very much used by the Catholic church.
Many events took place after the fifteenth century that had their effect on English: the Rennaissance (or a period known as 'the revival of learning'), increasing trade with other European nations, the Reformation (the breaking away from the Roman Catholic faith), and the increase in scientific research. But the real trigger for most of these events to happen began when Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe. This started the printing revolution, and was - and is - widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period.
William Caxton was making regular trips to Europe where he observed the printing industry take shape, and eventually set up his own printing press in 1476; the first book was Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories by a group of pilgrims as part of a contest. Many more books followed, and although there were many that were translations from Europe, most were printed in English. But apart from the problems faced with translations, Caxton had another problem - with his own native language.
The English language was changing all the time, and the books Caxton was given for printing were written and presented in all kinds of styles and dialects. What we would regard as Standard English did not exist. So to unify the books to make them available for anyone to read, Caxton had to choose a standard, one form of the language to be used in all the books he would print - and the dialect he settled on was East Midlands English. Standardisation had begun - and so did the era of modern English.
There were other events that were to have further effects on the language. As mentioned, the Renaissance was a period where all forms of artistic, literature, and scientific learning increased, and the need to get the results down on paper. As a result, many new words came into the language; between 1500 and 1700 over 30,000 words were added. (That does not seem many by today's standards, but there was not so much to think about in those early days.) Words were adopted from Greek and Latin; many were invented and many were old words that were no longer used but were brought back, often with new meanings. This period saw writers develop a sense of loyalty and pride in the English language.
Another period with linguistic consequences was the Reformation. Henry VIII had broken away from the Catholic Church and set up his own Church of England. There were many religious consequences that lasted for generations afterwards, but the effects on the language were immense. Catholic laws presented in Latin were now being translated. Old English manuscripts in the now-closed Catholic monasteries were translated into modern English, along with the Bible. The focus was now on English and not Latin, Greek or other European languages. English was a serious subject of study; it was now being taught at schools.
As far as the teaching of grammar, many of the books in this period still had their roots and rules based on Latin. Despite the increased interest in speaking and writing, many scholars of English at the time would stick to Latin rules as regards grammar. That particular influence is still being felt today (the split infinitive, for example), despite the fact that English and Latin are two different languages. However, the long-term effects of the Reformation led to a rapid growth in scientific discovery, and the need to find new words other than those provided by Latin. The Puritans (so-named as they favoured an even 'purer' form of worship) favoured English over Latin as this celebrated Anglo-Saxon culture and uniting all English people in the eyes of God.
Even during this period, the word 'standard' was still being given to the classical languages such as Latin or Greek, but around the 18th century the writer Jonathan Swift applied the term to English. He was also concerned that the language was continually changing, not often in the way of his liking; and so he proposed some kind of academy that would 'fix' and standardise the language. Although nothing was done to address this, it was Doctor Samuel Johnson who came up with the idea of a definitive dictionary. His desire to do so came from the fact that at the time the only books that dealt with vocabulary were only specialised, so he took it on himself to study the works of various writers as his main source for word definitions. His dictionary was followed by - from other scholars - several new grammar books that recommended 'correct' usages, but many of these have their roots from an idea that 'standardisation' was an expression of God's order, and to not use the correct grammar would be seen to displease him. In other words, the first prescriptive books had appeared: authors telling people what they think they should write and say. Just as Latin, these books still have their influence today and are the subject of much debate and considerable argument as to what is logical and what was a rule that was 'simply made up'.
The 19th century saw changes in technology and social life. The term 'Standard English' was now well used, people felt a sense of national identity, and the British Empire was spreading. National institutions and societies were increasing. However, there was still a sense of disapproval in the many dialects around the country, particularly among the wealthy and well-educated who had been taught using 'Received Pronunciation', a highly-focussed form of pronunciation. State education was aimed at teaching Standard English across the country, including Scotland.
But there was still a sense of pride in the dialects within the regions away from London and the South of England, and a lot of literature was being produced and sold by local publishers in the North of England around this time. Industrial cities such as Liverpool and Sheffield were proud of their traditions. Indeed, this difference in pronunciation was reflected well into the 20th century, and the split between the North and the South was very much reflected in the early days of the BBC as the London-based organisation set itself out to be an instructor on how the English language should be spoken.
The BBC would only took on those proficient in RP in the early days of radio and television, with its then boss - or director general as he was called - insisting that all its presenters has a uniform accent. In effect, they were telling the listening public that their English was right and their English was wrong.
Indeed, many of the old newsreel films shown in cinemas during the first half of the 20th century and into the fifties followed this policy with commentary only by RP speakers, leading to the long-held myth that English was 'plummy' - i.e. the language was spoken as if you had plums in your mouth. Only a few British movies showed the regional accents and dialects as they were (e.g. George Formby), and it was perhaps not until the early sixties that Lancastrian - or Manchester, to be precise - accents and dialects were exposed to a national TV audience in the form of ITV's Coronation Street - a soap opera that still continues to the present day. (The BBC would quickly follow, its best known example of the day was a police series called Z-Cars, based near Liverpool and so bringing the 'scouse,' i.e. the accent widely used around the Liverpool area, to national exposure). Eventually the BBC saw sense, and if you ever get the chance of watching early David Attenborough documentaries from the late fifties and early sixties (bound to be examples on YouTube), the difference is obvious..
But we are getting ahead of ourselves here. We need to step back to the 19th century for one more major influence on the language...
In 1858 the Philogical Society forwarded the idea of a dictionary that truly reflected the national language and setting strict rules as to how they should be compiled. It had to be thoroughly researched: all English books that were available at the time were treated as authorities; quotations would be included, and the origins of each word and its relationship with other words would also be added. It would be a descriptive guide - that is, a book that would describe the grammatical patterns that speakers and writers follow, and that occur regularly, even if they are not necessarily correct (as opposed to prescriptive which sets out rules about what are the correct and incorrect stylistic choices, but are not always in the ways that many people understand). These were the basic principles of the Oxford English Dictionary, or OED, and it is perhaps the closest thing we have to an authoritative guide to the English language. It was not published until 1884, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. The second edition was not published until 1989. A print version of a third edition is believed to be unlikely, and is almost certain to be made available only electronically.
In the final section, we look at the language today, its spread across the world and its future. | 2,065 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Civilization is the ways of life started by people who live in cities.Our culture today is influenced by ancient civilizations.The three major early civilizations that have influenced today's cultures are the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Sumerians. Civilizations are more complex than just having a cultured atmosphere.Everyone has a type of culture but not everyone is in a civilization.A civilization has a certain way about it.The people act together as a group.The people have a type of writing, a form of government, they are commercial, and they have some type of permance.One of the major aspects of a civilization is food production.
For example, the Sumerian civilization came up with their own form of writing and they trained people to write.They came up with the sexigecimal counting method which is used on a daily basis.These methods helped them keep records and establish a form of government.The Sumerians also had thefirst legal system called UR-NAMMU, better known as Hammurabi's code, which was based on justice.They used judges just like we use today.
The Babylonians started the most complete legal system like what is used today.The Babylonians came up with a national god, which unified cultures all over.This belief is used by many religions and is the main belief used today.The Babylonians came up with thefirst type of irrigation system on the Tigris/ Euphrates Rivers. They use this for their food and so they could have a surplus of food.They had architecture made out of mud and brick.
The Egyptians were very smart people.They built pyramids to bury the dead pharaohs in and they painted the tombs.They also decorated the inside of the tombs with gold and other valuables to help them get into the after life and so they would have their riches in the after life. They built sculptures that were massive and square.They had different gods for sky, eart | <urn:uuid:fc9d77ac-8e13-49f5-817f-3f37538b8e1f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/civilization-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.983723 | 400 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.158011630177497... | 1 | Civilization is the ways of life started by people who live in cities.Our culture today is influenced by ancient civilizations.The three major early civilizations that have influenced today's cultures are the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Sumerians. Civilizations are more complex than just having a cultured atmosphere.Everyone has a type of culture but not everyone is in a civilization.A civilization has a certain way about it.The people act together as a group.The people have a type of writing, a form of government, they are commercial, and they have some type of permance.One of the major aspects of a civilization is food production.
For example, the Sumerian civilization came up with their own form of writing and they trained people to write.They came up with the sexigecimal counting method which is used on a daily basis.These methods helped them keep records and establish a form of government.The Sumerians also had thefirst legal system called UR-NAMMU, better known as Hammurabi's code, which was based on justice.They used judges just like we use today.
The Babylonians started the most complete legal system like what is used today.The Babylonians came up with a national god, which unified cultures all over.This belief is used by many religions and is the main belief used today.The Babylonians came up with thefirst type of irrigation system on the Tigris/ Euphrates Rivers. They use this for their food and so they could have a surplus of food.They had architecture made out of mud and brick.
The Egyptians were very smart people.They built pyramids to bury the dead pharaohs in and they painted the tombs.They also decorated the inside of the tombs with gold and other valuables to help them get into the after life and so they would have their riches in the after life. They built sculptures that were massive and square.They had different gods for sky, eart | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the early 5th century, the Roman Empire could no longer defend itself against either internal rebellion or the external threat posed by expanding Germanic tribes in Northern Europe. This situation and its consequences governed the eventual permanence of Britain's detachment from the rest of the Empire.
In the late 4th century, the empire was controlled by members of a dynasty that included the Emperor Theodosius I. This family retained political power within itself and formed alliances by intermarriage with other dynasties, at the same time engaging in internecine power struggles and fighting off outside contenders (called "usurpers") attempting to replace the ruling dynasty with one of their own. These internal machinations drained the Empire of both military and civilian resources. Many thousands of soldiers were lost in battling attempted coups by figures such as Firmus, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius.
The Empire's historical relationship with Germanic tribes was sometimes hostile, at other times cooperative, but ultimately fatal, as it was unable to prevent those tribes from assuming a dominant role in the relationship. By the early 5th century, as a result of severe losses and depleted tax income, the Western Roman Empire's military forces were dominated by Germanic troops, and Romanised Germans played a significant role in the empire's internal politics. Various Germanic and other tribes beyond the frontiers were able to take advantage of the Empire's weakened state, both to expand into Roman territory and, in some cases, to move their entire populations into lands once considered exclusively Roman, culminating in various successful migrations from 406 onwards. The crossing of the Rhine caused intense fear in Britannia, prone as it was to being cut off from the Empire by raids on the primary communications route from Italy, to Trier to the Channel Coast. In the event, this was much more than just another raid.
In 383, the Roman general then assigned to Britain, Magnus Maximus, launched his successful bid for imperial power, crossing to Gaul with his troops. He killed the Western Roman Emperor Gratian and ruled Gaul and Britain as Augustus (i.e., as a "sub-emperor" under Theodosius I). 383 is the last date for any evidence of a Roman presence in the north and west of Britain, perhaps excepting troop assignments at the tower on Holyhead Mountain in Anglesey and at western coastal posts such as Lancaster. These outposts may have lasted into the 390s, but they were a very minor presence,intended primarily to stop attacks and settlement by groups from Ireland.
Coins dated later than 383 have been excavated along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that troops were not stripped from it, as once thought or, if they were, they were quickly returned as soon as Maximus had won his victory in Gaul. In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, written c. 540, Gildas attributed an exodus of troops and senior administrators from Britain to Maximus, saying that he left not only with all of its troops, but also with all of its armed bands, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return.
Raids by Saxons, Picts, and the Scoti of Ireland had been ongoing in the late 4th century, but these increased in the years after 383. There were also large-scale permanent Irish settlements made along the coasts of Wales under circumstances that remain unclear. Maximus campaigned in Britain against both the Picts and Scoti, with historians differing on whether this was in the year 382 or 384 (i.e., whether the campaign was before or after he became Augustus). Welsh legend relates that before launching his usurpation, Maximus made preparations for an altered governmental and defence framework for the beleaguered provinces. Figures such as Coel Hen were said to be placed into key positions to protect the island in Maximus' absence. As such claims were designed to buttress Welsh genealogy and land claims, they should be viewed with some scepticism.
In 388, Maximus led his army across the Alps into Italy in an attempt to claim the purple. The effort failed when he was defeated in Pannonia at the Battle of the Save (in modern Croatia) and at the Battle of Poetovio (at Ptuj in modern Slovenia). He was then executed by Theodosius.
With Maximus' death, Britain came back under the rule of Emperor Theodosius I until 392, when the usurper Eugenius would successfully bid for imperial power in the Western Roman Empire, surviving until 394 when he was defeated and killed by Theodosius. When Theodosius died in 395, his 10-year-old son Honorius succeeded him as Western Roman Emperor. The real power behind the throne, however, was Stilicho, the son-in-law of Theodosius' brother and the father-in-law of Honorius.
Britain was suffering raids by the Scoti, Saxons, and Picts and, sometime between 396 and 398, Stilicho allegedly ordered a campaign against the Picts, likely a naval campaign intended to end their seaborne raids on the east coast of Britain. He may also have ordered campaigns against the Scoti and Saxons at the same time, but either way this would be the last Roman campaign in Britain of which there is any record.
In 401 or 402 Stilicho faced wars with the Visigothic king Alaric and the Ostrogothic king Radagaisus. Needing military manpower, he stripped Hadrian's Wall of troops for the final time. 402 is the last date of any Roman coinage found in large numbers in Britain, suggesting either that Stilicho also stripped the remaining troops from Britain, or that the Empire could no longer afford to pay the troops who were still there. Meanwhile, the Picts, Saxons and Scoti continued their raids, which may have increased in scope. In 405, for example, Niall of the Nine Hostages is described as having raided along the southern coast of Britain.
On the last day of December 406 (or, perhaps, 405), the Alans, Vandals, and Suebi living east of Gaul crossed the Rhine, possibly when it was frozen over, and began widespread devastation.
As there was no effective Roman response, the remaining Roman military in Britain feared that a Germanic crossing of the Channel into Britain was next, and dispensed with imperial authority – an action perhaps made easier by the high probability that the troops had not been paid for some time. Their intent was to choose a commander who would lead them in securing their future but their first two choices, Marcus and Gratian, did not meet their expectations and were killed. Their third choice was the soldier Constantine III.
In 407 Constantine took charge of the remaining troops in Britain, led them across the Channel into Gaul, rallied support there, and attempted to set himself up as Western Roman Emperor. Honorius' loyalist forces south of the Alps were preoccupied with fending off the Visigoths and were unable to put down the rebellion swiftly, giving Constantine the opportunity to extend his new empire to include Spain.
In 409 Constantine's control of his empire fell apart. Part of his military forces were in Spain, making them unavailable for action in Gaul, and some of those in Gaul were swayed against him by loyalist Roman generals. The Germans living west of the Rhine River rose against him, perhaps encouraged by Roman loyalists, and those living east of the river crossed into Gaul. Britain, now without any troops for protection and having suffered particularly severe Saxon raids in 408 and 409, viewed the situation in Gaul with renewed alarm. Perhaps feeling they had no hope of relief under Constantine, both the Romano-Britons and some of the Gauls expelled Constantine's magistrates in 409 or 410. The Byzantine historian Zosimus (fl. 490's – 510's) directly blamed Constantine for the expulsion, saying that he had allowed the Saxons to raid, and that the Britons and Gauls were reduced to such straits that they revolted from the Roman Empire, 'rejected Roman law, reverted to their native customs, and armed themselves to ensure their own safety'.
It has been suggested that when Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration in 409 he might have been referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A later appeal for help by the British communities was, according to Zosimus, rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410 AD. In the text called the Rescript of Honorius of 411, the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence as his regime was still fighting usurpers in the south of Gaul and trying to deal with the Visigoths who were in the very south of Italy. The first reference to this rescript is written by the sixth-century Byzantine scholar Zosimus and is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy.
Historian Christopher Snyder wrote that protocol dictated that Honorius address his correspondences to imperial officials, and the fact that he did not implies that the cities of Britain were now the highest Roman authority remaining on the island. The idea that there may have been larger-scale political formations still intact on the island has not been completely discredited however.
At the time that the Rescript was sent, Honorius was holed up in Ravenna by the Visigoths and was unable to prevent their Sack of Rome (410). He was certainly in no position to offer any relief to anyone. As for Constantine III, he was not equal to the intrigues of imperial Rome and by 411 his cause was spent. His son was killed along with those major supporters who had not turned against him, and he himself was assassinated.
There are various interpretations that characterise the events in a way that supports a particular thesis without taking issue with the basic chronology.
The historian Theodor Mommsen (Britain, 1885) said that "It was not Britain that gave up Rome, but Rome that gave up Britain ...", arguing that Roman needs and priorities lay elsewhere. His position has retained scholarly support over the passage of time.
Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) took the opposite view, saying that it was Britain that left Rome, arguing that numerous usurpers based in Britain combined with poor administration caused the Romano-Britons to revolt.
Regarding the events of 409 and 410 when the Romano-Britons expelled Roman officials and sent a request for aid to Honorius, Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) offered a different chronology to the same end result: he suggested that the Britons first appealed to Rome and when no help was forthcoming, they expelled the Roman officials and took charge of their own affairs.
One theory that occurs in some modern histories concerns the Rescript of Honorius, holding that it refers to the cities of the Bruttii (who lived at the "toe" of Italy in modern Calabria), rather than to the cities of the Britons. The suggestion is based on the assumption that the source (Zosimus) or a copyist made an error and actually meant Brettia when Brettania was written, and noting that the passage that contains the Rescript is otherwise concerned with events in northern Italy.
Criticisms of the suggestion range from treating the passage in the way it was written by Zosimus and ignoring the suggestion, to simply noting its speculative nature, to a discussion of problems with the suggestion (e.g., 'why would Honorius write to the cities of the Bruttii rather than to his own provincial governor for that region?', and 'why does far-off southern Italy belong in a passage about northern Italy any more than far-off Britain?'). The theory also contradicts the account of Gildas, who provides independent support that the reference is to Britain by repeating the essence of Zosimus' account and clearly applying it to Britain.
E. A. Thompson ("Britain, A.D. 406–410", in Britannia, 8 (1977), pp. 303–318) offered a more provocative theory to explain the expulsion of officials and appeal for Roman aid. He suggested that a revolt consisting of dissident peasants, not unlike the Bagaudae of Gaul, also existing in Britain, and when they revolted and expelled the Roman officials, the landowning class then made an appeal for Roman aid. There is no textual proof that that was so, though it might be plausible if the definition of 'bagaudae' is changed to fit the circumstances. There is no need to do this, as any number of rational scenarios already fit the circumstances. There is the possibility that some form of bagaudae existed in Britain, but were not necessarily relevant to the events of 409 and 410. The alleged ubiquity of Pelagianism amongst the British population may have contributed to such a movement if it had existed, not to mention large-scale purges amongst the British elite over previous decades. Among the works that mention but skirt the issue is Koch's Celtic Culture (2005), which cites Thompson's translation of Zosimus and goes on to say "The revolt in Britain may have involved bacaudae or peasant rebels as was the case in Armorica, but this is not certain." | <urn:uuid:55c8e76f-f618-459e-8fcf-ab02f3d5df25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/End-of-Roman-rule-in-Britain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00314.warc.gz | en | 0.981499 | 2,805 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.3296476602554... | 1 | By the early 5th century, the Roman Empire could no longer defend itself against either internal rebellion or the external threat posed by expanding Germanic tribes in Northern Europe. This situation and its consequences governed the eventual permanence of Britain's detachment from the rest of the Empire.
In the late 4th century, the empire was controlled by members of a dynasty that included the Emperor Theodosius I. This family retained political power within itself and formed alliances by intermarriage with other dynasties, at the same time engaging in internecine power struggles and fighting off outside contenders (called "usurpers") attempting to replace the ruling dynasty with one of their own. These internal machinations drained the Empire of both military and civilian resources. Many thousands of soldiers were lost in battling attempted coups by figures such as Firmus, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius.
The Empire's historical relationship with Germanic tribes was sometimes hostile, at other times cooperative, but ultimately fatal, as it was unable to prevent those tribes from assuming a dominant role in the relationship. By the early 5th century, as a result of severe losses and depleted tax income, the Western Roman Empire's military forces were dominated by Germanic troops, and Romanised Germans played a significant role in the empire's internal politics. Various Germanic and other tribes beyond the frontiers were able to take advantage of the Empire's weakened state, both to expand into Roman territory and, in some cases, to move their entire populations into lands once considered exclusively Roman, culminating in various successful migrations from 406 onwards. The crossing of the Rhine caused intense fear in Britannia, prone as it was to being cut off from the Empire by raids on the primary communications route from Italy, to Trier to the Channel Coast. In the event, this was much more than just another raid.
In 383, the Roman general then assigned to Britain, Magnus Maximus, launched his successful bid for imperial power, crossing to Gaul with his troops. He killed the Western Roman Emperor Gratian and ruled Gaul and Britain as Augustus (i.e., as a "sub-emperor" under Theodosius I). 383 is the last date for any evidence of a Roman presence in the north and west of Britain, perhaps excepting troop assignments at the tower on Holyhead Mountain in Anglesey and at western coastal posts such as Lancaster. These outposts may have lasted into the 390s, but they were a very minor presence,intended primarily to stop attacks and settlement by groups from Ireland.
Coins dated later than 383 have been excavated along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that troops were not stripped from it, as once thought or, if they were, they were quickly returned as soon as Maximus had won his victory in Gaul. In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, written c. 540, Gildas attributed an exodus of troops and senior administrators from Britain to Maximus, saying that he left not only with all of its troops, but also with all of its armed bands, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return.
Raids by Saxons, Picts, and the Scoti of Ireland had been ongoing in the late 4th century, but these increased in the years after 383. There were also large-scale permanent Irish settlements made along the coasts of Wales under circumstances that remain unclear. Maximus campaigned in Britain against both the Picts and Scoti, with historians differing on whether this was in the year 382 or 384 (i.e., whether the campaign was before or after he became Augustus). Welsh legend relates that before launching his usurpation, Maximus made preparations for an altered governmental and defence framework for the beleaguered provinces. Figures such as Coel Hen were said to be placed into key positions to protect the island in Maximus' absence. As such claims were designed to buttress Welsh genealogy and land claims, they should be viewed with some scepticism.
In 388, Maximus led his army across the Alps into Italy in an attempt to claim the purple. The effort failed when he was defeated in Pannonia at the Battle of the Save (in modern Croatia) and at the Battle of Poetovio (at Ptuj in modern Slovenia). He was then executed by Theodosius.
With Maximus' death, Britain came back under the rule of Emperor Theodosius I until 392, when the usurper Eugenius would successfully bid for imperial power in the Western Roman Empire, surviving until 394 when he was defeated and killed by Theodosius. When Theodosius died in 395, his 10-year-old son Honorius succeeded him as Western Roman Emperor. The real power behind the throne, however, was Stilicho, the son-in-law of Theodosius' brother and the father-in-law of Honorius.
Britain was suffering raids by the Scoti, Saxons, and Picts and, sometime between 396 and 398, Stilicho allegedly ordered a campaign against the Picts, likely a naval campaign intended to end their seaborne raids on the east coast of Britain. He may also have ordered campaigns against the Scoti and Saxons at the same time, but either way this would be the last Roman campaign in Britain of which there is any record.
In 401 or 402 Stilicho faced wars with the Visigothic king Alaric and the Ostrogothic king Radagaisus. Needing military manpower, he stripped Hadrian's Wall of troops for the final time. 402 is the last date of any Roman coinage found in large numbers in Britain, suggesting either that Stilicho also stripped the remaining troops from Britain, or that the Empire could no longer afford to pay the troops who were still there. Meanwhile, the Picts, Saxons and Scoti continued their raids, which may have increased in scope. In 405, for example, Niall of the Nine Hostages is described as having raided along the southern coast of Britain.
On the last day of December 406 (or, perhaps, 405), the Alans, Vandals, and Suebi living east of Gaul crossed the Rhine, possibly when it was frozen over, and began widespread devastation.
As there was no effective Roman response, the remaining Roman military in Britain feared that a Germanic crossing of the Channel into Britain was next, and dispensed with imperial authority – an action perhaps made easier by the high probability that the troops had not been paid for some time. Their intent was to choose a commander who would lead them in securing their future but their first two choices, Marcus and Gratian, did not meet their expectations and were killed. Their third choice was the soldier Constantine III.
In 407 Constantine took charge of the remaining troops in Britain, led them across the Channel into Gaul, rallied support there, and attempted to set himself up as Western Roman Emperor. Honorius' loyalist forces south of the Alps were preoccupied with fending off the Visigoths and were unable to put down the rebellion swiftly, giving Constantine the opportunity to extend his new empire to include Spain.
In 409 Constantine's control of his empire fell apart. Part of his military forces were in Spain, making them unavailable for action in Gaul, and some of those in Gaul were swayed against him by loyalist Roman generals. The Germans living west of the Rhine River rose against him, perhaps encouraged by Roman loyalists, and those living east of the river crossed into Gaul. Britain, now without any troops for protection and having suffered particularly severe Saxon raids in 408 and 409, viewed the situation in Gaul with renewed alarm. Perhaps feeling they had no hope of relief under Constantine, both the Romano-Britons and some of the Gauls expelled Constantine's magistrates in 409 or 410. The Byzantine historian Zosimus (fl. 490's – 510's) directly blamed Constantine for the expulsion, saying that he had allowed the Saxons to raid, and that the Britons and Gauls were reduced to such straits that they revolted from the Roman Empire, 'rejected Roman law, reverted to their native customs, and armed themselves to ensure their own safety'.
It has been suggested that when Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration in 409 he might have been referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A later appeal for help by the British communities was, according to Zosimus, rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410 AD. In the text called the Rescript of Honorius of 411, the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence as his regime was still fighting usurpers in the south of Gaul and trying to deal with the Visigoths who were in the very south of Italy. The first reference to this rescript is written by the sixth-century Byzantine scholar Zosimus and is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy.
Historian Christopher Snyder wrote that protocol dictated that Honorius address his correspondences to imperial officials, and the fact that he did not implies that the cities of Britain were now the highest Roman authority remaining on the island. The idea that there may have been larger-scale political formations still intact on the island has not been completely discredited however.
At the time that the Rescript was sent, Honorius was holed up in Ravenna by the Visigoths and was unable to prevent their Sack of Rome (410). He was certainly in no position to offer any relief to anyone. As for Constantine III, he was not equal to the intrigues of imperial Rome and by 411 his cause was spent. His son was killed along with those major supporters who had not turned against him, and he himself was assassinated.
There are various interpretations that characterise the events in a way that supports a particular thesis without taking issue with the basic chronology.
The historian Theodor Mommsen (Britain, 1885) said that "It was not Britain that gave up Rome, but Rome that gave up Britain ...", arguing that Roman needs and priorities lay elsewhere. His position has retained scholarly support over the passage of time.
Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) took the opposite view, saying that it was Britain that left Rome, arguing that numerous usurpers based in Britain combined with poor administration caused the Romano-Britons to revolt.
Regarding the events of 409 and 410 when the Romano-Britons expelled Roman officials and sent a request for aid to Honorius, Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) offered a different chronology to the same end result: he suggested that the Britons first appealed to Rome and when no help was forthcoming, they expelled the Roman officials and took charge of their own affairs.
One theory that occurs in some modern histories concerns the Rescript of Honorius, holding that it refers to the cities of the Bruttii (who lived at the "toe" of Italy in modern Calabria), rather than to the cities of the Britons. The suggestion is based on the assumption that the source (Zosimus) or a copyist made an error and actually meant Brettia when Brettania was written, and noting that the passage that contains the Rescript is otherwise concerned with events in northern Italy.
Criticisms of the suggestion range from treating the passage in the way it was written by Zosimus and ignoring the suggestion, to simply noting its speculative nature, to a discussion of problems with the suggestion (e.g., 'why would Honorius write to the cities of the Bruttii rather than to his own provincial governor for that region?', and 'why does far-off southern Italy belong in a passage about northern Italy any more than far-off Britain?'). The theory also contradicts the account of Gildas, who provides independent support that the reference is to Britain by repeating the essence of Zosimus' account and clearly applying it to Britain.
E. A. Thompson ("Britain, A.D. 406–410", in Britannia, 8 (1977), pp. 303–318) offered a more provocative theory to explain the expulsion of officials and appeal for Roman aid. He suggested that a revolt consisting of dissident peasants, not unlike the Bagaudae of Gaul, also existing in Britain, and when they revolted and expelled the Roman officials, the landowning class then made an appeal for Roman aid. There is no textual proof that that was so, though it might be plausible if the definition of 'bagaudae' is changed to fit the circumstances. There is no need to do this, as any number of rational scenarios already fit the circumstances. There is the possibility that some form of bagaudae existed in Britain, but were not necessarily relevant to the events of 409 and 410. The alleged ubiquity of Pelagianism amongst the British population may have contributed to such a movement if it had existed, not to mention large-scale purges amongst the British elite over previous decades. Among the works that mention but skirt the issue is Koch's Celtic Culture (2005), which cites Thompson's translation of Zosimus and goes on to say "The revolt in Britain may have involved bacaudae or peasant rebels as was the case in Armorica, but this is not certain." | 2,921 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2 minutes reading time
Social Skills and Learning Disabilities
Some children who struggle with their schoolwork also struggle with social skills. This is especially true of children who have nonverbal learning disabilities. They may not pick up on normal social cues like other children do. These children need direct teaching of social skills just like other learning disabled children need direct teaching of academic skills.
Here are some things I have noticed with some of my students and what I did about each. The names have been changed to protect their identity.
- Amalia and I passed each other on the sidewalk. I said good morning to her. She looked away and did not speak. I stopped her and said, "Amalia, when someone you know says good morning to you, you need to say good morning back. That shows that you care about them as a person."
- Mark needed to ask me a question and stood very close to me. He was well inside of my personal space. I said, "Mark, step back so that there is an arm’s length between you and me." (I showed him what I meant and explained why he needed to do it.)
- When Naomi came up to the door with her hands full, I held the door open for her. She walked through the door and did not even smile at me. I said, "Naomi, when someone holds the door open for you, you need to say, ‘Thank you.’"
- Jamal walked up to me at an assembly in the gym, pointed at me and motioned for me to move. I said, "Jamal, I was here already. I am happy for you to sit beside me, but I will not move. You should not point at people like that. It is rude."
You should not feel uncomfortable about saying things like this to these children. They are almost never hurt by it and many appreciate that you are helping them to fit in better. If everyone in the child’s life agrees to help in this way, you will notice their social skills improve. Before you know it, they will be the first to say, "Good morning, Ms. McCoy," and give you a big smile. | <urn:uuid:91b9d14e-3513-447f-8248-3b7133690de0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.schoolfamily.com/blog/entry/2011/04/13/social-skills-and-learning-disabilities | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.98345 | 452 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.355358421802... | 1 | 2 minutes reading time
Social Skills and Learning Disabilities
Some children who struggle with their schoolwork also struggle with social skills. This is especially true of children who have nonverbal learning disabilities. They may not pick up on normal social cues like other children do. These children need direct teaching of social skills just like other learning disabled children need direct teaching of academic skills.
Here are some things I have noticed with some of my students and what I did about each. The names have been changed to protect their identity.
- Amalia and I passed each other on the sidewalk. I said good morning to her. She looked away and did not speak. I stopped her and said, "Amalia, when someone you know says good morning to you, you need to say good morning back. That shows that you care about them as a person."
- Mark needed to ask me a question and stood very close to me. He was well inside of my personal space. I said, "Mark, step back so that there is an arm’s length between you and me." (I showed him what I meant and explained why he needed to do it.)
- When Naomi came up to the door with her hands full, I held the door open for her. She walked through the door and did not even smile at me. I said, "Naomi, when someone holds the door open for you, you need to say, ‘Thank you.’"
- Jamal walked up to me at an assembly in the gym, pointed at me and motioned for me to move. I said, "Jamal, I was here already. I am happy for you to sit beside me, but I will not move. You should not point at people like that. It is rude."
You should not feel uncomfortable about saying things like this to these children. They are almost never hurt by it and many appreciate that you are helping them to fit in better. If everyone in the child’s life agrees to help in this way, you will notice their social skills improve. Before you know it, they will be the first to say, "Good morning, Ms. McCoy," and give you a big smile. | 439 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Titus was Roman emperor from 79 to 81 AD. On June 24, he succeeded his father Vespasian as the emperor of ancient Roman Empire. However, before coming to the rule, Titus was considered by many as unpopular and hated person. After he became an emperor, everyone started to love him.
Titus was born in Rome on December 30, 39 AD, during the reign of Caligula. He was talented and distinguished himself from the early childhood. The family of the future emperor did not have any political success until the beginning of reign of Emperor Claudius when Vespasian, Titus’s father, served prominently in the invasion of Britain. It gave a possibility for Titus to receive a court education, where he learned poetry in both Greek and Latin, how to compose Greek tragedies and play the harp. In addition, he was very close friend of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. He was present at his death by poisoning, which was arranged by Claudius’ wife Agrippina. After the death of his friend, Titus built several statues in memory of Britannicus.
Right after the completion of education, Titus served as a military tribune in Britain and Germany from 61 to 63 CE. However, he left the military career after and served as a barrister in the law courts because he liked pleading cases. At the same time he married his first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, who died shortly afterwards. His next wife was Marcia Furnilla. They had a daughter, but soon were devorced because of the political reasons, where Marcia’s family opposed Nero after the Piso Conspiracy in 65 AD. Titus would never again marry.
In 69 AD, Titus returned to the military and became a commander of the Fifteenth Legion. He was serving under his father in the Jewish War (66-73 AD). When Emperor Galba died, Titus was working on getting his father in power. Vespasian became an emperor in 69 AD and Titus took control over the Roman forces in Judea.
Vespasian was popular with the army, but hated by the Jewish people in Jerusalem as a commander. The reason is that under his rule, entire Jewish communities were murdered. During the two years when Jerusalem was besieged, its population suffered from starvation. Moreover, thousands of Jews, who tried to escape, were crucified and their bodies were left on the streets as an example of punishment for the escape for those who were remaining behind the walls.
In September of 70 AD, the troops of Titus entered Jerusalem and seized the city. All the walls except one were destroyed
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It served as a sign that there is no wall could defend the Roman army. This wall became the holiest location of Judea – the Wailing Wall.
Titus returned to Rome in 71 AD and was recognized as the heir apparent to Vespasian. He was his father’s main assistant, who dictated letter, drafted edicts and sometimes delivered speeches to the Senate. Moreover, there were events when Titus served as consul. After the death of Galba, Vespasian named his son a praetorian commander.
Titus used his position to remove anyone who would act again his father
Right after the death of Vespasian in 79 AD, Titus succeeded his father as emperor. It became a surprise for everyone, but Titus changed a lot after coming to reign. Although his reign was short, he was considered kindhearted emperor. Titus managed to finish several community projects as the Flavian Amphitheater and new imperial baths. Moreover, the emperor saw the beginning of construction of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.
Despite the fact that his reign was marked by a relative absence of military and political conflicts, there were several disasters during his brief leadership. On October 24 in 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted and almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under stones and lava. Titus made all efforts to help victims of the volcano and donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury. The emperor visited Pompeii right after the tragedy happened.
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, also known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 AD under Vespasian and completed in 80 AD under Titus. Right after the completion of famous amphitheater, there were 100 days of the celebration that provided spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace. The Colosseum also meant to serve as the triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars.
The inaugural games included gladiator battles, fights between wild animals as elephants and tigers, mock naval battles, horse races and chariot races. Many animals, slaves and prisoners died during that one hundred days. Moreover,, during the games wooden balls were dropped into the audience, where various prized were inscribed (gold, clothing, or even slaves).
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the Flavian amphitheater and the baths. The emperor set out for the Sabine territories, but felt ill and died of a fever in the same farm-house as his father Vespasian. His last words were:”I have made but one mistake.”
Titus was an emperor for just over two years and became succeeded by Domitian, his brother
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:6f558761-fde7-4356-9cf1-b8b7bdfd2d6c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rome.us/roman-emperors/titus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.990172 | 1,188 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.395538747310638... | 1 | Titus was Roman emperor from 79 to 81 AD. On June 24, he succeeded his father Vespasian as the emperor of ancient Roman Empire. However, before coming to the rule, Titus was considered by many as unpopular and hated person. After he became an emperor, everyone started to love him.
Titus was born in Rome on December 30, 39 AD, during the reign of Caligula. He was talented and distinguished himself from the early childhood. The family of the future emperor did not have any political success until the beginning of reign of Emperor Claudius when Vespasian, Titus’s father, served prominently in the invasion of Britain. It gave a possibility for Titus to receive a court education, where he learned poetry in both Greek and Latin, how to compose Greek tragedies and play the harp. In addition, he was very close friend of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. He was present at his death by poisoning, which was arranged by Claudius’ wife Agrippina. After the death of his friend, Titus built several statues in memory of Britannicus.
Right after the completion of education, Titus served as a military tribune in Britain and Germany from 61 to 63 CE. However, he left the military career after and served as a barrister in the law courts because he liked pleading cases. At the same time he married his first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, who died shortly afterwards. His next wife was Marcia Furnilla. They had a daughter, but soon were devorced because of the political reasons, where Marcia’s family opposed Nero after the Piso Conspiracy in 65 AD. Titus would never again marry.
In 69 AD, Titus returned to the military and became a commander of the Fifteenth Legion. He was serving under his father in the Jewish War (66-73 AD). When Emperor Galba died, Titus was working on getting his father in power. Vespasian became an emperor in 69 AD and Titus took control over the Roman forces in Judea.
Vespasian was popular with the army, but hated by the Jewish people in Jerusalem as a commander. The reason is that under his rule, entire Jewish communities were murdered. During the two years when Jerusalem was besieged, its population suffered from starvation. Moreover, thousands of Jews, who tried to escape, were crucified and their bodies were left on the streets as an example of punishment for the escape for those who were remaining behind the walls.
In September of 70 AD, the troops of Titus entered Jerusalem and seized the city. All the walls except one were destroyed
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It served as a sign that there is no wall could defend the Roman army. This wall became the holiest location of Judea – the Wailing Wall.
Titus returned to Rome in 71 AD and was recognized as the heir apparent to Vespasian. He was his father’s main assistant, who dictated letter, drafted edicts and sometimes delivered speeches to the Senate. Moreover, there were events when Titus served as consul. After the death of Galba, Vespasian named his son a praetorian commander.
Titus used his position to remove anyone who would act again his father
Right after the death of Vespasian in 79 AD, Titus succeeded his father as emperor. It became a surprise for everyone, but Titus changed a lot after coming to reign. Although his reign was short, he was considered kindhearted emperor. Titus managed to finish several community projects as the Flavian Amphitheater and new imperial baths. Moreover, the emperor saw the beginning of construction of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.
Despite the fact that his reign was marked by a relative absence of military and political conflicts, there were several disasters during his brief leadership. On October 24 in 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted and almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under stones and lava. Titus made all efforts to help victims of the volcano and donated large amounts of money from the imperial treasury. The emperor visited Pompeii right after the tragedy happened.
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, also known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 AD under Vespasian and completed in 80 AD under Titus. Right after the completion of famous amphitheater, there were 100 days of the celebration that provided spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace. The Colosseum also meant to serve as the triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars.
The inaugural games included gladiator battles, fights between wild animals as elephants and tigers, mock naval battles, horse races and chariot races. Many animals, slaves and prisoners died during that one hundred days. Moreover,, during the games wooden balls were dropped into the audience, where various prized were inscribed (gold, clothing, or even slaves).
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the Flavian amphitheater and the baths. The emperor set out for the Sabine territories, but felt ill and died of a fever in the same farm-house as his father Vespasian. His last words were:”I have made but one mistake.”
Titus was an emperor for just over two years and became succeeded by Domitian, his brother
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | 1,223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Irish government, in their infinite wisdom, decided to hold a commemoration of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) in Dublin Castle on 17 January. The RIC were set up in the early 19th century, manned by mostly Irish men, and commanded by the British crown. They did as they were ordered, including evicting their fellow Irish people out of their homes as demanded by the crown. They were armed, dangerous, and suppressed any Fenian activity directed at the overturning of British rule in Ireland.
In January 1920, the British government started advertising in British cities for men willing to “face a rough and dangerous task”. What they wanted was to to boost the ranks of the RIC in policing an increasingly anti-British Ireland. Scores of men applied. In fact, due to the amount of applicants RIC uniforms ran out. Instead, the men were issued khaki-like trousers and blue or green British army tunics. Hence they became known as the Black and Tans.
The first of the Black and Tans arrived in Ireland in March 1920 and were shortly joined by the Auxiliaries who were mostly made up of ex-British army officers. Both groups would go on to perpetrate horrendous crimes in Ireland, including Bloody Sunday 1920 in which 14 were murdered by the British forces as they attended a Gaelic football match. They were also responsible for the equally infamous burning of Cork in which the city centre was destroyed by British forces. It was carried out in retaliation for an ambush by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) which resulted in the wounding of 12 Auxiliaries and the death of one.
The Irish government had planned to pay tribute to the men of the RIC despite the fact that they were responsible for death and destruction in Ireland 100 years ago. Widespread opposition to the commemoration immediately appeared across the country. As a result, the event has now been cancelled. But some of the opposition came from pseudo-Irish Republicans who call themselves nationalists and patriots.
These so-called nationalists and patriots are nothing more than fascists and are the figureheads for the Irish far right. Their views range from the mass deportation of non-Irish people to advocating the creation of a Catholic theocracy in Ireland in which women’s rights will be, yet again, non-existent. Irish Republicanism and the nationalism of pre-independence Ireland is simply window dressing for their real views.
Before the postponing of the event, they were calling for a protest at Dublin Castle, the site of the commemoration on 17 January. As usual, the so-called patriots were asking people to bring their tricolours. Their motives were simple to comprehend. It would give them a chance to protest the government, display their commitment to Ireland’s nationalist heritage, and as a result, hopefully recruit new members to their cause. After all, the government handed the opportunity to them on a plate.
If the commemoration went ahead they would have been standing alongside real Republicans. These false patriots don’t care about Irish nationalism. What they really care about is making sure Ireland only has the “correct” kind of Irish people in it: White and Catholic. They don’t want a united Ireland that is inclusive of immigrants and non-Irish members of our society.
Although they have failed this time around, be careful of who you stand beside at future Republican protests. These same pseudo-patriots will be present. And don’t be afraid to call out those who are trying to hijack legitimate Republicanism. Stand up and speak out.
Featured image via Flickr – National Library of Ireland | <urn:uuid:6cd4eb65-e592-4dbe-94ee-0ab2cf7aa7a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://the-beacon.ie/2020/01/08/__trashed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.985816 | 745 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.3239972591400146... | 13 | The Irish government, in their infinite wisdom, decided to hold a commemoration of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) in Dublin Castle on 17 January. The RIC were set up in the early 19th century, manned by mostly Irish men, and commanded by the British crown. They did as they were ordered, including evicting their fellow Irish people out of their homes as demanded by the crown. They were armed, dangerous, and suppressed any Fenian activity directed at the overturning of British rule in Ireland.
In January 1920, the British government started advertising in British cities for men willing to “face a rough and dangerous task”. What they wanted was to to boost the ranks of the RIC in policing an increasingly anti-British Ireland. Scores of men applied. In fact, due to the amount of applicants RIC uniforms ran out. Instead, the men were issued khaki-like trousers and blue or green British army tunics. Hence they became known as the Black and Tans.
The first of the Black and Tans arrived in Ireland in March 1920 and were shortly joined by the Auxiliaries who were mostly made up of ex-British army officers. Both groups would go on to perpetrate horrendous crimes in Ireland, including Bloody Sunday 1920 in which 14 were murdered by the British forces as they attended a Gaelic football match. They were also responsible for the equally infamous burning of Cork in which the city centre was destroyed by British forces. It was carried out in retaliation for an ambush by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) which resulted in the wounding of 12 Auxiliaries and the death of one.
The Irish government had planned to pay tribute to the men of the RIC despite the fact that they were responsible for death and destruction in Ireland 100 years ago. Widespread opposition to the commemoration immediately appeared across the country. As a result, the event has now been cancelled. But some of the opposition came from pseudo-Irish Republicans who call themselves nationalists and patriots.
These so-called nationalists and patriots are nothing more than fascists and are the figureheads for the Irish far right. Their views range from the mass deportation of non-Irish people to advocating the creation of a Catholic theocracy in Ireland in which women’s rights will be, yet again, non-existent. Irish Republicanism and the nationalism of pre-independence Ireland is simply window dressing for their real views.
Before the postponing of the event, they were calling for a protest at Dublin Castle, the site of the commemoration on 17 January. As usual, the so-called patriots were asking people to bring their tricolours. Their motives were simple to comprehend. It would give them a chance to protest the government, display their commitment to Ireland’s nationalist heritage, and as a result, hopefully recruit new members to their cause. After all, the government handed the opportunity to them on a plate.
If the commemoration went ahead they would have been standing alongside real Republicans. These false patriots don’t care about Irish nationalism. What they really care about is making sure Ireland only has the “correct” kind of Irish people in it: White and Catholic. They don’t want a united Ireland that is inclusive of immigrants and non-Irish members of our society.
Although they have failed this time around, be careful of who you stand beside at future Republican protests. These same pseudo-patriots will be present. And don’t be afraid to call out those who are trying to hijack legitimate Republicanism. Stand up and speak out.
Featured image via Flickr – National Library of Ireland | 750 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1880s was the start of the colonial time frame in African history. While Europeans and Africans had established relationships in a variety of settings for many centuries, the 1880s was a major turning point in Africa where the European attitudes were set toward Africa. The nineteenth century in Europe was a period of industrialization. Industrial facilities in Europe required raw materials to be fabricated into marketable items. As a result, Europeans looked for both a source of raw materials, and in addition, a market to manufactured products in Africa, and technology. Another explanation behind the Scramble for Africa, (1885-1910) which brought about the colonization of all of Africa in only a quarter century, was the competition between European countries. Three motives that lead to Europeans colonize Africa are economic goods, spread religion, and for superiority to show their power and to make their country better in the nation. (“Module Seven (B), Activity Two.”)The repercussions from European Imperialism during this time have affected tribal relations in Africa to this day. Many of the recent genocides and wars that have occurred in Africa are the product of the Scramble of Africa and the separation and mixing of rival tribes in Africa. Africa was very abundant in natural resources, which made the European countries more eager to be the ones to colonize it first. The major players during the “scramble for Africa” were industrial powers in Europe that wanted to go in Africa since has a lot of raw materials that they needed. Africa was the place that they all saw as being players in the “Scramble for Africa” were Britain, Portugal, France, and the Dutch all whom possessed raw materials.The most important reason to colonize was economic as a depression was happening in Europe. Nations like Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, different forces were losing cash, and Africa gave off an impression of being away from the whole depression thing of making money, being powerful by taking over. Many Europeans believed that, to profit out of Africa, Europeans can utilize its numerous raw goods to make the money in order to be relief from the depression. They accumulated oil, gold, ivory, elastic, palm oil, wood, cotton, and gum for paper. Since Africa, had cheap labor work, these materials were effectively obtained. These materials could possibly start a spark in Europe as financial needs. The Industrial Revolution was additionally gaining progress in the economy by making these products as significance as never seen before. New African markets set up by the Europeans could create more trade. People at the time needed commerce to make profit for them. | <urn:uuid:65b8f038-3b04-4a79-bd0b-52208b174725> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/the-in-europe-required-raw-materials-to-be/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.981238 | 529 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.06731330603361... | 1 | The 1880s was the start of the colonial time frame in African history. While Europeans and Africans had established relationships in a variety of settings for many centuries, the 1880s was a major turning point in Africa where the European attitudes were set toward Africa. The nineteenth century in Europe was a period of industrialization. Industrial facilities in Europe required raw materials to be fabricated into marketable items. As a result, Europeans looked for both a source of raw materials, and in addition, a market to manufactured products in Africa, and technology. Another explanation behind the Scramble for Africa, (1885-1910) which brought about the colonization of all of Africa in only a quarter century, was the competition between European countries. Three motives that lead to Europeans colonize Africa are economic goods, spread religion, and for superiority to show their power and to make their country better in the nation. (“Module Seven (B), Activity Two.”)The repercussions from European Imperialism during this time have affected tribal relations in Africa to this day. Many of the recent genocides and wars that have occurred in Africa are the product of the Scramble of Africa and the separation and mixing of rival tribes in Africa. Africa was very abundant in natural resources, which made the European countries more eager to be the ones to colonize it first. The major players during the “scramble for Africa” were industrial powers in Europe that wanted to go in Africa since has a lot of raw materials that they needed. Africa was the place that they all saw as being players in the “Scramble for Africa” were Britain, Portugal, France, and the Dutch all whom possessed raw materials.The most important reason to colonize was economic as a depression was happening in Europe. Nations like Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, different forces were losing cash, and Africa gave off an impression of being away from the whole depression thing of making money, being powerful by taking over. Many Europeans believed that, to profit out of Africa, Europeans can utilize its numerous raw goods to make the money in order to be relief from the depression. They accumulated oil, gold, ivory, elastic, palm oil, wood, cotton, and gum for paper. Since Africa, had cheap labor work, these materials were effectively obtained. These materials could possibly start a spark in Europe as financial needs. The Industrial Revolution was additionally gaining progress in the economy by making these products as significance as never seen before. New African markets set up by the Europeans could create more trade. People at the time needed commerce to make profit for them. | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Rise and Fall of Julius Caeser
We will take a look at the rise and fall of Gauis Julius Caesar, who was born on July 12 100 BC, in Rome to his parents; Gaius Caesar and Aurelia.
He lived a very vivid and well remembered life and Julius Caesar was even the governor Of Gaul, 58-49 BC and appointed dictator for ten years in 47 B, for life on February 14, 44 BC until he was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC.
During Julius Caesar’s early life, he grew up in a time of unrest and during the civil war in Rome. With the expanded size of the empire, it led to cheap slave labor coming into the country, which caused many of the Roman workers to go without employment.
The Social Wars produced turmoil throughout the country where Marius and Sulla were the superior leaders of the era.
Julius Caesar was expected, at the completion of his education, to take an important stance in the government, since he was a member of an old aristocratic family. He was to assume a modest office in his political career, in Rome.
Unlike other Romans, Caesar had already figured out that money was the most important factor when it came to politics; however corrupt.
When Julius Caesar was fifteen years old, his dad, Lucius died, so no longer was Julius Caesar bound to politics so he left the political arena and searched for his own path through life.
He began his adventure by marrying a woman from a very distinguished family, which helped him in building connections. In building those connections with influential people, Caesar met with dangerous individuals who were supporters of Marius. Sulla was the dictator of Rome who wanted to be rid of Marian sympathizers.
When Julius Caesar turned nineteen years of age, he was arrested, but luckily Sulla spared him. He was released, due to his influential friends who came to his aid, but they warned him that he should leave Rome until tensions ceased, and while he waited, he joined the army.
Caesar’s first post in the army wasn’t that of a normal soldier, since he was a member of a patrician family. Military Assistant to a provincial governor was his first assignment in the army.
When Caesar was posted in Cilicia, he proved that he was both courageous and capable at handling his duties and he won the admiration when he saved the life of a comrade.
In Caesar’s next assignment, many believe it was during that assignment when Caesar’s group crushed Spartacus’ slave rebellion.
Caesar then left the army but still felt that it wasn’t a choice to go back to Rome, so he spent some time in the south of Italy where he furthered his education, especially rhetoric.
When Caesar was captured by pirates and held captive for about 40 days, he joked to his captors that, he’d see them all crucified, while everyone laughed but once Caesar was released, he hunted down the same pirates and had them crucified.
When the regime in Rome finally improved, Caesar was able to return home where he campaigned for a post in the Roman administration, since he had a good record, already, from his military achievements.
In Spain, Caesar served in 63 BC as quaestor, and it is said that Caesar broke down and cried in front of a statue of Alexander the Great, because he was in great awe that this important man, by the age of thirty, had already conquered most of the known world.
Caesar was determined to achieve an important role in politics in Rome, so after his first wife died, he decided to marry into a marriage that would be even more politically useful to him than the last but with rumors of adultery, he divorced her, soon after.
Caesar spent much of his time trying to win approval and admiration from many people in Rome, which helped him gain the post of aedile, and he used this post to his advantage. He also bought the approval of those who could benefit his career, which gained him popularity it Rome.
Caesar made many improvements in Rome, including the renovating of buildings which made him even more popular with the citizens.
These good deeds cost Caesar an abundance of money, and some that he didn’t have, which caused him many calls from creditors wanting their pay.
Bribery wasn’t respected by many of the officials, who thought Caesar was just bribing his way up the ladder of success, but that didn’t stop Caeser; he continued to bribe anyone who helped him in his venture, which led him to becoming the holder of the office, pontifex maximus, which is chief priest.
This was a very powerful position and title for Julius Caesar. Now, it would be difficult for anyone to criticize him in any manner. He wouldn’t have to worry about being attacked because of his new religious post.
Caesar returned to Spain in the year 60 BC and at the age of 41 he became Praetor. He was in an area that was very troubled because the Senate wanted to see that he failed as a leader. This trouble in Spain had been ongoing with the local tribes, but Caesar was able to prevail.
This experience is Spain was very import to Julius Caesar and combined with the military experience he had already gained, he would excel in his career and he learned that war was very profitable as he paid off his many debts which further enabled his career…
Caesar then returned to Rome in 59 BC and was elected consul, which was the highest position attainable in Rome. He would have to face a hostile Senate. The new formation of the ruling triumvirate combined with Crassus and Pompey began Caesar’s determination to resort to any measures in facing that angry senate, which wasn’t sure about Caesar’s intentions.
Caesar stopped taxes on farmers and public land was allocated to families who had three or more children. These achievements caused Caesar even further popularity with the Roman people.
Caesar then remarried and she was also from a prominent and influential family and as Caesar’s one-year commitment in the office as consul ended, he searched for a new office to hold so he could retire from the previous office.
He was prone to attack so he had to search for an office that would keep his offenders from seeking revenge against him.
Caesar then landed the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and when the current governor died, a second term was issued for Transilpine Gaul for a period of five years.
Caesar was well educated in the aspect of war. He needed a larger military force and he did raise the force to 10 legions, which was equal to about 50,000 men and Caesar also held 10,000 to 20,000 allies, as well as slaves and camp followers who were at his disposal.
Christian Meier explains in his book, “Caesar” that “Julius Caesar acted quickly and defeated the Helvetian invasion.” When the tribe of Helvetians was forced from their mountainous homelands by the migration of the tribes that were Germanic and they were pushing into Transilpine Gaul, Caesar was victorious.
Crossing the Rhine, were the Sueves, Germans and Swabians, who came into the Roman area of Gaul. Ariovistus, their leader, was an ally of the Romans but so was the Gallic tribe of the Aedui in which the Germans were coming against Caesar, sided with the Aedui.
Gaul was a priority for the Germans and had been for a long period of time, so Caesar utilized this great opportunity to cease their intentions. Caesar wanted Gaul to be Roman.
Caesar went to battle and when he heard that the Germans believed in a prophecy that they should lose in the battle if they fought before the new moon, Caesar went to battle with them, immediately.
Antony Kemm, tells us in his book, (Kemm, 2006), “Julius Caesar: A Life” that “Caesar was a brilliant politician and his army defeated the Germans and many of them were slaughtered and murdered as they tried to escape the battleground.”
In the year 57 BC, which was the next year after the victory over Germany, Caesar led his army in a northern direction in order to settle things with Belgae. The Nervii, in the Celtic Belgae were a leading tribe and had prepared to come against Caesar’s Roman army and they were afraid that Caesar may take over the whole area of Gaul and of course, they were correct in their assumptions.
Caesar then attempted a full war against the Nervian territory and it was during this time when Caesar experienced a form of weakness, which was that of bad reconnaissance.
Caesar didn’t fully trust his horsemen and he didn’t use them as leaders who introduced his army in the war, which led to Caesar not being prepared when he was often taken by surprise during his campaign in Gaul.
(Garner, 1976) tells us about “The Nervii fought a good fight against the Romans and for a long period of time,” and it wasn’t for sure who would win this battle. But, Caesar and his Roman army were victorious when they defeated the Nervii and the Romans watched as all other tribes of Belgae gave in.
Caesar, after conquering Gaul, met with two members of the triumvirs in the year 56 BC which was located in the town of Luca in Cisalpine Gaul. It was there that it was decided that Caesar’s governorship of Gaul would be extended where Crassus and Pompey would once again remain as consuls.
Many victorious battles were won by Caesar and his army and he did manage to persuade the senate to declare that he be dictator for life. Julius Caesar was king of Rome in all but title.
In the book, “The Twelve Caesars” (Grant, 2003) we are told that “Caesar was dead at the hands of a band of senatorial conspirators that was led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus who were both former Pompeians who had once been pardoned by Julius Caesar, after the battle of Pharsalus.” Caesar died after five months prior to his arrival back to Rome, which was only three days before his departure on his campaign to the east.
The death of the great leader was documented in many instances, to well preserve the memory of the man who individually and remarkable set in motion a plan of becoming a true leader with power, which he gained from his marriages and influences in the political arena. Caesar was famous for gaining influence from any source he deemed possible and would never stop in obtaining and gaining political strength, in order to make his own decisions which led him through many courageous wars because of his dedication to the idea that he was to be a great leader.
The Roman Empire had indeed changed by Julius Caesar. He had changed the old corrupt system of the earlier Roman Republic and showed future Roman leaders and Emperors an example to lead by. They could follow a man who was born to become the Emperor.
Adrian Goldsworthy gives us a good look at the life of Julius Caesar in her biography of Caesar in (Godsworthy, 2006) “Caesar-Life of a Collusus”, and tells us about the republic in Rome and shares with us that “Julius Caesar was a well-remembered leader.”
(Shakespeare, reissued 2004) William Shakespeare is able to offer us a huge amount of information about Julius Caesar in learning about his “great role as a Roman leader.”
“Caesar was one of the greatest statesmen and generals in history. He was noted for his ability as an orator and was also a gifted writer. Among his important military victories were the conquests of Britain and Gaul.” We are told by
Robert Garland, author of the book, (Garland, 2004) “Julius Caesar” tell us that “Julius Caesar was on of the most famous Romans who ever lived.”
J.F.C. Fuller gives us a biography of Julius Caesar and tells how “Caesar was an extraordinary human being.” Caesar was able to accomplish so much more than most other leaders during his career.
Ramon Jiminez easily tells us about Caesar’s fight against the Celts in his book, “Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant when he talks about “Ceasear being a strong leader.” Caesar’s campaign against his enemies was battles that led him and the country of Rome to innumerous victories.
Julius Caesar, from the beginning of his early connections with politics, until his death, was able to accomplish so many victories against the enemies that came against Rome. From the time Julius Caesar led his legions across the Rubicon, he sparked civil war in B.C. that left him known as the leader who was the undisputed leader of the Roman World.
Caesar was very successful in his career as a politician which he helped in dominating Roman politics for many years, even though he was fiercely opposed by optimates like Cato the Younger.
His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, and he was also responsible for the first Roman invasion of Britain in the year 55 B.C., but the collapse of the triumvirate ended up with there being a huge stand-off with Pompey and the Senate. Much of Julius Caesar’s life is known through his own writings and commentaries.
He often told about his military campaigns, and his other accomplishments in Rome. There were the letters and speeches of Caesar’s political rival, Cicero, and also the historical writings of Sallust, and also the poetry of Catullus that tell us so much about Caesar.
More details of Caesar’s life are also recorded by historians. Julius Caesar was born with much political ambition and oratory talent which helped him to manipulate his way through ancient histories most interesting years with great talent for conquering and overcoming.
Julius Caesar did use his educational background, as well as military background; in order to gain the knowledge that he needed that would aid him in conquering his enemies.
Julius Caesar will always be remembered in history as a strong and intelligent leader who used any method at his hand in able to conquer his enemies that came against the Roman Empire. Caesar’s career was noted as remarkable from the time that he first embarked his adventure of being in military command.
It is interesting to learn how Julius Caesar was able to use his army as his own personal weapon in accomplishing his own feats that, in the long run, did benefit the entire Roman Empire.
He used his forces to control and conquer areas that had admitted to seeking revenge against Julius Caesar and had thought they were more powerful and could outwit Julius Caesar and his military force. Throughout Caesar’s career, he was sought after by many important leaders who wanted to see his rule come to a quick end.
You can discover so much information about the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in many books that describe how Caesar used his mental talent, as his educational and influential backgrounds in order to become a king for life.
Julius Caesar was remarkable in his early and later years and was capable of being remembered as one of the greatest leaders of all time. Through the victories he achieved, along with the help of his Roman soldiers, Caesar was able to change the way that the Roman Empire existed.
We will long remember Julius Caesar and the many stories about his life and times in ancient Rome. He was a man with courage and determination who pushed past anything and anyone who stood in his way. He was able to gain important positions in Rome, which led him to fight many battles and he was usually successful in his wars, that were battled with his large army who remained loyal to his orders.
Many books down through history mention Julius Caesar as a solid leadership figure and well remembered character in our history as one of the most famous Roman generals and statesman who brought about the effective end of the Republic.
Julius Caesar left behind, in the thoughts of so many, that in the end, he desired to live no longer, because of his failing health. He left the world a brave man, just as he entered leaving behind his legacy for all to read about for past and future generations. Julius Caesar is often referred to as “The Last Emperor.”
Fuller, F.F.C., (1991) “Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant
Gardner, Jane F., (1976). “The Civil War”. Penguin Classics
Garland, Robert, ((2004). Julius Caesar. Bristol Phoenix Press
Goldsworthy, Adrian. (2006) Ancient Classical History. Yale University Press
Grant, Michael, (2003). “The Twelve Caesars”. Penguin Classics
Kamm, Antony, (2006). “Julius Caesar: A Life”. Routledge. Ed.1
Meier, Christian. (1997). “Caesar”. Basic Books
Ramon, Jiminez. (2005). “Caesar Against The Celts”. Da Capo Press
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0.435513585805892... | 3 | The Rise and Fall of Julius Caeser
We will take a look at the rise and fall of Gauis Julius Caesar, who was born on July 12 100 BC, in Rome to his parents; Gaius Caesar and Aurelia.
He lived a very vivid and well remembered life and Julius Caesar was even the governor Of Gaul, 58-49 BC and appointed dictator for ten years in 47 B, for life on February 14, 44 BC until he was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC.
During Julius Caesar’s early life, he grew up in a time of unrest and during the civil war in Rome. With the expanded size of the empire, it led to cheap slave labor coming into the country, which caused many of the Roman workers to go without employment.
The Social Wars produced turmoil throughout the country where Marius and Sulla were the superior leaders of the era.
Julius Caesar was expected, at the completion of his education, to take an important stance in the government, since he was a member of an old aristocratic family. He was to assume a modest office in his political career, in Rome.
Unlike other Romans, Caesar had already figured out that money was the most important factor when it came to politics; however corrupt.
When Julius Caesar was fifteen years old, his dad, Lucius died, so no longer was Julius Caesar bound to politics so he left the political arena and searched for his own path through life.
He began his adventure by marrying a woman from a very distinguished family, which helped him in building connections. In building those connections with influential people, Caesar met with dangerous individuals who were supporters of Marius. Sulla was the dictator of Rome who wanted to be rid of Marian sympathizers.
When Julius Caesar turned nineteen years of age, he was arrested, but luckily Sulla spared him. He was released, due to his influential friends who came to his aid, but they warned him that he should leave Rome until tensions ceased, and while he waited, he joined the army.
Caesar’s first post in the army wasn’t that of a normal soldier, since he was a member of a patrician family. Military Assistant to a provincial governor was his first assignment in the army.
When Caesar was posted in Cilicia, he proved that he was both courageous and capable at handling his duties and he won the admiration when he saved the life of a comrade.
In Caesar’s next assignment, many believe it was during that assignment when Caesar’s group crushed Spartacus’ slave rebellion.
Caesar then left the army but still felt that it wasn’t a choice to go back to Rome, so he spent some time in the south of Italy where he furthered his education, especially rhetoric.
When Caesar was captured by pirates and held captive for about 40 days, he joked to his captors that, he’d see them all crucified, while everyone laughed but once Caesar was released, he hunted down the same pirates and had them crucified.
When the regime in Rome finally improved, Caesar was able to return home where he campaigned for a post in the Roman administration, since he had a good record, already, from his military achievements.
In Spain, Caesar served in 63 BC as quaestor, and it is said that Caesar broke down and cried in front of a statue of Alexander the Great, because he was in great awe that this important man, by the age of thirty, had already conquered most of the known world.
Caesar was determined to achieve an important role in politics in Rome, so after his first wife died, he decided to marry into a marriage that would be even more politically useful to him than the last but with rumors of adultery, he divorced her, soon after.
Caesar spent much of his time trying to win approval and admiration from many people in Rome, which helped him gain the post of aedile, and he used this post to his advantage. He also bought the approval of those who could benefit his career, which gained him popularity it Rome.
Caesar made many improvements in Rome, including the renovating of buildings which made him even more popular with the citizens.
These good deeds cost Caesar an abundance of money, and some that he didn’t have, which caused him many calls from creditors wanting their pay.
Bribery wasn’t respected by many of the officials, who thought Caesar was just bribing his way up the ladder of success, but that didn’t stop Caeser; he continued to bribe anyone who helped him in his venture, which led him to becoming the holder of the office, pontifex maximus, which is chief priest.
This was a very powerful position and title for Julius Caesar. Now, it would be difficult for anyone to criticize him in any manner. He wouldn’t have to worry about being attacked because of his new religious post.
Caesar returned to Spain in the year 60 BC and at the age of 41 he became Praetor. He was in an area that was very troubled because the Senate wanted to see that he failed as a leader. This trouble in Spain had been ongoing with the local tribes, but Caesar was able to prevail.
This experience is Spain was very import to Julius Caesar and combined with the military experience he had already gained, he would excel in his career and he learned that war was very profitable as he paid off his many debts which further enabled his career…
Caesar then returned to Rome in 59 BC and was elected consul, which was the highest position attainable in Rome. He would have to face a hostile Senate. The new formation of the ruling triumvirate combined with Crassus and Pompey began Caesar’s determination to resort to any measures in facing that angry senate, which wasn’t sure about Caesar’s intentions.
Caesar stopped taxes on farmers and public land was allocated to families who had three or more children. These achievements caused Caesar even further popularity with the Roman people.
Caesar then remarried and she was also from a prominent and influential family and as Caesar’s one-year commitment in the office as consul ended, he searched for a new office to hold so he could retire from the previous office.
He was prone to attack so he had to search for an office that would keep his offenders from seeking revenge against him.
Caesar then landed the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and when the current governor died, a second term was issued for Transilpine Gaul for a period of five years.
Caesar was well educated in the aspect of war. He needed a larger military force and he did raise the force to 10 legions, which was equal to about 50,000 men and Caesar also held 10,000 to 20,000 allies, as well as slaves and camp followers who were at his disposal.
Christian Meier explains in his book, “Caesar” that “Julius Caesar acted quickly and defeated the Helvetian invasion.” When the tribe of Helvetians was forced from their mountainous homelands by the migration of the tribes that were Germanic and they were pushing into Transilpine Gaul, Caesar was victorious.
Crossing the Rhine, were the Sueves, Germans and Swabians, who came into the Roman area of Gaul. Ariovistus, their leader, was an ally of the Romans but so was the Gallic tribe of the Aedui in which the Germans were coming against Caesar, sided with the Aedui.
Gaul was a priority for the Germans and had been for a long period of time, so Caesar utilized this great opportunity to cease their intentions. Caesar wanted Gaul to be Roman.
Caesar went to battle and when he heard that the Germans believed in a prophecy that they should lose in the battle if they fought before the new moon, Caesar went to battle with them, immediately.
Antony Kemm, tells us in his book, (Kemm, 2006), “Julius Caesar: A Life” that “Caesar was a brilliant politician and his army defeated the Germans and many of them were slaughtered and murdered as they tried to escape the battleground.”
In the year 57 BC, which was the next year after the victory over Germany, Caesar led his army in a northern direction in order to settle things with Belgae. The Nervii, in the Celtic Belgae were a leading tribe and had prepared to come against Caesar’s Roman army and they were afraid that Caesar may take over the whole area of Gaul and of course, they were correct in their assumptions.
Caesar then attempted a full war against the Nervian territory and it was during this time when Caesar experienced a form of weakness, which was that of bad reconnaissance.
Caesar didn’t fully trust his horsemen and he didn’t use them as leaders who introduced his army in the war, which led to Caesar not being prepared when he was often taken by surprise during his campaign in Gaul.
(Garner, 1976) tells us about “The Nervii fought a good fight against the Romans and for a long period of time,” and it wasn’t for sure who would win this battle. But, Caesar and his Roman army were victorious when they defeated the Nervii and the Romans watched as all other tribes of Belgae gave in.
Caesar, after conquering Gaul, met with two members of the triumvirs in the year 56 BC which was located in the town of Luca in Cisalpine Gaul. It was there that it was decided that Caesar’s governorship of Gaul would be extended where Crassus and Pompey would once again remain as consuls.
Many victorious battles were won by Caesar and his army and he did manage to persuade the senate to declare that he be dictator for life. Julius Caesar was king of Rome in all but title.
In the book, “The Twelve Caesars” (Grant, 2003) we are told that “Caesar was dead at the hands of a band of senatorial conspirators that was led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus who were both former Pompeians who had once been pardoned by Julius Caesar, after the battle of Pharsalus.” Caesar died after five months prior to his arrival back to Rome, which was only three days before his departure on his campaign to the east.
The death of the great leader was documented in many instances, to well preserve the memory of the man who individually and remarkable set in motion a plan of becoming a true leader with power, which he gained from his marriages and influences in the political arena. Caesar was famous for gaining influence from any source he deemed possible and would never stop in obtaining and gaining political strength, in order to make his own decisions which led him through many courageous wars because of his dedication to the idea that he was to be a great leader.
The Roman Empire had indeed changed by Julius Caesar. He had changed the old corrupt system of the earlier Roman Republic and showed future Roman leaders and Emperors an example to lead by. They could follow a man who was born to become the Emperor.
Adrian Goldsworthy gives us a good look at the life of Julius Caesar in her biography of Caesar in (Godsworthy, 2006) “Caesar-Life of a Collusus”, and tells us about the republic in Rome and shares with us that “Julius Caesar was a well-remembered leader.”
(Shakespeare, reissued 2004) William Shakespeare is able to offer us a huge amount of information about Julius Caesar in learning about his “great role as a Roman leader.”
“Caesar was one of the greatest statesmen and generals in history. He was noted for his ability as an orator and was also a gifted writer. Among his important military victories were the conquests of Britain and Gaul.” We are told by
Robert Garland, author of the book, (Garland, 2004) “Julius Caesar” tell us that “Julius Caesar was on of the most famous Romans who ever lived.”
J.F.C. Fuller gives us a biography of Julius Caesar and tells how “Caesar was an extraordinary human being.” Caesar was able to accomplish so much more than most other leaders during his career.
Ramon Jiminez easily tells us about Caesar’s fight against the Celts in his book, “Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant when he talks about “Ceasear being a strong leader.” Caesar’s campaign against his enemies was battles that led him and the country of Rome to innumerous victories.
Julius Caesar, from the beginning of his early connections with politics, until his death, was able to accomplish so many victories against the enemies that came against Rome. From the time Julius Caesar led his legions across the Rubicon, he sparked civil war in B.C. that left him known as the leader who was the undisputed leader of the Roman World.
Caesar was very successful in his career as a politician which he helped in dominating Roman politics for many years, even though he was fiercely opposed by optimates like Cato the Younger.
His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, and he was also responsible for the first Roman invasion of Britain in the year 55 B.C., but the collapse of the triumvirate ended up with there being a huge stand-off with Pompey and the Senate. Much of Julius Caesar’s life is known through his own writings and commentaries.
He often told about his military campaigns, and his other accomplishments in Rome. There were the letters and speeches of Caesar’s political rival, Cicero, and also the historical writings of Sallust, and also the poetry of Catullus that tell us so much about Caesar.
More details of Caesar’s life are also recorded by historians. Julius Caesar was born with much political ambition and oratory talent which helped him to manipulate his way through ancient histories most interesting years with great talent for conquering and overcoming.
Julius Caesar did use his educational background, as well as military background; in order to gain the knowledge that he needed that would aid him in conquering his enemies.
Julius Caesar will always be remembered in history as a strong and intelligent leader who used any method at his hand in able to conquer his enemies that came against the Roman Empire. Caesar’s career was noted as remarkable from the time that he first embarked his adventure of being in military command.
It is interesting to learn how Julius Caesar was able to use his army as his own personal weapon in accomplishing his own feats that, in the long run, did benefit the entire Roman Empire.
He used his forces to control and conquer areas that had admitted to seeking revenge against Julius Caesar and had thought they were more powerful and could outwit Julius Caesar and his military force. Throughout Caesar’s career, he was sought after by many important leaders who wanted to see his rule come to a quick end.
You can discover so much information about the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in many books that describe how Caesar used his mental talent, as his educational and influential backgrounds in order to become a king for life.
Julius Caesar was remarkable in his early and later years and was capable of being remembered as one of the greatest leaders of all time. Through the victories he achieved, along with the help of his Roman soldiers, Caesar was able to change the way that the Roman Empire existed.
We will long remember Julius Caesar and the many stories about his life and times in ancient Rome. He was a man with courage and determination who pushed past anything and anyone who stood in his way. He was able to gain important positions in Rome, which led him to fight many battles and he was usually successful in his wars, that were battled with his large army who remained loyal to his orders.
Many books down through history mention Julius Caesar as a solid leadership figure and well remembered character in our history as one of the most famous Roman generals and statesman who brought about the effective end of the Republic.
Julius Caesar left behind, in the thoughts of so many, that in the end, he desired to live no longer, because of his failing health. He left the world a brave man, just as he entered leaving behind his legacy for all to read about for past and future generations. Julius Caesar is often referred to as “The Last Emperor.”
Fuller, F.F.C., (1991) “Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant
Gardner, Jane F., (1976). “The Civil War”. Penguin Classics
Garland, Robert, ((2004). Julius Caesar. Bristol Phoenix Press
Goldsworthy, Adrian. (2006) Ancient Classical History. Yale University Press
Grant, Michael, (2003). “The Twelve Caesars”. Penguin Classics
Kamm, Antony, (2006). “Julius Caesar: A Life”. Routledge. Ed.1
Meier, Christian. (1997). “Caesar”. Basic Books
Ramon, Jiminez. (2005). “Caesar Against The Celts”. Da Capo Press
Shakespeare, William. (2004). “Julius Caesar”. Reissue Edition. Washington Square Post | 3,563 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The city of Fairbanks exists in large part due the discovery of gold at this location. Felix Pedro (an Italian immigrant who Americanized his name from Felice Pedroni) struck it rich here on July 22, 1902. He filed his claim a couple of days later and officially recorded in October. He named the creek and adjacent hill after himself. Upon hearing of the discovery, people flocked to the site and established the city of Fairbanks, which is 12 miles south. The discovery also resulted in the beginning of major mining enterprises in the Alaskan interior. The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. Nothing of the mining operations on the creek remains so the area resembles what it looked like on that day in 1902.
Felix Pedro left for the U.S. in the mid-1880s and worked his way across the continent working in mines, finally arriving in Alaska in the 1890s. He found gold in four other locations in the immediate area of the first claim and struck it rich on a least one of them. He got married in 1906, toured Europe, and returned to Fairbanks. Interestingly, he died eight years to the day of his discovery on July 22, 1910. | <urn:uuid:55759570-c935-4fac-ba58-ec356323f72b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/26173 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.981642 | 249 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.307854533... | 1 | The city of Fairbanks exists in large part due the discovery of gold at this location. Felix Pedro (an Italian immigrant who Americanized his name from Felice Pedroni) struck it rich here on July 22, 1902. He filed his claim a couple of days later and officially recorded in October. He named the creek and adjacent hill after himself. Upon hearing of the discovery, people flocked to the site and established the city of Fairbanks, which is 12 miles south. The discovery also resulted in the beginning of major mining enterprises in the Alaskan interior. The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. Nothing of the mining operations on the creek remains so the area resembles what it looked like on that day in 1902.
Felix Pedro left for the U.S. in the mid-1880s and worked his way across the continent working in mines, finally arriving in Alaska in the 1890s. He found gold in four other locations in the immediate area of the first claim and struck it rich on a least one of them. He got married in 1906, toured Europe, and returned to Fairbanks. Interestingly, he died eight years to the day of his discovery on July 22, 1910. | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Sage Who Saved Judaism
Ezra ben Serayah (c. 5th century BCE) was born in Babylon to a family of Jewish priests, kohanim, descendants of Aaron. He spent his early days immersed in Torah study, under the tutelage of Baruch ben Neriah, disciple of the prophet Jeremiah. Ezra soon became the most renowned scholar and scribe in Babylon’s community of exiled Jews. Earlier, the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great had freed the Jewish community and permitted them to return to Israel and rebuild the Temple. While the majority stayed in Babylon, a group of 42,360 Jews returned to rebuild Jerusalem. Unfortunately, few among them were learned, and in those first decades many ended up intermarrying with the non-Jewish settlers that were brought to Israel by the Assyrians and Babylonians. Ezra soon decided to head to Israel himself, along with a second wave of 1,500 Jews. Upon arrival, he wept at the poor state that the Jewish community was in. He immediately started teaching Torah, decreed that the Torah must be read publicly every Monday and Thursday (which is still done in all synagogues today), and put an end to intermarriages. So successful were his campaigns that the Tanakh states the Jews started to keep the holidays as properly and fervently as they did in the times of Joshua, the successor of Moses. As a priest, Ezra was involved in restoring the new Temple’s services. More importantly, he was able to discover and prepare a new Red Heifer, allowing the entire nation to be spiritually purified. Ezra wrote numerous holy texts, and is fittingly known as Ezra HaSofer, “the Scribe”. He composed the majority of the Book of Chronicles, which concludes the Tanakh, as well as the Book of Ezra, which records the historical events of the time. Ezra was one of the last prophets of Israel, and penned his prophecies under the name Malachi, also a Biblical book. He was one of the co-founders of the Great Assembly, a group of 120 prophets and sages who, among other things, codified the Tanakh and composed the first formal Jewish prayers (including the Amidah). The Talmud credits Ezra with reviving the Torah in the Holy Land, and even states that had Moses not given us the Torah, Ezra would have been worthy of doing so. He passed away on the ninth of Tevet, which is next Monday.
Words of the Week
Predicting rain doesn’t count, building an ark does.
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Ezra ben Serayah (c. 5th century BCE) was born in Babylon to a family of Jewish priests, kohanim, descendants of Aaron. He spent his early days immersed in Torah study, under the tutelage of Baruch ben Neriah, disciple of the prophet Jeremiah. Ezra soon became the most renowned scholar and scribe in Babylon’s community of exiled Jews. Earlier, the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great had freed the Jewish community and permitted them to return to Israel and rebuild the Temple. While the majority stayed in Babylon, a group of 42,360 Jews returned to rebuild Jerusalem. Unfortunately, few among them were learned, and in those first decades many ended up intermarrying with the non-Jewish settlers that were brought to Israel by the Assyrians and Babylonians. Ezra soon decided to head to Israel himself, along with a second wave of 1,500 Jews. Upon arrival, he wept at the poor state that the Jewish community was in. He immediately started teaching Torah, decreed that the Torah must be read publicly every Monday and Thursday (which is still done in all synagogues today), and put an end to intermarriages. So successful were his campaigns that the Tanakh states the Jews started to keep the holidays as properly and fervently as they did in the times of Joshua, the successor of Moses. As a priest, Ezra was involved in restoring the new Temple’s services. More importantly, he was able to discover and prepare a new Red Heifer, allowing the entire nation to be spiritually purified. Ezra wrote numerous holy texts, and is fittingly known as Ezra HaSofer, “the Scribe”. He composed the majority of the Book of Chronicles, which concludes the Tanakh, as well as the Book of Ezra, which records the historical events of the time. Ezra was one of the last prophets of Israel, and penned his prophecies under the name Malachi, also a Biblical book. He was one of the co-founders of the Great Assembly, a group of 120 prophets and sages who, among other things, codified the Tanakh and composed the first formal Jewish prayers (including the Amidah). The Talmud credits Ezra with reviving the Torah in the Holy Land, and even states that had Moses not given us the Torah, Ezra would have been worthy of doing so. He passed away on the ninth of Tevet, which is next Monday.
Words of the Week
Predicting rain doesn’t count, building an ark does.
– Warren Buffet | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franz Liszt facts for kids
Franz Liszt (born Raiding, nr. Sopron, October 22, 1811; died Bayreuth, July 31, 1886) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. Liszt (pronounced like “list”) was one of the most important musicians of the 19th century. He was the greatest pianist of his time and went on lots of tours through Europe where everyone filled the concert halls to hear him. He wrote a lot of music for piano. Many of his piano pieces were harder to play than anything that had been written before. In this way he developed the technique of piano playing, setting new standards for the future. In his compositions he often used new ideas which sounded very modern in his time. He was very helpful to other composers who lived at that time, helping them to become better known by conducting their works and playing some of their orchestral pieces on the piano.
Liszt’s father was an official who worked for Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, the same noble family who employed the composer Joseph Haydn. When he was seven his father started to teach him the piano. He was a child prodigy, and within a year or two he was already playing in concerts. He was so promising that some rich Hungarians said they would pay for his music education.
In 1821 his family moved to Vienna. He had piano lessons from Czerny and composition lessons from Salieri. He soon became famous although he was still a young boy, and he met famous musicians like Beethoven and Schubert. Beethoven is supposed to have kissed him on the forehead.
In 1823 his family moved again, this time to Paris. He wanted to go to the Conservatoire to study music but Luigi Cherubini would not let him in because he was a foreigner (i.e. not French). So he studied music theory privately with Reicha and composition with Paer. Soon he was asked to play the piano everywhere in Paris. He travelled to London. On his second visit there in 1825 he played to King George IV at Windsor.
Liszt continued to travel to other countries. After his father died he became a piano teacher in Paris. He fell in love with one of his pupils. It was the first of many love affairs he had with various women. He read a lot of books to try to educate himself properly. He met Berlioz and he liked the music of Berlioz very much. In 1831 he met the violinist Niccolò Paganini and he was amazed by his virtuoso playing. Liszt was to do for the piano what Paganini had done for the violin. Both men were drawn by cartoonists as devilish characters. Both men wrote music which was incredibly hard for their instruments.
Soon Liszt met a Countess called Marie d’Agoult. The Countess left her husband and went to live with Liszt in Geneva. They lived together for several years and had three children. When Liszt gave away a lot of his money to help pay for a monument to Beethoven in Bonn he had to earn money by going on tours again, so the countess left him. He still saw her and the children every summer for a few years but finally they separated completely.
Liszt spent eight years in Rome. He wrote a lot of religious music and took orders in the Catholic church. His daughter Cosima, who had married a famous conductor Hans von Bülow, left her husband and lived with Wagner. They had two children together. Liszt and Wagner quarrelled for many years about this.
Liszt spent most of his last years travelling to and fro between three cities: Rome, Weimar and Budapest. He called this his “vie trifurquée” (three-forked life). He died in Bayreuth July 31, 1886.
Liszt had a very strong personality which affected everyone he met. When he played the piano at concerts he was a great showman. A lot of people drew caricatures of him playing the piano with his wild mop of hair. He could be very polite and knew how to get on with the aristocracy. He could be very generous, giving both money and time to other musicians and giving praise where it was deserved. He was a powerful, unique character. Needless to say he was one of the most important romantic composers of his day. He is known for his dazzling virtuostic piano displays best.
Most of Liszt’s compositions were for piano. He wrote one piano sonata. It is in B minor. Its form is very different from the sonatas of composers like Beethoven. It is a very Romantic work, but it does not tell a story like a lot of Romantic pieces do. Mostly his piano works are shorter pieces which are quite free in form. He often took a theme and transforms it (changes it gradually). He wrote studies which are much more than just pieces to improve one’s piano technique. One collection is called Transcendental Studies. In Switzerland he wrote Années de pèlerinage (Years of Wandering), a collection of pieces to which he gave titles later. Liszt explored all the possible sounds that the piano could make (it was still a fairly new instrument). Sometimes he made it sound like an orchestra. Some of his last piano works are much simpler to play, although the chords would have sounded very modern for his time. They are like the Impressionistic music of Debussy.
Not all Liszt’s piano pieces were original compositions: he also made arrangements or transcriptions. It seems a strange idea to us now to take someone else’s symphony and arrange it for piano. This is what Liszt often did. He took symphonies by Beethoven or songs by Schubert and changed them so that they could be played on the piano. Many people did not have the opportunity to hear concerts very often, and they certainly did not have radios or CDs, so Liszt was making these works more famous, helping them to reach a wider audience. He often made difficult transcriptions which meant that he changed the pieces and added a lot of extra ornamental notes, making a new piece out of an old one.
Liszt’s orchestral music is also very important. He wrote symphonic poems: pieces which tell a story or describe something. The best known one is called Les préludes. He also wrote two piano concertos.
He wrote a lot of church music. Church music was often quite sentimental in those days, but Liszt tried to make his works help people to feel religious devotion.
In many ways Liszt was typical of the Romantic artist. He was always looking for a spiritual meaning to life. He carried a walking stick with the heads of St Francis of Assisi and Gretchen and Mephistopheles, characters from Goethe’s Faust. He was a 19th-century musician but through his thinking and his music he looked forward to the 20th century.
Images for kids
Niccolò Paganini. His playing inspired Liszt to become a great virtuoso.
Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music in Budapest
Franz Liszt Fantasizing at the Piano (1840), by Danhauser, commissioned by Conrad Graf. The imagined gathering shows seated Alfred de Musset or Alexandre Dumas, George Sand, Franz Liszt, Marie d'Agoult; standing Hector Berlioz or Victor Hugo, Niccolò Paganini, Gioachino Rossini; a bust of Beethoven on the grand piano (a "Graf"), a portrait of Lord Byron on the wall, a statue of Joan of Arc on the far left.
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Franz Liszt (born Raiding, nr. Sopron, October 22, 1811; died Bayreuth, July 31, 1886) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. Liszt (pronounced like “list”) was one of the most important musicians of the 19th century. He was the greatest pianist of his time and went on lots of tours through Europe where everyone filled the concert halls to hear him. He wrote a lot of music for piano. Many of his piano pieces were harder to play than anything that had been written before. In this way he developed the technique of piano playing, setting new standards for the future. In his compositions he often used new ideas which sounded very modern in his time. He was very helpful to other composers who lived at that time, helping them to become better known by conducting their works and playing some of their orchestral pieces on the piano.
Liszt’s father was an official who worked for Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, the same noble family who employed the composer Joseph Haydn. When he was seven his father started to teach him the piano. He was a child prodigy, and within a year or two he was already playing in concerts. He was so promising that some rich Hungarians said they would pay for his music education.
In 1821 his family moved to Vienna. He had piano lessons from Czerny and composition lessons from Salieri. He soon became famous although he was still a young boy, and he met famous musicians like Beethoven and Schubert. Beethoven is supposed to have kissed him on the forehead.
In 1823 his family moved again, this time to Paris. He wanted to go to the Conservatoire to study music but Luigi Cherubini would not let him in because he was a foreigner (i.e. not French). So he studied music theory privately with Reicha and composition with Paer. Soon he was asked to play the piano everywhere in Paris. He travelled to London. On his second visit there in 1825 he played to King George IV at Windsor.
Liszt continued to travel to other countries. After his father died he became a piano teacher in Paris. He fell in love with one of his pupils. It was the first of many love affairs he had with various women. He read a lot of books to try to educate himself properly. He met Berlioz and he liked the music of Berlioz very much. In 1831 he met the violinist Niccolò Paganini and he was amazed by his virtuoso playing. Liszt was to do for the piano what Paganini had done for the violin. Both men were drawn by cartoonists as devilish characters. Both men wrote music which was incredibly hard for their instruments.
Soon Liszt met a Countess called Marie d’Agoult. The Countess left her husband and went to live with Liszt in Geneva. They lived together for several years and had three children. When Liszt gave away a lot of his money to help pay for a monument to Beethoven in Bonn he had to earn money by going on tours again, so the countess left him. He still saw her and the children every summer for a few years but finally they separated completely.
Liszt spent eight years in Rome. He wrote a lot of religious music and took orders in the Catholic church. His daughter Cosima, who had married a famous conductor Hans von Bülow, left her husband and lived with Wagner. They had two children together. Liszt and Wagner quarrelled for many years about this.
Liszt spent most of his last years travelling to and fro between three cities: Rome, Weimar and Budapest. He called this his “vie trifurquée” (three-forked life). He died in Bayreuth July 31, 1886.
Liszt had a very strong personality which affected everyone he met. When he played the piano at concerts he was a great showman. A lot of people drew caricatures of him playing the piano with his wild mop of hair. He could be very polite and knew how to get on with the aristocracy. He could be very generous, giving both money and time to other musicians and giving praise where it was deserved. He was a powerful, unique character. Needless to say he was one of the most important romantic composers of his day. He is known for his dazzling virtuostic piano displays best.
Most of Liszt’s compositions were for piano. He wrote one piano sonata. It is in B minor. Its form is very different from the sonatas of composers like Beethoven. It is a very Romantic work, but it does not tell a story like a lot of Romantic pieces do. Mostly his piano works are shorter pieces which are quite free in form. He often took a theme and transforms it (changes it gradually). He wrote studies which are much more than just pieces to improve one’s piano technique. One collection is called Transcendental Studies. In Switzerland he wrote Années de pèlerinage (Years of Wandering), a collection of pieces to which he gave titles later. Liszt explored all the possible sounds that the piano could make (it was still a fairly new instrument). Sometimes he made it sound like an orchestra. Some of his last piano works are much simpler to play, although the chords would have sounded very modern for his time. They are like the Impressionistic music of Debussy.
Not all Liszt’s piano pieces were original compositions: he also made arrangements or transcriptions. It seems a strange idea to us now to take someone else’s symphony and arrange it for piano. This is what Liszt often did. He took symphonies by Beethoven or songs by Schubert and changed them so that they could be played on the piano. Many people did not have the opportunity to hear concerts very often, and they certainly did not have radios or CDs, so Liszt was making these works more famous, helping them to reach a wider audience. He often made difficult transcriptions which meant that he changed the pieces and added a lot of extra ornamental notes, making a new piece out of an old one.
Liszt’s orchestral music is also very important. He wrote symphonic poems: pieces which tell a story or describe something. The best known one is called Les préludes. He also wrote two piano concertos.
He wrote a lot of church music. Church music was often quite sentimental in those days, but Liszt tried to make his works help people to feel religious devotion.
In many ways Liszt was typical of the Romantic artist. He was always looking for a spiritual meaning to life. He carried a walking stick with the heads of St Francis of Assisi and Gretchen and Mephistopheles, characters from Goethe’s Faust. He was a 19th-century musician but through his thinking and his music he looked forward to the 20th century.
Images for kids
Niccolò Paganini. His playing inspired Liszt to become a great virtuoso.
Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music in Budapest
Franz Liszt Fantasizing at the Piano (1840), by Danhauser, commissioned by Conrad Graf. The imagined gathering shows seated Alfred de Musset or Alexandre Dumas, George Sand, Franz Liszt, Marie d'Agoult; standing Hector Berlioz or Victor Hugo, Niccolò Paganini, Gioachino Rossini; a bust of Beethoven on the grand piano (a "Graf"), a portrait of Lord Byron on the wall, a statue of Joan of Arc on the far left.
Franz Liszt Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 1,628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Medieval Japanese warfare was centred on mounted warriors, and so the principal martial techniques involved releasing arrows from horseback. This was very different from modern kyūdō where the practitioner draws his bow standing; it was necessary to master the method of shooting while leading the horse. In order to achieve this technical feat, warriors developed special ways of training referred to as the “kisha no mitsumono” or “three forms of mounted-archery”.
Yabusame—Training to shoot arrows in rapid succession from horseback. Three targets were set up along a straight path; the warrior aimed at the targets while the horse was galloping at full speed down the track. Warriors traditionally fought one-on-one in early medieval Japanese warfare, and are said to have bellowed their personal history and feats of arms in the midst of battle in order to find a suitable adversary. There was no merit gleaned from defeating a weak opponent. According to one famous episode, when two warriors faced off for battle both armies stopped and watched attentively as the two adversaries passed each other on horseback while releasing arrows at each other. As they were engaged in battle from a great distance, it was important to be able to release many arrows as quickly as possible, and training in yabusame was a means to acquire the necessary skills.
Inuōmono—There were several restrictions in using a bow from horseback. The biggest restraint was that a mounted archer could only aim at enemies on his left side. The traditional Japanese bow was more than two metres long, and was held in the left hand with the right pulling the string and shooting the arrow. As it was held with the left hand, it was always on the left side of the horse. It is very difficult to shift this long bow to the right side over the neck of the mount while straddling the horse, and drawing the bow with the right hand is virtually impossible. Therefore, only being able to attack an opponent coming from the left side, it was important to be able to lead the horse so that the enemy was positioned on this side.
Bushi trained in inuōmono in order to achieve this. Dogs were let go in the centre of a circular riding ground, and warriors practised chasing them and shooting them from horseback. Special padded arrows were used in order not to kill the dogs. The objective was to straddle the horse and always have the running dogs coming from the left.
The last of the three equestrian archeries was the kasagake. In this training method, a conical hat was suspended a distance away and the warrior attempted to shoot at it from horseback. | <urn:uuid:604666d7-b588-4e7a-884f-0e57d3dc3a72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/2016/03/02/%E9%A8%8E%E5%B0%84%E3%81%AE%E4%B8%89%E7%89%A9/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.984651 | 554 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.5544698834419... | 2 | Medieval Japanese warfare was centred on mounted warriors, and so the principal martial techniques involved releasing arrows from horseback. This was very different from modern kyūdō where the practitioner draws his bow standing; it was necessary to master the method of shooting while leading the horse. In order to achieve this technical feat, warriors developed special ways of training referred to as the “kisha no mitsumono” or “three forms of mounted-archery”.
Yabusame—Training to shoot arrows in rapid succession from horseback. Three targets were set up along a straight path; the warrior aimed at the targets while the horse was galloping at full speed down the track. Warriors traditionally fought one-on-one in early medieval Japanese warfare, and are said to have bellowed their personal history and feats of arms in the midst of battle in order to find a suitable adversary. There was no merit gleaned from defeating a weak opponent. According to one famous episode, when two warriors faced off for battle both armies stopped and watched attentively as the two adversaries passed each other on horseback while releasing arrows at each other. As they were engaged in battle from a great distance, it was important to be able to release many arrows as quickly as possible, and training in yabusame was a means to acquire the necessary skills.
Inuōmono—There were several restrictions in using a bow from horseback. The biggest restraint was that a mounted archer could only aim at enemies on his left side. The traditional Japanese bow was more than two metres long, and was held in the left hand with the right pulling the string and shooting the arrow. As it was held with the left hand, it was always on the left side of the horse. It is very difficult to shift this long bow to the right side over the neck of the mount while straddling the horse, and drawing the bow with the right hand is virtually impossible. Therefore, only being able to attack an opponent coming from the left side, it was important to be able to lead the horse so that the enemy was positioned on this side.
Bushi trained in inuōmono in order to achieve this. Dogs were let go in the centre of a circular riding ground, and warriors practised chasing them and shooting them from horseback. Special padded arrows were used in order not to kill the dogs. The objective was to straddle the horse and always have the running dogs coming from the left.
The last of the three equestrian archeries was the kasagake. In this training method, a conical hat was suspended a distance away and the warrior attempted to shoot at it from horseback. | 541 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the factors that makes the sinking of the Titanic so memorable is the fact that lives were needlessly lost. There were not enough Titanic lifeboats on board to hold all the passengers and crew, and when the lifeboats were launched they were not filled to capacity.
The information on this page represents some of the main facts relating to the lifeboats on board Titanic.
At the British Inquiry into the Titanic disaster Sir Alfred Chalmers of the Board of Trade was asked why regulations governing the number of lifeboats required on passenger ships had not been updated since 1896. Sir Alfred gave a number of reasons for this (question 22875):
Due to advancements that had been made in ship building it was not necessary for boats to carry more lifeboats.
The latest boats were stronger than ever and had watertight compartments making them unlikely to require lifeboats at all.
Sea routes used were well-travelled meaning that the likelihood of a collision was minimal.
The latest boats were fitted with wireless technology.
That it would be impossible for crew members to be able to load more than sixteen boats in the event of a disaster.
That the provision of lifeboats should be a matter for the ship owners to consider.
Sir Alfred also stated that he felt that if there had been fewer lifeboats on Titanic then more people would have been saved. He believed that if there had been fewer lifeboats then more people would have rushed to the boats and they would have been filled to capacity thus saving more people. (questions 22960/1)
Facts on Titanic Lifeboats
The Titanic carried 20 lifeboats, enough for 1178 people. The existing Board of Trade required a passenger ship to provide lifeboat capacity for 1060 people. Titanic’s lifeboats were situated on the top deck. The boat was designed to carry 32 lifeboats but this number was reduced to 20 because it was felt that the deck would be too cluttered.
At the British investigation, Charles Lightoller as the senior surviving officer was questioned about the fact that the lifeboats were not filled to capacity. They had been tested n Belfast on 25th March 1912 and each boat had carried seventy men safely. When questioned about the filling of lifeboat number six, Lightoller testified that the boat was filled with as many people as he considered to be safe. Lightoller believed that it would be impossible to fill the boats to capacity before lowering them to sea without the mechanism that held them collapsing. He was questioned as to whether he had arranged for more people to be put into the boats once it was afloat. Lightoller admitted that he should have made some arrangement for the boats to be filled once they were afloat. When asked if the crew member in charge of lifeboat number six was told to return to pick up survivors, the inquiry was told that the crew member was told to stay close to the ship. (questions 13883 – 13910) Lifeboat number 6 was designed to hold 65 people. It left with 40.
Titanic also carried 3500 lifebelts and 48 life rings; Useless in the icy water. The majority of passengers that went into the sea did not drown, but froze to death.
Usage of Titanic Lifeboats
Many people were confused about where they should go after the order to launch the lifeboats had been given. There should have been a lifeboat drill on 14th April, but the Captain cancelled it to allow people to go to church.
Many people believed that Titanic was not actually sinking but that the call to the Titanic lifeboats was actually a drill and stayed inside rather than venture out onto the freezing deck.
The pictures below show (left) collapsible B from the film ‘A Night to Remember’ and (right) collapsible B after rescue by the Carpathia.
The inquiry was concerned that there was a delay of more than an hour between the time of impact and the launching of the first lifeboat – number 7. As a result there was not enough time to successfully launch all the Titanic lifeboats. Collapsible lifeboats A and B were not launched but floated away as the water washed over the ship. Collapsible B floated away upside down. People tried unsuccessfully to right it. 30 people survived the disaster by standing on the upturned boat.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Titanic. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Titanic.
Cite This Article"The Titanic: Lifeboats" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-lifeboats>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:eba71a7f-89ea-4d34-ae59-a69baaa9450d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-lifeboats | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.988859 | 962 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.155166... | 1 | One of the factors that makes the sinking of the Titanic so memorable is the fact that lives were needlessly lost. There were not enough Titanic lifeboats on board to hold all the passengers and crew, and when the lifeboats were launched they were not filled to capacity.
The information on this page represents some of the main facts relating to the lifeboats on board Titanic.
At the British Inquiry into the Titanic disaster Sir Alfred Chalmers of the Board of Trade was asked why regulations governing the number of lifeboats required on passenger ships had not been updated since 1896. Sir Alfred gave a number of reasons for this (question 22875):
Due to advancements that had been made in ship building it was not necessary for boats to carry more lifeboats.
The latest boats were stronger than ever and had watertight compartments making them unlikely to require lifeboats at all.
Sea routes used were well-travelled meaning that the likelihood of a collision was minimal.
The latest boats were fitted with wireless technology.
That it would be impossible for crew members to be able to load more than sixteen boats in the event of a disaster.
That the provision of lifeboats should be a matter for the ship owners to consider.
Sir Alfred also stated that he felt that if there had been fewer lifeboats on Titanic then more people would have been saved. He believed that if there had been fewer lifeboats then more people would have rushed to the boats and they would have been filled to capacity thus saving more people. (questions 22960/1)
Facts on Titanic Lifeboats
The Titanic carried 20 lifeboats, enough for 1178 people. The existing Board of Trade required a passenger ship to provide lifeboat capacity for 1060 people. Titanic’s lifeboats were situated on the top deck. The boat was designed to carry 32 lifeboats but this number was reduced to 20 because it was felt that the deck would be too cluttered.
At the British investigation, Charles Lightoller as the senior surviving officer was questioned about the fact that the lifeboats were not filled to capacity. They had been tested n Belfast on 25th March 1912 and each boat had carried seventy men safely. When questioned about the filling of lifeboat number six, Lightoller testified that the boat was filled with as many people as he considered to be safe. Lightoller believed that it would be impossible to fill the boats to capacity before lowering them to sea without the mechanism that held them collapsing. He was questioned as to whether he had arranged for more people to be put into the boats once it was afloat. Lightoller admitted that he should have made some arrangement for the boats to be filled once they were afloat. When asked if the crew member in charge of lifeboat number six was told to return to pick up survivors, the inquiry was told that the crew member was told to stay close to the ship. (questions 13883 – 13910) Lifeboat number 6 was designed to hold 65 people. It left with 40.
Titanic also carried 3500 lifebelts and 48 life rings; Useless in the icy water. The majority of passengers that went into the sea did not drown, but froze to death.
Usage of Titanic Lifeboats
Many people were confused about where they should go after the order to launch the lifeboats had been given. There should have been a lifeboat drill on 14th April, but the Captain cancelled it to allow people to go to church.
Many people believed that Titanic was not actually sinking but that the call to the Titanic lifeboats was actually a drill and stayed inside rather than venture out onto the freezing deck.
The pictures below show (left) collapsible B from the film ‘A Night to Remember’ and (right) collapsible B after rescue by the Carpathia.
The inquiry was concerned that there was a delay of more than an hour between the time of impact and the launching of the first lifeboat – number 7. As a result there was not enough time to successfully launch all the Titanic lifeboats. Collapsible lifeboats A and B were not launched but floated away as the water washed over the ship. Collapsible B floated away upside down. People tried unsuccessfully to right it. 30 people survived the disaster by standing on the upturned boat.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Titanic. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Titanic.
Cite This Article"The Titanic: Lifeboats" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-lifeboats>
More Citation Information. | 995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His diaries reveal a disciplined, self-admonishing student who diligently examined not only the law, but the performance of being an attorney. Eloquence was the most powerful and influential attribute of the lawyers he studied and he built upon this skill throughout his career.
John Adams (1735 - 1826)
An extraordinary figure in United States history, John Adams was a constitutional attorney, a founding father, and the second President of the United States. He was a federalist and Son of Liberty, allegiances that were trumped only by his dedication to justice and the rule of law. Throughout his diverse political life, he made important contributions to the emerging nation that proved key to the formation of America’s political thought and government.
Adams began his university education at sixteen years old when he undertook an undergraduate degree at Harvard University. Upon graduation, he faced a dilemma: pressured by Protestant parents to become a minister, he was unsure how to reconcile clerical life with an investment in law and politics. Adams’ liberal values and call to revolutionary action conflicted with church conservatism. But in the same way, the enrichment from other people’s suffering conflicted with the altruistic service of God. He ultimately chose a political career over clerical life but kept one foot in Unitarianism.
Adams briefly taught in Worchester, MA, before returning to the challenge of university. He was driven to legal studies by determination for “distinction […] reputation, fame and fortune”(1), and he viewed attorneys as exemplars of justice and greatness. He obtained a Master’s degree from Harvard and was admitted to the bar in 1758.
We are privileged to have intimate knowledge about Adams’ achievements, the development of his political thought, and the development of republicanism, revealed through the long paper trail he left behind. Thousands of letters to his wife Abigail Adams, and his friend, colleague, and rival Thomas Jefferson, tell us a great deal about his personal and professional life.
He also published several political treaties in local newspapers, and the text Novanglus; Or, a History of the Dispute With America, From Its Origin, In 1754, to the Present Time, among others. His ideology is further immortalized in our nationally governing ideology: he wrote the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution and its Declaration of Rights, both of which were models for the U.S. Federal Constitution and the Bill of Rights. He is considered as great a political philosopher as a politician.
Adams held many important state and federal governmental positions before assuming the presidency, including seats in state General Courts and in the Senate. He was appointed ambassador to the Netherlands, where he founded the first foreign American embassy, sat as the head of the Board of War and Ordinance, and acted as the first American minister to the Court of St. James. He was elected Vice President to George Washington in 1789 and 1792, and became the second President in 1797.
Though he was a federalist, an objector of the Stamp Act, and a member of the Sons of Liberty, [Adams] stood for right to fair trial for all citizens.
Adams promoted the republic and federalism throughout his career and was a key figure in the radicalization of early American political thought(2). In addition to political radicalism, Adams’ social ideas stood out among his contemporaries. He and his wife Abigail opposed the ownership of slaves and use of slave labour and he countered notions of a purely natural aristocracy. Adams is also known for his representation of nine British Soldiers of the Boston Massacre who were charged with the murder of colonists, a case that demonstrated his allegiance to law and justice despite his support of revolutionary ideals. Though he was a federalist, an objector of the Stamp Act, and a member of the Sons of Liberty, he stood for right to fair trial for all citizens.
Known by some as an honorable and ambitious man, and to others as “vain, opinionated, unpredictable, and stubborn”(3), Adams remains a revolutionary leader of independence who left a legacy of radical social and political thought. | <urn:uuid:dc12892a-9eb9-4d4e-b78d-4081e7f767f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.triallawyerportraits.org/john-adams | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.98299 | 842 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.135985612869262... | 11 | His diaries reveal a disciplined, self-admonishing student who diligently examined not only the law, but the performance of being an attorney. Eloquence was the most powerful and influential attribute of the lawyers he studied and he built upon this skill throughout his career.
John Adams (1735 - 1826)
An extraordinary figure in United States history, John Adams was a constitutional attorney, a founding father, and the second President of the United States. He was a federalist and Son of Liberty, allegiances that were trumped only by his dedication to justice and the rule of law. Throughout his diverse political life, he made important contributions to the emerging nation that proved key to the formation of America’s political thought and government.
Adams began his university education at sixteen years old when he undertook an undergraduate degree at Harvard University. Upon graduation, he faced a dilemma: pressured by Protestant parents to become a minister, he was unsure how to reconcile clerical life with an investment in law and politics. Adams’ liberal values and call to revolutionary action conflicted with church conservatism. But in the same way, the enrichment from other people’s suffering conflicted with the altruistic service of God. He ultimately chose a political career over clerical life but kept one foot in Unitarianism.
Adams briefly taught in Worchester, MA, before returning to the challenge of university. He was driven to legal studies by determination for “distinction […] reputation, fame and fortune”(1), and he viewed attorneys as exemplars of justice and greatness. He obtained a Master’s degree from Harvard and was admitted to the bar in 1758.
We are privileged to have intimate knowledge about Adams’ achievements, the development of his political thought, and the development of republicanism, revealed through the long paper trail he left behind. Thousands of letters to his wife Abigail Adams, and his friend, colleague, and rival Thomas Jefferson, tell us a great deal about his personal and professional life.
He also published several political treaties in local newspapers, and the text Novanglus; Or, a History of the Dispute With America, From Its Origin, In 1754, to the Present Time, among others. His ideology is further immortalized in our nationally governing ideology: he wrote the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution and its Declaration of Rights, both of which were models for the U.S. Federal Constitution and the Bill of Rights. He is considered as great a political philosopher as a politician.
Adams held many important state and federal governmental positions before assuming the presidency, including seats in state General Courts and in the Senate. He was appointed ambassador to the Netherlands, where he founded the first foreign American embassy, sat as the head of the Board of War and Ordinance, and acted as the first American minister to the Court of St. James. He was elected Vice President to George Washington in 1789 and 1792, and became the second President in 1797.
Though he was a federalist, an objector of the Stamp Act, and a member of the Sons of Liberty, [Adams] stood for right to fair trial for all citizens.
Adams promoted the republic and federalism throughout his career and was a key figure in the radicalization of early American political thought(2). In addition to political radicalism, Adams’ social ideas stood out among his contemporaries. He and his wife Abigail opposed the ownership of slaves and use of slave labour and he countered notions of a purely natural aristocracy. Adams is also known for his representation of nine British Soldiers of the Boston Massacre who were charged with the murder of colonists, a case that demonstrated his allegiance to law and justice despite his support of revolutionary ideals. Though he was a federalist, an objector of the Stamp Act, and a member of the Sons of Liberty, he stood for right to fair trial for all citizens.
Known by some as an honorable and ambitious man, and to others as “vain, opinionated, unpredictable, and stubborn”(3), Adams remains a revolutionary leader of independence who left a legacy of radical social and political thought. | 849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was a central belief of the Early and High Middle Ages that the human being is nothing. Only in the context of a function, of predecessors and successors or of social groups did individuals gain importance. As a result during that time, kings and bishops, counts and abbots all looked alike on their coins. Not a particular person was depicted but the representative of an estate. Frederick II (1194-1250), however, stood on the threshold of two worlds and two times. On this pfennig, he is depicted in medieval German style: as a representative of kingship, flanked by a small tower and a spray. But in Sicily, Fredericks home, antiquity was much more present than in the rest of Europe. Thus the omnipotence of the Roman emperors became a role model for him. On many of his coins, Frederick II is depicted in ancient style – wearing the draped coat of a military commander and a laurel wreath. | <urn:uuid:ab2809ce-7b3f-4e8a-aee8-5230b07d27cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=277 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.984489 | 194 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.3120115697... | 14 | It was a central belief of the Early and High Middle Ages that the human being is nothing. Only in the context of a function, of predecessors and successors or of social groups did individuals gain importance. As a result during that time, kings and bishops, counts and abbots all looked alike on their coins. Not a particular person was depicted but the representative of an estate. Frederick II (1194-1250), however, stood on the threshold of two worlds and two times. On this pfennig, he is depicted in medieval German style: as a representative of kingship, flanked by a small tower and a spray. But in Sicily, Fredericks home, antiquity was much more present than in the rest of Europe. Thus the omnipotence of the Roman emperors became a role model for him. On many of his coins, Frederick II is depicted in ancient style – wearing the draped coat of a military commander and a laurel wreath. | 200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A distinctive religious community began in Canterbury, N.H., in 1782 as an informal assembly of new converts to the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, known as the Shakers.
The community was formally organized as the Canterbury Shaker Society in 1792. To guide this and other Shaker communities, formal rules began to be established by the senior Shaker leadership based at the New Lebanon Society in New York.
These rules would guide the Shakers in their personal behavior, worship services, administrative and religious governance, and architecture. Though men and women generally engaged in different types of work, they were considered equal.
In 1793 a second Shaker community was organized in Enfield, located on Lake Mascoma, about 47 miles northwest of Canterbury. The two settlements were designated as a “bishopric,” which allowed the groups to work together as a unit on issues of mutual concern.
Over the next several decades both villages developed the means to support themselves through agriculture and commerce. Their members built residences, barns, workshops, meeting houses, laundries, and other structures necessary for their existence.
These and other Shaker communities were organized internally into “families”— groups of 30-90 men, women, and children who lived and worked together in a set of buildings within the larger village campus. The families, and the community as a whole, were led by elders and eldresses, and deacons and deaconesses.
One person who played an important role in the early development of the New Hampshire Shakers was Zadock Wright. It is unclear where he may have originated, but in the 1760s he became an early settler of Hartland, Vt., located on the Connecticut River about nine miles north of Windsor.
At the start of the American Revolution in 1775-1776 Zadock tried to remain neutral, but he was branded as a loyalist and his property was confiscated. He escaped to Canada where he enlisted in the Queen’s Loyal Rangers, a British army regiment made up of Americans. He was appointed as a Major.
In 1777 the regiment served as advance troops under General John Burgoyne. The unit took heavy casualties as it engaged in battles at Fort Ticonderoga, N.Y., and in Hubbardton, Vt. and Walloomsac, N.Y. (Battle of Bennington).
Wright grew discouraged with the war, so he deserted. He was arrested by New York authorities and was made a prisoner of war in Albany. With his life in ruins, Wright faced a spiritual crisis.
Some acquaintance told him about the Shakers, and he became intrigued. When the leader of the sect, Mother Ann Lee, was locked up in the Albany jail in the summer of 1780, because the Shakers would not support the Revolution, Wright was given permission to meet her in her cell. He was able to speak with her and with some of the Shaker elders who were also being held in the prison.
Wright poured out his troubles to them, and according to the 1816 Shaker book “Testimonies”, “Mother looked on him and said … ‘God will deliver you.’ Though, at that time, this appeared to Zadock impossible; yet, the declaration from Mother made a forcible impression upon his feelings.” A few weeks later, Wright was released through a prisoner exchange, and he returned home to Vermont. He converted to Shakerism and devoted his life to the faith.
In 1790 Wright was listed in the census as the “head of household” of a group of 31 men, women, and children living together in Enfield. This was the beginning of the new Shaker community. Wright later moved to the Shaker village at Canterbury.
In 1796 the first written Covenant was signed at Canterbury that spelled out the rights and duties of the village’s members. Prior to that time the members had pledged their commitment verbally. The document stated that, among other things, the members would “freely give and contribute our time and talents, as Brethren and Sisters, for the mutual good of one of another, and other charitable uses …”
Wright signed the document along with over 100 fellow Believers. In it he was named as one of the three deacons entrusted with the care and oversight of the worldly needs of the community. | <urn:uuid:cf0da5ef-bf73-4cba-adde-9d69f9a9ad57> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.unionleader.com/voices/looking_back/looking-back-with-aurore-eaton-zadock-wright-connects-the-canterbury/article_4df48867-70ee-5025-97c3-91de361e147e.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.98686 | 919 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.055251412093639... | 2 | A distinctive religious community began in Canterbury, N.H., in 1782 as an informal assembly of new converts to the United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, known as the Shakers.
The community was formally organized as the Canterbury Shaker Society in 1792. To guide this and other Shaker communities, formal rules began to be established by the senior Shaker leadership based at the New Lebanon Society in New York.
These rules would guide the Shakers in their personal behavior, worship services, administrative and religious governance, and architecture. Though men and women generally engaged in different types of work, they were considered equal.
In 1793 a second Shaker community was organized in Enfield, located on Lake Mascoma, about 47 miles northwest of Canterbury. The two settlements were designated as a “bishopric,” which allowed the groups to work together as a unit on issues of mutual concern.
Over the next several decades both villages developed the means to support themselves through agriculture and commerce. Their members built residences, barns, workshops, meeting houses, laundries, and other structures necessary for their existence.
These and other Shaker communities were organized internally into “families”— groups of 30-90 men, women, and children who lived and worked together in a set of buildings within the larger village campus. The families, and the community as a whole, were led by elders and eldresses, and deacons and deaconesses.
One person who played an important role in the early development of the New Hampshire Shakers was Zadock Wright. It is unclear where he may have originated, but in the 1760s he became an early settler of Hartland, Vt., located on the Connecticut River about nine miles north of Windsor.
At the start of the American Revolution in 1775-1776 Zadock tried to remain neutral, but he was branded as a loyalist and his property was confiscated. He escaped to Canada where he enlisted in the Queen’s Loyal Rangers, a British army regiment made up of Americans. He was appointed as a Major.
In 1777 the regiment served as advance troops under General John Burgoyne. The unit took heavy casualties as it engaged in battles at Fort Ticonderoga, N.Y., and in Hubbardton, Vt. and Walloomsac, N.Y. (Battle of Bennington).
Wright grew discouraged with the war, so he deserted. He was arrested by New York authorities and was made a prisoner of war in Albany. With his life in ruins, Wright faced a spiritual crisis.
Some acquaintance told him about the Shakers, and he became intrigued. When the leader of the sect, Mother Ann Lee, was locked up in the Albany jail in the summer of 1780, because the Shakers would not support the Revolution, Wright was given permission to meet her in her cell. He was able to speak with her and with some of the Shaker elders who were also being held in the prison.
Wright poured out his troubles to them, and according to the 1816 Shaker book “Testimonies”, “Mother looked on him and said … ‘God will deliver you.’ Though, at that time, this appeared to Zadock impossible; yet, the declaration from Mother made a forcible impression upon his feelings.” A few weeks later, Wright was released through a prisoner exchange, and he returned home to Vermont. He converted to Shakerism and devoted his life to the faith.
In 1790 Wright was listed in the census as the “head of household” of a group of 31 men, women, and children living together in Enfield. This was the beginning of the new Shaker community. Wright later moved to the Shaker village at Canterbury.
In 1796 the first written Covenant was signed at Canterbury that spelled out the rights and duties of the village’s members. Prior to that time the members had pledged their commitment verbally. The document stated that, among other things, the members would “freely give and contribute our time and talents, as Brethren and Sisters, for the mutual good of one of another, and other charitable uses …”
Wright signed the document along with over 100 fellow Believers. In it he was named as one of the three deacons entrusted with the care and oversight of the worldly needs of the community. | 924 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Italy’s Fascist regime ended on July 25, 1943, when Benito Mussolini was arrested on order of the king, Victor Emmanuel III. But fascism was not dead. Democracy was not established until the end of the war and the death of Il Duce — shot by partisans in April 1945. Italy’s postwar leaders were anxious to avoid any repeat of a dictatorship. The postwar constitution — ratified in 1948 — was designed explicitly to prevent the concentration and abuse of power. Rights were guaranteed (to strike, for example, or not to be arrested arbitrarily) and reform was made extremely difficult.
Fascism remained largely taboo in the 1940s and 1950s, although fear of its return was constant. A small but combative neo-fascist party won around five percent of the vote, but was on principle excluded from structures of control. In 1960, the ruling Christian Democrats attempted to use the votes of the neo-fascists to form a government. Mass outrage resulted in riots and protests. A number of demonstrators were shot dead. The tactic was abandoned and the neo-fascists remained outside of the political mainstream for the next 30 years or so.
Nonetheless, fascism was a latent presence in postwar Italy. Neo-fascists were involved in a number of massacres and violent attacks on democratic institutions in the 1960s and 1970s. Young people were recruited to “black” organizations. The failure to fully acknowledge the deep-rooted nature of fascism in Italian society and to purge Fascist officials from the state and the judiciary meant there was continuity in many areas. A magistrate called Gaetano Azzariti, for example, who had presided over the much-hated Tribunal of Race, which applied the antisemitic laws passed by Mussolini in the 1930s, was allowed to stay within the judiciary. He rose to become the president of Italy’s Constitutional Court; a bust of him still stands in the court’s buildings in Rome. Across society, ex-fascists moved seamlessly from regime to democracy. Italy’s ambiguous postwar status — neither victor nor vanquished — helped to explain this lack of clarity towards fascism, the past, its monuments and its legacy. Not one Italian was prosecuted for war crimes. The Allies were complicit in the forgetting. Italy’s war experience was cast as one of victimhood, exemplified in the stereotype of the “good Italian.” Historians, too, were complicit.
A sort of “pact of forgetting” affected many of the state’s institutions, including the police and the army. Thus, although Italy was still a democratic republic, as its constitution stated, its institutions were often full of people who had worked for, and often profited from, the regime. Fascism was gone, but many Fascists were still around.
This deep ambiguity meant, for example, that there was no national policy on Fascist murals. Some were beautifully restored, some were covered with curtains, some were painted over. Huge Fascist monuments remained in place and were sources of conflict, as with the enormous arch in Bolzano, which was known as the Monument to Victory — a reference to the First World War, which led to divisions between the Italian and German-speaking populations there. But fascism was not just symbolic. In 1970, an attempted coup, organized by leading ex-fascists, tried to take power in Rome. It was later hushed up by the authorities.
Politically, however, a broad anti-fascist consensus held sway until the 1990s. With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the mass party system which had governed Italy since 1945, things began to change. Anti-anti-fascism and post-fascism entered the political lexicon. The neo-fascist party changed its name to National Alliance and made some mild criticisms of its own past. Amid the shocking Tangentopoli (Bribesville) corruption scandal, populists emerged from the rubble of the First Republic with new messages and new political formations. One of them was Silvio Berlusconi: TV magnate, football club owner and showman. Berlusconi reached out to allies on the right and center-right — including those tainted with the mark of neo-fascism. It was Berlusconi who brought the neo-fascists back into the political fold in 1994, making an agreement with the National Alliance and with another populist grouping formed from the ruins of the collapse of the parties — the regionalist Lega Nord.
In the 1990s and 2000s, as a result of this political “return from the wilderness,” neo-fascists took power at national and local level and, when they did, they often revealed a deep nostalgia for Mussolini and the 1920s and 1930s. Monuments were restored to their full, Fascist glory. Occasionally, and shockingly, new memorials were erected to leading Fascists, such as that dedicated to the war criminal Rodolfo Graziani (paid for with public money) in his home town Affile, near Rome. New neo-fascist movements also emerged, attracting young people to the fold, as with the innovative CasaPound movement, which began in 2003 when a group of fascists began squatting in a state building in Rome. Meanwhile, the long wave of anti-fascism in Italy was on the wane. The postwar generation of partisan veterans was dying out. Resistance celebrations had become tired and repetitive. Anti-fascist values no longer seemed central to the ethos of the Republic.
Today, Italy is governed by two populist movements, neither of whom make reference to anti-fascism in their policies or outlook. The internet-based Five Star Movement claims to be “neither left nor right” and has based its rise to power on the mobilization of marginalized Italians with a powerful and often violent anti-political message. Its supposedly hyper-democratic stance often disguises a hierarchical and rhetorical appeal to “the web” and it has promoted a number of conspiracy theories. The other key player in the current administration is the Lega (formerly the Lega Nord), whose anti-immigrant message under leader Matteo Salvini, a history graduate, has proven highly toxic — and successful. Post-anti-fascism is now center stage. The anti-fascist resistance of the postwar era is now as distant to current generations as the unification of Italy was to those of the 1920s and 1930s. Plaques to partisans — “martyrs for freedom” — stand, almost unnoticed, across the country. Is Italy still a “democratic republic, based on labor,” as stated in the first article of its anti-fascist Constitution? And will it remain one?
John Foot is Professor of Modern Italian History at the University of Bristol. He is the author of The Archipelago: Italy Since 1945 (Bloomsbury, 2018). | <urn:uuid:52cb34c7-adee-40bb-a37d-b1d88df4a830> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://time.com/5355372/history-fascism-italy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.983221 | 1,429 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.828709304332733... | 1 | Italy’s Fascist regime ended on July 25, 1943, when Benito Mussolini was arrested on order of the king, Victor Emmanuel III. But fascism was not dead. Democracy was not established until the end of the war and the death of Il Duce — shot by partisans in April 1945. Italy’s postwar leaders were anxious to avoid any repeat of a dictatorship. The postwar constitution — ratified in 1948 — was designed explicitly to prevent the concentration and abuse of power. Rights were guaranteed (to strike, for example, or not to be arrested arbitrarily) and reform was made extremely difficult.
Fascism remained largely taboo in the 1940s and 1950s, although fear of its return was constant. A small but combative neo-fascist party won around five percent of the vote, but was on principle excluded from structures of control. In 1960, the ruling Christian Democrats attempted to use the votes of the neo-fascists to form a government. Mass outrage resulted in riots and protests. A number of demonstrators were shot dead. The tactic was abandoned and the neo-fascists remained outside of the political mainstream for the next 30 years or so.
Nonetheless, fascism was a latent presence in postwar Italy. Neo-fascists were involved in a number of massacres and violent attacks on democratic institutions in the 1960s and 1970s. Young people were recruited to “black” organizations. The failure to fully acknowledge the deep-rooted nature of fascism in Italian society and to purge Fascist officials from the state and the judiciary meant there was continuity in many areas. A magistrate called Gaetano Azzariti, for example, who had presided over the much-hated Tribunal of Race, which applied the antisemitic laws passed by Mussolini in the 1930s, was allowed to stay within the judiciary. He rose to become the president of Italy’s Constitutional Court; a bust of him still stands in the court’s buildings in Rome. Across society, ex-fascists moved seamlessly from regime to democracy. Italy’s ambiguous postwar status — neither victor nor vanquished — helped to explain this lack of clarity towards fascism, the past, its monuments and its legacy. Not one Italian was prosecuted for war crimes. The Allies were complicit in the forgetting. Italy’s war experience was cast as one of victimhood, exemplified in the stereotype of the “good Italian.” Historians, too, were complicit.
A sort of “pact of forgetting” affected many of the state’s institutions, including the police and the army. Thus, although Italy was still a democratic republic, as its constitution stated, its institutions were often full of people who had worked for, and often profited from, the regime. Fascism was gone, but many Fascists were still around.
This deep ambiguity meant, for example, that there was no national policy on Fascist murals. Some were beautifully restored, some were covered with curtains, some were painted over. Huge Fascist monuments remained in place and were sources of conflict, as with the enormous arch in Bolzano, which was known as the Monument to Victory — a reference to the First World War, which led to divisions between the Italian and German-speaking populations there. But fascism was not just symbolic. In 1970, an attempted coup, organized by leading ex-fascists, tried to take power in Rome. It was later hushed up by the authorities.
Politically, however, a broad anti-fascist consensus held sway until the 1990s. With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the mass party system which had governed Italy since 1945, things began to change. Anti-anti-fascism and post-fascism entered the political lexicon. The neo-fascist party changed its name to National Alliance and made some mild criticisms of its own past. Amid the shocking Tangentopoli (Bribesville) corruption scandal, populists emerged from the rubble of the First Republic with new messages and new political formations. One of them was Silvio Berlusconi: TV magnate, football club owner and showman. Berlusconi reached out to allies on the right and center-right — including those tainted with the mark of neo-fascism. It was Berlusconi who brought the neo-fascists back into the political fold in 1994, making an agreement with the National Alliance and with another populist grouping formed from the ruins of the collapse of the parties — the regionalist Lega Nord.
In the 1990s and 2000s, as a result of this political “return from the wilderness,” neo-fascists took power at national and local level and, when they did, they often revealed a deep nostalgia for Mussolini and the 1920s and 1930s. Monuments were restored to their full, Fascist glory. Occasionally, and shockingly, new memorials were erected to leading Fascists, such as that dedicated to the war criminal Rodolfo Graziani (paid for with public money) in his home town Affile, near Rome. New neo-fascist movements also emerged, attracting young people to the fold, as with the innovative CasaPound movement, which began in 2003 when a group of fascists began squatting in a state building in Rome. Meanwhile, the long wave of anti-fascism in Italy was on the wane. The postwar generation of partisan veterans was dying out. Resistance celebrations had become tired and repetitive. Anti-fascist values no longer seemed central to the ethos of the Republic.
Today, Italy is governed by two populist movements, neither of whom make reference to anti-fascism in their policies or outlook. The internet-based Five Star Movement claims to be “neither left nor right” and has based its rise to power on the mobilization of marginalized Italians with a powerful and often violent anti-political message. Its supposedly hyper-democratic stance often disguises a hierarchical and rhetorical appeal to “the web” and it has promoted a number of conspiracy theories. The other key player in the current administration is the Lega (formerly the Lega Nord), whose anti-immigrant message under leader Matteo Salvini, a history graduate, has proven highly toxic — and successful. Post-anti-fascism is now center stage. The anti-fascist resistance of the postwar era is now as distant to current generations as the unification of Italy was to those of the 1920s and 1930s. Plaques to partisans — “martyrs for freedom” — stand, almost unnoticed, across the country. Is Italy still a “democratic republic, based on labor,” as stated in the first article of its anti-fascist Constitution? And will it remain one?
John Foot is Professor of Modern Italian History at the University of Bristol. He is the author of The Archipelago: Italy Since 1945 (Bloomsbury, 2018). | 1,487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles was the possessor of several crowns and yet more claims to sovereignty which served as a basis for his attempt to establish a universal dynastic monarchy with Habsburg hegemony over Europe. His fiercest enemies were France and its king, Francis I.
France saw itself surrounded. To the south lay the Iberian heartland of Spain, a rising Great Power. Along the borders of France with the Holy Roman Empire to the north and east was the diverse agglomeration of territories that had passed into Habsburg dominion through the Burgundian inheritance.
The dukes of Burgundy, a collateral branch of the Valois, had died out in the male line following the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, and France, ruled by the House of Valois, occupied those Burgundian territories that had been fiefs of the French crown.
France also cemented its position in Italy, bringing Milan under its control. Francis then staked claim to territories in southern Italy, which since the end of the fifteenth century had been first part of the crown of Aragon and later of Spain as a whole.
Charles for his part derived claims on parts of southern France as heir to the crown of Aragon. In rivalry with Francis he also laid claim to Milan; in ancient and Mediterranean tradition, power over Italy was regarded as the key to hegemony in Europe, for which both monarchs felt themselves predestined.
The conflict ended in a war, fought on Italian and French soil. While Charles was unable to achieve any great successes in France, his army in Italy won a number of victories. At the Battle of Pavia in 1525 the French king was even taken prisoner by the Spanish. In 1526 Francis was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty of Madrid, renouncing his claims to Burgundy, Naples and Milan. After his release he immediately revoked his agreement to the terms that had been extracted from him under coercion. The situation was not finally resolved until the Peace of Cambrai in 1529, according to the terms of which France retained the old Burgundian territories while renouncing its claims to those in Italy.
Meanwhile the situation in Italy had escalated. The imperial troops, including German mercenaries, made their way down the peninsula without any effective leaders, sacking Rome in 1527. This had not been ordered by Charles and he distanced himself from it. However, it proved politically advantageous for him, as the Pope, one of Charles’s adversaries, was deprived of his power. Charles had thus proved his dominance in Italy.
Charles’s triumph was affirmed by his coronation as emperor by the pope in Bologna in 1530. After Milan had come under Habsburg dominion in 1535 and Charles’s troops had won a victory over the Turks at the Siege of Tunis, Charles found himself at the apogee of his power. | <urn:uuid:e97ccac6-3cce-4597-acf1-1e22cb0ec02f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/charles-v-and-emergence-hereditary-enmity-france | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.988699 | 593 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.2616620659828... | 2 | Charles was the possessor of several crowns and yet more claims to sovereignty which served as a basis for his attempt to establish a universal dynastic monarchy with Habsburg hegemony over Europe. His fiercest enemies were France and its king, Francis I.
France saw itself surrounded. To the south lay the Iberian heartland of Spain, a rising Great Power. Along the borders of France with the Holy Roman Empire to the north and east was the diverse agglomeration of territories that had passed into Habsburg dominion through the Burgundian inheritance.
The dukes of Burgundy, a collateral branch of the Valois, had died out in the male line following the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, and France, ruled by the House of Valois, occupied those Burgundian territories that had been fiefs of the French crown.
France also cemented its position in Italy, bringing Milan under its control. Francis then staked claim to territories in southern Italy, which since the end of the fifteenth century had been first part of the crown of Aragon and later of Spain as a whole.
Charles for his part derived claims on parts of southern France as heir to the crown of Aragon. In rivalry with Francis he also laid claim to Milan; in ancient and Mediterranean tradition, power over Italy was regarded as the key to hegemony in Europe, for which both monarchs felt themselves predestined.
The conflict ended in a war, fought on Italian and French soil. While Charles was unable to achieve any great successes in France, his army in Italy won a number of victories. At the Battle of Pavia in 1525 the French king was even taken prisoner by the Spanish. In 1526 Francis was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty of Madrid, renouncing his claims to Burgundy, Naples and Milan. After his release he immediately revoked his agreement to the terms that had been extracted from him under coercion. The situation was not finally resolved until the Peace of Cambrai in 1529, according to the terms of which France retained the old Burgundian territories while renouncing its claims to those in Italy.
Meanwhile the situation in Italy had escalated. The imperial troops, including German mercenaries, made their way down the peninsula without any effective leaders, sacking Rome in 1527. This had not been ordered by Charles and he distanced himself from it. However, it proved politically advantageous for him, as the Pope, one of Charles’s adversaries, was deprived of his power. Charles had thus proved his dominance in Italy.
Charles’s triumph was affirmed by his coronation as emperor by the pope in Bologna in 1530. After Milan had come under Habsburg dominion in 1535 and Charles’s troops had won a victory over the Turks at the Siege of Tunis, Charles found himself at the apogee of his power. | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Symphysiotomy (pronounced \sim(p)-fə-zē-ˈät-ə-mē\, SIN-fis-eoh-otah-me) is a piece of gynaecological surgery, which during the birth of a baby the cartridge in a woman's pelvis is purposefully sawed and then broken apart. This procedure is done so that it helps in the delivery of the child from the mother is giving birth. Naturally, this procedure is only done in extreme circumstances where delivery of the baby become very difficult for the mother. Like all surgeries, especially in all such delicate operations, can lead to severe complications for the mother.
The procedure of symphysiotomy first came about at the end of the 16th century, as a way to help in childbirth. By the mid-twentieth-century, the procedure was seen as old-fashioned and dangerous, and obstetricians were switching to much safer caesarian sections. The only major disadvantage was that women who had caesareans were more likely not to have any further children, as the operation could damage female's reproductive organs leaving them infertile.
The procedure come in focus when many Irish women who had given birth between the late 1940s to the mid-1980s, discovered that they received this piece of surgery against their will and without their consent. As been mentioned earlier, caesareans were possible but they could have been seen as a form of conception. Ireland at the time was very deeply Roman Catholic country, and many women were expected to have large families. Many traditional forms of conception were banned or near-impossible to get, like the condom and the diaphragm. Absurdly, similarly deeply religious countries like Italy and Spain had no problems in giving out the caesareans despite the infertility worries.
The first push for such use of the symphysiotomy procedure was at St Mary's Maternity Hospital in Dublin under the auspices of the resident car
Nevertheless, some women who had the surgery have suffered later on from severe complications, including permeant diarrhoea and bladder weakness, joint and muscle pain, dead legs, unequal leg length, even ironically inability to have further children. | <urn:uuid:3fb650a3-befd-413f-b925-19476ea171bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/User:Euromec/sandbox | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.98652 | 461 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.33273... | 1 | Symphysiotomy (pronounced \sim(p)-fə-zē-ˈät-ə-mē\, SIN-fis-eoh-otah-me) is a piece of gynaecological surgery, which during the birth of a baby the cartridge in a woman's pelvis is purposefully sawed and then broken apart. This procedure is done so that it helps in the delivery of the child from the mother is giving birth. Naturally, this procedure is only done in extreme circumstances where delivery of the baby become very difficult for the mother. Like all surgeries, especially in all such delicate operations, can lead to severe complications for the mother.
The procedure of symphysiotomy first came about at the end of the 16th century, as a way to help in childbirth. By the mid-twentieth-century, the procedure was seen as old-fashioned and dangerous, and obstetricians were switching to much safer caesarian sections. The only major disadvantage was that women who had caesareans were more likely not to have any further children, as the operation could damage female's reproductive organs leaving them infertile.
The procedure come in focus when many Irish women who had given birth between the late 1940s to the mid-1980s, discovered that they received this piece of surgery against their will and without their consent. As been mentioned earlier, caesareans were possible but they could have been seen as a form of conception. Ireland at the time was very deeply Roman Catholic country, and many women were expected to have large families. Many traditional forms of conception were banned or near-impossible to get, like the condom and the diaphragm. Absurdly, similarly deeply religious countries like Italy and Spain had no problems in giving out the caesareans despite the infertility worries.
The first push for such use of the symphysiotomy procedure was at St Mary's Maternity Hospital in Dublin under the auspices of the resident car
Nevertheless, some women who had the surgery have suffered later on from severe complications, including permeant diarrhoea and bladder weakness, joint and muscle pain, dead legs, unequal leg length, even ironically inability to have further children. | 451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The author Bartolome de las Calas was a Bishop of Chiapas and a Catholic priest. The thesis of his work Destruction of the Indies is that Spain might come under divine retribution for its treatment of the Native Americans in what was then known as the West Indies. During the time period in which de las Calas was active in the West Indies the Indians were being used as cheap slave labor and their conditions were utterly appalling.
Buy Destruction of the Indies essay paper online
His purpose was to expose these atrocities and to condemn the hypocrisy of Spanish conquistadors who were supposed to be good Christians yet were brutalizing the natives as if they were not human. He was also trying to counter the writings of other authors who were saying that the natives were uncivilized savages and the Spanish were within their rights to treat them so poorly.
Destruction of the Indies was written by a Catholic priest. Thus he dwells upon the responsibility of the Catholic Spaniards to be good Christians to their fellow man. He believed that God in heaven could see the plight of the natives and would soon deliver his divine retribution upon the Spaniards for their cruelty.
He was also trying to debunk the idea that the natives were savages and uncivilized. De Las Calas was perhaps one of the first writers to propose the idea of the 'savage noble' that even if the natives did not have Western customs they were still people and did not deserve to be treated like animals. At minimum the article espoused the idea that the natives had rights too and that those rights were being violated by their treatment at the hands of the Spaniards.
Finally, his work may have been somewhat exaggerated or at least slanted. He was trying to expose the ill-treatment of the natives and it is possible that he may have exaggerated his accounts of the maltreatment to make it appear more shocking and worthy of attention. He may have had political motives in making this expose so he might have slanted the expose a little.
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0.585728645324707... | 1 | The author Bartolome de las Calas was a Bishop of Chiapas and a Catholic priest. The thesis of his work Destruction of the Indies is that Spain might come under divine retribution for its treatment of the Native Americans in what was then known as the West Indies. During the time period in which de las Calas was active in the West Indies the Indians were being used as cheap slave labor and their conditions were utterly appalling.
Buy Destruction of the Indies essay paper online
His purpose was to expose these atrocities and to condemn the hypocrisy of Spanish conquistadors who were supposed to be good Christians yet were brutalizing the natives as if they were not human. He was also trying to counter the writings of other authors who were saying that the natives were uncivilized savages and the Spanish were within their rights to treat them so poorly.
Destruction of the Indies was written by a Catholic priest. Thus he dwells upon the responsibility of the Catholic Spaniards to be good Christians to their fellow man. He believed that God in heaven could see the plight of the natives and would soon deliver his divine retribution upon the Spaniards for their cruelty.
He was also trying to debunk the idea that the natives were savages and uncivilized. De Las Calas was perhaps one of the first writers to propose the idea of the 'savage noble' that even if the natives did not have Western customs they were still people and did not deserve to be treated like animals. At minimum the article espoused the idea that the natives had rights too and that those rights were being violated by their treatment at the hands of the Spaniards.
Finally, his work may have been somewhat exaggerated or at least slanted. He was trying to expose the ill-treatment of the natives and it is possible that he may have exaggerated his accounts of the maltreatment to make it appear more shocking and worthy of attention. He may have had political motives in making this expose so he might have slanted the expose a little.
Most popular orders | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Athletics?
Athletics, or track and field, includes several groups of sporting events. Groups such as track, field, and road are included in modern competitions, as well as decathlons and heptathlons. Athletics were first found in the Ancient Greek Olympics as they showed a variety of skills such as strength and speed. It is now the largest single sport in the Olympics, with up to twenty-five different events being competed on the track, sixteen on the field, and five on the road.
Athletics Track Competitions
Track competition consists of athletes running portions of a 400-meter oval track. They are challenged to run faster and more efficiently than their competition. Lengths go from the shorter 100-meter dash to a longer 10,000-meter endurance run. Athletes are also challenged to run hurdles, where they not only have to outrun their opponent, but they also must jump over obstacles placed on the track.
Athletics Field Competitions
Field competition includes both throwing events and jumping events. These events include the discus throw, shot put, javelin, hammer throw, high jump, pole vault, long jump, and triple jump. In throwing events, athletes aim to throw their object the farthest in comparison to their competitors. In jumping events, athletes must jump over a bar without knocking it down. The goal is to jump a higher bar than the rest of the competitors.
Athletics Road Competitions
Road competition includes the marathon and the race walk. Athletes will be provided a marked track to follow and must pace themselves to finish ahead of their competitors without tiring themselves too quickly. Both events occur on public roads, allowing fans and viewers to cheer athletes on as they compete.
The decathlon and heptathlon consist of many different events and are all aimed to challenge an athlete on different levels. Athletes must prepare for two days of various events that will require various parts of their athletic abilities. The decathlon includes ten events and is competed by men, while the heptathlon only holds seven and is competed by women. These competitions are often mentioned as having a true Olympic spirit. This is because of the bonding that occurs between athletes as they compete for so many events together. | <urn:uuid:ed18ff0e-9185-411c-a8be-f07980a207c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rookieroad.com/athletics/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.982098 | 465 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.1457402855157... | 1 | What is Athletics?
Athletics, or track and field, includes several groups of sporting events. Groups such as track, field, and road are included in modern competitions, as well as decathlons and heptathlons. Athletics were first found in the Ancient Greek Olympics as they showed a variety of skills such as strength and speed. It is now the largest single sport in the Olympics, with up to twenty-five different events being competed on the track, sixteen on the field, and five on the road.
Athletics Track Competitions
Track competition consists of athletes running portions of a 400-meter oval track. They are challenged to run faster and more efficiently than their competition. Lengths go from the shorter 100-meter dash to a longer 10,000-meter endurance run. Athletes are also challenged to run hurdles, where they not only have to outrun their opponent, but they also must jump over obstacles placed on the track.
Athletics Field Competitions
Field competition includes both throwing events and jumping events. These events include the discus throw, shot put, javelin, hammer throw, high jump, pole vault, long jump, and triple jump. In throwing events, athletes aim to throw their object the farthest in comparison to their competitors. In jumping events, athletes must jump over a bar without knocking it down. The goal is to jump a higher bar than the rest of the competitors.
Athletics Road Competitions
Road competition includes the marathon and the race walk. Athletes will be provided a marked track to follow and must pace themselves to finish ahead of their competitors without tiring themselves too quickly. Both events occur on public roads, allowing fans and viewers to cheer athletes on as they compete.
The decathlon and heptathlon consist of many different events and are all aimed to challenge an athlete on different levels. Athletes must prepare for two days of various events that will require various parts of their athletic abilities. The decathlon includes ten events and is competed by men, while the heptathlon only holds seven and is competed by women. These competitions are often mentioned as having a true Olympic spirit. This is because of the bonding that occurs between athletes as they compete for so many events together. | 457 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New York City Before, During, and After the Civil War
In its long and illustrious history, New York City (NYC) has gone through tremendous change. From a small trading post on the tip of Manhattan Island, to the greatest metropolis in the world, NYC has continued to evolve over time. One period in particular that had more degrees of change than many others, was 1860 to 1865. The lives of the residents of the great port city would be completely changed forever.
The common life of a NYC merchant in 1860 was that of a well-rounded diplomat. One who was able to make deals with both the Southern plantation owner, who sold him the cotton from which the merchant made his money, and the European who the merchant sold this cotton to. This merchant was well aware of how the cotton came from the ground, through the gin, and into the bales. He was well aware that his whole economy was based on this cotton. He also had moral feelings toward the "peculiar institution" that had given him this cotton to trade. But the question on his mind is, "why bite the hand that feeds you?"
Anxiety and fear were common emotions faced by these merchants at that time. If you were to sever the ties between the north and the south, what will America's greatest importing and exporting city do? Will this schism between the nation cause NYC's growth to stop? What effect, if any, would the formation of a new republic in the south have on the lives of the people and commerce of the City?
In 1860, there were several different directions NYC could go. One option would be to stay firm and represent the ideals of capitalism, freedom, and liberty, which had made the city so strong. To side with the nation that their grandparents had liberated from tyranny, only eighty years before. Another option is to side with NYC's oppressed southern brothers, who feel as though the federal government is imposing upon their constitutional rights. With a Republican in office, there would be an end to slavery and their whole way of life.
Surprisingly it was the latter, that NYC adopted first. There are several important reasons for this. First, NYC merchants, fearing that if the south formed a new nation, it would lower its tariffs and make NYC's ports obsolete. There was a great fear that New Orleans, not NYC, would be the major port city to the continent, and would control all imports heading to the vast lands west of the Mississippi river and all cotton exports. NYC's dominance of goods imported and exported had lasted for almost 200 years, and many feared it would be over.
Another reason New Yorkers were southern sympathizers was the debt owed to NYC merchants by the south, which had accumulated to over 200 million dollars. Many feared if the sectional conflict had continued, the debt would not be paid. But if NYC sided with no one and was neutral, the difference between philosophies would not interfere with its commerce and payment of debt. The flow of... | <urn:uuid:a8cdea43-c97b-4999-8857-d129dfd6536f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/new-york-city-before-during-and-after-the-civil-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.98766 | 608 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.46075689792633... | 1 | New York City Before, During, and After the Civil War
In its long and illustrious history, New York City (NYC) has gone through tremendous change. From a small trading post on the tip of Manhattan Island, to the greatest metropolis in the world, NYC has continued to evolve over time. One period in particular that had more degrees of change than many others, was 1860 to 1865. The lives of the residents of the great port city would be completely changed forever.
The common life of a NYC merchant in 1860 was that of a well-rounded diplomat. One who was able to make deals with both the Southern plantation owner, who sold him the cotton from which the merchant made his money, and the European who the merchant sold this cotton to. This merchant was well aware of how the cotton came from the ground, through the gin, and into the bales. He was well aware that his whole economy was based on this cotton. He also had moral feelings toward the "peculiar institution" that had given him this cotton to trade. But the question on his mind is, "why bite the hand that feeds you?"
Anxiety and fear were common emotions faced by these merchants at that time. If you were to sever the ties between the north and the south, what will America's greatest importing and exporting city do? Will this schism between the nation cause NYC's growth to stop? What effect, if any, would the formation of a new republic in the south have on the lives of the people and commerce of the City?
In 1860, there were several different directions NYC could go. One option would be to stay firm and represent the ideals of capitalism, freedom, and liberty, which had made the city so strong. To side with the nation that their grandparents had liberated from tyranny, only eighty years before. Another option is to side with NYC's oppressed southern brothers, who feel as though the federal government is imposing upon their constitutional rights. With a Republican in office, there would be an end to slavery and their whole way of life.
Surprisingly it was the latter, that NYC adopted first. There are several important reasons for this. First, NYC merchants, fearing that if the south formed a new nation, it would lower its tariffs and make NYC's ports obsolete. There was a great fear that New Orleans, not NYC, would be the major port city to the continent, and would control all imports heading to the vast lands west of the Mississippi river and all cotton exports. NYC's dominance of goods imported and exported had lasted for almost 200 years, and many feared it would be over.
Another reason New Yorkers were southern sympathizers was the debt owed to NYC merchants by the south, which had accumulated to over 200 million dollars. Many feared if the sectional conflict had continued, the debt would not be paid. But if NYC sided with no one and was neutral, the difference between philosophies would not interfere with its commerce and payment of debt. The flow of... | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 20th, President of United States, James Abram Garfield was born on November 19, 1831, in Moreland Hills, Ohio, His presidential term started on March 4, 1881, and ended on September 19, 1881, a period of only six months. His term as a president was however short-lived since he was assassinated in the same year he entered the presidential office. James A. Garfield, the son of Abram Garfield and Eliza Ballou Garfield, came from a humble background and was brought up by his widowed mother on a farm in Ohio. While still in his youth, Garfield undertook many jobs including working on a boat canal. He was the last born of five children and his love for reading was evident. He excelled in academics.
Garfield attended several schools in Ohio from the age of 17. He enrolled at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (renamed later to Hiram College) in 1851 and completed his studies there in 1854 and then went on to study at the Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts where he graduated in 1856. He joined the Republican Party as he opposed slavery.
Garfield returned to Hiram College after finishing his studies where he was made the professor of ancient languages. In 1987, he was appointed as the president of the college. All this while, he has developed a liking for politics, and he started studying law and in 1861, he was admitted to the bar. In 1858, he married Lucretia Rudolph.
In 1859, he was elected to the Ohio Senate where he served until 1861. When the American war broke out in 1861, Garfield assisted in recruiting the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry and went on to become Colonel. In 1862, he was elected to the US House of Representative. After the Battle of Chickamauga, Garfield was got a promotion to major general. Garfield was chosen as the Republican presidential nominee to vie for Presidency in 1880.
Garfield ran for the presidency against Winfield Scott Hancock, who was a Democrat and won the election. He was sworn in as the 20th president of the US on March 4, 1881, with Chester A. Arthur as the vice president, and his predecessor was Rutherford B. Hayes.
After marrying his wife Lucretia Rudolph, who was a former classmate, they had five children (one daughter and four sons). Garfield was shot by Charles Julius Guiteau on July 2, 1881, and later succumbed to death on September 19, 1881. Chester A. Arthur succeeded him. The James A. Garfield monument was dedicated to him in Washington in 1887.
Who Was James A. Garfield?
James A. Garfield was the 20th president of the United States. He served between in 1881.
James A. Garfield, 20th U.S. President
|Birthplace||Moreland Hills, Ohio|
|Date of Birth||November 19th, 1831|
|Date of Death||September 19th, 1881|
|Start of Term||March 4th, 1881|
|End of Term||September 19th, 1881|
|Vice President||Chester A. Arthur|
|Major Conflicts Involved In||U.S. Diplomatic Interventions in the Pacific and South America|
|Preceded by||Rutherford B. Hayes|
|Succeeded by||Chester A. Arthur|
|First Lady||Lucretia Randolph Garfield|
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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0.63038873672485... | 2 | The 20th, President of United States, James Abram Garfield was born on November 19, 1831, in Moreland Hills, Ohio, His presidential term started on March 4, 1881, and ended on September 19, 1881, a period of only six months. His term as a president was however short-lived since he was assassinated in the same year he entered the presidential office. James A. Garfield, the son of Abram Garfield and Eliza Ballou Garfield, came from a humble background and was brought up by his widowed mother on a farm in Ohio. While still in his youth, Garfield undertook many jobs including working on a boat canal. He was the last born of five children and his love for reading was evident. He excelled in academics.
Garfield attended several schools in Ohio from the age of 17. He enrolled at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (renamed later to Hiram College) in 1851 and completed his studies there in 1854 and then went on to study at the Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts where he graduated in 1856. He joined the Republican Party as he opposed slavery.
Garfield returned to Hiram College after finishing his studies where he was made the professor of ancient languages. In 1987, he was appointed as the president of the college. All this while, he has developed a liking for politics, and he started studying law and in 1861, he was admitted to the bar. In 1858, he married Lucretia Rudolph.
In 1859, he was elected to the Ohio Senate where he served until 1861. When the American war broke out in 1861, Garfield assisted in recruiting the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry and went on to become Colonel. In 1862, he was elected to the US House of Representative. After the Battle of Chickamauga, Garfield was got a promotion to major general. Garfield was chosen as the Republican presidential nominee to vie for Presidency in 1880.
Garfield ran for the presidency against Winfield Scott Hancock, who was a Democrat and won the election. He was sworn in as the 20th president of the US on March 4, 1881, with Chester A. Arthur as the vice president, and his predecessor was Rutherford B. Hayes.
After marrying his wife Lucretia Rudolph, who was a former classmate, they had five children (one daughter and four sons). Garfield was shot by Charles Julius Guiteau on July 2, 1881, and later succumbed to death on September 19, 1881. Chester A. Arthur succeeded him. The James A. Garfield monument was dedicated to him in Washington in 1887.
Who Was James A. Garfield?
James A. Garfield was the 20th president of the United States. He served between in 1881.
James A. Garfield, 20th U.S. President
|Birthplace||Moreland Hills, Ohio|
|Date of Birth||November 19th, 1831|
|Date of Death||September 19th, 1881|
|Start of Term||March 4th, 1881|
|End of Term||September 19th, 1881|
|Vice President||Chester A. Arthur|
|Major Conflicts Involved In||U.S. Diplomatic Interventions in the Pacific and South America|
|Preceded by||Rutherford B. Hayes|
|Succeeded by||Chester A. Arthur|
|First Lady||Lucretia Randolph Garfield|
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Birth Name:||George Pullman|
|Birth Date:||3 March 1831|
|Birth Place:||Brocton, New York|
|Death Place:||Chicago, Illinois|
|Spouse:||Hattie Amelia Sanger (1843–1922)|
|Parents:||James Lewis Pullman (1800–1852)|
Emily Caroline Minton (1808–1892)
Walter Sanger (1876–1905)
|Signature:||Appletons' Pullman George Mortimer signature.jpg|
|Net Worth:||USD $17.5 million at the time of his death (approximately 1/835th of US GNP)|
George Mortimer Pullman (March 3, 1831 – October 19, 1897) was an American engineer and industrialist. He designed and manufactured the Pullman sleeping car and founded a company town, Pullman, for the workers who manufactured it. His Pullman Company also hired African-American men to staff the Pullman cars, who became known and widely respected as Pullman porters, providing elite service.
Struggling to maintain profitability during an 1894 downturn in manufacturing demand, he halved wages and required workers to spend long hours at the plant, but did not lower prices of rents and goods in his company town. He gained presidential support by Grover Cleveland for the use of federal military troops which left 30 strikers dead in the violent suppression of workers there to end the Pullman Strike of 1894. A national commission was appointed to investigate the strike, which included assessment of operations of the company town. In 1898 the Supreme Court of Illinois ordered the Pullman Company to divest itself of the town, which became a neighbourhood of the city of Chicago.
Pullman was born in 1831 in Brocton, New York, the son of Emily Caroline (Minton) and carpenter James Lewis Pullman. His family moved to Albion, New York, along the Erie Canal in 1845, so his father could help widen the canal. His father had invented a machine using jackscrews that could move buildings or other structures out of the way and onto new foundations and had patented it in 1841. By that time, packet boats carried people on day excursions along the canal, plus travellers and freight craft would be towed across the state along the busy canal.
Pullman attended local schools and helped his father, learning other skills that contributed to his later success. However, the youth dropped out of school. In 1855 his father died. Pullman had first worked as a clerk for a country merchant, but now he took over the family business and a year after his father's death won a contract with the State of New York to move 20 buildings out of the way of the widening canal.
He moved to Chicago as a young engineer in 1857. Chicago was then a boom town expanding rapidly. Pullman arrived in Chicago as that city prepared to build the nation's first comprehensive sewer system. He soon formed a partnership known as Ely, Smith & Pullman.
Chicago was built on a low-lying bog, and people described the mud in the streets as deep enough to drown a horse. The growing city needed a sewer system, and Pullman's became one of several companies hired to lift multi-story buildings four to six feet—to both allow sewers to be constructed and to improve the foundations. The project would involve effectively raising the street level 6–8 feet, first constructing the sewers at ground level, then covering them. The Ely, Smith & Pullman partnership gained favorable publicity for raising the massive Tremont House, a six-story brick hotel, while the guests remained inside.
He developed a railroad sleeping car, the Pullman sleeper or "palace car." These were designed after the packet boats that travelled the Erie Canal of his youth in Albion. The first one was finished in 1864.
After President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, Pullman arranged to have his body carried from Washington, D.C. to Springfield on a sleeper, for which he gained national attention, as hundreds of thousands of people lined the route in homage. Lincoln's body was carried on the Presidential train car that Lincoln himself had commissioned that year. Pullman had cars in the train, notably for the President's surviving family. The pullman had a wider wheel set, requiring wider track. And as a result of the many people seeing the Palace car, it became sought after and resulted in a major change to all rail track widths. Orders for his new car began to pour into his company. The sleeping cars proved successful although each cost more than five times the price of a regular railway car. They were marketed as "luxury for the middle class."
In 1867 Pullman introduced his first "hotel on wheels," the President, a sleeper with an attached kitchen and dining car. The food rivaled the best restaurants of the day and the service was impeccable. A year later in 1868, he launched the Delmonico, the world's first sleeping car devoted to fine cuisine. The Delmonico menu was prepared by chefs from New York's famed Delmonico's Restaurant.
Both the President and the Delmonico and subsequent Pullman sleeping cars offered first-rate service. The company hired African-American freedmen as Pullman porters. Many of the men had been former domestic slaves in the South. Their new roles required them to act as porters, waiters, valets, and entertainers, all rolled into one person. As they were paid relatively well and got to travel the country, the position became considered prestigious, and Pullman porters were respected in the black communities.
Pullman believed that if his sleeper cars were to be successful, he needed to provide a wide variety of services to travelers: collecting tickets, selling berths, dispatching wires, fetching sandwiches, mending torn trousers, converting day coaches into sleepers, etc. Pullman believed that former house slaves of the plantation South had the right combination of training to serve the businessmen who would patronize his "Palace Cars." Pullman became the biggest single employer of African Americans in post-Civil War America.
In 1869 Pullman bought out the Detroit Car and Manufacturing Company. He bought the patents and business of his eastern competitor, the Central Transportation Company in 1870. In the spring of 1871, Pullman, Andrew Carnegie, and others bailed out the financially troubled Union Pacific; they took positions on its board of directors. By 1875 the Pullman firm owned $100,000 worth of patents, had 700 cars in operation, and had several hundred thousand dollars in the bank.
In 1887, Pullman designed and established the system of "vestibuled trains," with cars linked by covered gangways instead of open platforms. The vestibules were first put in service on the Pennsylvania Railroad trunk lines. The French social scientist Paul de Rousiers (1857–1934), who visited Chicago in 1890, wrote of Pullman's manufacturing complex, "Everything is done in order and with precision. One feels that some brain of superior intelligence, backed by a long technical experience, has thought out every possible detail."
See main article: Pullman, Chicago. In 1880 Pullman bought 4000acres, near Lake Calumet some 14miles south of Chicago, on the Illinois Central Railroad for $800,000. He hired Solon Spencer Beman to design his new plant there. Trying to solve the issue of labor unrest and poverty, he also built a company town adjacent to his factory; it featured housing, shopping areas, churches, theaters, parks, hotel and library for his factory employees. The 1300 original structures were entirely designed by Beman. The centerpiece of the complex was the Administration Building and a man-made lake. The Hotel Florence, named for Pullman's daughter, was built nearby.
Pullman believed that the country air and fine facilities, without agitators, saloons and city vice districts, would result in a happy, loyal workforce. The model planned community became a leading attraction for visitors who attended the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. It attracted nationwide attention. The national press praised Pullman for his benevolence and vision. According to mortality statistics, it was one of the most healthful places in the world.
The industrialist still expected the town to make money as an enterprise. By 1892 the community, profitable in its own right, was valued at over $5 million. Pullman ruled the town like a feudal baron. He prohibited independent newspapers, public speeches, town meetings or open discussion. His inspectors regularly entered homes to inspect for cleanliness and could terminate workers' leases on ten days' notice. The church stood empty since no approved denomination would pay rent, and no other congregation was allowed. He prohibited private charitable organizations. In 1885 Richard Ely wrote in Harper's Weekly that the power exercised by Otto Von Bismarck (known as the unifier of modern Germany), was "utterly insignificant when compared with the ruling authority of the Pullman Palace Car Company in Pullman."
The Pullman community is a historic district that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
See main article: Pullman strike. In 1894, when manufacturing demand fell off, Pullman cut jobs and wages and increased working hours in his plant to lower costs and keep profits, but he did not lower rents or prices in the company town. The workers eventually launched a strike. When violence broke out, he gained the support of President Grover Cleveland for the use of United States troops. Cleveland sent in the troops, who harshly suppressed the strike in action that caused many injuries, over the objections of the Illinois governor, John Altgeld.
In the winter of 1893-4, at the start of a depression, Pullman decided to cut wages by 30%. This was not unusual in the age of the robber barons, but he didn't reduce the rent in Pullman, because he had guaranteed his investors a 6% return on their investments in the town. A workman might make $9.07 in a fortnight, and the rent of $9 would be taken directly out of his paycheck, leaving him with just 7 cents to feed his family. One worker later testified: "I have seen men with families of eight or nine children crying because they got only three or four cents after paying their rent." Another described conditions as "slavery worse than that of Negroes of the South."
On May 12, 1894 the workers went on strike.
The American Railway Union was led by Eugene Victor Debs, a pacifist and socialist who later founded the Socialist Party of America and was its candidate for president in five elections. Under the leadership of Debs, sympathetic railroad workers across the nation tied up rail traffic to the Pacific. The so-called "Debs Rebellion" had begun.
Arcade Building with strikers and soldiers Debs gave Pullman five days to respond to the union demands but Pullman refused even to negotiate (leading another industrialist to yell, "The damned idiot ought to arbitrate, arbitrate and arbitrate! ...A man who won't meet his own men halfway is a God-damn fool!"). Instead, Pullman locked up his home and business and left town.
On June 26, all Pullman cars were cut from trains. When union members were fired, entire rail lines were shut down, and Chicago was besieged. One consequence was a blockade of the federal mail, and Debs agreed to let isolated mail cars into the city. Rail owners mixed mail cars into all their trains however, and then called in the federal government when the mail failed to get through.
Debs could not pacify the pent-up frustrations of the exploited workers, and violence broke out between rioters and the federal troops that were sent to protect the mail. On July 8, soldiers began shooting strikers. That was the beginning of the end of the strike. By the end of the month, 34 people had been killed, the strikers were dispersed, the troops were gone, the courts had sided with the railway owners, and Debs was in jail for contempt of court.
Pullman's reputation was soiled by the strike, and then officially tarnished by the presidential commission that investigated the incident. The national commission report found Pullman's paternalism partly to blame and described Pullman's company town as "un-American." The report condemned Pullman for refusing to negotiate and for the economic hardships he created for workers in the town of Pullman. "The aesthetic features are admired by visitors, but have little money value to employees, especially when they lack bread." The State of Illinois filed suit, and in 1898 the Supreme Court of Illinois forced the Pullman Company to divest ownership in the town, which was annexed to Chicago.
In 1897, Pullman died of a heart attack at the age of 66, only three years after the strike. Fearing that some of his former employees or other labor supporters might try to dig up his body, his family arranged for his remains to be placed in a lead-lined mahogany coffin, which was then sealed inside a block of concrete. At the cemetery, a large pit had been dug at the family plot. At its base and walls were 18 inches of reinforced concrete. The coffin was lowered, and covered with asphalt and tarpaper. More concrete was poured on top, followed by a layer of steel rails bolted together at right angles, and another layer of concrete. The entire burial process took two days. His monument, featuring a Corinthian column flanked by curved stone benches, was designed by Solon Spencer Beman, the architect of the company town of Pullman.
Pullman was identified with various public enterprises, among them the Metropolitan elevated railway system of New York. It was constructed and opened to the public by a corporation of which he was president.
The Pullman Company merged in 1930 with Standard Steel Car Company to become Pullman-Standard, which built its last car for Amtrak in 1982. After delivery the Pullman-Standard plant stayed in limbo, and eventually shut down. In 1987, its remaining assets were absorbed by Bombardier. | <urn:uuid:cf9e7214-9277-4780-aff4-9761b32b68ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://everything.explained.today/George_Pullman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.981262 | 2,924 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.204876974225044... | 1 | |Birth Name:||George Pullman|
|Birth Date:||3 March 1831|
|Birth Place:||Brocton, New York|
|Death Place:||Chicago, Illinois|
|Spouse:||Hattie Amelia Sanger (1843–1922)|
|Parents:||James Lewis Pullman (1800–1852)|
Emily Caroline Minton (1808–1892)
Walter Sanger (1876–1905)
|Signature:||Appletons' Pullman George Mortimer signature.jpg|
|Net Worth:||USD $17.5 million at the time of his death (approximately 1/835th of US GNP)|
George Mortimer Pullman (March 3, 1831 – October 19, 1897) was an American engineer and industrialist. He designed and manufactured the Pullman sleeping car and founded a company town, Pullman, for the workers who manufactured it. His Pullman Company also hired African-American men to staff the Pullman cars, who became known and widely respected as Pullman porters, providing elite service.
Struggling to maintain profitability during an 1894 downturn in manufacturing demand, he halved wages and required workers to spend long hours at the plant, but did not lower prices of rents and goods in his company town. He gained presidential support by Grover Cleveland for the use of federal military troops which left 30 strikers dead in the violent suppression of workers there to end the Pullman Strike of 1894. A national commission was appointed to investigate the strike, which included assessment of operations of the company town. In 1898 the Supreme Court of Illinois ordered the Pullman Company to divest itself of the town, which became a neighbourhood of the city of Chicago.
Pullman was born in 1831 in Brocton, New York, the son of Emily Caroline (Minton) and carpenter James Lewis Pullman. His family moved to Albion, New York, along the Erie Canal in 1845, so his father could help widen the canal. His father had invented a machine using jackscrews that could move buildings or other structures out of the way and onto new foundations and had patented it in 1841. By that time, packet boats carried people on day excursions along the canal, plus travellers and freight craft would be towed across the state along the busy canal.
Pullman attended local schools and helped his father, learning other skills that contributed to his later success. However, the youth dropped out of school. In 1855 his father died. Pullman had first worked as a clerk for a country merchant, but now he took over the family business and a year after his father's death won a contract with the State of New York to move 20 buildings out of the way of the widening canal.
He moved to Chicago as a young engineer in 1857. Chicago was then a boom town expanding rapidly. Pullman arrived in Chicago as that city prepared to build the nation's first comprehensive sewer system. He soon formed a partnership known as Ely, Smith & Pullman.
Chicago was built on a low-lying bog, and people described the mud in the streets as deep enough to drown a horse. The growing city needed a sewer system, and Pullman's became one of several companies hired to lift multi-story buildings four to six feet—to both allow sewers to be constructed and to improve the foundations. The project would involve effectively raising the street level 6–8 feet, first constructing the sewers at ground level, then covering them. The Ely, Smith & Pullman partnership gained favorable publicity for raising the massive Tremont House, a six-story brick hotel, while the guests remained inside.
He developed a railroad sleeping car, the Pullman sleeper or "palace car." These were designed after the packet boats that travelled the Erie Canal of his youth in Albion. The first one was finished in 1864.
After President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, Pullman arranged to have his body carried from Washington, D.C. to Springfield on a sleeper, for which he gained national attention, as hundreds of thousands of people lined the route in homage. Lincoln's body was carried on the Presidential train car that Lincoln himself had commissioned that year. Pullman had cars in the train, notably for the President's surviving family. The pullman had a wider wheel set, requiring wider track. And as a result of the many people seeing the Palace car, it became sought after and resulted in a major change to all rail track widths. Orders for his new car began to pour into his company. The sleeping cars proved successful although each cost more than five times the price of a regular railway car. They were marketed as "luxury for the middle class."
In 1867 Pullman introduced his first "hotel on wheels," the President, a sleeper with an attached kitchen and dining car. The food rivaled the best restaurants of the day and the service was impeccable. A year later in 1868, he launched the Delmonico, the world's first sleeping car devoted to fine cuisine. The Delmonico menu was prepared by chefs from New York's famed Delmonico's Restaurant.
Both the President and the Delmonico and subsequent Pullman sleeping cars offered first-rate service. The company hired African-American freedmen as Pullman porters. Many of the men had been former domestic slaves in the South. Their new roles required them to act as porters, waiters, valets, and entertainers, all rolled into one person. As they were paid relatively well and got to travel the country, the position became considered prestigious, and Pullman porters were respected in the black communities.
Pullman believed that if his sleeper cars were to be successful, he needed to provide a wide variety of services to travelers: collecting tickets, selling berths, dispatching wires, fetching sandwiches, mending torn trousers, converting day coaches into sleepers, etc. Pullman believed that former house slaves of the plantation South had the right combination of training to serve the businessmen who would patronize his "Palace Cars." Pullman became the biggest single employer of African Americans in post-Civil War America.
In 1869 Pullman bought out the Detroit Car and Manufacturing Company. He bought the patents and business of his eastern competitor, the Central Transportation Company in 1870. In the spring of 1871, Pullman, Andrew Carnegie, and others bailed out the financially troubled Union Pacific; they took positions on its board of directors. By 1875 the Pullman firm owned $100,000 worth of patents, had 700 cars in operation, and had several hundred thousand dollars in the bank.
In 1887, Pullman designed and established the system of "vestibuled trains," with cars linked by covered gangways instead of open platforms. The vestibules were first put in service on the Pennsylvania Railroad trunk lines. The French social scientist Paul de Rousiers (1857–1934), who visited Chicago in 1890, wrote of Pullman's manufacturing complex, "Everything is done in order and with precision. One feels that some brain of superior intelligence, backed by a long technical experience, has thought out every possible detail."
See main article: Pullman, Chicago. In 1880 Pullman bought 4000acres, near Lake Calumet some 14miles south of Chicago, on the Illinois Central Railroad for $800,000. He hired Solon Spencer Beman to design his new plant there. Trying to solve the issue of labor unrest and poverty, he also built a company town adjacent to his factory; it featured housing, shopping areas, churches, theaters, parks, hotel and library for his factory employees. The 1300 original structures were entirely designed by Beman. The centerpiece of the complex was the Administration Building and a man-made lake. The Hotel Florence, named for Pullman's daughter, was built nearby.
Pullman believed that the country air and fine facilities, without agitators, saloons and city vice districts, would result in a happy, loyal workforce. The model planned community became a leading attraction for visitors who attended the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. It attracted nationwide attention. The national press praised Pullman for his benevolence and vision. According to mortality statistics, it was one of the most healthful places in the world.
The industrialist still expected the town to make money as an enterprise. By 1892 the community, profitable in its own right, was valued at over $5 million. Pullman ruled the town like a feudal baron. He prohibited independent newspapers, public speeches, town meetings or open discussion. His inspectors regularly entered homes to inspect for cleanliness and could terminate workers' leases on ten days' notice. The church stood empty since no approved denomination would pay rent, and no other congregation was allowed. He prohibited private charitable organizations. In 1885 Richard Ely wrote in Harper's Weekly that the power exercised by Otto Von Bismarck (known as the unifier of modern Germany), was "utterly insignificant when compared with the ruling authority of the Pullman Palace Car Company in Pullman."
The Pullman community is a historic district that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
See main article: Pullman strike. In 1894, when manufacturing demand fell off, Pullman cut jobs and wages and increased working hours in his plant to lower costs and keep profits, but he did not lower rents or prices in the company town. The workers eventually launched a strike. When violence broke out, he gained the support of President Grover Cleveland for the use of United States troops. Cleveland sent in the troops, who harshly suppressed the strike in action that caused many injuries, over the objections of the Illinois governor, John Altgeld.
In the winter of 1893-4, at the start of a depression, Pullman decided to cut wages by 30%. This was not unusual in the age of the robber barons, but he didn't reduce the rent in Pullman, because he had guaranteed his investors a 6% return on their investments in the town. A workman might make $9.07 in a fortnight, and the rent of $9 would be taken directly out of his paycheck, leaving him with just 7 cents to feed his family. One worker later testified: "I have seen men with families of eight or nine children crying because they got only three or four cents after paying their rent." Another described conditions as "slavery worse than that of Negroes of the South."
On May 12, 1894 the workers went on strike.
The American Railway Union was led by Eugene Victor Debs, a pacifist and socialist who later founded the Socialist Party of America and was its candidate for president in five elections. Under the leadership of Debs, sympathetic railroad workers across the nation tied up rail traffic to the Pacific. The so-called "Debs Rebellion" had begun.
Arcade Building with strikers and soldiers Debs gave Pullman five days to respond to the union demands but Pullman refused even to negotiate (leading another industrialist to yell, "The damned idiot ought to arbitrate, arbitrate and arbitrate! ...A man who won't meet his own men halfway is a God-damn fool!"). Instead, Pullman locked up his home and business and left town.
On June 26, all Pullman cars were cut from trains. When union members were fired, entire rail lines were shut down, and Chicago was besieged. One consequence was a blockade of the federal mail, and Debs agreed to let isolated mail cars into the city. Rail owners mixed mail cars into all their trains however, and then called in the federal government when the mail failed to get through.
Debs could not pacify the pent-up frustrations of the exploited workers, and violence broke out between rioters and the federal troops that were sent to protect the mail. On July 8, soldiers began shooting strikers. That was the beginning of the end of the strike. By the end of the month, 34 people had been killed, the strikers were dispersed, the troops were gone, the courts had sided with the railway owners, and Debs was in jail for contempt of court.
Pullman's reputation was soiled by the strike, and then officially tarnished by the presidential commission that investigated the incident. The national commission report found Pullman's paternalism partly to blame and described Pullman's company town as "un-American." The report condemned Pullman for refusing to negotiate and for the economic hardships he created for workers in the town of Pullman. "The aesthetic features are admired by visitors, but have little money value to employees, especially when they lack bread." The State of Illinois filed suit, and in 1898 the Supreme Court of Illinois forced the Pullman Company to divest ownership in the town, which was annexed to Chicago.
In 1897, Pullman died of a heart attack at the age of 66, only three years after the strike. Fearing that some of his former employees or other labor supporters might try to dig up his body, his family arranged for his remains to be placed in a lead-lined mahogany coffin, which was then sealed inside a block of concrete. At the cemetery, a large pit had been dug at the family plot. At its base and walls were 18 inches of reinforced concrete. The coffin was lowered, and covered with asphalt and tarpaper. More concrete was poured on top, followed by a layer of steel rails bolted together at right angles, and another layer of concrete. The entire burial process took two days. His monument, featuring a Corinthian column flanked by curved stone benches, was designed by Solon Spencer Beman, the architect of the company town of Pullman.
Pullman was identified with various public enterprises, among them the Metropolitan elevated railway system of New York. It was constructed and opened to the public by a corporation of which he was president.
The Pullman Company merged in 1930 with Standard Steel Car Company to become Pullman-Standard, which built its last car for Amtrak in 1982. After delivery the Pullman-Standard plant stayed in limbo, and eventually shut down. In 1987, its remaining assets were absorbed by Bombardier. | 3,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War II was a great tragedy claiming about sixty million lives and destroying lots of property. When you think about World War II, most people would think about saving lives and art would be the last thing that would come to mind.
A lot has been, is and shall still be remembered about the Manod mine, a quarry that played a big role in the saving of priceless treasures during the World War II
“Hide them in caves and cellars, but not one picture shall leave this island", these are the words of Winston Churchill, a hero who is not only remembered for his sayings, but also his bravery and participation in saving art. For art lovers, just Winston, one would not have to explain much on the value of art. By just one look, an art lover would interpret the worth of a piece of art.
-The Mona Lisa
For decades now, art lovers have been awed by this mysterious oil painting by an Italian artist, Leonardo da Vinci. The Mona Lisa which is likely to have been completed in 1506 portrays a woman set against a landscape while sitting. Why is it still famous? The artist’s idea of painting the woman who slightly gazes at a viewer with a soft smile makes many viewers see it as a representation of what happiness is.
How about the painting In the Conservatory?
A painting by Edouard Manet, which portrays his close friends, the Guillemets, a wealthy married couple who owned a clothing shop.
In the painting the woman is dressed in yellow details as a large part of her outfit and is the main subject. She is sitted in a upright posture facing forward, while on the other side behind the bench stands her husband dressed in a black suit, slouched looking towards the woman.
The painting brings about a sense of detachment between the couple as the woman appears to be annoyed while the man appears to be adoring her.
These are some of the most famous paintings that are appreciated from generation to generation. However, the history of their existence to date, was not that smooth. During World War II, The National Gallery was attacked and bombed a number of times between October 1940 and April 1941.
During this period, much of the art was destroyed, some were stolen never to be seen again, and although a good number got saved, the hustle to keep them in a safe location was too much. Now this is where the Manod mine comes in.
Artists, such as Winston Churchill, who was a British politician, army officer, and a writer before he discovered the pleasures of painting at forty, took it upon themselves to save the art.
Keeping artworks in a mine, underground, sounds surreal but this actually happened.
In September 1940, the National Gallery’s adviser Francis Rawlings visited the Manod slated mine and found five chambers which he deemed fit to be converted into secret storages for the art.
However it took up to the year 1941 to convert the chambers into deep shelters, after which the art at the National Gallery was moved by rail and road, and stored safely in the Manod mine, North Wales
The Manod project proved success that in the 1950’s, long enough after the national gallery was on the walls of London, it was the planned destination for Britain’s priceless art work in the event of world war III.
Recently, there has been a national gallery exhibition title ‘Manod which showed how the art was relocated to the mine. The curator of the exhibition Minna Moore-Ede proved delighted with the historical project by sharing her sentiments “Keeping masterpieces in a mine doesn’t sound like a great plan – but the paintings were actually “very happy down there”. ‘
That actually the human race could take it upon itself to save artwork at such a desperate time, proves that art lovers who knew the worth of art existed before, will still exist and will never become extinct. | <urn:uuid:e2f97104-91b3-4c9f-967b-8b368572c1ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ny-artnews.com/single-post/2018/06/09/AN-ART-MINE | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.98165 | 818 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.87253063917... | 3 | World War II was a great tragedy claiming about sixty million lives and destroying lots of property. When you think about World War II, most people would think about saving lives and art would be the last thing that would come to mind.
A lot has been, is and shall still be remembered about the Manod mine, a quarry that played a big role in the saving of priceless treasures during the World War II
“Hide them in caves and cellars, but not one picture shall leave this island", these are the words of Winston Churchill, a hero who is not only remembered for his sayings, but also his bravery and participation in saving art. For art lovers, just Winston, one would not have to explain much on the value of art. By just one look, an art lover would interpret the worth of a piece of art.
-The Mona Lisa
For decades now, art lovers have been awed by this mysterious oil painting by an Italian artist, Leonardo da Vinci. The Mona Lisa which is likely to have been completed in 1506 portrays a woman set against a landscape while sitting. Why is it still famous? The artist’s idea of painting the woman who slightly gazes at a viewer with a soft smile makes many viewers see it as a representation of what happiness is.
How about the painting In the Conservatory?
A painting by Edouard Manet, which portrays his close friends, the Guillemets, a wealthy married couple who owned a clothing shop.
In the painting the woman is dressed in yellow details as a large part of her outfit and is the main subject. She is sitted in a upright posture facing forward, while on the other side behind the bench stands her husband dressed in a black suit, slouched looking towards the woman.
The painting brings about a sense of detachment between the couple as the woman appears to be annoyed while the man appears to be adoring her.
These are some of the most famous paintings that are appreciated from generation to generation. However, the history of their existence to date, was not that smooth. During World War II, The National Gallery was attacked and bombed a number of times between October 1940 and April 1941.
During this period, much of the art was destroyed, some were stolen never to be seen again, and although a good number got saved, the hustle to keep them in a safe location was too much. Now this is where the Manod mine comes in.
Artists, such as Winston Churchill, who was a British politician, army officer, and a writer before he discovered the pleasures of painting at forty, took it upon themselves to save the art.
Keeping artworks in a mine, underground, sounds surreal but this actually happened.
In September 1940, the National Gallery’s adviser Francis Rawlings visited the Manod slated mine and found five chambers which he deemed fit to be converted into secret storages for the art.
However it took up to the year 1941 to convert the chambers into deep shelters, after which the art at the National Gallery was moved by rail and road, and stored safely in the Manod mine, North Wales
The Manod project proved success that in the 1950’s, long enough after the national gallery was on the walls of London, it was the planned destination for Britain’s priceless art work in the event of world war III.
Recently, there has been a national gallery exhibition title ‘Manod which showed how the art was relocated to the mine. The curator of the exhibition Minna Moore-Ede proved delighted with the historical project by sharing her sentiments “Keeping masterpieces in a mine doesn’t sound like a great plan – but the paintings were actually “very happy down there”. ‘
That actually the human race could take it upon itself to save artwork at such a desperate time, proves that art lovers who knew the worth of art existed before, will still exist and will never become extinct. | 802 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During blackouts every trace of light had to be blacked out. Special blackout fabric was made available to cover windows. Bulbs were removed from lamps and car headlights had to be covered with special stickers. Street signs were also removed so that streets could not be identified by invading forces or from the air.
Shops were fitted with an extra front door to make sure light didn’t escape when people went in and out of the shop.
During the war there were a lot of road accidents. People still had to go about their business as usual - going to work and school, or going out in the evening - but it was far more dangerous. There were no car lights or streetlights, and damage caused by bombs meant there were potholes and rubble in the road and on the pavement. A lot of people had road accidents because of this.
Take a look at the newspaper article below from the Hull Daily Mail from December 1940. What do you think could be done to stop all these traffic accidents? | <urn:uuid:1d7d6a07-be2a-4938-a6da-bd0529ea9ac2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mylearning.org/stories/the-hull-blitz/374 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.995372 | 206 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | During blackouts every trace of light had to be blacked out. Special blackout fabric was made available to cover windows. Bulbs were removed from lamps and car headlights had to be covered with special stickers. Street signs were also removed so that streets could not be identified by invading forces or from the air.
Shops were fitted with an extra front door to make sure light didn’t escape when people went in and out of the shop.
During the war there were a lot of road accidents. People still had to go about their business as usual - going to work and school, or going out in the evening - but it was far more dangerous. There were no car lights or streetlights, and damage caused by bombs meant there were potholes and rubble in the road and on the pavement. A lot of people had road accidents because of this.
Take a look at the newspaper article below from the Hull Daily Mail from December 1940. What do you think could be done to stop all these traffic accidents? | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Caesarea is a city that is heavily featured in the Acts of the Apostles. Today, the ancient city lies in ruins two kilometres from a modern city of the same name. To differentiate between the two, the Biblical city is now known as Caesarea Maritima and is located within an Israeli national park in the Sharon Plains on the coast of the Mediterranean.
Herod the Great constructed Caesarea (Maritima) between 22 and 9 BC. Before then, Straton I, king of Sidon (365-352 BC) had built a tower on the land, which may have been used as a storehouse. In 90 BC, Alexander Jannaeus, a Hasmonean King of Judea, captured the tower and developed the area into a shipping industry. It remained under Jewish control until 63 BC when the land was taken over by the Romans. The city was awarded to Herod the Great in 30 BC and he began to make vast changes, which included renaming it Caesarea after the Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus. Other developments included a harbour named Sebastos, storerooms, market places, roads, temples and public baths.
In 6 AD, Judea became a Roman province and Caesarea replaced Jerusalem as the capital. The city was the home of Roman governors, including the prefect Pontius Pilate who, as we know, ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. A block of carved limestone was discovered in 1961 bearing the inscription “To the Divine Augusti [this] Tiberieum...Pontius Pilate...prefect of Judea...has dedicated [this]” which confirms Pilate lived in the area.
If the writings of the 1st-century historian, Josephus, are to be believed, Caesarea’s harbour was as large as the harbour in Athens. The city became the largest in Judea, spreading over 1.4 square miles and provided homes for 125,000 people. During the reign of Emperor Vespasian (69-79 AD) the city was raised to the status of a Colonia and renamed Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea.
Caesarea is first mentioned in Acts 8:40: “Philip, however, appeared at Azotus and travelled about, preaching the gospel in all the towns until he reached Caesarea.” Philip the Evangelist was responsible for introducing Christianity to Caesarea. One of the converts, possibly the first gentile to convert to Christianity, was Cornelius the Centurion. “At Caesarea there was a man named Cornelius, a centurion in what was known as the Italian Regiment.” (Acts 10:1) Peter the Apostle was also involved in the spread of Christianity and when Cornelius heard that Peter was nearby, he requested a visit. “The following day [Peter] arrived in Caesarea. Cornelius was expecting them and had called together his relatives and close friends.” (Acts 10:24) Following this, Cornelius was baptised, which again was a first for the gentiles.
Naturally, the Jewish converts were concerned about a gentile becoming a Christian and being baptised, so they began to criticise him. Peter defended himself and explained his actions, retelling the story of Cornelius’ baptism from his perspective. “Right then three men who had been sent to me from Caesarea stopped at the house where I was staying. The Spirit told me to have no hesitation about going with them.” (Acts 11:11-12)
Unfortunately, Peter’s explanation did not please everyone and he eventually ended up in prison after being seized by King Herod Agrippa. An angel of the Lord, however, helped Peter escape and the next day, Herod began thoroughly searching for the fugitive. “After Herod had a thorough search made for him and did not find him, he cross-examined the guards and ordered that they be executed. Then Herod went from Judea to Caesarea and stayed there.” (Acts 12:19) Shortly afterwards, Herod was struck down by the Lord for not allowing God’s word to flourish, and “he was eaten by worms and died.” (Acts 12:23)
Another apostle loosely associated with Caesarea was the convert Paul, previously Saul. In Acts 21, Paul “reached Caesarea and stayed at the house of Philip the evangelist.” (Acts 21:8) Whilst there, Philip prophesied that Paul would be bound by his belt in Jerusalem and handed over to the gentiles. Although people implored Paul to stay in Caesarea, he assured that he was “ready not only to be bound, but also to die in Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus.” (Acts 21:13)
As Philip predicted, Paul was arrested in Jerusalem, however, some people wanted to go one step further and have him killed. To save his life, a commander ordered his centurions to “Get ready a detachment of two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen and two hundred spearmento go to Caesarea at nine tonight. Provide horses for Paul so that he may be taken safely to Governor Felix.” (Acts 23:23-24) Paul stayed in Caesarea for two years until he was transferred to Rome.
After this, Caesarea is never mentioned in the Bible again, however, there are other works and literature that reveal a little more information about the city. Some say the Nicene Creed may have originated in Caesarea and the early Christian scholar Origen wrote some of his theological works whilst living in the city. The Apostolic Constitution, which was written somewhere between 375 and 380 AD suggests that Cornelius the Centurion became the second Bishop of Caesarea and was followed by Theophilus, the possible addressee of the Gospel of Luke.
Caesarea became the capital of the Byzantine province Palaestina Prima in 390 AD. It remained the capital until the early 7th century when the Sasanid Empire of Persia conquered it during the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628. The Byzantine Empire managed to temporarily re-conquer Caesarea in 625; however, it was permanently lost to them after the Muslim conquest in 640, during which time the city was partially destroyed. People may have continued to live in the remains of Caesarea and the harbour still functioned until the 9th century.
According to accounts written of the First Crusade, which began in 1101, Caesarea had been rebuilt and fortified. The Crusaders took control of the city until 1191 when Saladin, the Egyptian sultan captured it in 1187. The Crusaders won back their control in 1191 and, during the following century, Caesarea was fortified with high walls and a moat on the orders of Louis IX of France. Unfortunately, the fortifications were not enough to keep Mamluk armies out and the city fell for good in 1265.
In 1952, the modern city of Caesarea was established as a Jewish town near the ruins of the old city. Excavation work began in Caesarea Maritima, unearthing mosaics, foundations of buildings and, most recently, 24 gold coins dating to the Crusader period.
In the Bible, people occasionally confuse Caesarea with another place of a similar name. Caesarea Philippi (Philip’s Caesarea) is mentioned twice in the Gospels. This is not the same place as Caesarea Maritima and may have been called Baal Gad in the Old Testament. “… Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon below Mount Hermon.” (Joshua 11:17) Caesarea Philippi is now an almost uninhabited archaeological site in the Golan Heights.
Philip II named Caesarea Philippi in honour of Caesar Augustus. It was generally known as Caesarea, however, the New Testament refers to it as Caesarea Philippi to differentiate from the other Caesarea. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus came near to Caesarea Philippi but there is no record that he entered the city. “When Jesus came to the region of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, ‘Who do people say the Son of Man is?’” It was at this time that Simon Peter declared that Jesus was the Messiah and Jesus promised him keys to the kingdom of heaven. This is also recorded in the Gospel of Mark, which states, “Jesus and his disciples went on to the villages around Caesarea Philippi.”
Just for fun, did you know there was a saint who once lived in Caesarea (Maritima)? Saint Albina was a young woman from Caesarea who died a martyr in 250 AD during the reign of the Roman Emperor Decius. It is not certain whether she died in Caesarea or another city, however, Greek tradition states that after her death, her remains were miraculously transported to the Italian city of Gaeta, where they remain today.
We are happy for you to use any material found here, however, please acknowledge the source: www.gantshillurc.co.uk
Rev'd Martin Wheadon | <urn:uuid:8639d6d4-998d-4bce-9d3d-8fc842779564> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gantshillurc.co.uk/ministers-blog/caesarea-towns-and-cities-in-the-bible | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.981674 | 1,937 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.22832630574703217... | 11 | Caesarea is a city that is heavily featured in the Acts of the Apostles. Today, the ancient city lies in ruins two kilometres from a modern city of the same name. To differentiate between the two, the Biblical city is now known as Caesarea Maritima and is located within an Israeli national park in the Sharon Plains on the coast of the Mediterranean.
Herod the Great constructed Caesarea (Maritima) between 22 and 9 BC. Before then, Straton I, king of Sidon (365-352 BC) had built a tower on the land, which may have been used as a storehouse. In 90 BC, Alexander Jannaeus, a Hasmonean King of Judea, captured the tower and developed the area into a shipping industry. It remained under Jewish control until 63 BC when the land was taken over by the Romans. The city was awarded to Herod the Great in 30 BC and he began to make vast changes, which included renaming it Caesarea after the Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus. Other developments included a harbour named Sebastos, storerooms, market places, roads, temples and public baths.
In 6 AD, Judea became a Roman province and Caesarea replaced Jerusalem as the capital. The city was the home of Roman governors, including the prefect Pontius Pilate who, as we know, ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. A block of carved limestone was discovered in 1961 bearing the inscription “To the Divine Augusti [this] Tiberieum...Pontius Pilate...prefect of Judea...has dedicated [this]” which confirms Pilate lived in the area.
If the writings of the 1st-century historian, Josephus, are to be believed, Caesarea’s harbour was as large as the harbour in Athens. The city became the largest in Judea, spreading over 1.4 square miles and provided homes for 125,000 people. During the reign of Emperor Vespasian (69-79 AD) the city was raised to the status of a Colonia and renamed Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea.
Caesarea is first mentioned in Acts 8:40: “Philip, however, appeared at Azotus and travelled about, preaching the gospel in all the towns until he reached Caesarea.” Philip the Evangelist was responsible for introducing Christianity to Caesarea. One of the converts, possibly the first gentile to convert to Christianity, was Cornelius the Centurion. “At Caesarea there was a man named Cornelius, a centurion in what was known as the Italian Regiment.” (Acts 10:1) Peter the Apostle was also involved in the spread of Christianity and when Cornelius heard that Peter was nearby, he requested a visit. “The following day [Peter] arrived in Caesarea. Cornelius was expecting them and had called together his relatives and close friends.” (Acts 10:24) Following this, Cornelius was baptised, which again was a first for the gentiles.
Naturally, the Jewish converts were concerned about a gentile becoming a Christian and being baptised, so they began to criticise him. Peter defended himself and explained his actions, retelling the story of Cornelius’ baptism from his perspective. “Right then three men who had been sent to me from Caesarea stopped at the house where I was staying. The Spirit told me to have no hesitation about going with them.” (Acts 11:11-12)
Unfortunately, Peter’s explanation did not please everyone and he eventually ended up in prison after being seized by King Herod Agrippa. An angel of the Lord, however, helped Peter escape and the next day, Herod began thoroughly searching for the fugitive. “After Herod had a thorough search made for him and did not find him, he cross-examined the guards and ordered that they be executed. Then Herod went from Judea to Caesarea and stayed there.” (Acts 12:19) Shortly afterwards, Herod was struck down by the Lord for not allowing God’s word to flourish, and “he was eaten by worms and died.” (Acts 12:23)
Another apostle loosely associated with Caesarea was the convert Paul, previously Saul. In Acts 21, Paul “reached Caesarea and stayed at the house of Philip the evangelist.” (Acts 21:8) Whilst there, Philip prophesied that Paul would be bound by his belt in Jerusalem and handed over to the gentiles. Although people implored Paul to stay in Caesarea, he assured that he was “ready not only to be bound, but also to die in Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus.” (Acts 21:13)
As Philip predicted, Paul was arrested in Jerusalem, however, some people wanted to go one step further and have him killed. To save his life, a commander ordered his centurions to “Get ready a detachment of two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen and two hundred spearmento go to Caesarea at nine tonight. Provide horses for Paul so that he may be taken safely to Governor Felix.” (Acts 23:23-24) Paul stayed in Caesarea for two years until he was transferred to Rome.
After this, Caesarea is never mentioned in the Bible again, however, there are other works and literature that reveal a little more information about the city. Some say the Nicene Creed may have originated in Caesarea and the early Christian scholar Origen wrote some of his theological works whilst living in the city. The Apostolic Constitution, which was written somewhere between 375 and 380 AD suggests that Cornelius the Centurion became the second Bishop of Caesarea and was followed by Theophilus, the possible addressee of the Gospel of Luke.
Caesarea became the capital of the Byzantine province Palaestina Prima in 390 AD. It remained the capital until the early 7th century when the Sasanid Empire of Persia conquered it during the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628. The Byzantine Empire managed to temporarily re-conquer Caesarea in 625; however, it was permanently lost to them after the Muslim conquest in 640, during which time the city was partially destroyed. People may have continued to live in the remains of Caesarea and the harbour still functioned until the 9th century.
According to accounts written of the First Crusade, which began in 1101, Caesarea had been rebuilt and fortified. The Crusaders took control of the city until 1191 when Saladin, the Egyptian sultan captured it in 1187. The Crusaders won back their control in 1191 and, during the following century, Caesarea was fortified with high walls and a moat on the orders of Louis IX of France. Unfortunately, the fortifications were not enough to keep Mamluk armies out and the city fell for good in 1265.
In 1952, the modern city of Caesarea was established as a Jewish town near the ruins of the old city. Excavation work began in Caesarea Maritima, unearthing mosaics, foundations of buildings and, most recently, 24 gold coins dating to the Crusader period.
In the Bible, people occasionally confuse Caesarea with another place of a similar name. Caesarea Philippi (Philip’s Caesarea) is mentioned twice in the Gospels. This is not the same place as Caesarea Maritima and may have been called Baal Gad in the Old Testament. “… Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon below Mount Hermon.” (Joshua 11:17) Caesarea Philippi is now an almost uninhabited archaeological site in the Golan Heights.
Philip II named Caesarea Philippi in honour of Caesar Augustus. It was generally known as Caesarea, however, the New Testament refers to it as Caesarea Philippi to differentiate from the other Caesarea. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus came near to Caesarea Philippi but there is no record that he entered the city. “When Jesus came to the region of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, ‘Who do people say the Son of Man is?’” It was at this time that Simon Peter declared that Jesus was the Messiah and Jesus promised him keys to the kingdom of heaven. This is also recorded in the Gospel of Mark, which states, “Jesus and his disciples went on to the villages around Caesarea Philippi.”
Just for fun, did you know there was a saint who once lived in Caesarea (Maritima)? Saint Albina was a young woman from Caesarea who died a martyr in 250 AD during the reign of the Roman Emperor Decius. It is not certain whether she died in Caesarea or another city, however, Greek tradition states that after her death, her remains were miraculously transported to the Italian city of Gaeta, where they remain today.
We are happy for you to use any material found here, however, please acknowledge the source: www.gantshillurc.co.uk
Rev'd Martin Wheadon | 1,986 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lumbering in Saginaw
Discover how Saginaw became the lumber capital of the world.
The Saginaw Valley was the leading lumbering area in Michigan between 1840 and 1860. Rapid growth continued, and by 1869, the Saginaw Valley alone was earning $7 million yearly. By 1870, the lumber industry was the country’s largest employer and the Saginaw Valley boasted 80 sawmills. Despite predictions, these “boom times” would last 50 years or more, but it all ended as suddenly as it began.
The Museum brings this period to life with its extensive collection of historic images, tools and equipment, log marks and other artifacts on lumbering. Learn about the logging process, what life was like in the logging camp, where the prominent sawmills were located in Saginaw and how the logs were transported both by land and by water. | <urn:uuid:36dad61e-46a9-44b4-b95a-645dd4df1e16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.castlemuseum.org/lumbering-in-saginaw | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.986484 | 185 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 9 | Lumbering in Saginaw
Discover how Saginaw became the lumber capital of the world.
The Saginaw Valley was the leading lumbering area in Michigan between 1840 and 1860. Rapid growth continued, and by 1869, the Saginaw Valley alone was earning $7 million yearly. By 1870, the lumber industry was the country’s largest employer and the Saginaw Valley boasted 80 sawmills. Despite predictions, these “boom times” would last 50 years or more, but it all ended as suddenly as it began.
The Museum brings this period to life with its extensive collection of historic images, tools and equipment, log marks and other artifacts on lumbering. Learn about the logging process, what life was like in the logging camp, where the prominent sawmills were located in Saginaw and how the logs were transported both by land and by water. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Numerous studies urge people to get adequate amounts of sleep because the health benefits are life changing. Now, scientists shed light on how it can improve your baby's learning ability.
A new study conducted by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany, found infants were able to associate words earlier than previously thought. Babies as young as six to eight months old were able to make the association, the Daily Mail reported.
Babies in the study were introduced to "fantasy objects" which had fantasy names. Objects of the similar type were given the same name but differed in colour and shape, the report revealed.
At first, the babies were unable to connect objects with the name. However, when they took a nap after the learning activity, the babies’ performance improved drastically. They were able to identify and differentiate between the objects.
Researchers found the results were due to a midday nap. 50 minutes to be exact showed significant improvement in their reaction. Sleep researchers believe "had consolidated their knowledge".... | <urn:uuid:11852afc-58f1-4f64-921c-b87e2d64a24e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/health-and-wellbeing/100817/how-sleep-could-help-babies-learn-to-talk-earlier-than-usual.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.985744 | 215 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.4666484594345... | 1 | Numerous studies urge people to get adequate amounts of sleep because the health benefits are life changing. Now, scientists shed light on how it can improve your baby's learning ability.
A new study conducted by scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Leipzig, Germany, found infants were able to associate words earlier than previously thought. Babies as young as six to eight months old were able to make the association, the Daily Mail reported.
Babies in the study were introduced to "fantasy objects" which had fantasy names. Objects of the similar type were given the same name but differed in colour and shape, the report revealed.
At first, the babies were unable to connect objects with the name. However, when they took a nap after the learning activity, the babies’ performance improved drastically. They were able to identify and differentiate between the objects.
Researchers found the results were due to a midday nap. 50 minutes to be exact showed significant improvement in their reaction. Sleep researchers believe "had consolidated their knowledge".... | 210 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the centenary of the armistice of World War One on Sunday 11 November 2018, pet charity Blue Cross is honouring the role animals played in the war – not just a vital part of the war effort, but as companions with whom soldiers forged unbreakable bonds. Watch the short film here: https://we.tl/t-FYRmTso3vS
In World War One, horses and dogs were indispensable. Horses were at the heart of the cavalry, carrying gun carriages, wagons, ambulances and munitions trucks, and dogs of war played an important role as lookouts, messengers and carriers of ammunitions, first-aid packs and injured soldiers.
But the animals were also flesh and blood and extremely vulnerable. It was estimated after World War One that almost 226,000 horses drafted into the British Army lost their lives, by 1917 there were 869, 931 horses in active military service.
While the Red Cross brought relief to the human victims of war there was no similar service for the war’s animal victims, until the Blue Cross arrived to help them.
Then known as the Our Dumb Friends League, Blue Cross set up veterinary care on the front lines, treating injured and sick horses and dogs involved in conflict. By the end of the war, the charity had treated over 50,000 sick and injured horses, and 18,000 dogs, funded entirely by donations from the public.
Blue Cross also helped soldiers who befriended dogs while posted overseas – they had shared food and fears together and many soldiers could not bear to leave them behind. But the price to quarantine the dogs to bring them home was too expensive for most soldiers to afford, so Blue Cross took over the Carlton Kennels in Shooters Hill, London as a dog quarantine station.
Once dogs had passed the required time in quarantine, Blue Cross reunited the pair – often by packing the dog onto a train to be met by their owner at their destination.
Blue Cross Deputy Chief Executive Steve Goody said: “At Blue Cross we know animals change lives every day, but there is no time we see this more profoundly than in times of war. In World War One animals were a huge part of the war effort, and we have an incredible archive filled with images and letters to attest to it.
Blue Cross is immensely proud of the role it played in WWI providing life-saving care to animals, as well as its work reuniting soldiers with the dogs they fought alongside and went through so much with. We think it’s vital to remember the lives of animals who were forced into battles that they had no say in, and to honour the role they played.”
Blue Cross has been helping animals since 1897, and last year we helped almost 30,000 pets with veterinary services at our clinics, rehomed nearly 9,000 pets, and supported over 8,000 grieving people who had lost their pets through our Pet Bereavement Support Service. | <urn:uuid:d7495b4c-cb0c-4ea0-b80b-802654a7cb13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thearabianmagazine.com/blue-cross-remembers-role-of-animals-in-wwi-on-armistice-centenary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.980588 | 607 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.32805752754211... | 8 | On the centenary of the armistice of World War One on Sunday 11 November 2018, pet charity Blue Cross is honouring the role animals played in the war – not just a vital part of the war effort, but as companions with whom soldiers forged unbreakable bonds. Watch the short film here: https://we.tl/t-FYRmTso3vS
In World War One, horses and dogs were indispensable. Horses were at the heart of the cavalry, carrying gun carriages, wagons, ambulances and munitions trucks, and dogs of war played an important role as lookouts, messengers and carriers of ammunitions, first-aid packs and injured soldiers.
But the animals were also flesh and blood and extremely vulnerable. It was estimated after World War One that almost 226,000 horses drafted into the British Army lost their lives, by 1917 there were 869, 931 horses in active military service.
While the Red Cross brought relief to the human victims of war there was no similar service for the war’s animal victims, until the Blue Cross arrived to help them.
Then known as the Our Dumb Friends League, Blue Cross set up veterinary care on the front lines, treating injured and sick horses and dogs involved in conflict. By the end of the war, the charity had treated over 50,000 sick and injured horses, and 18,000 dogs, funded entirely by donations from the public.
Blue Cross also helped soldiers who befriended dogs while posted overseas – they had shared food and fears together and many soldiers could not bear to leave them behind. But the price to quarantine the dogs to bring them home was too expensive for most soldiers to afford, so Blue Cross took over the Carlton Kennels in Shooters Hill, London as a dog quarantine station.
Once dogs had passed the required time in quarantine, Blue Cross reunited the pair – often by packing the dog onto a train to be met by their owner at their destination.
Blue Cross Deputy Chief Executive Steve Goody said: “At Blue Cross we know animals change lives every day, but there is no time we see this more profoundly than in times of war. In World War One animals were a huge part of the war effort, and we have an incredible archive filled with images and letters to attest to it.
Blue Cross is immensely proud of the role it played in WWI providing life-saving care to animals, as well as its work reuniting soldiers with the dogs they fought alongside and went through so much with. We think it’s vital to remember the lives of animals who were forced into battles that they had no say in, and to honour the role they played.”
Blue Cross has been helping animals since 1897, and last year we helped almost 30,000 pets with veterinary services at our clinics, rehomed nearly 9,000 pets, and supported over 8,000 grieving people who had lost their pets through our Pet Bereavement Support Service. | 638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We read a story today about an annoying goose and a bear who were really good friends. The children were given straw beads of one color. The children then had to ask their friends to trade beads so they could have their friend's color on their bracelet. Once children traded beads, they strung them on a pipe cleaner and made a friendship bracelet. The children were so proud of their bracelets. (Skills used: Socialization, Language, Fine Motor) The morning children couldn't go outside to recess because of the rain and lightening this morning. They got to play with shave cream. We practiced making the first letter in their names and simple shapes in the shave cream.
Extra morning activity because morning kids couldn't have
outside recess due to lightening and rain. They enjoyed
getting to use the shave cream. This is a fun home activity.
We read a story about what preschool children do in another classroom. The children in the story made flubber. We decided to make slime in our classroom. Most children enjoyed this sensory activity. We mixed cornstarch and water (approximately 1 cup water to 2 cups cornstarch). This mixture feels like a solid, but as you pick it up, it becomes a liquid. This is a fun activity to do at home with your children. | <urn:uuid:ae01b0ed-6c01-467c-97c9-d45002d35f09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://preschoolmontgomery.blogspot.com/2018/08/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.980102 | 265 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3242720663547516,... | 2 | We read a story today about an annoying goose and a bear who were really good friends. The children were given straw beads of one color. The children then had to ask their friends to trade beads so they could have their friend's color on their bracelet. Once children traded beads, they strung them on a pipe cleaner and made a friendship bracelet. The children were so proud of their bracelets. (Skills used: Socialization, Language, Fine Motor) The morning children couldn't go outside to recess because of the rain and lightening this morning. They got to play with shave cream. We practiced making the first letter in their names and simple shapes in the shave cream.
Extra morning activity because morning kids couldn't have
outside recess due to lightening and rain. They enjoyed
getting to use the shave cream. This is a fun home activity.
We read a story about what preschool children do in another classroom. The children in the story made flubber. We decided to make slime in our classroom. Most children enjoyed this sensory activity. We mixed cornstarch and water (approximately 1 cup water to 2 cups cornstarch). This mixture feels like a solid, but as you pick it up, it becomes a liquid. This is a fun activity to do at home with your children. | 262 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scripture Reference: 2 Samuel 9
Suggested Emphasis: Be kind.
King David remembered his good friend Jonathan. He found out that before Jonathan died, he had had a son named Mephibosheth. David had Mephibosheth brought before him. He gave Mephibosheth all of the land that had belonged to Saul. He also gave him servants and told him that he would always take care of him. He treated him like a son. David did not wait until Mephibosheth asked for help. He gave kindness freely.
Israel was a United Kingdom under David’s rule. After many years of being a nation divided into many parts, Israel now had a central government and a capital, Jerusalem. The tabernacle containing the Ark of the Covenant was now in Jerusalem. This city was now the centre of worship for the nation.
Several years had passed since David became the king. David still missed his good friend Jonathan. Jonathan had died in battle with his father, Saul. David had never forgotten his covenant with Jonathan (1 Samuel 20:15, 42). Though David had suffered greatly because of Saul’s jealous wrath, David did not retaliate against Saul’s family. He did not tolerate abusive treatment of any of the members of Saul’s family. Still, he wished there were something more he could do.
It may seem odd to us that David would try to find out if there were any descendants of Jonathan still living. It was a common practice in Bible-time cultures for a new king who was not descended from the previous king to wipe out all the relatives of the previous king. This was done to prevent any of them from trying to reclaim the throne. David had not wanted Saul’s descendants killed, but he didn’t know for sure what had happened to them. As the assassination of Saul’s other son – Ish-Bosheth (I1 Samuel 4) – had shown, some military men may have taken it upon themselves to kill the members of Saul’s family.
David was told that Mephibosheth, the crippled son of Jonathan, was alive and living near Jerusalem. David immediately ordered his servants to bring Mephibosheth to the palace. When Mephibosheth arrived, he was probably very nervous because he was uncertain of the king’s intentions. The descendants of the deposed king would not want to be brought before the new king.
David, however, surprised Jonathan. David was overjoyed to be able to help the son of his friend Jonathan. David gave Mephibosheth all the lands that had belonged to Saul. This ensured that Mephibosheth and his descendants would always be provided for. In addition, David bestowed a tremendous honour on Mephibosheth – he was to take his meals at the king’s table. David had already ensured that Mephibosheth and his family would not go hungry, so this gesture was not intended to keep Mephibosheth from starving. It symbolized to the nation that David had accepted the grandson of Saul as if Mephibosheth were a member of his own family!
David was far from a perfect person. But he was called a man after God’s own heart (1 Samuel 13:14). God is intimately concerned with the weak and disadvantaged in our world. David demonstrated that same concern in his treatment of Mephibosheth. God calls us to share this same spirit of concern for those who are in need.
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
Write the word “KINDNESS” in bold letters on the middle of a piece of paper. (Or, if the children cannot read yet, copy a small picture depicting kindness onto the middle of a paper) Pass the paper around to each child and tell them to tear off a piece of the paper without tearing any of the letters. Keep passing it around until someone tears the word or until it becomes too difficult. This is just a fun way to begin talking about the word kindness. “What does kindness mean? Has anyone ever been kind to you?” Share your own stories. “In today’s story we are going to learn about a time when King David was very kind to someone.”
Many years had passed since David had become King over all of Israel. He tried to be a very good king. He tried to be kind to everyone. If someone needed help then David tried to be kind and help them. If someone was sad David was kind and tried to do things to make them happy.
Mephibosheth was the son of David’s old friend, Jonathan. Mephibosheth’s father, Jonathan, and Mephibosheth’s grandfather, King Saul, were both dead. They had died when Mephibosheth was just a little boy. When Mephibosheth was a little boy he used to have a nurse to take care of him. On the terrible day when King Saul and Jonathan died, something very bad happened to Mephibosheth. A messenger came and told everyone that Mephibosheth’s father and grandfather were dead. The little boy’s nurse picked him up started to carry him. Somehow the nurse dropped little Mephibosheth. When he fell, Mephibosheth’s legs were badly hurt. They were so badly hurt that, for the rest of his life, he could never walk.
Many years had passed and Mephibosheth was a grown man with his own sons. David did not know about Mephibosheth. He thought all of Jonathan’s sons were dead. Sometimes David remembered what it was like when he and his good friend, Jonathan, used to do fun things together. Jonathan had loved David and David had loved Jonathan.
David remembered the last time he had seen Jonathan. Jonathan had saved David’s life. David remembered a promise he had made to Jonathan. If anything happened to Jonathan, David had promised that he would take care of Jonathan’s family.
The more David thought about Jonathan, the more he wanted to keep his promise. David had an idea. He decided to ask Saul’s old servant, Ziba, about Jonathan’s family.
“Ziba, you were Saul’s servant. You knew Jonathan and his family. Does Jonathan have any children that are still alive,” he asked.
Ziba, Saul’s servant, answered, “There is one son, King David. His name is Mephibosheth. Something very sad happened to Mephibosheth when he was little. He cannot walk.”
“Ziba, I command you to find Mephibosheth and bring him to me.”
Then Ziba went quickly and found Mephibosheth. At first Mephibosheth was afraid to come to meet David. He was worried that David might try to hurt him. Sometimes new kings did that the children and grandchildren of the old king.
But that is not what David did. King David welcomed Mephibosheth. He told him about how Jonathan had been his good friend. The king probably told him about how Jonathan used to give him lots of gifts. King David also told Mephibosheth about the special promise that he had made to Jonathan. The king wanted to do something special for his friend’s grandson.
Mephibosheth could hardly believe what he was hearing! “Oh no, King David, I am not worthy of this honour,” exclaimed Mephibosheth.
“No, Mephibosheth, I promised your father that I would always take care of you. Other people have taken the land that belonged to Saul and Jonathan and your family. I will now give all of it back to you. Also, I would like to make a special place at by table for you. Anytime you want to come and eat with me or visit me at the palace you can come. You will never have to worry about anything because I will always take care of you,” said David.
Mephibosheth went away happily to tell his family the good news. He told everyone about the kind king. David kept his promise to Mephibosheth and took care of him for the rest of his life.
Ways to Tell the Story:
This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion.
Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods.
Click here to download these illustrations and slideshow. Be selective. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson.
- Who was Jonathan’s son? Mephibosheth
- Why was Mephibosheth unable to walk? His nurse had dropped him when he was little
- Why did David take care of Mephibosheth? Because he had promised Jonathan
- What did King David do for Mephibosheth? Gave him all of Saul’s land, invited him to come to the palace and eat whenever he wanted, and said he would always take care of him.
- Love is Something If You Give It Away Song
- Happy all the Time (Inright, outright) Song
- I’ve Got Something in My Pocket Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Make a collage. Use old magazines to find pictures of people being kind. Cut the pictures out and glue them to a poster. Class members could make individual ones or the whole class could do one together.
- Encourage children to act out situations in which people are kind.
- Let volunteers try doing basic tasks (getting around the room, opening a door, carrying something, etc.) without using their legs. Discuss how life must have been like for Mephibosheth.
- Write all of the letters of Mephibosheth’s name on separate cards and then mix them up. Make two sets of cards and let two teams see who can put them in order first.
- Before class, make arrangements with the teacher of the adult bible class. Ask if the children can come in and pass out papers and pencils to the adults. One child can ask them to write the name of Jonathon’s lame son on the paper. Collect all of the papers and take them to class to tally how many knew his name. Kids think it’s great to stump the adults!
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets (Calvary Curriculum)
- Craft: Kindness wreath from http://www.christianitycove.com
- Lesson plan and printable mini booklet at http://gospelhall.org
- Lesson plan at http://storage.cloversites.com | <urn:uuid:9e1a7d9b-454c-4baa-9ef2-2e24ff426f91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://missionbibleclass.org/old-testament/part2/united-kingdom/david-helps-mephibosheth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.985112 | 2,446 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1345284134149... | 7 | Scripture Reference: 2 Samuel 9
Suggested Emphasis: Be kind.
King David remembered his good friend Jonathan. He found out that before Jonathan died, he had had a son named Mephibosheth. David had Mephibosheth brought before him. He gave Mephibosheth all of the land that had belonged to Saul. He also gave him servants and told him that he would always take care of him. He treated him like a son. David did not wait until Mephibosheth asked for help. He gave kindness freely.
Israel was a United Kingdom under David’s rule. After many years of being a nation divided into many parts, Israel now had a central government and a capital, Jerusalem. The tabernacle containing the Ark of the Covenant was now in Jerusalem. This city was now the centre of worship for the nation.
Several years had passed since David became the king. David still missed his good friend Jonathan. Jonathan had died in battle with his father, Saul. David had never forgotten his covenant with Jonathan (1 Samuel 20:15, 42). Though David had suffered greatly because of Saul’s jealous wrath, David did not retaliate against Saul’s family. He did not tolerate abusive treatment of any of the members of Saul’s family. Still, he wished there were something more he could do.
It may seem odd to us that David would try to find out if there were any descendants of Jonathan still living. It was a common practice in Bible-time cultures for a new king who was not descended from the previous king to wipe out all the relatives of the previous king. This was done to prevent any of them from trying to reclaim the throne. David had not wanted Saul’s descendants killed, but he didn’t know for sure what had happened to them. As the assassination of Saul’s other son – Ish-Bosheth (I1 Samuel 4) – had shown, some military men may have taken it upon themselves to kill the members of Saul’s family.
David was told that Mephibosheth, the crippled son of Jonathan, was alive and living near Jerusalem. David immediately ordered his servants to bring Mephibosheth to the palace. When Mephibosheth arrived, he was probably very nervous because he was uncertain of the king’s intentions. The descendants of the deposed king would not want to be brought before the new king.
David, however, surprised Jonathan. David was overjoyed to be able to help the son of his friend Jonathan. David gave Mephibosheth all the lands that had belonged to Saul. This ensured that Mephibosheth and his descendants would always be provided for. In addition, David bestowed a tremendous honour on Mephibosheth – he was to take his meals at the king’s table. David had already ensured that Mephibosheth and his family would not go hungry, so this gesture was not intended to keep Mephibosheth from starving. It symbolized to the nation that David had accepted the grandson of Saul as if Mephibosheth were a member of his own family!
David was far from a perfect person. But he was called a man after God’s own heart (1 Samuel 13:14). God is intimately concerned with the weak and disadvantaged in our world. David demonstrated that same concern in his treatment of Mephibosheth. God calls us to share this same spirit of concern for those who are in need.
- What happened before this story?
- What happens after this story?
- List of all Bible stories and themes on this website.
Way to Introduce the Story:
Write the word “KINDNESS” in bold letters on the middle of a piece of paper. (Or, if the children cannot read yet, copy a small picture depicting kindness onto the middle of a paper) Pass the paper around to each child and tell them to tear off a piece of the paper without tearing any of the letters. Keep passing it around until someone tears the word or until it becomes too difficult. This is just a fun way to begin talking about the word kindness. “What does kindness mean? Has anyone ever been kind to you?” Share your own stories. “In today’s story we are going to learn about a time when King David was very kind to someone.”
Many years had passed since David had become King over all of Israel. He tried to be a very good king. He tried to be kind to everyone. If someone needed help then David tried to be kind and help them. If someone was sad David was kind and tried to do things to make them happy.
Mephibosheth was the son of David’s old friend, Jonathan. Mephibosheth’s father, Jonathan, and Mephibosheth’s grandfather, King Saul, were both dead. They had died when Mephibosheth was just a little boy. When Mephibosheth was a little boy he used to have a nurse to take care of him. On the terrible day when King Saul and Jonathan died, something very bad happened to Mephibosheth. A messenger came and told everyone that Mephibosheth’s father and grandfather were dead. The little boy’s nurse picked him up started to carry him. Somehow the nurse dropped little Mephibosheth. When he fell, Mephibosheth’s legs were badly hurt. They were so badly hurt that, for the rest of his life, he could never walk.
Many years had passed and Mephibosheth was a grown man with his own sons. David did not know about Mephibosheth. He thought all of Jonathan’s sons were dead. Sometimes David remembered what it was like when he and his good friend, Jonathan, used to do fun things together. Jonathan had loved David and David had loved Jonathan.
David remembered the last time he had seen Jonathan. Jonathan had saved David’s life. David remembered a promise he had made to Jonathan. If anything happened to Jonathan, David had promised that he would take care of Jonathan’s family.
The more David thought about Jonathan, the more he wanted to keep his promise. David had an idea. He decided to ask Saul’s old servant, Ziba, about Jonathan’s family.
“Ziba, you were Saul’s servant. You knew Jonathan and his family. Does Jonathan have any children that are still alive,” he asked.
Ziba, Saul’s servant, answered, “There is one son, King David. His name is Mephibosheth. Something very sad happened to Mephibosheth when he was little. He cannot walk.”
“Ziba, I command you to find Mephibosheth and bring him to me.”
Then Ziba went quickly and found Mephibosheth. At first Mephibosheth was afraid to come to meet David. He was worried that David might try to hurt him. Sometimes new kings did that the children and grandchildren of the old king.
But that is not what David did. King David welcomed Mephibosheth. He told him about how Jonathan had been his good friend. The king probably told him about how Jonathan used to give him lots of gifts. King David also told Mephibosheth about the special promise that he had made to Jonathan. The king wanted to do something special for his friend’s grandson.
Mephibosheth could hardly believe what he was hearing! “Oh no, King David, I am not worthy of this honour,” exclaimed Mephibosheth.
“No, Mephibosheth, I promised your father that I would always take care of you. Other people have taken the land that belonged to Saul and Jonathan and your family. I will now give all of it back to you. Also, I would like to make a special place at by table for you. Anytime you want to come and eat with me or visit me at the palace you can come. You will never have to worry about anything because I will always take care of you,” said David.
Mephibosheth went away happily to tell his family the good news. He told everyone about the kind king. David kept his promise to Mephibosheth and took care of him for the rest of his life.
Ways to Tell the Story:
This story can be told using a variety of methods. Always remain true to the facts found in the Bible but help children connect to its meaning by using drama, visual aids, voice inflection, student interaction and/or emotion.
Click here for visual aids and story-telling methods.
Click here to download these illustrations and slideshow. Be selective. Each teacher is unique so only use the illustrations that best relate to the way YOU are telling the story in THIS lesson. Too many illustrations can be confusing so eliminate any that cover other stories or details you do not wish to emphasise in this lesson.
- Who was Jonathan’s son? Mephibosheth
- Why was Mephibosheth unable to walk? His nurse had dropped him when he was little
- Why did David take care of Mephibosheth? Because he had promised Jonathan
- What did King David do for Mephibosheth? Gave him all of Saul’s land, invited him to come to the palace and eat whenever he wanted, and said he would always take care of him.
- Love is Something If You Give It Away Song
- Happy all the Time (Inright, outright) Song
- I’ve Got Something in My Pocket Song
- Refer to the Song Page on this website for more options.
Learning Activities and Crafts:
- Make a collage. Use old magazines to find pictures of people being kind. Cut the pictures out and glue them to a poster. Class members could make individual ones or the whole class could do one together.
- Encourage children to act out situations in which people are kind.
- Let volunteers try doing basic tasks (getting around the room, opening a door, carrying something, etc.) without using their legs. Discuss how life must have been like for Mephibosheth.
- Write all of the letters of Mephibosheth’s name on separate cards and then mix them up. Make two sets of cards and let two teams see who can put them in order first.
- Before class, make arrangements with the teacher of the adult bible class. Ask if the children can come in and pass out papers and pencils to the adults. One child can ask them to write the name of Jonathon’s lame son on the paper. Collect all of the papers and take them to class to tally how many knew his name. Kids think it’s great to stump the adults!
Check the Teaching Ideas page on this website for ideas that are adaptable to any lesson.
Other Online Resources:
- Colouring page and puzzle worksheets (Calvary Curriculum)
- Craft: Kindness wreath from http://www.christianitycove.com
- Lesson plan and printable mini booklet at http://gospelhall.org
- Lesson plan at http://storage.cloversites.com | 2,267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The mechanism by which DDT acts is to disturb the function of nerves in the insect. Nerves in both insects and humans work by allowing an electric current to move down them. This action potential, as it is called, depends on the movement of two metal ions, sodium and potassium, across the membrane of the nerve, and involves channels for the sodium being opened very briefly. DDT interacts with the sodium channel in the insect nerve and retards its closure. This means that the flow of sodium and hence the electric current is prolonged and there may be several impulses instead of just one. The function of the nerves thus becomes uncontrolled. This effect of DDT seems to be reversible.
It seems that insects are more susceptible than mammals, for two reasons. The first is that insect nerves are more susceptible to the DDT. The second is that mammals have a more well-developed system of detoxication than insects and so remove it more effectively. Naturally, at high doses DDT will cause toxic effects in humans, due to effects on nerve function, but these effects are reversible.
As well as the direct and lethal effects of DDT on animals such as birds, there are also indirect and more subtle effects. For example, the decline in the numbers of predatory birds in the UK and USA, such as the peregrine falcon and the kestrel, was not necessarily due to lethal effects on the birds themselves but due to effects on their reproductive process. One such effect of DDT is to alter the production of eggs, in particular the eggshells. During the 1960s the eggs of birds such as the peregrine falcon and pelican were found to have thinner shells and were therefore liable to break, a phenomenon which had started in the i940s. This was later found to correlate with the level of DDE, a breakdown product of DDT, in the egg. It is believed to be due to the effect of DDE on the disposition of calcium in the shell gland which is involved in the production of the eggshell. Other organochlorine compounds may also cause this effect but it seems that birds vary significantly in their sensitivity; the raptors and fish-eating birds being the most sensitive. However, recently the role of DDE in the decline in numbers of raptor birds, such as the California Condor, has been questioned.2
More recently, it has been found that substances such as DDT and other organochlorine compounds can have other effects on wildlife, again affecting the reproductive process and leading to reproductive failure, but also causing deformities in reproductive organs. This effect, now called endocrine disruption, was first noticed in fish in rivers in the USA and the UK where there may be many causes (see pp. i3i-6). One of the most celebrated cases was in Lake Apopka in Florida. The population of alligators in this lake was found to be in decline and there seemed to be poor reproductive success among the animals. Both male and female animals had abnormalities in their reproductive organs. It was then found that there were very high levels of the DDT breakdown product/metabolite DDE in the lake. This was due to spillage of a related pesticide called dicofol, which was contaminated with DDE. The latter substance has been found to be capable of causing these effects under experimental conditions. DDE is now known to affect levels of the male hormone testosterone (it is known as anti-androgenic) rather than increasing the amount of female hormone (known as an oestrogenic effect). One of the effects of such endocrine disruptor chemicals is believed to be a reduction in sperm count as a result of early changes in the testicles. As there is some evidence that human sperm counts and fertility are declining (although some studies have shown an increase in sperm counts), it has been suggested that such substances as organochlorine compounds (for example, DDT) may be responsible. However, there is no direct evidence for this in humans. This will be discussed further in Chapter 5.
The real problem with DDT is its persistence in the environment and its accumulation in certain animals. It is degraded only slowly in soil and in some of the animals exposed to it. It may take between five and twenty-five years for the soil to lose 95 per cent of the DDT. Thus over the years of its use it accumulated in the environment, and certainly in wildlife there is a problem of continued exposure to the substance at levels higher than might be expected from the environment level.
Although DDT localizes in fat where it is probably relatively harmless, release from this fat when it is broken down in an animal's body to provide energy can release enough DDT to cause toxicity in susceptible species, for example in bats. As bats are insectivorous, they can accumulate DDT from their prey, which will become localized in their fat tissue. In the southern USA it was found that bats were dying during their migratory flights, when their fat was mobilized for energy, hence releasing DDT into the blood, which then caused toxic, in some cases lethal, effects.
What of its potential toxicity to humans? There have been no documented deaths and no established cases of illness in which DDT is the causal agent but it is still detectable in the environment and in some food. Because the levels of such substances in food are monitored and we have efficient detoxication systems, and because DDT tends to be stored in fat, it is likely that the potential toxicity is minimal.
What does the DDT story illustrate and what lessons can be learnt about the use of chemicals? When DDT was first used it was not only very effective but apparently also relatively harmless. This led to it being used in excessive quantities (the 'more is better' fallacy). The inevitable consequence was the death of wildlife and a public outcry which crystallized around the book Silent Spring. This was predicated partly on the fear, 'If it does this to birds, what is it doing to us?' DDT is designed to be especially toxic to insects, and other species such as birds are more sensitive than mammals such as humans. The development of a new technique for the detection of DDT which was extremely sensitive allowed traces to be found in many things such as breast milk and food as well as wildlife. It became easy to point the finger at DDT because many birds and other animals had detectable levels of the chemical. But just because a chemical is detectable in an animal does not mean that it causes either death or ill health or that the level is hazardous.
This story also serves to remind us that it is dangerous to assume that when problems don't appear immediately there is no problem. When the technique became available for the sensitive measurement of DDT it was found to be accumulating in the environment. And it has been only relatively recently that the effects on reproductive systems have been detected. This shows that it is necessary to have both the right tools and the inclination to detect potential problems.
It is possible to use chemicals such as DDT effectively and responsibly, as has been illustrated, and this particular substance has been of enormous benefit to humans. A little more care and respect for the chemical when it was introduced would have improved the risk-benefit balance. The example of DDT again illustrates that recognition of the principle of Paracelsus is vital in the use of chemicals, especially those intended as pesticides. We know also that the relationship between the dose and the effect is different in insects and in other species. Therefore using less DDT would still have been effective but have caused little, if any, harm to other species.
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This guide will help millions of people understand this condition so that they can take control of their lives and make informed decisions. The ebook covers information on a vast number of different types of neuropathy. In addition, it will be a useful resource for their families, caregivers, and health care providers. | <urn:uuid:057c1a1f-a316-4ee8-bca0-3651b504f20a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flandershealth.us/toxic-effects/how-ddt-works-and-why-it-is-toxic-to-insects-but-not-mammals.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.980667 | 1,622 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.1776516735553741... | 1 | The mechanism by which DDT acts is to disturb the function of nerves in the insect. Nerves in both insects and humans work by allowing an electric current to move down them. This action potential, as it is called, depends on the movement of two metal ions, sodium and potassium, across the membrane of the nerve, and involves channels for the sodium being opened very briefly. DDT interacts with the sodium channel in the insect nerve and retards its closure. This means that the flow of sodium and hence the electric current is prolonged and there may be several impulses instead of just one. The function of the nerves thus becomes uncontrolled. This effect of DDT seems to be reversible.
It seems that insects are more susceptible than mammals, for two reasons. The first is that insect nerves are more susceptible to the DDT. The second is that mammals have a more well-developed system of detoxication than insects and so remove it more effectively. Naturally, at high doses DDT will cause toxic effects in humans, due to effects on nerve function, but these effects are reversible.
As well as the direct and lethal effects of DDT on animals such as birds, there are also indirect and more subtle effects. For example, the decline in the numbers of predatory birds in the UK and USA, such as the peregrine falcon and the kestrel, was not necessarily due to lethal effects on the birds themselves but due to effects on their reproductive process. One such effect of DDT is to alter the production of eggs, in particular the eggshells. During the 1960s the eggs of birds such as the peregrine falcon and pelican were found to have thinner shells and were therefore liable to break, a phenomenon which had started in the i940s. This was later found to correlate with the level of DDE, a breakdown product of DDT, in the egg. It is believed to be due to the effect of DDE on the disposition of calcium in the shell gland which is involved in the production of the eggshell. Other organochlorine compounds may also cause this effect but it seems that birds vary significantly in their sensitivity; the raptors and fish-eating birds being the most sensitive. However, recently the role of DDE in the decline in numbers of raptor birds, such as the California Condor, has been questioned.2
More recently, it has been found that substances such as DDT and other organochlorine compounds can have other effects on wildlife, again affecting the reproductive process and leading to reproductive failure, but also causing deformities in reproductive organs. This effect, now called endocrine disruption, was first noticed in fish in rivers in the USA and the UK where there may be many causes (see pp. i3i-6). One of the most celebrated cases was in Lake Apopka in Florida. The population of alligators in this lake was found to be in decline and there seemed to be poor reproductive success among the animals. Both male and female animals had abnormalities in their reproductive organs. It was then found that there were very high levels of the DDT breakdown product/metabolite DDE in the lake. This was due to spillage of a related pesticide called dicofol, which was contaminated with DDE. The latter substance has been found to be capable of causing these effects under experimental conditions. DDE is now known to affect levels of the male hormone testosterone (it is known as anti-androgenic) rather than increasing the amount of female hormone (known as an oestrogenic effect). One of the effects of such endocrine disruptor chemicals is believed to be a reduction in sperm count as a result of early changes in the testicles. As there is some evidence that human sperm counts and fertility are declining (although some studies have shown an increase in sperm counts), it has been suggested that such substances as organochlorine compounds (for example, DDT) may be responsible. However, there is no direct evidence for this in humans. This will be discussed further in Chapter 5.
The real problem with DDT is its persistence in the environment and its accumulation in certain animals. It is degraded only slowly in soil and in some of the animals exposed to it. It may take between five and twenty-five years for the soil to lose 95 per cent of the DDT. Thus over the years of its use it accumulated in the environment, and certainly in wildlife there is a problem of continued exposure to the substance at levels higher than might be expected from the environment level.
Although DDT localizes in fat where it is probably relatively harmless, release from this fat when it is broken down in an animal's body to provide energy can release enough DDT to cause toxicity in susceptible species, for example in bats. As bats are insectivorous, they can accumulate DDT from their prey, which will become localized in their fat tissue. In the southern USA it was found that bats were dying during their migratory flights, when their fat was mobilized for energy, hence releasing DDT into the blood, which then caused toxic, in some cases lethal, effects.
What of its potential toxicity to humans? There have been no documented deaths and no established cases of illness in which DDT is the causal agent but it is still detectable in the environment and in some food. Because the levels of such substances in food are monitored and we have efficient detoxication systems, and because DDT tends to be stored in fat, it is likely that the potential toxicity is minimal.
What does the DDT story illustrate and what lessons can be learnt about the use of chemicals? When DDT was first used it was not only very effective but apparently also relatively harmless. This led to it being used in excessive quantities (the 'more is better' fallacy). The inevitable consequence was the death of wildlife and a public outcry which crystallized around the book Silent Spring. This was predicated partly on the fear, 'If it does this to birds, what is it doing to us?' DDT is designed to be especially toxic to insects, and other species such as birds are more sensitive than mammals such as humans. The development of a new technique for the detection of DDT which was extremely sensitive allowed traces to be found in many things such as breast milk and food as well as wildlife. It became easy to point the finger at DDT because many birds and other animals had detectable levels of the chemical. But just because a chemical is detectable in an animal does not mean that it causes either death or ill health or that the level is hazardous.
This story also serves to remind us that it is dangerous to assume that when problems don't appear immediately there is no problem. When the technique became available for the sensitive measurement of DDT it was found to be accumulating in the environment. And it has been only relatively recently that the effects on reproductive systems have been detected. This shows that it is necessary to have both the right tools and the inclination to detect potential problems.
It is possible to use chemicals such as DDT effectively and responsibly, as has been illustrated, and this particular substance has been of enormous benefit to humans. A little more care and respect for the chemical when it was introduced would have improved the risk-benefit balance. The example of DDT again illustrates that recognition of the principle of Paracelsus is vital in the use of chemicals, especially those intended as pesticides. We know also that the relationship between the dose and the effect is different in insects and in other species. Therefore using less DDT would still have been effective but have caused little, if any, harm to other species.
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This guide will help millions of people understand this condition so that they can take control of their lives and make informed decisions. The ebook covers information on a vast number of different types of neuropathy. In addition, it will be a useful resource for their families, caregivers, and health care providers. | 1,623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Educating a child is not the exclusive reserve of the teachers alone. Many parents seem not to be aware of the fact that there are so many things they can do at home to help their children acquire good and qualitative education. Let’s take a look at some of the essential things parents need, to aid the success of their children’s education.
Parents are expected to make sure that their children get enough sleep every day. Getting enough sleep will help children get up on time, feel good and be ready for full day of learning. The amount of sleep needed in a child every day vary at different ages which can be advised by a family doctor.
You will agree with me that children need regular medical checkups such as immunizations, dental care, name it to succeed in school. This assignment is to be carried out more by the parents as the importance of a healthy child in academic pursuit cannot be overemphasized.
Good exercise and healthy diet are also essential role for parenting a child for success in school. Children who eat healthy diet and get regular exercise can concentrate better during school hours. It is important that children eat balanced diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables and have enough time for fun activity, playtime and other sporting events.
Parents should set aside time to read with their children each day. Make reading part of their daily routines by reading stories at bedtime and keeping lots of books and educating magazines in the house.
Again, parents should help their children get to know the library and what they can find there, including books, magazines, audio tapes like CDs, and DVDs. Libraries also offer homework resources and a quiet place for students to work.
It is equally necessary for parents to ask their children to tell them about the day’s activities in school, ask them what they learned and how they felt during the day. Listen carefully to their answers and help them think of ways to solve any problem they might be having in school work or in the classroom.
Getting the children to school every day on time is another contribution needed by parents towards their wards success in academic pursuit. It will be easier for a child to complete daily lessons, homework, and tests if he gets to school on time every day.
Limit the time your child misses his or her lessons for family trips and activities. Contact the school immediately if your child will be absent.
Parents should help their children to learn at home by sharing activities together, singing, talking, and telling stories. Visit educational places such as museums, the zoo, the park, or a historical monument. Find out what your children’s interests are, and look for activities and books that are connected to that interest.
Children equally need help from their parents in setting regular time and place for their homework. They need to choose a time that works well for each family’s schedule and find a place that is quiet and has good lighting.
They also need to supply their children with writing materials such as such as pens, pencils, paper and a dictionary. Asking the children to show their finished homework each night is also necessary for their assessment.
Finally, parents should limit the time their children spend watching television, playing video games, and using the computer. If possible, do these activities together with them and look for educational programs and games. Help them to understand that they should never give out their personal information on the computer or talk to strangers online.
Compiled by: Joy Nwateh-Leonard | <urn:uuid:57b05c79-b7db-4115-a35d-2043bc80ee6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.shalomacademyinternational.org/2016/01/19/the-role-of-parents-in-educating-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.981257 | 711 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.486168444156... | 2 | Educating a child is not the exclusive reserve of the teachers alone. Many parents seem not to be aware of the fact that there are so many things they can do at home to help their children acquire good and qualitative education. Let’s take a look at some of the essential things parents need, to aid the success of their children’s education.
Parents are expected to make sure that their children get enough sleep every day. Getting enough sleep will help children get up on time, feel good and be ready for full day of learning. The amount of sleep needed in a child every day vary at different ages which can be advised by a family doctor.
You will agree with me that children need regular medical checkups such as immunizations, dental care, name it to succeed in school. This assignment is to be carried out more by the parents as the importance of a healthy child in academic pursuit cannot be overemphasized.
Good exercise and healthy diet are also essential role for parenting a child for success in school. Children who eat healthy diet and get regular exercise can concentrate better during school hours. It is important that children eat balanced diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables and have enough time for fun activity, playtime and other sporting events.
Parents should set aside time to read with their children each day. Make reading part of their daily routines by reading stories at bedtime and keeping lots of books and educating magazines in the house.
Again, parents should help their children get to know the library and what they can find there, including books, magazines, audio tapes like CDs, and DVDs. Libraries also offer homework resources and a quiet place for students to work.
It is equally necessary for parents to ask their children to tell them about the day’s activities in school, ask them what they learned and how they felt during the day. Listen carefully to their answers and help them think of ways to solve any problem they might be having in school work or in the classroom.
Getting the children to school every day on time is another contribution needed by parents towards their wards success in academic pursuit. It will be easier for a child to complete daily lessons, homework, and tests if he gets to school on time every day.
Limit the time your child misses his or her lessons for family trips and activities. Contact the school immediately if your child will be absent.
Parents should help their children to learn at home by sharing activities together, singing, talking, and telling stories. Visit educational places such as museums, the zoo, the park, or a historical monument. Find out what your children’s interests are, and look for activities and books that are connected to that interest.
Children equally need help from their parents in setting regular time and place for their homework. They need to choose a time that works well for each family’s schedule and find a place that is quiet and has good lighting.
They also need to supply their children with writing materials such as such as pens, pencils, paper and a dictionary. Asking the children to show their finished homework each night is also necessary for their assessment.
Finally, parents should limit the time their children spend watching television, playing video games, and using the computer. If possible, do these activities together with them and look for educational programs and games. Help them to understand that they should never give out their personal information on the computer or talk to strangers online.
Compiled by: Joy Nwateh-Leonard | 684 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lieutenant Elbridge Copp Witnesses the Execution of a Deserter
Both the Union and Confederate armies were plagued by desertions in the Civil War. One estimate on the Union side placed the number of deserters at over 200,000. Men deserted for various reasons; some couldn’t handle the horrors of the battlefield, some simply wanted to go home due to family hardships there or because they were homesick. As the war went on and volunteers were harder to find, states would offer financial incentives, called “bounties” to get men to join. Some who accepted the payments would desert as soon as they got the payment. These “bounty jumpers” as they were known, would sometimes enlist in another location and get paid another bounty, only to keep the cycle going and desert again. The most despised deserters were those who deserted to the enemy.
Punishments for desertion varied widely, from fines to imprisonment and all the way up to execution. On the Union side, it was the most common offense for execution. Out of 267 total Union soldier executions, 141 were for desertion.
When a deserter was found guilty in a court martial with a penalty of death, the execution procedure was designed to send a message to other soldiers contemplating desertion, especially for those thinking of changing sides in the conflict. Typically, the execution of deserters was by firing squad. The entire Union force–brigade, division, or corps– at that location was ordered into formation to witness the event.
Lieutenant Elbridge Copp, Regimental Adjutant of the 3rd New Hampshire Infantry witnessed the execution of a deserter from his regiment. In the fall of 1863, the 3rd New Hampshire was on duty at Morris Island near Charleston, South Carolina as part of the Union 10th Corps. Private John Kendall of the regiment’s Company C had enlisted in October 1863 as a paid substitute for another man, a legal though controversial practice at the time. Kendall, a native of New Brunswick, Canada, didn’t stick around long before attempting his escape. As Lt. Copp noted, “In our department, the deserters necessarily went over to the enemy, there being no avenue north except by out steamships”. On November 28th, Kendall deserted but was captured. He was found guilty in a court martial and sentenced to death.
On December 17th, the sentence was carried out. Copp later recalled the event:
The ceremony of an execution for desertion is always in the presence of all troops within the command and in a manner to give the most profound impression. The whole army was ordered out to witness this execution, some eight to ten thousand troops in line along the beach, extending for a mile or more. Colonel Randlett of our regiment of our regiment, was at the time provo-martial and the execution was under his direction, with Lieutenant David Wadsworth in command of the guard and firing party. The prisoner was taken from the guard house, handcuffed with hands behind him, and shackled, put into an open army wagon, and made to sit upon his coffin and there to ride along the whole front of the line. In front was a drum corps with muffled drums, playing the dead march. A platoon of soldiers with arms reversed immediately in front of the wagon, and in the rear, another platoon of soldiers with arms reversed. This was the usual formation for military funerals.
In marching past our regiment Kendall recognizing some of the men of his company, cried out to them, in reckless bravado; his shouts were received in grim silence. Having passed the whole length of the line the march was then retraced to the center and front, and down the broad beach to the water’s edge. The Army was then massed in three sides of a hollow square; the coffin then placed at the opening of the square next to the water; the prisoner’s coat and cap removed, then blindfolded and made to kneel upon his coffin, facing inward, he keeping up the same indifference to his fate to the last.
A detail of twelve men had been made for the firing party; nine of the rifles had been loaded with ball cartridge and three with blank cartridges, no man of the twelve knowing to a certainty that his rifle was one of the nine by which the life of the man would be taken.
Practically the whole army upon Morris Island is massed for the ceremony, in spectacular array. General Terry in command of the forces for this occasion, and his staff, all in full resplendent dress uniforms, mounted upon their horses, which also are in resplendent trappings, and in the rear of that part of the line facing the opening of the hollow square, and the waters of the harbor. Generals of the brigades with their staffs, presenting a like appearance, are in the rear of their brigades. Colonels of regiments with their field and staff officers in their places, in the rear of their several regiments. I was in my place mounted, in rear of the right of my regiment and quite near the prisoner. Company commanders and their lieutenants in the rear of their companies. The men in line in full dress uniforms are standing at parade rest. The colors of each regiment, the Stars and Stripes, and the standard of the state of each regiment, held by their color bearers, are floating slowly and solemnly in the breeze. The only sound is that of the surf upon the beach and the boom of the siege guns at long intervals. The firing party has moved up to their place twenty paces in front of the condemned soldier, Now all is in readiness; in the silence of death and with bated breath 10,000 troops are looking upon the scene. The orders to the firing party are given by signals–Lieutenant Wadsworth raises his sword; the arms of the men come to a “ready”–another signal of the sword and the rifles are brought to aim; the sword of the Lieutenant then descends, quickly followed by the sharp report of the rifles, the man pitches forward over his coffin in instant death.
The whole army was then marched past the body where it lay upon the beach as it fell, and back to their several camps.
Hardtack & Coffee or The Unwritten Story of Army Life by John D. Billings
The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union by Bell Irvin Wiley
Men of Granite: New Hampshire’s Soldiers in the Civil War by Duane E. Shaffer
The Third New Hampshire and All About It by Daniel Eldridge
Reminiscences of the War of the Rebellion 1861-1865 by Elbridge J. Copp
Amazon affiliate links: We may earn a small commission from purchases made from Amazon.com links at no cost to our visitors. For more info, please read our affiliate disclosure. | <urn:uuid:fc4af623-e700-43cb-b249-acbbfecfd7bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ironbrigader.com/2017/09/03/lieutenant-elbridge-copp-witnesses-execution-deserter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.980829 | 1,439 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.17775416374206... | 3 | Lieutenant Elbridge Copp Witnesses the Execution of a Deserter
Both the Union and Confederate armies were plagued by desertions in the Civil War. One estimate on the Union side placed the number of deserters at over 200,000. Men deserted for various reasons; some couldn’t handle the horrors of the battlefield, some simply wanted to go home due to family hardships there or because they were homesick. As the war went on and volunteers were harder to find, states would offer financial incentives, called “bounties” to get men to join. Some who accepted the payments would desert as soon as they got the payment. These “bounty jumpers” as they were known, would sometimes enlist in another location and get paid another bounty, only to keep the cycle going and desert again. The most despised deserters were those who deserted to the enemy.
Punishments for desertion varied widely, from fines to imprisonment and all the way up to execution. On the Union side, it was the most common offense for execution. Out of 267 total Union soldier executions, 141 were for desertion.
When a deserter was found guilty in a court martial with a penalty of death, the execution procedure was designed to send a message to other soldiers contemplating desertion, especially for those thinking of changing sides in the conflict. Typically, the execution of deserters was by firing squad. The entire Union force–brigade, division, or corps– at that location was ordered into formation to witness the event.
Lieutenant Elbridge Copp, Regimental Adjutant of the 3rd New Hampshire Infantry witnessed the execution of a deserter from his regiment. In the fall of 1863, the 3rd New Hampshire was on duty at Morris Island near Charleston, South Carolina as part of the Union 10th Corps. Private John Kendall of the regiment’s Company C had enlisted in October 1863 as a paid substitute for another man, a legal though controversial practice at the time. Kendall, a native of New Brunswick, Canada, didn’t stick around long before attempting his escape. As Lt. Copp noted, “In our department, the deserters necessarily went over to the enemy, there being no avenue north except by out steamships”. On November 28th, Kendall deserted but was captured. He was found guilty in a court martial and sentenced to death.
On December 17th, the sentence was carried out. Copp later recalled the event:
The ceremony of an execution for desertion is always in the presence of all troops within the command and in a manner to give the most profound impression. The whole army was ordered out to witness this execution, some eight to ten thousand troops in line along the beach, extending for a mile or more. Colonel Randlett of our regiment of our regiment, was at the time provo-martial and the execution was under his direction, with Lieutenant David Wadsworth in command of the guard and firing party. The prisoner was taken from the guard house, handcuffed with hands behind him, and shackled, put into an open army wagon, and made to sit upon his coffin and there to ride along the whole front of the line. In front was a drum corps with muffled drums, playing the dead march. A platoon of soldiers with arms reversed immediately in front of the wagon, and in the rear, another platoon of soldiers with arms reversed. This was the usual formation for military funerals.
In marching past our regiment Kendall recognizing some of the men of his company, cried out to them, in reckless bravado; his shouts were received in grim silence. Having passed the whole length of the line the march was then retraced to the center and front, and down the broad beach to the water’s edge. The Army was then massed in three sides of a hollow square; the coffin then placed at the opening of the square next to the water; the prisoner’s coat and cap removed, then blindfolded and made to kneel upon his coffin, facing inward, he keeping up the same indifference to his fate to the last.
A detail of twelve men had been made for the firing party; nine of the rifles had been loaded with ball cartridge and three with blank cartridges, no man of the twelve knowing to a certainty that his rifle was one of the nine by which the life of the man would be taken.
Practically the whole army upon Morris Island is massed for the ceremony, in spectacular array. General Terry in command of the forces for this occasion, and his staff, all in full resplendent dress uniforms, mounted upon their horses, which also are in resplendent trappings, and in the rear of that part of the line facing the opening of the hollow square, and the waters of the harbor. Generals of the brigades with their staffs, presenting a like appearance, are in the rear of their brigades. Colonels of regiments with their field and staff officers in their places, in the rear of their several regiments. I was in my place mounted, in rear of the right of my regiment and quite near the prisoner. Company commanders and their lieutenants in the rear of their companies. The men in line in full dress uniforms are standing at parade rest. The colors of each regiment, the Stars and Stripes, and the standard of the state of each regiment, held by their color bearers, are floating slowly and solemnly in the breeze. The only sound is that of the surf upon the beach and the boom of the siege guns at long intervals. The firing party has moved up to their place twenty paces in front of the condemned soldier, Now all is in readiness; in the silence of death and with bated breath 10,000 troops are looking upon the scene. The orders to the firing party are given by signals–Lieutenant Wadsworth raises his sword; the arms of the men come to a “ready”–another signal of the sword and the rifles are brought to aim; the sword of the Lieutenant then descends, quickly followed by the sharp report of the rifles, the man pitches forward over his coffin in instant death.
The whole army was then marched past the body where it lay upon the beach as it fell, and back to their several camps.
Hardtack & Coffee or The Unwritten Story of Army Life by John D. Billings
The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union by Bell Irvin Wiley
Men of Granite: New Hampshire’s Soldiers in the Civil War by Duane E. Shaffer
The Third New Hampshire and All About It by Daniel Eldridge
Reminiscences of the War of the Rebellion 1861-1865 by Elbridge J. Copp
Amazon affiliate links: We may earn a small commission from purchases made from Amazon.com links at no cost to our visitors. For more info, please read our affiliate disclosure. | 1,431 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gimpel the Fool
The Pain in a Simple Man’s Life
Primary motives are described as needs that a person must meet in order to survive. The most widely recognized of these motives are the needs for food, water, sleep, air, and regulation of body temperature. However, one motive that is commonly overlooked by society is that of pain avoidance. The undesired pain may be stemmed from either physical or emotional situations or a combination of the two. If one is not prepared to eliminate the source of the pain, then he/she may choose to ignore the painful situation rather than allow him/herself to become upset. The character Gimpel in Isaac Singer’s short story entitled “Gimpel the Fool” centers his entire livelihood on one of his more basic primary motives, the desire to avoid personal pain.
Gimpel is a man who is subjected to human cruelty everyday of his life dealt by the people who surround him. The cruelty is not in the form of physical abuse, yet just as harsh. The people of the only town Gimpel has ever known treat him as if he was a child. And in many ways, Gimpel is a child, for a child is a person who is learning the ways of the world. Gimpel mirrors a child with his naivete and goodness. The people of the town played jokes on him throughout his childhood and his life as an adult. According to Gimpel, “they stuffed my hand full of goat turds” instead “of the raisins they give when a woman’s lying in” (Singer 411). Whereas most people would see aggression as a normal reaction to this sort of trickery, Gimpel chooses to let every trick and every comment go without a word being said. His philosophy is to “Let it pass. So they take advantage of me” (411). This type of action demonstrates that Gimpel chooses to remain silent in order to avoid the pain of a confrontation. The idea in Gimpel’s mind is that he would rather tolerate people’s laughter rather than people’s hatred directed towards him. He comments saying that, “If I ever dared to say, ’Ah, you’re kidding!’ there was trouble. People got angry” (412). With comments such as this, Gimpel shows his need for complete happiness in his life, even if the happiness is at his personal expense.
Gimpel avoids pain not only from the townspeople, but from his wife as well. His wife, Elka, is a very promiscuous woman by nature and she chooses to be unfaithful to Gimpel. However again, Gimpel chooses to evade the truth of the matter to keep from being hurt. One way he [Gimpel] shows the reader how he avoids emotional pain is when he caught Elka in bed with another man. At first, he could not accept what his wife was doing to their marriage and his reputation. However as the pain of being alone increased each day, Gimpel decides to forget the entire incident and forces himself to lie about what he saw. Gimpel says to himself, “Hallucinations do happen. And if that’s so, I’m doing her [his wife] an injustice,” proving that he twists the truth into something that he can accept (416). ... | <urn:uuid:6280f152-fac4-4590-8866-a3f067815897> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/gimpel-the-trick | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.984381 | 716 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.024256639182567... | 1 | Gimpel the Fool
The Pain in a Simple Man’s Life
Primary motives are described as needs that a person must meet in order to survive. The most widely recognized of these motives are the needs for food, water, sleep, air, and regulation of body temperature. However, one motive that is commonly overlooked by society is that of pain avoidance. The undesired pain may be stemmed from either physical or emotional situations or a combination of the two. If one is not prepared to eliminate the source of the pain, then he/she may choose to ignore the painful situation rather than allow him/herself to become upset. The character Gimpel in Isaac Singer’s short story entitled “Gimpel the Fool” centers his entire livelihood on one of his more basic primary motives, the desire to avoid personal pain.
Gimpel is a man who is subjected to human cruelty everyday of his life dealt by the people who surround him. The cruelty is not in the form of physical abuse, yet just as harsh. The people of the only town Gimpel has ever known treat him as if he was a child. And in many ways, Gimpel is a child, for a child is a person who is learning the ways of the world. Gimpel mirrors a child with his naivete and goodness. The people of the town played jokes on him throughout his childhood and his life as an adult. According to Gimpel, “they stuffed my hand full of goat turds” instead “of the raisins they give when a woman’s lying in” (Singer 411). Whereas most people would see aggression as a normal reaction to this sort of trickery, Gimpel chooses to let every trick and every comment go without a word being said. His philosophy is to “Let it pass. So they take advantage of me” (411). This type of action demonstrates that Gimpel chooses to remain silent in order to avoid the pain of a confrontation. The idea in Gimpel’s mind is that he would rather tolerate people’s laughter rather than people’s hatred directed towards him. He comments saying that, “If I ever dared to say, ’Ah, you’re kidding!’ there was trouble. People got angry” (412). With comments such as this, Gimpel shows his need for complete happiness in his life, even if the happiness is at his personal expense.
Gimpel avoids pain not only from the townspeople, but from his wife as well. His wife, Elka, is a very promiscuous woman by nature and she chooses to be unfaithful to Gimpel. However again, Gimpel chooses to evade the truth of the matter to keep from being hurt. One way he [Gimpel] shows the reader how he avoids emotional pain is when he caught Elka in bed with another man. At first, he could not accept what his wife was doing to their marriage and his reputation. However as the pain of being alone increased each day, Gimpel decides to forget the entire incident and forces himself to lie about what he saw. Gimpel says to himself, “Hallucinations do happen. And if that’s so, I’m doing her [his wife] an injustice,” proving that he twists the truth into something that he can accept (416). ... | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nare Sushi is one of the primitive Sushi served in Japan.
Sushi was not always what it seems like today. The word sushi originally means fermented fish, and has its roots in Southeast Asia.
According to the history of sushi, this type of sushi is first seen in Japanese scriptures in the 7th century. Later on, the fish were stuffed with rice before they were fermented, and this is called the nare sushi and is the earliest form of sushi in Japan.
The sushi takes a couple months to prepare, and eventually becomes consumed before the fermentation process is complete. This is called the nama nare sushi or “raw” nare sushi. This made the rice, which acquires a sour taste from the fermentation process edible since longer fermentation dissolved it. It is not until the 19th century when the Edo style sushi, or the sushi commonly known today was invented. The sour rice was mimicked by mixing fresh rice vinegar to make sushi rice, and fresh raw ingredients were used instead. | <urn:uuid:debafb0e-e658-48cc-922c-b851ea890fee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.sushiencyclopedia.com/sushi-blog/nare-sushi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.985436 | 209 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.100494876... | 8 | Nare Sushi is one of the primitive Sushi served in Japan.
Sushi was not always what it seems like today. The word sushi originally means fermented fish, and has its roots in Southeast Asia.
According to the history of sushi, this type of sushi is first seen in Japanese scriptures in the 7th century. Later on, the fish were stuffed with rice before they were fermented, and this is called the nare sushi and is the earliest form of sushi in Japan.
The sushi takes a couple months to prepare, and eventually becomes consumed before the fermentation process is complete. This is called the nama nare sushi or “raw” nare sushi. This made the rice, which acquires a sour taste from the fermentation process edible since longer fermentation dissolved it. It is not until the 19th century when the Edo style sushi, or the sushi commonly known today was invented. The sour rice was mimicked by mixing fresh rice vinegar to make sushi rice, and fresh raw ingredients were used instead. | 206 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A City Education: The Importance of Teaching Students to Set Goals
A City Year New York corps member shares what she's learned about setting goals with students.
In our A City Education series, two City Year corps members share their experiences working as tutors and mentors in schools in hopes of closing the achievement gap and ending the dropout crisis.
Before the New Year's, I read an article about setting goals. The article said that just three percent of the population sets goals, and only about one percent of people write their goals down. Unsurprisingly, many members of that one percent are among the world's highest-achieving individuals. As a result, I've begun spending a lot of time thinking about my resolutions. They range from the usual ones—floss often, eat healthy, exercise more—to proactively setting goals for what I want to achieve with my students, and ensuring they know how to set and achieve goals for themselves.
Setting a goal at the beginning of each week for my lesson plans means I must have high expectations for myself, my work, and my students. Working with students to set goals encourages them to set high expectations for themselves, too. Reading the article made me happy to realize I’ve already been incorporating many of the ideas into my work with students.
In December, our after-school program incorporated goal-setting into a unit on needs and wants. Students easily grasped the difference between the two, but we also taught them that needs may differ for individuals based on what they want to achieve. Someone whose goal is to become a chef may have different needs than someone who aspires to be a professional athlete. We asked students to make "goal timelines" highlighting things they'd already achieved, a goal they’d like to achieve by the end of the year, and two long-term goals. They wrote down each goal and two things they needed to do to achieve it, and then drew a picture of themselves achieving that goal.
I was surprised by how few students said they had set goals before. They also struggled to come up with a goal they’d achieved in the past. When we prompted them to think about the many things they accomplished to get to their current grade in school, they became more confident. By the time the lesson moved on to setting future goals, the students didn’t need much help to come up with the many things they want to accomplish. Some students who have trouble coming to school regularly set goals for attendance. I wrote their goals down so we could go back and review them later.
This month, I want the students to write down their goals themselves to give them more accountability. It’s a small change to make, but encouraging students to take more responsibility for their goal-setting strategies will be important during this second half of my service year.
The great thing about setting goals is that it applies to so many elements of the students’ lives—literacy, attendance, after school and more. Helping my students reach their goals, and teaching them the habit of setting their own, is a major way I can ensure their long-term success. | <urn:uuid:a6c5eb0e-c110-4569-8e17-a64c885fb26e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.good.is/articles/a-city-education-the-importance-of-teaching-students-to-set-goals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.982058 | 641 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3084828853607... | 1 | A City Education: The Importance of Teaching Students to Set Goals
A City Year New York corps member shares what she's learned about setting goals with students.
In our A City Education series, two City Year corps members share their experiences working as tutors and mentors in schools in hopes of closing the achievement gap and ending the dropout crisis.
Before the New Year's, I read an article about setting goals. The article said that just three percent of the population sets goals, and only about one percent of people write their goals down. Unsurprisingly, many members of that one percent are among the world's highest-achieving individuals. As a result, I've begun spending a lot of time thinking about my resolutions. They range from the usual ones—floss often, eat healthy, exercise more—to proactively setting goals for what I want to achieve with my students, and ensuring they know how to set and achieve goals for themselves.
Setting a goal at the beginning of each week for my lesson plans means I must have high expectations for myself, my work, and my students. Working with students to set goals encourages them to set high expectations for themselves, too. Reading the article made me happy to realize I’ve already been incorporating many of the ideas into my work with students.
In December, our after-school program incorporated goal-setting into a unit on needs and wants. Students easily grasped the difference between the two, but we also taught them that needs may differ for individuals based on what they want to achieve. Someone whose goal is to become a chef may have different needs than someone who aspires to be a professional athlete. We asked students to make "goal timelines" highlighting things they'd already achieved, a goal they’d like to achieve by the end of the year, and two long-term goals. They wrote down each goal and two things they needed to do to achieve it, and then drew a picture of themselves achieving that goal.
I was surprised by how few students said they had set goals before. They also struggled to come up with a goal they’d achieved in the past. When we prompted them to think about the many things they accomplished to get to their current grade in school, they became more confident. By the time the lesson moved on to setting future goals, the students didn’t need much help to come up with the many things they want to accomplish. Some students who have trouble coming to school regularly set goals for attendance. I wrote their goals down so we could go back and review them later.
This month, I want the students to write down their goals themselves to give them more accountability. It’s a small change to make, but encouraging students to take more responsibility for their goal-setting strategies will be important during this second half of my service year.
The great thing about setting goals is that it applies to so many elements of the students’ lives—literacy, attendance, after school and more. Helping my students reach their goals, and teaching them the habit of setting their own, is a major way I can ensure their long-term success. | 615 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the reign of Malcom III and his sons King Edgar and King David I, Edinburgh Castle became one of the most significant royal centres in Scotland. King David I developed Edinburgh as a seat of royal power. Although most buildings in the castle would have been of timber, St Margaret's Chapel was made of stone. In 1174 King William the Lion was captured by the English and his release was only secured by surrendering the castles at Berwick, Roxburgh, Stirling and Edinburgh to King Henry II. The English occupied the castle until 1186 when it was returned to William as a dowry for his English bride. In 1296 Edward I invaded Scotland, starting the First War of Scottish Independence and after 3 days of bombardment captured the castle moving many of the royal treasures and legal records to England. Edward I died in 1307 and in 1314 the castle was recaptured. In 1333 Edward III invaded Scotland, thus starting the Second War of Scottish Independence. The castle was again captured and held by the English until 1341 when it was was again recaptured.
In 1357 when the Treaty of Berwick brought the Wars of Independence to a close David II rebuilt the castle and used it as his principle seat of government. During the 15th century the Royal Apartments and Great Hall were built and access to the castle widened and improved. During this time the castle was used as an arsenal and armaments factory. At the end of the fifteenth century King James IV built Holyrood Palace which became his main residence and the castle was used less as the royal home.
After the death of James IV at Flodden in 1513 his son, 5yr old James V was brought to the castle for safety. His daughter, Mary Queen of Scots married Henry Stuart Lord Darnley and their son, the future James VI of Scotland and James I of England was born at the castle in 1566.
|The Room Where James IV Was Born|
Much of the castle was rebuilt including Davids Tower and The Half Moon Battery. James VI departed to become King of England and it was not until the early 17th century that repairs were carried out to the palace block in preparation for his return. His son Charles I visited and stayed at the castle only once. The castle was again besieged for three months, suffering further damage before surrendering to Oliver Cromwell. In 1660 Charles II ordered that a garrison was continually maintained at the castle, which continued until 1923. In the early 1700's a major strengthening of the defences was carried out and the castle saw it's last military action in 1745 during the second jacobite rising. Over the following century further buildings were added and the castle vaults were
used to hold prisoners of war.
During the 1900's restoration work was carried out and parts of the castle opened to the public. During both the first and second world wars prisoners were held in the castle and in 1923 the last troops moved out.
Edinburgh Castle is a magnificent castle steeped in history and is a fantastic place to become immersed in Scottish history. | <urn:uuid:73216e42-d21f-41c3-b897-5ebd9c20d434> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sjbsscottishbordersguide.co.uk/2018/08/edinburgh-castle-lothians.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.986506 | 624 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.124059... | 1 | During the reign of Malcom III and his sons King Edgar and King David I, Edinburgh Castle became one of the most significant royal centres in Scotland. King David I developed Edinburgh as a seat of royal power. Although most buildings in the castle would have been of timber, St Margaret's Chapel was made of stone. In 1174 King William the Lion was captured by the English and his release was only secured by surrendering the castles at Berwick, Roxburgh, Stirling and Edinburgh to King Henry II. The English occupied the castle until 1186 when it was returned to William as a dowry for his English bride. In 1296 Edward I invaded Scotland, starting the First War of Scottish Independence and after 3 days of bombardment captured the castle moving many of the royal treasures and legal records to England. Edward I died in 1307 and in 1314 the castle was recaptured. In 1333 Edward III invaded Scotland, thus starting the Second War of Scottish Independence. The castle was again captured and held by the English until 1341 when it was was again recaptured.
In 1357 when the Treaty of Berwick brought the Wars of Independence to a close David II rebuilt the castle and used it as his principle seat of government. During the 15th century the Royal Apartments and Great Hall were built and access to the castle widened and improved. During this time the castle was used as an arsenal and armaments factory. At the end of the fifteenth century King James IV built Holyrood Palace which became his main residence and the castle was used less as the royal home.
After the death of James IV at Flodden in 1513 his son, 5yr old James V was brought to the castle for safety. His daughter, Mary Queen of Scots married Henry Stuart Lord Darnley and their son, the future James VI of Scotland and James I of England was born at the castle in 1566.
|The Room Where James IV Was Born|
Much of the castle was rebuilt including Davids Tower and The Half Moon Battery. James VI departed to become King of England and it was not until the early 17th century that repairs were carried out to the palace block in preparation for his return. His son Charles I visited and stayed at the castle only once. The castle was again besieged for three months, suffering further damage before surrendering to Oliver Cromwell. In 1660 Charles II ordered that a garrison was continually maintained at the castle, which continued until 1923. In the early 1700's a major strengthening of the defences was carried out and the castle saw it's last military action in 1745 during the second jacobite rising. Over the following century further buildings were added and the castle vaults were
used to hold prisoners of war.
During the 1900's restoration work was carried out and parts of the castle opened to the public. During both the first and second world wars prisoners were held in the castle and in 1923 the last troops moved out.
Edinburgh Castle is a magnificent castle steeped in history and is a fantastic place to become immersed in Scottish history. | 679 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As a part of Math, we created a graph about weather we should help catch the Gingerbread Man or weather we should trap him. The results were quite close:
Gingerbread Man Traps
So, as a part of our Applied Design, Skills, and Technologies Curriculum, the students had to design and create a trap to catch the Gingerbread Man. Working with a partner and a variety of materials, the children came up with lots of interesting ideas.
Our three Core Competencies are an integral part of our school curriculum. They are integrated through so much of the students' learning. During our Gingerbread Man activity, not only did the students have to use the Core Competency of Thinking - both Critical Thinking & Creative Thinking - they also had to use the Core Competency of Communication. The children had to describe their trap to the class and they also had to be good listeners while they heard their classmates' explanations. Working with a partner is not always easy so they definitely had to practice their social skills - also a part of our Personal & Social Core Competency.
Save the Gingerbread Man
We thought that it was only fair to also try to save the Gingerbread Man. So, the challenge put forward to the children was to try to help the Gingerbread Man get across the river so that he wouldn't get caught and eaten. Again, the students had to work with a partner to come up with a plan. Lots of great ideas!
Our finished ideas:
We've been practicing our fire drill. We have done it a couple of times by ourselves but now we have done a couple with the whole school. We are getting very good at it! Here are some of the things the children said that we need to remember when we do our fire drill at school:
- no talking because the firemen might need to talk to us
- no running because you could trip and fall
- keep your eyes facing forward so that you don't get lost
- stay together in our line
- Mrs. MacDonald gets her clipboard
- don't run into someone else's line
- walk very fast so that you keep up
- don't touch anybody; hands behind your back
- line up at our exit door
- the last person closes the door
- Mrs. MacDonald counts us when we get outside
- Mrs. MacDonald holds up our sign for Mrs. Connolly to see if we are all there
We had gingerbread men for snack but while they were cooling and we were at the library - they ran away!!
Those sneaky gingerbread men!! They left us notes all around Westmount School. It was quite an exciting time hunting everywhere for them. While we were searching, we met a lot of people who work at the school as well as many of the bigger children in the other classes.
Just when we had given up hope...
We had fun decorating them...
...but best of all, we liked eating them!
We went to the library and met our Teacher-Librarian, Mrs. Sauer. She taught us a lot about the library and how to take care of things.
We discussed how drinks and foods don't mix well with books! Mrs. Sauer told us that we should not be reading school library books while we are eating and drinking. We don't want the books to get ruined.
Our library days are Fridays. Please help your child remember to bring back the book again every Friday. If the book is returned, s/he will be able to get a new one. Your child needs to transport his/her book back and forth between school and home in a bag to keep it clean and dry.
We introduced ourselves to each other and then afterwards we drew pictures of ourselves to put up in the room. Before the children drew themselves they helped me draw a picture of myself. We talked about all the things that I would need...head, arms, body, hair, eyes, etc. Then, off to the tables for everyone to do their own!
Meet our class:
I'm Mrs. MacDonald. Welcome to a window into our kindergarten classroom. My goal of this blog is to give you an opportunity to see some of the things that we are doing at school. Enjoy! | <urn:uuid:cd8d6aab-1fb0-42f9-a896-9015d8ff22f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mrsmacdonaldkindergarten.weebly.com/home/archives/09-2019 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.980063 | 870 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.18631836771965... | 2 | As a part of Math, we created a graph about weather we should help catch the Gingerbread Man or weather we should trap him. The results were quite close:
Gingerbread Man Traps
So, as a part of our Applied Design, Skills, and Technologies Curriculum, the students had to design and create a trap to catch the Gingerbread Man. Working with a partner and a variety of materials, the children came up with lots of interesting ideas.
Our three Core Competencies are an integral part of our school curriculum. They are integrated through so much of the students' learning. During our Gingerbread Man activity, not only did the students have to use the Core Competency of Thinking - both Critical Thinking & Creative Thinking - they also had to use the Core Competency of Communication. The children had to describe their trap to the class and they also had to be good listeners while they heard their classmates' explanations. Working with a partner is not always easy so they definitely had to practice their social skills - also a part of our Personal & Social Core Competency.
Save the Gingerbread Man
We thought that it was only fair to also try to save the Gingerbread Man. So, the challenge put forward to the children was to try to help the Gingerbread Man get across the river so that he wouldn't get caught and eaten. Again, the students had to work with a partner to come up with a plan. Lots of great ideas!
Our finished ideas:
We've been practicing our fire drill. We have done it a couple of times by ourselves but now we have done a couple with the whole school. We are getting very good at it! Here are some of the things the children said that we need to remember when we do our fire drill at school:
- no talking because the firemen might need to talk to us
- no running because you could trip and fall
- keep your eyes facing forward so that you don't get lost
- stay together in our line
- Mrs. MacDonald gets her clipboard
- don't run into someone else's line
- walk very fast so that you keep up
- don't touch anybody; hands behind your back
- line up at our exit door
- the last person closes the door
- Mrs. MacDonald counts us when we get outside
- Mrs. MacDonald holds up our sign for Mrs. Connolly to see if we are all there
We had gingerbread men for snack but while they were cooling and we were at the library - they ran away!!
Those sneaky gingerbread men!! They left us notes all around Westmount School. It was quite an exciting time hunting everywhere for them. While we were searching, we met a lot of people who work at the school as well as many of the bigger children in the other classes.
Just when we had given up hope...
We had fun decorating them...
...but best of all, we liked eating them!
We went to the library and met our Teacher-Librarian, Mrs. Sauer. She taught us a lot about the library and how to take care of things.
We discussed how drinks and foods don't mix well with books! Mrs. Sauer told us that we should not be reading school library books while we are eating and drinking. We don't want the books to get ruined.
Our library days are Fridays. Please help your child remember to bring back the book again every Friday. If the book is returned, s/he will be able to get a new one. Your child needs to transport his/her book back and forth between school and home in a bag to keep it clean and dry.
We introduced ourselves to each other and then afterwards we drew pictures of ourselves to put up in the room. Before the children drew themselves they helped me draw a picture of myself. We talked about all the things that I would need...head, arms, body, hair, eyes, etc. Then, off to the tables for everyone to do their own!
Meet our class:
I'm Mrs. MacDonald. Welcome to a window into our kindergarten classroom. My goal of this blog is to give you an opportunity to see some of the things that we are doing at school. Enjoy! | 851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman he describes. While rendering the story
Roman myths were usually inspired by historical events and were told with the purpose of teaching moral lessons. Most of ancient Roman history started with some form of godly intervention which were meant to make the events more credible. Roman people grew in power and made their neighbors believe in their greatness by advertising how they had been blessed and how the gods were always looking upon them. Livy skeptically gives his own rendition of the foundation of Rome. He appears to not believe in the supernatural godly aspect of history but he does believe that Romulus, the first king and founder of Rome was one of the greatest rulers of all time. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how Livy portrays Romulus as one of the greatest rulers of all time by focusing on his best attributes such as the successful government system he created, his ability to populate Rome and making Rome undefeatable. Livy begins Romulus’ story by explaining his origin and upbring. Like most Roman stories, for Romulus to be considered the great ruler he is known as some form of godly or magical intervention had to be stated. Romulus and Remus, his twin brother, were conceived after Rhea Silva, Numitor’s daughter, was violated by Mars, god of war. Livy appears skeptical while rendering Romulus’ conception but tells the majestic story in such a way that the reader can decide for himself if he believes whether Romulus’ origins are godly. Livy goes on to give a short rendition of how Remus and Romulus were brought up by a shepherd after having being raised by a “she-wolf”, who Livy believes was just an offensive nickname for a promiscuous woman who helped rear them. Livy’s high standing views of Romulus can be seen from the very first battle he describes. While rendering the story of how Amulius was brought down, Livy leads the audience to believe that Remus was a useless coward as opposed to his brave brother, Romulus, who gathered a group of shepherds to aid him in his mission to not only free his brother but put an end to Amulius, the tyrant ruler. It was because of this event that when Livy continues with the history of Romulus the reader is led to cheer for him instead of Remus in their battle for the throne. Romulus is portrayed as the more able and braver brother and therefore more deserving of the throne. Romulus was the founder of the senate governmental system. After having won his rightful place as ruler of the city he baptized as Rome he decided that order and stability had to be created through law. Livy describes the situation as a man merely trying to bring peace and power to what he later referred to as “the greatest nation on earth.” In Livy’s rendition of events Romulus chose the richest and noble men to form the senate because only they could be seen as the authority and therefore be feared and respected. It was because of this decision that social classes were divided into two groups, the patricians and the plebeians. The senate was in charge of foreign affairs, foreign payments and law making. The patricians had all the power in Roman society, they were the law and the masters plebeians paid their daily respects to. This government system was the first of its kind during the time as well as one of the most successful. After having created a safe and stable society Romulus realised that the only way for his empire to survive was to populate Rome. Livy describes Rome as a highly advanced and strong nation but deemed to die after a generation if Romulus had not found the solution to this. Livy doesn’t appear disturbed by Romulus’ actions in the slightest. Romulus decided that the only way to populate Rome was to trick neighboring cities into visiting Rome for a holiday Romulus invented with the purpose of kidnapping women. After having taken all the girls from his neighboring cities, Romulus forced them to marry Roman men and granted them all Roman citizenship. Livy’s choice of words and previous statements lead the reader to believe that such actions were necessary for the greater good. This event is a necessity for the survival of Rome. By previously mentioning that the greatest nation on earth wouldn’t have made it past one generation without more women, Livy justifies Romulus’ actions. His perception of him is clearly that of admiration which either clouds his perception of wrong and right or he actually didn’t see anything wrong with women being kidnapped. Throughout most of the history of Rome women are constantly depicted as the weaker sex that has to suffer in order for history to move on which is why Livy may have actually seen this as just another necessity.The kidnapping of Sabine women led Romulus to war with his neighbors. The first to attack were the people of Caenina. Livy portrays the Caenina people as angry and short-sighted as opposed to the undefeatable smart Romans. Due to the Caenina’s quick reaction, they had no time to plan and this resulted in their demise. Romulus slayed their king and stripped him of his armour dragging it to the location in which he built the first temple of Rome dedicated to Jupiter. The Romans had to then face the Sabines who had overtaken the Citadel and proven to be the best challenge they had encountered so far. The Romans were initially struggling but eventually were on their way to have the upperhand when the abducted Sabine women intervened and stopped the war from killing their husbands, on the Roman side, and their fathers, on the Sabine side. Livy portrays Romulus as forgiving and wise by showing him making a peace treaty with the people who had just attacked him and his nation. Once again, Livy chooses to talk about one the events that depict him as one of the wisest and greatest rulers of Roman history.According to Livy’s preface, the purpose of history is to have factual evidence of all kinds of possible behavior from which people may select what to emulate and what to prevent. Throughout Livy’s rendition of Romulus’ history the reader can see that once Romulus takes over the throne and founds the city of Rome he is constantly portrayed as a hero and the ideal ruler as opposed to Amulius who was viewed as a tyrant. Romulus appears to have learned from his adversity and rules as a forgiving brave king when compared to previous rulers. In Livy’s preface he states that he intends to neither affirm nor refute any of the previous events of Roman history but to merely explain “how men lived, what their moral principles were, under what leaders and by what measures at home and abroad” the Roman empire was won and extended. While he may have intended for these to be his actions he was unsuccessful and appeared as a biased historian who idolised Romulus. Livy chose to write the beginning of Roman history as a series of events describing Romulus’ greatness. While Livy did include events that to the average person may appear as horrific and immoral, Livy’s word choices and incorporation of other events leads the reader to believe that such actions were justified. Like I previously mentioned, the kidnapping of Sabine women was one of these events. Livy also chooses to portray Romulus as the ideal hero by describing how he was always ready for action and fought with no hesitation. He was always ready to defend his family and above all his country. He lived for his nation and would constantly risk his life for it too. During battles, he was always present and slaying whoever came across him. He was an incredible warrior but also a merciful man. He was always willing to offer his enemies peace so long as they were the ones surrendering to his demands. While Livy portrays this as a remarkable quality, for a man of his power and stature to be willing to offer his mercy to men who have stricken him and his people, to the average reader this is a selfish and power hungry man. He was never willing to comply to any negotiations, in Romulus’ perspective it was an “if I let you live you ought to be grateful” kind of scenario. | <urn:uuid:74992b26-507e-4118-bc13-bbb547ff41ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/roman-he-describes-while-rendering-the-story/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.99045 | 1,690 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.26589301228... | 1 | Roman he describes. While rendering the story
Roman myths were usually inspired by historical events and were told with the purpose of teaching moral lessons. Most of ancient Roman history started with some form of godly intervention which were meant to make the events more credible. Roman people grew in power and made their neighbors believe in their greatness by advertising how they had been blessed and how the gods were always looking upon them. Livy skeptically gives his own rendition of the foundation of Rome. He appears to not believe in the supernatural godly aspect of history but he does believe that Romulus, the first king and founder of Rome was one of the greatest rulers of all time. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how Livy portrays Romulus as one of the greatest rulers of all time by focusing on his best attributes such as the successful government system he created, his ability to populate Rome and making Rome undefeatable. Livy begins Romulus’ story by explaining his origin and upbring. Like most Roman stories, for Romulus to be considered the great ruler he is known as some form of godly or magical intervention had to be stated. Romulus and Remus, his twin brother, were conceived after Rhea Silva, Numitor’s daughter, was violated by Mars, god of war. Livy appears skeptical while rendering Romulus’ conception but tells the majestic story in such a way that the reader can decide for himself if he believes whether Romulus’ origins are godly. Livy goes on to give a short rendition of how Remus and Romulus were brought up by a shepherd after having being raised by a “she-wolf”, who Livy believes was just an offensive nickname for a promiscuous woman who helped rear them. Livy’s high standing views of Romulus can be seen from the very first battle he describes. While rendering the story of how Amulius was brought down, Livy leads the audience to believe that Remus was a useless coward as opposed to his brave brother, Romulus, who gathered a group of shepherds to aid him in his mission to not only free his brother but put an end to Amulius, the tyrant ruler. It was because of this event that when Livy continues with the history of Romulus the reader is led to cheer for him instead of Remus in their battle for the throne. Romulus is portrayed as the more able and braver brother and therefore more deserving of the throne. Romulus was the founder of the senate governmental system. After having won his rightful place as ruler of the city he baptized as Rome he decided that order and stability had to be created through law. Livy describes the situation as a man merely trying to bring peace and power to what he later referred to as “the greatest nation on earth.” In Livy’s rendition of events Romulus chose the richest and noble men to form the senate because only they could be seen as the authority and therefore be feared and respected. It was because of this decision that social classes were divided into two groups, the patricians and the plebeians. The senate was in charge of foreign affairs, foreign payments and law making. The patricians had all the power in Roman society, they were the law and the masters plebeians paid their daily respects to. This government system was the first of its kind during the time as well as one of the most successful. After having created a safe and stable society Romulus realised that the only way for his empire to survive was to populate Rome. Livy describes Rome as a highly advanced and strong nation but deemed to die after a generation if Romulus had not found the solution to this. Livy doesn’t appear disturbed by Romulus’ actions in the slightest. Romulus decided that the only way to populate Rome was to trick neighboring cities into visiting Rome for a holiday Romulus invented with the purpose of kidnapping women. After having taken all the girls from his neighboring cities, Romulus forced them to marry Roman men and granted them all Roman citizenship. Livy’s choice of words and previous statements lead the reader to believe that such actions were necessary for the greater good. This event is a necessity for the survival of Rome. By previously mentioning that the greatest nation on earth wouldn’t have made it past one generation without more women, Livy justifies Romulus’ actions. His perception of him is clearly that of admiration which either clouds his perception of wrong and right or he actually didn’t see anything wrong with women being kidnapped. Throughout most of the history of Rome women are constantly depicted as the weaker sex that has to suffer in order for history to move on which is why Livy may have actually seen this as just another necessity.The kidnapping of Sabine women led Romulus to war with his neighbors. The first to attack were the people of Caenina. Livy portrays the Caenina people as angry and short-sighted as opposed to the undefeatable smart Romans. Due to the Caenina’s quick reaction, they had no time to plan and this resulted in their demise. Romulus slayed their king and stripped him of his armour dragging it to the location in which he built the first temple of Rome dedicated to Jupiter. The Romans had to then face the Sabines who had overtaken the Citadel and proven to be the best challenge they had encountered so far. The Romans were initially struggling but eventually were on their way to have the upperhand when the abducted Sabine women intervened and stopped the war from killing their husbands, on the Roman side, and their fathers, on the Sabine side. Livy portrays Romulus as forgiving and wise by showing him making a peace treaty with the people who had just attacked him and his nation. Once again, Livy chooses to talk about one the events that depict him as one of the wisest and greatest rulers of Roman history.According to Livy’s preface, the purpose of history is to have factual evidence of all kinds of possible behavior from which people may select what to emulate and what to prevent. Throughout Livy’s rendition of Romulus’ history the reader can see that once Romulus takes over the throne and founds the city of Rome he is constantly portrayed as a hero and the ideal ruler as opposed to Amulius who was viewed as a tyrant. Romulus appears to have learned from his adversity and rules as a forgiving brave king when compared to previous rulers. In Livy’s preface he states that he intends to neither affirm nor refute any of the previous events of Roman history but to merely explain “how men lived, what their moral principles were, under what leaders and by what measures at home and abroad” the Roman empire was won and extended. While he may have intended for these to be his actions he was unsuccessful and appeared as a biased historian who idolised Romulus. Livy chose to write the beginning of Roman history as a series of events describing Romulus’ greatness. While Livy did include events that to the average person may appear as horrific and immoral, Livy’s word choices and incorporation of other events leads the reader to believe that such actions were justified. Like I previously mentioned, the kidnapping of Sabine women was one of these events. Livy also chooses to portray Romulus as the ideal hero by describing how he was always ready for action and fought with no hesitation. He was always ready to defend his family and above all his country. He lived for his nation and would constantly risk his life for it too. During battles, he was always present and slaying whoever came across him. He was an incredible warrior but also a merciful man. He was always willing to offer his enemies peace so long as they were the ones surrendering to his demands. While Livy portrays this as a remarkable quality, for a man of his power and stature to be willing to offer his mercy to men who have stricken him and his people, to the average reader this is a selfish and power hungry man. He was never willing to comply to any negotiations, in Romulus’ perspective it was an “if I let you live you ought to be grateful” kind of scenario. | 1,649 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Compare and contrast the Hamilton and Jefferson debates. What was the conflict?
Hamilton and Jefferson were both appointed to Washington's cabinet. Hamilton was the secretary of the treasury and Jefferson became the secretary of state. Creating a cabinet was only one of several precedents set by Washington in areas where the Constituton was silent or unclear.
Hamilton and Jefferson had very different opinions. This undoubtedly caused them to debate heavily during the times they served this position in the government. However, it also gave Washington a wide range of ideas coming from his closest advisors.
During this confusing time of a new government finally in power, political parties also came about. By the election of John Adams, two factions had arisen with very different political values. The Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. The Federalists were guided by Alexander Hamilton and counted President John Adams among their members.
Hamilton, as a Federalist, believed primarily in a strong central government run mainly by upper-class citizens and the commerce of the nation. He characterized the general public as "selfish, unreasonable, and violent." He idealized that the federal government should encourage the development of American industries. Hamilton proposed a plan to manage the countries debts and to establish a national banking system. Hamilton also proposed to pay off the foriegn debt and to issue new bonds to replace the old bonds. One of the most significant things Hamilton did was propose the idea of a national bank that would be funded by the federal government and private investors, and that would also issue money and handle all government funds. During the XYZ affair, the Federalists prefered to fight the French than to pay or negotiate, as the Republican position confirmed. The Federalists also agreed with and helped pass such laws as the Naturalization Act, the Alien Act, and the Sedition Act.
Jefferson, as a Republican, believed in a society that distrusted the rich and that was run by farmer-citizens. He was a strong supported of not the upper class but, "the people". A defender of human liberty, Jefferson believed in a minimum of government and favored power at the local level. Jefferson... | <urn:uuid:464e00dd-c999-44a6-9fa3-be2c4fcdc731> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/hamilton-and-jefferson-debates | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.982125 | 432 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.48822492361068726... | 1 | Compare and contrast the Hamilton and Jefferson debates. What was the conflict?
Hamilton and Jefferson were both appointed to Washington's cabinet. Hamilton was the secretary of the treasury and Jefferson became the secretary of state. Creating a cabinet was only one of several precedents set by Washington in areas where the Constituton was silent or unclear.
Hamilton and Jefferson had very different opinions. This undoubtedly caused them to debate heavily during the times they served this position in the government. However, it also gave Washington a wide range of ideas coming from his closest advisors.
During this confusing time of a new government finally in power, political parties also came about. By the election of John Adams, two factions had arisen with very different political values. The Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. The Federalists were guided by Alexander Hamilton and counted President John Adams among their members.
Hamilton, as a Federalist, believed primarily in a strong central government run mainly by upper-class citizens and the commerce of the nation. He characterized the general public as "selfish, unreasonable, and violent." He idealized that the federal government should encourage the development of American industries. Hamilton proposed a plan to manage the countries debts and to establish a national banking system. Hamilton also proposed to pay off the foriegn debt and to issue new bonds to replace the old bonds. One of the most significant things Hamilton did was propose the idea of a national bank that would be funded by the federal government and private investors, and that would also issue money and handle all government funds. During the XYZ affair, the Federalists prefered to fight the French than to pay or negotiate, as the Republican position confirmed. The Federalists also agreed with and helped pass such laws as the Naturalization Act, the Alien Act, and the Sedition Act.
Jefferson, as a Republican, believed in a society that distrusted the rich and that was run by farmer-citizens. He was a strong supported of not the upper class but, "the people". A defender of human liberty, Jefferson believed in a minimum of government and favored power at the local level. Jefferson... | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dr. King was an inspiration, courageous African-American individual who was known for making an impact during the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King is a great example of the people of the world going beyond the narrow concerns of themselves and embracing humanity. King says the human individual are all-equal no matter the tribe, class or nation. On page 24 in Strength to love King mention how the real tragedy of such narrow provincialism is that we see people as entitles or merely as things. In this same chapter King uses a story about a man who went down from Jerusalem to Jericho and robbers beat him and left him to die. It was only the Samaritan who has sympathy and love in his heart to help the wounded man. He used this example from the bible to explain that a neighbor is anyone who is in need and we should look beyond his or her race. I am a Christian so I can relate to this passage in the bible very well. I believe this passage is a great example to reflect on because if a Samaritan could be a neighbor to a Jew then we can be a neighbor to others. The Samaritans in the bible had hatred among each other fro a very long time because they had different religion views. In spite of their different views, this man decided to break the barriers and bring peace by helping the certain man. The story Dr. King told about the three members of a Negro college basketball team who were injured in a car accident was saddening. These men were injured but when the driver arrives he wanted nothing to do with them because of their color. I have never been the person to deny someone based on his or her skin color. We area all made from the image of God and all made of dust. I know this event probably occurred because of the time period it happened it but this type of act is egotistical. Although these kinds of stories are tragic, they teach us good lessons: to treat everybody as equal, no matter their race, culture, etc. | <urn:uuid:eed709be-e0e8-453f-b290-475c1289995f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qualicours.com/dr/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.983702 | 402 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.136032089591... | 4 | Dr. King was an inspiration, courageous African-American individual who was known for making an impact during the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King is a great example of the people of the world going beyond the narrow concerns of themselves and embracing humanity. King says the human individual are all-equal no matter the tribe, class or nation. On page 24 in Strength to love King mention how the real tragedy of such narrow provincialism is that we see people as entitles or merely as things. In this same chapter King uses a story about a man who went down from Jerusalem to Jericho and robbers beat him and left him to die. It was only the Samaritan who has sympathy and love in his heart to help the wounded man. He used this example from the bible to explain that a neighbor is anyone who is in need and we should look beyond his or her race. I am a Christian so I can relate to this passage in the bible very well. I believe this passage is a great example to reflect on because if a Samaritan could be a neighbor to a Jew then we can be a neighbor to others. The Samaritans in the bible had hatred among each other fro a very long time because they had different religion views. In spite of their different views, this man decided to break the barriers and bring peace by helping the certain man. The story Dr. King told about the three members of a Negro college basketball team who were injured in a car accident was saddening. These men were injured but when the driver arrives he wanted nothing to do with them because of their color. I have never been the person to deny someone based on his or her skin color. We area all made from the image of God and all made of dust. I know this event probably occurred because of the time period it happened it but this type of act is egotistical. Although these kinds of stories are tragic, they teach us good lessons: to treat everybody as equal, no matter their race, culture, etc. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- from World War I
People who lived through World War I called it the Great War.
But the only thing great about it was its size. In just over four years, more than 8 million men died fighting on three continents. Millions more were wounded. Five million civilians also died—from bombardment, disease, and hunger.
In one sense, the war started in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In a deeper sense, it began long before that. For years, many European nations had been embroiled in bitter competition for economic advantage, for colonial possessions, and for military superiority. For example, Britain was threatened by Germany’s growing naval power. The empires of Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey feared uprisings from the countries they controlled.
Fear of attack by a rival nation led countries to form alliances—agreements that if one country were to be attacked, the others in the alliance would fight on its side. In the summer of 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary had an alliance. France and Russia had one, too, and Britain had friendly relations with those two countries. Thus, one event could—and did—bring the five most powerful European nations into conflict. | <urn:uuid:0a655812-ea92-4018-81fb-dd1fb9b8f45b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/world-war-i/topic/the-path-to-war/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.981039 | 260 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.441296070814132... | 4 | - from World War I
People who lived through World War I called it the Great War.
But the only thing great about it was its size. In just over four years, more than 8 million men died fighting on three continents. Millions more were wounded. Five million civilians also died—from bombardment, disease, and hunger.
In one sense, the war started in 1914 with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In a deeper sense, it began long before that. For years, many European nations had been embroiled in bitter competition for economic advantage, for colonial possessions, and for military superiority. For example, Britain was threatened by Germany’s growing naval power. The empires of Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey feared uprisings from the countries they controlled.
Fear of attack by a rival nation led countries to form alliances—agreements that if one country were to be attacked, the others in the alliance would fight on its side. In the summer of 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary had an alliance. France and Russia had one, too, and Britain had friendly relations with those two countries. Thus, one event could—and did—bring the five most powerful European nations into conflict. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Taoism and Buddhism were born in the same century. Siddhartha reached enlightenment in approximately 535 B.C. and Lao Tzu’s teachings were recorded around 500 B.C. There are many similarities in the basics of these two religions. Some of the similarities can be seen clearly when examining the three meaning of Tao.
The first definition of Tao is "the way of ultimate reality." This means that Tao cannot be percieved, defined, talked about, or thought of. It is too big a concept for humans to comprehend. As in the first line of the Tao Te Ching (the Taoist text meaning The Way and Its Power): "The Tao that can be spoken is not the true Tao." This is very similar to the Buddhist idea of Nirvana or Enlightenment. Nirvana cannot be understood by one who has not attained it. Even when one has reached Nirvana, he cannot describe it to others, but only help others to reach it as well.
In its second sense, Tao means "the way of the universe." Tao is something that goes through all beings, all of the earth. It is everywhere, all the time. It is something that flows through everything. This flowing idea links with the idea in Buddhism that Nirvana can be reached by anyone, as long as one is devoted enough and has lost all attachments.Thirdly, one life must be a certain way to work with the Tao: Tao also refers to "the way of human life" as it "meshes" with the universal Tao in its second sense.
This fundamental idea of Taoism has much to do with the "view of unity of man with Heaven and Earth, that is, with... | <urn:uuid:32679728-0b54-470f-a319-fa8d63aa9e29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/comparison-of-buddhism-and-taoism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.981658 | 345 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.12402306497097... | 1 | Taoism and Buddhism were born in the same century. Siddhartha reached enlightenment in approximately 535 B.C. and Lao Tzu’s teachings were recorded around 500 B.C. There are many similarities in the basics of these two religions. Some of the similarities can be seen clearly when examining the three meaning of Tao.
The first definition of Tao is "the way of ultimate reality." This means that Tao cannot be percieved, defined, talked about, or thought of. It is too big a concept for humans to comprehend. As in the first line of the Tao Te Ching (the Taoist text meaning The Way and Its Power): "The Tao that can be spoken is not the true Tao." This is very similar to the Buddhist idea of Nirvana or Enlightenment. Nirvana cannot be understood by one who has not attained it. Even when one has reached Nirvana, he cannot describe it to others, but only help others to reach it as well.
In its second sense, Tao means "the way of the universe." Tao is something that goes through all beings, all of the earth. It is everywhere, all the time. It is something that flows through everything. This flowing idea links with the idea in Buddhism that Nirvana can be reached by anyone, as long as one is devoted enough and has lost all attachments.Thirdly, one life must be a certain way to work with the Tao: Tao also refers to "the way of human life" as it "meshes" with the universal Tao in its second sense.
This fundamental idea of Taoism has much to do with the "view of unity of man with Heaven and Earth, that is, with... | 347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tristram Shandy and David Copperfield
Trinstram Shandy and David Copperfield are two fictional protagonists depicted in England, in the 18th and 19th century respectively, that display their life stories through narration that unfold many aspects of humanity and how they, as male figures, came to important realizations in their lives. Through their narration they reveal dramatic realities of their time and how they came about to be the men they have become. David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens’, serves as a good illustration of a male figure making his way in the world during the 19th century in England.
David, the protagonist narrates his life experiences and hardships since the beginning of his life that played a major role in molding him. His journey enlightens the many critical points in his lifetime, that helped him mature and understand how to live a morally ethical life. This maturation and development of David to his adulthood can be seen in many aspects of his life throughout the story. His values and judgment play a critical role in understanding his change. As any child, in the beginning David was very immature. David was naA? ve and portrayed innocent trust.
One thing that does not change about David is his kind-heartedness, which he acquired from his mother. From a young age he was introduced to constant radical and dramatic changes in his life, from being sent to school, to his mother passing, to going to work in the factories, to living with Miss Betsey, his aunt. His mother, Clara, was very loving and compassionate but fell under submission to Mr. Murdstone, his step-father and a businessman. Neglected similarly to his mother by Mr. Murdstone, David turned to his father’s old books for some relief and escape from reality to imaginary worlds.
This showed his vulnerability as a child to run from problems instead of facing them. David could now only turn to his mother’s long-time servant Peggotty for comfort. She loved him like a mother and took him to her family for visits, where he meets his eventual great friend Emily. When sent forcefully to school by the consent of Mr. Murdstone, David is introduced to some reality of the world around him. His immaturity is exposed in a scene at an inn before his transport to school, where his blind trust lets the waiter take advantage of his meal.
Cruel and greedy degenerates which give a good perception of how reality was at the time, and even in today’s world, exploited David’s kind-hearted intentions and young mind. David eventually learns to cope with the cruelties of the world, yet always abiding to his natural kindness. David was born in the time of the Industrial Revolution and the hierarchical society of that time is clearly depicted at his time in school. His acquaintances at school immediately strike resemblances of different social statuses of England during the 19th century.
His classmate Steerforth was the self-centered handsome spoiled son from a wealthy and powerful family, who automatically gained recognition, respect and popularity amongst the boys due to this fact. Traddles is the opposite, coming from a poor family and striking a shabby resemblance. As a youngster, David admires Steerforth but eventually discovers his selfishness and lack of loyalty upon maturation. Upon his mother’s death Mr. Murdstone gives no intention of supporting David and he is sent to London to work for himself in the wine-bottling factory.
This was a harsh reality of many boys during the Industrial Revolution, working in bad conditions for little pay during the time. His only friend at work, good-hearted Mr. Micawber was sent to debt prison, and with no other favorable soul to abide David cannot bear to work at the factories anymore so he decides to flee to his Aunt Betsey, who introduces him Mr. Wickfield in Canterbury, where he would go to school. There he also meets Wickfield’s daughter Agnes. In time she was a major influence in helping David think more clearly and maturely. They treated him with kindness.
Upon finishing the school and leaving to pursue a career as a clerk, David runs into Steerforth at an inn. At this scene, typical attitude toward social class is represented. Initially the waiter does not treat David with respect, but upon seeing his relation to Steerforth, he automatically gained respect. (Chapter 19) Steerforth, in time, plays a major role in David’s bad habits such as drinking while Agnes tries to pull David on the right path in life. Throughout the story there is much tension between good and bad and making the right decisions in life.
Many steps take place where we see David starting to make his way as worthy adult in his world. The eventual realization that Steerforth is not really his friend, but a self-centered arrogant decadent, is a turning point in David’s mentality. Steerforth, upon visiting David one time, talks badly about Traddles, due to his unfavorable situation with poverty, and in reaction David quickly defends Traddles. (Chapter 28) This sparks a change in David’s maturity and opposes his childhood admiration of Steerforth.
David also introduces Steerforth to Emily, David’s childhood friend, through their relation and this is where he shows his true colors. He seduces and runs away with the girl for his own benefit and in time leaves her like a piece of trash. Towards the end of the novel everything is resolved as one would expect, where the good characters end up rewarded, whilst the bad ones end up in unfavorable situations. Eventually he gets what he deserves, but such acts of selfishness and disloyalty only aid in David’s understanding of his morality.
Towards the end of the novel everything is resolved as one would expect, where the good characters end up rewarded, whilst the bad ones end up in unfavorable situations. David’s maturation is also seen in his love life. He goes on to be the assistant clerk of Mr. Spenlow, and falls in love with his childish daughter Dora. His whole affair and marriage with Dora displays another aspect in his development. Initially Mr. Spenlow does not want David to marry his daughter upon discovery, which shows yet another prejudice in social class during this time in England.
As events unfold Mr. Spenlow dies in an accident and David marries the young Dora due to his blind love for her. Upon living with Dora for a while he discovers that their relationship is unhealthy in nature. Due to unfortunate events Dora dies in sickness, but this leads David to move abroad where he rethinks his life and comes to realization that Agnes is his true love. He griefs the death of Dora but knows deeply that they were not meant to be and he sees that what he has been searching for was in front of him. He moves back to England and marries Agnes and this marriage was healthy and happy.
The social imperfections of the 19th century proved it difficult to live a morally found and sustainable life. David’s story shows how differently people in that time ended up as adults. In this story moral goodness played a crucial role in David’s destiny. Steerforth act as a foil to David. Steerforth had all the fortunes of wealth, yet he was arrogant and selfish died deservingly at sea. David turned out fine. Although he was brought up in a poverty-ridden childhood with much misfortune, his good soul and the kind hearts of the people he found comfort with helped him make his path to happy life.
It is just one case of how a man made his way during the 19th century Britain. In Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, another character narrates his making through his various digressive stories that he shares about his family and history, which he exposes very disorderly. Shandy’s life takes place in a 18th century England rural setting. The narration of the story is Shandy’s obsession and he reveals in this many traits shared with his various family members. His father’s obsessive philosophies, and his Uncle Toby’s modesty and militaristic love are key factors contributing to his developing character.
Comparisons to primarily his father and uncle can be drawn to help reveal his traits. Shandy makes a web of events of his life, promising that each is crucial to the telling of his story. Throughout the novel he jumps around telling of random stories and occurrences, each revealing some aspect from his family’s history or circumstance, which related to his persona. Shandy is so detailed in the full understanding that he starts at his conception and isn’t born until halfway through the book. He describes his birth so intricately as if he was actually there.
His birth is one of a series of misfortunate events that occured in his life. Shandy explains how he obtained his flattened nose when Doctor Slop crushed it during his delivery. Tristram also starts to speak of the so-called ? hobby-horses’ of his family members since the first book. His father Walter was obsessive with his philosophies and intellect to a point of stubbornness and his Uncle Toby was obsessed with militaristic science, from his experience as veteran of the Spanish Succesion.
Through this he insists his own hobby-horse which is his writing. Shandy is obsessive in his writing in similar fashion and stubbornly sticks to his disorganized style yet continuously ensuring throughout the novel that every portion is necessary for his full understanding. His next unfortune is the way he was named. When Sussanah, their servant, typical in this time of England where women went to work at service, revealed that the baby boy was dying and needed to be baptized before, so Walter tells her to name him “Trismegistus ? but as she goes the the parson she only remember a the first part and the parson figures she means Tristram and hence his name. Sussanah is also responsible for Tristrams unfortunate circumcision. When she was babysitting him as a child he let the window pane drop accidentally only leading to unlucky circumcision. These unfortunate events expose some differences between Walter and Toby in their reactions. During the circumcision Toby is assuring that name does not matter, while Walter is stressing that they should try and rename the child.
Similarly during the birth Wlater considered birth as a normal thing that women exaggerate in importance, while Toby in his modesty feels pity for the women. Throughout the novel Tristram’s opinions on these recallings reveal these two central figures influence upon his own making. Although he sometime ridicules his simple, warmhearted uncle it is obvious where he obtains his lovable sweetheartedness. Tristram and his uncle also both share wounds in their private parts as revealed and this including their misfortunes correlates them both.
Tristram can relate to his uncle in his struggles, which help him out in making him own path. Tristram’s father also serves an important part of Tristrams developing character. Walter and Tristram both share common digression, going of to their obsessive topics in the least convenient times. Although not the perfect father figure, Walter shows his dedication to Tristram throughout the story. Both Tristram and David, in their respective stories, are contemporary fictional characters that make their way in the world as from childhood to manhood.
The harsh realities and tempting enticements, which could lead to misfortune, were a obstacles for David proving himself to be the morally sound man he has become. With the aid of supporting people dedicated to his good he found his way. Similarly Tristram relates his own making through the ambiguous relations with his family and their many stories which developed an understanding of his worth through his opinions. Making your may in the world to become a man is relative to your circumstances, yet a good mindset allows to attain the final goal. | <urn:uuid:2f20915a-9a8f-4c1b-896a-9a173bc6b1f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/tristram-shandy-and-david-copperfield-117140 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00423.warc.gz | en | 0.98883 | 2,476 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.1590878367... | 1 | Tristram Shandy and David Copperfield
Trinstram Shandy and David Copperfield are two fictional protagonists depicted in England, in the 18th and 19th century respectively, that display their life stories through narration that unfold many aspects of humanity and how they, as male figures, came to important realizations in their lives. Through their narration they reveal dramatic realities of their time and how they came about to be the men they have become. David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens’, serves as a good illustration of a male figure making his way in the world during the 19th century in England.
David, the protagonist narrates his life experiences and hardships since the beginning of his life that played a major role in molding him. His journey enlightens the many critical points in his lifetime, that helped him mature and understand how to live a morally ethical life. This maturation and development of David to his adulthood can be seen in many aspects of his life throughout the story. His values and judgment play a critical role in understanding his change. As any child, in the beginning David was very immature. David was naA? ve and portrayed innocent trust.
One thing that does not change about David is his kind-heartedness, which he acquired from his mother. From a young age he was introduced to constant radical and dramatic changes in his life, from being sent to school, to his mother passing, to going to work in the factories, to living with Miss Betsey, his aunt. His mother, Clara, was very loving and compassionate but fell under submission to Mr. Murdstone, his step-father and a businessman. Neglected similarly to his mother by Mr. Murdstone, David turned to his father’s old books for some relief and escape from reality to imaginary worlds.
This showed his vulnerability as a child to run from problems instead of facing them. David could now only turn to his mother’s long-time servant Peggotty for comfort. She loved him like a mother and took him to her family for visits, where he meets his eventual great friend Emily. When sent forcefully to school by the consent of Mr. Murdstone, David is introduced to some reality of the world around him. His immaturity is exposed in a scene at an inn before his transport to school, where his blind trust lets the waiter take advantage of his meal.
Cruel and greedy degenerates which give a good perception of how reality was at the time, and even in today’s world, exploited David’s kind-hearted intentions and young mind. David eventually learns to cope with the cruelties of the world, yet always abiding to his natural kindness. David was born in the time of the Industrial Revolution and the hierarchical society of that time is clearly depicted at his time in school. His acquaintances at school immediately strike resemblances of different social statuses of England during the 19th century.
His classmate Steerforth was the self-centered handsome spoiled son from a wealthy and powerful family, who automatically gained recognition, respect and popularity amongst the boys due to this fact. Traddles is the opposite, coming from a poor family and striking a shabby resemblance. As a youngster, David admires Steerforth but eventually discovers his selfishness and lack of loyalty upon maturation. Upon his mother’s death Mr. Murdstone gives no intention of supporting David and he is sent to London to work for himself in the wine-bottling factory.
This was a harsh reality of many boys during the Industrial Revolution, working in bad conditions for little pay during the time. His only friend at work, good-hearted Mr. Micawber was sent to debt prison, and with no other favorable soul to abide David cannot bear to work at the factories anymore so he decides to flee to his Aunt Betsey, who introduces him Mr. Wickfield in Canterbury, where he would go to school. There he also meets Wickfield’s daughter Agnes. In time she was a major influence in helping David think more clearly and maturely. They treated him with kindness.
Upon finishing the school and leaving to pursue a career as a clerk, David runs into Steerforth at an inn. At this scene, typical attitude toward social class is represented. Initially the waiter does not treat David with respect, but upon seeing his relation to Steerforth, he automatically gained respect. (Chapter 19) Steerforth, in time, plays a major role in David’s bad habits such as drinking while Agnes tries to pull David on the right path in life. Throughout the story there is much tension between good and bad and making the right decisions in life.
Many steps take place where we see David starting to make his way as worthy adult in his world. The eventual realization that Steerforth is not really his friend, but a self-centered arrogant decadent, is a turning point in David’s mentality. Steerforth, upon visiting David one time, talks badly about Traddles, due to his unfavorable situation with poverty, and in reaction David quickly defends Traddles. (Chapter 28) This sparks a change in David’s maturity and opposes his childhood admiration of Steerforth.
David also introduces Steerforth to Emily, David’s childhood friend, through their relation and this is where he shows his true colors. He seduces and runs away with the girl for his own benefit and in time leaves her like a piece of trash. Towards the end of the novel everything is resolved as one would expect, where the good characters end up rewarded, whilst the bad ones end up in unfavorable situations. Eventually he gets what he deserves, but such acts of selfishness and disloyalty only aid in David’s understanding of his morality.
Towards the end of the novel everything is resolved as one would expect, where the good characters end up rewarded, whilst the bad ones end up in unfavorable situations. David’s maturation is also seen in his love life. He goes on to be the assistant clerk of Mr. Spenlow, and falls in love with his childish daughter Dora. His whole affair and marriage with Dora displays another aspect in his development. Initially Mr. Spenlow does not want David to marry his daughter upon discovery, which shows yet another prejudice in social class during this time in England.
As events unfold Mr. Spenlow dies in an accident and David marries the young Dora due to his blind love for her. Upon living with Dora for a while he discovers that their relationship is unhealthy in nature. Due to unfortunate events Dora dies in sickness, but this leads David to move abroad where he rethinks his life and comes to realization that Agnes is his true love. He griefs the death of Dora but knows deeply that they were not meant to be and he sees that what he has been searching for was in front of him. He moves back to England and marries Agnes and this marriage was healthy and happy.
The social imperfections of the 19th century proved it difficult to live a morally found and sustainable life. David’s story shows how differently people in that time ended up as adults. In this story moral goodness played a crucial role in David’s destiny. Steerforth act as a foil to David. Steerforth had all the fortunes of wealth, yet he was arrogant and selfish died deservingly at sea. David turned out fine. Although he was brought up in a poverty-ridden childhood with much misfortune, his good soul and the kind hearts of the people he found comfort with helped him make his path to happy life.
It is just one case of how a man made his way during the 19th century Britain. In Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, another character narrates his making through his various digressive stories that he shares about his family and history, which he exposes very disorderly. Shandy’s life takes place in a 18th century England rural setting. The narration of the story is Shandy’s obsession and he reveals in this many traits shared with his various family members. His father’s obsessive philosophies, and his Uncle Toby’s modesty and militaristic love are key factors contributing to his developing character.
Comparisons to primarily his father and uncle can be drawn to help reveal his traits. Shandy makes a web of events of his life, promising that each is crucial to the telling of his story. Throughout the novel he jumps around telling of random stories and occurrences, each revealing some aspect from his family’s history or circumstance, which related to his persona. Shandy is so detailed in the full understanding that he starts at his conception and isn’t born until halfway through the book. He describes his birth so intricately as if he was actually there.
His birth is one of a series of misfortunate events that occured in his life. Shandy explains how he obtained his flattened nose when Doctor Slop crushed it during his delivery. Tristram also starts to speak of the so-called ? hobby-horses’ of his family members since the first book. His father Walter was obsessive with his philosophies and intellect to a point of stubbornness and his Uncle Toby was obsessed with militaristic science, from his experience as veteran of the Spanish Succesion.
Through this he insists his own hobby-horse which is his writing. Shandy is obsessive in his writing in similar fashion and stubbornly sticks to his disorganized style yet continuously ensuring throughout the novel that every portion is necessary for his full understanding. His next unfortune is the way he was named. When Sussanah, their servant, typical in this time of England where women went to work at service, revealed that the baby boy was dying and needed to be baptized before, so Walter tells her to name him “Trismegistus ? but as she goes the the parson she only remember a the first part and the parson figures she means Tristram and hence his name. Sussanah is also responsible for Tristrams unfortunate circumcision. When she was babysitting him as a child he let the window pane drop accidentally only leading to unlucky circumcision. These unfortunate events expose some differences between Walter and Toby in their reactions. During the circumcision Toby is assuring that name does not matter, while Walter is stressing that they should try and rename the child.
Similarly during the birth Wlater considered birth as a normal thing that women exaggerate in importance, while Toby in his modesty feels pity for the women. Throughout the novel Tristram’s opinions on these recallings reveal these two central figures influence upon his own making. Although he sometime ridicules his simple, warmhearted uncle it is obvious where he obtains his lovable sweetheartedness. Tristram and his uncle also both share wounds in their private parts as revealed and this including their misfortunes correlates them both.
Tristram can relate to his uncle in his struggles, which help him out in making him own path. Tristram’s father also serves an important part of Tristrams developing character. Walter and Tristram both share common digression, going of to their obsessive topics in the least convenient times. Although not the perfect father figure, Walter shows his dedication to Tristram throughout the story. Both Tristram and David, in their respective stories, are contemporary fictional characters that make their way in the world as from childhood to manhood.
The harsh realities and tempting enticements, which could lead to misfortune, were a obstacles for David proving himself to be the morally sound man he has become. With the aid of supporting people dedicated to his good he found his way. Similarly Tristram relates his own making through the ambiguous relations with his family and their many stories which developed an understanding of his worth through his opinions. Making your may in the world to become a man is relative to your circumstances, yet a good mindset allows to attain the final goal. | 2,421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, you are going to learn about scribes, and their tools they used to write down records and other items for Ancient Egypt!Who Are Scribes?Scribes are known to be very important in Ancient Egypt. They were wealthy and had a good social standing. They wrote down records for many items and events, like records for food supply. They also either worked for priests and people from other higher social classes, or they worked for the government. They also wrote and calculated taxes, recorded laws and cases, or wrote records on the military soldiers and their food supplies, it all depended on the types of scribes, which there were many types. Scribes went to school from a very young age, and went to school for a very long time. Their years in school, though, were definitely not known as “simple and joyful.” Their teachers were mean, and they had to learn A LOT, especially hieroglyphics. But in the end, they got a lot of respect and wealth. Scribe Tools!Scribes are writers, so what exactly did they use to write and carry their supplies? Well, all scribes were known to have and use the same tools. Here are some of the tools they used: Pens: Pens were used to write hieroglyphics. They were made of reeds, that were often sharpened. These pens were needed to be dipped multiple times in ink, to write something that was visible.Paper: Paper was used to be written on, for documents, books, etc. Paper was, back then, made of a papyrus stem that was narrowly cut, forming long rectangle strips. These strips are then soaked in water, put under heavy weights, and left to dry. These dried strips are then polished, and the paper is finally created.Rolls of Paper: Rolls Of paper were created when several sheets of paper were glued together. These rolls of paper are varied from about 30-110 ft long.Writing Tablets:Writing tablets were used when people placed paper on them to write. They dipped pens into the wells that the tablet had built-in, for red and black inks. There was also a tiny containers for water, so it can moisten the ink. These tablets were made of either stone, or wood.Cord Slung/Leather Cases/Leather Bags:A cord slung is attached to a writing tablet, so a scribe can carry his tablet wherever he goes. The leather bags and cases were so scribes can also carry his or her other tools.Now, you know a little bit about scribes, and their tools! | <urn:uuid:02d1bdd2-fceb-4696-9701-ec5fbe6247c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/today-dry-these-dried-strips-are-then/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.993942 | 535 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.074134632945060... | 1 | Today, you are going to learn about scribes, and their tools they used to write down records and other items for Ancient Egypt!Who Are Scribes?Scribes are known to be very important in Ancient Egypt. They were wealthy and had a good social standing. They wrote down records for many items and events, like records for food supply. They also either worked for priests and people from other higher social classes, or they worked for the government. They also wrote and calculated taxes, recorded laws and cases, or wrote records on the military soldiers and their food supplies, it all depended on the types of scribes, which there were many types. Scribes went to school from a very young age, and went to school for a very long time. Their years in school, though, were definitely not known as “simple and joyful.” Their teachers were mean, and they had to learn A LOT, especially hieroglyphics. But in the end, they got a lot of respect and wealth. Scribe Tools!Scribes are writers, so what exactly did they use to write and carry their supplies? Well, all scribes were known to have and use the same tools. Here are some of the tools they used: Pens: Pens were used to write hieroglyphics. They were made of reeds, that were often sharpened. These pens were needed to be dipped multiple times in ink, to write something that was visible.Paper: Paper was used to be written on, for documents, books, etc. Paper was, back then, made of a papyrus stem that was narrowly cut, forming long rectangle strips. These strips are then soaked in water, put under heavy weights, and left to dry. These dried strips are then polished, and the paper is finally created.Rolls of Paper: Rolls Of paper were created when several sheets of paper were glued together. These rolls of paper are varied from about 30-110 ft long.Writing Tablets:Writing tablets were used when people placed paper on them to write. They dipped pens into the wells that the tablet had built-in, for red and black inks. There was also a tiny containers for water, so it can moisten the ink. These tablets were made of either stone, or wood.Cord Slung/Leather Cases/Leather Bags:A cord slung is attached to a writing tablet, so a scribe can carry his tablet wherever he goes. The leather bags and cases were so scribes can also carry his or her other tools.Now, you know a little bit about scribes, and their tools! | 529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There have been many forgers of artworks during the past century. There are undoubtedly some forgeries in major galleries but, for the most part, after careful investigation, forgeries are eventually detected. In the same way, over the past few centuries there have been literary forgeries by talented writers who could have been successful as writers in their own right but who saw forgery as a shortcut to wealth and fame.
William Henry Ireland (1775 -1835) was one such forger, and was the perpetrator of what is known as ‘The Shakespeare Hoax‘. He concentrated on creating a broad range of documents and works that he managed to successfully pass off as being written by William Shakespeare. Ireland not only wrote a number of ‘Shakespeare’ poems and a play, which he claimed to have found but also letters and other documents written in Shakespeare’s hand.
Ireland’s father was a publisher and Shakespeare enthusiast – a collector of Shakespeare ‘relics’, memorabilia and anything related to Shakespeare. One day his son told him that an acquaintance had found a box in his attic that contained documents that had been written by Shakespeare, including letters.
Ireland’s father was ecstatic. The remarkable fact was, and is, that the most famous, most studied, most read English writer in history, who had written millions of words, had not left anything personal that he had written, apart from his will. Shakespeare’s signature was very rare on any documents; there were no letters, no diary or journal entries, and not even a single line from any of his plays in his own handwriting. Virtually nothing. That fact ensured that anything written in Shakespeare’s hand would be worth a fortune. And now Samuel Ireland had a priceless treasure trove in his possession.
It began with a forged mortgage deed between Shakespeare and his friend and colleague, John Heminges. William Ireland had met a man who worked in the book-binding business. This new acquaintance described a technique for creating documents that had the appearance of much older documents by using a special ink, then heating the paper. Ireland practiced the technique until he felt he had got it right. He worked in a legal firm that held documents from Elizabethan and Jacobean times. He cut some parchment from one of them, copied the style of the mortgages, using his special ink, copied Shakespeare’s authentic signature then heated it over a candle flame. His father declared it a genuine document and took it to the Herald’s Office where it was approved as authentic.
The documents kept coming. There was a letter expressing gratitude towards the Earl of Southampton for his patronage, a handwritten declaration of Shakespeare’s protestant faith; love letters to his wife Anne Hathaway; a pile of books with Shakespeare’s notes in the margins, and even manuscripts of Hamlet and King Lear. The experts generally agreed that they were genuine, and authenticated everything Ireland produced.
Ireland became bolder and finally went too far. He actually claimed that in his box of documents there was an original Shakespeare play, Vortigern and Rowena. The Irish playwright, Richard Sheridan, leaped at the opportunity to stage it and a deal was made. However, on reading the play he doubted its authenticity, saying that it was shallow and simplistic, completely lacking the depths to be found in all of Shakespeare’s other plays. Nevertheless, the production went ahead, conducted by actor and manager of the Drury LaneTheatre, John Philip Kemble, although he also had his doubts.
The play opened on 2 April 1796. By then some doubts about the documents had appeared among the literary establishment and the performance of the play fuelled that. The play was met with boos and catcalls and didn’t have a second performance.
A Shakespearean scholar, Edmond Malone, published a comprehensive study of Ireland’s documents: An Inquiry into the Authenticity of Certain Miscellaneous Papers and Legal Instruments. He demonstrated convincingly that the papers were forgeries and convinced the scholarly establishment.
Ireland’s father Samuel came under fire so his son published a confession of what he had done. His father’s reputation never recovered and William, without any credibility, was unable to get work, and died in poverty, aged 59, in 1839. | <urn:uuid:ed203713-1fef-43ba-b17e-94b3752e70d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/blog/shakespeare-hoax/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.986265 | 890 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.21716725826... | 12 | There have been many forgers of artworks during the past century. There are undoubtedly some forgeries in major galleries but, for the most part, after careful investigation, forgeries are eventually detected. In the same way, over the past few centuries there have been literary forgeries by talented writers who could have been successful as writers in their own right but who saw forgery as a shortcut to wealth and fame.
William Henry Ireland (1775 -1835) was one such forger, and was the perpetrator of what is known as ‘The Shakespeare Hoax‘. He concentrated on creating a broad range of documents and works that he managed to successfully pass off as being written by William Shakespeare. Ireland not only wrote a number of ‘Shakespeare’ poems and a play, which he claimed to have found but also letters and other documents written in Shakespeare’s hand.
Ireland’s father was a publisher and Shakespeare enthusiast – a collector of Shakespeare ‘relics’, memorabilia and anything related to Shakespeare. One day his son told him that an acquaintance had found a box in his attic that contained documents that had been written by Shakespeare, including letters.
Ireland’s father was ecstatic. The remarkable fact was, and is, that the most famous, most studied, most read English writer in history, who had written millions of words, had not left anything personal that he had written, apart from his will. Shakespeare’s signature was very rare on any documents; there were no letters, no diary or journal entries, and not even a single line from any of his plays in his own handwriting. Virtually nothing. That fact ensured that anything written in Shakespeare’s hand would be worth a fortune. And now Samuel Ireland had a priceless treasure trove in his possession.
It began with a forged mortgage deed between Shakespeare and his friend and colleague, John Heminges. William Ireland had met a man who worked in the book-binding business. This new acquaintance described a technique for creating documents that had the appearance of much older documents by using a special ink, then heating the paper. Ireland practiced the technique until he felt he had got it right. He worked in a legal firm that held documents from Elizabethan and Jacobean times. He cut some parchment from one of them, copied the style of the mortgages, using his special ink, copied Shakespeare’s authentic signature then heated it over a candle flame. His father declared it a genuine document and took it to the Herald’s Office where it was approved as authentic.
The documents kept coming. There was a letter expressing gratitude towards the Earl of Southampton for his patronage, a handwritten declaration of Shakespeare’s protestant faith; love letters to his wife Anne Hathaway; a pile of books with Shakespeare’s notes in the margins, and even manuscripts of Hamlet and King Lear. The experts generally agreed that they were genuine, and authenticated everything Ireland produced.
Ireland became bolder and finally went too far. He actually claimed that in his box of documents there was an original Shakespeare play, Vortigern and Rowena. The Irish playwright, Richard Sheridan, leaped at the opportunity to stage it and a deal was made. However, on reading the play he doubted its authenticity, saying that it was shallow and simplistic, completely lacking the depths to be found in all of Shakespeare’s other plays. Nevertheless, the production went ahead, conducted by actor and manager of the Drury LaneTheatre, John Philip Kemble, although he also had his doubts.
The play opened on 2 April 1796. By then some doubts about the documents had appeared among the literary establishment and the performance of the play fuelled that. The play was met with boos and catcalls and didn’t have a second performance.
A Shakespearean scholar, Edmond Malone, published a comprehensive study of Ireland’s documents: An Inquiry into the Authenticity of Certain Miscellaneous Papers and Legal Instruments. He demonstrated convincingly that the papers were forgeries and convinced the scholarly establishment.
Ireland’s father Samuel came under fire so his son published a confession of what he had done. His father’s reputation never recovered and William, without any credibility, was unable to get work, and died in poverty, aged 59, in 1839. | 861 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Orchha, India: Legends & Tales
Dr. Sunil Deepak, 29 December 2019
Orchha is a tiny town in Madhya Pradesh (Central India), known for its beautiful palaces, temples and cenotaphs of the Bundela Kings from 16-17th centuries. It is also linked to many popular legends and stories that spice its history, and are kept alive in the local ballads and folk-songs.
Orchha is famous for its beautiful cenotaphs built along the banks of Betwa river. The image above presents the cenotaph of the Orchha king Madhukar Shah. This post is about the legends of Orchha.
Oral cultures of India
In India, oral traditions have always been important for keeping alive the local histories. Even today, the Indian myths and legends continue to be preserved through community traditions such as ballads and folk-songs.
Over centuries and millenniums, the ideas of mainstream Hinduism interact with the spiritual traditions of specific groups of people in India such as the adivasi (forest dwellers, indigenous people), influence and enrich each other.
For example, in the Bundelkhand region, the ballads and nautanki-theater about the 12th century stories of the brave warrior-brothers Alha and Udal continue to be very popular even today.
Historical background of Orchha
Bundelkhand region is located in central India, partly in Madhya Pradesh and partly in Uttar Pradesh. It is a region characterised by hills and rocky outcrops.
In the beginning of the 16th century, Bundela king Rudra Pratap had his capital in Gadhkundar, about 50 km from Orchha, which became his capital in 1530. He died soon after shifting here and was succeeded by Bharati Chandra (1531-54), and then, Madhukar Shah (1554-92). This last period coincided with the establishment of Mughal empire in India.
Bundelas had a tumultuous relationship with the Mughals. They lost wars to them, swore allegiance and then, whenever they got the chance, rebelled and fought for independence. Thus, the Mughals could never take them for granted. Mughal emperor Akbar's army attacked and defeated Madhukar Shah in 1577. He joined Akbar's court but later, continued to fight, eventually winning back some of the lost areas.
His son Rama Shah made peace with Akbar and joined his court. While he stayed in emperor's court, Orchha was looked after by his younger brother Indrajit Singh. They had another brother, Bir Singh who became an ally of prince Salim. After Akbar's death in 1605, Salim became emperor Jahangir (1605-27), and he made Bir Singh the king of Orchha (1606-27).
Bir Singh's reign is called the golden period of Orchha. He built different forts, temples and water-tanks in Bundelkhand, including the Jhansi fort.
After the arrival of Shah Jahan on the Mughal throne in 1627, fighting between the Bundelas and the Mughals restarted. Bir Singh's son King Jujhar Singh was forced to take refuge in a forest and was killed in 1635 by the forces of Shahjahan's son Aurangzeb. His younger brother Pahad Singh, who had sided with the Mughals, was made the ruler of Orchha in 1642. Slowly over most of the 17-18th centuries Orchha kingdom declined.
Queen Ganesh Kunwar and the Statue of Lord Rama
The first legend of Orchha is about a Rama statue. King Madhukar Shah ruled Bundelkhand for 38 years, from 1554 to 1592. Ganesh Kunwar was his queen. The king was a follower of Krishna, while the queen was from Ayodhaya and a follower of Rama. This was the time when Gosain Tulsidas had written his Ram Charit Manas (Story of Rama) and had popularized the public celebrations of Ramlila during Dushhera festival.
Ganesh Kunwar wanted a Rama temple in Orchha and thus, Madhukar Shah ordered the building the Chatturbhuj temple. The queen herself went to Ayodhaya to get the Rama statue for the new temple. At that time, she dreamed that after leaving Ayodhaya, the statue will get stuck wherever it will be put down and then it can not be shifted. So the queen took care to never place the staute on the ground during her journey back to Orchha. However, when the queen reached home, the Chatturbhuj temple was still incomplete and thus, it was decided to keep the statue in the queen's palace. Later, when Chaturbhuj temple was completed, they found that the statue had become stuck in the palace and it could not be moved from there. Thus, her palace had to be converted into a temple. The image below shows Chatturbhuj temple and the queen's palace (yellow) converted into a temple, seen from the Orchha fort.
There are many variations of this legend. For example, in one story, Ganesh Kunwar was doing a tapasya (penance) along the banks of Sarayu river in Ayodhaya. After long prayers, when lord Rama did not appear, she jumped in the river, threatening to kill herself. There, in the water, Rama appeared to her, brought her to the river bank and told her to build his temple in Orchha.
These stories serve to reinforce the beliefs in superhuman godly powers in the Rama statue and strengthen the sanctity of Ram Raja temple of Orchha, which is an important pilgrimage place in Bundelkhand.
Historical background: The rational explanation behind the story could have been a war between emperor Akbar and Madhukar Shah, so that Chatturbhuj temple was left incomplete. Some historians believe that the temple was completed during the reign of his third son, Bir Singh 15-20 years later, by which time the queen's old palace had already been converted into the Rama temple.
The wall paintings in Raja Mahal inside the Orchha fort, built by Madhukar Shah, like the one shown in the image below, are mostly about Krishna, supporting the idea that he was a Krishna-devotee.
On the other hand, the wall paintings inside the Laxmi temple built under his third son, king Bir Singh , have scenes about both, Rama and Krishna, showing that by his time, the cults of both the gods had become popular in Orchha. The image below shows one such wall-painting panel where on the left an episode of Ramayana is depicted while on the right, there is Krishna.
The beautiful courtesan Parveen Rai's love story
The second legend about Orchha is linked to Madhukar Shah's second son, Indrajit Singh and his favourite court poet and dancer, Praveen Rai. Emperor Akbar heard about the beauty and singing skills of Praveen and asked Indrajit to send her to Agra to the royal court. Indrajit was in love with Praveen and did not want to leave her, but she convinced him to send her to the emperor. Struck by her strong love for Indrajit, Akbar gave her gifts and sent her back to Orchha.
The story of Indrajit, Praveen Rai and Akbar was written down by the Orchha poet Keshav Das in his book "Kavipriya".
Hindi author Maitreyee Pushpa had also written about this legend. According to her story, Praveen's original name was Savitri and she was the daughter of a courtesan called Kanchana from Gwalior. She was invited to Orchha by the king Madhukar Shah. The king fell in love with Kanchana and asked her to stay in Orchha. One of the ghats on Orchha river is dedicated to Kanchana. Savitri was a good dancer and was given the title of Praveen Rai. She shared the love for poetry with king Indrajit and the royal poet Keshav Das.
Another version of this story is that Praveen was the beautiful daughter of a blacksmith. When Indrajit saw her, he was smitten and brought her to his palace. Since she belonged to a "lower caste", they could not have a proper wedding. With the help of the royal poet Keshav Das, she learned poetry, studied dance and became good at both. She wrote the bhakti poetry in "Ramkaleva of Ramchandrika".
Similarly, there are different versions of the story regarding Akbar's curiosity about her. Indrajit's cousin Pahad Singh had deliberately told Akbar exaggerated stories about Praveen and suggested that such a beautiful and good dancer should belong to the emperor's court. Actually, Pahad Singh wanted the throne of Orchha and hoped that the love-lorn Indrajit will die without Praveen. Indrajit refused to send Praveen to the emperor and an angry Akbar asked him to pay a huge fine. Praveen convinced Indrajit to let her go. He was disappointed, thinking that his beloved was greedy and wanted to be the concubine of the emperor.
In his book Kavipriya, Keshav Das wrote that in Akbar's court Praveen was asked to sing. She sang about being a daughter of Orchha and about her love for Indrajit. Then she said: "Vinati rai praveen ki suniye chatur sujan, juthi patar bhakhat hai bari, vayas, svan" (O wise and good man, listen to this request from Praveen Rai. Left over food is eaten only by low-castes, crows and dogs). She called herself "left-over food", implying her relationship with Indrajit and thus being unfit for the emperor. The emperor, ashamed by her words, gifted her money, pearls and jewels, and sent her back to Orchha.
Yet another legend says that after coming back from Agra, Indrajit wanted to marry Praveen but his family did not allow him. Frustrated, Parveen immolated herself and Indrajit committed suicide.
The historical Background: The fort of Orchha includes Praveen Rai palace, also known as Anand Mahal. It was built in the 16th century. Indrajit Singh was the second son of Madhukar Shah, who ruled Orchha during the final years of the 16th century, while his elder brother Rama Shah was part of Akbar's court.
Some of the wall paintings in the Laxmi temple, built under King Bir Singh in the early 17th century show Praveen Rai. Poet Keshav Das lived during the last years of Madhukar Shah, during the reign of Indrajit Singh and during early years of Bir Singh. Thus the events linked with the legends of Praveen Rai and Indrajit had probably occurred around the end of 16th century. Since Akbar was born in 1542, so he was in his fifties at that time.
The image above shows a wall-painting from Laxmi temple, where Praveen Rai is dancing in a courtyard enclosed inside a fort. The architecture of the building on the left does look similar to Fatahpur Sikri, where Akbar lived. There are 9 men sitting by the side, which could be a reference to the 9 councillors (navratna) of Akbar. This wall-painting seems to confirm the story of Praveen Rai's visit to Akbar's court.
Legend of King Jujhar Singh and his brother Hardaul
There is the story of king Jujhar Singh, his wife Champawati, his younger brother Hardaul and their sister Kunjawati. The popular legend says that Jujhar had forced his wife Champawati to poison and kill Hardaul because he had suspected an illicit affair between the two.
Jujhar Singh was the eldest son of king Bir Singh, who had been a close friend of emperor Jahangir and could have been involved in fighting the rebellion of his son, who later became emperor Shahjahan. Thus, after Jahangir's death, Shahjahan did not have good relations with Orchha.
Since Hardaul's mother had died when he was young, his elder sister-in-law Champawati had raised him. In 1627, when Bir Singh died and Jujhar Singh became the king, 19 year old Hardaul became his Dewan (chief minister). One year later, in 1628, Hardaul was married to Himachal Kunwari and in 1630 his son Vijay Singh was born.
In 1631, Hardaul and some of his soldiers died after eating at the Dushhera feast in Orchha. It is said that Jujhar told his wife that she was having an affair with his brother and asked her to prove her faithfulness by giving poison to Hardaul. The legend also says that Hardaul loved his sister-in-law, because he thought of her as his mother, and he knowingly took the poison from her.
People of Orchha, indignant about the killing of Hardaul, built a shrine to him inside the special garden which had been built earlier by king Bir Singh for a visit of emperor Jahangir. This story is a common theme in the folk songs and Nautanki-theater in Orchha. It is a pilgrimage place and people wishing for the resolution of their problems, tie a blue ribbon on the shrine.
Another related legend is about Hardaul and his sister Kunjawati, who was married in Datia. When Hardaul died, his sister took his body to Datia for cremation. A temple was created at this site. In 1715, a pond was also built in Datia near this temple, which is called "Lalla ka Talab" (Pond of the beloved boy).
It is said that Hardaul was very close to Kunjawati. According to this legend, some time after Hardaul's death, it was the time for the marriage of Kunjawati's daughter. During the marriage, when the time came for the rite where the bride's mama (mother's brother) offers bhat (rice) to the bride, everybody was astonished to see Hardaul, whose ghost had come to offer rice to his niece. This legend is still kept alive in Bundelkhand marriage ceremonies even today, in the rite of giving "Hardaul ka bhat" (Hardaul's rice) to the brides by their mothers' brothers.
Historical events linked with Hardaul's legend: In 1631, an enemy of Mughal empire called Khanjahan Lodhi, fleeing from Shahjahan's army, had passed through Orchha. Lodhi family had ruled Delhi before the Mughals. He was Hardaul's friend and thus, Hardaul did not try to stop him. This earned the ire of Shahjahan who blamed Jujhar Singh and forced him to send his son Vikramjit to go after Lodhi and kill him. 200 Orchha soldiers had died in this fight. Jujhar Singh blamed Hardaul for creating this problem.
Hardaul was a very popular military commander. He had created a personal group of warriors who listened to him. Thus, it is possible that Jujhar got him killed because he was angry with him or perhaps, he was insecure about him. Or Jujhar Singh might have been innocent and Hardaul might have died from some infection from the feast food. In 1735 Jujhar Singh died fighting with Auranzeb's army, and his cousin Pahad Singh became the king of Orchha.
Many local persons do not agree with the version of this legend, where Jujhar Singh suspects an illicit relationship between his wife and his brother. They blame Vincent Smith, the British collector of Hamirpur in 1875, for not having understood the real story and for having created this legend about the illicit love story.
The legend of Pir Sundar Shah
There is another legend linked with the royals of Orchha but I could not find much information about it.
According to this legend, one of the sons of Jujhar Singh, prince Dhurbhajan, had fallen in love with a Muslim girl. To marry her, he had converted to Islam and taken the name of Sundar Shah. They had lived in the building known as Sundar Mahal, built on the top of a hillock near the Laxmi temple, on the outskirts of Orchha city. Some people say that the girl he loved was princess Mehrunnissa, the daughter of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Another story says that Sundar Shah was the love child of an Orchha king called Indrajit singh and princess Mehrunissa, daughter of Aurangzeb. This Indrajit Singh was different from the one who had loved Praveen Rai.
In his old age, Sundar became famous as a Pir, a local saint, and was buried in Sundar Mahal. Thus, even today the Sundar Mahal is visited by people who come to pray at his tomb and ask for his help in resolving some problem.
Historical background: According to the history books, emperor Aurangzeb had 4 daughters - Zebunnissa, Zeenatunnissa, Badrunnissa and the youngest, Mehrunnissa, who had married Izad Baksh, son of Shahzada Murad Baksh, in 1672 and had died in Delhi in 1706.
On the other hand Jujhar Singh had died in 1636 and in 1641, his brother Pahad Singh was placed on the Orchha throne by the Mughals. Aurangzeb became the emperor many years later in 1658. Thus, it seems unlikely that Jujhar Singh had a son who was young enough to marry princess Mehrunnissa. However, this does not mean that the legend had no historical basis. It is possible that one of the sons of Jujhar Singh had indeed married a Muslim girl and taken the name of Sundar Shah, though his wife was not the daughter of emperor Aurangzeb.
Later, two other sufi saints, Syed pir and Zahar pir also lived here and their shrines were also built inside Sundar Mahal. At present, it is seen as a religious place for the followers of the different pirs.
The Temple Destroyed by the Mughals
According to Shah Jahan's biography, in 1635 he had sent his son Aurangzeb to destroy the temple of the Orchha king. At that time Jujhar Singh was the king of Orchha. By that time, Orchha had at least three big temples - Raja Ram temple, Chatturbhuj temple and Laxmi Narayan temple. However, in Orchha, I could not find any story about a temple destruction. Given the vivacity of oral histories in Bundelkhand, I think the absence of legends about the destruction of a temple means that the temple destroyed by Aurangzeb was not located in Orchha.
Perhaps, Shah Jahan's order referred to the destruction of Keshav Dev temple in Mathura, which was also built by king Bir Singh Deo of Orchha and was destroyed by Auranjzeb.
The legends of Orchha are a part of oral-history traditions that are still alive and popular among the people. For example, if you search for "Hardaul ka bhat" (Hardaul's rice) on Youtube, you can find many versions of the ballads and nautanki performances linked to this story.
The legends often have kernels of history embedded in them. Local persons have always experimented with their legends, adding embellishments and interlinking their own stories to them. Thus the legends take different forms and have many local variations.
The Orchha kingdom's history is just 400-500 years ago and yet, most of it is undocumented. There must be many manuscripts about Orchha that have not been transcribed and translated, so we only have its popular history through the legends.
Note: This blog does not have the possibility of commenting on the posts. However, you can Comment through the Facebook Page of this blog or send an email to Sunil at: sunil.deepak(at)gmail.com If I like your comments or communication, I will be happy to add it to my article and give credit to you.
Note 2: I had visited different parts of Bundelkhand region including Orchha in 2017, and a first version of this article was published on my old blog "Arrey Kya Baat Hai" - this is an updated version.
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Dr. Sunil Deepak, 29 December 2019
Orchha is a tiny town in Madhya Pradesh (Central India), known for its beautiful palaces, temples and cenotaphs of the Bundela Kings from 16-17th centuries. It is also linked to many popular legends and stories that spice its history, and are kept alive in the local ballads and folk-songs.
Orchha is famous for its beautiful cenotaphs built along the banks of Betwa river. The image above presents the cenotaph of the Orchha king Madhukar Shah. This post is about the legends of Orchha.
Oral cultures of India
In India, oral traditions have always been important for keeping alive the local histories. Even today, the Indian myths and legends continue to be preserved through community traditions such as ballads and folk-songs.
Over centuries and millenniums, the ideas of mainstream Hinduism interact with the spiritual traditions of specific groups of people in India such as the adivasi (forest dwellers, indigenous people), influence and enrich each other.
For example, in the Bundelkhand region, the ballads and nautanki-theater about the 12th century stories of the brave warrior-brothers Alha and Udal continue to be very popular even today.
Historical background of Orchha
Bundelkhand region is located in central India, partly in Madhya Pradesh and partly in Uttar Pradesh. It is a region characterised by hills and rocky outcrops.
In the beginning of the 16th century, Bundela king Rudra Pratap had his capital in Gadhkundar, about 50 km from Orchha, which became his capital in 1530. He died soon after shifting here and was succeeded by Bharati Chandra (1531-54), and then, Madhukar Shah (1554-92). This last period coincided with the establishment of Mughal empire in India.
Bundelas had a tumultuous relationship with the Mughals. They lost wars to them, swore allegiance and then, whenever they got the chance, rebelled and fought for independence. Thus, the Mughals could never take them for granted. Mughal emperor Akbar's army attacked and defeated Madhukar Shah in 1577. He joined Akbar's court but later, continued to fight, eventually winning back some of the lost areas.
His son Rama Shah made peace with Akbar and joined his court. While he stayed in emperor's court, Orchha was looked after by his younger brother Indrajit Singh. They had another brother, Bir Singh who became an ally of prince Salim. After Akbar's death in 1605, Salim became emperor Jahangir (1605-27), and he made Bir Singh the king of Orchha (1606-27).
Bir Singh's reign is called the golden period of Orchha. He built different forts, temples and water-tanks in Bundelkhand, including the Jhansi fort.
After the arrival of Shah Jahan on the Mughal throne in 1627, fighting between the Bundelas and the Mughals restarted. Bir Singh's son King Jujhar Singh was forced to take refuge in a forest and was killed in 1635 by the forces of Shahjahan's son Aurangzeb. His younger brother Pahad Singh, who had sided with the Mughals, was made the ruler of Orchha in 1642. Slowly over most of the 17-18th centuries Orchha kingdom declined.
Queen Ganesh Kunwar and the Statue of Lord Rama
The first legend of Orchha is about a Rama statue. King Madhukar Shah ruled Bundelkhand for 38 years, from 1554 to 1592. Ganesh Kunwar was his queen. The king was a follower of Krishna, while the queen was from Ayodhaya and a follower of Rama. This was the time when Gosain Tulsidas had written his Ram Charit Manas (Story of Rama) and had popularized the public celebrations of Ramlila during Dushhera festival.
Ganesh Kunwar wanted a Rama temple in Orchha and thus, Madhukar Shah ordered the building the Chatturbhuj temple. The queen herself went to Ayodhaya to get the Rama statue for the new temple. At that time, she dreamed that after leaving Ayodhaya, the statue will get stuck wherever it will be put down and then it can not be shifted. So the queen took care to never place the staute on the ground during her journey back to Orchha. However, when the queen reached home, the Chatturbhuj temple was still incomplete and thus, it was decided to keep the statue in the queen's palace. Later, when Chaturbhuj temple was completed, they found that the statue had become stuck in the palace and it could not be moved from there. Thus, her palace had to be converted into a temple. The image below shows Chatturbhuj temple and the queen's palace (yellow) converted into a temple, seen from the Orchha fort.
There are many variations of this legend. For example, in one story, Ganesh Kunwar was doing a tapasya (penance) along the banks of Sarayu river in Ayodhaya. After long prayers, when lord Rama did not appear, she jumped in the river, threatening to kill herself. There, in the water, Rama appeared to her, brought her to the river bank and told her to build his temple in Orchha.
These stories serve to reinforce the beliefs in superhuman godly powers in the Rama statue and strengthen the sanctity of Ram Raja temple of Orchha, which is an important pilgrimage place in Bundelkhand.
Historical background: The rational explanation behind the story could have been a war between emperor Akbar and Madhukar Shah, so that Chatturbhuj temple was left incomplete. Some historians believe that the temple was completed during the reign of his third son, Bir Singh 15-20 years later, by which time the queen's old palace had already been converted into the Rama temple.
The wall paintings in Raja Mahal inside the Orchha fort, built by Madhukar Shah, like the one shown in the image below, are mostly about Krishna, supporting the idea that he was a Krishna-devotee.
On the other hand, the wall paintings inside the Laxmi temple built under his third son, king Bir Singh , have scenes about both, Rama and Krishna, showing that by his time, the cults of both the gods had become popular in Orchha. The image below shows one such wall-painting panel where on the left an episode of Ramayana is depicted while on the right, there is Krishna.
The beautiful courtesan Parveen Rai's love story
The second legend about Orchha is linked to Madhukar Shah's second son, Indrajit Singh and his favourite court poet and dancer, Praveen Rai. Emperor Akbar heard about the beauty and singing skills of Praveen and asked Indrajit to send her to Agra to the royal court. Indrajit was in love with Praveen and did not want to leave her, but she convinced him to send her to the emperor. Struck by her strong love for Indrajit, Akbar gave her gifts and sent her back to Orchha.
The story of Indrajit, Praveen Rai and Akbar was written down by the Orchha poet Keshav Das in his book "Kavipriya".
Hindi author Maitreyee Pushpa had also written about this legend. According to her story, Praveen's original name was Savitri and she was the daughter of a courtesan called Kanchana from Gwalior. She was invited to Orchha by the king Madhukar Shah. The king fell in love with Kanchana and asked her to stay in Orchha. One of the ghats on Orchha river is dedicated to Kanchana. Savitri was a good dancer and was given the title of Praveen Rai. She shared the love for poetry with king Indrajit and the royal poet Keshav Das.
Another version of this story is that Praveen was the beautiful daughter of a blacksmith. When Indrajit saw her, he was smitten and brought her to his palace. Since she belonged to a "lower caste", they could not have a proper wedding. With the help of the royal poet Keshav Das, she learned poetry, studied dance and became good at both. She wrote the bhakti poetry in "Ramkaleva of Ramchandrika".
Similarly, there are different versions of the story regarding Akbar's curiosity about her. Indrajit's cousin Pahad Singh had deliberately told Akbar exaggerated stories about Praveen and suggested that such a beautiful and good dancer should belong to the emperor's court. Actually, Pahad Singh wanted the throne of Orchha and hoped that the love-lorn Indrajit will die without Praveen. Indrajit refused to send Praveen to the emperor and an angry Akbar asked him to pay a huge fine. Praveen convinced Indrajit to let her go. He was disappointed, thinking that his beloved was greedy and wanted to be the concubine of the emperor.
In his book Kavipriya, Keshav Das wrote that in Akbar's court Praveen was asked to sing. She sang about being a daughter of Orchha and about her love for Indrajit. Then she said: "Vinati rai praveen ki suniye chatur sujan, juthi patar bhakhat hai bari, vayas, svan" (O wise and good man, listen to this request from Praveen Rai. Left over food is eaten only by low-castes, crows and dogs). She called herself "left-over food", implying her relationship with Indrajit and thus being unfit for the emperor. The emperor, ashamed by her words, gifted her money, pearls and jewels, and sent her back to Orchha.
Yet another legend says that after coming back from Agra, Indrajit wanted to marry Praveen but his family did not allow him. Frustrated, Parveen immolated herself and Indrajit committed suicide.
The historical Background: The fort of Orchha includes Praveen Rai palace, also known as Anand Mahal. It was built in the 16th century. Indrajit Singh was the second son of Madhukar Shah, who ruled Orchha during the final years of the 16th century, while his elder brother Rama Shah was part of Akbar's court.
Some of the wall paintings in the Laxmi temple, built under King Bir Singh in the early 17th century show Praveen Rai. Poet Keshav Das lived during the last years of Madhukar Shah, during the reign of Indrajit Singh and during early years of Bir Singh. Thus the events linked with the legends of Praveen Rai and Indrajit had probably occurred around the end of 16th century. Since Akbar was born in 1542, so he was in his fifties at that time.
The image above shows a wall-painting from Laxmi temple, where Praveen Rai is dancing in a courtyard enclosed inside a fort. The architecture of the building on the left does look similar to Fatahpur Sikri, where Akbar lived. There are 9 men sitting by the side, which could be a reference to the 9 councillors (navratna) of Akbar. This wall-painting seems to confirm the story of Praveen Rai's visit to Akbar's court.
Legend of King Jujhar Singh and his brother Hardaul
There is the story of king Jujhar Singh, his wife Champawati, his younger brother Hardaul and their sister Kunjawati. The popular legend says that Jujhar had forced his wife Champawati to poison and kill Hardaul because he had suspected an illicit affair between the two.
Jujhar Singh was the eldest son of king Bir Singh, who had been a close friend of emperor Jahangir and could have been involved in fighting the rebellion of his son, who later became emperor Shahjahan. Thus, after Jahangir's death, Shahjahan did not have good relations with Orchha.
Since Hardaul's mother had died when he was young, his elder sister-in-law Champawati had raised him. In 1627, when Bir Singh died and Jujhar Singh became the king, 19 year old Hardaul became his Dewan (chief minister). One year later, in 1628, Hardaul was married to Himachal Kunwari and in 1630 his son Vijay Singh was born.
In 1631, Hardaul and some of his soldiers died after eating at the Dushhera feast in Orchha. It is said that Jujhar told his wife that she was having an affair with his brother and asked her to prove her faithfulness by giving poison to Hardaul. The legend also says that Hardaul loved his sister-in-law, because he thought of her as his mother, and he knowingly took the poison from her.
People of Orchha, indignant about the killing of Hardaul, built a shrine to him inside the special garden which had been built earlier by king Bir Singh for a visit of emperor Jahangir. This story is a common theme in the folk songs and Nautanki-theater in Orchha. It is a pilgrimage place and people wishing for the resolution of their problems, tie a blue ribbon on the shrine.
Another related legend is about Hardaul and his sister Kunjawati, who was married in Datia. When Hardaul died, his sister took his body to Datia for cremation. A temple was created at this site. In 1715, a pond was also built in Datia near this temple, which is called "Lalla ka Talab" (Pond of the beloved boy).
It is said that Hardaul was very close to Kunjawati. According to this legend, some time after Hardaul's death, it was the time for the marriage of Kunjawati's daughter. During the marriage, when the time came for the rite where the bride's mama (mother's brother) offers bhat (rice) to the bride, everybody was astonished to see Hardaul, whose ghost had come to offer rice to his niece. This legend is still kept alive in Bundelkhand marriage ceremonies even today, in the rite of giving "Hardaul ka bhat" (Hardaul's rice) to the brides by their mothers' brothers.
Historical events linked with Hardaul's legend: In 1631, an enemy of Mughal empire called Khanjahan Lodhi, fleeing from Shahjahan's army, had passed through Orchha. Lodhi family had ruled Delhi before the Mughals. He was Hardaul's friend and thus, Hardaul did not try to stop him. This earned the ire of Shahjahan who blamed Jujhar Singh and forced him to send his son Vikramjit to go after Lodhi and kill him. 200 Orchha soldiers had died in this fight. Jujhar Singh blamed Hardaul for creating this problem.
Hardaul was a very popular military commander. He had created a personal group of warriors who listened to him. Thus, it is possible that Jujhar got him killed because he was angry with him or perhaps, he was insecure about him. Or Jujhar Singh might have been innocent and Hardaul might have died from some infection from the feast food. In 1735 Jujhar Singh died fighting with Auranzeb's army, and his cousin Pahad Singh became the king of Orchha.
Many local persons do not agree with the version of this legend, where Jujhar Singh suspects an illicit relationship between his wife and his brother. They blame Vincent Smith, the British collector of Hamirpur in 1875, for not having understood the real story and for having created this legend about the illicit love story.
The legend of Pir Sundar Shah
There is another legend linked with the royals of Orchha but I could not find much information about it.
According to this legend, one of the sons of Jujhar Singh, prince Dhurbhajan, had fallen in love with a Muslim girl. To marry her, he had converted to Islam and taken the name of Sundar Shah. They had lived in the building known as Sundar Mahal, built on the top of a hillock near the Laxmi temple, on the outskirts of Orchha city. Some people say that the girl he loved was princess Mehrunnissa, the daughter of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
Another story says that Sundar Shah was the love child of an Orchha king called Indrajit singh and princess Mehrunissa, daughter of Aurangzeb. This Indrajit Singh was different from the one who had loved Praveen Rai.
In his old age, Sundar became famous as a Pir, a local saint, and was buried in Sundar Mahal. Thus, even today the Sundar Mahal is visited by people who come to pray at his tomb and ask for his help in resolving some problem.
Historical background: According to the history books, emperor Aurangzeb had 4 daughters - Zebunnissa, Zeenatunnissa, Badrunnissa and the youngest, Mehrunnissa, who had married Izad Baksh, son of Shahzada Murad Baksh, in 1672 and had died in Delhi in 1706.
On the other hand Jujhar Singh had died in 1636 and in 1641, his brother Pahad Singh was placed on the Orchha throne by the Mughals. Aurangzeb became the emperor many years later in 1658. Thus, it seems unlikely that Jujhar Singh had a son who was young enough to marry princess Mehrunnissa. However, this does not mean that the legend had no historical basis. It is possible that one of the sons of Jujhar Singh had indeed married a Muslim girl and taken the name of Sundar Shah, though his wife was not the daughter of emperor Aurangzeb.
Later, two other sufi saints, Syed pir and Zahar pir also lived here and their shrines were also built inside Sundar Mahal. At present, it is seen as a religious place for the followers of the different pirs.
The Temple Destroyed by the Mughals
According to Shah Jahan's biography, in 1635 he had sent his son Aurangzeb to destroy the temple of the Orchha king. At that time Jujhar Singh was the king of Orchha. By that time, Orchha had at least three big temples - Raja Ram temple, Chatturbhuj temple and Laxmi Narayan temple. However, in Orchha, I could not find any story about a temple destruction. Given the vivacity of oral histories in Bundelkhand, I think the absence of legends about the destruction of a temple means that the temple destroyed by Aurangzeb was not located in Orchha.
Perhaps, Shah Jahan's order referred to the destruction of Keshav Dev temple in Mathura, which was also built by king Bir Singh Deo of Orchha and was destroyed by Auranjzeb.
The legends of Orchha are a part of oral-history traditions that are still alive and popular among the people. For example, if you search for "Hardaul ka bhat" (Hardaul's rice) on Youtube, you can find many versions of the ballads and nautanki performances linked to this story.
The legends often have kernels of history embedded in them. Local persons have always experimented with their legends, adding embellishments and interlinking their own stories to them. Thus the legends take different forms and have many local variations.
The Orchha kingdom's history is just 400-500 years ago and yet, most of it is undocumented. There must be many manuscripts about Orchha that have not been transcribed and translated, so we only have its popular history through the legends.
Note: This blog does not have the possibility of commenting on the posts. However, you can Comment through the Facebook Page of this blog or send an email to Sunil at: sunil.deepak(at)gmail.com If I like your comments or communication, I will be happy to add it to my article and give credit to you.
Note 2: I had visited different parts of Bundelkhand region including Orchha in 2017, and a first version of this article was published on my old blog "Arrey Kya Baat Hai" - this is an updated version.
This is a trilingual blog, it also has some posts in Italian and Hindi. Each section is independent, which means that the majority of the posts in Italian and Hindi are not translations of the English language posts, they are on different subjects. | 4,529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Clara Barton Facts, Founder of the American Red Cross
No list of famous nurses would be complete without including Clara Barton. Her name is synonymous with the American Red Cross, but she played a very important role in caring for the sick and wounded in the Civil War as well. In spite of a difficult childhood or perhaps because of it, she became a woman who felt very strongly about the welfare of others and was an important force in supplying the means for their care.
Biography - The Life of Clara Barton
Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born on Christmas Day, 1821, in Oxford, Massachusetts,the youngest of five children. Her father, a Revolutionary War veteran, was very active in the Universalist church. She remembers the church as being very stern, cold and devoid of comfort. Her mother was emotionally unstable with sudden periods of anger and rage, so her older sister, Dolly, cared for her. When Clara was six, Dolly had a mental breakdown, so once again, Clara lost a mother figure. Another sister took over her care, but because of her uncertain family life, Clara became very sensitive and shy.
In spite of her many problems, Clara learned to make the best of her situation. Her sisters taught her to read at an early age and a brother taught her mathematics. At the age of eight, she was sent away to school. Even though she was advanced academically, she was socially immature and soon returned home.
When Clara was 11, a family incident occurred that probably changed her entire life. Her brother was severely injured and not expected to live. For the next two years, Clara spent most of her waking hours nursing him back to health. After he recovered, she found that she became anxious and depressed because of the sense that no one needed her. This characteristic followed her throughout her life.
After a long and varied career, she died of pneumonia in 1912 at the age of 90.
Clara Barton's Career
By the time Clara was in her late teens, her family decided that she should teach school to combat her shyness. Even though the idea frightened her, she took a position at a district school and became quite successful. She taught for ten years before furthering her own education at the Clinton Liberal Institute in New York. After that, she started the first free public school in New Jersey. It was so successful that it was enlarged and additional teachers hired, but in spite of Clara’s leadership, a man was brought in to head the school at a much greater salary than she was earning. Resentful and angry, she moved to Washington, D.C.
While in Washington, Clara was hired as the first woman clerk in the patent office and paid as well as a man. However, she was not treated well and soon had an unrealistic workload that probably contributed to her becoming ill with malaria. After a period of recuperation, she returned to the patent office as a temporary employee with low pay but was satisfied because she believed she was paving the way for women in government.
It was not until the Civil War that Barton found her true passion. Caring for the wounded and organizing the collection of food, supplies and clothing satisfied her need to help others. The time she worked for the government gave her contacts she needed, and her teaching experience gave her the structure to be an effective leader. She spent the early years of the war in Washington but later took supplies and tended the wounded in field hospitals. She referred to be on the battlefield rather than in Washington hospitals or supply depots.After the war, President Lincoln assigned Clara the task of locating missing prisoners of war. When this work was completed, she embarked on a two-year speaking tour lecturing on Work and Incidents of Army Life. This provided income and caused her to be very well known throughout the United States.
Clara Barton's Nursing Legacy
The American Red Cross is Clara Barton’s legacy. Vacationing in Europe when the Franco-Prussian War started, she offered to help the International Red Cross that was formed by the Geneva Convention. Her leadership was so impressive that she was encouraged to organize the American Red Cross when she returned home. It seems as if her whole life led up to that moment.
Ill health forced her to live as an invalid for three years after her return to the United States, but finally, in 1877, she was able to travel to Washington. After much work on her part, the Red Cross was finally formed in 1881. It was not without its problems and struggled for years to stay alive. Some of these problems were caused by Barton’s unique personality and inefficient style of administration. However, in spite of the controversy surrounding the organization, for over 20 years it provided crucial services for many national emergencies.
In 1893, Clara called a national convention and the Red Cross was reorganized and renamed the American National Red Cross. In 1900, she moved the headquarters from Washington to her own property in Glen Echo, Maryland and retained the presidency until 1904.
Because of just one woman, Clarissa Barton, who needed to help people, the United States has a national organization that provides emergency and disaster relief whenever needed.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Clara Barton
- Barton, Clara H., The Red Cross In Peace And War…
- Barton, Clara H., A Story Of The Red Cross: Glimpses Of Field Work
- Barton, William E., The life of Clara Barton, founder of the American Red cross
- Hutchinson, John F., Champions Of Charity: War And The Rise Of The Red Cross
- Joyce, James Avery, Red Cross International and the Strategy of Peace
- Pryor, Elizabeth Brown, Clara Barton, Professional Angel
- Ross, Ishbel, Angel of the battlefield;: The life of Clara Barton | <urn:uuid:e474aa8c-1d4e-41ce-9778-e773f0d8aacf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nursing-theory.org/famous-nurses/Clara-Barton.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.984536 | 1,187 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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No list of famous nurses would be complete without including Clara Barton. Her name is synonymous with the American Red Cross, but she played a very important role in caring for the sick and wounded in the Civil War as well. In spite of a difficult childhood or perhaps because of it, she became a woman who felt very strongly about the welfare of others and was an important force in supplying the means for their care.
Biography - The Life of Clara Barton
Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born on Christmas Day, 1821, in Oxford, Massachusetts,the youngest of five children. Her father, a Revolutionary War veteran, was very active in the Universalist church. She remembers the church as being very stern, cold and devoid of comfort. Her mother was emotionally unstable with sudden periods of anger and rage, so her older sister, Dolly, cared for her. When Clara was six, Dolly had a mental breakdown, so once again, Clara lost a mother figure. Another sister took over her care, but because of her uncertain family life, Clara became very sensitive and shy.
In spite of her many problems, Clara learned to make the best of her situation. Her sisters taught her to read at an early age and a brother taught her mathematics. At the age of eight, she was sent away to school. Even though she was advanced academically, she was socially immature and soon returned home.
When Clara was 11, a family incident occurred that probably changed her entire life. Her brother was severely injured and not expected to live. For the next two years, Clara spent most of her waking hours nursing him back to health. After he recovered, she found that she became anxious and depressed because of the sense that no one needed her. This characteristic followed her throughout her life.
After a long and varied career, she died of pneumonia in 1912 at the age of 90.
Clara Barton's Career
By the time Clara was in her late teens, her family decided that she should teach school to combat her shyness. Even though the idea frightened her, she took a position at a district school and became quite successful. She taught for ten years before furthering her own education at the Clinton Liberal Institute in New York. After that, she started the first free public school in New Jersey. It was so successful that it was enlarged and additional teachers hired, but in spite of Clara’s leadership, a man was brought in to head the school at a much greater salary than she was earning. Resentful and angry, she moved to Washington, D.C.
While in Washington, Clara was hired as the first woman clerk in the patent office and paid as well as a man. However, she was not treated well and soon had an unrealistic workload that probably contributed to her becoming ill with malaria. After a period of recuperation, she returned to the patent office as a temporary employee with low pay but was satisfied because she believed she was paving the way for women in government.
It was not until the Civil War that Barton found her true passion. Caring for the wounded and organizing the collection of food, supplies and clothing satisfied her need to help others. The time she worked for the government gave her contacts she needed, and her teaching experience gave her the structure to be an effective leader. She spent the early years of the war in Washington but later took supplies and tended the wounded in field hospitals. She referred to be on the battlefield rather than in Washington hospitals or supply depots.After the war, President Lincoln assigned Clara the task of locating missing prisoners of war. When this work was completed, she embarked on a two-year speaking tour lecturing on Work and Incidents of Army Life. This provided income and caused her to be very well known throughout the United States.
Clara Barton's Nursing Legacy
The American Red Cross is Clara Barton’s legacy. Vacationing in Europe when the Franco-Prussian War started, she offered to help the International Red Cross that was formed by the Geneva Convention. Her leadership was so impressive that she was encouraged to organize the American Red Cross when she returned home. It seems as if her whole life led up to that moment.
Ill health forced her to live as an invalid for three years after her return to the United States, but finally, in 1877, she was able to travel to Washington. After much work on her part, the Red Cross was finally formed in 1881. It was not without its problems and struggled for years to stay alive. Some of these problems were caused by Barton’s unique personality and inefficient style of administration. However, in spite of the controversy surrounding the organization, for over 20 years it provided crucial services for many national emergencies.
In 1893, Clara called a national convention and the Red Cross was reorganized and renamed the American National Red Cross. In 1900, she moved the headquarters from Washington to her own property in Glen Echo, Maryland and retained the presidency until 1904.
Because of just one woman, Clarissa Barton, who needed to help people, the United States has a national organization that provides emergency and disaster relief whenever needed.
Nursing Resources and More Information About Clara Barton
- Barton, Clara H., The Red Cross In Peace And War…
- Barton, Clara H., A Story Of The Red Cross: Glimpses Of Field Work
- Barton, William E., The life of Clara Barton, founder of the American Red cross
- Hutchinson, John F., Champions Of Charity: War And The Rise Of The Red Cross
- Joyce, James Avery, Red Cross International and the Strategy of Peace
- Pryor, Elizabeth Brown, Clara Barton, Professional Angel
- Ross, Ishbel, Angel of the battlefield;: The life of Clara Barton | 1,196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, which were later known as the Clean Water Act after they were amended again in 1977, were instrumental in the protection of the surface water quality in the United States. The act itself does not concern water quality or groundwater but does give regulatory and non-regulatory tools to reduce direct pollution discharge that entered waterways (lakes, rivers, and coastal water) through several different means. The act came as a result of public outcry as well as the unchecked dumping of pollutants into the waterways of the country.
Before the Clean Water Act, there really weren’t many regulations for what could enter waterways. There was also nothing to maintain the integrity of the waters in the United States. Water quality standards had been created for waterways in the country and stated that water bodies couldn’t exceed certain limits so as to remain safe for fish and wildlife as well as for recreation by people. However there were no limits on how much a specific source (industry, factory, agriculture, or other sources) could pollute and no one was really monitoring these sources.
In the years before the establishment of the Clean Water Act, a number of studies were performed on the waterways and water samples of the country to determine why fish were dying and why people were getting sick. The results showed increasing pollution problems and levels of physical and chemical water quality parameters that were several times above what was deemed as safe levels. For example, the following time-line and accompanying information featured on PBS.org highlight the problems with waterways and drinking water:
1968 – A survey conducted in Chesapeake Bay revealed that the fishing industry was losing three million dollars annually because of the pollution in the bay.
1969 – A studied revealed that the bacterial levels in the Hudson river were 170 times higher than the established safe limit for a body of water.
1969 – Record numbers of fish kills were reported that exceeded forty one million. The largest fish kill ever recorded occurred in Lake Thonotosassa, Florida on that same year and twenty six million fish were reported dead.
1969 – A mysterious floating oil slick appeared and then caught fire in the Cuyohoga River near Cleveland, Ohio. Two railroad trestles were damaged in the fire and the cause of the fire was never determined, though the oil slick was from the discharge of petroleum derivatives.
1970 – A sampling by the Bureau of Water Hygiene of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, showed that nearly thirty percent of the drinking water it sampled had chemicals that were in excess of the recommended limits.
1971 – A report by the FDA showed that eighty-seven percent of the swordfish caught in the coastal water of the United States were contaminated with high enough mercury levels that they were no longer fit for human consumption
1972 – At the point that the amendments were passed, a study showed that nearly two-thirds of the nation’s waterways were polluted and were no longer safe for recreation or fishing.
It was because of these studies, as well as the fact that people were getting sick and fish were turning up dead, that made people act and lead to the passing of today’s Clean Water Act. People were seeing waterways become terribly polluted and that could no longer support fish or any form of recreation. Since its implementation, the Clean Water Act has stopped the dumping of billions of pounds of pollution into the waterways of the United States. An implementation system for monitoring and the discharges to the waterways, as well as treatment plants treating wastewater and runoff were created. The goal was to restore waterways and maintain water quality levels. Unfortunately, despite its passing, about forty-five percent of lakes, thirty-nine percent of rivers and fifty-one percent of the estuaries monitored are still considered contaminated. | <urn:uuid:c7cfc06d-53b0-47d8-aece-c9a164e3eb0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.floridabankruptcyblog.com/what-factors-caused-the-clean-water-act-to-be-passed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.988266 | 764 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.08083203... | 5 | The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, which were later known as the Clean Water Act after they were amended again in 1977, were instrumental in the protection of the surface water quality in the United States. The act itself does not concern water quality or groundwater but does give regulatory and non-regulatory tools to reduce direct pollution discharge that entered waterways (lakes, rivers, and coastal water) through several different means. The act came as a result of public outcry as well as the unchecked dumping of pollutants into the waterways of the country.
Before the Clean Water Act, there really weren’t many regulations for what could enter waterways. There was also nothing to maintain the integrity of the waters in the United States. Water quality standards had been created for waterways in the country and stated that water bodies couldn’t exceed certain limits so as to remain safe for fish and wildlife as well as for recreation by people. However there were no limits on how much a specific source (industry, factory, agriculture, or other sources) could pollute and no one was really monitoring these sources.
In the years before the establishment of the Clean Water Act, a number of studies were performed on the waterways and water samples of the country to determine why fish were dying and why people were getting sick. The results showed increasing pollution problems and levels of physical and chemical water quality parameters that were several times above what was deemed as safe levels. For example, the following time-line and accompanying information featured on PBS.org highlight the problems with waterways and drinking water:
1968 – A survey conducted in Chesapeake Bay revealed that the fishing industry was losing three million dollars annually because of the pollution in the bay.
1969 – A studied revealed that the bacterial levels in the Hudson river were 170 times higher than the established safe limit for a body of water.
1969 – Record numbers of fish kills were reported that exceeded forty one million. The largest fish kill ever recorded occurred in Lake Thonotosassa, Florida on that same year and twenty six million fish were reported dead.
1969 – A mysterious floating oil slick appeared and then caught fire in the Cuyohoga River near Cleveland, Ohio. Two railroad trestles were damaged in the fire and the cause of the fire was never determined, though the oil slick was from the discharge of petroleum derivatives.
1970 – A sampling by the Bureau of Water Hygiene of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, showed that nearly thirty percent of the drinking water it sampled had chemicals that were in excess of the recommended limits.
1971 – A report by the FDA showed that eighty-seven percent of the swordfish caught in the coastal water of the United States were contaminated with high enough mercury levels that they were no longer fit for human consumption
1972 – At the point that the amendments were passed, a study showed that nearly two-thirds of the nation’s waterways were polluted and were no longer safe for recreation or fishing.
It was because of these studies, as well as the fact that people were getting sick and fish were turning up dead, that made people act and lead to the passing of today’s Clean Water Act. People were seeing waterways become terribly polluted and that could no longer support fish or any form of recreation. Since its implementation, the Clean Water Act has stopped the dumping of billions of pounds of pollution into the waterways of the United States. An implementation system for monitoring and the discharges to the waterways, as well as treatment plants treating wastewater and runoff were created. The goal was to restore waterways and maintain water quality levels. Unfortunately, despite its passing, about forty-five percent of lakes, thirty-nine percent of rivers and fifty-one percent of the estuaries monitored are still considered contaminated. | 779 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harriet Tubman is well known in the United States as an escaped slave and abolitionist, and as someone who led other escaping slaves to their freedom along the Underground Railroad. But much of what is known about her is untrue. Her exploits have been exaggerated over the years for political purposes. Some of the exaggerations began during her own lifetime. She is credited, if that is the word, with gathering escaped slaves in Canada to join John Brown’s raid at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859, for example. Yet Brown’s raiding force included just five blacks, only one of whom was a former slave. None were from Canada.
Her exploits were exaggerated by abolitionists in the North, who found Tubman useful in forwarding their own work. Various claims of substantial rewards offered for her capture, some of them with the stipulation “dead or alive,” can be found today, though no contemporaneous evidence of such rewards have ever been found. The only provable bounty ever offered for her was $100 for her return as an escaped slave. Her illiteracy rendered her incapable of recording her own story, though she told it to interviewers, family, and friends, with it changing often as the years went by. Today, we’ll look at the veracity of 10 common myths about Harriet Tubman…
10. Myth: She hid escaping slaves in a safe house owned by Jacob Jackson
Jacob Jackson was a free black man who owned and farmed roughly 130 acres of land on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. It is often reported that Tubman wrote letters to Jackson, and that he maintained a safehouse on his property, a stop on the Underground Railroad. Jackson was suspected by slave owners in the area of assisting in the flight of runaway slaves, and his house was frequently visited by self-appointed inspectors, which made it too dangerous as a temporary stop for runaways. Jackson’s role in the Tubman saga was as a messenger, relaying the time appointed by Tubman for slaves to begin their escapes.
Neither Jackson nor Tubman could read or write, making communication by letter difficult. Tubman dictated her instructions to accomplices in the North and the letter was delivered to Jackson by men who had to read it to him. The arrangement meant that communications had to be made in a manner understood only by the two of them, since the letter would be read aloud, usually by the same inspectors who were already suspicious of Jackson. On one occasion, Jackson conveyed the message from Harriet to her brothers to meet her at an appointed time and place, after which she led them to freedom in Pennsylvania. How many other times the two worked together, or if they did, is unknown.
9. Myth: Harriet Tubman traveled all over the south to lead slaves to freedom
There is a widespread belief that Harriet Tubman traveled all over the pre-war South, leading hundreds of slaves to freedom in the North, with many of them traveling all the way to Canada. While many escaped slaves did travel to Canada (due to the existence of the Fugitive Slave Act), those led to freedom by Tubman came from Maryland. She made 13 individual trips to Maryland’s Eastern Shore, from which she helped about 70 slaves escape to freedom. Most were family and friends. Those numbers were given by Tubman herself to her biographer, Sarah Bradford.
It was the abolitionist newspapers of the day, and later those Northern newspapers which supported the Lincoln administration’s goal of ending slavery, which inflated both the number of trips Harriet made and the number of slaves she led to freedom as a conductor on the Underground Railroad. Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman (1869) was followed by a second work by Bradford, Harriet, the Moses of Her People (1886). The two works are the source of many of the myths which exist about Tubman today. A scholarly biography about Tubman did not appear until 1947, though there were numerous children’s books written about her before then.
8. Myth: She used the quilt code to follow the Underground Railroad
The idea of escaping slaves using a code displayed by hanging quilts, which delivered instructions on when and where to move, did not emerge until 1998, when it was presented in the book Hidden in Plain View: A Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad. The theory was overwhelmingly dismissed by historians and scholars, citing lack of documented evidence, lack of contemporaneous evidence, and the fact that no quilts containing the designs cited by the book’s authors have ever been found. Probably the single biggest reason to dismiss the idea of Harriet Tubman following the quilt code is that neither she, nor any of the slaves she helped to escape, ever mentioned it themselves.
Harriet navigated her way through her knowledge of the Eastern Shore, which she developed during her youth, and through contact with trusted fellow conductors and supporters of the Underground Railroad. She avoided contact with those people who were unknown to her. Most of her contact with others was direct, necessary because written messages were meaningless to her, as they were to most of the slaves she helped escape. She relied on several of the subterfuges of someone in hiding, including wearing disguises, accepting the help of others who gave shelter, and relying on their guidance to elude slave catchers.
7. Myth: She had a $40,000 bounty on her head for her capture, dead or alive
To date, no evidence of any ‘bounty’, in any amount, being offered for the capture of Harriet Tubman has been found. The slave owners of the region had no reason to suspect that the escaped slave they knew as Minty Ross was helping others escape. There was a reward for Minty Ross, as well as for her two brothers, but it was for their return to slavery and it was offered if they were recaptured outside of Maryland. Eliza Brodess, their owner, offered $100 for each of them. The oft-repeated amount of $40,000 offered for Tubman cannot be called an exaggeration. It was simply a lie, created for effect.
Sarah Bradford included a lesser amount in her first work on Tubman, claiming that it was $12,500, and that when Tubman was asked about the amount of $40,000, she replied that she had not heard of it being that much. Bradford included it anyway, along with opining that it could have been much more. A reward of that amount, equivalent to over half a million dollars in today’s money, would likely have been reported in every newspaper in the country. It was not.
6. Myth: She sang numerous songs as signals
The myth that Tubman sang certain songs as signals grew over the decades, as oral histories passed down by succeeding generations were subject to changing memories and family traditions. She did sing, upon approaching rendezvous points, as a means of signaling to those escaping that it was time to move. She told Sarah Bradford which songs she sang, listing only two: Bound for the Promised Land and Go Down Moses. Those two should be enough, but those choosing to mythologize Tubman use other spirituals as replacements for the songs Tubman, and her charges, would have known.
Swing Low, Sweet Chariot was written in Oklahoma’s Indian Territory circa 1865 by a Choctaw of the name Wallis Willis. Willis, a former slave (it is often forgotten in America that many Indians were also held as slaves) did not read music; the song was transcribed by Alexander Reid, a minister. Follow the Drinking Gourd, which refers to the Big Dipper, may have been a song known at the time (it was first published in 1928), but Tubman herself did not refer to it in her story to Bradford. The legend of using the song developed on another route of the Underground Railroad and later became absorbed into Tubman’s story.
5. Myth: Araminta was her true African name
In more recent reports of the myths surrounding Harriet Tubman, Araminta is referred to as her real name, and in some cases as her “true African” name. Araminta was the name bestowed upon her by her parents, and she was known in the vicinity where she grew up, and later from which she helped slaves escape, as Minty Ross (Minty being a diminutive of Araminta). Araminta was not an African name, but a common name for women, especially Puritans, in North America and England for many years. Today it is relatively rare.
It was common enough in the 19th century that Mark Twain used it as one of the names for Tom Sawyer’s cousin in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Minty Ross, as she was known, adopted the name Harriet Tubman, with the surname being that of her husband for a time, John Tubman. She continued to be called Minty by family and friends; she appeared — or rather some of her exploits appeared — as Harriet Tubman in the abolitionist newspapers of the north. She could not use her real name for fear of retaliation against family members still enslaved in Maryland.
4. Myth: She was forced to marry John Tubman
In Maryland of the 1850s about half of the black population was free, though slavery remained legal in the state. John Tubman was a free man when he married Minty Ross sometime around 1844. Such an arrangement was fairly common in Maryland; slaves required the permission of their owners to marry a free person. When Tubman married Ross, he freely surrendered the rights to any children issuing from the marriage. They would, under the law, become the property of Minty’s owner. It was following the marriage to Tubman that Araminta changed her name to Harriet.
Harriet left her husband behind when she escaped from slavery, returning some years later to find him living with another family, happily remarried. He had no desire nor intention of fleeing to the North with Harriet, and as a free man he could have left long before. Harriet, on a later trip, left with a girl she claimed was her niece, but who may in fact have been her daughter with John Tubman. Harriet remarried in New York after the Civil War, and John Tubman faded from the scene. Her marriage with Tubman was not forced upon her, by either he or her owner.
3. Myth: Tubman had 11 brothers and sisters
Harriet Tubman was born to Harriet (known as Rit) and Ben Ross, though the exact location of her birth is uncertain. Rit was a cook for the Brodess family; Ben was a timberman and woodsman, held by Anthony Thompson, who owned a nearby plantation. Together, Ben and Rit had nine children, including Araminta. Araminta eventually had four brothers (three of which were younger than her) and four sisters. When she was young, her three eldest sisters were sold by their owner, Edward Brodess, and Minty lost all contact with them.
Her father was frequently absent, managing the timbering operations on Thompson’s plantation, and her mother was too busy with her work in the Brodess home to spend much time with her own family. Minty was required to care for her younger siblings until she was hired out as a babysitter when she was, according to her recollections to Sarah Bradford, five or six years of age. It was a position in which she was first beaten as a slave (again according to Bradford) and where she first learned to resist her owners’ in a variety of ways, including running away.
2. Myth: She was born on the farm owned by Edward Brodess in Maryland in 1820
Harriet Tubman’s date of birth can be listed as one of several, depending upon the source. Tubman later claimed that she was born in 1825. Other historians dispute that date, claiming that she was born in 1820, 1822, 1824, and other dates. Her certificate of death lists her birth year as 1815. Her tombstone reads 1820. The fact of the matter is her year of birth is an estimate, with no definite indication of when it was.
The same is true of her place of birth. She could have been born on the smaller farm owned by the Brodess family, or the larger plantation nearby owned by Anthony Thompson. Since her mother worked in the Brodess home as a cook, it is most likely she was born on the Brodess farm, though midwife records indicate that she could have been born on Thompson’s plantation in 1822.
1. Myth: She led over 300 slaves to freedom in the north
Several sources claim Harriet Tubman led hundreds of slaves to freedom in the North before the Civil War, greatly exaggerating her achievements. In fact, she led about 70, in the course of 13 trips to Maryland. Nearly all of the freed slaves came from Dorchester County, from whence she had herself escaped. The names of nearly all of them are known. So are many of the agents and conductors on the Underground Railroad who helped her on her journeys.
After the war, Tubman told her story to Sarah Bradford, who published it with the intent of raising money for the impoverished subject of the tale. It was successful. Many of the exaggerations which embellish her achievements were born at that time. Her achievements don’t need any embellishment, and masking them with myth does a disservice to a remarkable heroine of American history.
Other Articles you Might Like | <urn:uuid:405b60d0-6c87-4c40-ae22-e583bb5dedfa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.topvirallists.com/debunking-famous-myths-about-harriet-tubman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.989356 | 2,822 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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-0.2224291414022... | 1 | Harriet Tubman is well known in the United States as an escaped slave and abolitionist, and as someone who led other escaping slaves to their freedom along the Underground Railroad. But much of what is known about her is untrue. Her exploits have been exaggerated over the years for political purposes. Some of the exaggerations began during her own lifetime. She is credited, if that is the word, with gathering escaped slaves in Canada to join John Brown’s raid at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in 1859, for example. Yet Brown’s raiding force included just five blacks, only one of whom was a former slave. None were from Canada.
Her exploits were exaggerated by abolitionists in the North, who found Tubman useful in forwarding their own work. Various claims of substantial rewards offered for her capture, some of them with the stipulation “dead or alive,” can be found today, though no contemporaneous evidence of such rewards have ever been found. The only provable bounty ever offered for her was $100 for her return as an escaped slave. Her illiteracy rendered her incapable of recording her own story, though she told it to interviewers, family, and friends, with it changing often as the years went by. Today, we’ll look at the veracity of 10 common myths about Harriet Tubman…
10. Myth: She hid escaping slaves in a safe house owned by Jacob Jackson
Jacob Jackson was a free black man who owned and farmed roughly 130 acres of land on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. It is often reported that Tubman wrote letters to Jackson, and that he maintained a safehouse on his property, a stop on the Underground Railroad. Jackson was suspected by slave owners in the area of assisting in the flight of runaway slaves, and his house was frequently visited by self-appointed inspectors, which made it too dangerous as a temporary stop for runaways. Jackson’s role in the Tubman saga was as a messenger, relaying the time appointed by Tubman for slaves to begin their escapes.
Neither Jackson nor Tubman could read or write, making communication by letter difficult. Tubman dictated her instructions to accomplices in the North and the letter was delivered to Jackson by men who had to read it to him. The arrangement meant that communications had to be made in a manner understood only by the two of them, since the letter would be read aloud, usually by the same inspectors who were already suspicious of Jackson. On one occasion, Jackson conveyed the message from Harriet to her brothers to meet her at an appointed time and place, after which she led them to freedom in Pennsylvania. How many other times the two worked together, or if they did, is unknown.
9. Myth: Harriet Tubman traveled all over the south to lead slaves to freedom
There is a widespread belief that Harriet Tubman traveled all over the pre-war South, leading hundreds of slaves to freedom in the North, with many of them traveling all the way to Canada. While many escaped slaves did travel to Canada (due to the existence of the Fugitive Slave Act), those led to freedom by Tubman came from Maryland. She made 13 individual trips to Maryland’s Eastern Shore, from which she helped about 70 slaves escape to freedom. Most were family and friends. Those numbers were given by Tubman herself to her biographer, Sarah Bradford.
It was the abolitionist newspapers of the day, and later those Northern newspapers which supported the Lincoln administration’s goal of ending slavery, which inflated both the number of trips Harriet made and the number of slaves she led to freedom as a conductor on the Underground Railroad. Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman (1869) was followed by a second work by Bradford, Harriet, the Moses of Her People (1886). The two works are the source of many of the myths which exist about Tubman today. A scholarly biography about Tubman did not appear until 1947, though there were numerous children’s books written about her before then.
8. Myth: She used the quilt code to follow the Underground Railroad
The idea of escaping slaves using a code displayed by hanging quilts, which delivered instructions on when and where to move, did not emerge until 1998, when it was presented in the book Hidden in Plain View: A Secret Story of Quilts and the Underground Railroad. The theory was overwhelmingly dismissed by historians and scholars, citing lack of documented evidence, lack of contemporaneous evidence, and the fact that no quilts containing the designs cited by the book’s authors have ever been found. Probably the single biggest reason to dismiss the idea of Harriet Tubman following the quilt code is that neither she, nor any of the slaves she helped to escape, ever mentioned it themselves.
Harriet navigated her way through her knowledge of the Eastern Shore, which she developed during her youth, and through contact with trusted fellow conductors and supporters of the Underground Railroad. She avoided contact with those people who were unknown to her. Most of her contact with others was direct, necessary because written messages were meaningless to her, as they were to most of the slaves she helped escape. She relied on several of the subterfuges of someone in hiding, including wearing disguises, accepting the help of others who gave shelter, and relying on their guidance to elude slave catchers.
7. Myth: She had a $40,000 bounty on her head for her capture, dead or alive
To date, no evidence of any ‘bounty’, in any amount, being offered for the capture of Harriet Tubman has been found. The slave owners of the region had no reason to suspect that the escaped slave they knew as Minty Ross was helping others escape. There was a reward for Minty Ross, as well as for her two brothers, but it was for their return to slavery and it was offered if they were recaptured outside of Maryland. Eliza Brodess, their owner, offered $100 for each of them. The oft-repeated amount of $40,000 offered for Tubman cannot be called an exaggeration. It was simply a lie, created for effect.
Sarah Bradford included a lesser amount in her first work on Tubman, claiming that it was $12,500, and that when Tubman was asked about the amount of $40,000, she replied that she had not heard of it being that much. Bradford included it anyway, along with opining that it could have been much more. A reward of that amount, equivalent to over half a million dollars in today’s money, would likely have been reported in every newspaper in the country. It was not.
6. Myth: She sang numerous songs as signals
The myth that Tubman sang certain songs as signals grew over the decades, as oral histories passed down by succeeding generations were subject to changing memories and family traditions. She did sing, upon approaching rendezvous points, as a means of signaling to those escaping that it was time to move. She told Sarah Bradford which songs she sang, listing only two: Bound for the Promised Land and Go Down Moses. Those two should be enough, but those choosing to mythologize Tubman use other spirituals as replacements for the songs Tubman, and her charges, would have known.
Swing Low, Sweet Chariot was written in Oklahoma’s Indian Territory circa 1865 by a Choctaw of the name Wallis Willis. Willis, a former slave (it is often forgotten in America that many Indians were also held as slaves) did not read music; the song was transcribed by Alexander Reid, a minister. Follow the Drinking Gourd, which refers to the Big Dipper, may have been a song known at the time (it was first published in 1928), but Tubman herself did not refer to it in her story to Bradford. The legend of using the song developed on another route of the Underground Railroad and later became absorbed into Tubman’s story.
5. Myth: Araminta was her true African name
In more recent reports of the myths surrounding Harriet Tubman, Araminta is referred to as her real name, and in some cases as her “true African” name. Araminta was the name bestowed upon her by her parents, and she was known in the vicinity where she grew up, and later from which she helped slaves escape, as Minty Ross (Minty being a diminutive of Araminta). Araminta was not an African name, but a common name for women, especially Puritans, in North America and England for many years. Today it is relatively rare.
It was common enough in the 19th century that Mark Twain used it as one of the names for Tom Sawyer’s cousin in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Minty Ross, as she was known, adopted the name Harriet Tubman, with the surname being that of her husband for a time, John Tubman. She continued to be called Minty by family and friends; she appeared — or rather some of her exploits appeared — as Harriet Tubman in the abolitionist newspapers of the north. She could not use her real name for fear of retaliation against family members still enslaved in Maryland.
4. Myth: She was forced to marry John Tubman
In Maryland of the 1850s about half of the black population was free, though slavery remained legal in the state. John Tubman was a free man when he married Minty Ross sometime around 1844. Such an arrangement was fairly common in Maryland; slaves required the permission of their owners to marry a free person. When Tubman married Ross, he freely surrendered the rights to any children issuing from the marriage. They would, under the law, become the property of Minty’s owner. It was following the marriage to Tubman that Araminta changed her name to Harriet.
Harriet left her husband behind when she escaped from slavery, returning some years later to find him living with another family, happily remarried. He had no desire nor intention of fleeing to the North with Harriet, and as a free man he could have left long before. Harriet, on a later trip, left with a girl she claimed was her niece, but who may in fact have been her daughter with John Tubman. Harriet remarried in New York after the Civil War, and John Tubman faded from the scene. Her marriage with Tubman was not forced upon her, by either he or her owner.
3. Myth: Tubman had 11 brothers and sisters
Harriet Tubman was born to Harriet (known as Rit) and Ben Ross, though the exact location of her birth is uncertain. Rit was a cook for the Brodess family; Ben was a timberman and woodsman, held by Anthony Thompson, who owned a nearby plantation. Together, Ben and Rit had nine children, including Araminta. Araminta eventually had four brothers (three of which were younger than her) and four sisters. When she was young, her three eldest sisters were sold by their owner, Edward Brodess, and Minty lost all contact with them.
Her father was frequently absent, managing the timbering operations on Thompson’s plantation, and her mother was too busy with her work in the Brodess home to spend much time with her own family. Minty was required to care for her younger siblings until she was hired out as a babysitter when she was, according to her recollections to Sarah Bradford, five or six years of age. It was a position in which she was first beaten as a slave (again according to Bradford) and where she first learned to resist her owners’ in a variety of ways, including running away.
2. Myth: She was born on the farm owned by Edward Brodess in Maryland in 1820
Harriet Tubman’s date of birth can be listed as one of several, depending upon the source. Tubman later claimed that she was born in 1825. Other historians dispute that date, claiming that she was born in 1820, 1822, 1824, and other dates. Her certificate of death lists her birth year as 1815. Her tombstone reads 1820. The fact of the matter is her year of birth is an estimate, with no definite indication of when it was.
The same is true of her place of birth. She could have been born on the smaller farm owned by the Brodess family, or the larger plantation nearby owned by Anthony Thompson. Since her mother worked in the Brodess home as a cook, it is most likely she was born on the Brodess farm, though midwife records indicate that she could have been born on Thompson’s plantation in 1822.
1. Myth: She led over 300 slaves to freedom in the north
Several sources claim Harriet Tubman led hundreds of slaves to freedom in the North before the Civil War, greatly exaggerating her achievements. In fact, she led about 70, in the course of 13 trips to Maryland. Nearly all of the freed slaves came from Dorchester County, from whence she had herself escaped. The names of nearly all of them are known. So are many of the agents and conductors on the Underground Railroad who helped her on her journeys.
After the war, Tubman told her story to Sarah Bradford, who published it with the intent of raising money for the impoverished subject of the tale. It was successful. Many of the exaggerations which embellish her achievements were born at that time. Her achievements don’t need any embellishment, and masking them with myth does a disservice to a remarkable heroine of American history.
Other Articles you Might Like | 2,851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You cannot disagree with the fact that everyone is constantly sharing the germs with those around them. But even when two people have the same infection, the resulting illnesses may be dramatically different. It might be mild for one person and life-threatening or severe for the other one.
Researchers have found out two different conditions—a genetic immunodeficiency and delayed acquired immunity—which can combine to produce a life-threatening infection.
In the research paper published in Cell, Casanova and his team have given attention to the case of a young girl with a life-threatening infection caused by a very common type of bacteria. Usually, most of us carry this microbe, known as Staphylococcus aureus, in our skin and our nostrils. They might cause minor infections, but in some people, it might result in severe disease.
This girl’s illness was yet to be diagnosed as there were no known risk factors, which would lead her to develop the acute form of the disease, and none of her family members had contracted it. This set out the researchers to dig into the bottom to find the underlying cause of her disease by searching her DNA for mutation, which may have made her more susceptible to staph disease.
The main culprit was a protein known as TIRAP, which is used by specific immune cells to flag invading bacteria.
In the experiment, they have found out that TIRAP is critical for cells in the immune system’s first line of defense against invaders. These are cells that develop before we are born, with built-in recognition systems for a host of molecules that are frequently present on the surface of invaders.
“We were sure this was the explanation for the severity of her staphylococcal disease,” says Casanova. “We thought we had it all figured out.”
But things turned weren’t as simple as it looked. When the researchers analyzed the DNA of other members of the patient’s family, the result was shocking. None of them had suffered from severe staph infections, so they had normal TIRAP genes. However, they found the opposite of all seven members of her family had the same mutation as the young patient.
There were two main questions that remained unanswered: Why did this child get the invasive disease? And why were the rest of her family seemingly immune, even when they shared her immune-compromising mutation?
They also found out that the patient lacked antibodies against a single molecule called LTA, but the levels were normal for all of her family members.
LTA is present on the surface of staphylococcal bacteria, and normally it is recognized by immune cells in both lines of defense.
The antibodies against LTA were able to restore the function of the patient’s immune cells in culture systems, and the researchers went on to confirm their hypothesis using a mouse model of the disease.
This result explains both why the patient developed a life-threatening disease and why her family members didn’t. The illness was due to the failure in both the lines of immunity. In the family, the second layer of defense compensated for genetic defects in the first. This offers insight into how two people with the same infection, and even the same DNA, can have very different illnesses.” | <urn:uuid:97ebc571-639a-4396-9761-8bd54dc1fe4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://explorebiotech.com/researchers-explain-common-bacteria-might-result-serious-illness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.985664 | 681 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.12174675613641... | 13 | You cannot disagree with the fact that everyone is constantly sharing the germs with those around them. But even when two people have the same infection, the resulting illnesses may be dramatically different. It might be mild for one person and life-threatening or severe for the other one.
Researchers have found out two different conditions—a genetic immunodeficiency and delayed acquired immunity—which can combine to produce a life-threatening infection.
In the research paper published in Cell, Casanova and his team have given attention to the case of a young girl with a life-threatening infection caused by a very common type of bacteria. Usually, most of us carry this microbe, known as Staphylococcus aureus, in our skin and our nostrils. They might cause minor infections, but in some people, it might result in severe disease.
This girl’s illness was yet to be diagnosed as there were no known risk factors, which would lead her to develop the acute form of the disease, and none of her family members had contracted it. This set out the researchers to dig into the bottom to find the underlying cause of her disease by searching her DNA for mutation, which may have made her more susceptible to staph disease.
The main culprit was a protein known as TIRAP, which is used by specific immune cells to flag invading bacteria.
In the experiment, they have found out that TIRAP is critical for cells in the immune system’s first line of defense against invaders. These are cells that develop before we are born, with built-in recognition systems for a host of molecules that are frequently present on the surface of invaders.
“We were sure this was the explanation for the severity of her staphylococcal disease,” says Casanova. “We thought we had it all figured out.”
But things turned weren’t as simple as it looked. When the researchers analyzed the DNA of other members of the patient’s family, the result was shocking. None of them had suffered from severe staph infections, so they had normal TIRAP genes. However, they found the opposite of all seven members of her family had the same mutation as the young patient.
There were two main questions that remained unanswered: Why did this child get the invasive disease? And why were the rest of her family seemingly immune, even when they shared her immune-compromising mutation?
They also found out that the patient lacked antibodies against a single molecule called LTA, but the levels were normal for all of her family members.
LTA is present on the surface of staphylococcal bacteria, and normally it is recognized by immune cells in both lines of defense.
The antibodies against LTA were able to restore the function of the patient’s immune cells in culture systems, and the researchers went on to confirm their hypothesis using a mouse model of the disease.
This result explains both why the patient developed a life-threatening disease and why her family members didn’t. The illness was due to the failure in both the lines of immunity. In the family, the second layer of defense compensated for genetic defects in the first. This offers insight into how two people with the same infection, and even the same DNA, can have very different illnesses.” | 641 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ovid Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Birth Place :
Early Life And Education
Ovid was born 20th March 43 BC. He was born into a family who was well-known for their equestrianism. Known as Ovid, he was born in Sulmo (now called Sulmona), which is about 90 miles east of Rome. Ovid was born at a very important time in history. A year before he was born, Julius Caesar had been murdered. This caused several civil wars, until eventually the nephew of Caesar, named Octavius, defeated Mark Antony. Antony had been the main supporter of Caesar. Once Octavius triumphed, a new political regime moved into place. Octavius changed his name to Augustus, and it was under his rule that Ovid lived.
Both Ovid and his brother were schooled in rhetoric. Their teaching took place in Rome, under Arellius Fuscus, and Porcius Latro. Ovid was learning rhetoric in relation to law, which was what his father wanted, and his brother excelled in public speaking.
Ovid’s brother died at 20 years of age, and this was a turning point for Ovid. He began to travel – to Athens, Asia Minor and Sicily. He held several public appointments, but around 29-25 BC he decided to concentrate on poetry, thus resigning from the position he held at that time.
The first recital by Ovid was around 25 BC. He was 18 at the time. Ovid was part of the group that came under Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus. He was also friends of those in the circle of poets under Maecenas, who was a political advisor and ally to Augustus.
Ovid penned many works, and in the first 25 years of writing his poetry, his themes were love and erotica. It is thought one of his first works was Heroides.
Under the rule of Augustus, society was being morally shackled, and it is thought this was one of the reasons Ovid became so popular, due to the subject of his writings. During 8 AD, Augustus sent Ovid into exile. He was sent to the fishing town of Tomi, which was a bleak, uninteresting place. Although he continued to write, his work was never the same.
Ovid said his exile was due to “a poem and a mistake.” He was exiled directly by Augustus, with no senate or other hearing, and nobody knows the reason why it happened. Ovid did try, through his poems, to return to Rome, but he was never allowed. He died in exile in 17 AD.
Around the same time as Ovid’s exile, the grandchildren of Augustus, Julia the Younger, and Agrippa Postumus, were also exiled. Julia’s husband was executed for conspiracy against Augustus. It is thought Ovid may have known about the conspiracy.
Ovid wrote while in exile, but his work was full of despair and sadness due to his exile. Some scholars have put forward that he may not have been in exile at all, as he is the only one who talks about it, but the general tendency amongst scholars refutes this hypothesis.
Although Ovid had several major works, his most famous was Metamorphoses. It is a very lengthy poem, totaling approximately 12,000 lines, written in dactylic hexameter. Dactylic hexameter is also known as the “grand style of classical poetry.” The work was 15 volumes in length.
By the time he was 30, Ovid had been married three times. He was divorced from his first two wives, and forcibly separated from his third wife when he was sent into exile. She was well connected though and was able to help him while he was in exile. Ovid had one daughter, who also bore him grandchildren.
Ovid has a statue in his honor, located in his hometown of Sulmona, Italy.
Legacy from his poetry is mixed. He has fallen in and out of favor over the centuries, depending on social and religious outlooks at any given time. He was, though, the first great poet to arise under the rule of Augustus. His poetry had a huge influence on writers during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The 12th century was even called the Ovidian age for the number of poets writing in Ovid’s style.
Ovid’s work has also been translated by different writers – his poetry has lived on, long after his death.
More People From Italy
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Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri | <urn:uuid:e53ad19b-43f8-4009-b467-45fc2484538a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/ovid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.996221 | 982 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.6917045116424... | 1 | Ovid Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Birth Place :
Early Life And Education
Ovid was born 20th March 43 BC. He was born into a family who was well-known for their equestrianism. Known as Ovid, he was born in Sulmo (now called Sulmona), which is about 90 miles east of Rome. Ovid was born at a very important time in history. A year before he was born, Julius Caesar had been murdered. This caused several civil wars, until eventually the nephew of Caesar, named Octavius, defeated Mark Antony. Antony had been the main supporter of Caesar. Once Octavius triumphed, a new political regime moved into place. Octavius changed his name to Augustus, and it was under his rule that Ovid lived.
Both Ovid and his brother were schooled in rhetoric. Their teaching took place in Rome, under Arellius Fuscus, and Porcius Latro. Ovid was learning rhetoric in relation to law, which was what his father wanted, and his brother excelled in public speaking.
Ovid’s brother died at 20 years of age, and this was a turning point for Ovid. He began to travel – to Athens, Asia Minor and Sicily. He held several public appointments, but around 29-25 BC he decided to concentrate on poetry, thus resigning from the position he held at that time.
The first recital by Ovid was around 25 BC. He was 18 at the time. Ovid was part of the group that came under Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus. He was also friends of those in the circle of poets under Maecenas, who was a political advisor and ally to Augustus.
Ovid penned many works, and in the first 25 years of writing his poetry, his themes were love and erotica. It is thought one of his first works was Heroides.
Under the rule of Augustus, society was being morally shackled, and it is thought this was one of the reasons Ovid became so popular, due to the subject of his writings. During 8 AD, Augustus sent Ovid into exile. He was sent to the fishing town of Tomi, which was a bleak, uninteresting place. Although he continued to write, his work was never the same.
Ovid said his exile was due to “a poem and a mistake.” He was exiled directly by Augustus, with no senate or other hearing, and nobody knows the reason why it happened. Ovid did try, through his poems, to return to Rome, but he was never allowed. He died in exile in 17 AD.
Around the same time as Ovid’s exile, the grandchildren of Augustus, Julia the Younger, and Agrippa Postumus, were also exiled. Julia’s husband was executed for conspiracy against Augustus. It is thought Ovid may have known about the conspiracy.
Ovid wrote while in exile, but his work was full of despair and sadness due to his exile. Some scholars have put forward that he may not have been in exile at all, as he is the only one who talks about it, but the general tendency amongst scholars refutes this hypothesis.
Although Ovid had several major works, his most famous was Metamorphoses. It is a very lengthy poem, totaling approximately 12,000 lines, written in dactylic hexameter. Dactylic hexameter is also known as the “grand style of classical poetry.” The work was 15 volumes in length.
By the time he was 30, Ovid had been married three times. He was divorced from his first two wives, and forcibly separated from his third wife when he was sent into exile. She was well connected though and was able to help him while he was in exile. Ovid had one daughter, who also bore him grandchildren.
Ovid has a statue in his honor, located in his hometown of Sulmona, Italy.
Legacy from his poetry is mixed. He has fallen in and out of favor over the centuries, depending on social and religious outlooks at any given time. He was, though, the first great poet to arise under the rule of Augustus. His poetry had a huge influence on writers during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The 12th century was even called the Ovidian age for the number of poets writing in Ovid’s style.
Ovid’s work has also been translated by different writers – his poetry has lived on, long after his death.
More People From Italy
Leonardo da Vinci
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Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri | 983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egyptian Army and Soldiers
Who led the Ancient Egyptian army?
The ruler of Ancient Egypt (the Pharaoh) was also the ruler of the army, even though they didn’t do much when wartime came. Instead, they would appoint two generals in their place, to lead each half of the army in the north and south of Egypt.
The Egyptian army had three divisions: the Infantry (who fought on foot on the battlefield) the Chariotry (who fought in chariots on the battlefield) and the Navy (who fought at sea.)
Most pharaohs were highly trained in one of these styles of combat, but would commonly appoint their highly trained sons or brothers as generals in their place.
What was the life of an Egyptian soldier like?
The life of a soldier in Ancient Egypt was tough all the way from the very beginning.
Some began combat training at the age of five (though they couldn’t go to war until they were 20) and trained regularly to increase their strength and skill.
Compared to other ancient civilizations, the Egyptian army had a much greater emphasis on speed and agility; this is because they wore only leather armor, and were highly vulnerable to enemy weaponry.
Egyptian soldiers trained with multiple classes of weapons (swords, knives, spears, bows) and their position in the army would be chosen based on their best.
Archers were chosen from the most accurate shooters, while the quickest swordfighters would be sent instead to join the basic infantry.
This system meant that soldiers were always in the division that best suited their strengths; however, many would likely have trained hardest to become archers, as it was a safer position in wartime than being on the frontlines.
When Egyptian soldiers went to battle, they could be gone for months at a time. In return for this time and service, the Pharaoh rewarded his armies with treasure and land, and fighters were shown great respect by the common people.
How powerful were the armies of Ancient Egypt?
For most of its history, Ancient Egypt was ruled peacefully under the Pharaoh, which meant that the main concern for its army was repelling invaders.
The plains surrounding Egypt were populated by tribes of nomads (people who moved from place to place) who would sometimes try to raid the towns of the fertile Nile River valley.
Combat with these nomads was the most common conflict in Ancient Egypt, though battles with Roman and Islamic invaders also became frequent in the later years of the empire.
How were the cities of Egypt defended from invaders?
Though most Ancient Egyptian cities lacked strong walls or protective moats like those of Europe, fortresses were built along the borders east and west of the Nile, where the population was densest.
Small patrols of soldiers from these fortresses could stop minor attacks; but if a larger force invaded, more soldiers would be sent to join the fight.
Though many commoners had weapons (knives and swords were particularly common), they were given no training and were unable to defend themselves without outside assistance.
What did Egyptian soldiers do when they weren’t at war?
Since their training made them so strong, Ancient Egyptian soldiers were excellent as laborers and farmworkers. The Egyptian army worked the fields during harvest time, and also worked as builders for constructions like the Pharaoh’s palace, religious temples, and pyramids.
Facts about the Ancient Egyptian Soldiers and Military:
- The armies of Ancient Egypt were officially led by the country’s ruler, the pharaoh.
- However, the pharaoh rarely fought themselves; instead, they appointed two generals to stand in their place.
- Archers were the most important class of soldier in the Egyptian army, because bows were the most well-developed and commonly-used weapon in wartime. However, most archers would also carry swords with them for close-range defense.
- Although Egyptian soldiers started their training at the age of five, they weren’t officially allowed to take part in battle until they turned 20.
- A soldier’s army division was decided by their most skilled weapon – good archers became bowmen, good swordfighters became infantry, and good sailors joined the navy.
- Outside of wartime, many soldiers worked as manual labourers, and farmed the Nile fields/built monuments in the name of their pharaoh. They weren’t paid well for this work, but received rewards of land and treasure for successful military campaigns.
- Who officially led the Ancient Egyptian army?
– The Pharaoh.
- At what age did Egyptian soldiers start their training?
– Five years old.
- Why were archers so important in the Egyptian army?
– Bows were the most common and well-developed class of weapon at the time of the Egyptian Empire. They were extremely important tactically, and could be used in conjunction with the chariotry and navy to great effect.
- What did soldiers do for work outside of wartime?
– Worked as laborers and farmers, and sometimes served as protection for towns outside the army’s easy reach.
- Which two empires did Egyptian armies often fight toward the end of the Egyptian Empire’s reign?
– The Islamic and Roman Empires. | <urn:uuid:7206629a-f132-4bc0-ad5a-657c21a79533> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-army-and-soldiers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.987799 | 1,074 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.225513994693756... | 12 | Ancient Egyptian Army and Soldiers
Who led the Ancient Egyptian army?
The ruler of Ancient Egypt (the Pharaoh) was also the ruler of the army, even though they didn’t do much when wartime came. Instead, they would appoint two generals in their place, to lead each half of the army in the north and south of Egypt.
The Egyptian army had three divisions: the Infantry (who fought on foot on the battlefield) the Chariotry (who fought in chariots on the battlefield) and the Navy (who fought at sea.)
Most pharaohs were highly trained in one of these styles of combat, but would commonly appoint their highly trained sons or brothers as generals in their place.
What was the life of an Egyptian soldier like?
The life of a soldier in Ancient Egypt was tough all the way from the very beginning.
Some began combat training at the age of five (though they couldn’t go to war until they were 20) and trained regularly to increase their strength and skill.
Compared to other ancient civilizations, the Egyptian army had a much greater emphasis on speed and agility; this is because they wore only leather armor, and were highly vulnerable to enemy weaponry.
Egyptian soldiers trained with multiple classes of weapons (swords, knives, spears, bows) and their position in the army would be chosen based on their best.
Archers were chosen from the most accurate shooters, while the quickest swordfighters would be sent instead to join the basic infantry.
This system meant that soldiers were always in the division that best suited their strengths; however, many would likely have trained hardest to become archers, as it was a safer position in wartime than being on the frontlines.
When Egyptian soldiers went to battle, they could be gone for months at a time. In return for this time and service, the Pharaoh rewarded his armies with treasure and land, and fighters were shown great respect by the common people.
How powerful were the armies of Ancient Egypt?
For most of its history, Ancient Egypt was ruled peacefully under the Pharaoh, which meant that the main concern for its army was repelling invaders.
The plains surrounding Egypt were populated by tribes of nomads (people who moved from place to place) who would sometimes try to raid the towns of the fertile Nile River valley.
Combat with these nomads was the most common conflict in Ancient Egypt, though battles with Roman and Islamic invaders also became frequent in the later years of the empire.
How were the cities of Egypt defended from invaders?
Though most Ancient Egyptian cities lacked strong walls or protective moats like those of Europe, fortresses were built along the borders east and west of the Nile, where the population was densest.
Small patrols of soldiers from these fortresses could stop minor attacks; but if a larger force invaded, more soldiers would be sent to join the fight.
Though many commoners had weapons (knives and swords were particularly common), they were given no training and were unable to defend themselves without outside assistance.
What did Egyptian soldiers do when they weren’t at war?
Since their training made them so strong, Ancient Egyptian soldiers were excellent as laborers and farmworkers. The Egyptian army worked the fields during harvest time, and also worked as builders for constructions like the Pharaoh’s palace, religious temples, and pyramids.
Facts about the Ancient Egyptian Soldiers and Military:
- The armies of Ancient Egypt were officially led by the country’s ruler, the pharaoh.
- However, the pharaoh rarely fought themselves; instead, they appointed two generals to stand in their place.
- Archers were the most important class of soldier in the Egyptian army, because bows were the most well-developed and commonly-used weapon in wartime. However, most archers would also carry swords with them for close-range defense.
- Although Egyptian soldiers started their training at the age of five, they weren’t officially allowed to take part in battle until they turned 20.
- A soldier’s army division was decided by their most skilled weapon – good archers became bowmen, good swordfighters became infantry, and good sailors joined the navy.
- Outside of wartime, many soldiers worked as manual labourers, and farmed the Nile fields/built monuments in the name of their pharaoh. They weren’t paid well for this work, but received rewards of land and treasure for successful military campaigns.
- Who officially led the Ancient Egyptian army?
– The Pharaoh.
- At what age did Egyptian soldiers start their training?
– Five years old.
- Why were archers so important in the Egyptian army?
– Bows were the most common and well-developed class of weapon at the time of the Egyptian Empire. They were extremely important tactically, and could be used in conjunction with the chariotry and navy to great effect.
- What did soldiers do for work outside of wartime?
– Worked as laborers and farmers, and sometimes served as protection for towns outside the army’s easy reach.
- Which two empires did Egyptian armies often fight toward the end of the Egyptian Empire’s reign?
– The Islamic and Roman Empires. | 1,031 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frank Lloyd Wright and American ArchitectureArchitecture can be defined as the art or science of planning and building structures.Architecture is important because it satisfies the basic human need for shelter.Architectural structures serve specific purposes. Examples include: government buildings; other public buildings, such as libraries or museums; commercial buildings, including offices, banks, or shops; buildings for transportation- airline terminals, train stations, etc.; religious buildings; and, of course, residences.
Each structure has a function but also a particular character or style. Style is a characteristic, or a number of characteristics that we can identify as constant, recurring, or coherent. In art, the sum of characteristics associated with a particular artist, group, or culture, or with an artist’s work at a specific time. This, in my mind, is what makes architecture art.
It is impossible to talk about architecture without mentioning the name Frank Lloyd Wright. Many consider him to be the greatest American architect of his time as well as the greatest designer of residential architecture. Wright himself once said, “…having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time.”
Frank Lloyd Wright was born on June 8, 1867 in Richland Center, Wisconsin. While growing up, his mother’s side of the family always had a great influence on him. The family was Unitary in faith and lived close together. The family stressed the values of education, religion, and nature. Wright’s family spent many evenings listening to Willliam Lincoln Wright read the works of Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake out loud. Also, his aunts Nell and Jane opened a school of their own in which they stressed the philosophies of the German educator, Froebel. Wright was brought up in a comfortable, but certainly not warm, household. His father, William Carey Wright, worked as a preacher and musician. He moved from job to job and frequently moved his family across the United States. His parents divorced when Wright was still young at a time when divorce was very uncommon.
Even before her son was born, Anna Wright had decided that her son was going to be a great architect. Using Froebel’s geometric blocks t…
Wright often used the colors of autumn in the Midwest, however red was his signature especially in the 1930’s. For light he relied heavily upon the sun’s power, and many of his buildings included skylights or subtle electrical lighting. He believed that the ornamentation should compliment all of this, not distract from it. Treating the building as an integral unit, Wright often designed down to the smallest detail including dining ware, furniture, and statues. His geometric designs were interpretations of nature. He was an architect of democracy in an era of political freedom. It is apparent Wright felt no constraints from the popular culture as he faced harsh criticism many times for his works.
Wright left behind hundreds of plans that are being pursued today. Ground breaking for Monona Terrace in Madison, Wisconsin occurred not long ago. This design, which was conceived by Wright fifty years ago, includes government offices, an auditorium, and rail terminal all in one mammoth civic center.
Wright’s creations have stood the test of time. His influence is still strong today. I believe he succeeded in his mission of being the greatest architect of all time. | <urn:uuid:ec2b3fac-35a8-4a65-91f4-2122b51b1b99> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nsucurrent.com/essay-frank-lloyd-wright-and-american-architecture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.980875 | 724 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.321452230215... | 3 | Frank Lloyd Wright and American ArchitectureArchitecture can be defined as the art or science of planning and building structures.Architecture is important because it satisfies the basic human need for shelter.Architectural structures serve specific purposes. Examples include: government buildings; other public buildings, such as libraries or museums; commercial buildings, including offices, banks, or shops; buildings for transportation- airline terminals, train stations, etc.; religious buildings; and, of course, residences.
Each structure has a function but also a particular character or style. Style is a characteristic, or a number of characteristics that we can identify as constant, recurring, or coherent. In art, the sum of characteristics associated with a particular artist, group, or culture, or with an artist’s work at a specific time. This, in my mind, is what makes architecture art.
It is impossible to talk about architecture without mentioning the name Frank Lloyd Wright. Many consider him to be the greatest American architect of his time as well as the greatest designer of residential architecture. Wright himself once said, “…having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live. Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all time.”
Frank Lloyd Wright was born on June 8, 1867 in Richland Center, Wisconsin. While growing up, his mother’s side of the family always had a great influence on him. The family was Unitary in faith and lived close together. The family stressed the values of education, religion, and nature. Wright’s family spent many evenings listening to Willliam Lincoln Wright read the works of Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake out loud. Also, his aunts Nell and Jane opened a school of their own in which they stressed the philosophies of the German educator, Froebel. Wright was brought up in a comfortable, but certainly not warm, household. His father, William Carey Wright, worked as a preacher and musician. He moved from job to job and frequently moved his family across the United States. His parents divorced when Wright was still young at a time when divorce was very uncommon.
Even before her son was born, Anna Wright had decided that her son was going to be a great architect. Using Froebel’s geometric blocks t…
Wright often used the colors of autumn in the Midwest, however red was his signature especially in the 1930’s. For light he relied heavily upon the sun’s power, and many of his buildings included skylights or subtle electrical lighting. He believed that the ornamentation should compliment all of this, not distract from it. Treating the building as an integral unit, Wright often designed down to the smallest detail including dining ware, furniture, and statues. His geometric designs were interpretations of nature. He was an architect of democracy in an era of political freedom. It is apparent Wright felt no constraints from the popular culture as he faced harsh criticism many times for his works.
Wright left behind hundreds of plans that are being pursued today. Ground breaking for Monona Terrace in Madison, Wisconsin occurred not long ago. This design, which was conceived by Wright fifty years ago, includes government offices, an auditorium, and rail terminal all in one mammoth civic center.
Wright’s creations have stood the test of time. His influence is still strong today. I believe he succeeded in his mission of being the greatest architect of all time. | 706 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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