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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
The story behind your cell culture
If you use a human cell line in your research, have you wondered where, or who, it came from? I never gave it much thought, until I read Rebecca Skloot’s book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks.
In 1951, cervical tumour cells were taken from Henrietta Lacks and put into culture, to divide endlessly and be distributed across labs all over the world, perhaps to eventually find their way to your incubator: cells known as HeLa cells.
In those days, informed consent was not standard procedure, and certainly not for black people like Henrietta Lacks. The Jim Crow laws prescribed ‘separate, but equal’ treatment of coloured people. Segregation was indeed standard in public facilities, but ‘equal’ is subject to debate. Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, the hospital Henrietta visited after she had felt a lump in her womb, had separate wards and water fountains for black people. Johns Hopkins Hospital was built in 1889 for the sick and poor. It was the only major hospital in the region that treated black patients. The wards were filled with black people who were unable to pay their medical bills. It was not uncommon for these patients to be used as research subjects; the doctors considered this fair compensation for their otherwise free treatment. Patients were not always told that their cases were used in research.
Henrietta’s gynaecologist Wesley Telinde had developed a theory on cervical cancer, which, if proven right, could drastically reduce deaths from cervical cancer. Almost everybody in the field was sceptical about his ideas, but he was convinced that carcinoma in situ was an early stage of the more deadly invasive carcinoma, instead of a distinct type that only needed milder treatment. He proposed that carcinoma in situ should be treated in the same aggressive way as invasive cancers, to prevent it from spreading.
Establishing the HeLa Cell Line
Telinde wanted to prove his theory by showing that carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma behave the same way in the laboratory. He gave a sample of Henrietta’s cervical carcinoma to George Gey, who ran a tissue culture research laboratory with his wife, Margaret. For the past 30 years, they had been trying to grow malignant cells outside the body. They knew it was possible because it had been done with mouse cells in 1943. They were determined to grow the human equivalent.
Mary Kubicek, the technician responsible for setting up a culture of Henrietta’s cells, was not overly excited when the sample was put on her bench. Why would this particular sample prove any different to all the others she had cultivated, only to find the cells dead after hours of work? But, contrary to Mary’s expectations, the cells not only remained alive but divided, doubling their numbers every 24 hours. The first human immortal cell line was a reality. Soon, other scientists became interested and George Gey sent vials to labs all over the planet.
While scientists were benefiting from HeLa cells for a wide range of scientific studies, the general public was not aware that the long-promised human cell culture ‘that would help cure humans of all disease’ was now available. After decades of optimistic predictions, the public didn’t believe in it anymore. But a revolution was taking place. Many different cell lines were now available. Efforts were made to standardise the technique of cell culture and culture medium became commercially available. Learning how to freeze cells greatly facilitated shipping and handling, because it was no longer necessary to spend time and money just keeping cells alive.
“They could grow on a doorknob”
Since HeLa cells were so easy to process and grow, in a monolayer or in suspension, scientists joked that they might survive on a doorknob or in a sink drain. This turned out not to be so amusing. On a conference on cell culture, somebody announced that he had found that 18 of the then most commonly used cell cultures (mostly of Caucasian origin) seemed to be contaminated by cells derived from a Negro person, most probably HeLa cells. Indeed, it turned out that HeLa cells could survive without optimal culture conditions: on pipettes, lab coats, and unwashed hands. Once one HeLa cell ended up in a dish of another culture, it would soon take over.
Naturally, this came as quite a shock, not least to the companies selling the contaminated cell lines. At the time, they could only guarantee that their cultures were free of viral or bacterial contamination, and free of cells of other species. They could not check for contamination by cells of other human beings. Later, genetic mapping allowed identification of HeLa cells in other cultures, after the DNA of Henrietta’s husband and two children had been obtained.
Back to Henrietta
Henrietta never knew her cells were dividing in all these labs. She was treated with radium. The tumour seemed to go away. But ten months after diagnosis, Henrietta’s body filled with rapidly growing tumours, which ultimately led to her death. ’ll leave it to you to read what it meant to Henrietta’s family when they finally found out that HeLa cells had been living outside Henrietta’s body longer than inside, and greatly contributed to science.
This poor, Christian tobacco farmer family had lived all their lives in an impoverished and dangerous neighbourhood. They knew little about science, so when they first heard that Henrietta’s cells had become immortal, her son wondered whether that meant he would live forever himself. Although at first the family didn’t want anything to do with journalists, Rebecca Skloot gained their trust. Together with Henrietta’s daughter Deborah, she dived into history and helped the family not just to accept the situation but also to see how their mother had helped to advance science.
Rebecca Skloot has written a fascinating and comprehensive account of the development of cell culture as a scientific tool, the life of a poor black family in Baltimore, and how these two story lines coincide.
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... | 3 | The story behind your cell culture
If you use a human cell line in your research, have you wondered where, or who, it came from? I never gave it much thought, until I read Rebecca Skloot’s book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks.
In 1951, cervical tumour cells were taken from Henrietta Lacks and put into culture, to divide endlessly and be distributed across labs all over the world, perhaps to eventually find their way to your incubator: cells known as HeLa cells.
In those days, informed consent was not standard procedure, and certainly not for black people like Henrietta Lacks. The Jim Crow laws prescribed ‘separate, but equal’ treatment of coloured people. Segregation was indeed standard in public facilities, but ‘equal’ is subject to debate. Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, the hospital Henrietta visited after she had felt a lump in her womb, had separate wards and water fountains for black people. Johns Hopkins Hospital was built in 1889 for the sick and poor. It was the only major hospital in the region that treated black patients. The wards were filled with black people who were unable to pay their medical bills. It was not uncommon for these patients to be used as research subjects; the doctors considered this fair compensation for their otherwise free treatment. Patients were not always told that their cases were used in research.
Henrietta’s gynaecologist Wesley Telinde had developed a theory on cervical cancer, which, if proven right, could drastically reduce deaths from cervical cancer. Almost everybody in the field was sceptical about his ideas, but he was convinced that carcinoma in situ was an early stage of the more deadly invasive carcinoma, instead of a distinct type that only needed milder treatment. He proposed that carcinoma in situ should be treated in the same aggressive way as invasive cancers, to prevent it from spreading.
Establishing the HeLa Cell Line
Telinde wanted to prove his theory by showing that carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma behave the same way in the laboratory. He gave a sample of Henrietta’s cervical carcinoma to George Gey, who ran a tissue culture research laboratory with his wife, Margaret. For the past 30 years, they had been trying to grow malignant cells outside the body. They knew it was possible because it had been done with mouse cells in 1943. They were determined to grow the human equivalent.
Mary Kubicek, the technician responsible for setting up a culture of Henrietta’s cells, was not overly excited when the sample was put on her bench. Why would this particular sample prove any different to all the others she had cultivated, only to find the cells dead after hours of work? But, contrary to Mary’s expectations, the cells not only remained alive but divided, doubling their numbers every 24 hours. The first human immortal cell line was a reality. Soon, other scientists became interested and George Gey sent vials to labs all over the planet.
While scientists were benefiting from HeLa cells for a wide range of scientific studies, the general public was not aware that the long-promised human cell culture ‘that would help cure humans of all disease’ was now available. After decades of optimistic predictions, the public didn’t believe in it anymore. But a revolution was taking place. Many different cell lines were now available. Efforts were made to standardise the technique of cell culture and culture medium became commercially available. Learning how to freeze cells greatly facilitated shipping and handling, because it was no longer necessary to spend time and money just keeping cells alive.
“They could grow on a doorknob”
Since HeLa cells were so easy to process and grow, in a monolayer or in suspension, scientists joked that they might survive on a doorknob or in a sink drain. This turned out not to be so amusing. On a conference on cell culture, somebody announced that he had found that 18 of the then most commonly used cell cultures (mostly of Caucasian origin) seemed to be contaminated by cells derived from a Negro person, most probably HeLa cells. Indeed, it turned out that HeLa cells could survive without optimal culture conditions: on pipettes, lab coats, and unwashed hands. Once one HeLa cell ended up in a dish of another culture, it would soon take over.
Naturally, this came as quite a shock, not least to the companies selling the contaminated cell lines. At the time, they could only guarantee that their cultures were free of viral or bacterial contamination, and free of cells of other species. They could not check for contamination by cells of other human beings. Later, genetic mapping allowed identification of HeLa cells in other cultures, after the DNA of Henrietta’s husband and two children had been obtained.
Back to Henrietta
Henrietta never knew her cells were dividing in all these labs. She was treated with radium. The tumour seemed to go away. But ten months after diagnosis, Henrietta’s body filled with rapidly growing tumours, which ultimately led to her death. ’ll leave it to you to read what it meant to Henrietta’s family when they finally found out that HeLa cells had been living outside Henrietta’s body longer than inside, and greatly contributed to science.
This poor, Christian tobacco farmer family had lived all their lives in an impoverished and dangerous neighbourhood. They knew little about science, so when they first heard that Henrietta’s cells had become immortal, her son wondered whether that meant he would live forever himself. Although at first the family didn’t want anything to do with journalists, Rebecca Skloot gained their trust. Together with Henrietta’s daughter Deborah, she dived into history and helped the family not just to accept the situation but also to see how their mother had helped to advance science.
Rebecca Skloot has written a fascinating and comprehensive account of the development of cell culture as a scientific tool, the life of a poor black family in Baltimore, and how these two story lines coincide.
This article was previously published on BitesizeBio.com, an online magazine for cell and molecular biologists. | 1,247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was the second of three sons; firstborn Alfred died in infancy, and younger brother Herbert Maurice or Millsap was born in InEllison's mother and her children moved to Gary, Indianawhere she had a brother.
At the beginning of this century, Oklahoma had not been a state for very long and was still considered a part of the frontier. Lewis and Ida Ellison had each grown up in the South to parents who had been slaves. The couple moved out west to Oklahoma hoping the lives of their children would be fueled with a sense of possibility in this state that was reputed for its freedom.
Tell us what you need to have done now! Literature was a destined medium for Ellison, whose father named him after Ralph Waldo Emerson and hoped that he would be a poet. His enthusiasm for reading was encouraged over the years of his youth by his mother bringing books and magazines home for him from the houses she cleaned.
In addition, a black episcopal priest in the city challenged the white custom of barring blacks from the public library and the custom was overturned. During his teenage years, Ellison and his friends imagined being the eclectic combination of frontiersmen and Renaissance Men.
The ideal they created gave them the courage to expect anything out of life. They believed that they had the ability and power to do whatever they wanted in life as well as or better than men of any race.
Ellison first used this credo when he attacked the medium of music, participating in an intense music program for twelve years at the Frederick Douglass School in Oklahoma City.
Although he received musical training in many instruments as well as theory, he held a high preference for the trumpet and was talented enough to obtain training from the conductor of the Oklahoma City Orchestra.
Ellison took part in playing at many concerts, marches, bands, and celebrations for the town. During the midst of this study, he did not lose sight of his desire to be a Renaissance Man, however, and spent time playing football, working at small jobs, and experimenting in electronics.
One of his music teachers at the school was Hazel Harrison who would later introduce Ellison to Alain Locke, a New Negro thinker, who would lead Ellison to his writing career years later through connections to Langston Hughes and Richard Wright.
At Tuskegee, Ellison excelled in his music program as well as taking a particular liking to his sociology and sculpture classes and the outside classroom which Alabama provided.
Literature would also influence his say at Tuskegee as he again delved into the expansive libraries at his disposal. Disappointed in the limited capacity of African-American literature at this point, Ellison practiced playing with the force of words as he had found Eliot to do.
He would later use the experiences from Tuskegee and the injustices he encountered in the South to structure his writing of Invisible Man. Due to financial problems, Ellison left Tuskegee after his third year. Introduced to Augusta Savage, a black sculptor in Harlem who liked his work, Ellison moved to Harlem, New York instill hoping to be able to return to school.
Ellison lived in New York for most of the rest of his life. Ellison enjoyed living in Harlem as it was a tremendously vibrant cultural center in the s and s.+ free ebooks online.
Did you know that you can help us produce ebooks by proof-reading just one page a day? Go to: Distributed Proofreaders. Ralph Ellison Ralph Ellison Ralph Waldo Ellison was born March 1, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma to Lewis Alfred and Ida Millsap Ellison.
At the beginning of this century, Oklahoma had not been a state for very long and was still considered a part of the frontier.
Continuing to teach, Ellison published mostly essays, and in , he received the New York City College's Langston Hughes Medal. In , he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.
Living with Music: Ralph Ellison's Jazz Writings (Modern Library, ). benjaminpohle.com provides links and source material related to The Souls of Black Folk written by the African American activist, writer, and scholar: William Edward Burghardt DuBois.
The research is conducted and arranged by Dr. Robert benjaminpohle.comms. Trudier Harris is J.
Carlyle Sitterson Professor of English, Emerita at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. During , she was a resident Fellow at the National Humanities Center.
She has written and edited more than a dozen books on African American literature and folklore. Music musicians played to free themselves from standard styles. For nearly the first half of the twentieth century, from about to , jazz was the dominant form of popular dance music in the United States.
Dance music and dance bands existed before jazz and, after the rise of jazz, there were. | <urn:uuid:b9f92172-9e01-4ea6-a3b8-7960caca63a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qifopuviru.benjaminpohle.com/essays-on-living-with-music-ralph-ellison-47964qx.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.985915 | 992 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.1734803318... | 1 | He was the second of three sons; firstborn Alfred died in infancy, and younger brother Herbert Maurice or Millsap was born in InEllison's mother and her children moved to Gary, Indianawhere she had a brother.
At the beginning of this century, Oklahoma had not been a state for very long and was still considered a part of the frontier. Lewis and Ida Ellison had each grown up in the South to parents who had been slaves. The couple moved out west to Oklahoma hoping the lives of their children would be fueled with a sense of possibility in this state that was reputed for its freedom.
Tell us what you need to have done now! Literature was a destined medium for Ellison, whose father named him after Ralph Waldo Emerson and hoped that he would be a poet. His enthusiasm for reading was encouraged over the years of his youth by his mother bringing books and magazines home for him from the houses she cleaned.
In addition, a black episcopal priest in the city challenged the white custom of barring blacks from the public library and the custom was overturned. During his teenage years, Ellison and his friends imagined being the eclectic combination of frontiersmen and Renaissance Men.
The ideal they created gave them the courage to expect anything out of life. They believed that they had the ability and power to do whatever they wanted in life as well as or better than men of any race.
Ellison first used this credo when he attacked the medium of music, participating in an intense music program for twelve years at the Frederick Douglass School in Oklahoma City.
Although he received musical training in many instruments as well as theory, he held a high preference for the trumpet and was talented enough to obtain training from the conductor of the Oklahoma City Orchestra.
Ellison took part in playing at many concerts, marches, bands, and celebrations for the town. During the midst of this study, he did not lose sight of his desire to be a Renaissance Man, however, and spent time playing football, working at small jobs, and experimenting in electronics.
One of his music teachers at the school was Hazel Harrison who would later introduce Ellison to Alain Locke, a New Negro thinker, who would lead Ellison to his writing career years later through connections to Langston Hughes and Richard Wright.
At Tuskegee, Ellison excelled in his music program as well as taking a particular liking to his sociology and sculpture classes and the outside classroom which Alabama provided.
Literature would also influence his say at Tuskegee as he again delved into the expansive libraries at his disposal. Disappointed in the limited capacity of African-American literature at this point, Ellison practiced playing with the force of words as he had found Eliot to do.
He would later use the experiences from Tuskegee and the injustices he encountered in the South to structure his writing of Invisible Man. Due to financial problems, Ellison left Tuskegee after his third year. Introduced to Augusta Savage, a black sculptor in Harlem who liked his work, Ellison moved to Harlem, New York instill hoping to be able to return to school.
Ellison lived in New York for most of the rest of his life. Ellison enjoyed living in Harlem as it was a tremendously vibrant cultural center in the s and s.+ free ebooks online.
Did you know that you can help us produce ebooks by proof-reading just one page a day? Go to: Distributed Proofreaders. Ralph Ellison Ralph Ellison Ralph Waldo Ellison was born March 1, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma to Lewis Alfred and Ida Millsap Ellison.
At the beginning of this century, Oklahoma had not been a state for very long and was still considered a part of the frontier.
Continuing to teach, Ellison published mostly essays, and in , he received the New York City College's Langston Hughes Medal. In , he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.
Living with Music: Ralph Ellison's Jazz Writings (Modern Library, ). benjaminpohle.com provides links and source material related to The Souls of Black Folk written by the African American activist, writer, and scholar: William Edward Burghardt DuBois.
The research is conducted and arranged by Dr. Robert benjaminpohle.comms. Trudier Harris is J.
Carlyle Sitterson Professor of English, Emerita at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. During , she was a resident Fellow at the National Humanities Center.
She has written and edited more than a dozen books on African American literature and folklore. Music musicians played to free themselves from standard styles. For nearly the first half of the twentieth century, from about to , jazz was the dominant form of popular dance music in the United States.
Dance music and dance bands existed before jazz and, after the rise of jazz, there were. | 967 | ENGLISH | 1 |
LA 10 Honors Activities
Modernism and Of Mice and Men
Halfway through our Modernism unit, students were asked to read John Steinbeck's novel, Of Mice and Men. To better understand the role of relationships, specifically through George and Lenny, students were asked to participate in an activity that tested their patience and trust. One would act as the Caregiver and have certain goals and objectives for his/her partner to achieve. The other assumes the role of someone suffering from either a mental or physical impairment, and tests the patience of the Caregiver through their limitations. Students were asked to proceed with sensitivity and respect, and to truly put themselves in the position of his/her role while reflecting. See the full assignment below.
Realism and Walt Whitman
As we ended our Romanticism unit and began our study into Realism, we bridged the transition by studying poetry by Walt Whitman. Whitman serves as the bridge between these two genres of American Literature, and this is specifically seen through his poem, "Song of Myself." Students were asked to read this poem and analyze the extend metaphors and language to create meaning of the poem. Students were then asked to test their understanding of Whitman and Realism by writing their own versions of this poem. However, students had to situate their poem in the present day. This will assess their understanding of the unit and answer our essential question of, how voice and realism exists today. Below is an example of a student version of "Song of Myself" that focuses on the Flint Water Crisis, along with Whitman's original. | <urn:uuid:8444bda5-cbc9-4a31-a286-8cf12832cb09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.brianneminaudoteaching.com/activities.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.982942 | 323 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.23324938118... | 5 | LA 10 Honors Activities
Modernism and Of Mice and Men
Halfway through our Modernism unit, students were asked to read John Steinbeck's novel, Of Mice and Men. To better understand the role of relationships, specifically through George and Lenny, students were asked to participate in an activity that tested their patience and trust. One would act as the Caregiver and have certain goals and objectives for his/her partner to achieve. The other assumes the role of someone suffering from either a mental or physical impairment, and tests the patience of the Caregiver through their limitations. Students were asked to proceed with sensitivity and respect, and to truly put themselves in the position of his/her role while reflecting. See the full assignment below.
Realism and Walt Whitman
As we ended our Romanticism unit and began our study into Realism, we bridged the transition by studying poetry by Walt Whitman. Whitman serves as the bridge between these two genres of American Literature, and this is specifically seen through his poem, "Song of Myself." Students were asked to read this poem and analyze the extend metaphors and language to create meaning of the poem. Students were then asked to test their understanding of Whitman and Realism by writing their own versions of this poem. However, students had to situate their poem in the present day. This will assess their understanding of the unit and answer our essential question of, how voice and realism exists today. Below is an example of a student version of "Song of Myself" that focuses on the Flint Water Crisis, along with Whitman's original. | 328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There's probably nothing in The Song of Hiawatha you'll notice as much as Longfellow's enthusiasm about nature. Back in 1855, Longfellow was in a good position to see the way that modern technology and big cities would drive a wedge between people and their natural world. That's why he used his poetry to look back to an earlier time before Europeans arrived in North America—a time when people apparently had a much more intimate connection with the natural world around them. The problem here is that Longfellow often falls into the trap of projecting all his personal baggage onto Native Americans who aren't around to talk back to him. Longfellow longs for a simpler existence, but the truth is that he has no clue how simple or complicated things were (or are) in Native American culture. And that's what you call empty nostalgia.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow makes Native Americans seem more natural than white people by portraying them as simple and primitive.
In The Song of Hiawatha, we learn that anyone can connect with nature—if they just learn to listen.
As a dude writing in 1855, Longfellow was pretty much destined to show many of the gender prejudices that existed during his time (and still persist today). But instead of challenging these prejudices, Longfellow reinforced them by making them seem like a natural part of human existence. He did this by highlighting them in the relations of Native Americans. The general idea was that Native Americans lived a natural way of life, which thus made their gender roles seem natural too. At the end of the day though, in The Song of Hiawatha human beings decide who works in the home and who goes out to hunt, not nature.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow does pretty well to present us with strong and interesting female characters, especially for someone writing in 1855.
Nice try, but the fact that Longfellow wrote in 1855 doesn't excuse the sexism that we can find in his writing.
It's safe to say that The Song of Hiawatha is a violent poem. It seems like every few pages we hear about a skull being caved in or a corpse getting picked at by seagulls. For Longfellow, this kind of violence is connected to the cycles of the natural world. Predators kill their prey, of course. But human beings also get into conflicts with one another that they try to settle with violence. It's true that Gitche Manito appears at the beginning of this book to bring peace to the many tribes of North America. But some folks must not have gotten the memo, because there's still a ton of murdering and revenge that goes on.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that, sometimes, violence is the only answer.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that violence can only solve short-term problems, while making long-term problems worse.
With a dead mother and an absent father, Hiawatha has a challenging family life to say the least. Let's not forget that he actually tries to kill his father after finding out that the guy is responsible for his mother's death. Yet, in The Song of Hiawatha Longfellow treats family as an important part of life. Ideally, a person can treat everyone in their neighborhood as family. But Longfellow also knows that this might be asking too much of most people. At the end of the day, the men in this poem tend to treat family as a parent-child relationship where the parent thinks of the child as a possession that they can be proud of. That's the case both for young men like Hiawatha and young women like Minnehaha.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that it's more natural for us to fight with our families than to get along with them. (Feeling better now?)
The Song of Hiawatha reminds us that there's no stronger connection than blood. (Feeling worse?)
In The Song of Hiawatha, Hiawatha would be a much less interesting character without the love story that Longfellow weaves into this poem. After all, who wants to read about a guy who's awesome at everything and who wins every battle he fights fairly easily? No one, that's who. Love is what makes Hiawatha mortal, especially when the people he loves start to die and there's nothing he can do about it. Love reminds us that, no matter how strong or awesome we are, we're never in total control because the people we love have minds and lives of their own.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow reminds us that love is the one thing that'll always keep us mortal.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that that, if we never love anyone, we'll never have to feel pain. (Um, yay?) | <urn:uuid:97333e35-5575-46ba-a7b7-f7262dd44730> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/poetry/song-of-hiawatha/themes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.980184 | 1,022 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.0750482231... | 1 | There's probably nothing in The Song of Hiawatha you'll notice as much as Longfellow's enthusiasm about nature. Back in 1855, Longfellow was in a good position to see the way that modern technology and big cities would drive a wedge between people and their natural world. That's why he used his poetry to look back to an earlier time before Europeans arrived in North America—a time when people apparently had a much more intimate connection with the natural world around them. The problem here is that Longfellow often falls into the trap of projecting all his personal baggage onto Native Americans who aren't around to talk back to him. Longfellow longs for a simpler existence, but the truth is that he has no clue how simple or complicated things were (or are) in Native American culture. And that's what you call empty nostalgia.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow makes Native Americans seem more natural than white people by portraying them as simple and primitive.
In The Song of Hiawatha, we learn that anyone can connect with nature—if they just learn to listen.
As a dude writing in 1855, Longfellow was pretty much destined to show many of the gender prejudices that existed during his time (and still persist today). But instead of challenging these prejudices, Longfellow reinforced them by making them seem like a natural part of human existence. He did this by highlighting them in the relations of Native Americans. The general idea was that Native Americans lived a natural way of life, which thus made their gender roles seem natural too. At the end of the day though, in The Song of Hiawatha human beings decide who works in the home and who goes out to hunt, not nature.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow does pretty well to present us with strong and interesting female characters, especially for someone writing in 1855.
Nice try, but the fact that Longfellow wrote in 1855 doesn't excuse the sexism that we can find in his writing.
It's safe to say that The Song of Hiawatha is a violent poem. It seems like every few pages we hear about a skull being caved in or a corpse getting picked at by seagulls. For Longfellow, this kind of violence is connected to the cycles of the natural world. Predators kill their prey, of course. But human beings also get into conflicts with one another that they try to settle with violence. It's true that Gitche Manito appears at the beginning of this book to bring peace to the many tribes of North America. But some folks must not have gotten the memo, because there's still a ton of murdering and revenge that goes on.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that, sometimes, violence is the only answer.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that violence can only solve short-term problems, while making long-term problems worse.
With a dead mother and an absent father, Hiawatha has a challenging family life to say the least. Let's not forget that he actually tries to kill his father after finding out that the guy is responsible for his mother's death. Yet, in The Song of Hiawatha Longfellow treats family as an important part of life. Ideally, a person can treat everyone in their neighborhood as family. But Longfellow also knows that this might be asking too much of most people. At the end of the day, the men in this poem tend to treat family as a parent-child relationship where the parent thinks of the child as a possession that they can be proud of. That's the case both for young men like Hiawatha and young women like Minnehaha.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that it's more natural for us to fight with our families than to get along with them. (Feeling better now?)
The Song of Hiawatha reminds us that there's no stronger connection than blood. (Feeling worse?)
In The Song of Hiawatha, Hiawatha would be a much less interesting character without the love story that Longfellow weaves into this poem. After all, who wants to read about a guy who's awesome at everything and who wins every battle he fights fairly easily? No one, that's who. Love is what makes Hiawatha mortal, especially when the people he loves start to die and there's nothing he can do about it. Love reminds us that, no matter how strong or awesome we are, we're never in total control because the people we love have minds and lives of their own.
In The Song of Hiawatha, Longfellow reminds us that love is the one thing that'll always keep us mortal.
The Song of Hiawatha shows us that that, if we never love anyone, we'll never have to feel pain. (Um, yay?) | 995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How does American realist Kate Chopin depict upper-class marriage at the turn of the 19th century? What does she suggest about relationships between married men and women?
In "The Story of an Hour," Chopin portrays the role of servitude in upper-class marriages and the effect that has on a woman's soul. In the story, Louise Mallard is told that her husband has died, and her primary emotion is one of relief. Finally, there is no one else to serve. Finally, she no longer has to bend her will to her husband's desires instead of pursuing her own. She has played the role of a good wife for so many years, always taking care of her husband's needs. When she thinks she is finally released from this role, she feels light:
Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days, and all sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long.
Chopin suggests that simply because women fill the roles required of them in marriage does not mean that they are happy doing so. Many times, this means giving up on dreams of their own....
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 604 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:de081731-8a4f-4ad4-8182-8e19d6346c61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-american-realist-kate-chopin-depict-upper-803459 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.989036 | 279 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.106247164309024... | 1 | How does American realist Kate Chopin depict upper-class marriage at the turn of the 19th century? What does she suggest about relationships between married men and women?
In "The Story of an Hour," Chopin portrays the role of servitude in upper-class marriages and the effect that has on a woman's soul. In the story, Louise Mallard is told that her husband has died, and her primary emotion is one of relief. Finally, there is no one else to serve. Finally, she no longer has to bend her will to her husband's desires instead of pursuing her own. She has played the role of a good wife for so many years, always taking care of her husband's needs. When she thinks she is finally released from this role, she feels light:
Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days, and all sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long.
Chopin suggests that simply because women fill the roles required of them in marriage does not mean that they are happy doing so. Many times, this means giving up on dreams of their own....
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 604 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archimedes’ screw (3rd century BC)
The screw pump commonly attributed to Archimedes made irrigation much more effective
Archimedes, water-lifting device, irrigation, screw pump, invention, water, inventor, structure, agriculture, hollow wooden tube, axis, manual propulsion, technology, machine, mechanics, antiquity, history
Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC) was one of the greatest Greek scientists of the antiquity. He was born in Syracuse on the island of Sicily and spent most of his life there. He is known for his exceptional contributions to the field of mathematics as well as his inventions and discoveries. He was a renowned astronomer and physicist as well.
During his youth, he lived and worked in Alexandria, Egypt. A water pump that made irrigation more effective is commonly attributed to him. This device became known as "Archimedes’ screw" and spread quickly, as it used rotation to aid (replace) human power in a very creative and effective fashion.
- hollow wooden tube
- hollow wooden tube
Archimedes, one of the greatest Greek scientists of Antiquity, is known for his exceptional contributions to the field of mathematics as well as his inventions and discoveries. The screw pump known as “Archimedes’ screw” is also commonly attributed to Archimedes, but it was most probably not his invention. The name only reflects the fact that the apparatus had been previously unknown to the Greeks and became widespread during his lifetime. The original inventor, however, is unknown.
The screw pump is a simple machine used to lift water. It consists of a screw and a cylindrical casing, made of wooden boards and sealed with pitch resin. The shaft, placed at an angle of about 20° to the waterline, was turned manually.
As the shaft turned, the bottom end scooped up a volume of water. The water slid up in the spiral tube, until it finally poured out from the top. The screw was used mostly for irrigation, draining water out of mines or filling water tanks. This ancient but versatile device is still in use today.
Archimedes was one of the most brilliant Greek scholars of ancient times, who made his mark with military inventions as well.
Ancient Egypt was called the ‘gift of the Nile’, since the river played an important role in the rise of Egyptian civilisation.
The river and marine sailing boats of ancient Egypt were one-masted, oared boats
The outcome of one of the greatest battles in the history of the ancient East (fought by the Egyptians and Hittites) was indecisive.
Egyptian Pharaohs were respected as gods, they were lords of life and death.
The vacuum cleaner creates a partial vacuum and sucks up dust with the help of the incoming high-pressure air.
Visit the workshop of the Renaissance polymath and his most influential inventions and works of art.
The theatre that has a distinctive shape and excellent acoustics was situated at the side of the Acropolis in Athens.
Two meshing gears transmit torque during their rotational motion.
An average Egyptian dwelling consisted of regularly arranged rooms.
Hero of Alexandria is the inventor of the first steam engine, although he regarded it as an entertaining toy.
The ingenius water pump designed by Al-Jazari is a great example of the creativity of Medieval Arab engineers.
These great scientists had a tremendous impact on the advancement in physics.
Medieval Syrian water wheels were used to convey water to distant areas.
Machines converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power were already in use in the Middle Ages.
This animation demonstrates the functioning of the 3 basic types of water tap. | <urn:uuid:0e9c1a4f-c0e9-48e8-b040-8d141d558342> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ua.mozaweb.com/en/Extra-3D_scenes-Archimedes_screw_3rd_century_BC-45084 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.981139 | 764 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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The screw pump commonly attributed to Archimedes made irrigation much more effective
Archimedes, water-lifting device, irrigation, screw pump, invention, water, inventor, structure, agriculture, hollow wooden tube, axis, manual propulsion, technology, machine, mechanics, antiquity, history
Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC) was one of the greatest Greek scientists of the antiquity. He was born in Syracuse on the island of Sicily and spent most of his life there. He is known for his exceptional contributions to the field of mathematics as well as his inventions and discoveries. He was a renowned astronomer and physicist as well.
During his youth, he lived and worked in Alexandria, Egypt. A water pump that made irrigation more effective is commonly attributed to him. This device became known as "Archimedes’ screw" and spread quickly, as it used rotation to aid (replace) human power in a very creative and effective fashion.
- hollow wooden tube
- hollow wooden tube
Archimedes, one of the greatest Greek scientists of Antiquity, is known for his exceptional contributions to the field of mathematics as well as his inventions and discoveries. The screw pump known as “Archimedes’ screw” is also commonly attributed to Archimedes, but it was most probably not his invention. The name only reflects the fact that the apparatus had been previously unknown to the Greeks and became widespread during his lifetime. The original inventor, however, is unknown.
The screw pump is a simple machine used to lift water. It consists of a screw and a cylindrical casing, made of wooden boards and sealed with pitch resin. The shaft, placed at an angle of about 20° to the waterline, was turned manually.
As the shaft turned, the bottom end scooped up a volume of water. The water slid up in the spiral tube, until it finally poured out from the top. The screw was used mostly for irrigation, draining water out of mines or filling water tanks. This ancient but versatile device is still in use today.
Archimedes was one of the most brilliant Greek scholars of ancient times, who made his mark with military inventions as well.
Ancient Egypt was called the ‘gift of the Nile’, since the river played an important role in the rise of Egyptian civilisation.
The river and marine sailing boats of ancient Egypt were one-masted, oared boats
The outcome of one of the greatest battles in the history of the ancient East (fought by the Egyptians and Hittites) was indecisive.
Egyptian Pharaohs were respected as gods, they were lords of life and death.
The vacuum cleaner creates a partial vacuum and sucks up dust with the help of the incoming high-pressure air.
Visit the workshop of the Renaissance polymath and his most influential inventions and works of art.
The theatre that has a distinctive shape and excellent acoustics was situated at the side of the Acropolis in Athens.
Two meshing gears transmit torque during their rotational motion.
An average Egyptian dwelling consisted of regularly arranged rooms.
Hero of Alexandria is the inventor of the first steam engine, although he regarded it as an entertaining toy.
The ingenius water pump designed by Al-Jazari is a great example of the creativity of Medieval Arab engineers.
These great scientists had a tremendous impact on the advancement in physics.
Medieval Syrian water wheels were used to convey water to distant areas.
Machines converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power were already in use in the Middle Ages.
This animation demonstrates the functioning of the 3 basic types of water tap. | 746 | ENGLISH | 1 |
22 December 1973: Opec more than doubles the price of oil
On this day in 1973 Opec, the oil price cartel, more than doubled the price of oil from $5.12 a barrel to $11.65.
Opec's recent decision not cut production sent massive shock waves causing the price of oil to plummet, but on this day in 1973 Opec took, an arguably even more shocking decision.
Overnight, Opec more than doubled the price of oil from $5.12 a barrel to $11.65. The initial price was in fact a hike of its own a few months earlier on a price of $3. The price increase caused the legendary 1973 oil crisis, and was a major shock for the western world economy.
The reason behind the price hike was political. Israel had just won the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria. The two Arab countries launched a surprise attack on Israel during the Jewish Yom Kippur festival. The aim was to reverse the losses of the Six Day War in 1967 and reassert Arab claims over the region.
However, the Opec move was not designed against Israel. It was meant to hurt the United States who had quickly and heavily supplied Israel with military equipment to fight the war, as well as providing political support.
Richard Nixon, the US President at the time, created a new short term Energy Office to deal with the crisis. It implemented price controls which forced old oil' to stay at a certain price, while newly discovered oil was allowed to be sold at market rates.
It was meant to reduce dependence on Arab oil by opening up new suppliers. However, the result was an artificial shortage in fuel because old oil' disappeared from the market. To tackle this, the government introduced a rationing programme and even reduced the speed limit to 55mph to cut consumption.
Eventually, the crisis ended through a negotiated settlement between Israel and the Arab countries. Israel came out on top overall but relinquished some of the new land it had taken during the war.
Interestingly, if the increased price of $11.65 in 1973 is adjusted for inflation to 2014 it comes to $63.88. In the last few months the price of crude oil has plummeted from $110 a barrel to around $60. | <urn:uuid:a03f0613-eec3-4d20-b65f-2149a974e359> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneyweek.com/370273/22-december-1973-opec-more-than-doubles-the-price-of-oil | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.980056 | 466 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.248751729726791... | 1 | 22 December 1973: Opec more than doubles the price of oil
On this day in 1973 Opec, the oil price cartel, more than doubled the price of oil from $5.12 a barrel to $11.65.
Opec's recent decision not cut production sent massive shock waves causing the price of oil to plummet, but on this day in 1973 Opec took, an arguably even more shocking decision.
Overnight, Opec more than doubled the price of oil from $5.12 a barrel to $11.65. The initial price was in fact a hike of its own a few months earlier on a price of $3. The price increase caused the legendary 1973 oil crisis, and was a major shock for the western world economy.
The reason behind the price hike was political. Israel had just won the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria. The two Arab countries launched a surprise attack on Israel during the Jewish Yom Kippur festival. The aim was to reverse the losses of the Six Day War in 1967 and reassert Arab claims over the region.
However, the Opec move was not designed against Israel. It was meant to hurt the United States who had quickly and heavily supplied Israel with military equipment to fight the war, as well as providing political support.
Richard Nixon, the US President at the time, created a new short term Energy Office to deal with the crisis. It implemented price controls which forced old oil' to stay at a certain price, while newly discovered oil was allowed to be sold at market rates.
It was meant to reduce dependence on Arab oil by opening up new suppliers. However, the result was an artificial shortage in fuel because old oil' disappeared from the market. To tackle this, the government introduced a rationing programme and even reduced the speed limit to 55mph to cut consumption.
Eventually, the crisis ended through a negotiated settlement between Israel and the Arab countries. Israel came out on top overall but relinquished some of the new land it had taken during the war.
Interestingly, if the increased price of $11.65 in 1973 is adjusted for inflation to 2014 it comes to $63.88. In the last few months the price of crude oil has plummeted from $110 a barrel to around $60. | 503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The enormous increase in his power soon led Charles to develop the idea of a global monarchy. The title of Holy Roman Emperor was to serve as the ideological basis for his claim on hegemony in Europe.
Charles’s rivals for the imperial succession to Maximilian were Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England. In June 1519 the electors voted at Frankfurt for Charles as king, the prerequisite step to attaining the imperial title. Nevertheless, Charles’s lofty ambitions were confronted with a thoroughly mundane problem: lack of money. The electors expected to be rewarded for their votes. Charles’s election campaign was mainly funded by the Fugger merchant family, subsequently making the emperor financially dependent upon them. Charles V was also the last emperor to be crowned by a pope, his coronation being performed by Clement VII at Bologna.
Charles’s claim to the leading role in the concert of powers was not uncontested: France became the ‘hereditary enemy’ for the next two centuries. A powerful adversary arose to the east in the shape of the Ottoman Empire. In a late continuation of the Spanish Reconquista against the Moors, Charles pursued campaigns in North Africa, leaving his brother Ferdinand to resist the inexorable expansion of the Turks in the Balkan territories.
Although Charles saw himself as a defender of Christianity, it was during his reign that the unity of the Roman Catholic Church finally collapsed due to his underestimating the power of the Reformation within the empire. This was not solely a question of theology but a political trial of strength between the emperor and the princes of empire who were insisting on their privileges and independence. Charles’s claim to universal rule is also evident in his attempts to solve the confessional conflict. The emperor wanted to effect a radical reform of the Church and saw himself as an impartial arbiter seeking to preserve the unity of Christendom.
It was with this intention that Charles persuaded the Pope to convene the Council of Trent. Conceived by Charles as an attempt to preserve the unity of the Catholic Church, its reforms led to the emergence of the Counter-Reformation and to an entrenching of positions, contrary to Charles’s intentions. He thus signally failed in what he had set out to achieve: religious schism had become reality.
Charles’s attempts to buttress imperial authority within the Holy Roman Empire and to privilege the monarchical element over the principle of an Estates-based, federal approach to government led to a conflict which initially ended in Charles’s favour with his victory in the Schmalkaldic War of 1547. Charles forced the ‘Augsburg Interim’ on the Protestant princes of the Empire, an agreement that was intended to implement a compromise until the theological disputes were resolved. This led to fundamental opposition from the Protestant Estates. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 managed to steer a middle course between the emperor, as represented by his more pragmatic brother Ferdinand, and the Empire. Nonetheless, the limits of imperial power had been demonstrated, and it became clear that Charles’s policies within the Empire had failed. He had been unable to assert his ideal of strong imperial rule against the princes of the Empire. This remained the declared aim of the following generations of Habsburgs, who were to fail just as he had done before them. | <urn:uuid:54157ad6-edda-4bb8-bc05-48abca2ecf8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/charles-v-and-dream-universal-monarchy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.982562 | 685 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.0159383006393... | 1 | The enormous increase in his power soon led Charles to develop the idea of a global monarchy. The title of Holy Roman Emperor was to serve as the ideological basis for his claim on hegemony in Europe.
Charles’s rivals for the imperial succession to Maximilian were Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England. In June 1519 the electors voted at Frankfurt for Charles as king, the prerequisite step to attaining the imperial title. Nevertheless, Charles’s lofty ambitions were confronted with a thoroughly mundane problem: lack of money. The electors expected to be rewarded for their votes. Charles’s election campaign was mainly funded by the Fugger merchant family, subsequently making the emperor financially dependent upon them. Charles V was also the last emperor to be crowned by a pope, his coronation being performed by Clement VII at Bologna.
Charles’s claim to the leading role in the concert of powers was not uncontested: France became the ‘hereditary enemy’ for the next two centuries. A powerful adversary arose to the east in the shape of the Ottoman Empire. In a late continuation of the Spanish Reconquista against the Moors, Charles pursued campaigns in North Africa, leaving his brother Ferdinand to resist the inexorable expansion of the Turks in the Balkan territories.
Although Charles saw himself as a defender of Christianity, it was during his reign that the unity of the Roman Catholic Church finally collapsed due to his underestimating the power of the Reformation within the empire. This was not solely a question of theology but a political trial of strength between the emperor and the princes of empire who were insisting on their privileges and independence. Charles’s claim to universal rule is also evident in his attempts to solve the confessional conflict. The emperor wanted to effect a radical reform of the Church and saw himself as an impartial arbiter seeking to preserve the unity of Christendom.
It was with this intention that Charles persuaded the Pope to convene the Council of Trent. Conceived by Charles as an attempt to preserve the unity of the Catholic Church, its reforms led to the emergence of the Counter-Reformation and to an entrenching of positions, contrary to Charles’s intentions. He thus signally failed in what he had set out to achieve: religious schism had become reality.
Charles’s attempts to buttress imperial authority within the Holy Roman Empire and to privilege the monarchical element over the principle of an Estates-based, federal approach to government led to a conflict which initially ended in Charles’s favour with his victory in the Schmalkaldic War of 1547. Charles forced the ‘Augsburg Interim’ on the Protestant princes of the Empire, an agreement that was intended to implement a compromise until the theological disputes were resolved. This led to fundamental opposition from the Protestant Estates. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 managed to steer a middle course between the emperor, as represented by his more pragmatic brother Ferdinand, and the Empire. Nonetheless, the limits of imperial power had been demonstrated, and it became clear that Charles’s policies within the Empire had failed. He had been unable to assert his ideal of strong imperial rule against the princes of the Empire. This remained the declared aim of the following generations of Habsburgs, who were to fail just as he had done before them. | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1785, 250,000 English children were attending Sunday school. There were 5,000 in Manchester alone. By 1835, the Society for the Establishment and Promotion of Sunday Schools had distributed 91,915 spelling books, 24,232 Testaments and 5,360 Bibles. The Sunday school movement was cross-denominational. Financed through subscription, large buildings were constructed that could host public lectures as well as providing classrooms. Adults would attend the same classes as the infants, as each was instructed in basic reading. In some towns,[which?] the Methodists withdrew from the large Sunday school and built their own. The Anglicans set up their own National schools that would act as Sunday schools and day schools. These schools were the precursors to a national system of education.
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sunday school coloring, . | 188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the Middle Ages, kings and queens ruled over large areas of land. Loyal noblemen maintained large sections of the monarch’s territory. This hierarchical organization in which people were divided into classes based on social position and wealth became known as the feudal system. In the feudal system, vassals and serfs produced for themselves and people of higher classes by using the ruler’s land and resources. Although a large part of labor was employed in agriculture, artisans contributed to economic output and formed guilds. The guild system, operating mainly between 1100 and 1500, consisted of two types: merchant guilds, who bought and sold goods, and craft guilds, which made goods. Although guilds were regulated as to the quality of work performed, the resulting system was rather rigid, shoemakers, for example, were prohibited from tanning hides. | <urn:uuid:38fe3ad1-0876-4b39-a271-2733a1798ebb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.customessaymasters.com/post-industrial-society/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.984943 | 173 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.326399177312850... | 1 | In the Middle Ages, kings and queens ruled over large areas of land. Loyal noblemen maintained large sections of the monarch’s territory. This hierarchical organization in which people were divided into classes based on social position and wealth became known as the feudal system. In the feudal system, vassals and serfs produced for themselves and people of higher classes by using the ruler’s land and resources. Although a large part of labor was employed in agriculture, artisans contributed to economic output and formed guilds. The guild system, operating mainly between 1100 and 1500, consisted of two types: merchant guilds, who bought and sold goods, and craft guilds, which made goods. Although guilds were regulated as to the quality of work performed, the resulting system was rather rigid, shoemakers, for example, were prohibited from tanning hides. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Short History of Namibia
Before Namibia was even called by its name today, the country was known as the German South West Africa. Namibia was colonized by Germany in the late 1800s back when the exploration of Africa was at its peak in world history. What led to its discovery was the interest of foreigners to the rare ivory tusks that were hunted off from elephants. The country soon became a settlement for Germans who explored the land. In the early years, there had been conflict between two peoples, the Namas and the Hereros, followed by the Namas and the Schutztruppes, and not to mention also the disagreements between the Schutztruppes and the Hereros. The Schutztruppes are the German protective forces that were sent to relieve and resolve the disagreements between the Hereros people and the Namas people. These three groups have been in conflict with each other, but fortunately ended in a resolve to independence.
When Namibia was discovered to be a diamond country, there was great unrest. Germany then had to surrender the nation where it ended up in martial law till 1919. The country then was under the administration of the Union of South Africa which proved to be a start in the series of events that would lead to its independence. In the late 20th Century, the South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) fought a war to liberate the county, but it was on March 21, 1990 when the United Nations enacted a resolution that was able to mandate elections and in effect became an independent state. The country underwent several phases in order to be the Namibia that is known today. | <urn:uuid:a0e11184-7a50-4857-8f8d-826e9c9b42cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studycountry.com/guide/NA-history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.988519 | 339 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Before Namibia was even called by its name today, the country was known as the German South West Africa. Namibia was colonized by Germany in the late 1800s back when the exploration of Africa was at its peak in world history. What led to its discovery was the interest of foreigners to the rare ivory tusks that were hunted off from elephants. The country soon became a settlement for Germans who explored the land. In the early years, there had been conflict between two peoples, the Namas and the Hereros, followed by the Namas and the Schutztruppes, and not to mention also the disagreements between the Schutztruppes and the Hereros. The Schutztruppes are the German protective forces that were sent to relieve and resolve the disagreements between the Hereros people and the Namas people. These three groups have been in conflict with each other, but fortunately ended in a resolve to independence.
When Namibia was discovered to be a diamond country, there was great unrest. Germany then had to surrender the nation where it ended up in martial law till 1919. The country then was under the administration of the Union of South Africa which proved to be a start in the series of events that would lead to its independence. In the late 20th Century, the South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) fought a war to liberate the county, but it was on March 21, 1990 when the United Nations enacted a resolution that was able to mandate elections and in effect became an independent state. The country underwent several phases in order to be the Namibia that is known today. | 348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have an axe to grind
What's the meaning of the phrase 'Have an axe to grind'?
To have an axe to grind is to have a dispute to take up with someone or, to have an ulterior motive; to have private ends to serve.
What's the origin of the phrase 'Have an axe to grind'?
Ax or axe? The spelling more commonly used in America is ax and, in Britain, axe, although in neither nation is there consistency. The phrase, in its having private ends to serve meaning, is commonly attributed to Benjamin Franklin. Other opinions point to another author who, like Franklin, lived in Pennsylvania, USA - Charles Miner. It is difficult to trace the origin, as both men wrote and printed cautionary metaphorical tales concerning the sharpening of axes.
Franklin sent a story called 'The Whistle' to a friend in 1779. This concerns a child who paid more than he should have for a whistle and later regretted his lack of caution. Franklin's autobiography, which was written between 1771 and his death in 1790 and first published in 1791, also contains an anecdote concerning a man who asked a smith to sharpen his ax especially well and ended up doing the work of turning the grindstone himself. Neither story mentions the phrase an ax to grind.
Miner appears to have written a text called Who'll turn Grindstones?, which does explicitly mention an axe to grind, but which is similar enough to Franklin's earlier stories for some to suggest that Franklin was the real originator of the phrase. I say appears to have written as the first publication of Miner's story is an anonymous piece in the Pennsylvania newspaper The Centinel, on 28th November 1810, under the title Who'll turn Grindstone? This is listed as being reprinted from the Luzerne Federalist. Miner was co-founder of the Federalist, so it's reasonable to assume that he was author. The story is a cautionary fable concerning the author's recounting of an incident from his youth, where a passing stranger takes advantage of him and, by flattering him, dupes him into turning a grindstone to sharpen the stranger's axe. Miner then uses having an axe to grind as a metaphor for having an ulterior motive:
"When I see a man holding a fat office, sounding 'the horn on the borders' to call the people to support the man on whom he depends for his office. Well, thinks I, no wonder the man is zealous in the cause, he evidently has an axe to grind."
The story is published again in 1812; this time under Charles Miner's name and with a slightly different text:
"When I see a merchant over-polite to his customers ... thinks I, that man has an axe to grind."
So, whether or not we view Miner as cribbing his work from Franklin, it seems that it was he who first put the phrase into print.
The meaning that is usually given to the phrase in Britain is having a dispute to take up or point of view to express. Again, it isn't easy to trace the source of this usage. It may be that it migrated from the USA. The sense of having an agenda is common to both versions of the meaning and it doesn't seem likely that the two versions of the phrase arose independently.
James Joyce used the phrase in Ulysses, apparently with that 'British' meaning although, as ever with that particular work, rather difficult to interpret:
Skin-the-Goat, assuming he was he, evidently with an axe to grind, was airing his grievances in a forcible-feeble philippic anent the natural resources of Ireland or something of that sort...
See other phrases that were coined in the USA. | <urn:uuid:22edbc72-171c-46d9-86c8-0d433d2c782c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/have-an-axe-to-grind.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.980666 | 775 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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What's the meaning of the phrase 'Have an axe to grind'?
To have an axe to grind is to have a dispute to take up with someone or, to have an ulterior motive; to have private ends to serve.
What's the origin of the phrase 'Have an axe to grind'?
Ax or axe? The spelling more commonly used in America is ax and, in Britain, axe, although in neither nation is there consistency. The phrase, in its having private ends to serve meaning, is commonly attributed to Benjamin Franklin. Other opinions point to another author who, like Franklin, lived in Pennsylvania, USA - Charles Miner. It is difficult to trace the origin, as both men wrote and printed cautionary metaphorical tales concerning the sharpening of axes.
Franklin sent a story called 'The Whistle' to a friend in 1779. This concerns a child who paid more than he should have for a whistle and later regretted his lack of caution. Franklin's autobiography, which was written between 1771 and his death in 1790 and first published in 1791, also contains an anecdote concerning a man who asked a smith to sharpen his ax especially well and ended up doing the work of turning the grindstone himself. Neither story mentions the phrase an ax to grind.
Miner appears to have written a text called Who'll turn Grindstones?, which does explicitly mention an axe to grind, but which is similar enough to Franklin's earlier stories for some to suggest that Franklin was the real originator of the phrase. I say appears to have written as the first publication of Miner's story is an anonymous piece in the Pennsylvania newspaper The Centinel, on 28th November 1810, under the title Who'll turn Grindstone? This is listed as being reprinted from the Luzerne Federalist. Miner was co-founder of the Federalist, so it's reasonable to assume that he was author. The story is a cautionary fable concerning the author's recounting of an incident from his youth, where a passing stranger takes advantage of him and, by flattering him, dupes him into turning a grindstone to sharpen the stranger's axe. Miner then uses having an axe to grind as a metaphor for having an ulterior motive:
"When I see a man holding a fat office, sounding 'the horn on the borders' to call the people to support the man on whom he depends for his office. Well, thinks I, no wonder the man is zealous in the cause, he evidently has an axe to grind."
The story is published again in 1812; this time under Charles Miner's name and with a slightly different text:
"When I see a merchant over-polite to his customers ... thinks I, that man has an axe to grind."
So, whether or not we view Miner as cribbing his work from Franklin, it seems that it was he who first put the phrase into print.
The meaning that is usually given to the phrase in Britain is having a dispute to take up or point of view to express. Again, it isn't easy to trace the source of this usage. It may be that it migrated from the USA. The sense of having an agenda is common to both versions of the meaning and it doesn't seem likely that the two versions of the phrase arose independently.
James Joyce used the phrase in Ulysses, apparently with that 'British' meaning although, as ever with that particular work, rather difficult to interpret:
Skin-the-Goat, assuming he was he, evidently with an axe to grind, was airing his grievances in a forcible-feeble philippic anent the natural resources of Ireland or something of that sort...
See other phrases that were coined in the USA. | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Claire Jackson's legacy was afflicted with the positive and negative effects from the Spoils Program and the Nullification Crisis.
The spoils program, rewarded personal party staff with government jobs in order to avoid corruption, negatively affected Jackson's legacy. In spite of the ruins system was supposed to reduced corruption, this did the exact opposite. The reason for it was that Jackson offered jobs to illiterates, incompetents, and people that has no idea on how to handle it it business office, instead of supplying jobs to the people who would actually benefit for the nation. These reasons show the negativity of Jackson's musical legacy. The Nullification Crisis, made by Southern Carolina's Code of Nullification that mentioned that the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were null and void within the limitations of South Carolina had a confident effect on Jackson's legacy. It had been a positive result because it safeguarded Americans. Jackson was against Nullification as they was a ally of the Union, so he took actions against this by simply nullifying the nullification. He wasn't a male to " stare down”, he ready his armed forces to assail the " Nullies, ” the people in favour of nullification in the tariff. Finally, the endanger tariff of 1833 was approved. Jackson's influential actions for the Crisis helped identify the powers of the central govt more evidently; showing for the states that he would certainly not suffer their tyranny. Although this was an optimistic effect for Jackson's legacy, it could end up being negative effect of tyranny. On the other hand, Andrew Jackson's legacy can either always be analyzed since positive or negative impact. Some people can say that his legacy was a triumph, but on the other hand, people may also say that his legacy was a complete failing. The ruins system and the nullification problems are some examples of how his legacy is definitely acted in. | <urn:uuid:3635a9c4-1c55-48c8-b8c8-5e1a71d6db1b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prepaidelectricityhouston.com/knutson-legacy/64545-jackson-legacy-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.9836 | 385 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.05222194641828537,... | 1 | Claire Jackson's legacy was afflicted with the positive and negative effects from the Spoils Program and the Nullification Crisis.
The spoils program, rewarded personal party staff with government jobs in order to avoid corruption, negatively affected Jackson's legacy. In spite of the ruins system was supposed to reduced corruption, this did the exact opposite. The reason for it was that Jackson offered jobs to illiterates, incompetents, and people that has no idea on how to handle it it business office, instead of supplying jobs to the people who would actually benefit for the nation. These reasons show the negativity of Jackson's musical legacy. The Nullification Crisis, made by Southern Carolina's Code of Nullification that mentioned that the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were null and void within the limitations of South Carolina had a confident effect on Jackson's legacy. It had been a positive result because it safeguarded Americans. Jackson was against Nullification as they was a ally of the Union, so he took actions against this by simply nullifying the nullification. He wasn't a male to " stare down”, he ready his armed forces to assail the " Nullies, ” the people in favour of nullification in the tariff. Finally, the endanger tariff of 1833 was approved. Jackson's influential actions for the Crisis helped identify the powers of the central govt more evidently; showing for the states that he would certainly not suffer their tyranny. Although this was an optimistic effect for Jackson's legacy, it could end up being negative effect of tyranny. On the other hand, Andrew Jackson's legacy can either always be analyzed since positive or negative impact. Some people can say that his legacy was a triumph, but on the other hand, people may also say that his legacy was a complete failing. The ruins system and the nullification problems are some examples of how his legacy is definitely acted in. | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who invented homework and why?
Facts every student should know about the homework, including who, why, and when it was invented.
Homework is an essential part of our education system. It makes students creative, productive, and hard-working. Generally, all students, while doing their homework, develop a question in their mind about who invented homework and why he invented it. This question they develop because they take doing homework as a burden and an obstacle in their enjoyment after school.
And the main reason behind this is that students are not taught the importance and the reason behind this great invention as the concept of homework is very old, and no or very less information is available about it. We have tried to gather as much information as we can, which can be helpful for the students to get the answer to their question.
Inventor of Homework
You are involved in the activity of doing homework since your early years at school. The concept of “Homework” dated back to the 1st century AD and was introduced by the Roman teacher “Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus” popularly known by the name “Pliny the Younger.” He was an author, magistrate, and lawyer in Ancient Rome.
This Greek teacher was the one who has asked his students and scholars in Quintilian to get themselves involved in activities of practice at home. According to him, the method of homework was meant to develop the learning skills of a student in a surrounding which is not his school or learning area. So, finally, since then, this teaching approach was adopted by other teachers as well.
If you see the historical background of introducing homework in education, an Italian teacher, Roberto Nevilis, is thought to be the actual inventor of homework. He has introduced homework in 1905 and made it mandatory for the students. Moreover, he also proposed that the failure of doing homework will lead to punishment for students. So, since this time, the practice of doing homework is widely popular and accepted by teachers, students, parents, and educational institutions.
When was it invented?
No or very less information is available about the exact time of the invention of homework yet homework as a part of an education system can be traced back to 1st century AD as available in various sources of information. That time doing homework was not mandatory as that time getting an education was the privilege of only the resourced people and rich people were not in the habit of doing homework.
This approach of homework continued until the 20th century. It was when the mandatory clause was linked with the homework. This great work was done by an Italian teacher, “Roberto Nevilis.”
Since then, many new developments took place, and the concept of homework has also evolved with time. Now homework is very diverse and includes itself many new fields and ideas.
Why was homework invented?
After the invention of homework, all the teachers have accepted this idea, which was earlier proposed by the original inventor of homework. Moreover, doing homework was considered an essential part of training in education. It is so because without preparing and revising the earlier taught portion of the subject at home, it is impossible to explain the further part of the subject.
Homework is to be done solely by the students. It lays a great significance to detect the learning ability of the student. Moreover, it is imperative for the student to learn and study independently.
Why is homework needed?
- In school, you study a lot of subjects, but after school, some of them gained knowledge may go out of your mind. So, to keep the knowledge intact on your mind, homework is essential.
- In subjects of Science, homework is needed to understand and learn scientific concepts.
- You can be fluent and be strong in the subjects only when you learn and memorize the given class notes.
- Homework determines the all-round development of students and also develops their creativity and ability.
- Teaching is successful only when the student prepares their homework correctly.
- Introduce a sense of responsibility, independence, and strong will power.
- Mastering the learning skills taught during the teaching method.
- Creating the ability to gain more information and knowledge through various sources.
- Increasing a student’s research skills.
Different forms of homework
When the concept of homework was introduced, there were not many types of homework. But in modern times, there are various types of homework given to the students. It includes:
- Strict learning of textbook material.
- Reading and learning study materials orally.
- Writing answers and solutions to the given question.
- Creating essays, assignments, etc.
- Performing experiments.
Students must perform all the above works for their homework. If students are unable to do that, then there is no harm in taking online support from the subject experts. If you want to submit the right assignment, then you can desire their help and tell them “make my assignments.”
The task of giving homework must meet certain norms. These are:
- Homework must be reasonable.
- Given the homework task must not be in large portion nor tough.
- Homework must not be given at the start of teaching and training. Homework should be given only when the student learns to do homework on their own.
“Do you require coding homework help online, then our experts in Computer Science is there to assist you?”
Importance of having homework
Learning at home can contribute significant importance and benefits in learning subjects. Moreover, you can also get a great deal of knowledge by doing homework.
Homework is an integral part of the practice of Education. Homework makes the learning of a subject easier and successful. All students have been engaged in doing homework since their school times. But sometimes doing loads of homework can cause a problem for most of the students.
They might have less time to prepare for their homework. Moreover, sometimes doing lots of homework will make them concentrate on their studies less or have less or no time for other works.
In this case, the help of a professional homework helper can help you get your work done. Moreover, if you feel that you need some and tell them, “Do my homework!” then you can get the help of online homework helpers at StudentsAssignmentHelp.Com. The services of homework help are available at pocket-friendly prices from this exclusive website.
Though some students might feel it as a burden, homework is an integral part of the education system. Unlike the original intention behind the invention of homework, though this concept has evolved to include many new fields and ideas, yet it has developed into being a burden on the students. Now, homework no more makes the student creative or helps in the development of mind rather ends up being a burden. | <urn:uuid:1b862883-fbf1-4baf-b862-96f1b26b7c2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studentsassignmenthelp.com/blogs/who-invented-homework-and-why/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.981164 | 1,408 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.38664987683296... | 2 | Who invented homework and why?
Facts every student should know about the homework, including who, why, and when it was invented.
Homework is an essential part of our education system. It makes students creative, productive, and hard-working. Generally, all students, while doing their homework, develop a question in their mind about who invented homework and why he invented it. This question they develop because they take doing homework as a burden and an obstacle in their enjoyment after school.
And the main reason behind this is that students are not taught the importance and the reason behind this great invention as the concept of homework is very old, and no or very less information is available about it. We have tried to gather as much information as we can, which can be helpful for the students to get the answer to their question.
Inventor of Homework
You are involved in the activity of doing homework since your early years at school. The concept of “Homework” dated back to the 1st century AD and was introduced by the Roman teacher “Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus” popularly known by the name “Pliny the Younger.” He was an author, magistrate, and lawyer in Ancient Rome.
This Greek teacher was the one who has asked his students and scholars in Quintilian to get themselves involved in activities of practice at home. According to him, the method of homework was meant to develop the learning skills of a student in a surrounding which is not his school or learning area. So, finally, since then, this teaching approach was adopted by other teachers as well.
If you see the historical background of introducing homework in education, an Italian teacher, Roberto Nevilis, is thought to be the actual inventor of homework. He has introduced homework in 1905 and made it mandatory for the students. Moreover, he also proposed that the failure of doing homework will lead to punishment for students. So, since this time, the practice of doing homework is widely popular and accepted by teachers, students, parents, and educational institutions.
When was it invented?
No or very less information is available about the exact time of the invention of homework yet homework as a part of an education system can be traced back to 1st century AD as available in various sources of information. That time doing homework was not mandatory as that time getting an education was the privilege of only the resourced people and rich people were not in the habit of doing homework.
This approach of homework continued until the 20th century. It was when the mandatory clause was linked with the homework. This great work was done by an Italian teacher, “Roberto Nevilis.”
Since then, many new developments took place, and the concept of homework has also evolved with time. Now homework is very diverse and includes itself many new fields and ideas.
Why was homework invented?
After the invention of homework, all the teachers have accepted this idea, which was earlier proposed by the original inventor of homework. Moreover, doing homework was considered an essential part of training in education. It is so because without preparing and revising the earlier taught portion of the subject at home, it is impossible to explain the further part of the subject.
Homework is to be done solely by the students. It lays a great significance to detect the learning ability of the student. Moreover, it is imperative for the student to learn and study independently.
Why is homework needed?
- In school, you study a lot of subjects, but after school, some of them gained knowledge may go out of your mind. So, to keep the knowledge intact on your mind, homework is essential.
- In subjects of Science, homework is needed to understand and learn scientific concepts.
- You can be fluent and be strong in the subjects only when you learn and memorize the given class notes.
- Homework determines the all-round development of students and also develops their creativity and ability.
- Teaching is successful only when the student prepares their homework correctly.
- Introduce a sense of responsibility, independence, and strong will power.
- Mastering the learning skills taught during the teaching method.
- Creating the ability to gain more information and knowledge through various sources.
- Increasing a student’s research skills.
Different forms of homework
When the concept of homework was introduced, there were not many types of homework. But in modern times, there are various types of homework given to the students. It includes:
- Strict learning of textbook material.
- Reading and learning study materials orally.
- Writing answers and solutions to the given question.
- Creating essays, assignments, etc.
- Performing experiments.
Students must perform all the above works for their homework. If students are unable to do that, then there is no harm in taking online support from the subject experts. If you want to submit the right assignment, then you can desire their help and tell them “make my assignments.”
The task of giving homework must meet certain norms. These are:
- Homework must be reasonable.
- Given the homework task must not be in large portion nor tough.
- Homework must not be given at the start of teaching and training. Homework should be given only when the student learns to do homework on their own.
“Do you require coding homework help online, then our experts in Computer Science is there to assist you?”
Importance of having homework
Learning at home can contribute significant importance and benefits in learning subjects. Moreover, you can also get a great deal of knowledge by doing homework.
Homework is an integral part of the practice of Education. Homework makes the learning of a subject easier and successful. All students have been engaged in doing homework since their school times. But sometimes doing loads of homework can cause a problem for most of the students.
They might have less time to prepare for their homework. Moreover, sometimes doing lots of homework will make them concentrate on their studies less or have less or no time for other works.
In this case, the help of a professional homework helper can help you get your work done. Moreover, if you feel that you need some and tell them, “Do my homework!” then you can get the help of online homework helpers at StudentsAssignmentHelp.Com. The services of homework help are available at pocket-friendly prices from this exclusive website.
Though some students might feel it as a burden, homework is an integral part of the education system. Unlike the original intention behind the invention of homework, though this concept has evolved to include many new fields and ideas, yet it has developed into being a burden on the students. Now, homework no more makes the student creative or helps in the development of mind rather ends up being a burden. | 1,343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For example, the economy in the South was heavily dependent on agriculture and farming. Thus, many people worked on large plantations to grow crops.
Visit Website Did you know? As the Union and Confederate armies camped across the Rappahannock River from each other in the winter ofbands on both sides played the popular ballad "Home Sweet Home. Beforenew volunteer regiments usually included a regimental band; when the proliferation of bands became too unwieldy, many regimental bands were dismissed, but some survived, or were replaced by brigade bands to serve a larger contingent of troops.
The Role of Newspapers With the invention of the telegraph and a better mechanical printing pressthe newspaper business had begun to explode in the years leading up to the Civil War.
Bythe country could boast some 2, publications, many of them published weekly or daily. Widespread use of the telegraph meant that war-related news reached Americans across the country, in both rural and urban areas, in an extremely short time.
The Civil War would become the most well-reported conflict in history: Reporters traveling with the armies sent dispatches directly from the field, and many soldiers wrote letters for their hometown newspapers.
In addition, mass-produced newspapers were selling for just a penny, enabling them to reach a much greater audience than ever before. In addition to straight reporting, newspapers particularly pictorial ones published a wide variety of political cartoons.
By satirizing controversial leaders, celebrating victories and laying blame for defeats, the cartoons became an integral part of how many Americans processed the staggering events of the war.
Wartime Photography The Civil War was also the first major conflict in history to be extensively photographed. Like newspapers reporters, photographers went into army camps and onto the field of battle to capture images of wartime life and death.
Mathew Bradywho by had built a successful career taking daguerreotype photographs of politicians, authors, actors and other famous figures, decided to make a complete record of the war.
Hiring a staff of photographers including Alexander Gardner and Timothy H. He got behind the camera himself on only a few occasions notably at Bull Run, Antietam and Gettysburg but generally refused to give his staff individual credit for their photos. Photography in the war years was a difficult and cumbersome process.
Photographers transported their heavy equipment in wagons, and were often forced to develop the images in makeshift darkrooms inside those same wagons.
Confederate and Union Money Of all the disadvantages the Confederacy experienced during the Civil War, its lack of a sound currency was particularly damaging.
In addition, the South never developed an adequate system of taxation and was unable to produce what it needed or export the goods it did produce, due to the increasingly effective Union blockade of the Atlantic coast. By comparison, the North had relatively little trouble financing the war effort.
Congress passed the Internal Revenue Act ofwhich included the first personal income tax in American history; the new Internal Revenue Board began collecting taxes the following year.
The value of these greenbacks rose and fell throughout the war, but they did provide enough currency for circulation. The National Bank Act provided additional stability by establishing a national banking system, which gave the country a federal currency for the first time.How was life in the South before the Civil War?
You were the head of your family and were in charge of making the money. If you were a married woman, you worked around this house, not farm, and raised the children. If you were a son, you helped your father work and ran errands for him.
How did the economies of the North and South differ. Life in the South during the Civil War was even more difficult than in the North.
The Union had blockaded many of the ports of the South, causing shortages of food and other items that people needed.
Also, most of the war took place in the South. Before the war, the South’s economy had been based almost strictly on agriculture, mainly cotton, tobacco, and sugar, and all these industries suffered, especially cotton.
Southern cotton production in was half what it was in Family Life during the Civil War. Contributed by Amy Murrell Taylor. Family life in Virginia and across the South suffered devastating effects during the American Civil War (–). Few households, whether slave or free, or located in the Tidewater, Piedmont, or mountainous Southwest, could remain insulated from a war fought on their lands and in their towns.
Following the Civil War, the era of Reconstruction was a difficult time for Southerners. Their land was destroyed, their political institutions were overrun by outsiders, the economy was in.
Most of the fighting during the American Civil War took place on Southern soil.
In part, this was the result of the war strategies of both sides. To win the war, the South had only to survive. On the other hand, for the North to win, the Union had to be restored.
Thus, Union forces had to conquer. | <urn:uuid:6d6702fa-7ff3-429d-8874-cf41598d5cd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bifanin.metin2sell.com/family-life-in-the-south-before-the-civil-war-11475kl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.9815 | 1,023 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | For example, the economy in the South was heavily dependent on agriculture and farming. Thus, many people worked on large plantations to grow crops.
Visit Website Did you know? As the Union and Confederate armies camped across the Rappahannock River from each other in the winter ofbands on both sides played the popular ballad "Home Sweet Home. Beforenew volunteer regiments usually included a regimental band; when the proliferation of bands became too unwieldy, many regimental bands were dismissed, but some survived, or were replaced by brigade bands to serve a larger contingent of troops.
The Role of Newspapers With the invention of the telegraph and a better mechanical printing pressthe newspaper business had begun to explode in the years leading up to the Civil War.
Bythe country could boast some 2, publications, many of them published weekly or daily. Widespread use of the telegraph meant that war-related news reached Americans across the country, in both rural and urban areas, in an extremely short time.
The Civil War would become the most well-reported conflict in history: Reporters traveling with the armies sent dispatches directly from the field, and many soldiers wrote letters for their hometown newspapers.
In addition, mass-produced newspapers were selling for just a penny, enabling them to reach a much greater audience than ever before. In addition to straight reporting, newspapers particularly pictorial ones published a wide variety of political cartoons.
By satirizing controversial leaders, celebrating victories and laying blame for defeats, the cartoons became an integral part of how many Americans processed the staggering events of the war.
Wartime Photography The Civil War was also the first major conflict in history to be extensively photographed. Like newspapers reporters, photographers went into army camps and onto the field of battle to capture images of wartime life and death.
Mathew Bradywho by had built a successful career taking daguerreotype photographs of politicians, authors, actors and other famous figures, decided to make a complete record of the war.
Hiring a staff of photographers including Alexander Gardner and Timothy H. He got behind the camera himself on only a few occasions notably at Bull Run, Antietam and Gettysburg but generally refused to give his staff individual credit for their photos. Photography in the war years was a difficult and cumbersome process.
Photographers transported their heavy equipment in wagons, and were often forced to develop the images in makeshift darkrooms inside those same wagons.
Confederate and Union Money Of all the disadvantages the Confederacy experienced during the Civil War, its lack of a sound currency was particularly damaging.
In addition, the South never developed an adequate system of taxation and was unable to produce what it needed or export the goods it did produce, due to the increasingly effective Union blockade of the Atlantic coast. By comparison, the North had relatively little trouble financing the war effort.
Congress passed the Internal Revenue Act ofwhich included the first personal income tax in American history; the new Internal Revenue Board began collecting taxes the following year.
The value of these greenbacks rose and fell throughout the war, but they did provide enough currency for circulation. The National Bank Act provided additional stability by establishing a national banking system, which gave the country a federal currency for the first time.How was life in the South before the Civil War?
You were the head of your family and were in charge of making the money. If you were a married woman, you worked around this house, not farm, and raised the children. If you were a son, you helped your father work and ran errands for him.
How did the economies of the North and South differ. Life in the South during the Civil War was even more difficult than in the North.
The Union had blockaded many of the ports of the South, causing shortages of food and other items that people needed.
Also, most of the war took place in the South. Before the war, the South’s economy had been based almost strictly on agriculture, mainly cotton, tobacco, and sugar, and all these industries suffered, especially cotton.
Southern cotton production in was half what it was in Family Life during the Civil War. Contributed by Amy Murrell Taylor. Family life in Virginia and across the South suffered devastating effects during the American Civil War (–). Few households, whether slave or free, or located in the Tidewater, Piedmont, or mountainous Southwest, could remain insulated from a war fought on their lands and in their towns.
Following the Civil War, the era of Reconstruction was a difficult time for Southerners. Their land was destroyed, their political institutions were overrun by outsiders, the economy was in.
Most of the fighting during the American Civil War took place on Southern soil.
In part, this was the result of the war strategies of both sides. To win the war, the South had only to survive. On the other hand, for the North to win, the Union had to be restored.
Thus, Union forces had to conquer. | 1,003 | ENGLISH | 1 |
March 29, 1865 – Alfred Lawrence Pearson Medal of Honor recipient (December 28, 1838 – January 6, 1903) was a lawyer and Union Army general in the American Civil War. He was awarded the U.S. military’s highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Lewis’s Farm.
Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Pearson studied law at Meadville College and Jefferson College. He was admitted to the Allegheny County bar on January 14, 1862, but worked in the profession for only a few months before leaving to join the army.
He enlisted in the 155th Pennsylvania Infantry on April 2, 1862, and was commissioned a captain in Company A later that year, on August 23. Over the next few years he took part in all of his regiment’s operations and received a series of promotions: to major on December 31, 1862, to lieutenant colonel on July 22, 1863, and to colonel on August 31, 1863. On December 14, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln nominated Pearson for appointment to the brevet grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from September 30, 1864, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on February 14, 1865.
On March 29, 1865, in the last weeks of the war, Pearson participated in the Battle of Lewis’s Farm in Virginia. When a Union brigade was pushed back by intense Confederate fire, Pearson rallied his regiment and led an attack which successfully regained the lost ground. For these actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor.
Brigadier General Pearson’s official Medal of Honor citation
Seeing a brigade forced back by the enemy, he seized his regimental color, called on his men to follow him, and advanced upon the enemy under a severe fire. The whole brigade took up the advance, the lost ground was regained, and the enemy was repulsed. | <urn:uuid:7a9b0abe-683b-471b-83c2-a30f73b82145> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mwh52.wordpress.com/2019/03/29/march-29-1865-this-day-during-the-american-civil-war-alfred-lawrence-pearson-medal-of-honor-recipient/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.985793 | 391 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.120327115058898... | 2 | March 29, 1865 – Alfred Lawrence Pearson Medal of Honor recipient (December 28, 1838 – January 6, 1903) was a lawyer and Union Army general in the American Civil War. He was awarded the U.S. military’s highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Lewis’s Farm.
Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Pearson studied law at Meadville College and Jefferson College. He was admitted to the Allegheny County bar on January 14, 1862, but worked in the profession for only a few months before leaving to join the army.
He enlisted in the 155th Pennsylvania Infantry on April 2, 1862, and was commissioned a captain in Company A later that year, on August 23. Over the next few years he took part in all of his regiment’s operations and received a series of promotions: to major on December 31, 1862, to lieutenant colonel on July 22, 1863, and to colonel on August 31, 1863. On December 14, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln nominated Pearson for appointment to the brevet grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from September 30, 1864, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on February 14, 1865.
On March 29, 1865, in the last weeks of the war, Pearson participated in the Battle of Lewis’s Farm in Virginia. When a Union brigade was pushed back by intense Confederate fire, Pearson rallied his regiment and led an attack which successfully regained the lost ground. For these actions, he was awarded the Medal of Honor.
Brigadier General Pearson’s official Medal of Honor citation
Seeing a brigade forced back by the enemy, he seized his regimental color, called on his men to follow him, and advanced upon the enemy under a severe fire. The whole brigade took up the advance, the lost ground was regained, and the enemy was repulsed. | 451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tiny boxes of cards to display in the miniature dolls house or shop at Christmas time.
The History of Christmas Cards
The custom of sending Christmas cards was started in the UK in 1843 by Sir Henry Cole. He was a senior civil servant (Government worker) who had helped set-up the new 'Public Record Office' (now called the Post Office), where he was an Assistant Keeper, and wondered how it could be used more by ordinary people.
The First Christmas Card
"Firstchristmascard". Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons Sir Henry had the idea of Christmas Cards with his friend John Horsley, who was an artist. They designed the first card and sold them for 1 shilling each. (That is only 5p or 8 cents today(!), but in those days it was worth much much more.) The card had three panels. The outer two panels showed people caring for the poor and in the center panel was a family having a large Christmas dinner! Some people didn't like the card because it showed a child being given a glass of wine! About 1000 (or it might have been less!) were printed and sold. They are now very rare and cost thousands of Pounds or Dollars to buy now! The original cards were advertised with the slogan: "Just published, a Christmas Congratulations Card; or picture emblematical of old English festivity to perpetuate kind recollections between dear friends"!
The first postal service that ordinary people could use was started in 1840 when the first 'Penny Post' public postal deliveries began (Sir Henry Cole helped to introduce the Penny Post). Before that, only very rich people could afford to send anything in the post. The new Post Office was able to offer a Penny stamp because new railways were being built. These could carry much more post than the horse and carriage that had been used before. Also, trains could go a lot faster. Cards became even more popular in the UK when they could be posted in an unsealed envelope for one halfpenny - half the price of an ordinary letter.
As printing methods improved, Christmas cards became much more popular and were produced in large numbers from about 1860. In 1870 the cost of sending a post card, and also Christmas cards, dropped to half a penny. This meant even more people were able to send cards.
An engraved card by the artist William Egley, who illustrated some of Charles Dickens's books, is on display in the British Museum. By the early 1900s, the custom had spread over Europe and had become especially popular in Germany.
The first cards usually had pictures of the Nativity scene on them. In late Victorian times, robins (a British bird) and snow-scenes became popular. In those times the postmen were nicknamed 'Robin Postmen' because of the red uniforms they wore. Snow-scenes were popular because they reminded people of the very bad winter that happened in the UK in 1836.
Christmas Cards appeared in the United States of America in the late 1840s, but were very expensive and most people couldn't afford them. It 1875, Louis Prang, a printer who was originally from German but who had also worked on early cards in the UK, started mass producing cards so more people could afford to buy them. Mr Prang's first cards featured flowers, plants, and children. In 1915, John C. Hall and two of his brothers created Hallmark Cards, who are still one of the biggest card makers today! | <urn:uuid:3729c5df-5d15-424b-9c36-1ffae6145583> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.odinsminiatures.com/odinsminiatureshop/index.php?main_page=index&cPath=35_472 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.989108 | 708 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.226932168... | 3 | Tiny boxes of cards to display in the miniature dolls house or shop at Christmas time.
The History of Christmas Cards
The custom of sending Christmas cards was started in the UK in 1843 by Sir Henry Cole. He was a senior civil servant (Government worker) who had helped set-up the new 'Public Record Office' (now called the Post Office), where he was an Assistant Keeper, and wondered how it could be used more by ordinary people.
The First Christmas Card
"Firstchristmascard". Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons Sir Henry had the idea of Christmas Cards with his friend John Horsley, who was an artist. They designed the first card and sold them for 1 shilling each. (That is only 5p or 8 cents today(!), but in those days it was worth much much more.) The card had three panels. The outer two panels showed people caring for the poor and in the center panel was a family having a large Christmas dinner! Some people didn't like the card because it showed a child being given a glass of wine! About 1000 (or it might have been less!) were printed and sold. They are now very rare and cost thousands of Pounds or Dollars to buy now! The original cards were advertised with the slogan: "Just published, a Christmas Congratulations Card; or picture emblematical of old English festivity to perpetuate kind recollections between dear friends"!
The first postal service that ordinary people could use was started in 1840 when the first 'Penny Post' public postal deliveries began (Sir Henry Cole helped to introduce the Penny Post). Before that, only very rich people could afford to send anything in the post. The new Post Office was able to offer a Penny stamp because new railways were being built. These could carry much more post than the horse and carriage that had been used before. Also, trains could go a lot faster. Cards became even more popular in the UK when they could be posted in an unsealed envelope for one halfpenny - half the price of an ordinary letter.
As printing methods improved, Christmas cards became much more popular and were produced in large numbers from about 1860. In 1870 the cost of sending a post card, and also Christmas cards, dropped to half a penny. This meant even more people were able to send cards.
An engraved card by the artist William Egley, who illustrated some of Charles Dickens's books, is on display in the British Museum. By the early 1900s, the custom had spread over Europe and had become especially popular in Germany.
The first cards usually had pictures of the Nativity scene on them. In late Victorian times, robins (a British bird) and snow-scenes became popular. In those times the postmen were nicknamed 'Robin Postmen' because of the red uniforms they wore. Snow-scenes were popular because they reminded people of the very bad winter that happened in the UK in 1836.
Christmas Cards appeared in the United States of America in the late 1840s, but were very expensive and most people couldn't afford them. It 1875, Louis Prang, a printer who was originally from German but who had also worked on early cards in the UK, started mass producing cards so more people could afford to buy them. Mr Prang's first cards featured flowers, plants, and children. In 1915, John C. Hall and two of his brothers created Hallmark Cards, who are still one of the biggest card makers today! | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexis De Tocqueville
It wasn’t until the 19th century that people finally started to see that democracy was a good thing. Aristotle’s classification of governments defines democracy as governing by the many in the view of ones own self. The whole idea of democracy is based on the decision making process. The biggest question being who should make decisions. In order for a democracy to be able to achieve the maximum results this question must be answered. Citizens must also know what is required of them in order for the democracy to survive.
There has been many people throughout history that have stated their views of democracy, some of which were for the better others for the worse. Such people as Alexis De Tocqueville who feared democracy because of its equalities of conditions. One example being how people in the US owned their own land compared to those in Europe where they had nobles. He also saw the lack of a difference between the rich and the poor as a problem along with the idea that the majority rule. Then there were people like John Stuart Mill who believed that democracy would make a citizen better because of their involvement in the political system.
One of Tocqueville believes of democracy as stated in “Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal” is: “The people who join with their neighbors to settle common problems and disputes will learn the importance of cooperation, feel a strong attachment to their community, and develop those “habits of the heart” which lead them to identify their own welfare with the welfare of the community as a whole. ” (Ball and Dagger 36) I believe this is one of the biggest demands that democracy has on people. People must be willing to communicate with their neighbors.
If they don’t they become an outcast from society. People must hear the views of their neighbors in order to educate themselves. And as Ball and Dagger say of Tocquevilles belief, “By offering all citizens the opportunity to participate, democracy promises to cultivate a widespread and deeply rooted devotion to the common good” (36) Another very important demand on citizens is there political participation. One of the easiest and most important ways people can become politically involved is by voting. Every citizen has a chance to choose who they feel should be in office. | <urn:uuid:4e37ee8d-bc72-4beb-b083-fcb6e83e5fae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/alexis-de-tocqueville/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.984876 | 471 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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It wasn’t until the 19th century that people finally started to see that democracy was a good thing. Aristotle’s classification of governments defines democracy as governing by the many in the view of ones own self. The whole idea of democracy is based on the decision making process. The biggest question being who should make decisions. In order for a democracy to be able to achieve the maximum results this question must be answered. Citizens must also know what is required of them in order for the democracy to survive.
There has been many people throughout history that have stated their views of democracy, some of which were for the better others for the worse. Such people as Alexis De Tocqueville who feared democracy because of its equalities of conditions. One example being how people in the US owned their own land compared to those in Europe where they had nobles. He also saw the lack of a difference between the rich and the poor as a problem along with the idea that the majority rule. Then there were people like John Stuart Mill who believed that democracy would make a citizen better because of their involvement in the political system.
One of Tocqueville believes of democracy as stated in “Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal” is: “The people who join with their neighbors to settle common problems and disputes will learn the importance of cooperation, feel a strong attachment to their community, and develop those “habits of the heart” which lead them to identify their own welfare with the welfare of the community as a whole. ” (Ball and Dagger 36) I believe this is one of the biggest demands that democracy has on people. People must be willing to communicate with their neighbors.
If they don’t they become an outcast from society. People must hear the views of their neighbors in order to educate themselves. And as Ball and Dagger say of Tocquevilles belief, “By offering all citizens the opportunity to participate, democracy promises to cultivate a widespread and deeply rooted devotion to the common good” (36) Another very important demand on citizens is there political participation. One of the easiest and most important ways people can become politically involved is by voting. Every citizen has a chance to choose who they feel should be in office. | 457 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kinship refers to the link that exists among people who are related to each other either by marriage or blood. This link is important because it defines somebody’s history. Kinship is used in most communities to dictate how properties are distributed among one’s descendants. The volume of properties received is dependent on the beneficiary’s number in the family order.
Among communities that speak the same vernacular language, the language is used as the unifying factor because it is used to distinguish that community from other communities. Residing in a common geographical location was responsible for fostering strong bonds due to frequent interaction.
There are two ways through which kinship can be acquired and they include marriage and through blood. The strength of these links does not rely on their source. A link based on marriage can disintegrate after the marriage has collapsed. In contrary affiliation by blood is thought to have the strongest foundation and is said to end when death walks in.
In my typical family setup the affiliation that exists among family members is used to hold it together. For instance, if my father was to divorce my mother, my link with the two of them would remain intact unless I take sides. This is because the link between me and both of them is based on blood while theirs is based on love.
In the above mentioned scenario it is certain that links that are based on blood are stronger and cannot be compared to links based on the marriage because the partners in marriage are united by their strong feelings towards each other and when these feelings fade away the link between them is then broken.
In our culture, the first born male is accorded the same respect as his father and is responsible for the continuation of family name. Female children are not able to participate in family name continuation because traditions dictate that when a woman is married she becomes more attached to her new family.
The male first born is usually consulted before a decision is made because if the father of the family does not exist the first born male assumes his role. Mothers tend to favor the child who is more financially stable than the rest. Studies in the recent past have proved that this favor is natural among females.
In ancient days our community supported marriage strongly because they knew the family was the basic unit that determined the survival of a community. In today’s world these cultures have been eliminated by modernization. Descendants of a given family name were avoided by many because it was perceived that by marrying such people will bring bad blood into a family name.
Children who are not financially stable enjoy limited authority in decision making process in their families because they are only allowed to implement decisions that have been made by those considered to be more intelligent. Money commands power in our family regardless of whether the wealthy child is the last born in the family.
Experience cannot be bought over the counter and thus one would expect the first born of the family whether male or female to be given the first priority in giving counsel to his siblings. Favoring one child over the other fosters jealousy in the family against the child who is seen as the apple of parent’s eye.
Property inheritance should be done with evenness because all the children enjoy the same rights in their family. In most families within our community, property inheritance has led to many wrangles that are extended to their offsprings. Children who are more successful than their siblings tend to take advantage of their siblings.
Parents also are also known to dislike children who are named after the parents of their partner. This is most likely to happen if the bond between the in-laws and their brother’s wife is soar. It is worth noting that the character traits exhibited by one’s children reflect those of his/her parents. Favoritism makes those who are more preferred than others feel like they are superior to their siblings, and hence decisions in that family must safe guard their interests.
Sometimes parent ignite family wrangles by allocating more property to one child. Parents should distribute their property equally among their children unless their children recommend so. This evenness will promote unity in a family. Thus children in our society are encouraged to exercise respect to each other. | <urn:uuid:93aeac63-5d2f-4844-9e35-7d64f91b00d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/kinship/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.984608 | 843 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3173518180... | 2 | Kinship refers to the link that exists among people who are related to each other either by marriage or blood. This link is important because it defines somebody’s history. Kinship is used in most communities to dictate how properties are distributed among one’s descendants. The volume of properties received is dependent on the beneficiary’s number in the family order.
Among communities that speak the same vernacular language, the language is used as the unifying factor because it is used to distinguish that community from other communities. Residing in a common geographical location was responsible for fostering strong bonds due to frequent interaction.
There are two ways through which kinship can be acquired and they include marriage and through blood. The strength of these links does not rely on their source. A link based on marriage can disintegrate after the marriage has collapsed. In contrary affiliation by blood is thought to have the strongest foundation and is said to end when death walks in.
In my typical family setup the affiliation that exists among family members is used to hold it together. For instance, if my father was to divorce my mother, my link with the two of them would remain intact unless I take sides. This is because the link between me and both of them is based on blood while theirs is based on love.
In the above mentioned scenario it is certain that links that are based on blood are stronger and cannot be compared to links based on the marriage because the partners in marriage are united by their strong feelings towards each other and when these feelings fade away the link between them is then broken.
In our culture, the first born male is accorded the same respect as his father and is responsible for the continuation of family name. Female children are not able to participate in family name continuation because traditions dictate that when a woman is married she becomes more attached to her new family.
The male first born is usually consulted before a decision is made because if the father of the family does not exist the first born male assumes his role. Mothers tend to favor the child who is more financially stable than the rest. Studies in the recent past have proved that this favor is natural among females.
In ancient days our community supported marriage strongly because they knew the family was the basic unit that determined the survival of a community. In today’s world these cultures have been eliminated by modernization. Descendants of a given family name were avoided by many because it was perceived that by marrying such people will bring bad blood into a family name.
Children who are not financially stable enjoy limited authority in decision making process in their families because they are only allowed to implement decisions that have been made by those considered to be more intelligent. Money commands power in our family regardless of whether the wealthy child is the last born in the family.
Experience cannot be bought over the counter and thus one would expect the first born of the family whether male or female to be given the first priority in giving counsel to his siblings. Favoring one child over the other fosters jealousy in the family against the child who is seen as the apple of parent’s eye.
Property inheritance should be done with evenness because all the children enjoy the same rights in their family. In most families within our community, property inheritance has led to many wrangles that are extended to their offsprings. Children who are more successful than their siblings tend to take advantage of their siblings.
Parents also are also known to dislike children who are named after the parents of their partner. This is most likely to happen if the bond between the in-laws and their brother’s wife is soar. It is worth noting that the character traits exhibited by one’s children reflect those of his/her parents. Favoritism makes those who are more preferred than others feel like they are superior to their siblings, and hence decisions in that family must safe guard their interests.
Sometimes parent ignite family wrangles by allocating more property to one child. Parents should distribute their property equally among their children unless their children recommend so. This evenness will promote unity in a family. Thus children in our society are encouraged to exercise respect to each other. | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Village of Minto, was incorporated as a village in 1962. The Village was named for the eighth Governor General of Canada, the Earl of Minto, in 1904 when the construction of the railway opened the area. It is located 56 km north of Fredericton in the Minto coalfields.
The first coal mines in Canada operated here, with coal being shipped to Boston in 1639, soon after the occupation of Acadie by the French. This export trade in coal was the first to be developed on the entire eastern coast of North America. It was not until 1825 that coal was mined on an ongoing basis.
The need of transporting coal brought the railway to Minto, and was to make the area “the most prosperous place in Canada.” The New Brunswick Central Railway ended at Chipman and in 1901 the railway was planned to be completed by constructing through the village to Fredericton, and connect with the Canadian Pacific railway.
By 1904 the railway was completed as far as Minto, merging with the existing Central, however by 1905 completion to Fredericton was abandoned and the remaining railway was not built until 1913.
Although the railway lines through Minto have since been completely removed, the railway station continues on as a local museum. By the end of 2010, coal mining in Minto ended when the last coal mining company, NB Coal, closed.
Because the seams of coals are near the surface, mechanical mining was not introduced until 1905. Underground mining was carried out from 1930 to 1971, but with most of the coal about 8 m below the surface, strip mining is more economical and is the only method employed today. Labour problems and a strike in 1937 were resolved the following year by new provincial legislation.
During the early years of the Great Depression, the New Brunswick Power Corporation built the province’s first thermal generating station south of the village on the shores of Grand Lake. Opened in 1931, the Grand Lake Generating Station accessed coal from nearby deposits. An NB Power subsidiary, NB Coal, was the only mining company left in the Minto area and performed strip mining.
NB Power closed the Grand Lake Station when its operating license expired in June 2010. As the Station has been NB Coal’s only customer since 2000, NB Coal closed in December 2009. On April 19, 2012 the Grand Lake Generating Station was demolished, and by this time all coal mining in Minto had ended.
For New Brunswick, the village has unusually cosmopolitan ethnic origins. In 1916, one mining company with 200 employees reported that only 40 were native English speakers; the remainder were European immigrants. Many of the descendants of these miners remain in the community today.
During World War II an Internment camp was operated southwest of Minto. It first housed Jewish refugees (1940-41) and then German and Italian prisoners of war (1941-45). The New Brunswick Internment Museum in Minto displays artifacts from the camp.
Click on a thumbnail to see more photos of Minto
This post has already been read 1857 times!Follow Us on Social Media | <urn:uuid:b1fbe064-34b3-4c8f-86c4-1a4b2c01af93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mynewbrunswick.ca/village-of-minto/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.982122 | 634 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.076886326... | 1 | The Village of Minto, was incorporated as a village in 1962. The Village was named for the eighth Governor General of Canada, the Earl of Minto, in 1904 when the construction of the railway opened the area. It is located 56 km north of Fredericton in the Minto coalfields.
The first coal mines in Canada operated here, with coal being shipped to Boston in 1639, soon after the occupation of Acadie by the French. This export trade in coal was the first to be developed on the entire eastern coast of North America. It was not until 1825 that coal was mined on an ongoing basis.
The need of transporting coal brought the railway to Minto, and was to make the area “the most prosperous place in Canada.” The New Brunswick Central Railway ended at Chipman and in 1901 the railway was planned to be completed by constructing through the village to Fredericton, and connect with the Canadian Pacific railway.
By 1904 the railway was completed as far as Minto, merging with the existing Central, however by 1905 completion to Fredericton was abandoned and the remaining railway was not built until 1913.
Although the railway lines through Minto have since been completely removed, the railway station continues on as a local museum. By the end of 2010, coal mining in Minto ended when the last coal mining company, NB Coal, closed.
Because the seams of coals are near the surface, mechanical mining was not introduced until 1905. Underground mining was carried out from 1930 to 1971, but with most of the coal about 8 m below the surface, strip mining is more economical and is the only method employed today. Labour problems and a strike in 1937 were resolved the following year by new provincial legislation.
During the early years of the Great Depression, the New Brunswick Power Corporation built the province’s first thermal generating station south of the village on the shores of Grand Lake. Opened in 1931, the Grand Lake Generating Station accessed coal from nearby deposits. An NB Power subsidiary, NB Coal, was the only mining company left in the Minto area and performed strip mining.
NB Power closed the Grand Lake Station when its operating license expired in June 2010. As the Station has been NB Coal’s only customer since 2000, NB Coal closed in December 2009. On April 19, 2012 the Grand Lake Generating Station was demolished, and by this time all coal mining in Minto had ended.
For New Brunswick, the village has unusually cosmopolitan ethnic origins. In 1916, one mining company with 200 employees reported that only 40 were native English speakers; the remainder were European immigrants. Many of the descendants of these miners remain in the community today.
During World War II an Internment camp was operated southwest of Minto. It first housed Jewish refugees (1940-41) and then German and Italian prisoners of war (1941-45). The New Brunswick Internment Museum in Minto displays artifacts from the camp.
Click on a thumbnail to see more photos of Minto
This post has already been read 1857 times!Follow Us on Social Media | 706 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery became a practice of people mainly of color being purchased,sold and forced to work. During the early 1600’s ,slaves were purchased for many different reasons but purchasing them to pick cotton was at an all time high. Over time the widespread of cotton grew rapidly , along with slavery. There were all different types of slaves that worked on these plantations, field workers, house slaves , butlers, maids, painters,and carpenters. Most of them mainly worked in the fields on the cotton plantations. Men, women and children beared back-breaking work from sunup to sundown in the cotton fields,along with clearing land, planting seeds for crops, feeding animals, preparing dinner, tending to other chores, and harvesting the cotton. Cotton and slavery moved hand in hand . Slavery was the new way of life especially with farmers expanding their landing , planting their crops, and with slavery being the reliance of the Southerns economy, plantation owners were in almost desperate needs to gather double the slaves they already had to make them wealthy than ever before. The revolution of cotton was a time of panic, stress, and competition. A lot of time and effort went into the productions of cotton , the expansion of lands ,maintenance of enslaved workforces, and credit. Maintenance played a huge role in the production of cotton,if lands didn’t produce viable crops within a year , or endured lack of nutrients ,the owner would lose everything. His land and his slaves, and would suffer a huge debt. With all this transitioning, slaves still went through traumatizing times. Life of a slave was tragic, horrible memories of what they have experienced , and what was to come haunted them. Slaves pictured their inhumanity in full , undergoing twenty hour work days, the burning hot sun, heartbreak of being split from their families, being sold, reminiscing on the pain from lashes.Women being raped, physically, mentally ,and emotionally abused. Slave owners didn’t show any type of sympathy. As long as a days work was completed, that’s all that mainly mattered. Stealing slaves also became a huge business as well as extremely profitable, involving networks in the North where African Americans were kidnapped and sold down South to work on plantations.Former slave Solomon Northrup who was kidnapped March 1841 in Washington D.C and taken to New Orleans where he was sold to a slave owner. He was granted his freedom after twelve years of being a slave. Slave napping was happening to thousands of free African Americans, while no one cared enough to fight for these people nor their freedom. They had to deal with the cards that were unfortunately dealt to them. Slavery had shaped the culture and society of the South, which rested on a racial ideology of white supremacy. The Souths high society whites believed that slavery itself sustained a newly prosperous wealth and way of life for the Southern economy. Overtime cotton picking became a labor-intensive crop, which caused many plantation owners to reduce the number of slaves they had due to high costs and low output. Eli Whitney revolutionized the cotton production when his invention of the cotton gin came about , which many of slaves grew fear of. The cotton gin was a device that separated the seeds from raw cotton. All of a sudden, a process that was extraordinarily labor-intensive would be able to be complete quickly and easily. During the early 1800s, cotton grew as the South’s major cash crop. Cotton become a good product for commercial values, instead of for use by the owner. Cotton had quickly surpassed tobacco, rice, and sugar in economic importance. Overtime the slave trade became a very profitable business between the 1820s and the 1860s.Slave trade was mostly sustained by the natural growth of the slave population. Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and the District of Columbia were the slave exporting areas. Of all these states, Virginia was the biggest supplier. With Mississippi becoming the wealthiest cotton state.Mississippi, became the nation’s largest state to produce cotton. Mississippi, was economically and politically dependent on cotton, as was the entire South. Cotton, was the South’s economic ”backbone”. Once the southern states decided to split from the United States to form what we know now as the Confederate States of America. In 1861, they used cotton to finance its government, arms for its military, along with having economic power for a diplomatic strategy for the underdeveloped Confederate nation. After President Abraham was elected things slowly started to shift. Lincoln demanded a blockade be put on the Confederacy. This blockade was to prevent massive productions of cotton to be shipped over to the European powers. The South would soon be deprived of cotton and slaves.The South’s economy, was still shaky throughout the Civil War, it grew worse in its later years. The Emancipation Proclamation, angered the South with the promise of freedom for their slaves, it also threatened the very existence of its primary labor source. Unfortunately,the economy continued to suffer, slaves were still being captured. “Without slavery there would be no Cotton Kingdom”, (Yawp17). | <urn:uuid:43a62545-dba5-4028-b259-5bddcc2d5665> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://finnolux.com/slavery-to-pick-cotton-was-at-an-all/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.982554 | 1,051 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.2039518952369... | 1 | Slavery became a practice of people mainly of color being purchased,sold and forced to work. During the early 1600’s ,slaves were purchased for many different reasons but purchasing them to pick cotton was at an all time high. Over time the widespread of cotton grew rapidly , along with slavery. There were all different types of slaves that worked on these plantations, field workers, house slaves , butlers, maids, painters,and carpenters. Most of them mainly worked in the fields on the cotton plantations. Men, women and children beared back-breaking work from sunup to sundown in the cotton fields,along with clearing land, planting seeds for crops, feeding animals, preparing dinner, tending to other chores, and harvesting the cotton. Cotton and slavery moved hand in hand . Slavery was the new way of life especially with farmers expanding their landing , planting their crops, and with slavery being the reliance of the Southerns economy, plantation owners were in almost desperate needs to gather double the slaves they already had to make them wealthy than ever before. The revolution of cotton was a time of panic, stress, and competition. A lot of time and effort went into the productions of cotton , the expansion of lands ,maintenance of enslaved workforces, and credit. Maintenance played a huge role in the production of cotton,if lands didn’t produce viable crops within a year , or endured lack of nutrients ,the owner would lose everything. His land and his slaves, and would suffer a huge debt. With all this transitioning, slaves still went through traumatizing times. Life of a slave was tragic, horrible memories of what they have experienced , and what was to come haunted them. Slaves pictured their inhumanity in full , undergoing twenty hour work days, the burning hot sun, heartbreak of being split from their families, being sold, reminiscing on the pain from lashes.Women being raped, physically, mentally ,and emotionally abused. Slave owners didn’t show any type of sympathy. As long as a days work was completed, that’s all that mainly mattered. Stealing slaves also became a huge business as well as extremely profitable, involving networks in the North where African Americans were kidnapped and sold down South to work on plantations.Former slave Solomon Northrup who was kidnapped March 1841 in Washington D.C and taken to New Orleans where he was sold to a slave owner. He was granted his freedom after twelve years of being a slave. Slave napping was happening to thousands of free African Americans, while no one cared enough to fight for these people nor their freedom. They had to deal with the cards that were unfortunately dealt to them. Slavery had shaped the culture and society of the South, which rested on a racial ideology of white supremacy. The Souths high society whites believed that slavery itself sustained a newly prosperous wealth and way of life for the Southern economy. Overtime cotton picking became a labor-intensive crop, which caused many plantation owners to reduce the number of slaves they had due to high costs and low output. Eli Whitney revolutionized the cotton production when his invention of the cotton gin came about , which many of slaves grew fear of. The cotton gin was a device that separated the seeds from raw cotton. All of a sudden, a process that was extraordinarily labor-intensive would be able to be complete quickly and easily. During the early 1800s, cotton grew as the South’s major cash crop. Cotton become a good product for commercial values, instead of for use by the owner. Cotton had quickly surpassed tobacco, rice, and sugar in economic importance. Overtime the slave trade became a very profitable business between the 1820s and the 1860s.Slave trade was mostly sustained by the natural growth of the slave population. Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and the District of Columbia were the slave exporting areas. Of all these states, Virginia was the biggest supplier. With Mississippi becoming the wealthiest cotton state.Mississippi, became the nation’s largest state to produce cotton. Mississippi, was economically and politically dependent on cotton, as was the entire South. Cotton, was the South’s economic ”backbone”. Once the southern states decided to split from the United States to form what we know now as the Confederate States of America. In 1861, they used cotton to finance its government, arms for its military, along with having economic power for a diplomatic strategy for the underdeveloped Confederate nation. After President Abraham was elected things slowly started to shift. Lincoln demanded a blockade be put on the Confederacy. This blockade was to prevent massive productions of cotton to be shipped over to the European powers. The South would soon be deprived of cotton and slaves.The South’s economy, was still shaky throughout the Civil War, it grew worse in its later years. The Emancipation Proclamation, angered the South with the promise of freedom for their slaves, it also threatened the very existence of its primary labor source. Unfortunately,the economy continued to suffer, slaves were still being captured. “Without slavery there would be no Cotton Kingdom”, (Yawp17). | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If we were to make a survey most people could hardly say precisely when King Koloman reigned. However "the Learned" adhered to his name would surely come to their mind. This by-name tells a lot about its bearer in the medieval society, first of all that he was more educated than the standard. Reading and writing - and the knowledge of Latin which necessarily came together with them - were requirements with which those choosing clerical career had to comply. Concerning Koloman, the contradiction is well-marked: if he was to become a clerical person while being a child why and how did he become a king? About his reign, the Hungarian chronicle tradition depicts a less than positive picture: "...the king (Ladislas I) predicted about Koloman that he would shed blood..." "...in his time a lot of malfeasances were done..." "Cunning and quick to learn, he was yet a man of insignificant appearance: dishevelled, hairy, one-eyed, hunchbacked, cripple and stammering." In spite of this, Rogerius, who lived in the time of the Mongol invasion, rated him among the saint kings of the Hungarians. How can it be? What was this king like in fact? | <urn:uuid:4290843e-5ae2-4adc-bf75-b46f4e4c23b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookline.hu/product/home.action?_v=Font_Marta_Koloman_the_Learned_King_of&id=108800&type=22 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.991779 | 258 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.3740601241... | 1 | If we were to make a survey most people could hardly say precisely when King Koloman reigned. However "the Learned" adhered to his name would surely come to their mind. This by-name tells a lot about its bearer in the medieval society, first of all that he was more educated than the standard. Reading and writing - and the knowledge of Latin which necessarily came together with them - were requirements with which those choosing clerical career had to comply. Concerning Koloman, the contradiction is well-marked: if he was to become a clerical person while being a child why and how did he become a king? About his reign, the Hungarian chronicle tradition depicts a less than positive picture: "...the king (Ladislas I) predicted about Koloman that he would shed blood..." "...in his time a lot of malfeasances were done..." "Cunning and quick to learn, he was yet a man of insignificant appearance: dishevelled, hairy, one-eyed, hunchbacked, cripple and stammering." In spite of this, Rogerius, who lived in the time of the Mongol invasion, rated him among the saint kings of the Hungarians. How can it be? What was this king like in fact? | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Cowper (/ˈkuːpər/ KOO-pər; 26 November 1731 – 25 April 1800) was an English poet and hymnodist. One of the most popular poets of his time, Cowper changed the direction of 18th century nature poetry by writing of everyday life and scenes of the English countryside. In many ways, he was one of the forerunners of Romantic poetry. Samuel Taylor Coleridge called him "the best modern poet", whilst William Wordsworth particularly admired his poem Yardley-Oak. He was a nephew of the poet Judith Madan.
After being institutionalised for insanity in the period 1763–65, Cowper found refuge in a fervent evangelical Christianity, the inspiration behind his much-loved hymns. He continued to suffer doubt and, after a dream in 1773, believed that he was doomed to eternal damnation. He recovered and wrote more religious hymns.
His religious sentiment and association with John Newton (who wrote the hymn "Amazing Grace") led to much of the poetry for which he is best remembered, and to the series of Olney Hymns. His poem "Light Shining out of Darkness" gave English the phrase: "God moves in a mysterious way/His wonders to perform."
He also wrote a number of anti-slavery poems and his friendship with Newton, who was an avid anti-slavery campaigner, resulted in Cowper being asked to write in support of the Abolitionist campaign. Cowper wrote a poem called 'The Negro's Complaint' (1788) which rapidly became very famous, and was often quoted by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. during the 20th century civil rights movement. He also wrote several other less well known poems on slavery in the 1780s, many of which attacked the idea that slavery was economically viable.
William Cowper was born in Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire, England where his father John Cowper was rector of the Church of St Peter. His mother was Ann Cowper. He and his brother John were the only two of seven children to live past infancy. Ann died giving birth to John on 7 November 1737. His mother’s death at such an early age troubled William deeply and was the subject of his poem, “On the Receipt of My Mother's Picture,” written more than fifty years later. He grew close to her family in his early years. He was particularly close with her brother Robert and his wife Harriot. They instilled in young William a love of reading and gave him some of his first books – John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress and John Gay’s Fables.
Cowper was first enrolled in Westminster School in April of 1742 after moving from school to school for a number of years. He had begun to study Latin from a young age, and was an eager scholar of Latin for the rest of his life. Older children bullied Cowper through many of his younger years. At Westminster School he studied under the headmaster John Nicoll. At the time Westminster School was popular amongst families belonging to England’s Whig political party. Many intelligent boys from families of a lower social status also attended, however. Cowper made lifelong friends from Westminster. He read through the Iliad and the Odyssey, which ignited his lifelong scholarship and love for Homer’s epics. He grew skilled at the interpretation and translation of Latin, which he put to use for the rest of his life. He was skilled in the composition of Latin as well and wrote many verses of his own.
After education at Westminster School, Cowper was articled to Mr Chapman, solicitor, of Ely Place, Holborn, to be trained for a career in law. During this time, he spent his leisure at the home of his uncle Bob Cowper, where he fell in love with his cousin Theodora, whom he wished to marry. But as James Croft, who in 1825 first published the poems Cowper addressed to Theodora, wrote, "her father, from an idea that the union of persons so nearly related was improper, refused to accede to the wishes of his daughter and nephew." This refusal left Cowper distraught.
In 1763 he was offered a Clerkship of Journals in the House of Lords, but broke under the strain of the approaching examination; he experienced a period of depression and insanity. At this time he tried three times to commit suicide and was sent to Nathaniel Cotton's asylum at St. Albans for recovery. His poem beginning "Hatred and vengeance, my eternal portions" (sometimes referred to as "Sapphics") was written in the aftermath of his suicide attempt.
After recovering, he settled at Huntingdon with a retired clergyman named Morley Unwin and his wife Mary. Cowper grew to be on such good terms with the Unwin family that he went to live in their house, and moved with them to Olney. There he met curate John Newton, a former captain of slave ships who had devoted his life to the gospel. Not long afterwards, Morley Unwin was killed in a fall from his horse; Cowper continued to live in the Unwin home and became greatly attached to the widow Mary Unwin.
At Olney, Newton invited Cowper to contribute to a hymnbook that he was compiling. The resulting volume, known as Olney Hymns, was not published until 1779 but includes hymns such as "Praise for the Fountain Opened" (beginning "There is a fountain fill'd with blood") and "Light Shining out of Darkness" (beginning "God Moves in a Mysterious Way") which remain some of Cowper's most familiar verses. Several of Cowper's hymns, as well as others originally published in the Olney Hymns, are today preserved in the Sacred Harp, which also collects shape note songs.
In 1773, Cowper experienced an attack of insanity, imagining not only that he was eternally condemned to hell, but that God was commanding him to make a sacrifice of his own life. Mary Unwin took care of him with great devotion, and after a year he began to recover. In 1779, after Newton had moved from Olney to London, Cowper started to write poetry again. Mary Unwin, wanting to keep Cowper's mind occupied, suggested that he write on the subject of The Progress of Error. After writing a satire of this name, he wrote seven others. These poems were collected and published in 1782 under the title Poems by William Cowper, of the Inner Temple, Esq.
In 1781 Cowper met a sophisticated and charming widow named Lady Austen who inspired new poetry. Cowper himself tells of the genesis of what some have considered his most substantial work, The Task, in his "Advertisement" to the original edition of 1785:
…a lady, fond of blank verse, demanded a poem of that kind from the author, and gave him the SOFA for a subject. He obeyed; and, having much leisure, connected another subject with it; and, pursuing the train of thought to which his situation and turn of mind led him, brought forth at length, instead of the trifle which he at first intended, a serious affair—a Volume!
In the same volume Cowper also printed "The Diverting History of John Gilpin", a notable piece of comic verse. John Gilpin was later credited with saving Cowper from becoming completely insane.
Cowper and Mary Unwin moved to Weston Underwood, Buckinghamshire in 1786, having become close with his cousin Lady Harriett Hesketh (Theodora's sister). During this period he started his translations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey into blank verse. His versions (published in 1791) were the most significant English renderings of these epic poems since those of Alexander Pope earlier in the century. Later critics have faulted Cowper's Homer for being too much in the mould of John Milton.
In 1795 Cowper moved with Mary to Norfolk. They originally stayed at North Tuddenham, then at Dunham Lodge near Swaffham and then Mundesley before finally settling in East Dereham.
Mary Unwin died in 1796, plunging Cowper into a gloom from which he never fully recovered. He did continue to revise his Homer for a second edition of his translation. Aside from writing the powerful and bleak poem, "The Castaway", he penned some English translations of Greek verse and translated some of the Fables of John Gay into Latin.
Cowper was seized with dropsy in the spring of 1800 and died. He is buried in the chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, St Nicholas's Church, East Dereham. A window in Westminster Abbey honours him.
In 1823, Cowper's correspondence was published from the original letters in the possession of his kinsman John Johnson.
- Olney Hymns, 1779, in collaboration with John Newton
- John Gilpin, 1782
- The Task, 1785
- Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, 1791 (translations from the Greek).
Cowper is represented with fifteen hymns in The Church Hymn book 1872:
- 127 Jesus! where'er thy people meet
- 357 The Spirit breathes upon the word
- 450 There is a fountain, filled with blood
- 790 Hark! my soul! it is the Lord
- 856 To Jesus, the Crown of my hope
- 871 Far from the world, O Lord! I flee
- 885 My Lord! how full of sweet content (1782 translation)
- 932 What various hindrances we meet
- 945 Oh! for a closer walk with God
- 965 When darkness long has veiled my mind
- 1002 'Tis my happiness below
- 1009 O Lord! in sorrow I resign (1782 translation)
- 1029 O Lord! my best desire fulfill
- 1043 There is a safe and secret place
- 1060 God of my life! to thee I call
- William Cowper at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
- Works by William Cowper at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML)
- Works by or about William Cowper at Internet Archive
- Essays by William Cowper at Quotidiana.org
- Complete Poetical Works of William Cowper at CCEL
- Hymns by William Cowper
- The Task, and Other Poems at Project Gutenberg
- Selected Poems at The Poet's Corner
- Selected Poetry of Cowper at the University of Toronto
- Electronic text of Cowper's "Odyssey" translation at bibliomania.com
- Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "Epitaph On A Hare" by William Cowper (via poemsoutloud.net) | <urn:uuid:e2db65f8-95b7-4da5-a34c-fe9befb70c34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peoplepill.com/people/william-cowper-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.9823 | 2,282 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.14588... | 1 | William Cowper (/ˈkuːpər/ KOO-pər; 26 November 1731 – 25 April 1800) was an English poet and hymnodist. One of the most popular poets of his time, Cowper changed the direction of 18th century nature poetry by writing of everyday life and scenes of the English countryside. In many ways, he was one of the forerunners of Romantic poetry. Samuel Taylor Coleridge called him "the best modern poet", whilst William Wordsworth particularly admired his poem Yardley-Oak. He was a nephew of the poet Judith Madan.
After being institutionalised for insanity in the period 1763–65, Cowper found refuge in a fervent evangelical Christianity, the inspiration behind his much-loved hymns. He continued to suffer doubt and, after a dream in 1773, believed that he was doomed to eternal damnation. He recovered and wrote more religious hymns.
His religious sentiment and association with John Newton (who wrote the hymn "Amazing Grace") led to much of the poetry for which he is best remembered, and to the series of Olney Hymns. His poem "Light Shining out of Darkness" gave English the phrase: "God moves in a mysterious way/His wonders to perform."
He also wrote a number of anti-slavery poems and his friendship with Newton, who was an avid anti-slavery campaigner, resulted in Cowper being asked to write in support of the Abolitionist campaign. Cowper wrote a poem called 'The Negro's Complaint' (1788) which rapidly became very famous, and was often quoted by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. during the 20th century civil rights movement. He also wrote several other less well known poems on slavery in the 1780s, many of which attacked the idea that slavery was economically viable.
William Cowper was born in Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire, England where his father John Cowper was rector of the Church of St Peter. His mother was Ann Cowper. He and his brother John were the only two of seven children to live past infancy. Ann died giving birth to John on 7 November 1737. His mother’s death at such an early age troubled William deeply and was the subject of his poem, “On the Receipt of My Mother's Picture,” written more than fifty years later. He grew close to her family in his early years. He was particularly close with her brother Robert and his wife Harriot. They instilled in young William a love of reading and gave him some of his first books – John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress and John Gay’s Fables.
Cowper was first enrolled in Westminster School in April of 1742 after moving from school to school for a number of years. He had begun to study Latin from a young age, and was an eager scholar of Latin for the rest of his life. Older children bullied Cowper through many of his younger years. At Westminster School he studied under the headmaster John Nicoll. At the time Westminster School was popular amongst families belonging to England’s Whig political party. Many intelligent boys from families of a lower social status also attended, however. Cowper made lifelong friends from Westminster. He read through the Iliad and the Odyssey, which ignited his lifelong scholarship and love for Homer’s epics. He grew skilled at the interpretation and translation of Latin, which he put to use for the rest of his life. He was skilled in the composition of Latin as well and wrote many verses of his own.
After education at Westminster School, Cowper was articled to Mr Chapman, solicitor, of Ely Place, Holborn, to be trained for a career in law. During this time, he spent his leisure at the home of his uncle Bob Cowper, where he fell in love with his cousin Theodora, whom he wished to marry. But as James Croft, who in 1825 first published the poems Cowper addressed to Theodora, wrote, "her father, from an idea that the union of persons so nearly related was improper, refused to accede to the wishes of his daughter and nephew." This refusal left Cowper distraught.
In 1763 he was offered a Clerkship of Journals in the House of Lords, but broke under the strain of the approaching examination; he experienced a period of depression and insanity. At this time he tried three times to commit suicide and was sent to Nathaniel Cotton's asylum at St. Albans for recovery. His poem beginning "Hatred and vengeance, my eternal portions" (sometimes referred to as "Sapphics") was written in the aftermath of his suicide attempt.
After recovering, he settled at Huntingdon with a retired clergyman named Morley Unwin and his wife Mary. Cowper grew to be on such good terms with the Unwin family that he went to live in their house, and moved with them to Olney. There he met curate John Newton, a former captain of slave ships who had devoted his life to the gospel. Not long afterwards, Morley Unwin was killed in a fall from his horse; Cowper continued to live in the Unwin home and became greatly attached to the widow Mary Unwin.
At Olney, Newton invited Cowper to contribute to a hymnbook that he was compiling. The resulting volume, known as Olney Hymns, was not published until 1779 but includes hymns such as "Praise for the Fountain Opened" (beginning "There is a fountain fill'd with blood") and "Light Shining out of Darkness" (beginning "God Moves in a Mysterious Way") which remain some of Cowper's most familiar verses. Several of Cowper's hymns, as well as others originally published in the Olney Hymns, are today preserved in the Sacred Harp, which also collects shape note songs.
In 1773, Cowper experienced an attack of insanity, imagining not only that he was eternally condemned to hell, but that God was commanding him to make a sacrifice of his own life. Mary Unwin took care of him with great devotion, and after a year he began to recover. In 1779, after Newton had moved from Olney to London, Cowper started to write poetry again. Mary Unwin, wanting to keep Cowper's mind occupied, suggested that he write on the subject of The Progress of Error. After writing a satire of this name, he wrote seven others. These poems were collected and published in 1782 under the title Poems by William Cowper, of the Inner Temple, Esq.
In 1781 Cowper met a sophisticated and charming widow named Lady Austen who inspired new poetry. Cowper himself tells of the genesis of what some have considered his most substantial work, The Task, in his "Advertisement" to the original edition of 1785:
…a lady, fond of blank verse, demanded a poem of that kind from the author, and gave him the SOFA for a subject. He obeyed; and, having much leisure, connected another subject with it; and, pursuing the train of thought to which his situation and turn of mind led him, brought forth at length, instead of the trifle which he at first intended, a serious affair—a Volume!
In the same volume Cowper also printed "The Diverting History of John Gilpin", a notable piece of comic verse. John Gilpin was later credited with saving Cowper from becoming completely insane.
Cowper and Mary Unwin moved to Weston Underwood, Buckinghamshire in 1786, having become close with his cousin Lady Harriett Hesketh (Theodora's sister). During this period he started his translations of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey into blank verse. His versions (published in 1791) were the most significant English renderings of these epic poems since those of Alexander Pope earlier in the century. Later critics have faulted Cowper's Homer for being too much in the mould of John Milton.
In 1795 Cowper moved with Mary to Norfolk. They originally stayed at North Tuddenham, then at Dunham Lodge near Swaffham and then Mundesley before finally settling in East Dereham.
Mary Unwin died in 1796, plunging Cowper into a gloom from which he never fully recovered. He did continue to revise his Homer for a second edition of his translation. Aside from writing the powerful and bleak poem, "The Castaway", he penned some English translations of Greek verse and translated some of the Fables of John Gay into Latin.
Cowper was seized with dropsy in the spring of 1800 and died. He is buried in the chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, St Nicholas's Church, East Dereham. A window in Westminster Abbey honours him.
In 1823, Cowper's correspondence was published from the original letters in the possession of his kinsman John Johnson.
- Olney Hymns, 1779, in collaboration with John Newton
- John Gilpin, 1782
- The Task, 1785
- Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, 1791 (translations from the Greek).
Cowper is represented with fifteen hymns in The Church Hymn book 1872:
- 127 Jesus! where'er thy people meet
- 357 The Spirit breathes upon the word
- 450 There is a fountain, filled with blood
- 790 Hark! my soul! it is the Lord
- 856 To Jesus, the Crown of my hope
- 871 Far from the world, O Lord! I flee
- 885 My Lord! how full of sweet content (1782 translation)
- 932 What various hindrances we meet
- 945 Oh! for a closer walk with God
- 965 When darkness long has veiled my mind
- 1002 'Tis my happiness below
- 1009 O Lord! in sorrow I resign (1782 translation)
- 1029 O Lord! my best desire fulfill
- 1043 There is a safe and secret place
- 1060 God of my life! to thee I call
- William Cowper at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
- Works by William Cowper at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML)
- Works by or about William Cowper at Internet Archive
- Essays by William Cowper at Quotidiana.org
- Complete Poetical Works of William Cowper at CCEL
- Hymns by William Cowper
- The Task, and Other Poems at Project Gutenberg
- Selected Poems at The Poet's Corner
- Selected Poetry of Cowper at the University of Toronto
- Electronic text of Cowper's "Odyssey" translation at bibliomania.com
- Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "Epitaph On A Hare" by William Cowper (via poemsoutloud.net) | 2,364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1811 Louisiana Slave Revolt
One estimate is that there were 250 slave rebellions in America before abolition in 1865; one of the biggest took place in Louisiana in 1811. About 150 slaves (some sources say the number was as high as 500) joined a march on New Orleans as they chanted “Freedom or Death;” a battle cry that had deep resonance among people who had been stripped of their dignity and value as human beings.
The German Coast Rebellion
An area on the east bank of the Mississippi River to the north of New Orleans was known as the German Coast. It was a place of sugar cane plantations worked, of course, by black slaves.
One plantation was owned by Colonel Manuel Andry, and he had more than 80 slaves. In the evening, January 8, 1811, while a fierce wind was blowing and heavy rain was falling the uprising began (it was indeed a dark and stormy night).
Under the leadership of Charles Deslondes, many of Andry’s slaves broke into his mansion. The slaves assaulted Andry, killed his son Gilbert, and looted the house of guns.
In his 2012 book, The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt, historian Daniel Rasmussen says Deslondes and several other slaves had been planning their rebellion for many years.
After the attack on the Andry plantation, they began their march on New Orleans, about 30 miles away.
As they passed other plantations more slaves, already alerted to the revolt, joined their ranks. Apart from a few firearms stolen from Andry’s house they were mostly equipped with cane knives and cudgels. On their way, they killed another slave owner.
Charles Deslondes was born in Haiti and he saw that nation’s revolution as a model for American slaves.
Under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture, the enslaved Haitians rose up against their French colonial masters in 1791. The revolution lasted 13 years at the cost of about 300,000 lives. By 1804, black ex-slaves emerged as the leaders of what had been called Saint Dominigue and is now called Haiti.
The Haitian rebellion had itself been inspired by the French Revolution of 1789, and some of the Louisiana rebels were found to have copies of The Rights of Man hidden in their quarters.
Deslondes had ambitious plans to seize New Orleans and set up a revolutionary government and an independent black state. Terrified white settlers fled to the city for protection or hid in the backwoods and swamps while the slaves burned crops and looted houses.
The White Response
Rutgers University Professor Wendell Hassan Marsh has researched the uprising and says the German Coast Revolt had a real chance of success. Its leaders had military experience from civil wars in Africa and the revolution in Saint Dominigue.
However, the plantation owners had a well-armed militia, joined quickly by federal troops, while the slaves had hoes, clubs, and a tiny number of firearms. It took the militia a couple of days to quell the insurrection.
Gwendolyn Midlo Hall is a Michigan State University historian and author. She says the revolt “was really brutally put down. It was incredibly bloodthirsty in the way the elite put it down, cutting people into little pieces, displaying body parts.”
By January 10, the fighting was over; at least 60 slaves were dead and the rest escaped into swamps. Tracker dogs found about 16 rebels; the rest remained hidden in the marshes and formed colonies.
One of the most pernicious allegations made against the African-American people was that our slave ancestors were either exceptionally ‘docile’ or ‘content and loyal,’ thus explaining their purported failure to rebel extensively.”
Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
Punishment of Slave Rebels
Among the slaves that survived the fighting, retribution was swift and ugly. Charles Deslondes was caught after about two days on the run and was made to suffer the most of those who joined the uprising.
He was horribly tortured so that his cries of pain would be heard by other slaves and act as a deterrent to any further insurrections. Planters believed other examples needed to be made to discourage any other slaves from entertaining ideas of freedom.
Within two days, a tribunal went through the motions of a trial for 16 captured rebels. It took a couple of days for the death sentences to be delivered and carried out by firing squad. There were “trials” in New Orleans with 11 more slaves executed summarily. One 13-year-old boy was spared the death penalty, but was forced to watch a fellow slave die, followed by a whipping.
About 100 people were either shot or hanged. Then, they were decapitated and their heads displayed on poles along the river over a distance of 60 miles. More than 50 slaves were sent back to their plantations, their owners recognizing they were more valuable alive than dead.
Louisiana Governor William C. C. Claiborne seems to have wanted clemency shown to those who had taken part in the rebellion and told parish courts that he would look favourably on recommendations for mercy. The parish courts ignored the governor, who was able to pardon only two slaves.
Suppression of the Story
The vicious treatment of those involved in the revolt may have pricked the consciences of the white community because efforts were made to keep the events quiet. It was sufficient to frighten the blacks into passivity; no need to let anybody else know how cruel and inhumane they were.
Historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall is quoted by The New Orleans Times Picayune as saying “There’s been a historical amnesia about anything that showed a really bitter exploitation and violence directed on the slave and former slave population. A lot of historians didn’t want to talk about it and a lot of the public didn’t want to hear about it. But that’s evidently changing and I’m glad I lived long enough to see it.”
- Fifty-six men signed the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 in which the following assertion was made: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” Forty-one of the signatories owned slaves.
- The best estimate is that 12.5 million Africans were captured and transported to the New World between 1525 and 1866. Of these, about 1.8 million died on the dreadful passage across the Atlantic Ocean. Only about 388,000 were shipped directly to North America, the vast majority were enslaved in the Caribbean and South America.
- According to the anti-slavery group Free the Slaves, “Researchers estimate that 40 million are enslaved worldwide, generating $150 billion each year in illicit profits for traffickers.”
- “Slave Rebellions.” History.com, August 21, 2018.
- “Slave Insurrection of 1811.” Robert L. Paquette, 64 Parishes, undated.
- “How a Nearly Successful Slave Revolt Was Intentionally Lost to History.” Marissa Fessenden, Smithsonian.com, January 8, 2016.
- “America’s Largest Slave Revolt.” Rhae Lynn Barnes, U.S. History Scene, undated.
- “The Largest Slave Revolt in U.S. History Is Commemorated.” Littice Bacon-Blood, New Orleans Times Picayune, January 4, 2011.
- “How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.?” Henry Louis Gates, Jr., PBS, undated.
© 2019 Rupert Taylor | <urn:uuid:7c1c3d2d-8f5f-4223-9e76-1e2be5510416> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/1811-Louisiana-Slave-Revolt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.98069 | 1,654 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.18910057842... | 3 | 1811 Louisiana Slave Revolt
One estimate is that there were 250 slave rebellions in America before abolition in 1865; one of the biggest took place in Louisiana in 1811. About 150 slaves (some sources say the number was as high as 500) joined a march on New Orleans as they chanted “Freedom or Death;” a battle cry that had deep resonance among people who had been stripped of their dignity and value as human beings.
The German Coast Rebellion
An area on the east bank of the Mississippi River to the north of New Orleans was known as the German Coast. It was a place of sugar cane plantations worked, of course, by black slaves.
One plantation was owned by Colonel Manuel Andry, and he had more than 80 slaves. In the evening, January 8, 1811, while a fierce wind was blowing and heavy rain was falling the uprising began (it was indeed a dark and stormy night).
Under the leadership of Charles Deslondes, many of Andry’s slaves broke into his mansion. The slaves assaulted Andry, killed his son Gilbert, and looted the house of guns.
In his 2012 book, The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt, historian Daniel Rasmussen says Deslondes and several other slaves had been planning their rebellion for many years.
After the attack on the Andry plantation, they began their march on New Orleans, about 30 miles away.
As they passed other plantations more slaves, already alerted to the revolt, joined their ranks. Apart from a few firearms stolen from Andry’s house they were mostly equipped with cane knives and cudgels. On their way, they killed another slave owner.
Charles Deslondes was born in Haiti and he saw that nation’s revolution as a model for American slaves.
Under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture, the enslaved Haitians rose up against their French colonial masters in 1791. The revolution lasted 13 years at the cost of about 300,000 lives. By 1804, black ex-slaves emerged as the leaders of what had been called Saint Dominigue and is now called Haiti.
The Haitian rebellion had itself been inspired by the French Revolution of 1789, and some of the Louisiana rebels were found to have copies of The Rights of Man hidden in their quarters.
Deslondes had ambitious plans to seize New Orleans and set up a revolutionary government and an independent black state. Terrified white settlers fled to the city for protection or hid in the backwoods and swamps while the slaves burned crops and looted houses.
The White Response
Rutgers University Professor Wendell Hassan Marsh has researched the uprising and says the German Coast Revolt had a real chance of success. Its leaders had military experience from civil wars in Africa and the revolution in Saint Dominigue.
However, the plantation owners had a well-armed militia, joined quickly by federal troops, while the slaves had hoes, clubs, and a tiny number of firearms. It took the militia a couple of days to quell the insurrection.
Gwendolyn Midlo Hall is a Michigan State University historian and author. She says the revolt “was really brutally put down. It was incredibly bloodthirsty in the way the elite put it down, cutting people into little pieces, displaying body parts.”
By January 10, the fighting was over; at least 60 slaves were dead and the rest escaped into swamps. Tracker dogs found about 16 rebels; the rest remained hidden in the marshes and formed colonies.
One of the most pernicious allegations made against the African-American people was that our slave ancestors were either exceptionally ‘docile’ or ‘content and loyal,’ thus explaining their purported failure to rebel extensively.”
Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
Punishment of Slave Rebels
Among the slaves that survived the fighting, retribution was swift and ugly. Charles Deslondes was caught after about two days on the run and was made to suffer the most of those who joined the uprising.
He was horribly tortured so that his cries of pain would be heard by other slaves and act as a deterrent to any further insurrections. Planters believed other examples needed to be made to discourage any other slaves from entertaining ideas of freedom.
Within two days, a tribunal went through the motions of a trial for 16 captured rebels. It took a couple of days for the death sentences to be delivered and carried out by firing squad. There were “trials” in New Orleans with 11 more slaves executed summarily. One 13-year-old boy was spared the death penalty, but was forced to watch a fellow slave die, followed by a whipping.
About 100 people were either shot or hanged. Then, they were decapitated and their heads displayed on poles along the river over a distance of 60 miles. More than 50 slaves were sent back to their plantations, their owners recognizing they were more valuable alive than dead.
Louisiana Governor William C. C. Claiborne seems to have wanted clemency shown to those who had taken part in the rebellion and told parish courts that he would look favourably on recommendations for mercy. The parish courts ignored the governor, who was able to pardon only two slaves.
Suppression of the Story
The vicious treatment of those involved in the revolt may have pricked the consciences of the white community because efforts were made to keep the events quiet. It was sufficient to frighten the blacks into passivity; no need to let anybody else know how cruel and inhumane they were.
Historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall is quoted by The New Orleans Times Picayune as saying “There’s been a historical amnesia about anything that showed a really bitter exploitation and violence directed on the slave and former slave population. A lot of historians didn’t want to talk about it and a lot of the public didn’t want to hear about it. But that’s evidently changing and I’m glad I lived long enough to see it.”
- Fifty-six men signed the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 in which the following assertion was made: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” Forty-one of the signatories owned slaves.
- The best estimate is that 12.5 million Africans were captured and transported to the New World between 1525 and 1866. Of these, about 1.8 million died on the dreadful passage across the Atlantic Ocean. Only about 388,000 were shipped directly to North America, the vast majority were enslaved in the Caribbean and South America.
- According to the anti-slavery group Free the Slaves, “Researchers estimate that 40 million are enslaved worldwide, generating $150 billion each year in illicit profits for traffickers.”
- “Slave Rebellions.” History.com, August 21, 2018.
- “Slave Insurrection of 1811.” Robert L. Paquette, 64 Parishes, undated.
- “How a Nearly Successful Slave Revolt Was Intentionally Lost to History.” Marissa Fessenden, Smithsonian.com, January 8, 2016.
- “America’s Largest Slave Revolt.” Rhae Lynn Barnes, U.S. History Scene, undated.
- “The Largest Slave Revolt in U.S. History Is Commemorated.” Littice Bacon-Blood, New Orleans Times Picayune, January 4, 2011.
- “How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.?” Henry Louis Gates, Jr., PBS, undated.
© 2019 Rupert Taylor | 1,662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of December 6th: St. Nicholas Day
A Kindly Saint
December 6th is St. Nicholas Day, the day designated by the Catholic Church in its Calendar of Saints to honor the man named Nicholas who was Bishop of Myra, which is now a part of Turkey, and noted for his saintly life.
His birthdate is unknown, but December 6th is the generally agreed upon date of his death, and it is this date that is celebrated in the Catholic and Orthodox churches and is a secular holiday in many countries.
Nicholas lived in the fourth century and died in 342 A.D. He was the son of a wealthy family, became a monk in his teens, and later a priest and bishop. Following the death of his parents, he used his inheritance to help those in need. His acts of kindness and mercy were legendary, and he became known throughout Christendom as a saintly man.
A Popular Feast Day in the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, the harsh dreariness of everyday life was mitigated somewhat by the festivities that surrounded the feast days of popular, well-known saints. Our word holiday is derived from holy day—the days set aside by the Church to honor and remember various saints on their feast days.
These holy day celebrations were a combination of both religious and secular elements which included a Mass in honor of the saint whose feast was being celebrated as well secular activities like having the day off from work, serving of special foods, singing, dancing, etc. Nicholas, as patron saint of children, became very popular and his feast day was and is still widely celebrated.
St. Nicholas Day Survived Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation in the fifteenth century attempted to do away with the honoring of saints but ran into difficulty with Nicholas because his feast day had become a popular secular holiday as well as a Catholic holy day.
In many European countries, the gift-giving aspect of St. Nicholas day was merged into the gift-giving of Christmas and attempts were made to replace St. Nicholas with fictional secular characters such as Père Noel in France, Father Christmas in England, Father Frost in Russia, Kris Kringle in Germany, etc.
All of these fictional secular characters shared the same saintly characteristics of Nicholas—love and care for children, giving secretly at night without expectation of receiving anything in return, etc.
As has been the case with other religious and secular zealots, the attempts to eradicate St. Nicholas and the celebrations and festivities associated with him failed in the long run.
In many places, including the United States, the feast of St. Nicholas simply merged with Christmas while in other places, like Holland, it remained a separate holiday but part of the larger Christmas season.
Dutch Brought St. Nicholas Day to the United States During Colonial Times
It was the Dutch who brought St. Nicholas to their colony of New Amsterdam (now New York) in America. However, after the British took over New Amsterdam and English became the language of New York, St. Nicholas' name evolved from the Dutch “Sinterklaas" into the "Santa Claus" that we know today.
As in parts of Europe, St. Nicholas/Santa Claus merged into Christmas and, following the publication of Clement Moore's famous poem, The Night Before Christmas, his fame began to grow in the U.S.
St. Nicholas Day Today
Today the Feast of St. Nicholas continues to be celebrated in various parts of the world and, upon waking up on December 6th, children in many parts of the world find candy and other little treats or gifts left in their shoes or stockings by the good saint as he made his rounds during the night.
In many other parts of the world, he has been transformed into a U.S. style Santa Claus and will not make his way around the world leaving gifts for children until Christmas Eve.
Regardless of when or how St. Nicholas makes his annual gift-giving trip, his visit will be eagerly anticipated by children and the gifts he brings will add to the festivities of the season.
Saint Nicholas and the Commercialization of Christmas
There are those who complain about the "commercialization" of the Christmas season and the commercialism can detract from the holiday's religious roots. However, we must remember that Christmas has always been more than just a religious holiday. Today it is more secular than in the past, but it has always been celebrated with gifts and other festivities. And, it should be remembered that the message of peace, brotherhood, and goodwill which is central to the Christmas season is a message everyone can appreciate.
As to commercialization, we must also remember that St. Nicholas came from a wealthy family and did not hesitate to use his wealth to purchase the things he gave to those in distress. For the past seventeen centuries, parents have honored him by buying gifts on his feast or on Christmas and secretly giving them to their children as gifts from St. Nicholas.
So the season has always had its commercial aspects. After all, St. Nicholas is the patron saint of both the children who are the focus of much of the gift-giving as well as the merchants who sell the gifts.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
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0.257549881935119... | 1 | The History of December 6th: St. Nicholas Day
A Kindly Saint
December 6th is St. Nicholas Day, the day designated by the Catholic Church in its Calendar of Saints to honor the man named Nicholas who was Bishop of Myra, which is now a part of Turkey, and noted for his saintly life.
His birthdate is unknown, but December 6th is the generally agreed upon date of his death, and it is this date that is celebrated in the Catholic and Orthodox churches and is a secular holiday in many countries.
Nicholas lived in the fourth century and died in 342 A.D. He was the son of a wealthy family, became a monk in his teens, and later a priest and bishop. Following the death of his parents, he used his inheritance to help those in need. His acts of kindness and mercy were legendary, and he became known throughout Christendom as a saintly man.
A Popular Feast Day in the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, the harsh dreariness of everyday life was mitigated somewhat by the festivities that surrounded the feast days of popular, well-known saints. Our word holiday is derived from holy day—the days set aside by the Church to honor and remember various saints on their feast days.
These holy day celebrations were a combination of both religious and secular elements which included a Mass in honor of the saint whose feast was being celebrated as well secular activities like having the day off from work, serving of special foods, singing, dancing, etc. Nicholas, as patron saint of children, became very popular and his feast day was and is still widely celebrated.
St. Nicholas Day Survived Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation in the fifteenth century attempted to do away with the honoring of saints but ran into difficulty with Nicholas because his feast day had become a popular secular holiday as well as a Catholic holy day.
In many European countries, the gift-giving aspect of St. Nicholas day was merged into the gift-giving of Christmas and attempts were made to replace St. Nicholas with fictional secular characters such as Père Noel in France, Father Christmas in England, Father Frost in Russia, Kris Kringle in Germany, etc.
All of these fictional secular characters shared the same saintly characteristics of Nicholas—love and care for children, giving secretly at night without expectation of receiving anything in return, etc.
As has been the case with other religious and secular zealots, the attempts to eradicate St. Nicholas and the celebrations and festivities associated with him failed in the long run.
In many places, including the United States, the feast of St. Nicholas simply merged with Christmas while in other places, like Holland, it remained a separate holiday but part of the larger Christmas season.
Dutch Brought St. Nicholas Day to the United States During Colonial Times
It was the Dutch who brought St. Nicholas to their colony of New Amsterdam (now New York) in America. However, after the British took over New Amsterdam and English became the language of New York, St. Nicholas' name evolved from the Dutch “Sinterklaas" into the "Santa Claus" that we know today.
As in parts of Europe, St. Nicholas/Santa Claus merged into Christmas and, following the publication of Clement Moore's famous poem, The Night Before Christmas, his fame began to grow in the U.S.
St. Nicholas Day Today
Today the Feast of St. Nicholas continues to be celebrated in various parts of the world and, upon waking up on December 6th, children in many parts of the world find candy and other little treats or gifts left in their shoes or stockings by the good saint as he made his rounds during the night.
In many other parts of the world, he has been transformed into a U.S. style Santa Claus and will not make his way around the world leaving gifts for children until Christmas Eve.
Regardless of when or how St. Nicholas makes his annual gift-giving trip, his visit will be eagerly anticipated by children and the gifts he brings will add to the festivities of the season.
Saint Nicholas and the Commercialization of Christmas
There are those who complain about the "commercialization" of the Christmas season and the commercialism can detract from the holiday's religious roots. However, we must remember that Christmas has always been more than just a religious holiday. Today it is more secular than in the past, but it has always been celebrated with gifts and other festivities. And, it should be remembered that the message of peace, brotherhood, and goodwill which is central to the Christmas season is a message everyone can appreciate.
As to commercialization, we must also remember that St. Nicholas came from a wealthy family and did not hesitate to use his wealth to purchase the things he gave to those in distress. For the past seventeen centuries, parents have honored him by buying gifts on his feast or on Christmas and secretly giving them to their children as gifts from St. Nicholas.
So the season has always had its commercial aspects. After all, St. Nicholas is the patron saint of both the children who are the focus of much of the gift-giving as well as the merchants who sell the gifts.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
© 2006 Chuck Nugent | 1,092 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alfred the Great – Legendary King who Saved England from Total Viking Rule
Sixty-six kings and queens have ruled the island nation and empire in the long history of the English monarchy. Beginning with the fall of the Roman Empire and the dissolution of Roman rule in Britain, the appellation “the Great” was given to only one of those monarchs. This was Alfred, King of the West Saxons and eventually King of much of England.
When people think of kings, especially ancient ones, the first image that appears in their minds is usually one of a robust, ultra-masculine figure ready to draw his sword at a notice or slight moment.
For sure, England has seen its share of those kings – three examples come readily to mind: William of Normandy, dubbed, “the Conqueror”, Richard I, called “Lionheart”, and Henry VIII, whose very name stood for his womanizing, jousting and harsh yet in many ways enlightened rule.
All of these men cut a big, bold figure, but none of them is known to history as “The Great” – that belongs to Alfred.
Though one could argue that Cnut I of Scandinavia, who ruled a unified English, Danish and Norwegian kingdom from 1017-1035 had also been called “the Great”, Alfred was the only native-born English king given the name.
He was born at a time when Englishmen were divided, not only among themselves but by the fierce Viking warrior bands that came from Scandinavia to raid and conquer. At the time of Alfred’s birth in 849, England was far from a united kingdom.
Alfred’s father Æthelwulf sat on the throne of Wessex in the south, Beorhtwulf sat on the throne of Mercia in the northwest, and a series of three kings sat on the throne of East Anglia during Alfred’s early years, until taken by the Vikings.
Recently, a variety of TV dramas have given us a somewhat flawed vision of Alfred’s rise to power. The fact of the matter is much more straight-forward than the political maneuvering seen on TV. Reality also dismisses the idea that Alfred was the child of anyone but his acknowledged father, Æthelwulf, son of Ecbert, also depicted on TV.
When Æthelwulf died, the two eldest of his five sons became kings: Æthelstan became king of Kent, and Æthelbald, the king of Wessex. Upon the death Æthelbald, his crown fell to another brother, Æthelberht. When this brother in turn died shortly thereafter, the next youngest, Æthelred became king.
It was then the young Alfred, who at the time was only sixteen, was named “Secundus” by the most powerful bishop of England. This was to designate Alfred, the last of the line, as king upon Æthelred’s death, despite Æthelred having sons. In 871, die he did, and Alfred, age 22, became “King of the West Saxons”.Other than the fact of his royal birth, nothing about Alfred said “king”.
He was sickly, afflicted with a gastrointestinal disorder that forced him to limit his diet to milk, water, vegetables, and porridge.
Today, many medical historians believe that Alfred was a victim of Crohn’s Disease. By all accounts, Alfred would from time to time rebel against this diet, eat meat and ale – then suffer crushing abdominal pain for days.
Despite this, however, he continued in his duties, and most of his contemporaries knew they were witnessing something special – Alfred was a man of iron will.
Alfred was also exceedingly smart and learned. While his four older brothers were burdened with ruling, Alfred was able to study. As a child, he and one of his older brothers had been sent to the court of Pope Leo IV and exposed to the world, and to Latin. Upon his return to England, Alfred learned to speak other languages and read widely of science, religion and the Classics.
During his reign, Alfred was a tireless advocate of expanding education in his kingdom, sometimes irritating the Church with his demands that education is conducted in the national language rather than Latin.
Though Alfred was an advocate for education and other changes to both the English government and society during his life, his reign (especially his early reign) was focused on one problem – the Vikings.
The Viking raids had begun with the sacking of Lindisfarne in 793, seventy-eight years prior, but for many years they were few and far between and while extremely bothersome and costly, did not present a deadly threat to the kingdoms of England.
During Æthelwulf’s time, the raids had become larger and more permanent, and though the English did inflict serious defeats on the Vikings from time to time, by the time of Alfred’s reign, the Norsemen were well established in the north and east of the country, and were the most important issue facing the young king.
Shortly after taking the throne, Alfred went to battle with the foreign invaders. The first two battles fought during Alfred’s reign were defeats: one while he was attending his brother’s funeral, and another in his presence.
He was forced to bribe the Vikings with a sizable payoff, and though a relative peace existed for the next few years, everybody knew that it was only a matter of time before the war would begin again, for this payoff did not mean that the Vikings left England, just that they would not attack Alfred.
In 876, a new Viking chieftain, Guthrum, attacked Alfred’s kingdom. After a couple of inconclusive battles, the Vikings took payment and swore to not attack again – an oath which they broke. This period is marked both by victory and defeat for Alfred.
On the one hand, he defeated the Viking fleet when they attacked Devon, but was surprised by the Vikings at Chippenham, a royal seat, and was forced to flee into the local marshes to avoid capture.
It is in these marshes that Alfred’s legend really begins. A famous tale (perhaps true, perhaps not) tells of Alfred sitting by the fire in a peasant woman’s hut, tasked with making sure the bread on the fire didn’t burn.
Thinking too much of his problems, the cakes burnt and Alfred was roundly chastised by the woman whose house he was forced to shelter in. This tale was told to show not only how far Alfred had fallen, but also his humility.
While in the marshes, Alfred and his men conducted raids against local Viking forces and kept the idea of a Saxon kingdom alive – the other Saxon kingdoms of Northumberland and East Anglia was now in pagan hands.
However, while the Vikings were looking for him and while they were busy plundering and ruling the other parts of England, Alfred was both solidifying his rule (such as it was) and raising an army.
According to contemporary sources, Alfred’s personality and willpower were so strong that he commanded a fierce loyalty, and while he was hiding in the marshes, he sent his nobles into the land to raise an army, both in the areas under nominal Viking control and those still ostensibly Saxon.
At the battle of Edington (or “Ethandun” in Old English) in 878, Alfred inflicted a serious defeat on Guthrum and his Vikings. As a result, Guthrum and many of his leading men agreed to convert to Christianity, and rule in East Anglia in Alfred’s name.
Though the Vikings in East Anglia would from time to time break their oath and raid nearby communities in Wessex, it appears that this was done without the permission of Guthrum, who seems to have been at least mostly loyal to his oath until his death in about 890.
The treaty between Alfred and Guthrum also included the stipulation that Mercia (formerly one of the most powerful English kingdoms) be divided between Alfred and the Vikings. In this, Alfred was the winner – the Vikings had controlled all of Mercia before the treaty.
Despite these achievements, Alfred still had the Vikings of northern England (and their Scandinavian reinforcements) to deal with. To help contend with these forces, Alfred began to fortify the lands under his control. He constructed strong-points known as “burhs” – these strong-points were sometimes already cities or small settlements and grew under Alfred’s protection.
Fortunately for Alfred, England was one of the most blessed of kingdom’s in terms of resources and trade, and this enabled him to build burhs and a network of roads connecting them throughout his kingdom. Think of it as a kind of “pony express” for defense and communication – and Alfred’s system of defense stymied further Viking inroads into his lands. This defense system also improved trade and paid for itself many times over.
Many historians credit Alfred with being the “Father of the English Navy”. This is misleading. His grandfather had constructed a small fleet of warships and had used them at times, but Alfred built ships based on the Roman and Greek models, which were actually larger than most Viking ships.
Though he did construct about sixty of these ships over the course of his reign, they were unfortunately too big for the river systems of England, where the Vikings long-ships were dominant. However, they did allow Alfred to move troops from one part of the country to the other more rapidly than before.
While dealing with all of these problems and issues, Alfred also decided that the Anglo-Saxon law system needed reform. For the most part, this meant the codification, or writing down, of the laws that existed in the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Alfred also included laws based on the Ten Commandments and the New Testament as part of the official law of the land.
By the time of his death in the fall of 899, Alfred was the recognized ruler of all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms not under the control of the Vikings (this meant Northumberland surrounding York). He is venerated in the Catholic Church as a “Defender of the Faith”, and is universally recognized as the man who prevented England from being conquered by the Vikings.
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0.198709398508... | 9 | Alfred the Great – Legendary King who Saved England from Total Viking Rule
Sixty-six kings and queens have ruled the island nation and empire in the long history of the English monarchy. Beginning with the fall of the Roman Empire and the dissolution of Roman rule in Britain, the appellation “the Great” was given to only one of those monarchs. This was Alfred, King of the West Saxons and eventually King of much of England.
When people think of kings, especially ancient ones, the first image that appears in their minds is usually one of a robust, ultra-masculine figure ready to draw his sword at a notice or slight moment.
For sure, England has seen its share of those kings – three examples come readily to mind: William of Normandy, dubbed, “the Conqueror”, Richard I, called “Lionheart”, and Henry VIII, whose very name stood for his womanizing, jousting and harsh yet in many ways enlightened rule.
All of these men cut a big, bold figure, but none of them is known to history as “The Great” – that belongs to Alfred.
Though one could argue that Cnut I of Scandinavia, who ruled a unified English, Danish and Norwegian kingdom from 1017-1035 had also been called “the Great”, Alfred was the only native-born English king given the name.
He was born at a time when Englishmen were divided, not only among themselves but by the fierce Viking warrior bands that came from Scandinavia to raid and conquer. At the time of Alfred’s birth in 849, England was far from a united kingdom.
Alfred’s father Æthelwulf sat on the throne of Wessex in the south, Beorhtwulf sat on the throne of Mercia in the northwest, and a series of three kings sat on the throne of East Anglia during Alfred’s early years, until taken by the Vikings.
Recently, a variety of TV dramas have given us a somewhat flawed vision of Alfred’s rise to power. The fact of the matter is much more straight-forward than the political maneuvering seen on TV. Reality also dismisses the idea that Alfred was the child of anyone but his acknowledged father, Æthelwulf, son of Ecbert, also depicted on TV.
When Æthelwulf died, the two eldest of his five sons became kings: Æthelstan became king of Kent, and Æthelbald, the king of Wessex. Upon the death Æthelbald, his crown fell to another brother, Æthelberht. When this brother in turn died shortly thereafter, the next youngest, Æthelred became king.
It was then the young Alfred, who at the time was only sixteen, was named “Secundus” by the most powerful bishop of England. This was to designate Alfred, the last of the line, as king upon Æthelred’s death, despite Æthelred having sons. In 871, die he did, and Alfred, age 22, became “King of the West Saxons”.Other than the fact of his royal birth, nothing about Alfred said “king”.
He was sickly, afflicted with a gastrointestinal disorder that forced him to limit his diet to milk, water, vegetables, and porridge.
Today, many medical historians believe that Alfred was a victim of Crohn’s Disease. By all accounts, Alfred would from time to time rebel against this diet, eat meat and ale – then suffer crushing abdominal pain for days.
Despite this, however, he continued in his duties, and most of his contemporaries knew they were witnessing something special – Alfred was a man of iron will.
Alfred was also exceedingly smart and learned. While his four older brothers were burdened with ruling, Alfred was able to study. As a child, he and one of his older brothers had been sent to the court of Pope Leo IV and exposed to the world, and to Latin. Upon his return to England, Alfred learned to speak other languages and read widely of science, religion and the Classics.
During his reign, Alfred was a tireless advocate of expanding education in his kingdom, sometimes irritating the Church with his demands that education is conducted in the national language rather than Latin.
Though Alfred was an advocate for education and other changes to both the English government and society during his life, his reign (especially his early reign) was focused on one problem – the Vikings.
The Viking raids had begun with the sacking of Lindisfarne in 793, seventy-eight years prior, but for many years they were few and far between and while extremely bothersome and costly, did not present a deadly threat to the kingdoms of England.
During Æthelwulf’s time, the raids had become larger and more permanent, and though the English did inflict serious defeats on the Vikings from time to time, by the time of Alfred’s reign, the Norsemen were well established in the north and east of the country, and were the most important issue facing the young king.
Shortly after taking the throne, Alfred went to battle with the foreign invaders. The first two battles fought during Alfred’s reign were defeats: one while he was attending his brother’s funeral, and another in his presence.
He was forced to bribe the Vikings with a sizable payoff, and though a relative peace existed for the next few years, everybody knew that it was only a matter of time before the war would begin again, for this payoff did not mean that the Vikings left England, just that they would not attack Alfred.
In 876, a new Viking chieftain, Guthrum, attacked Alfred’s kingdom. After a couple of inconclusive battles, the Vikings took payment and swore to not attack again – an oath which they broke. This period is marked both by victory and defeat for Alfred.
On the one hand, he defeated the Viking fleet when they attacked Devon, but was surprised by the Vikings at Chippenham, a royal seat, and was forced to flee into the local marshes to avoid capture.
It is in these marshes that Alfred’s legend really begins. A famous tale (perhaps true, perhaps not) tells of Alfred sitting by the fire in a peasant woman’s hut, tasked with making sure the bread on the fire didn’t burn.
Thinking too much of his problems, the cakes burnt and Alfred was roundly chastised by the woman whose house he was forced to shelter in. This tale was told to show not only how far Alfred had fallen, but also his humility.
While in the marshes, Alfred and his men conducted raids against local Viking forces and kept the idea of a Saxon kingdom alive – the other Saxon kingdoms of Northumberland and East Anglia was now in pagan hands.
However, while the Vikings were looking for him and while they were busy plundering and ruling the other parts of England, Alfred was both solidifying his rule (such as it was) and raising an army.
According to contemporary sources, Alfred’s personality and willpower were so strong that he commanded a fierce loyalty, and while he was hiding in the marshes, he sent his nobles into the land to raise an army, both in the areas under nominal Viking control and those still ostensibly Saxon.
At the battle of Edington (or “Ethandun” in Old English) in 878, Alfred inflicted a serious defeat on Guthrum and his Vikings. As a result, Guthrum and many of his leading men agreed to convert to Christianity, and rule in East Anglia in Alfred’s name.
Though the Vikings in East Anglia would from time to time break their oath and raid nearby communities in Wessex, it appears that this was done without the permission of Guthrum, who seems to have been at least mostly loyal to his oath until his death in about 890.
The treaty between Alfred and Guthrum also included the stipulation that Mercia (formerly one of the most powerful English kingdoms) be divided between Alfred and the Vikings. In this, Alfred was the winner – the Vikings had controlled all of Mercia before the treaty.
Despite these achievements, Alfred still had the Vikings of northern England (and their Scandinavian reinforcements) to deal with. To help contend with these forces, Alfred began to fortify the lands under his control. He constructed strong-points known as “burhs” – these strong-points were sometimes already cities or small settlements and grew under Alfred’s protection.
Fortunately for Alfred, England was one of the most blessed of kingdom’s in terms of resources and trade, and this enabled him to build burhs and a network of roads connecting them throughout his kingdom. Think of it as a kind of “pony express” for defense and communication – and Alfred’s system of defense stymied further Viking inroads into his lands. This defense system also improved trade and paid for itself many times over.
Many historians credit Alfred with being the “Father of the English Navy”. This is misleading. His grandfather had constructed a small fleet of warships and had used them at times, but Alfred built ships based on the Roman and Greek models, which were actually larger than most Viking ships.
Though he did construct about sixty of these ships over the course of his reign, they were unfortunately too big for the river systems of England, where the Vikings long-ships were dominant. However, they did allow Alfred to move troops from one part of the country to the other more rapidly than before.
While dealing with all of these problems and issues, Alfred also decided that the Anglo-Saxon law system needed reform. For the most part, this meant the codification, or writing down, of the laws that existed in the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Alfred also included laws based on the Ten Commandments and the New Testament as part of the official law of the land.
By the time of his death in the fall of 899, Alfred was the recognized ruler of all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms not under the control of the Vikings (this meant Northumberland surrounding York). He is venerated in the Catholic Church as a “Defender of the Faith”, and is universally recognized as the man who prevented England from being conquered by the Vikings.
His son Edward the Elder took the throne after a brief family struggle and ruled until 924. | 2,123 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (825 words)
Freedom brings happiness. This is a major message shown in the story Rip Van Winkle. Rip Van Winkle is about a man who slept through the American Revolution for twenty years. During those twenty years he slept, his village and the whole country underwent a major change that affected the future of America. Written during the early 1800s when American literature was heavily influenced by the Europeans, Washington Irving portrays America’s search for an identity through one of the first true American literature, Rip Van Winkle, using elements and characteristics of the literary era of American Romanticism.
Washington Irving was born on April 3, 1783 to wealthy parents as the youngest of eleven. His older brothers influenced Irving’s taste in literature. One brother that indirectly led Washington Irving to success was named Peter. In 1815, Peter sent Irving to Liverpool to try to save their family business there which was on the verge of bankruptcy. He failed to save it, and the business became bankrupt in 1818.
Irving chose to remain in Europe after this incident and decided to make a living as an author. As he traveled Irving recorded his thoughts, observations, and thoughts in a tiny journal. He later turned these entries into short stories and compiled them into a collection in which he called The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon.
This collection contained short stories based off of European folk tales but in American settings, as well as essays. Included in the collection is Rip Van Winkle, which was based off of the German folktale, Peter Klaus. The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon became a success and was well-received by Europe, in which during the collection’s publication, 1819, did not respect American literature and even thought there was no such thing. The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon became an important milestone in American literature history, and proved that American literature could be independent of European literature.
Rip Van Winkle is considered one of the models of American Romanticism and it demonstrates many characteristics of this literary era. Usually, the main character or hero of some literatures are already well-known and are of high status. One of the characteristics of American Romanticism is the common man as the main character or hero. The common man is an everyday person; he’s not special or someone well-known. This characteristic is demonstrated in Rip Van Winkle. “I have observed that he was a simple good-natured; he was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and an obedient henpecked husband.” Rip Van Winkle is just a common village man. He does not come from a reputable family, nor does he have a high position such as governed. He is simply a kind man who obeys his wife and enjoys helping his neighbors. Another prevalent characteristic of American Romanticism is the main character’s tendency to seek refuge in nature.
They turn to nature when they are facing problems or feeling inferior. “Poor Rip was at last reduced almost to despair; and his only alternative, to escape from the labor of the farm and clamor of his wife, was to take gun in hand and stroll away into the woods.” Here poor Rip Van Winkle is in distress from being constantly nagged by his wife, Dame Van Winkle. The only place he can get away from her and have peace is in the woods of the Kaatskill mountains. Nonconformity is another trait that American Romantic works tend to possess.
“Rip, in fact, was no politician; the changes of states and empires made but little impression on him; but there was one species of despotism under which he had long groaned, and that was- petticoat government.” In twenty years, Rip Van Winkle’s village and the whole went through a drastic change. Before the American Revolution, the the villagers, usually the men, would sit in an inn gossiping about village events. After the American Revolution, instead of gossiping about village events, they gossip about politics and politicians. America’s ruler changed from a king to a president. These critical changes did not interest him. Although he did accept the fact that the people he was familiar with are gone, he chose to not conform to this “new” country.
Washington Irving uses symbolism in Rip Van Winkle to showcase how the the American Revolution impacted the American society and their future. Rip Van Winkle represented America, and his wife represented England. Rip Van Winkle was controlled by his wife, much like how America was controlled by England. When America finally broke away from England’s control, Americans found happiness in their freedom which led them to gradually find their own identity, including their literature identity. When Rip Van Winkle gained freedom from the death of his wife, he was finally able to be happy, to be at peace, and to be able to do as he wishes. Overall, Rip Van Winkle symbolizes how Americans are what they are today, because they finally gained the freedom to create their own identity.
Cite this page
Rip Van Winkle. (2017, Jan 29). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/rip-van-winkle-2-essay | <urn:uuid:f34c8532-9c94-457e-add4-59ff6d543631> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/rip-van-winkle-2-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.980058 | 1,086 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (825 words)
Freedom brings happiness. This is a major message shown in the story Rip Van Winkle. Rip Van Winkle is about a man who slept through the American Revolution for twenty years. During those twenty years he slept, his village and the whole country underwent a major change that affected the future of America. Written during the early 1800s when American literature was heavily influenced by the Europeans, Washington Irving portrays America’s search for an identity through one of the first true American literature, Rip Van Winkle, using elements and characteristics of the literary era of American Romanticism.
Washington Irving was born on April 3, 1783 to wealthy parents as the youngest of eleven. His older brothers influenced Irving’s taste in literature. One brother that indirectly led Washington Irving to success was named Peter. In 1815, Peter sent Irving to Liverpool to try to save their family business there which was on the verge of bankruptcy. He failed to save it, and the business became bankrupt in 1818.
Irving chose to remain in Europe after this incident and decided to make a living as an author. As he traveled Irving recorded his thoughts, observations, and thoughts in a tiny journal. He later turned these entries into short stories and compiled them into a collection in which he called The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon.
This collection contained short stories based off of European folk tales but in American settings, as well as essays. Included in the collection is Rip Van Winkle, which was based off of the German folktale, Peter Klaus. The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon became a success and was well-received by Europe, in which during the collection’s publication, 1819, did not respect American literature and even thought there was no such thing. The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon became an important milestone in American literature history, and proved that American literature could be independent of European literature.
Rip Van Winkle is considered one of the models of American Romanticism and it demonstrates many characteristics of this literary era. Usually, the main character or hero of some literatures are already well-known and are of high status. One of the characteristics of American Romanticism is the common man as the main character or hero. The common man is an everyday person; he’s not special or someone well-known. This characteristic is demonstrated in Rip Van Winkle. “I have observed that he was a simple good-natured; he was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and an obedient henpecked husband.” Rip Van Winkle is just a common village man. He does not come from a reputable family, nor does he have a high position such as governed. He is simply a kind man who obeys his wife and enjoys helping his neighbors. Another prevalent characteristic of American Romanticism is the main character’s tendency to seek refuge in nature.
They turn to nature when they are facing problems or feeling inferior. “Poor Rip was at last reduced almost to despair; and his only alternative, to escape from the labor of the farm and clamor of his wife, was to take gun in hand and stroll away into the woods.” Here poor Rip Van Winkle is in distress from being constantly nagged by his wife, Dame Van Winkle. The only place he can get away from her and have peace is in the woods of the Kaatskill mountains. Nonconformity is another trait that American Romantic works tend to possess.
“Rip, in fact, was no politician; the changes of states and empires made but little impression on him; but there was one species of despotism under which he had long groaned, and that was- petticoat government.” In twenty years, Rip Van Winkle’s village and the whole went through a drastic change. Before the American Revolution, the the villagers, usually the men, would sit in an inn gossiping about village events. After the American Revolution, instead of gossiping about village events, they gossip about politics and politicians. America’s ruler changed from a king to a president. These critical changes did not interest him. Although he did accept the fact that the people he was familiar with are gone, he chose to not conform to this “new” country.
Washington Irving uses symbolism in Rip Van Winkle to showcase how the the American Revolution impacted the American society and their future. Rip Van Winkle represented America, and his wife represented England. Rip Van Winkle was controlled by his wife, much like how America was controlled by England. When America finally broke away from England’s control, Americans found happiness in their freedom which led them to gradually find their own identity, including their literature identity. When Rip Van Winkle gained freedom from the death of his wife, he was finally able to be happy, to be at peace, and to be able to do as he wishes. Overall, Rip Van Winkle symbolizes how Americans are what they are today, because they finally gained the freedom to create their own identity.
Cite this page
Rip Van Winkle. (2017, Jan 29). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/rip-van-winkle-2-essay | 1,070 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Themes are ideas that run all the way through a literary text. By analysing them you can analyse the writer's intentions. What choices have they made? Why? What are they trying to get the reader to think and feel? Analysing themes allows you to write in detail about a literary text.
In Frankenstein there are many themes which could be analysed. Three main themes are:
In her first novel, Frankenstein Mary Shelley examined themes which were important to her personal experience. She had been raised by parents with strong political views who had a keen awareness of how society operated. Her husband, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, also had a highly developed social conscience and Mary came into contact with many of the great thinkers of her age. She was writing at a time of huge discoveries and experimentation in both science and the arts. All of these things are reflected in the themes of her novel. | <urn:uuid:cb5c44e5-b00b-4cbf-9294-9f57ae2d68a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z8hf82p/revision/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.987859 | 182 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.20875665545... | 1 | Themes are ideas that run all the way through a literary text. By analysing them you can analyse the writer's intentions. What choices have they made? Why? What are they trying to get the reader to think and feel? Analysing themes allows you to write in detail about a literary text.
In Frankenstein there are many themes which could be analysed. Three main themes are:
In her first novel, Frankenstein Mary Shelley examined themes which were important to her personal experience. She had been raised by parents with strong political views who had a keen awareness of how society operated. Her husband, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, also had a highly developed social conscience and Mary came into contact with many of the great thinkers of her age. She was writing at a time of huge discoveries and experimentation in both science and the arts. All of these things are reflected in the themes of her novel. | 181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gustav Ernst Stresemann (Gustav Stresemann ; 10 May 1878 – 3 October 1929) was a German statesman who served as Chancellor in 1923 (for a brief period of 102 days) and Foreign Minister 1923–1929, during the Weimar Republic. He was co-laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926.
His most notable achievement was the reconciliation between Germany and France, for which he and Aristide Briand received the Nobel Peace Prize. During a period of political instability and fragile, short-lived governments, he was generally seen as the most influential cabinet member in most of the Weimar Republic’s existence. During his political career, he represented three successive liberal parties; he was the dominant figure of the German People’s Party during the Weimar Republic. | <urn:uuid:8bf5d2ec-0b83-4c38-ac33-afb8ca2672f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/gustav-stresemann/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.984894 | 167 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.035299442708492... | 2 | Gustav Ernst Stresemann (Gustav Stresemann ; 10 May 1878 – 3 October 1929) was a German statesman who served as Chancellor in 1923 (for a brief period of 102 days) and Foreign Minister 1923–1929, during the Weimar Republic. He was co-laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926.
His most notable achievement was the reconciliation between Germany and France, for which he and Aristide Briand received the Nobel Peace Prize. During a period of political instability and fragile, short-lived governments, he was generally seen as the most influential cabinet member in most of the Weimar Republic’s existence. During his political career, he represented three successive liberal parties; he was the dominant figure of the German People’s Party during the Weimar Republic. | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ford – driving innovation
In 1913 an American industrialist named Henry Ford employed an innovative system in his factory that changed the nature of American industry forever – the production line. Instead of a group of workers constructing a complete product, Ford’s production-line techniques relied on machine parts being moved around the factory on a conveyor belt, passing each employee who had a single task to perform before the component moved down the line. This saved time in that employees were not required to move around, collect materials or change tools; they simply stood in one place and repeated the same procedure over and over again until the end of their shift. In this way, Ford was able to mass produce the now famous Model-T car for only 10% of traditional labour costs.
Working on a production line was monotonous work, undoubtedly, but it was not in the production line alone that Ford was something of a pioneer. In 1913 the average hourly rate for unskilled labour was under $2.50 and for such low wages and repetitive work, the labour turnover in Ford’s factory was high, with many employees lasting less than a month. In order to combat this problem, he took a step that was condemned by other industrialists of the time, fearful that they would lose their own workforce – he raised wages to $5 an hour. The benefits were twofold. Not only did Ford now have a stable and eager workforce, he also had potential customers. It was his intention ‘to build a motorcar for the great multitude’, and the Model-T car was one of the cheapest cars on the market at the time. At $5 an hour, many of his employees now found themselves in a position to feasibly afford a car of their own. Ford’s production practices meant that production time was reduced from 14 hours to a mere 93 minutes. In 1914 company profits were $30 million, yet just two years later this figure had doubled. Until 1927 when the last Model-T rolled off the production line, the company produced and sold about 15 million cars.
Although Ford was without doubt successful, times changed and the company began losing its edge. One problem came from the labour force. Ford was a demanding employer who insisted that the majority of his staff remained on their feet during their shift. One error meant that the whole production line was often kept waiting, and Ford felt that workers were more attentive standing than sitting. Yet the 1930s saw some radical changes in the relationships between employer and employee, as an increasing number of industries were forming Labour Unions. Ford flatly refused to get involved, employing spies in the workplace to sabotage any plans for a union within his factories. Eventually a strike in the early 1940s forced Ford to deal with unions. Another example of Ford being unable to adapt came from his unwillingness to branch out. Ford’s competitors began operating the same systems and practices, but also introduced the variety Ford was lacking. The Model-T had remained essentially the same, even down to the colour, and by the time he realised his error, he had already lost his pre-eminence in the industry. Subsequent involvement in aeroplane manufacturing, politics and publishing was a failure. Leaving the company to his grandson in 1945, he died two years later leaving an inheritance estimated at $700 million.
Yet the legacy of Fordism lives on. The development of mass production transformed the organisation of work in a number of important ways. Tasks were minutely subdivided and performed by unskilled workers, or at least semiskilled workers, since much of the skill was built into the machine. Second, manufacturing concerns grew to such a size that a large hierarchy of supervisors and managers became necessary. Third, the increasing complexity of operations required employment of a large management staff of accountants, engineers, chemists, and, later, social psychologists, in addition to a large distribution and sales force. Mass production also heightened the trend towards an international division of labour. The huge new factories often needed raw materials from abroad, while saturation of national markets led to a search for customers overseas. Thus, some countries became exporters of raw materials and importers of finished goods, while others did the reverse.
In the 1970s and ’80s some countries, particularly in Asia and South America, that had hitherto been largely agricultural and that had imported manufactured goods, began industrialising. The skills needed by workers on assembly-line tasks required little training, and standards of living in these developing countries were so low that wages could be kept below those of the already industrialised nations. Many large manufacturers in the United States and elsewhere therefore began ‘outsourcing’ – that is, having parts made or whole products assembled in developing nations. Consequently, those countries are rapidly becoming integrated into the world economic community | <urn:uuid:b4a0b3ed-cbe2-4646-9fb9-6f3db426b041> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.examenglishforfree.com/free-ielts-academic-reading-test-3-section-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.984875 | 976 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.228943750262260... | 1 | Ford – driving innovation
In 1913 an American industrialist named Henry Ford employed an innovative system in his factory that changed the nature of American industry forever – the production line. Instead of a group of workers constructing a complete product, Ford’s production-line techniques relied on machine parts being moved around the factory on a conveyor belt, passing each employee who had a single task to perform before the component moved down the line. This saved time in that employees were not required to move around, collect materials or change tools; they simply stood in one place and repeated the same procedure over and over again until the end of their shift. In this way, Ford was able to mass produce the now famous Model-T car for only 10% of traditional labour costs.
Working on a production line was monotonous work, undoubtedly, but it was not in the production line alone that Ford was something of a pioneer. In 1913 the average hourly rate for unskilled labour was under $2.50 and for such low wages and repetitive work, the labour turnover in Ford’s factory was high, with many employees lasting less than a month. In order to combat this problem, he took a step that was condemned by other industrialists of the time, fearful that they would lose their own workforce – he raised wages to $5 an hour. The benefits were twofold. Not only did Ford now have a stable and eager workforce, he also had potential customers. It was his intention ‘to build a motorcar for the great multitude’, and the Model-T car was one of the cheapest cars on the market at the time. At $5 an hour, many of his employees now found themselves in a position to feasibly afford a car of their own. Ford’s production practices meant that production time was reduced from 14 hours to a mere 93 minutes. In 1914 company profits were $30 million, yet just two years later this figure had doubled. Until 1927 when the last Model-T rolled off the production line, the company produced and sold about 15 million cars.
Although Ford was without doubt successful, times changed and the company began losing its edge. One problem came from the labour force. Ford was a demanding employer who insisted that the majority of his staff remained on their feet during their shift. One error meant that the whole production line was often kept waiting, and Ford felt that workers were more attentive standing than sitting. Yet the 1930s saw some radical changes in the relationships between employer and employee, as an increasing number of industries were forming Labour Unions. Ford flatly refused to get involved, employing spies in the workplace to sabotage any plans for a union within his factories. Eventually a strike in the early 1940s forced Ford to deal with unions. Another example of Ford being unable to adapt came from his unwillingness to branch out. Ford’s competitors began operating the same systems and practices, but also introduced the variety Ford was lacking. The Model-T had remained essentially the same, even down to the colour, and by the time he realised his error, he had already lost his pre-eminence in the industry. Subsequent involvement in aeroplane manufacturing, politics and publishing was a failure. Leaving the company to his grandson in 1945, he died two years later leaving an inheritance estimated at $700 million.
Yet the legacy of Fordism lives on. The development of mass production transformed the organisation of work in a number of important ways. Tasks were minutely subdivided and performed by unskilled workers, or at least semiskilled workers, since much of the skill was built into the machine. Second, manufacturing concerns grew to such a size that a large hierarchy of supervisors and managers became necessary. Third, the increasing complexity of operations required employment of a large management staff of accountants, engineers, chemists, and, later, social psychologists, in addition to a large distribution and sales force. Mass production also heightened the trend towards an international division of labour. The huge new factories often needed raw materials from abroad, while saturation of national markets led to a search for customers overseas. Thus, some countries became exporters of raw materials and importers of finished goods, while others did the reverse.
In the 1970s and ’80s some countries, particularly in Asia and South America, that had hitherto been largely agricultural and that had imported manufactured goods, began industrialising. The skills needed by workers on assembly-line tasks required little training, and standards of living in these developing countries were so low that wages could be kept below those of the already industrialised nations. Many large manufacturers in the United States and elsewhere therefore began ‘outsourcing’ – that is, having parts made or whole products assembled in developing nations. Consequently, those countries are rapidly becoming integrated into the world economic community | 1,000 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In his view, he also asserts that the indigenous American people were timid and they lacked iron and weapons which could be a threat to their colonial quest and control over them. From this, he underlines that they were not likely to face any difficulties in their interaction in the Indies lands. The indigenous people had no organized religion. Also, they believed that the Spaniard ships came from heaven. Columbus finally gives an account of the language used by the indigenous people (Jane). He notes that natives from different islands seemed to speak the same language and form, this he asserts that this would greatly enhance the Christian conversion.
As he was commercially oriented he provides that the Americas indigenous people were unskilled but they had excellent understanding and this aspect was suitable in the provision of labor (Jane). Bartholomew view of the indigenous American people was based on his principle of universal human rights. He asserts that as human beings both the indigenous people and their Spanish conquerors and colonialist had the same rights and needs universally as anyone else (McNutt).
Because of this Bartholomew is regarded as one of the first European colonialist to formulate and putting forward the aspect of universal human rights. He defended the rights and freedoms of the indigenous American people throughout his life (McNutt). He had a firm stand which was against the violent and inhumane way in which the Spaniards treated the indigenous Americas natives. Thus from his defense of the indigenous people against the horrors in the name of colonization quest he was perceived by many as the defender of the Indians and the general native indigenous Americas people (McNutt). Travelling alongside the Spaniard army, he witnessed how poorly armed America's indigenous people were being massacred and was not appealed with it.
He viewed this enslavement and the unspeakable suffering and slaughter that the natives were being subjected to not only being a crime but also sin.
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0.292083889245... | 1 | In his view, he also asserts that the indigenous American people were timid and they lacked iron and weapons which could be a threat to their colonial quest and control over them. From this, he underlines that they were not likely to face any difficulties in their interaction in the Indies lands. The indigenous people had no organized religion. Also, they believed that the Spaniard ships came from heaven. Columbus finally gives an account of the language used by the indigenous people (Jane). He notes that natives from different islands seemed to speak the same language and form, this he asserts that this would greatly enhance the Christian conversion.
As he was commercially oriented he provides that the Americas indigenous people were unskilled but they had excellent understanding and this aspect was suitable in the provision of labor (Jane). Bartholomew view of the indigenous American people was based on his principle of universal human rights. He asserts that as human beings both the indigenous people and their Spanish conquerors and colonialist had the same rights and needs universally as anyone else (McNutt).
Because of this Bartholomew is regarded as one of the first European colonialist to formulate and putting forward the aspect of universal human rights. He defended the rights and freedoms of the indigenous American people throughout his life (McNutt). He had a firm stand which was against the violent and inhumane way in which the Spaniards treated the indigenous Americas natives. Thus from his defense of the indigenous people against the horrors in the name of colonization quest he was perceived by many as the defender of the Indians and the general native indigenous Americas people (McNutt). Travelling alongside the Spaniard army, he witnessed how poorly armed America's indigenous people were being massacred and was not appealed with it.
He viewed this enslavement and the unspeakable suffering and slaughter that the natives were being subjected to not only being a crime but also sin.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | 401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mark Lucas Humanities 111
Meet Daniel Boone
After viewing the sculpture of Daniel Boone located in the Norton Center, I became all the more fascinated with this trailblazer and what he and the sculpture represent. Being born and raised in a small Kentucky town not far from Boonesboro, I grew up listening to folklore that included Boone and other pioneers who pushed back the frontiers and led the Westward expansion of what were then only English colonies. So writing a paper and presenting to you a small piece of Kentucky’s history and one of America’s first national heroes was a perfect fit for this assignment.
For those of you who don’t know Daniel Boone, he was born in 1734 near Reading, Pennsylvania. He had little education, but he made up for it with what developed into a love for hunting and exploration. Moving in 1750 at the age of 16 to western North Carolina, Boone honed his marksmanship and was now well recognized in this rough country as an able woodsman. By his early twenties, he enlisted in the British army and served as a wagoner for two years during the French and Indian War (1754-1756), before fighting in the “Cherokee Uprising” as a North Carolina militiaman in 1758.
Boone’s passion for adventure eventually led him to Kentucky. Then known by its Indian name of “Kentuck,” it was known for its wild game. Beaver, otters, deer and buffalo were plentiful. At first, Boone only intended to hunt, but discovery enticed and by 1775 he was blazing The Wilderness Road and establishing one of the first settlements in Kentucky, Boonesboro, located in present day Madison County. It became the foundation for explorers and settlers alike who pushed West to stake their own claims and make their own homesteads.
Amidst this race for land, the American Revolution erupted. Native peoples, resentful of their lost hunting grounds and the ever-increasing white man, made common cause with the British and began attacking the now vulnerable and isolated settlers to take Kentucky back. Boonesboro during this time was under constant threat and ended up as a focus of Indian and British plans to expel what were now American colonists. It was during this time that Boone went from famed hunter and explorer to wartime leader.
In 1776, Boone’s daughter, Jemima, and two other girls were captured and their captors began a swift journey to their Shawnee villages in Ohio. Boone responded without delay. He led a rescue party and caught up with the kidnappers. Surprising them during a rest, the girls were saved and their abductors driven away.
A year later, Shawnees led by Chief Blackfish raided Boonesboro and a rifle ball shattered Boone’s knee. While Boone recovered, a salt and meat shortage arose forcing him to… | <urn:uuid:3bbb306e-3527-4ced-8def-c13c00260b90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Meet-Daniel-Boone-589946.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.984299 | 591 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.30404072999954224... | 1 | Mark Lucas Humanities 111
Meet Daniel Boone
After viewing the sculpture of Daniel Boone located in the Norton Center, I became all the more fascinated with this trailblazer and what he and the sculpture represent. Being born and raised in a small Kentucky town not far from Boonesboro, I grew up listening to folklore that included Boone and other pioneers who pushed back the frontiers and led the Westward expansion of what were then only English colonies. So writing a paper and presenting to you a small piece of Kentucky’s history and one of America’s first national heroes was a perfect fit for this assignment.
For those of you who don’t know Daniel Boone, he was born in 1734 near Reading, Pennsylvania. He had little education, but he made up for it with what developed into a love for hunting and exploration. Moving in 1750 at the age of 16 to western North Carolina, Boone honed his marksmanship and was now well recognized in this rough country as an able woodsman. By his early twenties, he enlisted in the British army and served as a wagoner for two years during the French and Indian War (1754-1756), before fighting in the “Cherokee Uprising” as a North Carolina militiaman in 1758.
Boone’s passion for adventure eventually led him to Kentucky. Then known by its Indian name of “Kentuck,” it was known for its wild game. Beaver, otters, deer and buffalo were plentiful. At first, Boone only intended to hunt, but discovery enticed and by 1775 he was blazing The Wilderness Road and establishing one of the first settlements in Kentucky, Boonesboro, located in present day Madison County. It became the foundation for explorers and settlers alike who pushed West to stake their own claims and make their own homesteads.
Amidst this race for land, the American Revolution erupted. Native peoples, resentful of their lost hunting grounds and the ever-increasing white man, made common cause with the British and began attacking the now vulnerable and isolated settlers to take Kentucky back. Boonesboro during this time was under constant threat and ended up as a focus of Indian and British plans to expel what were now American colonists. It was during this time that Boone went from famed hunter and explorer to wartime leader.
In 1776, Boone’s daughter, Jemima, and two other girls were captured and their captors began a swift journey to their Shawnee villages in Ohio. Boone responded without delay. He led a rescue party and caught up with the kidnappers. Surprising them during a rest, the girls were saved and their abductors driven away.
A year later, Shawnees led by Chief Blackfish raided Boonesboro and a rifle ball shattered Boone’s knee. While Boone recovered, a salt and meat shortage arose forcing him to… | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in history: Albert Namatjira was born
BORN ON 28 July 1902, and originally named Elea, Namatjira received his western name – Albert – after his family joined the Lutheran Church when he was three.
From the Arrernte people, Albert grew up at the Hermannsburg Mission – then the largest mission in Central Australia, some 120km west of Alice Springs.
He took a variety of jobs as a young man, including blacksmith, stockman, carpenter and cameleer.
It wasn’t until Albert was in his late 20s that he met western artist Rex Battarbee, who ran a small exhibition of his own watercolours in Hermannsburg in 1936.
Inspired by the idea that he could earn a living from painting Albert joined Rex four years later, aged of 33, on a trip through the Northern Territory, where Rex taught him the art of watercolour and encouraged him to develop his, now, very recognisable style, a combination of European and Aboriginal influences.
One of two reproductions by Albert Namatjira which were stolen from the Araluen Arts Centre in the Northern Territory in 2008. (Credit: AAP)
Albert Namatjira’s rapid rise
Albert’s fame took off quickly and stratospherically, alongside a growing debate about indigenous inequality; an evident talent that made him something of a figurehead to this nascent movement.
His first two exhibitions in 1938 in Melbourne and Adelaide sold out.
Judith Ryan, Senior Curator of Indigenous Art at the National Gallery of Victoria, says Albert won success in two hugely influential spheres: “He had a huge effect on Aboriginal art,” she says.
But he also “succeeded in the hardest place: the market,” says Judith. “His first two exhibitions sold out, which is a massive thing for any new artist – earning him a place in the living rooms of everyday Australians.”
Albert Namatjira: a man between two worlds
Albert was prolific, painting more than 2000 pieces (at least one-to-two a week for 25 odd years), determined to provide for his family in a way that few Aboriginal Australians at the time could dream of. However, life was not easy for the artist, who was caught between European and indigenous worlds for the latter half of his short life.
Nonetheless about 20 years after his first exhibitions he was being mobbed by autograph hunters in Sydney: “Crowds surged around him, many pushing notepads and paper at him, until the police reached him and escorted him to safety”, reported New South Wales’ Barrier Miner in 1954.
International accolades also flowed: Queen Elizabeth II awarded him a coronation medal in 1953. He met the Queen a year later when she visited Canberra.
The Royal Art Society of New South Wales also made him an honorary member in 1955, despite the fact that at the time indigenous people didn’t have full citizenship rights.
Namatjira’s death and legacy
He and his wife, Rubina, were granted citizenship in 1957, an entitlement not extended to all Aboriginal people until 1967. Citizenship gave Albert the ability to vote, own land and build a house. It also gave him the right to buy alcohol, a privilege that would come to be his downfall.
Albert’s duel worlds would, in time, clash tragically. It was common tradition to share good fortune with family, which Albert did by providing alcohol, a prohibited act. In 1958 he was charged with ‘supplying alcohol to an Aboriginal’, after a woman in his camp was killed in a drunken fight.
He was found guilty of breaking the prohibition laws and sentenced to three months of imprisonment.
He appealed in the High Court and the sentence was downgraded to two months of separation on the nearby Papunya settlement. He was released early due to health issues and died of heart failure on 8 August, 1959, aged 57. Eight years later indigenous Australians were given the right of full citizenship.
Albert Namatjira’s artwork and his high-profile life raised the issue of the unequal treatment of Aboriginal people in Australia.
Today, his work is on display at the National Gallery of Australia and even his small paintings command tens of thousands of dollars, one selling in 2006 for a record $96,000.
But more familiar to many Australians are reproductions of his prints that can be found on living room walls all over the country, alongside the likes of Australia’s other great landscape painters like Hans Heyson and Frederick McCubbin.
- Albert Namatjira’s ghost gums burned down
- 96-year-old wins top indigenous art award
- Waterhouse art prize won by Aboriginal artist
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0.228425234556198... | 6 | On this day in history: Albert Namatjira was born
BORN ON 28 July 1902, and originally named Elea, Namatjira received his western name – Albert – after his family joined the Lutheran Church when he was three.
From the Arrernte people, Albert grew up at the Hermannsburg Mission – then the largest mission in Central Australia, some 120km west of Alice Springs.
He took a variety of jobs as a young man, including blacksmith, stockman, carpenter and cameleer.
It wasn’t until Albert was in his late 20s that he met western artist Rex Battarbee, who ran a small exhibition of his own watercolours in Hermannsburg in 1936.
Inspired by the idea that he could earn a living from painting Albert joined Rex four years later, aged of 33, on a trip through the Northern Territory, where Rex taught him the art of watercolour and encouraged him to develop his, now, very recognisable style, a combination of European and Aboriginal influences.
One of two reproductions by Albert Namatjira which were stolen from the Araluen Arts Centre in the Northern Territory in 2008. (Credit: AAP)
Albert Namatjira’s rapid rise
Albert’s fame took off quickly and stratospherically, alongside a growing debate about indigenous inequality; an evident talent that made him something of a figurehead to this nascent movement.
His first two exhibitions in 1938 in Melbourne and Adelaide sold out.
Judith Ryan, Senior Curator of Indigenous Art at the National Gallery of Victoria, says Albert won success in two hugely influential spheres: “He had a huge effect on Aboriginal art,” she says.
But he also “succeeded in the hardest place: the market,” says Judith. “His first two exhibitions sold out, which is a massive thing for any new artist – earning him a place in the living rooms of everyday Australians.”
Albert Namatjira: a man between two worlds
Albert was prolific, painting more than 2000 pieces (at least one-to-two a week for 25 odd years), determined to provide for his family in a way that few Aboriginal Australians at the time could dream of. However, life was not easy for the artist, who was caught between European and indigenous worlds for the latter half of his short life.
Nonetheless about 20 years after his first exhibitions he was being mobbed by autograph hunters in Sydney: “Crowds surged around him, many pushing notepads and paper at him, until the police reached him and escorted him to safety”, reported New South Wales’ Barrier Miner in 1954.
International accolades also flowed: Queen Elizabeth II awarded him a coronation medal in 1953. He met the Queen a year later when she visited Canberra.
The Royal Art Society of New South Wales also made him an honorary member in 1955, despite the fact that at the time indigenous people didn’t have full citizenship rights.
Namatjira’s death and legacy
He and his wife, Rubina, were granted citizenship in 1957, an entitlement not extended to all Aboriginal people until 1967. Citizenship gave Albert the ability to vote, own land and build a house. It also gave him the right to buy alcohol, a privilege that would come to be his downfall.
Albert’s duel worlds would, in time, clash tragically. It was common tradition to share good fortune with family, which Albert did by providing alcohol, a prohibited act. In 1958 he was charged with ‘supplying alcohol to an Aboriginal’, after a woman in his camp was killed in a drunken fight.
He was found guilty of breaking the prohibition laws and sentenced to three months of imprisonment.
He appealed in the High Court and the sentence was downgraded to two months of separation on the nearby Papunya settlement. He was released early due to health issues and died of heart failure on 8 August, 1959, aged 57. Eight years later indigenous Australians were given the right of full citizenship.
Albert Namatjira’s artwork and his high-profile life raised the issue of the unequal treatment of Aboriginal people in Australia.
Today, his work is on display at the National Gallery of Australia and even his small paintings command tens of thousands of dollars, one selling in 2006 for a record $96,000.
But more familiar to many Australians are reproductions of his prints that can be found on living room walls all over the country, alongside the likes of Australia’s other great landscape painters like Hans Heyson and Frederick McCubbin.
- Albert Namatjira’s ghost gums burned down
- 96-year-old wins top indigenous art award
- Waterhouse art prize won by Aboriginal artist
- Aboriginal art aims for the stars | 1,018 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists uncover 'dock where Darwin's ship HMS Beagle was dismantled'
By Sam Russell, PA
The ship on which Charles Darwin made the discoveries that led to the formulation of his theory of evolution was probably dismantled at a dock which archaeologists believe they have located in Essex, it has been claimed.
A team of experts, commissioned by Historic England, say they have identified the outline of the dock on the mud flats of the River Roach, off Paglesham, where HMS Beagle spent her final days.
The clear outline was produced thanks to the use of a drone fitted with a specialist camera which captures red, green, infrared and near-infrared light.
This looks at the health of plant life to build a picture of any buried remains, using the principle of differential growth - buried features affect vegetation growth above ground, much like the way crop marks are formed in dry weather.
HMS Beagle was first launched in 1820 and was the vessel on which Darwin made the observations necessary to develop his theory of natural selection.?
After circumnavigating the globe, the Beagle was refitted as a static watch vessel for the Coastguard in 1845, serving to curb smuggling until it was sold in 1870.
It is believed it may have been dismantled by whoever bought it.
Dr Dan Atkinson, director of coastal and marine at Wessex Archaeology, said: "It has been hugely exciting to work on this project, which is starting to shed some light on the famous ship that carried one of science's most renowned individuals.
"No evidence has yet been found of the Beagle itself.
"It was likely dismantled at the dock, and lots of the material would have been taken and repurposed elsewhere.
"But we know from previous surveys that there are the remains of potentially substantial material in the dock - this could be the remains of the dock itself, another vessel possibly associated with the local oyster fishery, or the Beagle - we can't say for sure.
"Further analysis of data from the previous survey results, and our recent survey may tell us more." | <urn:uuid:fbba4c39-07c4-4e32-acd4-a3c55eba2b4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chronicle.gi/archaeologists-uncover-dock-where-darwins-ship-hms-beagle-was-dismantled/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.980351 | 433 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3530132174491... | 9 | Archaeologists uncover 'dock where Darwin's ship HMS Beagle was dismantled'
By Sam Russell, PA
The ship on which Charles Darwin made the discoveries that led to the formulation of his theory of evolution was probably dismantled at a dock which archaeologists believe they have located in Essex, it has been claimed.
A team of experts, commissioned by Historic England, say they have identified the outline of the dock on the mud flats of the River Roach, off Paglesham, where HMS Beagle spent her final days.
The clear outline was produced thanks to the use of a drone fitted with a specialist camera which captures red, green, infrared and near-infrared light.
This looks at the health of plant life to build a picture of any buried remains, using the principle of differential growth - buried features affect vegetation growth above ground, much like the way crop marks are formed in dry weather.
HMS Beagle was first launched in 1820 and was the vessel on which Darwin made the observations necessary to develop his theory of natural selection.?
After circumnavigating the globe, the Beagle was refitted as a static watch vessel for the Coastguard in 1845, serving to curb smuggling until it was sold in 1870.
It is believed it may have been dismantled by whoever bought it.
Dr Dan Atkinson, director of coastal and marine at Wessex Archaeology, said: "It has been hugely exciting to work on this project, which is starting to shed some light on the famous ship that carried one of science's most renowned individuals.
"No evidence has yet been found of the Beagle itself.
"It was likely dismantled at the dock, and lots of the material would have been taken and repurposed elsewhere.
"But we know from previous surveys that there are the remains of potentially substantial material in the dock - this could be the remains of the dock itself, another vessel possibly associated with the local oyster fishery, or the Beagle - we can't say for sure.
"Further analysis of data from the previous survey results, and our recent survey may tell us more." | 433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Before he was known as Saint Jerome, he was named Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus. He was born around 342 AD, in Stridon, Dalmatia. Today, the town, which ceased to exist in Jerome's time, would likely be in Croatia or Slovenia.
The young Jerome was educated by Aelius Donatus, who was a famous Roman grammarian. From him, the young Jerome learned Latin and Greek. Little else is known of his childhood other than his parents were probably well-to-do and Christian. Despite their efforts to raise Jerome properly, the young man behaved as he chose.
Around the age of 12 or so, Jerome traveled to Rome to study grammar, philosophy and rhetoric. It is likely that due to his training in rhetoric, he may have considered a career in law. By his own admission, he quickly forgot his morals. While he was not studying, Jerome pursued pleasure. In particular, he pursued women, even though he knew his behavior was wrong.
To alleviate the feelings of guilt he often felt afterwards, Jerome would visit the crypts in Rome and imagine himself in hell. He did so every Sunday, even though he was not a Christian. Jerome succeeded in frightening himself, but not in changing his ways.
Fortunately, Jerome had as a companion, Bonosus, who was a Christian influence. His influence is part of what persuaded Jerome to become a Christian and change his ways for the better.
In or around the year 366, Jerome decided to become a Christian and was baptized by Pope Liberius.
Now interested in theological matters, Jerome set aside secular matters to pursue matters of the faith. He traveled with Bonosus to Trier where there were schools for him to gain ecclesiastical training.
In 370, he traveled close to home, ending up in a monastery at Aquileia. The monastery was overseen by Bishop St. Valerian, who had attracted some of the greatest minds in Christendom. While in Aquileia, Jerome met Rufinus and the two men became friends. Rufinis was a monk who became renown for his translations of Greek works into Latin. Jerome himself was developing his skills as a translator, a skill he developed during his time in the Roman catacombs, translating the inscriptions on the tombs.
Following his time in Aquileia, Jerome traveled next to Treves, Gaul where he began to translate books for his own use. His goal was to build a personal library.
After a time in Gaul, he returned to Aquileia in 373. While there, Jerome and his friend Bonosus had a falling out and decided to part ways. Bonosus departed for an island in the Adriatic where he would live as a hermit for a time.
Jerome traveled to the east, bound for Antioch by way of Athens.
In 374, Jerome finally reached Antioch, after making several lengthy stops along the way. While in that city, Jerome began writing his first work, "Concerning the Seven Beatings."
During that same year, disease made Jerome ill while taking the lives of some of his companions. It is unclear what disease was responsible, or if different illnesses had taken his friends. During his illness, Jerome had visions which made him even more religious.
Jerome went into the desert to live for four years, living as a hermit southwest of Antioch. He was frequently ill during this time.
After he emerged from his hermitage, Jerome was quickly embroiled in conflicts within the Church at Antioch. This was not something Jerome wanted to be associated with. Jerome made clear that he did not want to become a priest, preferring instead to be a monk or a hermit. But Church officials in Antioch as well as Pope Damasus wanted him to be ordained. Jerome relented on the condition he would not be expected to serve in any ministry and would still be allowed to pursue his monastic life. He was subsequently ordained.
Making the most of his freedom as a priest, Jerome traveled to Constantinople where he studied under St. Gregory of Nazianzus, who was renown as a great theologian.
After St. Gregory left Constantinople in 382, Jerome traveled to Rome for a council of the Church and met Pope Damasus. Following the council, Pope Damsus kept Jerome in Rome and made him his secretary.
While serving as secretary to the pope, Jerome also promoted the ideal of aestheticism to everyone around him. Included in this group were women of the city of Rome who wanted to live saintly lives.
Pope Damasus died in 384, and this exposed Jerome to criticism and controversy. Jerome was a sarcastic man of great wit. He became unpopular because of his attitude and made a number of enemies. While Pope Damasus was alive, he could shield Jerome from criticism, but now Jerome faced the vengeance of the enemies he made. Both prominent pagans who resented his promotion of the faith and fellow Christians who lacked his wit attacked him with vicious rumors. Among the rumors were accusations that he was behaving inappropriately with the woman we now know as Paula. At that time, she was one of his students in aestheticism.
Paula was a widow with four children who deeply mourned the loss of her husband. Jerome provided counseling and instruction to her and she became a lifelong friend and follower of Jerome, assisting him in his work.
Eventually, Jerome decided to return to the Holy Land to escape the calumny in Rome. He headed east and arrived in Antioch in 386. Shortly after, Jerome was met by Paula, her daughter, and several other followers. The group went first to Jerusalem, then on to Alexandria, Egypt. They settled in Bethlehem and had a monastery built there which included dormitories for women.
Jerome was a hard worker and he wrote extensively defending the virginity of Mary, which some clerics dared to question. He also engaged in several debates against various other heresies including a lengthy battle with his old friend Rufinus. Jerome was easily upset, and even the venerable St. Augustine exchanged words with him. Eventually, Jerome and Augustine repaired their relationship and were able to correspond as friends and colleagues.
Of all the things that made Jerome famous, nothing was so legendary as his translation of the Bible. Jerome began work while he was still in Rome under Pope Damasus. He spent his entire life translating the scriptures from Hebrew and Old Latin.
In the year 404 Paula died, later to become a saint of the Church. Rome was sacked by Alarc the Barbarian in 410. These events distressed Jerome greatly. Violence eventually found its way to Bethlehem disrupting Jerome's work in his final years.
Jerome died on September 30, 420. His death was peaceful and he was laid to rest under the Church of the Nativity. His remains were later transferred to Rome.
Saint Jerome is the patron saint of archaeologists, Biblical scholars, librarians, students and translators.
His feast day is September 30.
St. Gabriel, the Archangel
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Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:d1405818-3a12-45bb-bb5e-606758ef5c9e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=10 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.989334 | 1,618 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1614385098218... | 1 | FREE Catholic School Enroll Now
Before he was known as Saint Jerome, he was named Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus. He was born around 342 AD, in Stridon, Dalmatia. Today, the town, which ceased to exist in Jerome's time, would likely be in Croatia or Slovenia.
The young Jerome was educated by Aelius Donatus, who was a famous Roman grammarian. From him, the young Jerome learned Latin and Greek. Little else is known of his childhood other than his parents were probably well-to-do and Christian. Despite their efforts to raise Jerome properly, the young man behaved as he chose.
Around the age of 12 or so, Jerome traveled to Rome to study grammar, philosophy and rhetoric. It is likely that due to his training in rhetoric, he may have considered a career in law. By his own admission, he quickly forgot his morals. While he was not studying, Jerome pursued pleasure. In particular, he pursued women, even though he knew his behavior was wrong.
To alleviate the feelings of guilt he often felt afterwards, Jerome would visit the crypts in Rome and imagine himself in hell. He did so every Sunday, even though he was not a Christian. Jerome succeeded in frightening himself, but not in changing his ways.
Fortunately, Jerome had as a companion, Bonosus, who was a Christian influence. His influence is part of what persuaded Jerome to become a Christian and change his ways for the better.
In or around the year 366, Jerome decided to become a Christian and was baptized by Pope Liberius.
Now interested in theological matters, Jerome set aside secular matters to pursue matters of the faith. He traveled with Bonosus to Trier where there were schools for him to gain ecclesiastical training.
In 370, he traveled close to home, ending up in a monastery at Aquileia. The monastery was overseen by Bishop St. Valerian, who had attracted some of the greatest minds in Christendom. While in Aquileia, Jerome met Rufinus and the two men became friends. Rufinis was a monk who became renown for his translations of Greek works into Latin. Jerome himself was developing his skills as a translator, a skill he developed during his time in the Roman catacombs, translating the inscriptions on the tombs.
Following his time in Aquileia, Jerome traveled next to Treves, Gaul where he began to translate books for his own use. His goal was to build a personal library.
After a time in Gaul, he returned to Aquileia in 373. While there, Jerome and his friend Bonosus had a falling out and decided to part ways. Bonosus departed for an island in the Adriatic where he would live as a hermit for a time.
Jerome traveled to the east, bound for Antioch by way of Athens.
In 374, Jerome finally reached Antioch, after making several lengthy stops along the way. While in that city, Jerome began writing his first work, "Concerning the Seven Beatings."
During that same year, disease made Jerome ill while taking the lives of some of his companions. It is unclear what disease was responsible, or if different illnesses had taken his friends. During his illness, Jerome had visions which made him even more religious.
Jerome went into the desert to live for four years, living as a hermit southwest of Antioch. He was frequently ill during this time.
After he emerged from his hermitage, Jerome was quickly embroiled in conflicts within the Church at Antioch. This was not something Jerome wanted to be associated with. Jerome made clear that he did not want to become a priest, preferring instead to be a monk or a hermit. But Church officials in Antioch as well as Pope Damasus wanted him to be ordained. Jerome relented on the condition he would not be expected to serve in any ministry and would still be allowed to pursue his monastic life. He was subsequently ordained.
Making the most of his freedom as a priest, Jerome traveled to Constantinople where he studied under St. Gregory of Nazianzus, who was renown as a great theologian.
After St. Gregory left Constantinople in 382, Jerome traveled to Rome for a council of the Church and met Pope Damasus. Following the council, Pope Damsus kept Jerome in Rome and made him his secretary.
While serving as secretary to the pope, Jerome also promoted the ideal of aestheticism to everyone around him. Included in this group were women of the city of Rome who wanted to live saintly lives.
Pope Damasus died in 384, and this exposed Jerome to criticism and controversy. Jerome was a sarcastic man of great wit. He became unpopular because of his attitude and made a number of enemies. While Pope Damasus was alive, he could shield Jerome from criticism, but now Jerome faced the vengeance of the enemies he made. Both prominent pagans who resented his promotion of the faith and fellow Christians who lacked his wit attacked him with vicious rumors. Among the rumors were accusations that he was behaving inappropriately with the woman we now know as Paula. At that time, she was one of his students in aestheticism.
Paula was a widow with four children who deeply mourned the loss of her husband. Jerome provided counseling and instruction to her and she became a lifelong friend and follower of Jerome, assisting him in his work.
Eventually, Jerome decided to return to the Holy Land to escape the calumny in Rome. He headed east and arrived in Antioch in 386. Shortly after, Jerome was met by Paula, her daughter, and several other followers. The group went first to Jerusalem, then on to Alexandria, Egypt. They settled in Bethlehem and had a monastery built there which included dormitories for women.
Jerome was a hard worker and he wrote extensively defending the virginity of Mary, which some clerics dared to question. He also engaged in several debates against various other heresies including a lengthy battle with his old friend Rufinus. Jerome was easily upset, and even the venerable St. Augustine exchanged words with him. Eventually, Jerome and Augustine repaired their relationship and were able to correspond as friends and colleagues.
Of all the things that made Jerome famous, nothing was so legendary as his translation of the Bible. Jerome began work while he was still in Rome under Pope Damasus. He spent his entire life translating the scriptures from Hebrew and Old Latin.
In the year 404 Paula died, later to become a saint of the Church. Rome was sacked by Alarc the Barbarian in 410. These events distressed Jerome greatly. Violence eventually found its way to Bethlehem disrupting Jerome's work in his final years.
Jerome died on September 30, 420. His death was peaceful and he was laid to rest under the Church of the Nativity. His remains were later transferred to Rome.
Saint Jerome is the patron saint of archaeologists, Biblical scholars, librarians, students and translators.
His feast day is September 30.
St. Gabriel, the Archangel
Find SaintsPopular Saints
Saints by Alphabet
Saint of the Day
Saint Feast Days by Month
Patron Saints by Alphabet
FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the war ended in 1945, the surviving remnant of Europe's Jews immediately began the difficult and painful search for family members. Parents sought out the children they had placed in convents, orphanages, or with foster families. Local Jewish committees in Europe tried to register the living and account for the dead. Tracing services set up by the International Red Cross and Jewish relief organizations aided the searches, but often the quests were protracted because the Nazis, the war, and the mass relocations of populations in central and eastern Europe had displaced millions of people.
The quest for family was much more than a search for relatives. It often involved some traumatic soul searching for children to rediscover their true identity. Those who had been infants when they were placed into hiding had no recollection of their biological parents or knowledge of their Jewish origins. The only family that most had known was that of their rescuers. Consequently, when relatives or Jewish organizations discovered them, they were typically apprehensive and sometimes resistant to yet another change.
As areas were liberated from German rule, Jewish organizations rushed in to locate survivors and reunite families. In place after place, they faced the devastation wrought by the Holocaust. In Lodz, Poland, for example, the Nazis had reduced a prewar Jewish population of more than 220,000 to less than 1,000.
Following the war, Jewish parents often spent months and years searching for the children they had sent into hiding. In fortunate instances, they found their offspring with the original rescuer. Many, however, resorted to tracing services, newspaper notices, and survivor registries in the hope of finding their children.
Time and again, the search for family ended in tragedy. For parents, it was the discovery that their child had been killed or disappeared. For hidden children, it was the revelation that there were no surviving family members to reclaim them.
Custody Battles and Orphans
In hundreds of cases, rescuers refused to release hidden children to their families or Jewish organizations. Some demanded that the child be “redeemed” through financial remuneration. Others had grown attached to their charges and did not want to give them up. In the more difficult cases, courts had to decide to whom to award custody of the child. Some rescuers defied court decisions and hid the children for a second time.
The future of the thousands of orphaned Jewish children became a pressing matter. In the Netherlands, more than half of the 4,000 to 6,000 surviving Jewish children were declared “war foster children” (Oorlogspleegkinderen), and most were placed under a state committee's guardianship. The vast majority were returned to a surviving family member or a Jewish organization, but more than 300 were given to non-Jewish families.
Parents, relatives, or representatives of Jewish organizations who came to reclaim the children often encountered ambivalence, antagonism, and sometimes resistance. After years of concealing their true identity, Jewishness for some hidden Jewish children had come to symbolize persecution while Christianity stood for security. Some children even repeated antisemitic phrases learned from classmates and adults. Those who had been too young to remember their parents knew only their adopted family, religion, and often nationality. Many truly loved their foster families and refused to be given into the arms of a “stranger.” In a few instances, some youngsters had to be physically taken from their foster families. For a number of hidden children, the war's end did not bring an end to the traumatic experiences.
Immediately after the war, Holocaust survivors began to document the Nazis' crimes against the Jewish people, record their experiences, and memorialize those who were killed. The efforts were often painful journeys into the recent past. By 1948, Jewish organizations in Poland, Hungary, and Germany had compiled more than 10,000 written testimonies.
Hundreds of former hidden children recounted the especially difficult pain of their survival. Many sought to recover a past that the Nazis had stolen from them—families they had never known or were only distant memories, even their own given names. Others were shocked to learn of being Jewish. By delving into the shadowy recesses of their former lives, these special survivors preserve the memory of parents who bore them, rescuers who saved them, and a time that threatened to engulf them.
Series: Children during the Holocaust
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were children especially vulnerable to Nazi persecution?
- What risks, pressures, and motivations confronted rescuers when they tried to help children?
- What challenges faced hidden children and their families after liberation?
- Do children continue to be especially vulnerable in times of upheaval? | <urn:uuid:90c53223-e672-47ea-a5a3-f1397c0b4512> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/hidden-children-quest-for-family | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00154.warc.gz | en | 0.9832 | 950 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3079528510... | 9 | When the war ended in 1945, the surviving remnant of Europe's Jews immediately began the difficult and painful search for family members. Parents sought out the children they had placed in convents, orphanages, or with foster families. Local Jewish committees in Europe tried to register the living and account for the dead. Tracing services set up by the International Red Cross and Jewish relief organizations aided the searches, but often the quests were protracted because the Nazis, the war, and the mass relocations of populations in central and eastern Europe had displaced millions of people.
The quest for family was much more than a search for relatives. It often involved some traumatic soul searching for children to rediscover their true identity. Those who had been infants when they were placed into hiding had no recollection of their biological parents or knowledge of their Jewish origins. The only family that most had known was that of their rescuers. Consequently, when relatives or Jewish organizations discovered them, they were typically apprehensive and sometimes resistant to yet another change.
As areas were liberated from German rule, Jewish organizations rushed in to locate survivors and reunite families. In place after place, they faced the devastation wrought by the Holocaust. In Lodz, Poland, for example, the Nazis had reduced a prewar Jewish population of more than 220,000 to less than 1,000.
Following the war, Jewish parents often spent months and years searching for the children they had sent into hiding. In fortunate instances, they found their offspring with the original rescuer. Many, however, resorted to tracing services, newspaper notices, and survivor registries in the hope of finding their children.
Time and again, the search for family ended in tragedy. For parents, it was the discovery that their child had been killed or disappeared. For hidden children, it was the revelation that there were no surviving family members to reclaim them.
Custody Battles and Orphans
In hundreds of cases, rescuers refused to release hidden children to their families or Jewish organizations. Some demanded that the child be “redeemed” through financial remuneration. Others had grown attached to their charges and did not want to give them up. In the more difficult cases, courts had to decide to whom to award custody of the child. Some rescuers defied court decisions and hid the children for a second time.
The future of the thousands of orphaned Jewish children became a pressing matter. In the Netherlands, more than half of the 4,000 to 6,000 surviving Jewish children were declared “war foster children” (Oorlogspleegkinderen), and most were placed under a state committee's guardianship. The vast majority were returned to a surviving family member or a Jewish organization, but more than 300 were given to non-Jewish families.
Parents, relatives, or representatives of Jewish organizations who came to reclaim the children often encountered ambivalence, antagonism, and sometimes resistance. After years of concealing their true identity, Jewishness for some hidden Jewish children had come to symbolize persecution while Christianity stood for security. Some children even repeated antisemitic phrases learned from classmates and adults. Those who had been too young to remember their parents knew only their adopted family, religion, and often nationality. Many truly loved their foster families and refused to be given into the arms of a “stranger.” In a few instances, some youngsters had to be physically taken from their foster families. For a number of hidden children, the war's end did not bring an end to the traumatic experiences.
Immediately after the war, Holocaust survivors began to document the Nazis' crimes against the Jewish people, record their experiences, and memorialize those who were killed. The efforts were often painful journeys into the recent past. By 1948, Jewish organizations in Poland, Hungary, and Germany had compiled more than 10,000 written testimonies.
Hundreds of former hidden children recounted the especially difficult pain of their survival. Many sought to recover a past that the Nazis had stolen from them—families they had never known or were only distant memories, even their own given names. Others were shocked to learn of being Jewish. By delving into the shadowy recesses of their former lives, these special survivors preserve the memory of parents who bore them, rescuers who saved them, and a time that threatened to engulf them.
Series: Children during the Holocaust
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were children especially vulnerable to Nazi persecution?
- What risks, pressures, and motivations confronted rescuers when they tried to help children?
- What challenges faced hidden children and their families after liberation?
- Do children continue to be especially vulnerable in times of upheaval? | 964 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New studies from University of Colorado offer different version of Chaco Canyon's past
Research points to much-smaller full-time population
FARMINGTON — New research from a team headed by a University of Colorado scientist casts doubt on Chaco Canyon's status as a significant year-round population center during the Anasazi era.
Larry Benson, an adjunct curator at the CU Museum of Natural History, as well as a hydrologist and geochemist, led a team of researchers that published its findings about the settlement's food sources in the November 2019 edition of the Journal of Archaeological Science, a monthly, peer-reviewed academic journal.
Additionally, Benson maintains there is reason to believe Chaco was home to only a small, "caretaker" population on a year-round basis, filling up only occasionally for large ceremonial events that required large amounts of food to be imported.
The research largely confirms what Benson thought when he got his first look at Chaco Canyon — now known as Chaco Culture National Historic Park — decades ago. As a native Midwesterner who had grown up amid lush corn fields, he didn't see any way that the arid territory surrounding the settlement could produce maize or other crops in significant amounts – and certainly not enough to feed the 2,300 people often cited as the population of Chaco during that era.
During a telephone interview on Jan. 10 from Boulder, Colorado, Benson said the research focusing on Chaco's unsuitability for large-scale agriculture that was featured in the Journal of Archaeological Science paper didn't break a lot of new ground, as much of it had been published before. But it did go into much greater detail, crunching large amounts of data that strongly support the idea that the area could produce only enough food on its own to sustain a very small population.
Only a minimal amount of maize could have been grown at Chaco because of its aridity, short growing season and the flooding of the valley floor that occurred frequently in the summer, Benson writes with his fellow authors, Deanna Grimstead, John Stein, David Roth and Terry Plowman.
Benson said it was clear to him that dryland farming was not a feasible option for Chaco residents during the prehistoric era, and he said there is no physical evidence that irrigation took place in the valley on a large scale.
"It would have taken a monumental ditch and berm system to prevent (summer monsoon) flooding and direct the flow of that water," Benson said.
If such a system had been built, he said, "You should be able to see it now, and you can't, so my position is, they didn't."
According to Benson's research, even if Chaco residents had farmed 100 percent of the valley floor and the surrounding side valleys — a dubious proposition, he noted, estimating that only around 20 percent of that land is actually usable for agriculture — it could have supported a population of 1,000 people at most.
Additionally, the authors also write that 2,300 residents and their need for meat quickly would have eliminated the small and large animal populations, such as deer and rabbits, in the valley.
"That protein wouldn't even have lasted a year at Chaco for 2,000 people," he said.
The implication is clear, according to their research – that meat and maize were carried into the valley by porters from outlying areas to feed Chaco's residential population. The research indicates that the primary source of that food was the Chuska Slope, the eastern slope of the Chuska Mountains directly west of Chaco.
To meet the nutritional needs of a full-time population of 2,300 people, porters carrying that food faced an enormous task, according to the paper. They would have needed to make 18,000 trips a year to the canyon while burdened by a load of 45 kg — the equivalent of nearly 100 pounds. An average of 50 porters a day, each traveling from a minimum distance of approximately 37 miles and sometimes much farther, would have had to enter Chaco to keep the population fed, according to the research.
That is where Benson's research for the Journal of Archaeological Science article ended. He subsequently authored another paper — which he said he is having trouble getting peer reviewed, much less published — in which he suggests that Chaco's year-round population was much smaller than is generally believed.
Oil and gas leases: An appropriations bill includes a one-year moratorium on leases near Chaco
Benson bases that argument partly on analyses of Chaco's burial sites. Though he acknowledges that not every body buried in the valley has been located, he said the relatively small number of graves that have been located do not support the typical third-world death rate for a population of approximately 2,300 people. The number of graves more closely aligns with that of a population of a few hundred, he said.
Benson described his most recent paper as a hypothesis and said no one seems to like it. But he said his research indicates to him that Chaco most likely was home to a small caretaker population on a year-round basis, and a large number of pilgrims came to visit the settlement from outlying areas only for ceremonial events.
Furthermore, he said, it indicates that Anasazi elites did not live in Chaco's greathouses — another long-held belief — and instead lived on the periphery of the San Juan Basin, where they controlled the production of food resources and solidified their power.
Benson acknowledged those ideas present an "alternate reality" of what went on at Chaco, but he declined to characterize them as revolutionary.
"I think people have proposed parts of these ideas all along," he said. "What's different is I've done the calculations and (gathered the data)."
Mike Easterling can be reached at 505-564-4610, or via email at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:3b838d09-7aaf-4721-a430-b4af93443c96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.daily-times.com/story/news/local/2020/01/14/chaco-culture-required-large-amounts-outside-food-research-says/4459552002/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.980379 | 1,226 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.12357279... | 5 | New studies from University of Colorado offer different version of Chaco Canyon's past
Research points to much-smaller full-time population
FARMINGTON — New research from a team headed by a University of Colorado scientist casts doubt on Chaco Canyon's status as a significant year-round population center during the Anasazi era.
Larry Benson, an adjunct curator at the CU Museum of Natural History, as well as a hydrologist and geochemist, led a team of researchers that published its findings about the settlement's food sources in the November 2019 edition of the Journal of Archaeological Science, a monthly, peer-reviewed academic journal.
Additionally, Benson maintains there is reason to believe Chaco was home to only a small, "caretaker" population on a year-round basis, filling up only occasionally for large ceremonial events that required large amounts of food to be imported.
The research largely confirms what Benson thought when he got his first look at Chaco Canyon — now known as Chaco Culture National Historic Park — decades ago. As a native Midwesterner who had grown up amid lush corn fields, he didn't see any way that the arid territory surrounding the settlement could produce maize or other crops in significant amounts – and certainly not enough to feed the 2,300 people often cited as the population of Chaco during that era.
During a telephone interview on Jan. 10 from Boulder, Colorado, Benson said the research focusing on Chaco's unsuitability for large-scale agriculture that was featured in the Journal of Archaeological Science paper didn't break a lot of new ground, as much of it had been published before. But it did go into much greater detail, crunching large amounts of data that strongly support the idea that the area could produce only enough food on its own to sustain a very small population.
Only a minimal amount of maize could have been grown at Chaco because of its aridity, short growing season and the flooding of the valley floor that occurred frequently in the summer, Benson writes with his fellow authors, Deanna Grimstead, John Stein, David Roth and Terry Plowman.
Benson said it was clear to him that dryland farming was not a feasible option for Chaco residents during the prehistoric era, and he said there is no physical evidence that irrigation took place in the valley on a large scale.
"It would have taken a monumental ditch and berm system to prevent (summer monsoon) flooding and direct the flow of that water," Benson said.
If such a system had been built, he said, "You should be able to see it now, and you can't, so my position is, they didn't."
According to Benson's research, even if Chaco residents had farmed 100 percent of the valley floor and the surrounding side valleys — a dubious proposition, he noted, estimating that only around 20 percent of that land is actually usable for agriculture — it could have supported a population of 1,000 people at most.
Additionally, the authors also write that 2,300 residents and their need for meat quickly would have eliminated the small and large animal populations, such as deer and rabbits, in the valley.
"That protein wouldn't even have lasted a year at Chaco for 2,000 people," he said.
The implication is clear, according to their research – that meat and maize were carried into the valley by porters from outlying areas to feed Chaco's residential population. The research indicates that the primary source of that food was the Chuska Slope, the eastern slope of the Chuska Mountains directly west of Chaco.
To meet the nutritional needs of a full-time population of 2,300 people, porters carrying that food faced an enormous task, according to the paper. They would have needed to make 18,000 trips a year to the canyon while burdened by a load of 45 kg — the equivalent of nearly 100 pounds. An average of 50 porters a day, each traveling from a minimum distance of approximately 37 miles and sometimes much farther, would have had to enter Chaco to keep the population fed, according to the research.
That is where Benson's research for the Journal of Archaeological Science article ended. He subsequently authored another paper — which he said he is having trouble getting peer reviewed, much less published — in which he suggests that Chaco's year-round population was much smaller than is generally believed.
Oil and gas leases: An appropriations bill includes a one-year moratorium on leases near Chaco
Benson bases that argument partly on analyses of Chaco's burial sites. Though he acknowledges that not every body buried in the valley has been located, he said the relatively small number of graves that have been located do not support the typical third-world death rate for a population of approximately 2,300 people. The number of graves more closely aligns with that of a population of a few hundred, he said.
Benson described his most recent paper as a hypothesis and said no one seems to like it. But he said his research indicates to him that Chaco most likely was home to a small caretaker population on a year-round basis, and a large number of pilgrims came to visit the settlement from outlying areas only for ceremonial events.
Furthermore, he said, it indicates that Anasazi elites did not live in Chaco's greathouses — another long-held belief — and instead lived on the periphery of the San Juan Basin, where they controlled the production of food resources and solidified their power.
Benson acknowledged those ideas present an "alternate reality" of what went on at Chaco, but he declined to characterize them as revolutionary.
"I think people have proposed parts of these ideas all along," he said. "What's different is I've done the calculations and (gathered the data)."
Mike Easterling can be reached at 505-564-4610, or via email at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 1,237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On June 25th1876, on the banks of the Little Bighorn river in Montana US, General Custer and 265 of his men were killed in less than an hour in what has become known as Custer's Last Stand.
The 7th Cavalry clashed with Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne in a bloody battle where the US army were defeated resolutely. The native forces were led by Chief Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, names we are still familiar with today, 142 years later.
You might not be surprised to hear that the conflict had its roots in gold. The Native Americans had been granted ownership of the Black Hills mountain range, South Dakota in the treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. Later though, when gold was discovered in the mountain range, the federal government intervened to protect the activities of prospectors and push the Sioux and the Cheyenne further north. General Custer was instructed to wait for reinforcements, but having heard that Chief Sitting Bull had been spotted nearby, he was keen to attack.
This turned out to be a fatal mistake, and his army were surrounded and slaughtered. The victory for the natives was short lived though, as when the reinforcements turned up a few days later, they pushed the tribes back and took control of the Black Hills.
Twelve years later, in 1888, the Republican party nominated Benjamin Harrison as their presidential candidate. He went on to beat Grover Cleveland to become the 23rd President of the USA. This particular candidate and election have a few interesting elements. Benjamin Harrison was the grandson of William Harrison Sr, the 9th president, who has the dual honour of being the last president born before the American Revolution, and also the shortest tenure of any president, dying of pneumonia just 31 days after taking office.
Benjamin Harrison defeated the sitting president, Grover Cleveland by winning 20 states to Cleveland's 18. In doing so he won more electoral college votes, winning 233 to Cleveland's168. He is however one of only five presidents who won the election, but lost the popular vote.
Cleveland won 90,000 more votes (out of about 11 million cast) so won the popular vote by .8%. George. W. Bush won the 2000 election, but lost the popular vote to Al Gore, and the current president, Donald Trump also won the 2016 election, but lost the popular vote by 2.8 million votes to Hillary Clinton.
All this aside though, and also ignoring the fact that Cleveland came back four years later to be the only president to win a second, but not consecutive, election, 1888 was memorable for one huge event.
Frederick Douglass, born a slave in 1818, became the first African American to be considered for presidential candidacy. He won one vote in the forth round of the Republican voting which saw Harrison win the nomination. My little 500 word post won't do him justice today, but he had an absolutely amazing contribution to the politics of the time. Later I'll write a separate post about him, and link to it, so keep your eyes peeled. If you can't wait though, and you have a bit of time, this link is a good summary. He's attributed many inspirational quotes, but my favourite is "It is easier to build strong children than mend broken men."
In other news, a very happy Heinz 57th birthday to Ricky Gervais, and a posthumous happy birthday to both George Orwell and George Michael. If I hadn't maxed out my words I'd have said a few things, but you know, there's always tomorrow!
Enjoy the sun, and thanks for reading! | <urn:uuid:628802d1-0e88-4c7e-936b-789a61838cc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.today-but-then.com/single-post/2018/06/25/Today-But-Then-June-25th | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.984484 | 741 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.08195394... | 3 | On June 25th1876, on the banks of the Little Bighorn river in Montana US, General Custer and 265 of his men were killed in less than an hour in what has become known as Custer's Last Stand.
The 7th Cavalry clashed with Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne in a bloody battle where the US army were defeated resolutely. The native forces were led by Chief Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, names we are still familiar with today, 142 years later.
You might not be surprised to hear that the conflict had its roots in gold. The Native Americans had been granted ownership of the Black Hills mountain range, South Dakota in the treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. Later though, when gold was discovered in the mountain range, the federal government intervened to protect the activities of prospectors and push the Sioux and the Cheyenne further north. General Custer was instructed to wait for reinforcements, but having heard that Chief Sitting Bull had been spotted nearby, he was keen to attack.
This turned out to be a fatal mistake, and his army were surrounded and slaughtered. The victory for the natives was short lived though, as when the reinforcements turned up a few days later, they pushed the tribes back and took control of the Black Hills.
Twelve years later, in 1888, the Republican party nominated Benjamin Harrison as their presidential candidate. He went on to beat Grover Cleveland to become the 23rd President of the USA. This particular candidate and election have a few interesting elements. Benjamin Harrison was the grandson of William Harrison Sr, the 9th president, who has the dual honour of being the last president born before the American Revolution, and also the shortest tenure of any president, dying of pneumonia just 31 days after taking office.
Benjamin Harrison defeated the sitting president, Grover Cleveland by winning 20 states to Cleveland's 18. In doing so he won more electoral college votes, winning 233 to Cleveland's168. He is however one of only five presidents who won the election, but lost the popular vote.
Cleveland won 90,000 more votes (out of about 11 million cast) so won the popular vote by .8%. George. W. Bush won the 2000 election, but lost the popular vote to Al Gore, and the current president, Donald Trump also won the 2016 election, but lost the popular vote by 2.8 million votes to Hillary Clinton.
All this aside though, and also ignoring the fact that Cleveland came back four years later to be the only president to win a second, but not consecutive, election, 1888 was memorable for one huge event.
Frederick Douglass, born a slave in 1818, became the first African American to be considered for presidential candidacy. He won one vote in the forth round of the Republican voting which saw Harrison win the nomination. My little 500 word post won't do him justice today, but he had an absolutely amazing contribution to the politics of the time. Later I'll write a separate post about him, and link to it, so keep your eyes peeled. If you can't wait though, and you have a bit of time, this link is a good summary. He's attributed many inspirational quotes, but my favourite is "It is easier to build strong children than mend broken men."
In other news, a very happy Heinz 57th birthday to Ricky Gervais, and a posthumous happy birthday to both George Orwell and George Michael. If I hadn't maxed out my words I'd have said a few things, but you know, there's always tomorrow!
Enjoy the sun, and thanks for reading! | 790 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The office of a colleague, paleontologist Tab Rasmussen at Washington University in St. Louis, houses an awesome, frightening treasure. It's the talon of an extinct raptor that once lived in Madagascar. The raptor has no common name. Like many fossil species, it is known only by its scientific name, Stephanoaetus mahery.
Recently, we had the opportunity to examine this talon. It came from a large eagle that became extinct 1,500—2,000 years ago. The talon was from the front of the raptor foot. Measuring over 1.5 inches, it is robust and very impressive. Those talons could have done major damage to any prey species. The long hind talons of the fossil eagle are equal in size and massiveness (and the tarsometatarsus is actually larger) than modern specimens of crowned hawk-eagles. Stephanoaetus is also the genus in which the modern crowned hawk-eagle of today resides. The fossil and today's crowned hawk-eagle are relatives—the crowned hawk-eagle being the only surviving member of the genus. "Exceptionally robust" in size and proportions—along with "exceptionally prominent" muscle attachment surfaces—were mentioned in the first published description of the extinct eagle by Steve Goodman, an ornithologist at Chicago's Field
Museum. He credits the long hind talon of the crowned hawk-eagle with its ability to subdue very large prey. Since the hind talons of S. mahery and its modern cousin are similar in massive length and girth, he assumes that S. mahery would have been a formidable predator of lemurs, just as the crowned hawk-eagle is the premier threat to African forest monkeys today.35 We started putting ourselves in the place of prey to that fossil eagle. We know it was as large or larger than the extant crowned hawk-eagles of Africa, which have a wingspan of 6 feet. Primatologists Lysa Leland and Tom Struhsaker wrote that seeing crowned hawk-eagles swooping low in the forest—when you are standing under them in the shadows of their outstretched wings—is like being back in the age of the pterodactyls.36
One of us (RWS) had the experience of being the target of a pair of hawks that decided to dive at an offending human. I recalled that while following one of my groups of brown lemurs under the trees in a deciduous forest in southwestern Madagascar, I disturbed a pair of small hawks, probably Henst's goshawks. They must have just built a nest or hatched a brood of nestlings, because I had been in this portion of the lemurs' range many times before without incident. Both of the birds began diving at me and coming so close that I could feel the wind as they flew past. They continued to do this for a few weeks, becoming ever more intimidating. I would try to stay clear of the area, but when I had to follow the lemurs into their range, I'd take a stick to wave at the hawks in an attempt to discourage their rambunctious attempts to take my head off. Once one of them actually glanced off my forehead as it flew by. The fossil S. mahery would have been more than three times larger than the hawks that dived at my head. I wouldn't have wanted that large extinct eagle to be the bird diving at me in a Madagascar forest!
This is virtually what did happen to the late Leslie Brown, who was the world's authority on the crowned hawk-eagle. Brown included an impressive photograph in one of his books that speaks louder than any words about the pain elicited by an attack from a large eagle. Three half-inch-wide ropey scars spread about 8 inches apart on his back are testimony to the power of crowned hawk-eagle talons. A female eagle had acted aggressively toward him over a period of several years when he was monitoring her nests. Finally, one nesting season she had enough of this human intruder and launched a full attack. The eagle flew directly at him from 300 yards away at high speed and delivered a violent downward impact with one open foot. He declared it felt like a crushing blow from a heavy stick; if he had not been wearing a shirt, which was mostly what her talons grasped, he would have sustained even more serious damage. (Reminiscent of the Zambian schoolboy whose khaki uniform saved him!) Needless to say, Brown opted for discretion over valor and kept away from her nest after the incident.37
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:a134c5a0-d811-443e-bb3d-5f049f6c3bd6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/living-primates/an-alfred-hitchcock-moment.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.98124 | 963 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.3195825815200... | 1 | The office of a colleague, paleontologist Tab Rasmussen at Washington University in St. Louis, houses an awesome, frightening treasure. It's the talon of an extinct raptor that once lived in Madagascar. The raptor has no common name. Like many fossil species, it is known only by its scientific name, Stephanoaetus mahery.
Recently, we had the opportunity to examine this talon. It came from a large eagle that became extinct 1,500—2,000 years ago. The talon was from the front of the raptor foot. Measuring over 1.5 inches, it is robust and very impressive. Those talons could have done major damage to any prey species. The long hind talons of the fossil eagle are equal in size and massiveness (and the tarsometatarsus is actually larger) than modern specimens of crowned hawk-eagles. Stephanoaetus is also the genus in which the modern crowned hawk-eagle of today resides. The fossil and today's crowned hawk-eagle are relatives—the crowned hawk-eagle being the only surviving member of the genus. "Exceptionally robust" in size and proportions—along with "exceptionally prominent" muscle attachment surfaces—were mentioned in the first published description of the extinct eagle by Steve Goodman, an ornithologist at Chicago's Field
Museum. He credits the long hind talon of the crowned hawk-eagle with its ability to subdue very large prey. Since the hind talons of S. mahery and its modern cousin are similar in massive length and girth, he assumes that S. mahery would have been a formidable predator of lemurs, just as the crowned hawk-eagle is the premier threat to African forest monkeys today.35 We started putting ourselves in the place of prey to that fossil eagle. We know it was as large or larger than the extant crowned hawk-eagles of Africa, which have a wingspan of 6 feet. Primatologists Lysa Leland and Tom Struhsaker wrote that seeing crowned hawk-eagles swooping low in the forest—when you are standing under them in the shadows of their outstretched wings—is like being back in the age of the pterodactyls.36
One of us (RWS) had the experience of being the target of a pair of hawks that decided to dive at an offending human. I recalled that while following one of my groups of brown lemurs under the trees in a deciduous forest in southwestern Madagascar, I disturbed a pair of small hawks, probably Henst's goshawks. They must have just built a nest or hatched a brood of nestlings, because I had been in this portion of the lemurs' range many times before without incident. Both of the birds began diving at me and coming so close that I could feel the wind as they flew past. They continued to do this for a few weeks, becoming ever more intimidating. I would try to stay clear of the area, but when I had to follow the lemurs into their range, I'd take a stick to wave at the hawks in an attempt to discourage their rambunctious attempts to take my head off. Once one of them actually glanced off my forehead as it flew by. The fossil S. mahery would have been more than three times larger than the hawks that dived at my head. I wouldn't have wanted that large extinct eagle to be the bird diving at me in a Madagascar forest!
This is virtually what did happen to the late Leslie Brown, who was the world's authority on the crowned hawk-eagle. Brown included an impressive photograph in one of his books that speaks louder than any words about the pain elicited by an attack from a large eagle. Three half-inch-wide ropey scars spread about 8 inches apart on his back are testimony to the power of crowned hawk-eagle talons. A female eagle had acted aggressively toward him over a period of several years when he was monitoring her nests. Finally, one nesting season she had enough of this human intruder and launched a full attack. The eagle flew directly at him from 300 yards away at high speed and delivered a violent downward impact with one open foot. He declared it felt like a crushing blow from a heavy stick; if he had not been wearing a shirt, which was mostly what her talons grasped, he would have sustained even more serious damage. (Reminiscent of the Zambian schoolboy whose khaki uniform saved him!) Needless to say, Brown opted for discretion over valor and kept away from her nest after the incident.37
Was this article helpful? | 964 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shakespearean drama contains plenty of women, and you probably know that men portrayed them all. But there were women in the audiences of Shakespeare’s plays, and other plays in early modern England. And as the English literature professor Marion Wynne-Davis explains, they weren’t all there to be entertained—and they were far from silent.
In fact, theaters of the era were rife with women. Some came to watch the plays themselves; others came to sell their wares. Still others got on stage themselves. And all were subject to suspicion and mockery because of their gender.
Wynne-Davis explains that women “went to the theater for many reasons, only one of which seems to have been to watch the play.” Low-class women came to sell concessions to theatergoers, roving through the audience selling oranges, apples, tobacco and other goods. Other spectators were prostitutes soliciting new business or acting as escorts. At least one other, Mary Frith, appeared onstage.
In the early 1600s, Frith went onstage dressed as a man, entertaining the audience with “lascivious” speeches, singing, playing the lute, and telling spectators she would prove she was a woman despite her appearance. Though there is no record of how women responded to Frith’s performances, she was famous (or infamous) enough to have a play, Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker’s The Roaring Girl, written about her, and was included and satirized in other plays. Frith was portrayed as notorious, immodest, loud, and thieving. By cross-dressing, she obtained notoriety, acted as a novelty, and was censured in public.
More anonymous, but no less criticized, were the orange-women. Satirized by Ben Jonson and others, these women were seen as hurting local businesses by reselling food that could have been purchased in shops. Though their profession was “one of the few ways that a poor woman could earn a living,” writes Wynne-Davis, they were mocked because of their jobs and what some saw as their disruptive presence in an already rowdy theater.
Though prostitutes were also present there, any female spectator was assumed to have loose virtue and to be at a play to procure sex. By appearing at a public entertainment among a large group of men, women automatically were lumped in among what one anonymous author called “those unwholesome enticing harlots.”
For Wynne-Davis, these women shared something aside from their gender: a willingness to speak up in public. “Early modern theaters would have been alive with women’s actions and voices—the cries of orange-women, the dalliances of female spectators, and the songs of Mary Frith,” she writes. The “most powerful link between these women is that they did not sit silently watching the play.” By being vocal and active, women in early English modern theater challenged what was going on onstage and in the world around them, prompting outrage and entertainment along the way. | <urn:uuid:b8d75251-8b32-483b-88f4-310a592b28fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://daily.jstor.org/the-rowdy-women-of-early-modern-theater/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.98996 | 640 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.07537585... | 11 | Shakespearean drama contains plenty of women, and you probably know that men portrayed them all. But there were women in the audiences of Shakespeare’s plays, and other plays in early modern England. And as the English literature professor Marion Wynne-Davis explains, they weren’t all there to be entertained—and they were far from silent.
In fact, theaters of the era were rife with women. Some came to watch the plays themselves; others came to sell their wares. Still others got on stage themselves. And all were subject to suspicion and mockery because of their gender.
Wynne-Davis explains that women “went to the theater for many reasons, only one of which seems to have been to watch the play.” Low-class women came to sell concessions to theatergoers, roving through the audience selling oranges, apples, tobacco and other goods. Other spectators were prostitutes soliciting new business or acting as escorts. At least one other, Mary Frith, appeared onstage.
In the early 1600s, Frith went onstage dressed as a man, entertaining the audience with “lascivious” speeches, singing, playing the lute, and telling spectators she would prove she was a woman despite her appearance. Though there is no record of how women responded to Frith’s performances, she was famous (or infamous) enough to have a play, Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker’s The Roaring Girl, written about her, and was included and satirized in other plays. Frith was portrayed as notorious, immodest, loud, and thieving. By cross-dressing, she obtained notoriety, acted as a novelty, and was censured in public.
More anonymous, but no less criticized, were the orange-women. Satirized by Ben Jonson and others, these women were seen as hurting local businesses by reselling food that could have been purchased in shops. Though their profession was “one of the few ways that a poor woman could earn a living,” writes Wynne-Davis, they were mocked because of their jobs and what some saw as their disruptive presence in an already rowdy theater.
Though prostitutes were also present there, any female spectator was assumed to have loose virtue and to be at a play to procure sex. By appearing at a public entertainment among a large group of men, women automatically were lumped in among what one anonymous author called “those unwholesome enticing harlots.”
For Wynne-Davis, these women shared something aside from their gender: a willingness to speak up in public. “Early modern theaters would have been alive with women’s actions and voices—the cries of orange-women, the dalliances of female spectators, and the songs of Mary Frith,” she writes. The “most powerful link between these women is that they did not sit silently watching the play.” By being vocal and active, women in early English modern theater challenged what was going on onstage and in the world around them, prompting outrage and entertainment along the way. | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After George Washington's defeat at Fort Necessity, his British force retreated to Wills Creek (present day Cumberland, Maryland).
The March to the Forks
After appeals from colonial governors, the British decided to take matters more seriously and sent Major General Braddock to North America with two regiments of infantry. Braddock, a career soldier, had risen through the ranks. After 45 years of military service he became commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America. The British plan for 1755 was to simultaneously attack many French forts in North America. Braddock would lead the expedition against Fort Duquesne personally. That spring, he disembarked his army at Alexandria, Virginia. After adding colonial troops and a few Indians to his force, Braddock had about 2,400 men. George Washington joined the campaign as a volunteer aide to the General.
The army assembled at Wills Creek. Braddock decided to follow the road Washington had blazed over the mountains on his way to Fort Necessity the previous year. Because the trail was inadequate for the army's large wagons and artillery, it was widened to 12 feet, but only at great effort and expenditure of time. The force seemed to move at a snail's pace. Finally the army was split in two with Braddock moving ahead with the bulk of the men and a few pieces of artillery. The remainder would follow under the command of Colonel Dunbar
In early July, the advance group was approaching the Forks of the Ohio. On July 9, they made a second crossing of the Monongahela River. From that point it was a short march to Fort Duquesne.
The Battle of the Monongahela
Soon after the river crossing, the woods in front of the British column exploded with musket fire and the whooping of American Indians and their French allies as they collided head-on with the British. Advance British units fell back upon the main body, while the rear units continued advancing, adding to the confusion. Disorganization and fear seized the British. In the smoke of the battle, fighting an unseen enemy, and with many British officers killed early on, discipline all but ended.
The Battle lasted three hours. Finally, as Braddock was carried from the field severely wounded, the surviving British fled. British losses had been horrendous: more than 900 casualties out of 1,400 men engaged. They were completely beaten by a force they could not see in a wilderness where they did not want to be. Their retreat to the safety of Dunbar's camp was hasty and disorganized. Washington reported "The shocking Scenes which presented themselves in this Nights March are not to be described. The dead, the dying, the groans, lamentations, and crys ... of the wounded for help were enough to pierce a heart of adamant".
The General is BuriedOn July 13 The British camped about one mile west of the Great Meadows, site of Fort Necessity, and in the evening Braddock died. Washington officiated at the ceremony the next day. The general was buried in the road his men had built. The army then marched over the grave to obliterate any traces of it and continued to eastern Pennsylvania.
One can only imagine what went through the general's mind after the battle. He commanded what some considered an invincible army. They were not ambushed, but rather surprised, and discipline broke down. The rout was a disgrace. Doctors later reported that the general had died more from anxiety than from his wounds.
Washington later wrote "...Thus died a man, whose good and bad qualities were intimately blended. He was brave even to a fault and in regular Service would have done honor to his profession. His attachments were warm, his enmities were strong, and having no disguise about him, both appeared in full force."
The French used this British retreat to their advantage, and soon French-inspired Indian attacks occurred throughout the frontier. Terrorized settlers streamed eastward and the war spread. In the ensuing decade, however, France lost all her colonies in North America and the British Empire was expanding around the globe. The removal of external threats to colonist and the increased cost of governing the British Empire helped set the stage for the American Revolution.
Last updated: January 8, 2020 | <urn:uuid:5c3975ed-e416-43d5-b95a-920c666e972f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/articles/braddock-campaign.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.986012 | 876 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.2867730855... | 1 | After George Washington's defeat at Fort Necessity, his British force retreated to Wills Creek (present day Cumberland, Maryland).
The March to the Forks
After appeals from colonial governors, the British decided to take matters more seriously and sent Major General Braddock to North America with two regiments of infantry. Braddock, a career soldier, had risen through the ranks. After 45 years of military service he became commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America. The British plan for 1755 was to simultaneously attack many French forts in North America. Braddock would lead the expedition against Fort Duquesne personally. That spring, he disembarked his army at Alexandria, Virginia. After adding colonial troops and a few Indians to his force, Braddock had about 2,400 men. George Washington joined the campaign as a volunteer aide to the General.
The army assembled at Wills Creek. Braddock decided to follow the road Washington had blazed over the mountains on his way to Fort Necessity the previous year. Because the trail was inadequate for the army's large wagons and artillery, it was widened to 12 feet, but only at great effort and expenditure of time. The force seemed to move at a snail's pace. Finally the army was split in two with Braddock moving ahead with the bulk of the men and a few pieces of artillery. The remainder would follow under the command of Colonel Dunbar
In early July, the advance group was approaching the Forks of the Ohio. On July 9, they made a second crossing of the Monongahela River. From that point it was a short march to Fort Duquesne.
The Battle of the Monongahela
Soon after the river crossing, the woods in front of the British column exploded with musket fire and the whooping of American Indians and their French allies as they collided head-on with the British. Advance British units fell back upon the main body, while the rear units continued advancing, adding to the confusion. Disorganization and fear seized the British. In the smoke of the battle, fighting an unseen enemy, and with many British officers killed early on, discipline all but ended.
The Battle lasted three hours. Finally, as Braddock was carried from the field severely wounded, the surviving British fled. British losses had been horrendous: more than 900 casualties out of 1,400 men engaged. They were completely beaten by a force they could not see in a wilderness where they did not want to be. Their retreat to the safety of Dunbar's camp was hasty and disorganized. Washington reported "The shocking Scenes which presented themselves in this Nights March are not to be described. The dead, the dying, the groans, lamentations, and crys ... of the wounded for help were enough to pierce a heart of adamant".
The General is BuriedOn July 13 The British camped about one mile west of the Great Meadows, site of Fort Necessity, and in the evening Braddock died. Washington officiated at the ceremony the next day. The general was buried in the road his men had built. The army then marched over the grave to obliterate any traces of it and continued to eastern Pennsylvania.
One can only imagine what went through the general's mind after the battle. He commanded what some considered an invincible army. They were not ambushed, but rather surprised, and discipline broke down. The rout was a disgrace. Doctors later reported that the general had died more from anxiety than from his wounds.
Washington later wrote "...Thus died a man, whose good and bad qualities were intimately blended. He was brave even to a fault and in regular Service would have done honor to his profession. His attachments were warm, his enmities were strong, and having no disguise about him, both appeared in full force."
The French used this British retreat to their advantage, and soon French-inspired Indian attacks occurred throughout the frontier. Terrorized settlers streamed eastward and the war spread. In the ensuing decade, however, France lost all her colonies in North America and the British Empire was expanding around the globe. The removal of external threats to colonist and the increased cost of governing the British Empire helped set the stage for the American Revolution.
Last updated: January 8, 2020 | 887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For many years in an order for an economy to prosper politically, socially or economically it must expand. Expansionism has been an enormously beneficial factor to the United States. A United States that started as colonies soon to become newly formed states. With these states came divided ideals and a soon to follow unification. The newly "United States" now had a mission this mission was Manifest Destiny, to eventually cover an area soon to span from one great ocean to another and Americans believed it was their God given right. The great expansion was to happen slowly adding territory time and time again, until needs or at least ideals were fulfilled. Expansionism showed many similarities to that of the earlier expansionism. Although differences still remained in the conquest for expansionism during this time period. In the early 19th century expansionism was somewhat due to Manifest Destiny but later to better the Nation's stand point.
Early expansion occurred to establish the very growing United States. Marveled be newly discovered wonders we set west to undiscovered lands. Once settled for years internal improvements were made. Improvements such as railways, canals, and roads were made to better the acquired land. However during the late nineteenth and early twentieth-centuries the process was to take place all over again. As Josiah Strong states in Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis, "The unoccupied arable lands of the earth are limited, and will soon be taken Then the world will enter upon a new stage of its history- simply put this means once established, as the United States was, one must reach further to gain more ground. If you are not the one to gain that ground then someone or something else will. This follows the same principles as Manifest Destiny. We as a nation believed that the land west was to be ours, if not it was to belong to someone else. | <urn:uuid:056c1b39-7836-4d27-8053-20e11e13d48d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/56695.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.984376 | 369 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.020250787... | 4 | For many years in an order for an economy to prosper politically, socially or economically it must expand. Expansionism has been an enormously beneficial factor to the United States. A United States that started as colonies soon to become newly formed states. With these states came divided ideals and a soon to follow unification. The newly "United States" now had a mission this mission was Manifest Destiny, to eventually cover an area soon to span from one great ocean to another and Americans believed it was their God given right. The great expansion was to happen slowly adding territory time and time again, until needs or at least ideals were fulfilled. Expansionism showed many similarities to that of the earlier expansionism. Although differences still remained in the conquest for expansionism during this time period. In the early 19th century expansionism was somewhat due to Manifest Destiny but later to better the Nation's stand point.
Early expansion occurred to establish the very growing United States. Marveled be newly discovered wonders we set west to undiscovered lands. Once settled for years internal improvements were made. Improvements such as railways, canals, and roads were made to better the acquired land. However during the late nineteenth and early twentieth-centuries the process was to take place all over again. As Josiah Strong states in Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis, "The unoccupied arable lands of the earth are limited, and will soon be taken Then the world will enter upon a new stage of its history- simply put this means once established, as the United States was, one must reach further to gain more ground. If you are not the one to gain that ground then someone or something else will. This follows the same principles as Manifest Destiny. We as a nation believed that the land west was to be ours, if not it was to belong to someone else. | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Christmas Money (1917) - When the Czarist government in Russia collapsed in 1917, a reign of terror began. There was no organized government. Bands of outlaws roamed the country, plundering, raping, and killing wherever they went.
These bands usually came at night. Children were well aware of the danger. They were terribly afraid when these men entered their homes.
It was shortly after Christmas. The children in the Mennonite villages had all memorized a Wunsch or a special recitation for Christmas. It was the custom at that time that each child recited the Wunsch to parents, grandparents, and other relatives as they visited in the home during the holiday season. Usually children got a Kopeke or small coin after each recital, so they collected a number of these coins. They called them their Christmas money.
One night the dogs on the yard of the Klassen family started barking. Everybody was up in a flash. They knew the bandits were coming! They huddled together in a little group. The children clung to their parents’ hands.
Soon there came the usual pounding on the door, and the rough shouts demanding entrance.
Father Klassen opened the door. The bandits rushed in, grabbed Father Klassen and his oldest son, and placed them against the wall.
“Give us money,” they demanded.
“All our money has already been taken by others who have come before you,” said Mr. Klassen.
“Then we will shoot you,” stated one of the bandits coldly.
One of the children, a little girl about ten years old, walked over to the bandit and said, “I will get my Christmas money”.
She ran out of the room, and before the bandit knew what was happening she was back with her money. She put the little coins into the bandit’s hand.
For a moment there was complete silence in the room. Then the bandit bent down and kissed her.
Silently the bandits left the house. There was no shooting that night, and nothing was taken.
As was the custom in that home after these terrifying experiences, they all knelt down as a family, and Father thanked God for his gracious protection. God has many ways his wonders to perform.
We in this country, and our brothers and sisters in the Soviet Union no longer have to worry about bandits coming in the night to take away our Christmas money. We are blessed to live in peace-filled nations where we can comfortably sit back and celebrate the Christmas season. We don’t have to fear what’s happening outside in the darkness.
Today the darkness we face has come indoors and into our hearts. The fear we experience is not from without but from within. We no longer fear being persecuted for being a Christian as the first century Christians of the Bible were persecuted. We no longer fear being persecuted for being a Christian as these 20th century Mennonites did in Russia during the revolution.
Those Christians who have historically been persecuted for their faith have had to turn to Jesus for strength and support during their times of suffering and weakness. Just as we tend to turn to Jesus during our down times, grieving times, times of suffering. But how often in our lives have we really turned to Jesus and become dependent on him to get us through. How often during our times of inner darkness have we let the light Jesus offers shine through?
Today, we fear that inner darkness because too often we try to feel our way through on our own. We try so hard to be self-sufficient and independent. We think we can make it through the darkness on our own. We think we can make it through a financial crisis, a marriage crisis, the death of a family member or close friend, on our own. So we begin feeling our way through, on our own, never wanting to admit that we might need help, that we might need some light and guidance. This morning’s gospel reading from John applies to us and to our modern day society more than it has applied to any other society in history. Because our society preaches and we learn very well the lesson of self-sufficiency, independence, self-centeredness, worship of the self. As a result we live in an inner-darkness.
Today, in the midst of that inner-darkness we celebrate the birthday of Jesus Christ. We celebrate the coming of new life and light into our darkness.
John writes: The true light that enlightens everyone was coming into the world. The light was in the world, and the world was made through the light, yet the world knew him not. He came to his own home, and his own people received him not. But to all who received him, who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God.
Still today, even on this Christmas day, there will be many Christians who will receive him not. It is no wonder that this holiday season can be so depressing for so many people, because they try to make it through these days on their own. And as they do, their inner-darkness becomes even darker and more depressing than ever.
For those of us who are willing to open our hearts and to celebrate the birthday of Jesus Christ with family, friends, and church, we together experience that true light that came into the world on this day.
The light which Jesus brings us today is a revealing light. The person who has something to hide hates the light and loves the dark, but while we might be able to hide things from one another, it is impossible to hide anything from God.
The light which Jesus brings shows things as they really are; it exposes us, stripping away disguises and concealments. We can never really see ourselves as we truly are until we see ourselves through the light and the eyes of Jesus. What do you think Jesus sees as he looks at this church this morning, and as he looks at you an individual member? What do you see through the eyes of Jesus as you look at yourself on this Christmas Day? Jesus often guides us to God by revealing us to ourselves, by shedding some light on that inner-darkness that we all have and experience.
So the light Jesus brings to us this morning is not only a revealing light but a guiding light. We experience many hardships and many joys such as the birth of a son or daughter, during our lifetimes. Sometimes the pace seems slow while at other times we must run to keep us as during the Christmas season. These last weeks have been hectic for many of us.
Through it all we know that we would be lost in our inner-darkness of self without that revealing and guiding light of Jesus Christ.
It is the light that eventually gets us to our destination and goal, the day of Resurrection. Almost 2,000 years ago that light was born not by the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but of God. As we together celebrate the Sacrament of Holy Communion this morning, may we digest that light into our inner darkness’s. And in the New Year may we learn to give of ourselves to eliminate that darkness as that little girl did when the robbers came into her family’s home and were overwhelmed and defeated by her humility and giving and peace. | <urn:uuid:f76b484d-6ada-4d63-bca8-e46c0ecfaf92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.divinitylutheran.com/resources/sermons/message/the-light-shines-in-the-darkness/read | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.983218 | 1,523 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.258631646633... | 15 | The Christmas Money (1917) - When the Czarist government in Russia collapsed in 1917, a reign of terror began. There was no organized government. Bands of outlaws roamed the country, plundering, raping, and killing wherever they went.
These bands usually came at night. Children were well aware of the danger. They were terribly afraid when these men entered their homes.
It was shortly after Christmas. The children in the Mennonite villages had all memorized a Wunsch or a special recitation for Christmas. It was the custom at that time that each child recited the Wunsch to parents, grandparents, and other relatives as they visited in the home during the holiday season. Usually children got a Kopeke or small coin after each recital, so they collected a number of these coins. They called them their Christmas money.
One night the dogs on the yard of the Klassen family started barking. Everybody was up in a flash. They knew the bandits were coming! They huddled together in a little group. The children clung to their parents’ hands.
Soon there came the usual pounding on the door, and the rough shouts demanding entrance.
Father Klassen opened the door. The bandits rushed in, grabbed Father Klassen and his oldest son, and placed them against the wall.
“Give us money,” they demanded.
“All our money has already been taken by others who have come before you,” said Mr. Klassen.
“Then we will shoot you,” stated one of the bandits coldly.
One of the children, a little girl about ten years old, walked over to the bandit and said, “I will get my Christmas money”.
She ran out of the room, and before the bandit knew what was happening she was back with her money. She put the little coins into the bandit’s hand.
For a moment there was complete silence in the room. Then the bandit bent down and kissed her.
Silently the bandits left the house. There was no shooting that night, and nothing was taken.
As was the custom in that home after these terrifying experiences, they all knelt down as a family, and Father thanked God for his gracious protection. God has many ways his wonders to perform.
We in this country, and our brothers and sisters in the Soviet Union no longer have to worry about bandits coming in the night to take away our Christmas money. We are blessed to live in peace-filled nations where we can comfortably sit back and celebrate the Christmas season. We don’t have to fear what’s happening outside in the darkness.
Today the darkness we face has come indoors and into our hearts. The fear we experience is not from without but from within. We no longer fear being persecuted for being a Christian as the first century Christians of the Bible were persecuted. We no longer fear being persecuted for being a Christian as these 20th century Mennonites did in Russia during the revolution.
Those Christians who have historically been persecuted for their faith have had to turn to Jesus for strength and support during their times of suffering and weakness. Just as we tend to turn to Jesus during our down times, grieving times, times of suffering. But how often in our lives have we really turned to Jesus and become dependent on him to get us through. How often during our times of inner darkness have we let the light Jesus offers shine through?
Today, we fear that inner darkness because too often we try to feel our way through on our own. We try so hard to be self-sufficient and independent. We think we can make it through the darkness on our own. We think we can make it through a financial crisis, a marriage crisis, the death of a family member or close friend, on our own. So we begin feeling our way through, on our own, never wanting to admit that we might need help, that we might need some light and guidance. This morning’s gospel reading from John applies to us and to our modern day society more than it has applied to any other society in history. Because our society preaches and we learn very well the lesson of self-sufficiency, independence, self-centeredness, worship of the self. As a result we live in an inner-darkness.
Today, in the midst of that inner-darkness we celebrate the birthday of Jesus Christ. We celebrate the coming of new life and light into our darkness.
John writes: The true light that enlightens everyone was coming into the world. The light was in the world, and the world was made through the light, yet the world knew him not. He came to his own home, and his own people received him not. But to all who received him, who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God.
Still today, even on this Christmas day, there will be many Christians who will receive him not. It is no wonder that this holiday season can be so depressing for so many people, because they try to make it through these days on their own. And as they do, their inner-darkness becomes even darker and more depressing than ever.
For those of us who are willing to open our hearts and to celebrate the birthday of Jesus Christ with family, friends, and church, we together experience that true light that came into the world on this day.
The light which Jesus brings us today is a revealing light. The person who has something to hide hates the light and loves the dark, but while we might be able to hide things from one another, it is impossible to hide anything from God.
The light which Jesus brings shows things as they really are; it exposes us, stripping away disguises and concealments. We can never really see ourselves as we truly are until we see ourselves through the light and the eyes of Jesus. What do you think Jesus sees as he looks at this church this morning, and as he looks at you an individual member? What do you see through the eyes of Jesus as you look at yourself on this Christmas Day? Jesus often guides us to God by revealing us to ourselves, by shedding some light on that inner-darkness that we all have and experience.
So the light Jesus brings to us this morning is not only a revealing light but a guiding light. We experience many hardships and many joys such as the birth of a son or daughter, during our lifetimes. Sometimes the pace seems slow while at other times we must run to keep us as during the Christmas season. These last weeks have been hectic for many of us.
Through it all we know that we would be lost in our inner-darkness of self without that revealing and guiding light of Jesus Christ.
It is the light that eventually gets us to our destination and goal, the day of Resurrection. Almost 2,000 years ago that light was born not by the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but of God. As we together celebrate the Sacrament of Holy Communion this morning, may we digest that light into our inner darkness’s. And in the New Year may we learn to give of ourselves to eliminate that darkness as that little girl did when the robbers came into her family’s home and were overwhelmed and defeated by her humility and giving and peace. | 1,476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Civil War airfield is located in the north – east of the Mare de Déu de l’Ajuda Sanctuary, between the municipalities of Balenyà and Tona.
The Spanish Civil War began in 1936. At that time Spain had the Second Republic, and a military coup attempted to overthrow the republican government. The war began after the military coup d’état triumphed in some areas of the Iberian Peninsula.
The Civil War lasted until 1939, and pitted the Republican army against the Franquist army.
In the context of the Civil War, the two armies had to build different infrastructures in order to face the war. In the case of the Republican army, it built, among other buildings, different airfields.
The plane of Vic was a place that aroused much interest to build airfields, since the orography was ideal. Thus, we know that 4 airfields were built in the Plain of Vic, one of which was built between Balenyà and Tona.
In the case of the Tona – Balenyà airfield, construction began in 1938, and it was made up of two runways. In addition, a total of 9 shelters were built to protect all those who worked in this airfield.
Some of these shelters have been recovered and can now be visited. Others, due to the degradation of time, make it impredictable to be able to visit them. | <urn:uuid:65e1b443-79da-41a6-a803-ce6f239ea62d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cooltur.org/en/product/civil-war-airfield-in-balenya/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.980891 | 299 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.50907200574874... | 6 | The Civil War airfield is located in the north – east of the Mare de Déu de l’Ajuda Sanctuary, between the municipalities of Balenyà and Tona.
The Spanish Civil War began in 1936. At that time Spain had the Second Republic, and a military coup attempted to overthrow the republican government. The war began after the military coup d’état triumphed in some areas of the Iberian Peninsula.
The Civil War lasted until 1939, and pitted the Republican army against the Franquist army.
In the context of the Civil War, the two armies had to build different infrastructures in order to face the war. In the case of the Republican army, it built, among other buildings, different airfields.
The plane of Vic was a place that aroused much interest to build airfields, since the orography was ideal. Thus, we know that 4 airfields were built in the Plain of Vic, one of which was built between Balenyà and Tona.
In the case of the Tona – Balenyà airfield, construction began in 1938, and it was made up of two runways. In addition, a total of 9 shelters were built to protect all those who worked in this airfield.
Some of these shelters have been recovered and can now be visited. Others, due to the degradation of time, make it impredictable to be able to visit them. | 298 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our Founding Fathers
During the upcoming summer there will be lots of commemorative events about the War of 1812. Throughout the celebrations the usual clichés will be spouted about ‘our two democracies’, ‘the longest undefended border in the world’, ‘similar values’, etc. The dreary patina of government sponsored history lessons will hide any real discussions of why the two countries fought so hard against each other for so long.
The truth is that there have been profound and significant differences in our societies from their very founding in 1783. There is no more striking contrast than the two men who were instrumental in creating the modern versions of our countries.
Let us take the principal U.S. founding father: George Washington. The customary defence of men like Washington is that they were typical of their time. His apologists say things like, “Yes, he was a slave owner. Yes, his views of the Presidency seemed a little too much like a ‘King of the United States’. And yes, he endorsed acts of ethnic cleansing and genocidal cruelty against the natives of the Ohio River valley. But you know most people of the 18th century had far more reactionary views, and Washington and the other founding fathers were actually far more progressive than their times.”
Not only is this defence false generally, for by the 1770s there were lots of people who considered slavery and massacres of the natives appalling cruelties (Edmund Burke, Jonathan Swift, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, et al.) but specifically some of the British generals who fought against the Americans were far more progressive and civil minded than Washington or his supporters.
There is one particular man whose name is almost synonymous with Ottawa – Guy Carleton. Carleton was a true renaissance man and someone, who in Canadian style has been nearly forgotten, yet we owe him much. A comparison between the two men shows how much Canadians have ceased to remember about why two wars were fought between the western inhabitants of North America in 1776 and 1812.
The first point of difference is in their treatment of the Roman Catholic population of Quebec. Carleton made a specific point of recognizing the rights of the inhabitants of Quebec to practice their own religion. He established this principle despite his own family background (he was a Protestant from the North of Ireland), but also against considerable opposition from the leaders of the independence movement of the then-thirteen American Colonies.
It is difficult to overstate the anti-Catholicism of most of the American Founding Fathers.
John Adams was typical in his claims of a religion that held human nature “chained fast for ages in a cruel, shameful and deplorable servitude”. In ten of the American Colonies of the time, Catholics were not allowed to hold office, in all but one Catholic schools were banned and in Virginia, Washington’s own district, Catholic priests were arrested if they tried to enter. In fact, Carleton’s toleration of Catholicism in Canada, was one of the single biggest reasons for the war between the colonies and Britain.
To be fair, George Washington seems to have been an exception to this general attitude and he urged his armies when invading Canada to be tolerant to the inhabitants “to look with Compassion upon their Errors without insulting them.”
However, the only recorded meeting between Carleton and Washington was symptomatic of some of the other differences that would define our countries. Carleton was ordered to clean up the mess made by Cornwallis and the other surrendering British generals. He went to New York to supervise the evacuation of the Loyalists. The war was essentially over and little remained but to surrender the once staunchly monarchist city to the new American government in October 1783.
However, in the spring of 1783, an angry Washington demanded a meeting with Carleton. We know much about their confrontation for the papers of both men and their aides at the meeting all agree. The main problem was that as far as Washington was concerned Carleton was stealing his property. Carleton and his men were going about New York contacting any black person who had assisted their army and getting them out of the country by ship to Canada. Most of this group were escaped slaves who had fought against the American army for their own freedom. They were huddled in miserable refugee camps all across city trying to hide from roving bands of slave catchers.
At the meeting, Carleton listened carefully to Washington’s demand that the slaves be returned and then politely refused him. In Carleton’s words, returning the slaves would be against ‘the national honour’.
Carleton did not help the slaves escape to make money. He helped them because it was the right thing to do. But his counterpart, George Washington had a direct monetary involvement in the affair, several of his own slaves had escaped their captivity at Mount Vernon and had fled to New York. Carleton was able to get them, and over three-thousand other people to freedom. Lawrence Hill’s novel The Book of Negroes is about this event, but really it was the Schindler’s List of the 1700s.
Let us be clear, if they had remained in the United States, they would have been victims of one of the most evil systems of indentured labour the world has even seen. It was partly for this system that Washington and much of the southern U.S. states fought against Britain. It is this type of system that Canada has always stood against. It was the reason that our leaders abolished slavery before much of the rest of the world. For four-score-and-seven years after the meeting between Carleton and Washington the very name of our county was a beacon of hope for tens-of-millions of enslaved people in the southern United States. They spoke the word Canada as the indigenous of Latin America spoke the words El Dorado, a near-mythical place where cruel masters could not reach them and real winds of freedom blew.
Conscientious historians will assert, with reason, that the relations between blacks and whites in Canada were not a smooth ride. But whatever the justified criticism they were far better than the systematic, industrial-scale cruelty south of the border and, in part, we have men like Carleton to thank. We should not forgot them, or our principles, when we remember the war of 1812. | <urn:uuid:a13c3a55-00fe-4899-bcc0-01908f2c1b60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://declanhill.com/our-founding-fathers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.982812 | 1,320 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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During the upcoming summer there will be lots of commemorative events about the War of 1812. Throughout the celebrations the usual clichés will be spouted about ‘our two democracies’, ‘the longest undefended border in the world’, ‘similar values’, etc. The dreary patina of government sponsored history lessons will hide any real discussions of why the two countries fought so hard against each other for so long.
The truth is that there have been profound and significant differences in our societies from their very founding in 1783. There is no more striking contrast than the two men who were instrumental in creating the modern versions of our countries.
Let us take the principal U.S. founding father: George Washington. The customary defence of men like Washington is that they were typical of their time. His apologists say things like, “Yes, he was a slave owner. Yes, his views of the Presidency seemed a little too much like a ‘King of the United States’. And yes, he endorsed acts of ethnic cleansing and genocidal cruelty against the natives of the Ohio River valley. But you know most people of the 18th century had far more reactionary views, and Washington and the other founding fathers were actually far more progressive than their times.”
Not only is this defence false generally, for by the 1770s there were lots of people who considered slavery and massacres of the natives appalling cruelties (Edmund Burke, Jonathan Swift, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, et al.) but specifically some of the British generals who fought against the Americans were far more progressive and civil minded than Washington or his supporters.
There is one particular man whose name is almost synonymous with Ottawa – Guy Carleton. Carleton was a true renaissance man and someone, who in Canadian style has been nearly forgotten, yet we owe him much. A comparison between the two men shows how much Canadians have ceased to remember about why two wars were fought between the western inhabitants of North America in 1776 and 1812.
The first point of difference is in their treatment of the Roman Catholic population of Quebec. Carleton made a specific point of recognizing the rights of the inhabitants of Quebec to practice their own religion. He established this principle despite his own family background (he was a Protestant from the North of Ireland), but also against considerable opposition from the leaders of the independence movement of the then-thirteen American Colonies.
It is difficult to overstate the anti-Catholicism of most of the American Founding Fathers.
John Adams was typical in his claims of a religion that held human nature “chained fast for ages in a cruel, shameful and deplorable servitude”. In ten of the American Colonies of the time, Catholics were not allowed to hold office, in all but one Catholic schools were banned and in Virginia, Washington’s own district, Catholic priests were arrested if they tried to enter. In fact, Carleton’s toleration of Catholicism in Canada, was one of the single biggest reasons for the war between the colonies and Britain.
To be fair, George Washington seems to have been an exception to this general attitude and he urged his armies when invading Canada to be tolerant to the inhabitants “to look with Compassion upon their Errors without insulting them.”
However, the only recorded meeting between Carleton and Washington was symptomatic of some of the other differences that would define our countries. Carleton was ordered to clean up the mess made by Cornwallis and the other surrendering British generals. He went to New York to supervise the evacuation of the Loyalists. The war was essentially over and little remained but to surrender the once staunchly monarchist city to the new American government in October 1783.
However, in the spring of 1783, an angry Washington demanded a meeting with Carleton. We know much about their confrontation for the papers of both men and their aides at the meeting all agree. The main problem was that as far as Washington was concerned Carleton was stealing his property. Carleton and his men were going about New York contacting any black person who had assisted their army and getting them out of the country by ship to Canada. Most of this group were escaped slaves who had fought against the American army for their own freedom. They were huddled in miserable refugee camps all across city trying to hide from roving bands of slave catchers.
At the meeting, Carleton listened carefully to Washington’s demand that the slaves be returned and then politely refused him. In Carleton’s words, returning the slaves would be against ‘the national honour’.
Carleton did not help the slaves escape to make money. He helped them because it was the right thing to do. But his counterpart, George Washington had a direct monetary involvement in the affair, several of his own slaves had escaped their captivity at Mount Vernon and had fled to New York. Carleton was able to get them, and over three-thousand other people to freedom. Lawrence Hill’s novel The Book of Negroes is about this event, but really it was the Schindler’s List of the 1700s.
Let us be clear, if they had remained in the United States, they would have been victims of one of the most evil systems of indentured labour the world has even seen. It was partly for this system that Washington and much of the southern U.S. states fought against Britain. It is this type of system that Canada has always stood against. It was the reason that our leaders abolished slavery before much of the rest of the world. For four-score-and-seven years after the meeting between Carleton and Washington the very name of our county was a beacon of hope for tens-of-millions of enslaved people in the southern United States. They spoke the word Canada as the indigenous of Latin America spoke the words El Dorado, a near-mythical place where cruel masters could not reach them and real winds of freedom blew.
Conscientious historians will assert, with reason, that the relations between blacks and whites in Canada were not a smooth ride. But whatever the justified criticism they were far better than the systematic, industrial-scale cruelty south of the border and, in part, we have men like Carleton to thank. We should not forgot them, or our principles, when we remember the war of 1812. | 1,296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Taking down Confederate monuments is but one part of a continuing story in Virginia as the Commonwealth tries to come to grips with its racist history. The story is in no way a pretty one. Africans who were brought to the colony as enslaved people were kept in bondage with cruelty and repression. They were stripped of their names and given names that had no meaning to them. Slaves were for the most part not taught to read and their ability to congregate together was severely restricted. They were overlooked in the Declaration of Independence and considered only three-fifths of a person in the Constitution. When Virginia plantations no longer found their labor needed with the depletion of the soil in the state, slaves were sold into the deep South with their families being broken up. The Civil War brought emancipation, but repression of Black people continued with the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, lynching, and Jim Crow laws. It was not until the Civil Rights Act of 1965 that African Americans started to realize what equal protection of the laws really meant.
During this history the General Assembly of Virginia passed laws that make those of us interested in the state’s history hang our heads in shame at the racism they embodied. Earlier this year Governor Ralph Northam appointed The Commission to Examine Racial Equality in Virginia Law to take a look at the language and intent of legislative actions in The Acts of Assembly and the Code of Virginia. The interim report issued this past week was shocking to those of us who study this issue for its sheer volume as well as for the stark language it uncovered of racism in the laws. Take a look for yourself at Racial Inequity Report.
Passed as recently as 1956 was a law, part of Massive Resistance, that provided that “no child shall be required to enroll in or attend any school wherein both white and colored children are enrolled.” The Commission found that “Virginia policymakers engaged in deliberate and coordinated legislative strategies to deny equal educational opportunities to black students…” There are numerous examples of laws including the poll tax that were intended to keep black people from voting.
Though most of the laws identified by the Commission are outdated and have no legal effect, they remain in the law. The Interim Report states that “the Commission believes that such vestiges of Virginia’s segregationist past should no longer have official status.” Laws that have been found to be unconstitutional or otherwise been invalidated should be repealed to ensure that they “could not be revived with a change of law or interpretation by a different leadership or court.”
The Commission found that “white and nonwhite Virginians face starkly disparate outcomes in health, educational attainment, financial stability, and access to justice. Any assessment of their disparities must take into account Virginia’s haunting legacy of coordinated, intentional, and official acts of forced segregation and overt racism.” The past is for recording in history books and not in official laws of today. The General Assembly meeting in January must take the important step of wiping the slate clean! | <urn:uuid:03754f4a-97ab-473a-8b1a-c9e01b523d0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.restonnow.com/2019/12/12/del-ken-plum-start-with-a-clean-slate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.980067 | 613 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.23935589194297... | 3 | Taking down Confederate monuments is but one part of a continuing story in Virginia as the Commonwealth tries to come to grips with its racist history. The story is in no way a pretty one. Africans who were brought to the colony as enslaved people were kept in bondage with cruelty and repression. They were stripped of their names and given names that had no meaning to them. Slaves were for the most part not taught to read and their ability to congregate together was severely restricted. They were overlooked in the Declaration of Independence and considered only three-fifths of a person in the Constitution. When Virginia plantations no longer found their labor needed with the depletion of the soil in the state, slaves were sold into the deep South with their families being broken up. The Civil War brought emancipation, but repression of Black people continued with the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, lynching, and Jim Crow laws. It was not until the Civil Rights Act of 1965 that African Americans started to realize what equal protection of the laws really meant.
During this history the General Assembly of Virginia passed laws that make those of us interested in the state’s history hang our heads in shame at the racism they embodied. Earlier this year Governor Ralph Northam appointed The Commission to Examine Racial Equality in Virginia Law to take a look at the language and intent of legislative actions in The Acts of Assembly and the Code of Virginia. The interim report issued this past week was shocking to those of us who study this issue for its sheer volume as well as for the stark language it uncovered of racism in the laws. Take a look for yourself at Racial Inequity Report.
Passed as recently as 1956 was a law, part of Massive Resistance, that provided that “no child shall be required to enroll in or attend any school wherein both white and colored children are enrolled.” The Commission found that “Virginia policymakers engaged in deliberate and coordinated legislative strategies to deny equal educational opportunities to black students…” There are numerous examples of laws including the poll tax that were intended to keep black people from voting.
Though most of the laws identified by the Commission are outdated and have no legal effect, they remain in the law. The Interim Report states that “the Commission believes that such vestiges of Virginia’s segregationist past should no longer have official status.” Laws that have been found to be unconstitutional or otherwise been invalidated should be repealed to ensure that they “could not be revived with a change of law or interpretation by a different leadership or court.”
The Commission found that “white and nonwhite Virginians face starkly disparate outcomes in health, educational attainment, financial stability, and access to justice. Any assessment of their disparities must take into account Virginia’s haunting legacy of coordinated, intentional, and official acts of forced segregation and overt racism.” The past is for recording in history books and not in official laws of today. The General Assembly meeting in January must take the important step of wiping the slate clean! | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘The Neo-Babylonian Empire, 612–539 bce’ looks at the period that followed Assyrian rule, when the Neo-Babylonian kings took over. The Neo-Babylonian kingdom was short-lived, lasting just seventy-five years. However, Nebuchadnezzar II, its most prominent king, is one of the best known figures in ancient history. He was a builder and was responsible for impressive structures in Babylon and the restoration of many temples in the area. He is also known for his conquest of the land of Judah and the deportation of the Jewish people to Babylon. The Persian conquest ended this empire. Evidence for the ancient Near East gradually eroded away, only to be re-discovered much later. | <urn:uuid:5044bdd7-74a2-406f-b79f-36b106e3857d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.veryshortintroductions.com/abstract/10.1093/actrade/9780195377996.001.0001/actrade-9780195377996-chapter-10?rskey=zlx290&result=8 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00488.warc.gz | en | 0.980772 | 159 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.27021649479866... | 2 | ‘The Neo-Babylonian Empire, 612–539 bce’ looks at the period that followed Assyrian rule, when the Neo-Babylonian kings took over. The Neo-Babylonian kingdom was short-lived, lasting just seventy-five years. However, Nebuchadnezzar II, its most prominent king, is one of the best known figures in ancient history. He was a builder and was responsible for impressive structures in Babylon and the restoration of many temples in the area. He is also known for his conquest of the land of Judah and the deportation of the Jewish people to Babylon. The Persian conquest ended this empire. Evidence for the ancient Near East gradually eroded away, only to be re-discovered much later. | 156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people and animals. No one knows exactly when the waterwheel was invented, but irrigation systems existed at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device was the noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. The device appears to have evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions of the Middle and Far East. The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, known as Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. in the Middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasingly sophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond its boundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe. In England, the Saxons are thought to have used both horizontal- and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in the eighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that every settlement of any size had its mill. Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developing technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cotton industries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.) But then steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower in doubt. An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimistic picture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and the waterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would have suffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completely different: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacity was water powered. The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series of scientific discoveries and development in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, but significant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part. In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday's discovery that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, a young French engineer patented a new and more efficient waterwheel. His name was Benoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The word turbine comes form the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered for nearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded. Half a century of development was needed before Faraday's discoveries in electricity were translated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey, England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world's first public electricity supply. The power source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately this early plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow in the Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine. From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of the nineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity of individual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over a megawatt in less than a decade. | <urn:uuid:e599f244-33b3-4266-830d-f558ecb48244> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.peakgmt.com/web/LR9R4HK57LAY6900O$.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.981378 | 851 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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In Greek mythology, peace embodies the goddess "Eirene", the goddess who was to bring peace or restore peace to a state or a nation. Peace is one of the Seasons or times in Greek mythology. Eirene was the daughter of the Greek divinities Zeus and Themis. Themis was involved with setting laws and ordinances which had been established by custom.
Peace was an important matter in ancient Greece. What exactly was the place of peace in Greek mythology? Keep reading and discover how Greek mythology viewed peace.
Peace in Greek mythology
Peace is binding together again
In Greek mythology, peace or "Eirene" is synonymous with reunification because it describes the act of binding or reuniting together again those which have been separated or divided. The concept is applied to marriage. When Zeus was unfaithful to his wife Hera and engaged in many love affairs, Hera punished Zeus' mistresses even if some of them did not intend to have an affair with him.
Peace is when the wrongdoers are punished and justice is served. The goddess Hera inflicted the same punishment to all the women Zeus had fallen in love with and their children were equally injured because of their mothers' mistake.
Peace is honesty
Peace equals honesty; in other words, when people tell the truth and keep their words, it leads to harmony in the society. The god Zeus never tolerated those who broke their oaths and told lies to trick the others.
He was also against mistreating dead bodies. For him, even if an individual is dead, they always need protection to be at peace. Stories about his punishment to the dishonest people were recorded in the Iliad, the oldest Greek literature.
Peace reigns when people obey the authority
Peace also referred to a state of harmony or absence of conflict or war in Greek mythology. Zeus' brother Poseidon (Neptune), the ruler of the Sea was often depicted as the one who was carrying a trident, driving his golden car on the sea waters.
After he passed by, stillness filled the air. He embodied the power of the authority to discipline people. People comply with the authority when its power is connected to the power of the gods.
Peace is prosperity
When peace and justice lead a country, the state is prosperous. Thus, prosperity is the outcome of harmony in the society. In Greek mythology, the ruler has a vital role in building and preserving peace to promote economic development. Zeus' daughter, Pallas Athena (Minerva), was responsible for safeguarding the city from the outside enemy.
Her duties involved protecting the economy, the agriculture, handcrafts, the civilians' belongings and their lives. With her devastating weapons, Zeus' favorite daughter Pallas Athena did not hesitate to annihilate their enemy who ventured to invade their territory and waged wars against them.
Peace was taught to mortal man
In Greek mythology, man could not live in harmony with each other. They were not honest, they killed each other and stole the others' belongings. That was why Zeus severely punished those who broke their promises to teach peace to them. Unless criminals were punished, man would usually commit wrongful acts. Likewise, goddess Hera relentlessly punished unfaithful women and their children for engaging themselves in love affairs with a married man.
Peace still needs to be taught
In brief, peace has always been an important part of daily life even in the ancient Greece. In Greek mythology, peace is established through violence and punishment of those who caused the breaches of peace. However, it was not possible for man to find it by themselves without the guidance and ruling of the deities in the ancient society as illustrated by the Greek mythology.
For that purpose, Prem Rawat, who is an ambassador of peace, said "That peace which is within us, we must experience it. And if we are searching for peace outside we will never find the peace within." Prem Rawat created the TPRF Foundation to provide peace education to people around him and to the world, that to achieve world peace, it is first crucial that each individual find their inner peace. | <urn:uuid:efead1f8-b051-4320-ad78-ad7d1325b8d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ivalerio.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.981258 | 833 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | In Greek mythology, peace embodies the goddess "Eirene", the goddess who was to bring peace or restore peace to a state or a nation. Peace is one of the Seasons or times in Greek mythology. Eirene was the daughter of the Greek divinities Zeus and Themis. Themis was involved with setting laws and ordinances which had been established by custom.
Peace was an important matter in ancient Greece. What exactly was the place of peace in Greek mythology? Keep reading and discover how Greek mythology viewed peace.
Peace in Greek mythology
Peace is binding together again
In Greek mythology, peace or "Eirene" is synonymous with reunification because it describes the act of binding or reuniting together again those which have been separated or divided. The concept is applied to marriage. When Zeus was unfaithful to his wife Hera and engaged in many love affairs, Hera punished Zeus' mistresses even if some of them did not intend to have an affair with him.
Peace is when the wrongdoers are punished and justice is served. The goddess Hera inflicted the same punishment to all the women Zeus had fallen in love with and their children were equally injured because of their mothers' mistake.
Peace is honesty
Peace equals honesty; in other words, when people tell the truth and keep their words, it leads to harmony in the society. The god Zeus never tolerated those who broke their oaths and told lies to trick the others.
He was also against mistreating dead bodies. For him, even if an individual is dead, they always need protection to be at peace. Stories about his punishment to the dishonest people were recorded in the Iliad, the oldest Greek literature.
Peace reigns when people obey the authority
Peace also referred to a state of harmony or absence of conflict or war in Greek mythology. Zeus' brother Poseidon (Neptune), the ruler of the Sea was often depicted as the one who was carrying a trident, driving his golden car on the sea waters.
After he passed by, stillness filled the air. He embodied the power of the authority to discipline people. People comply with the authority when its power is connected to the power of the gods.
Peace is prosperity
When peace and justice lead a country, the state is prosperous. Thus, prosperity is the outcome of harmony in the society. In Greek mythology, the ruler has a vital role in building and preserving peace to promote economic development. Zeus' daughter, Pallas Athena (Minerva), was responsible for safeguarding the city from the outside enemy.
Her duties involved protecting the economy, the agriculture, handcrafts, the civilians' belongings and their lives. With her devastating weapons, Zeus' favorite daughter Pallas Athena did not hesitate to annihilate their enemy who ventured to invade their territory and waged wars against them.
Peace was taught to mortal man
In Greek mythology, man could not live in harmony with each other. They were not honest, they killed each other and stole the others' belongings. That was why Zeus severely punished those who broke their promises to teach peace to them. Unless criminals were punished, man would usually commit wrongful acts. Likewise, goddess Hera relentlessly punished unfaithful women and their children for engaging themselves in love affairs with a married man.
Peace still needs to be taught
In brief, peace has always been an important part of daily life even in the ancient Greece. In Greek mythology, peace is established through violence and punishment of those who caused the breaches of peace. However, it was not possible for man to find it by themselves without the guidance and ruling of the deities in the ancient society as illustrated by the Greek mythology.
For that purpose, Prem Rawat, who is an ambassador of peace, said "That peace which is within us, we must experience it. And if we are searching for peace outside we will never find the peace within." Prem Rawat created the TPRF Foundation to provide peace education to people around him and to the world, that to achieve world peace, it is first crucial that each individual find their inner peace. | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The army laundress was one of the few recognized female positions at a frontier fort. Two to four laundresses were assigned to each company of soldiers. They received daily rations of food and fuel, and some post services such as medical care and transportation when the company changed posts.
The military inherited the tradition of a laundress corps from the British. Besides washing and mending the soldiers' clothing, laundresses performed some cooking and baking. In addition, they were called upon as midwives and nurses on occasion.
Since laundresses were paid indirectly out of the soldiers pay, Army paymasters often deducted laundry fees from the troopers' pay. Depending on the rank of the soldier, the laundress was paid $1 to $4 dollars a month for each man and could do laundry for 19 to 20 men. An ambitious laundress could make several times the wage of thirteen dollars a month paid to a private.
Many laundresses were married to non-commissioned officers. Few single women remained unmarried, and most were married within a few months after going out west.
Fort Concho's living history laundress unit works in conjunction with other military history programs at local and out-of-town events. For more information call (325) 657-4443 or email email@example.com | <urn:uuid:796d6f9d-8f91-4ed2-b1b0-bd27abf0dcb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fortconcho.com/home/get-involved/volunteer/living-history/laundresses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.980047 | 267 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.018863648... | 2 | The army laundress was one of the few recognized female positions at a frontier fort. Two to four laundresses were assigned to each company of soldiers. They received daily rations of food and fuel, and some post services such as medical care and transportation when the company changed posts.
The military inherited the tradition of a laundress corps from the British. Besides washing and mending the soldiers' clothing, laundresses performed some cooking and baking. In addition, they were called upon as midwives and nurses on occasion.
Since laundresses were paid indirectly out of the soldiers pay, Army paymasters often deducted laundry fees from the troopers' pay. Depending on the rank of the soldier, the laundress was paid $1 to $4 dollars a month for each man and could do laundry for 19 to 20 men. An ambitious laundress could make several times the wage of thirteen dollars a month paid to a private.
Many laundresses were married to non-commissioned officers. Few single women remained unmarried, and most were married within a few months after going out west.
Fort Concho's living history laundress unit works in conjunction with other military history programs at local and out-of-town events. For more information call (325) 657-4443 or email email@example.com | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fourth of July, also known as Independence Day, celebrates the day that America declared its independence from Great Britain.
The fourth of July was officially declared a federal holiday in 1941, but the country has celebrated this day since Thursday July 4, 1776. It’s a day to spend celebrating patriotism with a wide range of activities; firework displays, parades, concerts and barbecues.
The United States celebrates with fireworks as a tradition continued down through history since the initial year. Thirteen fireworks were set off to symbolize the 13 states of the union. It evolved as more states joined the union.
The main signees who drafted the Declaration of Independence were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams.
Thomas Jefferson – the principal author. Jefferson’s memorandum books indicate that dental care was a regular part of his routine. When 81 years old, Jefferson reported to a friend that he had lost only one tooth, with “the rest continuing sound”.
Benjamin Franklin – History tells us that a tooth was pulled from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin sometime between 1706 – 1790. The tooth is inside a gold acorn with some loose fibrous packing around it. The tooth is broken in at least two parts but has been identified as probably a lower left second molar. Apparently one side of the tooth was broken off, possibly before it was pulled. This acorn-tooth was passed down through his many generations.
John Adams – the second U.S. President March 4, 1797 to March 4, 1801. When Adams lost his teeth, he refused to wear false ones. As a result, he had a lisp when speaking. In later years Adams had trouble speaking.
56 Delegates eventually signed the Declaration of Independence.
The Executive Board of the ODAA wish you and your family a happy and healthy July 4th. | <urn:uuid:ad8a13b6-2aef-4f67-b550-68e6939ed59b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.oregondentalassistants.com/In-Honor-of-4th-of-July | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.981108 | 386 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.1113253682... | 2 | The fourth of July, also known as Independence Day, celebrates the day that America declared its independence from Great Britain.
The fourth of July was officially declared a federal holiday in 1941, but the country has celebrated this day since Thursday July 4, 1776. It’s a day to spend celebrating patriotism with a wide range of activities; firework displays, parades, concerts and barbecues.
The United States celebrates with fireworks as a tradition continued down through history since the initial year. Thirteen fireworks were set off to symbolize the 13 states of the union. It evolved as more states joined the union.
The main signees who drafted the Declaration of Independence were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams.
Thomas Jefferson – the principal author. Jefferson’s memorandum books indicate that dental care was a regular part of his routine. When 81 years old, Jefferson reported to a friend that he had lost only one tooth, with “the rest continuing sound”.
Benjamin Franklin – History tells us that a tooth was pulled from the mouth of Benjamin Franklin sometime between 1706 – 1790. The tooth is inside a gold acorn with some loose fibrous packing around it. The tooth is broken in at least two parts but has been identified as probably a lower left second molar. Apparently one side of the tooth was broken off, possibly before it was pulled. This acorn-tooth was passed down through his many generations.
John Adams – the second U.S. President March 4, 1797 to March 4, 1801. When Adams lost his teeth, he refused to wear false ones. As a result, he had a lisp when speaking. In later years Adams had trouble speaking.
56 Delegates eventually signed the Declaration of Independence.
The Executive Board of the ODAA wish you and your family a happy and healthy July 4th. | 398 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Early Life
Perhaps the youngest explorer and conqueror in the 16th century to start his chosen career, Hernando de Soto was born in Extremadura, Spain in 1496. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he was born to a family of modest means, and his early education was necessarily shouldered by a rich patron named Pedro Arias Davila. He studied at the University of Salamanca, dreaming of exploring the world. Then, at 14 years of age, his dream came true, as De Soto was invited to Seville to join his patron Pedro Davila on an expedition to the West Indies. Thus started his career as a young explorer. De Soto soon became famous for his fighting ability, horsemanship, and tactical abilities. All of which were abilities that proved useful in his conquests to come.
The region of Spain where De Soto was born was famous for giving rise to many explorers who aspired to gain wealth by joining expeditions to the New World. De Soto was awed when he met Pedro Arias Davila, the first explorer he met. Impressed by the boy, Davila later funded De Soto's early education. Knowing the boy's dream to be an explorer like himself, Davila encouraged him and became his mentor. Throughout his career as an explorer, De Soto never wavered in his resolve to become a rich man. After joining his patron Davila, he also later joined Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and later went on his own to lead explorations of North America.
Some of De Soto's greatest achievements started early in 1514, alongside his benefactor Davila. After exploring the West Indies, they went on to explore what are today Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras. This expedition would make De Soto a rich man by standards of his day. The most important expedition he took was with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru in the early 1530s. Returning to Spain with his share of gold in 1536, he settled down with a wife in a new home. But barely two years later, in 1538, De Soto was off on another expedition to North America. One of the most prolific explorers of his time, De Soto continued on to North America to explore the southeastern United States, venturing further into the mainland than anyone was known to go before. He also discovered the Mississippi River in 1539.
In 1538, De Soto and his men explored Florida, and traversed close to 4,000 miles of land and water, discovering the Mississippi along their way in 1541. They were also the first Europeans to cross the great river. One of the most frequent problems that De Soto and his men faced were attacks and ambushes by Native Americans in order to try and get the Spanish off their land. De Soto took many of the natives he defeated as slaves in order to fuel his expeditions. He and his men continued on to explore central Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas. After a year, they reached Louisiana and Texas.
1. Death and Legacy
As De Soto and his men pushed further into Native American territories, more and more of their crew members suffered ill health, and some perished from malnutrition and diseases. De Soto himself contracted fever in Louisiana, and passed away on May 21st, 1542. The expedition that had started in Florida and ended up reaching somewhere in the southeastern United States, was just the beginning of further Spanish explorations into the surrounding areas in years to come. Many historians saw De Soto's Florida expedition as a failure, as it gained no monetary value and, in the end, also claimed his life in the process. However, De Soto's legacy also led to more expeditions that also established settlements in the New World themselves. Unfortunately, he also contributed much to the mistreatment of Native Americans and the taking of their lives and property, a horrid practice that would go on for centuries to come.
Who Was Hernando De Soto?
Hernando de Soto was one of the first Europeans to venture well inland in the New World, into what is today the Southeastern United States.
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0.5527364611625... | 1 | 5. Early Life
Perhaps the youngest explorer and conqueror in the 16th century to start his chosen career, Hernando de Soto was born in Extremadura, Spain in 1496. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he was born to a family of modest means, and his early education was necessarily shouldered by a rich patron named Pedro Arias Davila. He studied at the University of Salamanca, dreaming of exploring the world. Then, at 14 years of age, his dream came true, as De Soto was invited to Seville to join his patron Pedro Davila on an expedition to the West Indies. Thus started his career as a young explorer. De Soto soon became famous for his fighting ability, horsemanship, and tactical abilities. All of which were abilities that proved useful in his conquests to come.
The region of Spain where De Soto was born was famous for giving rise to many explorers who aspired to gain wealth by joining expeditions to the New World. De Soto was awed when he met Pedro Arias Davila, the first explorer he met. Impressed by the boy, Davila later funded De Soto's early education. Knowing the boy's dream to be an explorer like himself, Davila encouraged him and became his mentor. Throughout his career as an explorer, De Soto never wavered in his resolve to become a rich man. After joining his patron Davila, he also later joined Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and later went on his own to lead explorations of North America.
Some of De Soto's greatest achievements started early in 1514, alongside his benefactor Davila. After exploring the West Indies, they went on to explore what are today Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras. This expedition would make De Soto a rich man by standards of his day. The most important expedition he took was with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru in the early 1530s. Returning to Spain with his share of gold in 1536, he settled down with a wife in a new home. But barely two years later, in 1538, De Soto was off on another expedition to North America. One of the most prolific explorers of his time, De Soto continued on to North America to explore the southeastern United States, venturing further into the mainland than anyone was known to go before. He also discovered the Mississippi River in 1539.
In 1538, De Soto and his men explored Florida, and traversed close to 4,000 miles of land and water, discovering the Mississippi along their way in 1541. They were also the first Europeans to cross the great river. One of the most frequent problems that De Soto and his men faced were attacks and ambushes by Native Americans in order to try and get the Spanish off their land. De Soto took many of the natives he defeated as slaves in order to fuel his expeditions. He and his men continued on to explore central Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas. After a year, they reached Louisiana and Texas.
1. Death and Legacy
As De Soto and his men pushed further into Native American territories, more and more of their crew members suffered ill health, and some perished from malnutrition and diseases. De Soto himself contracted fever in Louisiana, and passed away on May 21st, 1542. The expedition that had started in Florida and ended up reaching somewhere in the southeastern United States, was just the beginning of further Spanish explorations into the surrounding areas in years to come. Many historians saw De Soto's Florida expedition as a failure, as it gained no monetary value and, in the end, also claimed his life in the process. However, De Soto's legacy also led to more expeditions that also established settlements in the New World themselves. Unfortunately, he also contributed much to the mistreatment of Native Americans and the taking of their lives and property, a horrid practice that would go on for centuries to come.
Who Was Hernando De Soto?
Hernando de Soto was one of the first Europeans to venture well inland in the New World, into what is today the Southeastern United States.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 928 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beautiful and mysterious, the Black Sea has long attracted sailors, scientists, and marine archeologists. It is one of the youngest seas on the planet and has many fascinating features, one of which is that it is made up of two distinct layers and that the bottom layer is completely devoid of oxygen. However, perhaps the most interesting part lies at the bottom of the Black Sea. A few years ago, while surveying a particular section of the seabed, a team of scientists came across 41 shipwrecks, some of which can be traced as far back as the Byzantine and Ottoman Empire. The sunken ships are so well-preserved that one can see the chisel marks from when the ships were built.
The goal of the expedition was to map and study the floor of the Black Sea, but the international crew of sailors and scientists discovered something they were not expecting.
Jon Adams, the director of the University of Southampton’s Centre for Maritime Archaeology, was the principal investigator on the project. The expedition was part of the Maritime Archaeology Project or MAP. He and his team were mapping the Black Sea floor with sonar technology and ROVs (remotely operated vehicles) to find clues about how ancient humans dealt with rising sea levels. They were aiming for a period from approximately 12,000 years ago as it is presumed that the Black Sea expanded around that time. To their surprise, the ROVs picked up images of around 41 well-preserved shipwrecks. Some of these wrecks are thought to belong to the 19th century, but the oldest ones go as far back as the ninth century.
Despite being at the bottom of the sea for so long, the shipwrecks had not decayed as much as they should have. In fact, some were so perfectly preserved that chisel marks were visible on the wood.
When submerged in seawater, rope and wood are the first things to rot. Most of the shipwrecks that the team found were over 492 feet or 150 meters below the sea level, and some were as deep as 7,217 feet or 2,200 meters at the bottom of the Black Sea. Despite being at such depths for so long, some of the ships were so well preserved that tool and chisel marks were visible on the wood and individual planks. Decorative carvings on the wood, rudders, tills, coils of rope, and rigging materials had evidently survived centuries and they were relatively intact.
It was an incredible find, especially considering that no one had ever discovered something like this. Though historical illustrations and texts could provide enough information about the construction method and appearance of merchant ships belonging to different periods, the MAP team believed that archeologists will be able to verify the historical records independently due to the preserved state of the shipwrecks.
The shipwrecks belong to different time periods. While many of them are thought to be sunken Ottoman ships, while some appear to be from the Byzantine Empire.
Many of the 41 shipwrecks appear to be from a time (presumably the late 800s) when the Byzantine Empire controlled a large portion of the region. Some were Ottoman ships belonging to the 16th and 18th centuries. A medieval Italian vessel and several 19th-century ships were also found. In medieval trade, the Black Sea was regularly used by the Italians. So, the discovery of a Venetian ship, which Marco Polo himself could have recognized, is pretty exciting. The shipwrecks have helped historians to better understand the commercial networks which once linked Europe to the Eastern traders.
Archeologists study and analyze a ship’s anchor, mast, and rigging arrangements, and also clay pot styles in the cargo to determine when the ship was made and where it sailed from. Most of the Black Sea shipwrecks were once merchant ships used for transporting timber, metal, grain, wine, and other commodities. Some of them may have even been Cossack raiding vessels. However, none of the ships show signs of battles, and they are thought to have sunk due to heavy storms. After all, the Black Sea was once nicknamed as the “Hostile Sea” by the Greeks.
It is natural to wonder how these ancient shipwrecks managed to survive for so long. To find the answer, scientists look at how the Black Sea was formed and the unique composition of its waters.
Many marine geologists believe that the Black Sea was merely a freshwater lake some 12,000 years ago when the last Ice Age came to an end. However, as temperatures grew and the ice started to melt, the sea level rose. Water from the Mediterranean Sea began to spill over through the Bosphorus Strait. As a result, the Black Sea was filled up with both freshwater and saltwater, and it created two distinct layers. The upper layer of water is rich in oxygen and low in salt, but the lower level is rich in salt and completely devoid of oxygen. Oxygen levels drop to zero when you reach 150 meters below the surface of the Black Sea. This anoxic layer cannot sustain life, but it is evidently perfect for preserving organic materials such as shipwrecks.
The MAP expedition was conducted by a team of Bulgarian, American, and British scientists. They were able to capture thousands of still photographs and take sedimentary core samples as well.
The MAP team consisted of renowned scientists from Bulgaria, America, and Britain. They spent a month aboard the vessel called the Stril Explorer. The research ship was equipped with powerful and high-tech underwater mapping systems. When studying the seabed using sonar technology, they were able to identify some anomalous shapes. They sent out two remotely operated vehicles, which are worth $7 to $8 million each, to the bottom to take high-res videos, photos, and laser measurements of the objects.
The ROVs were operated and controlled in real-time by researchers aboard the ship, and they worked around the clock to cover as much of the seafloor as they could. The 41 shipwrecks were spread across approximately 2,000 square kilometers. Thousands of still photos were taken from multiple angles, and then a 3D photogrammetry software was used to create a digital model which the scientists could study and manipulate. The team was also able to drill into the seabed and gather sedimentary core samples, which would help to address the original purpose of the mission. A thorough analysis of the core samples should be able to answer some critical questions such as when the Black Sea expanded and how soon the water levels increased. | <urn:uuid:4142ad78-c451-4a2d-a911-f58ea275286a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://unbelievable-facts.com/2019/12/shipwrecks-found-at-the-bottom-of-the-black-sea.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.98254 | 1,356 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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The goal of the expedition was to map and study the floor of the Black Sea, but the international crew of sailors and scientists discovered something they were not expecting.
Jon Adams, the director of the University of Southampton’s Centre for Maritime Archaeology, was the principal investigator on the project. The expedition was part of the Maritime Archaeology Project or MAP. He and his team were mapping the Black Sea floor with sonar technology and ROVs (remotely operated vehicles) to find clues about how ancient humans dealt with rising sea levels. They were aiming for a period from approximately 12,000 years ago as it is presumed that the Black Sea expanded around that time. To their surprise, the ROVs picked up images of around 41 well-preserved shipwrecks. Some of these wrecks are thought to belong to the 19th century, but the oldest ones go as far back as the ninth century.
Despite being at the bottom of the sea for so long, the shipwrecks had not decayed as much as they should have. In fact, some were so perfectly preserved that chisel marks were visible on the wood.
When submerged in seawater, rope and wood are the first things to rot. Most of the shipwrecks that the team found were over 492 feet or 150 meters below the sea level, and some were as deep as 7,217 feet or 2,200 meters at the bottom of the Black Sea. Despite being at such depths for so long, some of the ships were so well preserved that tool and chisel marks were visible on the wood and individual planks. Decorative carvings on the wood, rudders, tills, coils of rope, and rigging materials had evidently survived centuries and they were relatively intact.
It was an incredible find, especially considering that no one had ever discovered something like this. Though historical illustrations and texts could provide enough information about the construction method and appearance of merchant ships belonging to different periods, the MAP team believed that archeologists will be able to verify the historical records independently due to the preserved state of the shipwrecks.
The shipwrecks belong to different time periods. While many of them are thought to be sunken Ottoman ships, while some appear to be from the Byzantine Empire.
Many of the 41 shipwrecks appear to be from a time (presumably the late 800s) when the Byzantine Empire controlled a large portion of the region. Some were Ottoman ships belonging to the 16th and 18th centuries. A medieval Italian vessel and several 19th-century ships were also found. In medieval trade, the Black Sea was regularly used by the Italians. So, the discovery of a Venetian ship, which Marco Polo himself could have recognized, is pretty exciting. The shipwrecks have helped historians to better understand the commercial networks which once linked Europe to the Eastern traders.
Archeologists study and analyze a ship’s anchor, mast, and rigging arrangements, and also clay pot styles in the cargo to determine when the ship was made and where it sailed from. Most of the Black Sea shipwrecks were once merchant ships used for transporting timber, metal, grain, wine, and other commodities. Some of them may have even been Cossack raiding vessels. However, none of the ships show signs of battles, and they are thought to have sunk due to heavy storms. After all, the Black Sea was once nicknamed as the “Hostile Sea” by the Greeks.
It is natural to wonder how these ancient shipwrecks managed to survive for so long. To find the answer, scientists look at how the Black Sea was formed and the unique composition of its waters.
Many marine geologists believe that the Black Sea was merely a freshwater lake some 12,000 years ago when the last Ice Age came to an end. However, as temperatures grew and the ice started to melt, the sea level rose. Water from the Mediterranean Sea began to spill over through the Bosphorus Strait. As a result, the Black Sea was filled up with both freshwater and saltwater, and it created two distinct layers. The upper layer of water is rich in oxygen and low in salt, but the lower level is rich in salt and completely devoid of oxygen. Oxygen levels drop to zero when you reach 150 meters below the surface of the Black Sea. This anoxic layer cannot sustain life, but it is evidently perfect for preserving organic materials such as shipwrecks.
The MAP expedition was conducted by a team of Bulgarian, American, and British scientists. They were able to capture thousands of still photographs and take sedimentary core samples as well.
The MAP team consisted of renowned scientists from Bulgaria, America, and Britain. They spent a month aboard the vessel called the Stril Explorer. The research ship was equipped with powerful and high-tech underwater mapping systems. When studying the seabed using sonar technology, they were able to identify some anomalous shapes. They sent out two remotely operated vehicles, which are worth $7 to $8 million each, to the bottom to take high-res videos, photos, and laser measurements of the objects.
The ROVs were operated and controlled in real-time by researchers aboard the ship, and they worked around the clock to cover as much of the seafloor as they could. The 41 shipwrecks were spread across approximately 2,000 square kilometers. Thousands of still photos were taken from multiple angles, and then a 3D photogrammetry software was used to create a digital model which the scientists could study and manipulate. The team was also able to drill into the seabed and gather sedimentary core samples, which would help to address the original purpose of the mission. A thorough analysis of the core samples should be able to answer some critical questions such as when the Black Sea expanded and how soon the water levels increased. | 1,377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1791 the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered a new town in Berkeley County and named it after former 8th Virginia Captain William Darke. He deserved it, but the honor was born of deep personal tragedy. The 55 year-old veteran of three wars would absolutely have forgone the distinction if he could have turned back the clock.
Darke fought in the French & Indian War as a young man and may have been at Braddock’s defeat in 1755. He raised one of the first companies for the 8th Virginia in 1776 and was promoted from captain to major in 1777 shortly before his capture at Germantown. That was followed by three years in British captivity. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel while in enemy hands. He was exchanged late in 1780 and returned home just before Lord Cornwallis invaded Virginia. Darke helped General Daniel Morgan recruit a militia army in the lower Shenandoah Valley and was present for the victory at Yorktown.
A decade later, in 1791, he was appointed by President Washington to lead a regiment of federal troops on short enlistments in an expedition to defeat the Indians in northeast Ohio. The expedition, under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, was a complete disaster. American soldiers ran for their lives as Indians butchered their comrades to pieces in the forest. Hundreds of bodies were left behind, mutilated and frozen, through the winter. It was the greatest victory for an Indian army ever and a major setback for the Washington Administration.
Those who survived, however, made it out alive because Lt. Colonel Darke led one last desperate charge through the Indian line, opening a hole through which the panicking soldiers could flee. Darke himself was wounded in the leg. His son, Captain Joseph Darke, was shot in the head and would die after a month of “unparalleled suffering.” Colonel Darke returned home just in time to witness the death of another of his three sons. (Darke’s last surviving son died five years later, leaving the hero with no one to carry on his name—something that bothered him greatly.)
Many lives were lost at St. Clair’s Defeat. Reputations were ruined as well. Darke, however, survived with his reputation improved. A month after the battle, Virginia created Darkesville to honor him. Two years later, after Virginia reorganized its militia system, Darke was made a general in command of a regional brigade. According to tradition he kept his headquarters in Darkesville, which was 13 miles west of his home south of Shepherdstown. He remained a militia general until his death in 1801.
Darkesville grew into a respectable town, but never prospered to an extent that would have required the destruction of old houses to make room for larger and taller ones. In 1980, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on the basis of its “45 historical or architecturally important buildings or sites.” As of that date, there were 25 log houses dating from between 1790 and 1810 and another five stone ones built before 1830. Among them was the house believed to be Darke’s headquarters, though it was moved and altered in the 20th century. Near it is another log building known as “the barracks.” Most of these log houses are covered with siding, as they likely were soon after their construction. Still, the logs are visible on houses that have had their siding removed or where it has deteriorated.
I recently stopped in Darkesville (now in West Virginia) to look around. For the casual observer, there is little to distinguish the village from more modern development along the road (Route 11). Even the state historic marker appears to be missing. I wasn’t able to find General Darke’s Headquarters, though I was later able to find its apparent location on a map.
Here at Darkesville, mostly concealed under clapboard or off the main road, is an early American frontier town, complete with log houses and stone fences. It is hiding there barely noticed by the drivers of the cars that whiz by going fifty miles an hour. Many of the houses date to a time when George Washington was in his first term as president and Americans were still fighting with the Shawnee for control of Ohio. Though they have survived for more than two centuries, these structures won’t survive forever. Already, a few appear to have been left to deteriorate. The name of Darkesville was born of tragedy. It would be another tragedy if this unique and special place were to be lost to development or to neglect.
is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh.
© 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville | <urn:uuid:7bfa7f0b-d5b7-44a2-975b-392f6a1a78ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.8thvirginia.com/blog/darkesville-a-town-born-of-tragedy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.987465 | 984 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.32486000657081... | 1 | In 1791 the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered a new town in Berkeley County and named it after former 8th Virginia Captain William Darke. He deserved it, but the honor was born of deep personal tragedy. The 55 year-old veteran of three wars would absolutely have forgone the distinction if he could have turned back the clock.
Darke fought in the French & Indian War as a young man and may have been at Braddock’s defeat in 1755. He raised one of the first companies for the 8th Virginia in 1776 and was promoted from captain to major in 1777 shortly before his capture at Germantown. That was followed by three years in British captivity. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel while in enemy hands. He was exchanged late in 1780 and returned home just before Lord Cornwallis invaded Virginia. Darke helped General Daniel Morgan recruit a militia army in the lower Shenandoah Valley and was present for the victory at Yorktown.
A decade later, in 1791, he was appointed by President Washington to lead a regiment of federal troops on short enlistments in an expedition to defeat the Indians in northeast Ohio. The expedition, under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, was a complete disaster. American soldiers ran for their lives as Indians butchered their comrades to pieces in the forest. Hundreds of bodies were left behind, mutilated and frozen, through the winter. It was the greatest victory for an Indian army ever and a major setback for the Washington Administration.
Those who survived, however, made it out alive because Lt. Colonel Darke led one last desperate charge through the Indian line, opening a hole through which the panicking soldiers could flee. Darke himself was wounded in the leg. His son, Captain Joseph Darke, was shot in the head and would die after a month of “unparalleled suffering.” Colonel Darke returned home just in time to witness the death of another of his three sons. (Darke’s last surviving son died five years later, leaving the hero with no one to carry on his name—something that bothered him greatly.)
Many lives were lost at St. Clair’s Defeat. Reputations were ruined as well. Darke, however, survived with his reputation improved. A month after the battle, Virginia created Darkesville to honor him. Two years later, after Virginia reorganized its militia system, Darke was made a general in command of a regional brigade. According to tradition he kept his headquarters in Darkesville, which was 13 miles west of his home south of Shepherdstown. He remained a militia general until his death in 1801.
Darkesville grew into a respectable town, but never prospered to an extent that would have required the destruction of old houses to make room for larger and taller ones. In 1980, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on the basis of its “45 historical or architecturally important buildings or sites.” As of that date, there were 25 log houses dating from between 1790 and 1810 and another five stone ones built before 1830. Among them was the house believed to be Darke’s headquarters, though it was moved and altered in the 20th century. Near it is another log building known as “the barracks.” Most of these log houses are covered with siding, as they likely were soon after their construction. Still, the logs are visible on houses that have had their siding removed or where it has deteriorated.
I recently stopped in Darkesville (now in West Virginia) to look around. For the casual observer, there is little to distinguish the village from more modern development along the road (Route 11). Even the state historic marker appears to be missing. I wasn’t able to find General Darke’s Headquarters, though I was later able to find its apparent location on a map.
Here at Darkesville, mostly concealed under clapboard or off the main road, is an early American frontier town, complete with log houses and stone fences. It is hiding there barely noticed by the drivers of the cars that whiz by going fifty miles an hour. Many of the houses date to a time when George Washington was in his first term as president and Americans were still fighting with the Shawnee for control of Ohio. Though they have survived for more than two centuries, these structures won’t survive forever. Already, a few appear to have been left to deteriorate. The name of Darkesville was born of tragedy. It would be another tragedy if this unique and special place were to be lost to development or to neglect.
is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh.
© 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville | 1,011 | ENGLISH | 1 |
May 19th, 1780 was known as the “Dark Day” in New England.
New England had just recovered from one of its coldest winters on record, and although the air was warmer, it was also thick and heavy.
The sun had taken on a reddish hue in the hours surrounding dusk and dawn, and the moon had begun to glow pink at night.
People had been noticing differences in the skies several days before the 'dark day'.
May 19th was typical that morning, if not gloomier, people awoke to gray gloomy clouds cast over the skies, and rain falling down making puddles on the ground, for them to walk through.
It wasn’t until around 8 or 9 a.m. that most noticed something was amiss. A mass of rust-tinted clouds suddenly blew in from the west and began to blot out the still-rising sun. Instead of growing brighter, the skies dimmed and turned hazy and copper-colored.
By noon, New England was blacked out, you could barely see your own outstretched hand, two feet away from your face.
Some afraid of what had come, some intrigued by the colors that had infiltrated the skies.
Many people were forced to work and take lunch by candlelight. Others simply stared in hushed amazement at the scenes unfolding around them. | <urn:uuid:14fd1807-4203-47ae-9f27-3b049e88e31b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/ameliagreslick/dark-day-pt-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.99061 | 282 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.71018326... | 1 | May 19th, 1780 was known as the “Dark Day” in New England.
New England had just recovered from one of its coldest winters on record, and although the air was warmer, it was also thick and heavy.
The sun had taken on a reddish hue in the hours surrounding dusk and dawn, and the moon had begun to glow pink at night.
People had been noticing differences in the skies several days before the 'dark day'.
May 19th was typical that morning, if not gloomier, people awoke to gray gloomy clouds cast over the skies, and rain falling down making puddles on the ground, for them to walk through.
It wasn’t until around 8 or 9 a.m. that most noticed something was amiss. A mass of rust-tinted clouds suddenly blew in from the west and began to blot out the still-rising sun. Instead of growing brighter, the skies dimmed and turned hazy and copper-colored.
By noon, New England was blacked out, you could barely see your own outstretched hand, two feet away from your face.
Some afraid of what had come, some intrigued by the colors that had infiltrated the skies.
Many people were forced to work and take lunch by candlelight. Others simply stared in hushed amazement at the scenes unfolding around them. | 281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is name after the troll carts which were developed to pass along the many narrow roads inside the town’s medieval walls.
Illustrations and text about troll carts.
The text reads: Great Yarmouth is built on a sandbank which formed gradually across the estuary, increased in size and became dry land. The surrounding sea was heaving with fish. Settlement here began as an ideal location for fishermen to pull up their boats and dry their nets.
Gradually the it became more permanent. The Domseday Book, compiled in 1086, records a population of 100. By the mid-13th century Yarmouth was well and truly on the map.
In recognition of its importance as a sea-port, Henry III authorised the building of a town wall. It took 111 years to complete. The wall was 7 feet thick, 23 feet high, and more than 2,000 yards long. Parts of this medieval wall and some of its 16 towers can still be seen.
The cramped area within the walls measured just 130 acres. As a result the houses had to be built close together giving rise to the famous Yarmouth ‘Rows’, several of which still survive.
There were 145 rows set out on a grid system. Snatchbody Row, not surprisingly, was near the churchyard. The narrowest was Kitty Witches Row, just 30 inches across at one end.
Special wagons, known as troll carts, were made to negotiate these narrow rows. The shafts were fitted outside the wheels, making it easier to judge whether there was room for the carts to pass along the narrow lanes.
Top left, Henry III and Queen Eleanor from a stained glass window
Centre left, The old North Gate from inside the walls
Top right, A Yarmouth ‘Row’
Right, A Troll Cart
Prints and text about the history of fishing in the area.
The text reads: Today big ships servicing gas rigs and transporting cargoes across the North Sea can be seen at the Yarmouth quayside. It was once home to a mass of fishing boats.
When they were moored together, it was possible to walk across the river from Great Yarmouth to Gorleston stepping from boat to boat.
The local fishing industry dates back hundreds of years. In the Middle Ages Great Yarmouth supplied herrings to monasteries, the royal household and exported them to Europe.
During the 19th century the fishing industry expanded rapidly. In the early 1800s a new way of curing herrings was discovered by a local man named Bishop. The lightly-smoked bloater soon became associated with Great Yarmouth.
However, the biggest impact on the local fishing industry was made by Scottish fishermen.
They started coming to Great Yarmouth in the 1860s and introduced important changes. There were also hundreds of Scottish fisherwomen, who gutted the fish, pickled and packed them.
In the early 1900s Great Yarmouth was the herring capital of the world. However, the industry went into decline between the wars.
By the 1950s fish stocks were seriously depleted. In 1963 the last six boats of the local fleet were sold, and Great Yarmouth’s involvement with the herring industry was over.
Top left, Yarmouth fishing boats head out to sea
Top right, Herring boats unloading at the Quay
Right, Herring girls at work.
Illustrations and text about witchcraft.
The text reads: Just around the corner from the library is the 13th century building known as the Tollhouse. It was the hub of civic life for hundreds of years. Borough Council meetings were held there until the present Town Hall opened in 1882.
The Tollhouse was also used as the town gaol. Among those who were locked in its cells were 16 women incarcerated in 1648. They had been condemned to death and spent their last hours in the Tollhouse.
Their crime was to be found guilty of witchcraft by Matthew Hopkins, the infamous Witchfinder General. Hopkins was a conman who managed to obtain a Parliamentary commission to find witches.
Some 200 people died during his reign of terror, carried out mainly in East Anglia. He was so conscientious that he himself was suspected of witchcraft. His guilt was detected by the very test that he had devised – having been bound and immersed in water, he floated. He was then hanged.
Above right, The Witchfinder General and accused witches naming their ‘familiars’
A print and text about George Borrow.
The text reads: Born in East Dereham, Norfolk, in 1803, George Borrow spent much of his life on the move. By the age of 13 the future and one time popular writer had moved home no less than 20 times. When his father retired from the army the family settled in Norwich.
Borrow’s later travels were the basis of his first original works, which made him famous. In 1840 he married Mrs Mary Clarke and went to live on her small estate near Lowestoft, although he spent long periods in Great Yarmouth.
During this time he wrote the two books on which his literary reputation chiefly depends – Lavengro (1851), and The Romany Rye was written by Borrow, here in Great Yarmouth at 169 King Street.
External photograph of the building – main entrance.
If you have information on the history of this pub, then we’d like you to share it with us. Please e-mail all information to: email@example.com | <urn:uuid:c2f6b5b7-263f-407d-be08-483625469365> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://api.jdwetherspoon.com/pub-histories/england/norfolk/the-troll-cart-great-yarmouth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.986672 | 1,169 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.1497158... | 9 | This is name after the troll carts which were developed to pass along the many narrow roads inside the town’s medieval walls.
Illustrations and text about troll carts.
The text reads: Great Yarmouth is built on a sandbank which formed gradually across the estuary, increased in size and became dry land. The surrounding sea was heaving with fish. Settlement here began as an ideal location for fishermen to pull up their boats and dry their nets.
Gradually the it became more permanent. The Domseday Book, compiled in 1086, records a population of 100. By the mid-13th century Yarmouth was well and truly on the map.
In recognition of its importance as a sea-port, Henry III authorised the building of a town wall. It took 111 years to complete. The wall was 7 feet thick, 23 feet high, and more than 2,000 yards long. Parts of this medieval wall and some of its 16 towers can still be seen.
The cramped area within the walls measured just 130 acres. As a result the houses had to be built close together giving rise to the famous Yarmouth ‘Rows’, several of which still survive.
There were 145 rows set out on a grid system. Snatchbody Row, not surprisingly, was near the churchyard. The narrowest was Kitty Witches Row, just 30 inches across at one end.
Special wagons, known as troll carts, were made to negotiate these narrow rows. The shafts were fitted outside the wheels, making it easier to judge whether there was room for the carts to pass along the narrow lanes.
Top left, Henry III and Queen Eleanor from a stained glass window
Centre left, The old North Gate from inside the walls
Top right, A Yarmouth ‘Row’
Right, A Troll Cart
Prints and text about the history of fishing in the area.
The text reads: Today big ships servicing gas rigs and transporting cargoes across the North Sea can be seen at the Yarmouth quayside. It was once home to a mass of fishing boats.
When they were moored together, it was possible to walk across the river from Great Yarmouth to Gorleston stepping from boat to boat.
The local fishing industry dates back hundreds of years. In the Middle Ages Great Yarmouth supplied herrings to monasteries, the royal household and exported them to Europe.
During the 19th century the fishing industry expanded rapidly. In the early 1800s a new way of curing herrings was discovered by a local man named Bishop. The lightly-smoked bloater soon became associated with Great Yarmouth.
However, the biggest impact on the local fishing industry was made by Scottish fishermen.
They started coming to Great Yarmouth in the 1860s and introduced important changes. There were also hundreds of Scottish fisherwomen, who gutted the fish, pickled and packed them.
In the early 1900s Great Yarmouth was the herring capital of the world. However, the industry went into decline between the wars.
By the 1950s fish stocks were seriously depleted. In 1963 the last six boats of the local fleet were sold, and Great Yarmouth’s involvement with the herring industry was over.
Top left, Yarmouth fishing boats head out to sea
Top right, Herring boats unloading at the Quay
Right, Herring girls at work.
Illustrations and text about witchcraft.
The text reads: Just around the corner from the library is the 13th century building known as the Tollhouse. It was the hub of civic life for hundreds of years. Borough Council meetings were held there until the present Town Hall opened in 1882.
The Tollhouse was also used as the town gaol. Among those who were locked in its cells were 16 women incarcerated in 1648. They had been condemned to death and spent their last hours in the Tollhouse.
Their crime was to be found guilty of witchcraft by Matthew Hopkins, the infamous Witchfinder General. Hopkins was a conman who managed to obtain a Parliamentary commission to find witches.
Some 200 people died during his reign of terror, carried out mainly in East Anglia. He was so conscientious that he himself was suspected of witchcraft. His guilt was detected by the very test that he had devised – having been bound and immersed in water, he floated. He was then hanged.
Above right, The Witchfinder General and accused witches naming their ‘familiars’
A print and text about George Borrow.
The text reads: Born in East Dereham, Norfolk, in 1803, George Borrow spent much of his life on the move. By the age of 13 the future and one time popular writer had moved home no less than 20 times. When his father retired from the army the family settled in Norwich.
Borrow’s later travels were the basis of his first original works, which made him famous. In 1840 he married Mrs Mary Clarke and went to live on her small estate near Lowestoft, although he spent long periods in Great Yarmouth.
During this time he wrote the two books on which his literary reputation chiefly depends – Lavengro (1851), and The Romany Rye was written by Borrow, here in Great Yarmouth at 169 King Street.
External photograph of the building – main entrance.
If you have information on the history of this pub, then we’d like you to share it with us. Please e-mail all information to: email@example.com | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born February 15, 1564, Galileo Galilei is described as a polymath whose main fields of study included astronomy, physics, and engineering. He is widely considered to be the father of modern physics, modern science, the scientific method, and observable astronomy. As much as he accomplished during his life, he was seen as a controversial figure, with some of his theories surrounding Copernican heliocentrism putting him at odds with the Catholic Church. Travel back to a time when the Medicis ruled Florence, and see the kind of man that Galileo was and his impact on science as we know it.
He Didn’t Invent The Telescope
Although many people think that it was Galileo who invented the telescope, that’s not the case. In reality, it’s not exactly known who was the real inventor, although the Dutch spectacle maker Hans Lippershey is often given the credit since he applied for a patent in 1608.
A year later, Galileo obtained descriptions of the instrument and improved upon its design. By the time he was done, he had a telescope that could magnify 20 to 30 times. According to science historian Owen Gingerich, Galileo “turned a popular carnival toy into a scientific instrument.”
He Was A Skilled Artist
Galileo may best be known for his work as a scientist, yet he was skilled in many other disciplines as well. It is noted that Galileo was an incredibly gifted artist whose work was comparable to many of the masters of his time.
Known for being a master of perspective, art professor Samuel Edgerton comments that Galileo’s work shows “the deft brushstrokes of a practiced watercolorist […] an attractive, soft, and luminescent quality.” His art also had impressionistic elements, 250 years before Impressionism became popular.
He Had Children But Was Never Married
Galileo had a close relationship with a woman from Venice named Marina Gamba. The two shared two daughters and a son, although they were never married and never lived together.
In that time, it was common for scholars and scientists to remain single, and many believe that Galileo didn’t want having a wife to affect the way that people looked at his work. Furthermore, it’s also possible that class differences may have played a role in their unusual relationship.
He Never Graduated From School
In his youth, Galileo began studying at a monastery near Florence, playing with the idea of becoming a monk. His father, however, did not approve of his son dedicating his life to religion and took him out of the monastery.
At the suggestion of his father, Galileo enrolled at the University of Pisa to study medicine but found himself changing his focus to mathematics. In 1585, he left school without earning his degree and continued his study of mathematics on his own. He made a living giving private lessons before returning to the University of Pisa in 1589 as a teacher.
His Middle Finger Is On Display
After Galileo died, his body was buried in a chapel at the church of Santa Croce in Florence. Around a century later, his body was transferred to a place in the Santa Croce basilica. Yet, three of his fingers, a vertebra, and a tooth, were removed from his corpse.
The appendages were assumed to have been lost in the 1900s, with two of the fingers and the tooth appearing at an auction in 2009 and being bought by a private collector. The third finger, the middle on his right hand, has been featured on numerous museums in Italy since the first half of the 1800s.
A NASA Spacecraft Was Named After Him
In 1989, a team from Germany, along with NASA, named a spacecraft after Galileo. In 1995, the spacecraft arrived at Jupiter and became the first to study the planet and its moons for an extended period of time. This was only appropriate since the four moons of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo in 1610 with a telescope.
The spacecraft discovered salt water below the surface of three of Jupiter’s moons and volcanic activity on another. In 2003, the mission ended after the Galileo spaceship was intentionally crashed into Jupiter.
His Daughters Were Nuns
Despite Galileo’s future troubles with the Catholic Church, his two daughters, Virginia and Livia, were both placed in a convent near Florence when they were 12 and 13 years old. They would remain there for the rest of their lives.
Galileo had a close relationship with his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, who was known to cook and sew for him in the convent. In turn, Galileo would donate food and other supplies to the financially struggling nunnery. His son Vincenzo, on the other hand, studied medicine at the University of Pisa, married, and lived in Florence.
He Inspired Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton’s first law of motion was based on Galileo’s creation of the concept of inertia. Galileo claimed that an object in motion possesses inertia, which causes it to continue in a state of motion until it is stopped by an external force.
This discovery is yet another example of how far ahead of his time Galileo was, and why he is appropriately named “the father of modern physics” as well as “the father of modern science.”
An Interesting Name
There’s a reason that Galileo Galilei’s first name is almost identical to his last. This was the result of a 16th-century Tuscan naming tradition, in which the eldest son of a family is named after the last name of his parents.
Galileo’s family changed their last name from Bonaiuti to Galilei to honor an ancestor named Galileo Bonaiuti, who was a physician, professor, and politician in the 15th century. Furthermore, the Italian name Galileo is a reference to a biblically important region in Northern Israel.
He Was Wrong About Ocean Tides
While Galileo is known for his successes, that didn’t mean that he was right about everything. Something he got completely wrong was the cause of ocean tides. In his essay “Discourse on the Tides,” Galileo theorized that the Earth’s rotation is what caused the changing of tides.
However, his idea never caught on, as it didn’t explain how here could be multiple high tides in a single day. It wasn’t until later that it was concluded that the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon were the cause. At the end of his essay, Galileo admitted that his theory had some faults and hoped further research would provide more information.
He Discovered The Moons Of Jupiter
Galileo is famous for his discovery of the moons of Jupiter. Using his telescope, on January 7, 1610, he discovered three objects around the planet that he believed to be stars. Finding a fourth days later, he realized that the objects weren’t stars orbiting the planet.
He named the unknown bodies after his patron, Cosimo II de Medici, and his brothers. Today, the moons are known as Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery of the moons pushed Galileo further toward a heliocentric view of our universe in which the Sun was at the center, not the Earth.
It’s Unlikely He Dropped Anything From The Leaning Tower Of Pisa
One of the most famous stories about Galileo was that he conducted an experiment at the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Supposedly, he dropped two different objects of different weights from the top to prove that objects dropped from the same height fall to the ground at the same speed.
This would disprove Aristotle’s belief that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. However, there was only one account of this experiment being performed, which was written years after the fact. It’s assumed that this story is most likely a myth.
The International Year of Astronomy
In 2009, in honor of the 400th anniversary of Galileo’s discoveries of his telescope and the release of Johannes Kepler’s book Astronomia Nova, the United Nations dubbed the year the International Year of Astronomy.
Throughout 2009, events were held across the world to express the significance of astronomy and to promote scientific education. On October 7, 2009, the White House held the White House Astronomy Night. More than 20 telescopes were places across the South Lawn of the White House which also included displays about outer space.
He Inherited His Father’s Financial Woes
One of the driving forces that caused Galileo to try his hand at numerous scientific disciplines was his father’s death. Not only did Galileo lose his father, but he also inherited some of his financial burdens, one of these being caring for his younger brother, Michelangelo.
On top of looking after and financially supporting his brother’s passion for music, he also had to help pay unpaid dowries to his brothers-in-law. Thankfully, Galileo’s hard work paid off, and he grew wealthy from his work.
He Was Once On Good Terms With The Catholic Church
Before everything went south between Galileo and the Catholic Church, the Vatican actually supported Galileo’s research of the cosmos. The information he provided helped the church establish exact dates for Easter and other religious holidays.
He visited Rome in 1611 to demonstrate his telescope and was met with awe and admiration. Pope Urban VIII even read one of Galileo’s essays and wrote a positive poem about him. Of course, this didn’t last for long, and Galileo soon became at odds with the church.
He Was Sentenced To Life In Prison
When Copernicus came out with his heliocentric theory about the universe, it went against the common belief that the Earth was at the center of the solar system. In 1616, the Catholic Church deemed this theory to be heresy because it went against the Bible. Yet, Galileo was still given permission to study Copernicus’ work as long as he did not defend or promote his theory.
Nevertheless, in 1632, he published “Dialogue of the Two Principal Systems of the World,” which was seen as supporting Copernicus’ view of the universe. The next year, Galileo was forced to stand trial before the Inquisition in Rome. There, he was found guilty of heresy and sentenced to life in prison.
He Was On House Arrest Until His Death
While Galileo may have been sentenced to life in prison, that wasn’t exactly his punishment (luckily for him). Instead, he was sentenced to house arrest, where he lived out his final years at his home in Arcetri, near Florence. Although he was not allowed to see friends or publish any more works, he was visited by people throughout Europe such as philosopher Thomas Hobbes and poet John Milton.
He also succeeded in secretly publishing “Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences” about physics and engineering. His final work was published in 1638, the year he went blind, and he died on January 8, 1642, at the age of 77.
The Church Eventually Apologized
In the centuries that followed Galileo’s trial and imprisonment, many popes from the Roman Catholic Church have tried to clear his name and make right for what had been done to him. In 1979, Pope John Paul II launched an investigation into the church’s treatment of Galileo.
Thirteen years later, in 1992, 359 years after Galileo was tried by the Inquisition, the pope closed the case and issued an apology, admitting that there were several errors made by the judges during his trial.
He Didn’t Like Rules, Even As A Young Man
Considering that Galileo was sentenced to life in prison by the Catholic Church, it’s clear that he didn’t conform to what people wanted. His issues with the church weren’t the only instance of this, either. Back when he was a young professor at the University of Pisa, Galileo ran into a little bit of trouble with authority.
The university’s rules stated that as a professor, Galileo was to wear his formal robes at all times. He refused, thinking it was a ridiculous rule, and wore his own clothes instead. For his defiance, the university docked his pay.
He Helped The Military
Galileo is also revered for his contributions to engineering, with one of his most notable achievements being the creation and improvement of geometric and military compasses. Gunners and surveyors primarily used these. For gunners, the compass aided in establishing a new and safer way to elevate cannons accurately and administering the correct amount of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials.
When used as a geometric instrument, it helped in the construction of any polygon as well as the computation of any polygon or circular sector. Also, he also invented an early version of the thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb that moves water in a tube. | <urn:uuid:4d65e05a-f0e7-4dcb-831c-0dd97452f539> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pastfactory.com/history/groundbreaking-life-of-galileo-galilei/?view-all | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.985794 | 2,704 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.243803068995... | 3 | Born February 15, 1564, Galileo Galilei is described as a polymath whose main fields of study included astronomy, physics, and engineering. He is widely considered to be the father of modern physics, modern science, the scientific method, and observable astronomy. As much as he accomplished during his life, he was seen as a controversial figure, with some of his theories surrounding Copernican heliocentrism putting him at odds with the Catholic Church. Travel back to a time when the Medicis ruled Florence, and see the kind of man that Galileo was and his impact on science as we know it.
He Didn’t Invent The Telescope
Although many people think that it was Galileo who invented the telescope, that’s not the case. In reality, it’s not exactly known who was the real inventor, although the Dutch spectacle maker Hans Lippershey is often given the credit since he applied for a patent in 1608.
A year later, Galileo obtained descriptions of the instrument and improved upon its design. By the time he was done, he had a telescope that could magnify 20 to 30 times. According to science historian Owen Gingerich, Galileo “turned a popular carnival toy into a scientific instrument.”
He Was A Skilled Artist
Galileo may best be known for his work as a scientist, yet he was skilled in many other disciplines as well. It is noted that Galileo was an incredibly gifted artist whose work was comparable to many of the masters of his time.
Known for being a master of perspective, art professor Samuel Edgerton comments that Galileo’s work shows “the deft brushstrokes of a practiced watercolorist […] an attractive, soft, and luminescent quality.” His art also had impressionistic elements, 250 years before Impressionism became popular.
He Had Children But Was Never Married
Galileo had a close relationship with a woman from Venice named Marina Gamba. The two shared two daughters and a son, although they were never married and never lived together.
In that time, it was common for scholars and scientists to remain single, and many believe that Galileo didn’t want having a wife to affect the way that people looked at his work. Furthermore, it’s also possible that class differences may have played a role in their unusual relationship.
He Never Graduated From School
In his youth, Galileo began studying at a monastery near Florence, playing with the idea of becoming a monk. His father, however, did not approve of his son dedicating his life to religion and took him out of the monastery.
At the suggestion of his father, Galileo enrolled at the University of Pisa to study medicine but found himself changing his focus to mathematics. In 1585, he left school without earning his degree and continued his study of mathematics on his own. He made a living giving private lessons before returning to the University of Pisa in 1589 as a teacher.
His Middle Finger Is On Display
After Galileo died, his body was buried in a chapel at the church of Santa Croce in Florence. Around a century later, his body was transferred to a place in the Santa Croce basilica. Yet, three of his fingers, a vertebra, and a tooth, were removed from his corpse.
The appendages were assumed to have been lost in the 1900s, with two of the fingers and the tooth appearing at an auction in 2009 and being bought by a private collector. The third finger, the middle on his right hand, has been featured on numerous museums in Italy since the first half of the 1800s.
A NASA Spacecraft Was Named After Him
In 1989, a team from Germany, along with NASA, named a spacecraft after Galileo. In 1995, the spacecraft arrived at Jupiter and became the first to study the planet and its moons for an extended period of time. This was only appropriate since the four moons of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo in 1610 with a telescope.
The spacecraft discovered salt water below the surface of three of Jupiter’s moons and volcanic activity on another. In 2003, the mission ended after the Galileo spaceship was intentionally crashed into Jupiter.
His Daughters Were Nuns
Despite Galileo’s future troubles with the Catholic Church, his two daughters, Virginia and Livia, were both placed in a convent near Florence when they were 12 and 13 years old. They would remain there for the rest of their lives.
Galileo had a close relationship with his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, who was known to cook and sew for him in the convent. In turn, Galileo would donate food and other supplies to the financially struggling nunnery. His son Vincenzo, on the other hand, studied medicine at the University of Pisa, married, and lived in Florence.
He Inspired Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton’s first law of motion was based on Galileo’s creation of the concept of inertia. Galileo claimed that an object in motion possesses inertia, which causes it to continue in a state of motion until it is stopped by an external force.
This discovery is yet another example of how far ahead of his time Galileo was, and why he is appropriately named “the father of modern physics” as well as “the father of modern science.”
An Interesting Name
There’s a reason that Galileo Galilei’s first name is almost identical to his last. This was the result of a 16th-century Tuscan naming tradition, in which the eldest son of a family is named after the last name of his parents.
Galileo’s family changed their last name from Bonaiuti to Galilei to honor an ancestor named Galileo Bonaiuti, who was a physician, professor, and politician in the 15th century. Furthermore, the Italian name Galileo is a reference to a biblically important region in Northern Israel.
He Was Wrong About Ocean Tides
While Galileo is known for his successes, that didn’t mean that he was right about everything. Something he got completely wrong was the cause of ocean tides. In his essay “Discourse on the Tides,” Galileo theorized that the Earth’s rotation is what caused the changing of tides.
However, his idea never caught on, as it didn’t explain how here could be multiple high tides in a single day. It wasn’t until later that it was concluded that the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon were the cause. At the end of his essay, Galileo admitted that his theory had some faults and hoped further research would provide more information.
He Discovered The Moons Of Jupiter
Galileo is famous for his discovery of the moons of Jupiter. Using his telescope, on January 7, 1610, he discovered three objects around the planet that he believed to be stars. Finding a fourth days later, he realized that the objects weren’t stars orbiting the planet.
He named the unknown bodies after his patron, Cosimo II de Medici, and his brothers. Today, the moons are known as Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery of the moons pushed Galileo further toward a heliocentric view of our universe in which the Sun was at the center, not the Earth.
It’s Unlikely He Dropped Anything From The Leaning Tower Of Pisa
One of the most famous stories about Galileo was that he conducted an experiment at the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Supposedly, he dropped two different objects of different weights from the top to prove that objects dropped from the same height fall to the ground at the same speed.
This would disprove Aristotle’s belief that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. However, there was only one account of this experiment being performed, which was written years after the fact. It’s assumed that this story is most likely a myth.
The International Year of Astronomy
In 2009, in honor of the 400th anniversary of Galileo’s discoveries of his telescope and the release of Johannes Kepler’s book Astronomia Nova, the United Nations dubbed the year the International Year of Astronomy.
Throughout 2009, events were held across the world to express the significance of astronomy and to promote scientific education. On October 7, 2009, the White House held the White House Astronomy Night. More than 20 telescopes were places across the South Lawn of the White House which also included displays about outer space.
He Inherited His Father’s Financial Woes
One of the driving forces that caused Galileo to try his hand at numerous scientific disciplines was his father’s death. Not only did Galileo lose his father, but he also inherited some of his financial burdens, one of these being caring for his younger brother, Michelangelo.
On top of looking after and financially supporting his brother’s passion for music, he also had to help pay unpaid dowries to his brothers-in-law. Thankfully, Galileo’s hard work paid off, and he grew wealthy from his work.
He Was Once On Good Terms With The Catholic Church
Before everything went south between Galileo and the Catholic Church, the Vatican actually supported Galileo’s research of the cosmos. The information he provided helped the church establish exact dates for Easter and other religious holidays.
He visited Rome in 1611 to demonstrate his telescope and was met with awe and admiration. Pope Urban VIII even read one of Galileo’s essays and wrote a positive poem about him. Of course, this didn’t last for long, and Galileo soon became at odds with the church.
He Was Sentenced To Life In Prison
When Copernicus came out with his heliocentric theory about the universe, it went against the common belief that the Earth was at the center of the solar system. In 1616, the Catholic Church deemed this theory to be heresy because it went against the Bible. Yet, Galileo was still given permission to study Copernicus’ work as long as he did not defend or promote his theory.
Nevertheless, in 1632, he published “Dialogue of the Two Principal Systems of the World,” which was seen as supporting Copernicus’ view of the universe. The next year, Galileo was forced to stand trial before the Inquisition in Rome. There, he was found guilty of heresy and sentenced to life in prison.
He Was On House Arrest Until His Death
While Galileo may have been sentenced to life in prison, that wasn’t exactly his punishment (luckily for him). Instead, he was sentenced to house arrest, where he lived out his final years at his home in Arcetri, near Florence. Although he was not allowed to see friends or publish any more works, he was visited by people throughout Europe such as philosopher Thomas Hobbes and poet John Milton.
He also succeeded in secretly publishing “Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences” about physics and engineering. His final work was published in 1638, the year he went blind, and he died on January 8, 1642, at the age of 77.
The Church Eventually Apologized
In the centuries that followed Galileo’s trial and imprisonment, many popes from the Roman Catholic Church have tried to clear his name and make right for what had been done to him. In 1979, Pope John Paul II launched an investigation into the church’s treatment of Galileo.
Thirteen years later, in 1992, 359 years after Galileo was tried by the Inquisition, the pope closed the case and issued an apology, admitting that there were several errors made by the judges during his trial.
He Didn’t Like Rules, Even As A Young Man
Considering that Galileo was sentenced to life in prison by the Catholic Church, it’s clear that he didn’t conform to what people wanted. His issues with the church weren’t the only instance of this, either. Back when he was a young professor at the University of Pisa, Galileo ran into a little bit of trouble with authority.
The university’s rules stated that as a professor, Galileo was to wear his formal robes at all times. He refused, thinking it was a ridiculous rule, and wore his own clothes instead. For his defiance, the university docked his pay.
He Helped The Military
Galileo is also revered for his contributions to engineering, with one of his most notable achievements being the creation and improvement of geometric and military compasses. Gunners and surveyors primarily used these. For gunners, the compass aided in establishing a new and safer way to elevate cannons accurately and administering the correct amount of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials.
When used as a geometric instrument, it helped in the construction of any polygon as well as the computation of any polygon or circular sector. Also, he also invented an early version of the thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb that moves water in a tube. | 2,708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Feste's function in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night?
Feste has a couple of different roles in the play. One role is represented by his name, which can be seen as a derivative for the word festival. Shakespeare wrote the play Twelfth Night for an Epiphany celebration, and the entire play is essentially a festival. The holiday known as Epiphany fell on the twelfth day after Christmas and marked the arrival of the Three Wise Men who came bearing gifts to baby Jesus. While one might expect an Epiphany celebration to be similar to the rest of Christmas festivities, in Elizabethan times, the holiday was known to be "absolutely secular and even quite bawdy"; it was also a "time of masques, revels, defiance of authority, and general foolishness," all of which are details mirrored in the actions and themes in the play ("Shakespeare's Twelfth Night"). Hence, as a court jester, one of Feste's roles is to represent the merriment and foolery characteristic of the holiday.
However, he also serves an even greater function. Even though through his fooling he participates in the play's festivities, he actually also remains outside of the play's society with the purpose of serving as a moral judge (eNotes, Twelfth Night Essays: "Feste and Fabian: Plots and Complots"). One element that characterizes him as standing outside of the play's society is that we learn in the very beginning of the fifth scene that he is an itinerant court jester, meaning that he does not really belong to one household but rather travels about from household to household within a certain court. We know he is an itinerant fool because when we first meet him, Maria scolds him for his absence, saying, "My lady will hang thee for thy absence" (I.v.3). In addition, we also learn that he not only associates with Olivia's house but often goes to Duke Orsino's house as well, showing us that he does not really belong to one specific household as a servant, and since he does not belong to a specific household, it shows us that he is also not a part of the play's society, but rather remains outside of it.
Remaining outside of the play's society is central to his characterization because it also puts him in a position to be the play's moral judge. We also see him playing the role of moral judge in this very first scene in which we meet him when we see him assert that Olivia is the true fool rather than himself. When Olivia commands, "Take the fool away!," Feste turns the tables and declares that Olivia should be taken away because she is the real fool for allowing herself to mourn so excessively over a brother's soul who is in heaven, as we see in his lines, "The more fool, madonna, to mourn for your brother's soul being in heaven. Take away the fool, gentleman" (I.v.33, 64-65). Feste also very wisely notes the insincerity of Duke Orsino's proclaimed love for Olivia and calls him fickle by asserting that his mind is a "very opal," meaning a gemstone that changes color easily (II.iv.80).
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:535f2350-79a4-44e1-99f1-b3c8f3f440b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/every-character-shakespeares-plays-has-function-285691?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.981041 | 672 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.003956081345677... | 3 | What is Feste's function in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night?
Feste has a couple of different roles in the play. One role is represented by his name, which can be seen as a derivative for the word festival. Shakespeare wrote the play Twelfth Night for an Epiphany celebration, and the entire play is essentially a festival. The holiday known as Epiphany fell on the twelfth day after Christmas and marked the arrival of the Three Wise Men who came bearing gifts to baby Jesus. While one might expect an Epiphany celebration to be similar to the rest of Christmas festivities, in Elizabethan times, the holiday was known to be "absolutely secular and even quite bawdy"; it was also a "time of masques, revels, defiance of authority, and general foolishness," all of which are details mirrored in the actions and themes in the play ("Shakespeare's Twelfth Night"). Hence, as a court jester, one of Feste's roles is to represent the merriment and foolery characteristic of the holiday.
However, he also serves an even greater function. Even though through his fooling he participates in the play's festivities, he actually also remains outside of the play's society with the purpose of serving as a moral judge (eNotes, Twelfth Night Essays: "Feste and Fabian: Plots and Complots"). One element that characterizes him as standing outside of the play's society is that we learn in the very beginning of the fifth scene that he is an itinerant court jester, meaning that he does not really belong to one household but rather travels about from household to household within a certain court. We know he is an itinerant fool because when we first meet him, Maria scolds him for his absence, saying, "My lady will hang thee for thy absence" (I.v.3). In addition, we also learn that he not only associates with Olivia's house but often goes to Duke Orsino's house as well, showing us that he does not really belong to one specific household as a servant, and since he does not belong to a specific household, it shows us that he is also not a part of the play's society, but rather remains outside of it.
Remaining outside of the play's society is central to his characterization because it also puts him in a position to be the play's moral judge. We also see him playing the role of moral judge in this very first scene in which we meet him when we see him assert that Olivia is the true fool rather than himself. When Olivia commands, "Take the fool away!," Feste turns the tables and declares that Olivia should be taken away because she is the real fool for allowing herself to mourn so excessively over a brother's soul who is in heaven, as we see in his lines, "The more fool, madonna, to mourn for your brother's soul being in heaven. Take away the fool, gentleman" (I.v.33, 64-65). Feste also very wisely notes the insincerity of Duke Orsino's proclaimed love for Olivia and calls him fickle by asserting that his mind is a "very opal," meaning a gemstone that changes color easily (II.iv.80).
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Batman arrives off Indented Head and establishes a holding station. On 6 June Batman recorded in his journal that he had signed a treaty with the local Aboriginal people, the Wurundjeri. In this treaty, Batman purported to buy land near the Yarra River and around Geelong, on Corio Bay – almost all of the Kulin nation’s ancestral land. In exchange he gave the eight “chiefs” whose marks he acquired on his treaty some blankets, knives, tomahawks, scissors, looking-glasses, flour, handkerchiefs and shirts. It is unlikely they understood the European negation. For the Indigenous people of Victoria, the land was not about possession but belonging.
However, the treaty was significant as it was the first and only documented time when Europeans negotiated their presence and occupation of aboriginal lands. It was later declared void by the Governor of New South Wales.
Buckley reveals himself to Batman’s men at Indented Head. | <urn:uuid:fe28525e-9157-4cd3-9706-ee272f03cfde> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.torquayhistory.com/index.php/timeline/7237/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.982266 | 204 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 7 | John Batman arrives off Indented Head and establishes a holding station. On 6 June Batman recorded in his journal that he had signed a treaty with the local Aboriginal people, the Wurundjeri. In this treaty, Batman purported to buy land near the Yarra River and around Geelong, on Corio Bay – almost all of the Kulin nation’s ancestral land. In exchange he gave the eight “chiefs” whose marks he acquired on his treaty some blankets, knives, tomahawks, scissors, looking-glasses, flour, handkerchiefs and shirts. It is unlikely they understood the European negation. For the Indigenous people of Victoria, the land was not about possession but belonging.
However, the treaty was significant as it was the first and only documented time when Europeans negotiated their presence and occupation of aboriginal lands. It was later declared void by the Governor of New South Wales.
Buckley reveals himself to Batman’s men at Indented Head. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
< PHILOSOPHER FACTS >
📌 Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – AD 65), fully Lucius Annaeus Seneca and also known simply as Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work satirist of the Silver Age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in Cordoba in Spain, and raised in Rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew was the poet Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica by the emperor Claudius, but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to Nero. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, in which he was likely to have been innocent. His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings. As a writer Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays, which are all tragedies. His prose works include a dozen essays and one hundred twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism. As a tragedian, he is best known for plays such as his Medea, Thyestes, and Phaedra. Seneca's influence on later generations is immense—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model for dramatic art.
Let's see your pop art!! Loved the efforts by all pir beautiful ladies this week. It's so lovely to have our little group working hard again to kicknof 2020 👉👉why not dm our host @mystthepixy to be involves in future collabs💋 ⭐ All artists would truely love to see you showing some love, so why not head over and follow us all and drop some love on our pages! ⭐ | <urn:uuid:c7711a83-bc7f-4948-8ec4-36eda7cee6d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.webstagram.biz/tag/instavibes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00471.warc.gz | en | 0.984338 | 490 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.270613014... | 1 | < PHILOSOPHER FACTS >
📌 Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – AD 65), fully Lucius Annaeus Seneca and also known simply as Seneca, was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work satirist of the Silver Age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in Cordoba in Spain, and raised in Rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew was the poet Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of Corsica by the emperor Claudius, but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to Nero. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, in which he was likely to have been innocent. His stoic and calm suicide has become the subject of numerous paintings. As a writer Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his plays, which are all tragedies. His prose works include a dozen essays and one hundred twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient Stoicism. As a tragedian, he is best known for plays such as his Medea, Thyestes, and Phaedra. Seneca's influence on later generations is immense—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model for dramatic art.
Let's see your pop art!! Loved the efforts by all pir beautiful ladies this week. It's so lovely to have our little group working hard again to kicknof 2020 👉👉why not dm our host @mystthepixy to be involves in future collabs💋 ⭐ All artists would truely love to see you showing some love, so why not head over and follow us all and drop some love on our pages! ⭐ | 495 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Herod "the Great" makes only a cameo appearance in the Bible, as the conniving and cruel killer of Bethlehem's little boys, yet his mark on Judea in that period is colossal. He reigned as a Roman-appointed king over Judea from 37 to 4 BC. The son of Antipater the Edomite, he was responsible for changing the political rule of Judea from the Levite Hasmoneans—the royal family descended from the Maccabees—to the Edomite, or Idumean, Herodians. He was an intelligent and charismatic figure, but he used these attributes to conspire his way to the throne.
Once he had achieved his political aspirations and Caesar Augustus at Rome had appointed him as king of Judea, Herod took steps to change Judea. Through massive building projects, including the Temple at Jerusalem, and systematically introducing Greek culture into Judea—a process called "Hellenization"—Herod radically changed the Jewish world that our Savior was born into.
Herod's story begins with his father, Antipater. A civil war erupted in Judea between the supporters of two brothers, Aristobulus II, the last Hasmonean king, who reigned from 66 to 63 BC, and John Hyrcanus II, the high priest from 76 to 40 BC. The brothers created enough tension that Rome intervened, taking away Judea's sovereignty and making the region a Roman province.
As a result of Roman rule, Gabinius, a Roman statesman and military commander, divided Judea into five legal districts. Pompey, another Roman statesman and military commander of Rome's eastern kingdom, removed Aristobulus from Judea and imprisoned him in Rome. Hyrcanus II was left as high priest with ruling authority.
Antipater soon made his services available to the Romans, and Rome responded by appointing the Edomite as procurator (financial agent) of Judea. Antipater used this position to make his two sons, Phasael and Herod, governors of two of Gabinius' districts, Jerusalem and Galilee respectively. Thus Herod's political career begins at the age of 25 as a governor.
Herod's style of governing mirrored that of his father's: He was an opportunist, greatly ambitious, and presumptuous. This style was exemplified in his first few years as governor of Galilee. A bandit-chief named Hezekiah led a pack of thieves who attacked Gentile towns and envoys traveling along the borders of Galilee and Syria. Herod captured Hezekiah and had him immediately put to death, an action that won him high praise from the Romans but severe criticism from Jews.
By taking such precipitous action, Herod had ignored the pre-existing law that required any criminal to be tried before the Sanhedrin, so Jewish officials perceived Herod's act for what it was, ingratiation with the Romans. The Sanhedrin tried the young governor, but Hyrcanus, swayed by the Romans, acquitted Herod. However, the external influence was so obvious to the Jews that Herod had to flee to Damascus.
During Herod's exile, civil wars erupted in Judea, resulting in the assassination of Antipater. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, seized the throne with the help of the Parthians, a rival empire to Rome. Seeing his chance, Herod immediately left Damascus and sought Roman help. Caesar Augustus responded to Herod's plea by appointing him king over Judea. He returned to Judea with a large Roman army and deposed Antigonus.
Herod's reign is commonly separated into three periods:
» The first, 37 to 25 BC, saw Herod removing all threats to the throne;
» The second, 25 to 13 BC, is regarded as the acme of his reign, when he began massive building projects and expanded Judea;
» The third and final, from 13-4 BC, is defined by Herod's tragic spiral toward death.
First Period of Herod's Reign
As a usurper, Herod's first challenge was to win over the Jewish people. Despite winning Rome's full support, he was generally despised by his subjects. He attempted to sway them to his side by imprisoning his Edomite wife, Doris, and their son, Antipater II, so that he could marry Hyrcanus' Hasmonean granddaughter, Princess Mariamne. This proved unsuccessful.
The Jews severely disapproved of Herod because he was only half-Jewish and because he had illegally executed Hezekiah, the brigand. The people, instead, placed their loyalty in the Pharisees. Realizing this, Herod used his wealth to win the Pharisees' favor, and they proclaimed that he was made king by God's judgment, thus deserving Jewish respect and obedience. Their support helped abate the Jews' hatred and calmed unrest.
The nobles of Judea, however, still disapproved of him. He quieted them, not with wealth, but with brutality. Many of the nobles supported his former adversary, Antigonus, so Herod decided to execute the 45 wealthiest and most prominent members of the noble class as traitors. He then seized their lands and wealth to pay tribute to the Romans. The remaining nobles were frightened into submission.
The Hasmoneans also disapproved of Herod because of a crucial matter, the high priesthood. In 40 BC, when the Parthians invaded Jerusalem with Antigonus, they took captive Hyrcanus, the high priest. Herod replaced him with a Babylonian Jew, Ananel, of whom Alexandra, the prominent Hasmonean grandmother of Mariamne, highly disapproved. Alexandra petitioned the famous Cleopatra, the wife of Marc Antony, Herod's Roman patron, to persuade her husband to force Herod to replace Ananel with Aristobulus, Mariamne's brother. Mariamne likewise urged her brother's appointment.
Under mounting pressure, in 35 BC Herod appointed Aristobulus, a seventeen-year-old at the time. In doing so, Herod broke biblical law, which states a high priest holds office for life, as well as that a high priest must be thirty years of age. Aristobulus did not officiate as high priest for long, however. He became popular with the Jews—too popular for Herod, who saw him as a potential threat to his throne. At Herod's command, the young man was assassinated at a feast in Jericho later that same year.
As mentioned above, Herod had political ties to Marc Antony, who became an enemy of Caesar Augustus. When Herod realized Augustus would defeat Antony, he feared his connection might lose him his position. In a show of loyalty, he presented himself before Augustus, but before he made the trip, he had Hyrcanus executed, just in case the aged Hasmonean tried to claim the throne. Herod returned in 30 BC with Augustus' blessings and the new districts of Jericho, Gadara, Hippos, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, and Joppa, all added to his domain by the generous emperor.
Upon his return, Herod's wife Mariamne was falsely accused of being unfaithful. He swiftly and without trial executed the accused man, and he had Mariamne investigated, condemned, and executed in 29 BC. His paranoia not yet quelled, between 29 and 25 BC, Herod executed every relative of Hyrcanus who may have posed even the slightest threat to his throne.
The second period, from 25 to 13 BC, is considered by many historians to be the height of Herod's reign. During these years, the king undertook massive building projects—everything from cities to statues in Jerusalem and abroad. Beyond introducing new buildings into Judea, he aggressively pushed Greek culture on the Jews during this time to make Judea look as "Roman" as possible in order to continue his good standing with Augustus.
In this, Herod succeeded. He visited Augustus numerous times during this period, and Caesar gave him additional provinces, doubling Judean territory by 13 BC. However, his real success was dependent upon peace in his region, which he won by taking away power from the Jews.
Herod constructed a number of important cities, and named most of them either in honor of Caesar or his own Edomite family. Perhaps most famous of these is the important coastal city of Caesarea, where Pontius Pilate eventually lived. In addition, Herod had a temple erected in honor of Augustus there. North of Jericho, he founded the city of Phasaelis, named after his brother, and to honor his father, he built Antipatris, where the Romans later held Paul captive (Acts 23). Besides these cities, Herod also built or restored a number of fortresses across Judea to strengthen its defenses.
Herod's best-known building projects were in Jerusalem. Within its walls, he built a theater, and in a valley just outside, an amphitheater, introducing Greek arts. For himself, he built an ornate palace of gold and marble in the city's western district. North of the Temple, he raised a massive citadel, Fortress Antonia, in honor of his patron, Marc Antony.
Of course, his most important and well-known project was the Temple in Jerusalem. Deciding that the Temple built by Zerubbabel no longer matched the quality of its surrounding architecture, he undertook a massive rebuilding project in 20 BC. The project was so extensive that the Temple was not truly completed until AD 64, only six years before its destruction. The Temple's beauty was acknowledged throughout the Roman world, and even became proverbial: "He who has not seen Herod's building has never seen anything beautiful."
The Jews were not particularly supportive of his ventures. He tried to follow biblical criteria in his construction of the Temple, such as not including any images, allowing only priests to work on the Temple proper, and never entering the inner rooms himself. Yet, late in the construction, Herod enraged the Jews by placing the image of an eagle on the entrance gates. The Jews also found it hypocritical that Herod, only half-Jewish, claimed piety in this work, despite building numerous temples in honor of other gods in other Roman provinces, including a temple to Apollo and even one to Baal.
The Jews were also suspicious of his aggressive marketing of Greek culture. He not only introduced Greek theater, but also began hosting Olympic-style games in Jerusalem in honor of Caesar. He also syncretized Greek and Jewish culture in every possible area. He surrounded himself with a cabinet of Greek orators and philosophers as advisors, and he replaced state officials with Greek politicians. One historian claims that Herod "boasted of being more nearly related to the Greeks than to the Jews."
Herod's Hellenization was an effort to further ingratiate himself with Augustus, proving his loyalty to Caesar above his loyalty to God. The Jews recognized where his devotion lay and grew restless. The king responded by increasing taxes, banning any kind of public assembly, and quickly imprisoning any critic of his reign in one of his many fortresses.
This period may have been both the pinnacle of Herod's splendor and Judea's power, but it came with a grave price. During this time, his homicidal atrocities were masked by his building projects, but they resurfaced with renewed tragedy in his final years, from 13 to 4 BC.
The final period of Herod's reign, up to his death, is defined by family betrayal, sickness, and more bloodshed. Herod became suspicious of Alexander and Aristobulus, his two sons by Mariamne, whom he suspected were conspiring against him for the throne in revenge for executing their mother. In an attempt to counter their suspected plot, he allowed Antipater, his son by his first wife, Doris, to return from exile. Whether Alexander and Aristobulus actually plotted against Herod is questionable, but Antipater's hatred for Herod was unequivocal. He conspired to take the throne and began by slandering his step-brothers. Convinced, Herod imprisoned and executed Alexander and Aristobulus in 7 BC.
Antipater had won support in the courts of Judea, but he was not satisfied. Next, he sought to poison his father. He sent poison to his ally, Pheroras, one of Herod's brothers, who dined with the king often enough to carry out the assassination. The king, however, discovered the plot only when, mistaking Antipater's intentions, Pheroras drank the poison himself. When Pheroras' servants informed Herod about the plot, Antipater was executed.
Between then and his death, Herod ordered a massacre for which he would be reviled throughout the professing Christian world. The old, paranoid king, after hearing from the visiting magi that a new King of the Jews had been born in Bethlehem, ordered all male children under the age of two to be killed (Matthew 2:16). Having been confronted with imagined and unimagined threats for many years, Herod dealt with this threat with unprecedented cruelty.
Shortly after this "Massacre of the Innocents," Herod died of an agonizing sickness. Rewriting his will just days before his death, he made Archelaus heir to his throne and ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; his brother Antipas, tetrarch over Galilee and Perea; and his son Philip, tetrarch of the regions east of Galilee. According to orders made before Herod's death, soldiers were to round up many of Judea's most distinguished men into Jerusalem's theater and execute them all. Herod justified this final act of cruelty by saying that it would ensure that the Jews lamented his passing. Happily, this order was not carried out.
By increasing Rome's involvement in Judea; expanding the nation's size, power, and wealth; and mixing an exclusive Jewish culture with Gentile Greek culture, Herod shaped the political, economic, and cultural world in which Jesus Christ lived. Longer-term, he also appointed men into power who would later encounter and affect the early Christian church. Despite being morally repulsive, King Herod was a towering figure in the history of Judea. | <urn:uuid:eb6dd5e6-566c-49ae-b2b3-26ac13df6c47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.biblicaljesus.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/Library.sr/CT/ARTB/k/1387/Herod-Great.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.983745 | 2,940 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.106779783964... | 4 | King Herod "the Great" makes only a cameo appearance in the Bible, as the conniving and cruel killer of Bethlehem's little boys, yet his mark on Judea in that period is colossal. He reigned as a Roman-appointed king over Judea from 37 to 4 BC. The son of Antipater the Edomite, he was responsible for changing the political rule of Judea from the Levite Hasmoneans—the royal family descended from the Maccabees—to the Edomite, or Idumean, Herodians. He was an intelligent and charismatic figure, but he used these attributes to conspire his way to the throne.
Once he had achieved his political aspirations and Caesar Augustus at Rome had appointed him as king of Judea, Herod took steps to change Judea. Through massive building projects, including the Temple at Jerusalem, and systematically introducing Greek culture into Judea—a process called "Hellenization"—Herod radically changed the Jewish world that our Savior was born into.
Herod's story begins with his father, Antipater. A civil war erupted in Judea between the supporters of two brothers, Aristobulus II, the last Hasmonean king, who reigned from 66 to 63 BC, and John Hyrcanus II, the high priest from 76 to 40 BC. The brothers created enough tension that Rome intervened, taking away Judea's sovereignty and making the region a Roman province.
As a result of Roman rule, Gabinius, a Roman statesman and military commander, divided Judea into five legal districts. Pompey, another Roman statesman and military commander of Rome's eastern kingdom, removed Aristobulus from Judea and imprisoned him in Rome. Hyrcanus II was left as high priest with ruling authority.
Antipater soon made his services available to the Romans, and Rome responded by appointing the Edomite as procurator (financial agent) of Judea. Antipater used this position to make his two sons, Phasael and Herod, governors of two of Gabinius' districts, Jerusalem and Galilee respectively. Thus Herod's political career begins at the age of 25 as a governor.
Herod's style of governing mirrored that of his father's: He was an opportunist, greatly ambitious, and presumptuous. This style was exemplified in his first few years as governor of Galilee. A bandit-chief named Hezekiah led a pack of thieves who attacked Gentile towns and envoys traveling along the borders of Galilee and Syria. Herod captured Hezekiah and had him immediately put to death, an action that won him high praise from the Romans but severe criticism from Jews.
By taking such precipitous action, Herod had ignored the pre-existing law that required any criminal to be tried before the Sanhedrin, so Jewish officials perceived Herod's act for what it was, ingratiation with the Romans. The Sanhedrin tried the young governor, but Hyrcanus, swayed by the Romans, acquitted Herod. However, the external influence was so obvious to the Jews that Herod had to flee to Damascus.
During Herod's exile, civil wars erupted in Judea, resulting in the assassination of Antipater. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, seized the throne with the help of the Parthians, a rival empire to Rome. Seeing his chance, Herod immediately left Damascus and sought Roman help. Caesar Augustus responded to Herod's plea by appointing him king over Judea. He returned to Judea with a large Roman army and deposed Antigonus.
Herod's reign is commonly separated into three periods:
» The first, 37 to 25 BC, saw Herod removing all threats to the throne;
» The second, 25 to 13 BC, is regarded as the acme of his reign, when he began massive building projects and expanded Judea;
» The third and final, from 13-4 BC, is defined by Herod's tragic spiral toward death.
First Period of Herod's Reign
As a usurper, Herod's first challenge was to win over the Jewish people. Despite winning Rome's full support, he was generally despised by his subjects. He attempted to sway them to his side by imprisoning his Edomite wife, Doris, and their son, Antipater II, so that he could marry Hyrcanus' Hasmonean granddaughter, Princess Mariamne. This proved unsuccessful.
The Jews severely disapproved of Herod because he was only half-Jewish and because he had illegally executed Hezekiah, the brigand. The people, instead, placed their loyalty in the Pharisees. Realizing this, Herod used his wealth to win the Pharisees' favor, and they proclaimed that he was made king by God's judgment, thus deserving Jewish respect and obedience. Their support helped abate the Jews' hatred and calmed unrest.
The nobles of Judea, however, still disapproved of him. He quieted them, not with wealth, but with brutality. Many of the nobles supported his former adversary, Antigonus, so Herod decided to execute the 45 wealthiest and most prominent members of the noble class as traitors. He then seized their lands and wealth to pay tribute to the Romans. The remaining nobles were frightened into submission.
The Hasmoneans also disapproved of Herod because of a crucial matter, the high priesthood. In 40 BC, when the Parthians invaded Jerusalem with Antigonus, they took captive Hyrcanus, the high priest. Herod replaced him with a Babylonian Jew, Ananel, of whom Alexandra, the prominent Hasmonean grandmother of Mariamne, highly disapproved. Alexandra petitioned the famous Cleopatra, the wife of Marc Antony, Herod's Roman patron, to persuade her husband to force Herod to replace Ananel with Aristobulus, Mariamne's brother. Mariamne likewise urged her brother's appointment.
Under mounting pressure, in 35 BC Herod appointed Aristobulus, a seventeen-year-old at the time. In doing so, Herod broke biblical law, which states a high priest holds office for life, as well as that a high priest must be thirty years of age. Aristobulus did not officiate as high priest for long, however. He became popular with the Jews—too popular for Herod, who saw him as a potential threat to his throne. At Herod's command, the young man was assassinated at a feast in Jericho later that same year.
As mentioned above, Herod had political ties to Marc Antony, who became an enemy of Caesar Augustus. When Herod realized Augustus would defeat Antony, he feared his connection might lose him his position. In a show of loyalty, he presented himself before Augustus, but before he made the trip, he had Hyrcanus executed, just in case the aged Hasmonean tried to claim the throne. Herod returned in 30 BC with Augustus' blessings and the new districts of Jericho, Gadara, Hippos, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, and Joppa, all added to his domain by the generous emperor.
Upon his return, Herod's wife Mariamne was falsely accused of being unfaithful. He swiftly and without trial executed the accused man, and he had Mariamne investigated, condemned, and executed in 29 BC. His paranoia not yet quelled, between 29 and 25 BC, Herod executed every relative of Hyrcanus who may have posed even the slightest threat to his throne.
The second period, from 25 to 13 BC, is considered by many historians to be the height of Herod's reign. During these years, the king undertook massive building projects—everything from cities to statues in Jerusalem and abroad. Beyond introducing new buildings into Judea, he aggressively pushed Greek culture on the Jews during this time to make Judea look as "Roman" as possible in order to continue his good standing with Augustus.
In this, Herod succeeded. He visited Augustus numerous times during this period, and Caesar gave him additional provinces, doubling Judean territory by 13 BC. However, his real success was dependent upon peace in his region, which he won by taking away power from the Jews.
Herod constructed a number of important cities, and named most of them either in honor of Caesar or his own Edomite family. Perhaps most famous of these is the important coastal city of Caesarea, where Pontius Pilate eventually lived. In addition, Herod had a temple erected in honor of Augustus there. North of Jericho, he founded the city of Phasaelis, named after his brother, and to honor his father, he built Antipatris, where the Romans later held Paul captive (Acts 23). Besides these cities, Herod also built or restored a number of fortresses across Judea to strengthen its defenses.
Herod's best-known building projects were in Jerusalem. Within its walls, he built a theater, and in a valley just outside, an amphitheater, introducing Greek arts. For himself, he built an ornate palace of gold and marble in the city's western district. North of the Temple, he raised a massive citadel, Fortress Antonia, in honor of his patron, Marc Antony.
Of course, his most important and well-known project was the Temple in Jerusalem. Deciding that the Temple built by Zerubbabel no longer matched the quality of its surrounding architecture, he undertook a massive rebuilding project in 20 BC. The project was so extensive that the Temple was not truly completed until AD 64, only six years before its destruction. The Temple's beauty was acknowledged throughout the Roman world, and even became proverbial: "He who has not seen Herod's building has never seen anything beautiful."
The Jews were not particularly supportive of his ventures. He tried to follow biblical criteria in his construction of the Temple, such as not including any images, allowing only priests to work on the Temple proper, and never entering the inner rooms himself. Yet, late in the construction, Herod enraged the Jews by placing the image of an eagle on the entrance gates. The Jews also found it hypocritical that Herod, only half-Jewish, claimed piety in this work, despite building numerous temples in honor of other gods in other Roman provinces, including a temple to Apollo and even one to Baal.
The Jews were also suspicious of his aggressive marketing of Greek culture. He not only introduced Greek theater, but also began hosting Olympic-style games in Jerusalem in honor of Caesar. He also syncretized Greek and Jewish culture in every possible area. He surrounded himself with a cabinet of Greek orators and philosophers as advisors, and he replaced state officials with Greek politicians. One historian claims that Herod "boasted of being more nearly related to the Greeks than to the Jews."
Herod's Hellenization was an effort to further ingratiate himself with Augustus, proving his loyalty to Caesar above his loyalty to God. The Jews recognized where his devotion lay and grew restless. The king responded by increasing taxes, banning any kind of public assembly, and quickly imprisoning any critic of his reign in one of his many fortresses.
This period may have been both the pinnacle of Herod's splendor and Judea's power, but it came with a grave price. During this time, his homicidal atrocities were masked by his building projects, but they resurfaced with renewed tragedy in his final years, from 13 to 4 BC.
The final period of Herod's reign, up to his death, is defined by family betrayal, sickness, and more bloodshed. Herod became suspicious of Alexander and Aristobulus, his two sons by Mariamne, whom he suspected were conspiring against him for the throne in revenge for executing their mother. In an attempt to counter their suspected plot, he allowed Antipater, his son by his first wife, Doris, to return from exile. Whether Alexander and Aristobulus actually plotted against Herod is questionable, but Antipater's hatred for Herod was unequivocal. He conspired to take the throne and began by slandering his step-brothers. Convinced, Herod imprisoned and executed Alexander and Aristobulus in 7 BC.
Antipater had won support in the courts of Judea, but he was not satisfied. Next, he sought to poison his father. He sent poison to his ally, Pheroras, one of Herod's brothers, who dined with the king often enough to carry out the assassination. The king, however, discovered the plot only when, mistaking Antipater's intentions, Pheroras drank the poison himself. When Pheroras' servants informed Herod about the plot, Antipater was executed.
Between then and his death, Herod ordered a massacre for which he would be reviled throughout the professing Christian world. The old, paranoid king, after hearing from the visiting magi that a new King of the Jews had been born in Bethlehem, ordered all male children under the age of two to be killed (Matthew 2:16). Having been confronted with imagined and unimagined threats for many years, Herod dealt with this threat with unprecedented cruelty.
Shortly after this "Massacre of the Innocents," Herod died of an agonizing sickness. Rewriting his will just days before his death, he made Archelaus heir to his throne and ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; his brother Antipas, tetrarch over Galilee and Perea; and his son Philip, tetrarch of the regions east of Galilee. According to orders made before Herod's death, soldiers were to round up many of Judea's most distinguished men into Jerusalem's theater and execute them all. Herod justified this final act of cruelty by saying that it would ensure that the Jews lamented his passing. Happily, this order was not carried out.
By increasing Rome's involvement in Judea; expanding the nation's size, power, and wealth; and mixing an exclusive Jewish culture with Gentile Greek culture, Herod shaped the political, economic, and cultural world in which Jesus Christ lived. Longer-term, he also appointed men into power who would later encounter and affect the early Christian church. Despite being morally repulsive, King Herod was a towering figure in the history of Judea. | 3,026 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint-Séverin is a fertile ground for wayside crosses, since there are nine of them on its territory. Originally, these monuments were built along the roads when they opened for colonization.
Parishioners from a same area gathered at night at the base of these crosses, especially during the Month of Mary, to pray for graces. They did it for various purposes: land fertility, world peace, family health, spruce budworm control (a disease that made evergreen trees dry), etc.
While wayside crosses were built to show piety, these monuments could also be built to fulfill a promise. That was the case for two Saint-Séverin inhabitants who put their words into action after recovering from a serious accident. In the neighbor parish of Saint-Elzéar, parishioners had even committed to build a cross if the government opened a road worthy of the name.
Wayside crosses installation was not a single-person matter. Since they served several inhabitants, their cost was usually broken down between people from the neighborhood.
Source: Lynda Cloutier (2005) | <urn:uuid:f758a656-19db-4906-b9ea-facf403956cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://baladodecouverte.com/circuits/666/poi/6668/wayside-crosses | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.982236 | 229 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.100... | 3 | Saint-Séverin is a fertile ground for wayside crosses, since there are nine of them on its territory. Originally, these monuments were built along the roads when they opened for colonization.
Parishioners from a same area gathered at night at the base of these crosses, especially during the Month of Mary, to pray for graces. They did it for various purposes: land fertility, world peace, family health, spruce budworm control (a disease that made evergreen trees dry), etc.
While wayside crosses were built to show piety, these monuments could also be built to fulfill a promise. That was the case for two Saint-Séverin inhabitants who put their words into action after recovering from a serious accident. In the neighbor parish of Saint-Elzéar, parishioners had even committed to build a cross if the government opened a road worthy of the name.
Wayside crosses installation was not a single-person matter. Since they served several inhabitants, their cost was usually broken down between people from the neighborhood.
Source: Lynda Cloutier (2005) | 226 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander was the fifth son of Malcolm III by his wife Margaret of Wessex, grandniece of Edward the Confessor. Alexander was named after Pope Alexander II.
He was the younger brother of King Edgar, who was unmarried, and his brother's heir presumptive by 1104 (and perhaps earlier). In that year he was the senior layman present at the examination of the remains of Saint Cuthbert at Durham prior to their re-interment. He held lands in Scotland north of the Forth and in Lothian.
On the death of Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, their brother David was granted an appanage in southern Scotland. Edgar's will granted David the lands of the former kingdom of Strathclyde or Cumbria, and this was apparently agreed in advance by Edgar, Alexander, David and their brother-in-law Henry I of England. In 1113, perhaps at Henry's instigation, and with the support of his Anglo-Norman allies, David demanded, and received, additional lands in Lothian along the Upper Tweed and Teviot. David did not receive the title of king, but of "prince of the Cumbrians", and his lands remained under Alexander's final authority.
The dispute over Tweeddale and Teviotdale does not appear to have damaged relations between Alexander and David, although it was unpopular in some quarters. A Gaelic poem laments:
It's bad what Malcolm's son has done,
dividing us from Alexander;
he causes, like each king's son before,
the plunder of stable Alba.
The dispute over the eastern marches does not appear to have caused lasting trouble between Alexander and Henry of England. In 1114 he joined Henry on campaign in Wales against Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd. Alexander's marriage with Henry's illegitimate daughter Sybilla of Normandy may have occurred as early as 1107, or as at late as 1114.
William of Malmesbury's account attacks Sybilla, but the evidence argues that Alexander and Sybilla were a devoted but childless couple and Sybilla was of noteworthy piety. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances at Eilean nam Ban (Kenmore on Loch Tay) in July 1122 and was buried at Dunfermline Abbey. Alexander did not remarry and Walter Bower wrote that he planned an Augustinian Priory at the Eilean nam Ban dedicated to Sybilla's memory, and he may have taken steps to have her venerated.
Alexander had at least one illegitimate child, Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, who was later to be involved in a revolt against David I in the 1130s. He was imprisoned at Roxburgh for many years afterwards, perhaps until his death some time after 1157.
Alexander was, like his brothers Edgar and David, a notably pious king. He was responsible for foundations at Scone and Inchcolm. His mother's chaplain and hagiographer Thurgot was named Bishop of Saint Andrews (or Cell Rígmonaid) in 1107, presumably by Alexander's order. The case of Thurgot's would-be successor Eadmer shows that Alexander's wishes were not always accepted by the religious community, perhaps because Eadmer had the backing of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, rather than Thurstan of York. Alexander also patronised Saint Andrews, granting lands intended for an Augustinian Priory, which may have been the same as that intended to honour his wife.
For all his religiosity, Alexander was not remembered as a man of peace. John of Fordun says of him:
Now the king was a lettered and godly man; very humble and amiable towards the clerics and regulars, but terrible beyond measure to the rest of his subjects; a man of large heart, exerting himself in all things beyond his strength.
He manifested the terrible aspect of his character in his reprisals in the Mormaerdom of Moray. Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland says that Alexander was holding court at Invergowrie when he was attacked by "men of the Isles". Walter Bower says the attackers were from Moray and Mearns. Alexander pursued them north, to "Stockford" in Ross (near Beauly) where he defeated them. This, says Wyntoun, is why he was named the "Fierce". The dating of this is uncertain, as are his enemies' identity. However, in 1116 the Annals of Ulster report: "Ladhmann son of Domnall, grandson of the king of Scotland, was killed by the men of Moray." The king referred to is Alexander's father, Malcolm III, and Domnall was Alexander's half brother. The Mormaerdom or Kingdom of Moray was ruled by the family of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findláich) and Lulach (Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin): not overmighty subjects, but a family who had ruled Alba within little more than a lifetime. Who the Mormaer or King was at this time is not known; it may have been Óengus of Moray or his father, whose name is not known. As for the Mearns, the only known Mormaer of Mearns, Máel Petair, had murdered Alexander's half-brother Duncan II (Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim) in 1094.
Alexander died in April 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother David, probably the acknowledged heir since the death of Sybilla, succeeded him.
Alexander I has been depicted in a fantasy novel.:Pater Nostras Canis Dirus: The Garrison Effect (2010). Alexander is depicted troubled by his lack of direct heirs, having no child with his wife Sybilla of Normandy. He points that his father-in-law Henry I of England is asking them for a grandson. | <urn:uuid:58dc7ec0-cbb7-4a9a-a1f4-a66e28a92673> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Alexander-I-of-Scotland | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.987697 | 1,271 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.01915997... | 2 | Alexander was the fifth son of Malcolm III by his wife Margaret of Wessex, grandniece of Edward the Confessor. Alexander was named after Pope Alexander II.
He was the younger brother of King Edgar, who was unmarried, and his brother's heir presumptive by 1104 (and perhaps earlier). In that year he was the senior layman present at the examination of the remains of Saint Cuthbert at Durham prior to their re-interment. He held lands in Scotland north of the Forth and in Lothian.
On the death of Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, their brother David was granted an appanage in southern Scotland. Edgar's will granted David the lands of the former kingdom of Strathclyde or Cumbria, and this was apparently agreed in advance by Edgar, Alexander, David and their brother-in-law Henry I of England. In 1113, perhaps at Henry's instigation, and with the support of his Anglo-Norman allies, David demanded, and received, additional lands in Lothian along the Upper Tweed and Teviot. David did not receive the title of king, but of "prince of the Cumbrians", and his lands remained under Alexander's final authority.
The dispute over Tweeddale and Teviotdale does not appear to have damaged relations between Alexander and David, although it was unpopular in some quarters. A Gaelic poem laments:
It's bad what Malcolm's son has done,
dividing us from Alexander;
he causes, like each king's son before,
the plunder of stable Alba.
The dispute over the eastern marches does not appear to have caused lasting trouble between Alexander and Henry of England. In 1114 he joined Henry on campaign in Wales against Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd. Alexander's marriage with Henry's illegitimate daughter Sybilla of Normandy may have occurred as early as 1107, or as at late as 1114.
William of Malmesbury's account attacks Sybilla, but the evidence argues that Alexander and Sybilla were a devoted but childless couple and Sybilla was of noteworthy piety. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances at Eilean nam Ban (Kenmore on Loch Tay) in July 1122 and was buried at Dunfermline Abbey. Alexander did not remarry and Walter Bower wrote that he planned an Augustinian Priory at the Eilean nam Ban dedicated to Sybilla's memory, and he may have taken steps to have her venerated.
Alexander had at least one illegitimate child, Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, who was later to be involved in a revolt against David I in the 1130s. He was imprisoned at Roxburgh for many years afterwards, perhaps until his death some time after 1157.
Alexander was, like his brothers Edgar and David, a notably pious king. He was responsible for foundations at Scone and Inchcolm. His mother's chaplain and hagiographer Thurgot was named Bishop of Saint Andrews (or Cell Rígmonaid) in 1107, presumably by Alexander's order. The case of Thurgot's would-be successor Eadmer shows that Alexander's wishes were not always accepted by the religious community, perhaps because Eadmer had the backing of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Ralph d'Escures, rather than Thurstan of York. Alexander also patronised Saint Andrews, granting lands intended for an Augustinian Priory, which may have been the same as that intended to honour his wife.
For all his religiosity, Alexander was not remembered as a man of peace. John of Fordun says of him:
Now the king was a lettered and godly man; very humble and amiable towards the clerics and regulars, but terrible beyond measure to the rest of his subjects; a man of large heart, exerting himself in all things beyond his strength.
He manifested the terrible aspect of his character in his reprisals in the Mormaerdom of Moray. Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland says that Alexander was holding court at Invergowrie when he was attacked by "men of the Isles". Walter Bower says the attackers were from Moray and Mearns. Alexander pursued them north, to "Stockford" in Ross (near Beauly) where he defeated them. This, says Wyntoun, is why he was named the "Fierce". The dating of this is uncertain, as are his enemies' identity. However, in 1116 the Annals of Ulster report: "Ladhmann son of Domnall, grandson of the king of Scotland, was killed by the men of Moray." The king referred to is Alexander's father, Malcolm III, and Domnall was Alexander's half brother. The Mormaerdom or Kingdom of Moray was ruled by the family of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findláich) and Lulach (Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin): not overmighty subjects, but a family who had ruled Alba within little more than a lifetime. Who the Mormaer or King was at this time is not known; it may have been Óengus of Moray or his father, whose name is not known. As for the Mearns, the only known Mormaer of Mearns, Máel Petair, had murdered Alexander's half-brother Duncan II (Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim) in 1094.
Alexander died in April 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother David, probably the acknowledged heir since the death of Sybilla, succeeded him.
Alexander I has been depicted in a fantasy novel.:Pater Nostras Canis Dirus: The Garrison Effect (2010). Alexander is depicted troubled by his lack of direct heirs, having no child with his wife Sybilla of Normandy. He points that his father-in-law Henry I of England is asking them for a grandson. | 1,297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is sufficient motive
A female writer would have a clear need for a pseudonym like William Shakespeare.
Shakespeare draws on a number of existing sources. But his female characters and friendships are rarely lifted from them. When he includes historical sources, he also, at times, feminizes them. (Plutarch and Anthony and Cleopatra). Shakespeare also builds authentic female relationships and characters at a time when no other masculine playwrights could.
Many of the heroines Shakespeare creates refuse to play by the rules. 10 of his female characters defy their fathers, eight disguise themselves as men and six lead armies. These bucked the trends of the day. Beatrice, for example, in Much Ado About Nothing, is infuriated by the limitations of her sex. Kate in the Taming of the Shrew will not be silenced and controlled by her husband. Emilia has strong opinions on women's equality in Othello. The most intriguing relationships that are developed in Shakespeare's works are often between women (Paulina and Hermione in a Winter's Tale; the Merry Wives of Windsor, and many more). How was Shakespeare able to write with such a unique perspective on women's issues and relationships? Because he was a woman.
Firstly, female authors do not hold a monopoly over female themes and seminal feminist works. You only have to look at Gustav Flaubert and George Bernard Shaw's works to see that male authors can explore feminine themes with as much intricacy and sensitivity as female authors. Therefore, Shakespeare's dealing with the limits of the female sex and challenging the role of women in society is not in itself evidence of the author's gender. Secondly, Shakespeare is able to develop such strong female relationships because he has a masterful understanding of the human condition. He was able to construct deep and meaningful relationships among many of his characters, not only his female characters. The relationship between Lear and his fool, Hamlet and Horatio, and Caesar and Brutus are also masterfully crafted. His ability to build convincing and intricate female to female relationships is not an indication of Shakespeare's gender but of his genius.
[P1] Shakespeare's works explore feminine themes in a way none of his contemporaries could. [P2] His female characters and relationships are also among the most intricate and developed. [P3] Therefore, Shakespeare was likely a woman.
[Rejecting P2] His male to male relationships were just as well crafted. [Rejecting P3] This is evidence of Shakespeare's literary intelligence, not his gender. | <urn:uuid:b2cf7de9-cdd5-4e81-8a2c-4735ca406856> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://parlia.com/a/RhLvDlwXfWFXPrvHwdGKtLxnn/who-was-shakespeare/he-was-a-she/the-feminization-of-shakespeare | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.980295 | 517 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.028617514297366142,
-0.131754010... | 1 | There is sufficient motive
A female writer would have a clear need for a pseudonym like William Shakespeare.
Shakespeare draws on a number of existing sources. But his female characters and friendships are rarely lifted from them. When he includes historical sources, he also, at times, feminizes them. (Plutarch and Anthony and Cleopatra). Shakespeare also builds authentic female relationships and characters at a time when no other masculine playwrights could.
Many of the heroines Shakespeare creates refuse to play by the rules. 10 of his female characters defy their fathers, eight disguise themselves as men and six lead armies. These bucked the trends of the day. Beatrice, for example, in Much Ado About Nothing, is infuriated by the limitations of her sex. Kate in the Taming of the Shrew will not be silenced and controlled by her husband. Emilia has strong opinions on women's equality in Othello. The most intriguing relationships that are developed in Shakespeare's works are often between women (Paulina and Hermione in a Winter's Tale; the Merry Wives of Windsor, and many more). How was Shakespeare able to write with such a unique perspective on women's issues and relationships? Because he was a woman.
Firstly, female authors do not hold a monopoly over female themes and seminal feminist works. You only have to look at Gustav Flaubert and George Bernard Shaw's works to see that male authors can explore feminine themes with as much intricacy and sensitivity as female authors. Therefore, Shakespeare's dealing with the limits of the female sex and challenging the role of women in society is not in itself evidence of the author's gender. Secondly, Shakespeare is able to develop such strong female relationships because he has a masterful understanding of the human condition. He was able to construct deep and meaningful relationships among many of his characters, not only his female characters. The relationship between Lear and his fool, Hamlet and Horatio, and Caesar and Brutus are also masterfully crafted. His ability to build convincing and intricate female to female relationships is not an indication of Shakespeare's gender but of his genius.
[P1] Shakespeare's works explore feminine themes in a way none of his contemporaries could. [P2] His female characters and relationships are also among the most intricate and developed. [P3] Therefore, Shakespeare was likely a woman.
[Rejecting P2] His male to male relationships were just as well crafted. [Rejecting P3] This is evidence of Shakespeare's literary intelligence, not his gender. | 514 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About the book of Habakkuk
Habakkuk lived about 600 years BC. He lived in the country called Judah. Here is a list of the kings of Judah at that time:
The country that ruled that part of the world until 612 BC was Assyria. In 612 BC, a country called Babylon beat Assyria. Then the Babylonians ruled that part of the world. Both the Assyrians and the Babylonians loved and worshipped false gods. Habakkuk thought that the king and other leaders of the people in Judah did not rule well. Many leaders did bad things and nothing could stop them. These leaders did very cruel things to the people in Judah. These leaders did not obey the covenant that they had with God. A covenant is when two people or groups agree. Here the two are God and the people in Judah. God said that he would be kind to the people in Judah. They promised to love God and to obey him. But the leaders did not love and obey God. So, God said that he would punish Judah's people.
God chose the Babylonians to punish the leaders of Judah. The trouble was that they punished the people in Judah with the leaders. Starting in about 625 BC, Babylon had become a powerful country. They destroyed many countries and, in 612 BC, they destroyed Assyria. Then they destroyed Egypt in 605 BC. Then, in 586 BC, they destroyed Judah too. There is more about Assyria in our commentary on Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah. That commentary is called ‘The Problem of Assyria’.
Habakkuk could not understand why God had chosen the Babylonians. He knew that someone must punish Judah. But he did not know why it should be the Babylonians. The Babylonians were very bad and cruel people. The Babylonians loved and worshipped false gods. In his book, Habakkuk talks to God:
· In chapter 1, he asks God a question. Would God ever answer when Habakkuk prayed to him?
· In chapter 2, he waits for God's answer. God says that he will punish the Babylonians later. The whole world would see what God would do.
· In chapter 3, we read something else. Habakkuk believes that God will punish the Babylonians. And he believes that God will make Judah safe.
We know very little about Habakkuk. The name means ‘he who holds somebody close to him’. Bible students think that he lived about 600 BC.
This was a very important time for the Jews. After the kings called Saul, David and Solomon, their country became two countries. The north part was called Israel. The south part was called Judah. About 720 BC, the Assyrians destroyed the north part. That was because Israel's people did not obey God's rules. But the south part did not think that this would happen to them. They too did not obey God's rules. And Habakkuk said that it would happen to them. He was right. In 586 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem. They took the people away to Babylon. We call this ‘the exile’.
Habakkuk had two problems:
1. In Judah, many people did not obey God's rules. Habakkuk did not understand why God did not make them obey him (Habakkuk 1:2-4).
2. God told Habakkuk about something that he would do. But Habakkuk did not think that it was possible. He did not understand how God could use wicked people (like the Babylonians) to punish Judah's people. Judah's people were not as wicked as the Babylonians! (See Habakkuk 1:12-17)
God still has authority today. It may not always seem to us that he has authority. But we must believe that he does have it. Then we say that we are living by faith in God. Habakkuk 2:4 says, ‘righteous people will live by their faith in God’.
That means two things:
· They will continue to believe that God will help them.
· After they die on this earth, they will live with God.
At the end of his book, Habakkuk writes a psalm. A psalm is a song with music. In it, he praises God. He also says this: Whatever happens, he will still praise God. That is the message of Habakkuk: God knows what he is doing. But he does not always do what we might want him to do. But, whatever happens, praise God! | <urn:uuid:7e63ec5b-c379-49b4-810a-a5146b96f622> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/habakkuk/0/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.984737 | 980 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.087256178259... | 5 | About the book of Habakkuk
Habakkuk lived about 600 years BC. He lived in the country called Judah. Here is a list of the kings of Judah at that time:
The country that ruled that part of the world until 612 BC was Assyria. In 612 BC, a country called Babylon beat Assyria. Then the Babylonians ruled that part of the world. Both the Assyrians and the Babylonians loved and worshipped false gods. Habakkuk thought that the king and other leaders of the people in Judah did not rule well. Many leaders did bad things and nothing could stop them. These leaders did very cruel things to the people in Judah. These leaders did not obey the covenant that they had with God. A covenant is when two people or groups agree. Here the two are God and the people in Judah. God said that he would be kind to the people in Judah. They promised to love God and to obey him. But the leaders did not love and obey God. So, God said that he would punish Judah's people.
God chose the Babylonians to punish the leaders of Judah. The trouble was that they punished the people in Judah with the leaders. Starting in about 625 BC, Babylon had become a powerful country. They destroyed many countries and, in 612 BC, they destroyed Assyria. Then they destroyed Egypt in 605 BC. Then, in 586 BC, they destroyed Judah too. There is more about Assyria in our commentary on Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah. That commentary is called ‘The Problem of Assyria’.
Habakkuk could not understand why God had chosen the Babylonians. He knew that someone must punish Judah. But he did not know why it should be the Babylonians. The Babylonians were very bad and cruel people. The Babylonians loved and worshipped false gods. In his book, Habakkuk talks to God:
· In chapter 1, he asks God a question. Would God ever answer when Habakkuk prayed to him?
· In chapter 2, he waits for God's answer. God says that he will punish the Babylonians later. The whole world would see what God would do.
· In chapter 3, we read something else. Habakkuk believes that God will punish the Babylonians. And he believes that God will make Judah safe.
We know very little about Habakkuk. The name means ‘he who holds somebody close to him’. Bible students think that he lived about 600 BC.
This was a very important time for the Jews. After the kings called Saul, David and Solomon, their country became two countries. The north part was called Israel. The south part was called Judah. About 720 BC, the Assyrians destroyed the north part. That was because Israel's people did not obey God's rules. But the south part did not think that this would happen to them. They too did not obey God's rules. And Habakkuk said that it would happen to them. He was right. In 586 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem. They took the people away to Babylon. We call this ‘the exile’.
Habakkuk had two problems:
1. In Judah, many people did not obey God's rules. Habakkuk did not understand why God did not make them obey him (Habakkuk 1:2-4).
2. God told Habakkuk about something that he would do. But Habakkuk did not think that it was possible. He did not understand how God could use wicked people (like the Babylonians) to punish Judah's people. Judah's people were not as wicked as the Babylonians! (See Habakkuk 1:12-17)
God still has authority today. It may not always seem to us that he has authority. But we must believe that he does have it. Then we say that we are living by faith in God. Habakkuk 2:4 says, ‘righteous people will live by their faith in God’.
That means two things:
· They will continue to believe that God will help them.
· After they die on this earth, they will live with God.
At the end of his book, Habakkuk writes a psalm. A psalm is a song with music. In it, he praises God. He also says this: Whatever happens, he will still praise God. That is the message of Habakkuk: God knows what he is doing. But he does not always do what we might want him to do. But, whatever happens, praise God! | 985 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Middle Class Movement Revolutions are generally defined by certain causes and results stemming from discontent in the governed people. Among these outcomes are change in the political, social and economic order of society.
The leadership in both countries at the time of their revolutions was certainly repressive, especially in terms of taxation. While there are several similarities in these revolutions, there are also a few key differences.
This comparison essay on the French and American Revolutions seeks to explore the parallels as well as the divisions that are present in both the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
Furthermore, although the lower and middle classes were generally the majority of the rebelling populace, there was far more upper class support for the revolution in France versus the participation of loyalists in America. Even though they were powerful in both France and America at the start of each revolution, their strangleholds on both the people and economies of each nation were weakening.
The reaction against the British monarchy in America only served to further weaken it and although it may have been strong in other parts of the world, the continued resistance exemplified by events such as the Boston Tea party and other revolutionary acts against the crown were taking their toll.
It way was blocked and recognition of its worth was denied by a decaying class of parasitic, hereditary privileged, noble landowners. Just as in America, it was the middle and lower classes involved in the revolution and although the loyalists in America had a sound following, the demographics of the revolution were essentially the same.
Another important similarity between the two revolutions in France and America was their emphasis on Enlightenment thought. The Enlightenmentwhich started in France and is associated with writers such as Rousseau and Voltaire, caused those under the thumb of monarchies to begin to recognize the inequality inherent in such systems.
People of all classes, especially the middle and lower classes, began to use these ideas to formulate an ideology of resistance and insist on the implementation of new measures that would guarantee the natural rights of all citizens.
These ideas shaped the American Revolution and the success of it went on to also inspire the French as well. Partisans of the Revolution differed violently with each other, as did their opponents. To different parties, the French Revolution might refer to specific events, like the capture of the Bastille, or to a vast personified force, or to an abstract cause for which the French or others might be fighting.
This statement would also apply to America during its revolutionary period and acts of rebellion could be anything such as boycotting goods from Britain to violently attacking loyalist and British enterprises. One was the charisma of General Washington, embodying as he did the states had fought the war together.
On top of this, the Seven Years War had increased taxes by a huge margin and no one—not even those in the upper echelons saw the potential for personal yield. The nobility was becoming a useless old structure and the boredom of many of these idle aristocrats led to planning action. The difference between France and America was that in America there was not a period of protracted wars outside of the country going on that would weaken the economy and necessitate the need for additional funds.
Even though there were battles in America with the Indians, mostly in the pursuit of land, these did not match the scope and cost of the Seven Years War that had driven the French nearly to bankruptcy.
On the other hand, the British, the opponent to the Americans, were weakened because of outside mostly colonial and land-grabbing wars. The people in America were less impoverished than their French counterparts although the British government was coming close to breaking the bank through massive taxation.
In America, there were still a strong number of loyalists because they benefited from the great amount of favor they received from the British government. In France, however, even the nobles and aristocrats were angry at the monarchy because they were given less and less power. Although they still had money and a fair amount of control over local politics, they were almost figureheads instead of people with actual power.
They saw that the king was limiting their role in government and they were part of the resistance effort as well. This is not to say that all of the nobility took part in reaction against the monarchy but the numbers of French aristocrats that were rebelling was significant.
Still, the similarity of the rest of the population sponsoring the revolts was strong in both France an America.
From the top levels all the way to the lowest of laborers, everyone in France had a reason to want to prompt great change. While it seems that a majority of the focus of the French Revolution is on the plight and revolt of the working poor, the fact remains that this was a rebellion that was so effective because of this widespread support.Links to online books and articles relating to the American Revolution generally and to the Southern Campaign specifically.
Economics, social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. In the 19th century economics was the hobby of gentlemen of leisure and the vocation of a few academics; economists wrote about economic policy but were rarely consulted by legislators before decisions were made.
Today there is hardly a government, international agency, or. The American Revolution: A Middle Class Movement Essay - Revolutions are generally defined by certain causes and results stemming from discontent in the governed people.
Among these outcomes are change in the political, social and economic order of society. FOREWORD. Since its first publication in the Brazilian cultural journal Catolicismo in , Revolution and Counter-Revolution has gone through a number of editions in Portuguese, English, French, Italian, and Spanish..
The present edition is the first to be published digitally in the United States. This essay delves deeply into the origins of the Vietnam War, critiques U.S.
justifications for intervention, examines the brutal conduct of the war, and discusses the antiwar movement. [Chapter 80, "Was the American Revolution Radical?," from Murray N. Rothbard's Conceived in Liberty, vol.
4, The Revolutionary War, –] Especially since the early s, America has been concerned with opposing revolutions throughout the world; in the process, it has generated a. | <urn:uuid:790f8289-0ea5-4cb7-bfa0-60a08d71cf0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mibujakome.heartoftexashop.com/the-american-revolution-an-economic-movement-essay-2928fu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.981332 | 1,256 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.109678260982... | 1 | A Middle Class Movement Revolutions are generally defined by certain causes and results stemming from discontent in the governed people. Among these outcomes are change in the political, social and economic order of society.
The leadership in both countries at the time of their revolutions was certainly repressive, especially in terms of taxation. While there are several similarities in these revolutions, there are also a few key differences.
This comparison essay on the French and American Revolutions seeks to explore the parallels as well as the divisions that are present in both the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
Furthermore, although the lower and middle classes were generally the majority of the rebelling populace, there was far more upper class support for the revolution in France versus the participation of loyalists in America. Even though they were powerful in both France and America at the start of each revolution, their strangleholds on both the people and economies of each nation were weakening.
The reaction against the British monarchy in America only served to further weaken it and although it may have been strong in other parts of the world, the continued resistance exemplified by events such as the Boston Tea party and other revolutionary acts against the crown were taking their toll.
It way was blocked and recognition of its worth was denied by a decaying class of parasitic, hereditary privileged, noble landowners. Just as in America, it was the middle and lower classes involved in the revolution and although the loyalists in America had a sound following, the demographics of the revolution were essentially the same.
Another important similarity between the two revolutions in France and America was their emphasis on Enlightenment thought. The Enlightenmentwhich started in France and is associated with writers such as Rousseau and Voltaire, caused those under the thumb of monarchies to begin to recognize the inequality inherent in such systems.
People of all classes, especially the middle and lower classes, began to use these ideas to formulate an ideology of resistance and insist on the implementation of new measures that would guarantee the natural rights of all citizens.
These ideas shaped the American Revolution and the success of it went on to also inspire the French as well. Partisans of the Revolution differed violently with each other, as did their opponents. To different parties, the French Revolution might refer to specific events, like the capture of the Bastille, or to a vast personified force, or to an abstract cause for which the French or others might be fighting.
This statement would also apply to America during its revolutionary period and acts of rebellion could be anything such as boycotting goods from Britain to violently attacking loyalist and British enterprises. One was the charisma of General Washington, embodying as he did the states had fought the war together.
On top of this, the Seven Years War had increased taxes by a huge margin and no one—not even those in the upper echelons saw the potential for personal yield. The nobility was becoming a useless old structure and the boredom of many of these idle aristocrats led to planning action. The difference between France and America was that in America there was not a period of protracted wars outside of the country going on that would weaken the economy and necessitate the need for additional funds.
Even though there were battles in America with the Indians, mostly in the pursuit of land, these did not match the scope and cost of the Seven Years War that had driven the French nearly to bankruptcy.
On the other hand, the British, the opponent to the Americans, were weakened because of outside mostly colonial and land-grabbing wars. The people in America were less impoverished than their French counterparts although the British government was coming close to breaking the bank through massive taxation.
In America, there were still a strong number of loyalists because they benefited from the great amount of favor they received from the British government. In France, however, even the nobles and aristocrats were angry at the monarchy because they were given less and less power. Although they still had money and a fair amount of control over local politics, they were almost figureheads instead of people with actual power.
They saw that the king was limiting their role in government and they were part of the resistance effort as well. This is not to say that all of the nobility took part in reaction against the monarchy but the numbers of French aristocrats that were rebelling was significant.
Still, the similarity of the rest of the population sponsoring the revolts was strong in both France an America.
From the top levels all the way to the lowest of laborers, everyone in France had a reason to want to prompt great change. While it seems that a majority of the focus of the French Revolution is on the plight and revolt of the working poor, the fact remains that this was a rebellion that was so effective because of this widespread support.Links to online books and articles relating to the American Revolution generally and to the Southern Campaign specifically.
Economics, social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. In the 19th century economics was the hobby of gentlemen of leisure and the vocation of a few academics; economists wrote about economic policy but were rarely consulted by legislators before decisions were made.
Today there is hardly a government, international agency, or. The American Revolution: A Middle Class Movement Essay - Revolutions are generally defined by certain causes and results stemming from discontent in the governed people.
Among these outcomes are change in the political, social and economic order of society. FOREWORD. Since its first publication in the Brazilian cultural journal Catolicismo in , Revolution and Counter-Revolution has gone through a number of editions in Portuguese, English, French, Italian, and Spanish..
The present edition is the first to be published digitally in the United States. This essay delves deeply into the origins of the Vietnam War, critiques U.S.
justifications for intervention, examines the brutal conduct of the war, and discusses the antiwar movement. [Chapter 80, "Was the American Revolution Radical?," from Murray N. Rothbard's Conceived in Liberty, vol.
4, The Revolutionary War, –] Especially since the early s, America has been concerned with opposing revolutions throughout the world; in the process, it has generated a. | 1,246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is now evening, as Dante begins his journey. As narrator, Dante invokes the muses and the personification of memory to help him recall his journey. Dante worries that he is not strong enough for the journey before him. He says that Aeneas went to the underworld and Paul went to heaven, but he is not a hero like Aeneas or a holy apostle like Paul. Dante does not think he is fit for the difficult journey.
As a time ambiguously between the light of day and the dark of night, evening suggests that Dante is still poised between the possibilities of sin and piety. Invoking the muses for help is a classical, pagan idea that Dante still uses for his Christian epic. He needs their help if he is to relate, in words, his miraculous journey. Dante worries that he is not a famous hero, but by telling his story he will achieve his own form of heroic fame.
Virgil chides Dante, telling him his anxieties arise from mere cowardice, which constantly "lays ambushes for men," (2.46). He tells Dante that while he (Virgil) was in Limbo, a lady from heaven came to him and told him to help a friend of hers find his way to heaven. The lady was Beatrice, who has left heaven momentarily on account of her deep love for Dante.
Virgil immediately agreed to help Beatrice, but asked her how she could know the way to Limbo and toward Hell, when she is blessed and in heaven. Beatrice answered that she had no fear of anything outside of heaven, and that God has made her nature such that nothing from below can do her any harm. Beatrice says that the Virgin Mary sent St. Lucy to her, to encourage her to help save Dante.
There is a kind of chain reaction stemming from God's love, through Mary and St. Lucy, through Beatrice, to Dante, showing that Beatrice's love can be seen as deriving from the ultimate love of God.
Virgil thus immediately sought out Dante after Beatrice visited him, and saved him from the wolf. Virgil chastises Dante for showing such cowardice, when three blessed women (the Virgin Mary, St. Lucy, and Beatrice) are supporting him, and when he is guiding him.
Virgil will continually chastise and scold Dante throughout the poem, as part of Dante's education and development into a pious soul worthy of not only great fame but entrance to Heaven.
Dante takes this encouragement to heart, and his spirits are raised like a drooping flower that suddenly blossoms in light. Dante says that he is now eager and resolved to begin his journey. He starts on the path, following behind his trusty guide Virgil.
Virgil's words have an almost magical effect on Dante, instantly raising his spirits. The connection of those words to light indicates the way that they are connected to the true path, to clarity, and to God. | <urn:uuid:a1430155-faae-4e4e-9688-555668a57804> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.litcharts.com/lit/inferno/canto-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.98217 | 616 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.159385... | 8 | It is now evening, as Dante begins his journey. As narrator, Dante invokes the muses and the personification of memory to help him recall his journey. Dante worries that he is not strong enough for the journey before him. He says that Aeneas went to the underworld and Paul went to heaven, but he is not a hero like Aeneas or a holy apostle like Paul. Dante does not think he is fit for the difficult journey.
As a time ambiguously between the light of day and the dark of night, evening suggests that Dante is still poised between the possibilities of sin and piety. Invoking the muses for help is a classical, pagan idea that Dante still uses for his Christian epic. He needs their help if he is to relate, in words, his miraculous journey. Dante worries that he is not a famous hero, but by telling his story he will achieve his own form of heroic fame.
Virgil chides Dante, telling him his anxieties arise from mere cowardice, which constantly "lays ambushes for men," (2.46). He tells Dante that while he (Virgil) was in Limbo, a lady from heaven came to him and told him to help a friend of hers find his way to heaven. The lady was Beatrice, who has left heaven momentarily on account of her deep love for Dante.
Virgil immediately agreed to help Beatrice, but asked her how she could know the way to Limbo and toward Hell, when she is blessed and in heaven. Beatrice answered that she had no fear of anything outside of heaven, and that God has made her nature such that nothing from below can do her any harm. Beatrice says that the Virgin Mary sent St. Lucy to her, to encourage her to help save Dante.
There is a kind of chain reaction stemming from God's love, through Mary and St. Lucy, through Beatrice, to Dante, showing that Beatrice's love can be seen as deriving from the ultimate love of God.
Virgil thus immediately sought out Dante after Beatrice visited him, and saved him from the wolf. Virgil chastises Dante for showing such cowardice, when three blessed women (the Virgin Mary, St. Lucy, and Beatrice) are supporting him, and when he is guiding him.
Virgil will continually chastise and scold Dante throughout the poem, as part of Dante's education and development into a pious soul worthy of not only great fame but entrance to Heaven.
Dante takes this encouragement to heart, and his spirits are raised like a drooping flower that suddenly blossoms in light. Dante says that he is now eager and resolved to begin his journey. He starts on the path, following behind his trusty guide Virgil.
Virgil's words have an almost magical effect on Dante, instantly raising his spirits. The connection of those words to light indicates the way that they are connected to the true path, to clarity, and to God. | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The governor’s grandparents were African-American slaves in the 19th century.
On this day in 1990, Douglas Wilder became the first elected African-American governor in the United States. His grandparents were African-American slaves in the 19th century. Interestingly, the state that first elected an African-American governor was Virginia, historically one of the most important US states. Douglas Wilder became the 66th Governor of Virginia in its history, taking up the same position once held by Thomas Jefferson, the lead author of the US Declaration of Independence, who was a slave-owner personally (Jefferson is estimated to have owned as many as 600 slaves during his lifetime ).
Douglas Wilder remained in governorship for one full term for four years. He was later elected mayor of the Virginia capital of Richmond. | <urn:uuid:b41b13ae-cbe5-47de-a171-35682bb67be4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.info/on-this-day/douglas-wilder-the-first-african-american-governor-in-the-united-states/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.990497 | 165 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2884929... | 9 | The governor’s grandparents were African-American slaves in the 19th century.
On this day in 1990, Douglas Wilder became the first elected African-American governor in the United States. His grandparents were African-American slaves in the 19th century. Interestingly, the state that first elected an African-American governor was Virginia, historically one of the most important US states. Douglas Wilder became the 66th Governor of Virginia in its history, taking up the same position once held by Thomas Jefferson, the lead author of the US Declaration of Independence, who was a slave-owner personally (Jefferson is estimated to have owned as many as 600 slaves during his lifetime ).
Douglas Wilder remained in governorship for one full term for four years. He was later elected mayor of the Virginia capital of Richmond. | 169 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone 25 years ago, after intense debate and under serious scrutiny. Park rangers exterminated the last wolves in Yellowstone nearly a century ago, and their return has restored the park's ecosystem to a state not seen in a long time.
Chuck Preston was the founding curator of the Draper Natural History Museum in Cody for 20 years.
"Yellowstone has allowed wolves to reclaim lost territory and occupy an area where they've been absent except for maybe some wandering individuals for more than 70 years," he said.
The Draper Museum guides visitors through the many habitats of the Greater Yellowstone Region, from the highest mountain and alpine regions to the lowest plains and basins.
In the mountain forest region, you can hear birdsong and the howl of grey wolves. Ahead is a display featuring a large black-coated wolf, prey in its mouth and pups by its side.
You would never know that 25 years ago, not a single wolf called Yellowstone home.
"This is one of the last places in North America that can support wolves now where they were once eliminated by people," Preston said. "It's also an experiment to see if humans and wolves can coexist even in this large and largely undeveloped landscape of greater Yellowstone."
That question of coexistence goes back further than reintroduction 25 years ago. Much further, said Doug Smith of the Yellowstone Wolf Project.
"We looked up to them when we were hunter/gatherers, we admired them for their hunting skills," Smith said. "That all changed with the Agricultural Revolution roughly 12,000 years ago, because what they hunted became our livestock."
Wolves were viewed as the antithesis to civilization, Smith said. But the advent of steel traps, lead bullets, and chemical poisons allowed humans to vanquish their competition.
"Back in those days, there were good animals that we hunted, and bad animals - predators - that hunted our game animals," he said.
This mindset was even shared by early park rangers, who sought to protect Yellowstone more for its geology than its wildlife. Bears and cougars were also killed. Wolves were finally exterminated from the park in the 1920s.
For a few decades, park managers culled the elk herds no longer preyed upon by wolves and cougars. But a growing desire to preserve Yellowstone as a wild space led them to stop managing elk in the late 60s. In the absence of any predators, human or otherwise, the elk population soared.
"You take the predator out and they fill the vacant space to the top and over the top," Smith said. "That means there's not enough food to go around, not enough space to go around, and you start to have other things kick in, like reduced pregnancy, disease, high mortality, calf/fawn death because you're at the limit of what the environment can support."
Ecosystems are complex. An overabundance of elk has a cascade of effects on the environment … from the aspen and cottonwoods elk browse … to other animals, like beavers, that depend on that vegetation.
A controversial idea to repopulate Yellowstone with wolves from elsewhere was vigorously debated in the years that followed. But in 1995, wolf advocates won the day. 14 wolves from Canada were released in the park, with further releases during the next two years.
What followed was a multi-year feeding frenzy. Wolves were aided by revitalized grizzly and cougars populations.
"There were a ton of weak elk, sick elk, vulnerable elk," Smith said. "When these carnivores came back, the first decade or two were pretty good going."
As they lost their weakest members throughout that first decade, elk herds grew stronger. And the remaining elk in Yellowstone today are generally healthier and more cautious.
The park's wolf population has also stabilized, with around 100 individuals across 10 packs.
And perhaps no one knows those individuals better than Rick McIntyre. He arrived at Yellowstone in May 1995, not long after the first wolves.
McIntyre took a special interest in the Crystal Creek Pack - two parents and four pups from British Columbia. The three eldest pups were a good size and had nice black coats like their father - but the runt of the litter was different.
"That was Wolf No. 8, and he had a drab gray coat," McIntyre said. "So, he really stood out as kind of the oddball of the family, in a way kind of the Ugly Duckling, because his coat was very similar to the tone of a coyote."
One day, McIntyre spotted these brothers darting out of the woods, pursued by a grizzly.
Wolf 8 turned and stood his ground before the much larger predator.
"And I don't know what was going on in the brain of the bear but it just stopped, and it stared at this little wolf that was confronting him," McIntyre said.
He said Wolf 8 was still very young at this point, somewhat equivalent to a 13-year-old boy.
"The bear just turned around and left and that was the end of it," he said. "So, I was very impressed with that, and that was the beginning of me thinking there was going to be something special about Wolf No. 8."
McIntyre continued watching Wolf 8 for years, as the wolf adopted orphaned pups and stood down much larger alphas, even showing mercy to the ones he defeated.
But it's just one of many individual dramas he saw unfold in Yellowstone.
"It's sometimes said that in terms of social behavior, there's no two species on earth that are so similar as wolves and human beings," McIntyre said.
Given its success, Yellowstone's wolf reintroduction has served as a blueprint for reintroductions elsewhere. But the story's not over, Smith said. The wolves' first 15 years back in the park were a chaotic time …
"... The last ten have been astonishingly stable, almost weirdly so," Smith said. "And so we're actually waiting for the next thing to happen, because the elk population's stable, the wolf population's stable. And you just don't use the word stable in nature."
What that next thing could be is unknown. For now, wolves enjoy a prominent position as one of the park's most well-known predators. And the individual tales of family, adoption, bravery, and resilience continue to play out in the wilds of Yellowstone.
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0.064132198691... | 2 | Wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone 25 years ago, after intense debate and under serious scrutiny. Park rangers exterminated the last wolves in Yellowstone nearly a century ago, and their return has restored the park's ecosystem to a state not seen in a long time.
Chuck Preston was the founding curator of the Draper Natural History Museum in Cody for 20 years.
"Yellowstone has allowed wolves to reclaim lost territory and occupy an area where they've been absent except for maybe some wandering individuals for more than 70 years," he said.
The Draper Museum guides visitors through the many habitats of the Greater Yellowstone Region, from the highest mountain and alpine regions to the lowest plains and basins.
In the mountain forest region, you can hear birdsong and the howl of grey wolves. Ahead is a display featuring a large black-coated wolf, prey in its mouth and pups by its side.
You would never know that 25 years ago, not a single wolf called Yellowstone home.
"This is one of the last places in North America that can support wolves now where they were once eliminated by people," Preston said. "It's also an experiment to see if humans and wolves can coexist even in this large and largely undeveloped landscape of greater Yellowstone."
That question of coexistence goes back further than reintroduction 25 years ago. Much further, said Doug Smith of the Yellowstone Wolf Project.
"We looked up to them when we were hunter/gatherers, we admired them for their hunting skills," Smith said. "That all changed with the Agricultural Revolution roughly 12,000 years ago, because what they hunted became our livestock."
Wolves were viewed as the antithesis to civilization, Smith said. But the advent of steel traps, lead bullets, and chemical poisons allowed humans to vanquish their competition.
"Back in those days, there were good animals that we hunted, and bad animals - predators - that hunted our game animals," he said.
This mindset was even shared by early park rangers, who sought to protect Yellowstone more for its geology than its wildlife. Bears and cougars were also killed. Wolves were finally exterminated from the park in the 1920s.
For a few decades, park managers culled the elk herds no longer preyed upon by wolves and cougars. But a growing desire to preserve Yellowstone as a wild space led them to stop managing elk in the late 60s. In the absence of any predators, human or otherwise, the elk population soared.
"You take the predator out and they fill the vacant space to the top and over the top," Smith said. "That means there's not enough food to go around, not enough space to go around, and you start to have other things kick in, like reduced pregnancy, disease, high mortality, calf/fawn death because you're at the limit of what the environment can support."
Ecosystems are complex. An overabundance of elk has a cascade of effects on the environment … from the aspen and cottonwoods elk browse … to other animals, like beavers, that depend on that vegetation.
A controversial idea to repopulate Yellowstone with wolves from elsewhere was vigorously debated in the years that followed. But in 1995, wolf advocates won the day. 14 wolves from Canada were released in the park, with further releases during the next two years.
What followed was a multi-year feeding frenzy. Wolves were aided by revitalized grizzly and cougars populations.
"There were a ton of weak elk, sick elk, vulnerable elk," Smith said. "When these carnivores came back, the first decade or two were pretty good going."
As they lost their weakest members throughout that first decade, elk herds grew stronger. And the remaining elk in Yellowstone today are generally healthier and more cautious.
The park's wolf population has also stabilized, with around 100 individuals across 10 packs.
And perhaps no one knows those individuals better than Rick McIntyre. He arrived at Yellowstone in May 1995, not long after the first wolves.
McIntyre took a special interest in the Crystal Creek Pack - two parents and four pups from British Columbia. The three eldest pups were a good size and had nice black coats like their father - but the runt of the litter was different.
"That was Wolf No. 8, and he had a drab gray coat," McIntyre said. "So, he really stood out as kind of the oddball of the family, in a way kind of the Ugly Duckling, because his coat was very similar to the tone of a coyote."
One day, McIntyre spotted these brothers darting out of the woods, pursued by a grizzly.
Wolf 8 turned and stood his ground before the much larger predator.
"And I don't know what was going on in the brain of the bear but it just stopped, and it stared at this little wolf that was confronting him," McIntyre said.
He said Wolf 8 was still very young at this point, somewhat equivalent to a 13-year-old boy.
"The bear just turned around and left and that was the end of it," he said. "So, I was very impressed with that, and that was the beginning of me thinking there was going to be something special about Wolf No. 8."
McIntyre continued watching Wolf 8 for years, as the wolf adopted orphaned pups and stood down much larger alphas, even showing mercy to the ones he defeated.
But it's just one of many individual dramas he saw unfold in Yellowstone.
"It's sometimes said that in terms of social behavior, there's no two species on earth that are so similar as wolves and human beings," McIntyre said.
Given its success, Yellowstone's wolf reintroduction has served as a blueprint for reintroductions elsewhere. But the story's not over, Smith said. The wolves' first 15 years back in the park were a chaotic time …
"... The last ten have been astonishingly stable, almost weirdly so," Smith said. "And so we're actually waiting for the next thing to happen, because the elk population's stable, the wolf population's stable. And you just don't use the word stable in nature."
What that next thing could be is unknown. For now, wolves enjoy a prominent position as one of the park's most well-known predators. And the individual tales of family, adoption, bravery, and resilience continue to play out in the wilds of Yellowstone.
Have a question about this story? Contact the reporter, Jeff Victor, email@example.com. | 1,355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Well, we’ve covered the ancient Celts and the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. We can continue on, now, with the evolution of All Hallow’s Eve. You see, even the Christian holiday would run into problems over the course of the centuries. Indeed, initially, they couldn’t even decide when to celebrate it.
We learned in the last article that Pope Gregory I had established All Hallows Eve, but it was having trouble taking hold in all parts of the empire. Pope Boniface IV first name All Saints’ Day on May 13, 610 CE as a day of recognition for those who had died as martyrs for their faith without the official recognition of the church. It was later in the seventh century that the holiday would be moved to November 1 by Pope Gregory III to follow up All Hallows Eve. All Saints’ Day was, for a time, renamed Hallowmas. All Hallows Eve became All Hallows Even which was shortened to Hallowe’en.
As the church continued to hammer down on the Celts with their bonfires and merriment, one positive thing that came about at this time was the cessation of sacrifice. The Celts might not be convinced to put out the fire, but they stopped burning people and animals in the fire. The Christians would only support a death penalty when it was sanctioned by the church. It was also at this time, that the Christians finally put their back into their beliefs enough to convince the Celts that the need fires were there to keep the devil at bay rather than to honor the seasons.
Now, let’s add another celebration day to consider that would come to fall at the same time. Though there is some debate as to when it came about, it is thought that in 988 CE All Souls’ Day was first celebrated by the Benedictine abbot Saint Odilo. It was placed on November 2 as another day to pray for those who were stuck in Purgatory (apparently they needed a lot of days to pray for those poor folks). We do know that it was in 1000 CE that Pope Sylvester II approved the celebration.
As time passed, the Christian church faced its first real break. Though the Roman Empire was long gone, the Church and the Pope were, of course, still in power. It was on Halloween in 1517 that Martin Luther initiated what would come to be known as the Protestant reformation. The Protestants had even less use for the old pagan ways than the Catholic Church, but they still continued to hold autumnal festivals. There was something about it that was so deeply ingrained that they simply continued to celebrate the end of harvesting season. Perhaps, it was simply because they needed a break at the end of all that work. Perhaps it was something that still called to them on a more basic level.
More time passed and the history of our holiday, along with the rest of history, gets very fuzzy through the dark ages, the Inquisition and the outbreak of witch trials all over the continent. This was the first time that witches became associated with Halloween. Folk magick and other ritual practices sprang up among the people with the dissolution of the Druid caste. Powerful healers and makers of charms were regularly sought out by the local villagers when in need. Divination was an important part of their practice and they harnessed the mindset and power of Halloween and the thinning of the veil to foretell the future and communicate with the dead once more in secret. And while most would seek the wise men and women out for help, they would also point fingers very quickly if the healing did not work and lay blame of evil on the failed healer. It was a scary profession to say the least!
We do know that a rich oral history kept some of the traditions alive in the minds of the people even in the darkest hours of our history, and the reason we know this is that when the peoples of Europe began to move across the ocean to America, guess what began to creep up again? Halloween survived the arduous journey and began to branch out into the different colonies, taking on new practices while holding to those from time immemorial. But that…that’s for next time.
Well, we’ve almost reached the final leg of our journey. I hope you’ve been enjoying this trip through the history of our favorite holiday. Join me again next week as we trace Halloween from colonial to modern times in the United States! | <urn:uuid:31fae147-343e-4c60-9f5a-67e570f00ab0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ihorror.com/haunted-history-halloween-comes-part-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.982509 | 913 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.0169200599... | 2 | Well, we’ve covered the ancient Celts and the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. We can continue on, now, with the evolution of All Hallow’s Eve. You see, even the Christian holiday would run into problems over the course of the centuries. Indeed, initially, they couldn’t even decide when to celebrate it.
We learned in the last article that Pope Gregory I had established All Hallows Eve, but it was having trouble taking hold in all parts of the empire. Pope Boniface IV first name All Saints’ Day on May 13, 610 CE as a day of recognition for those who had died as martyrs for their faith without the official recognition of the church. It was later in the seventh century that the holiday would be moved to November 1 by Pope Gregory III to follow up All Hallows Eve. All Saints’ Day was, for a time, renamed Hallowmas. All Hallows Eve became All Hallows Even which was shortened to Hallowe’en.
As the church continued to hammer down on the Celts with their bonfires and merriment, one positive thing that came about at this time was the cessation of sacrifice. The Celts might not be convinced to put out the fire, but they stopped burning people and animals in the fire. The Christians would only support a death penalty when it was sanctioned by the church. It was also at this time, that the Christians finally put their back into their beliefs enough to convince the Celts that the need fires were there to keep the devil at bay rather than to honor the seasons.
Now, let’s add another celebration day to consider that would come to fall at the same time. Though there is some debate as to when it came about, it is thought that in 988 CE All Souls’ Day was first celebrated by the Benedictine abbot Saint Odilo. It was placed on November 2 as another day to pray for those who were stuck in Purgatory (apparently they needed a lot of days to pray for those poor folks). We do know that it was in 1000 CE that Pope Sylvester II approved the celebration.
As time passed, the Christian church faced its first real break. Though the Roman Empire was long gone, the Church and the Pope were, of course, still in power. It was on Halloween in 1517 that Martin Luther initiated what would come to be known as the Protestant reformation. The Protestants had even less use for the old pagan ways than the Catholic Church, but they still continued to hold autumnal festivals. There was something about it that was so deeply ingrained that they simply continued to celebrate the end of harvesting season. Perhaps, it was simply because they needed a break at the end of all that work. Perhaps it was something that still called to them on a more basic level.
More time passed and the history of our holiday, along with the rest of history, gets very fuzzy through the dark ages, the Inquisition and the outbreak of witch trials all over the continent. This was the first time that witches became associated with Halloween. Folk magick and other ritual practices sprang up among the people with the dissolution of the Druid caste. Powerful healers and makers of charms were regularly sought out by the local villagers when in need. Divination was an important part of their practice and they harnessed the mindset and power of Halloween and the thinning of the veil to foretell the future and communicate with the dead once more in secret. And while most would seek the wise men and women out for help, they would also point fingers very quickly if the healing did not work and lay blame of evil on the failed healer. It was a scary profession to say the least!
We do know that a rich oral history kept some of the traditions alive in the minds of the people even in the darkest hours of our history, and the reason we know this is that when the peoples of Europe began to move across the ocean to America, guess what began to creep up again? Halloween survived the arduous journey and began to branch out into the different colonies, taking on new practices while holding to those from time immemorial. But that…that’s for next time.
Well, we’ve almost reached the final leg of our journey. I hope you’ve been enjoying this trip through the history of our favorite holiday. Join me again next week as we trace Halloween from colonial to modern times in the United States! | 911 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A large number of festivals were celebrated during the medieval period, including both religious and secular festivals. Most of the festivals marked a religious occasion while some were meant to celebrate the arrival of spring and other turn of seasons.
Among the most popular medieval festivals were Valentine’s Day, Christmas Day, Easter and Halloween. At the occasion of the festivals, the rich and the poor alike usually took the day off and partook of the festivities.
St. Valentine’s Day was the most important medieval festival in the month of February. The festival was celebrated on the 14th of February and all the festivities on the occasion had to be related to love.
It was believed in the medieval ages that February 14 marked the time when birds began to seek their mates and so the festival was also considered a natural occasion for love.
As part of the Valentine’s Day celebrations, lovers would exchange notes and Love Lanterns was one of the most popular decorations. Fortune telling was also a popular activity at the occasion.
Christmas was one of the most elaborate and highly anticipated festivals of the medieval period. Christmas celebrations began in the last week of December and continued until the fifth of January.
During this period, castles were richly decorated and tables were set for guests amidst well place ivy throughout the dining hall. Decorations involving green plants were usually meant as a prayer to seek a good harvest the next year.
It was a tradition in medieval Europe to do every activity twelve times during this period, reflecting the twelve days of Christmas celebrations. So a toast after a feast was typically made twelve times and everyone would strive to exchange at least twelve gifts with others.
The Easter celebrations in the medieval period took place after forty days of religious fasting and abstinence. As part of the Easter festivities, a castle’s lord would typically serve his servants at a special feast.
Most people wore new clothes at the occasion and a part of Easter decorations were the Easter eggs. These eggs were hard-boiled and then painted in various colours. They were then hidden by the adults, to be found by the children who would then spend the day playing with them.
‘Hock Monday’ was celebrated as a part of Easter celebrations where young women would capture young men who would then have to ransom themselves. The money collected in this way went to the local church as a donation.
Halloween was another popular festival during the medieval period. Celebrated in October just at the beginning of the winter, the festival typically involved activities related to ghosts and spirits, often in fun and entertainment ways.
A popular activity for the children at the occasion was to wear masks of different kinds and walk through the streets of the village or town. Many feasts and games specific to Halloween also took place at the time.
Notable among Halloween-related activities were fortune telling and Apply Bobbing. | <urn:uuid:04c4c43e-a710-4eaa-b095-33e0684a86f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-life/medieval-festivals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.988152 | 583 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.0182453... | 2 | A large number of festivals were celebrated during the medieval period, including both religious and secular festivals. Most of the festivals marked a religious occasion while some were meant to celebrate the arrival of spring and other turn of seasons.
Among the most popular medieval festivals were Valentine’s Day, Christmas Day, Easter and Halloween. At the occasion of the festivals, the rich and the poor alike usually took the day off and partook of the festivities.
St. Valentine’s Day was the most important medieval festival in the month of February. The festival was celebrated on the 14th of February and all the festivities on the occasion had to be related to love.
It was believed in the medieval ages that February 14 marked the time when birds began to seek their mates and so the festival was also considered a natural occasion for love.
As part of the Valentine’s Day celebrations, lovers would exchange notes and Love Lanterns was one of the most popular decorations. Fortune telling was also a popular activity at the occasion.
Christmas was one of the most elaborate and highly anticipated festivals of the medieval period. Christmas celebrations began in the last week of December and continued until the fifth of January.
During this period, castles were richly decorated and tables were set for guests amidst well place ivy throughout the dining hall. Decorations involving green plants were usually meant as a prayer to seek a good harvest the next year.
It was a tradition in medieval Europe to do every activity twelve times during this period, reflecting the twelve days of Christmas celebrations. So a toast after a feast was typically made twelve times and everyone would strive to exchange at least twelve gifts with others.
The Easter celebrations in the medieval period took place after forty days of religious fasting and abstinence. As part of the Easter festivities, a castle’s lord would typically serve his servants at a special feast.
Most people wore new clothes at the occasion and a part of Easter decorations were the Easter eggs. These eggs were hard-boiled and then painted in various colours. They were then hidden by the adults, to be found by the children who would then spend the day playing with them.
‘Hock Monday’ was celebrated as a part of Easter celebrations where young women would capture young men who would then have to ransom themselves. The money collected in this way went to the local church as a donation.
Halloween was another popular festival during the medieval period. Celebrated in October just at the beginning of the winter, the festival typically involved activities related to ghosts and spirits, often in fun and entertainment ways.
A popular activity for the children at the occasion was to wear masks of different kinds and walk through the streets of the village or town. Many feasts and games specific to Halloween also took place at the time.
Notable among Halloween-related activities were fortune telling and Apply Bobbing. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 784 H/1382 CE the Circassian Burji Mamluks elected al-Zahir Barquq to replace the last Bahri Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Hajji II. Barquq’s first reign was a time of conflict in which he faced the opposition of rebellious Mamluk amirs who routed his army and finally deposed him. Hajji was reinstated, while Barquq was interned in the fortress of Karak. However, he had a good deal of support and within a year he was able to raise new forces and overthrow his opponents. Hajji lost the throne once again, being replaced by Barquq, which brought an end to the long line of Qala‘unid Bahri Mamluks who had reigned for over a century. For the first two years of Barquq’s second reign rebellions continued, but then a far greater danger threatened Egypt with the expected advance of Timur (known in the west as Tamerlaine, Timur the Lame). Barquq hastily gathered his own army and joined with those of the princes of Asia Minor to withstand this new enemy, but, in the event, the dreaded invasion failed to materialise. Barquq died in 801 H/1399 CE after nine years of just and benevolent rule. During his reign the Burji Mamluk coinage remained the same as that of the Bahris, and mints were maintained in both Egypt and Syria. Those of Egypt, Cairo and Alexandria mainly issued gold and copper, while those of Syria, Halab and Dimashq, struck more silver, with some gold and copper. The gold coinage had no fixed weight, which made the coins little more than stamped ingots that guaranteed the purity of the gold from which they were struck. Payments had always to be weighed and valued against the current price of silver, although this metal too had an unstable value, making transactions complex and acted as a hindrance to trade. | <urn:uuid:857c7a5b-50e7-458f-a13d-f8b1bc5bd634> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dynastycollection.co.uk/portfolio-item/burji-mamluk-rulers-of-egypt-syria/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.982453 | 412 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2600614428... | 3 | In 784 H/1382 CE the Circassian Burji Mamluks elected al-Zahir Barquq to replace the last Bahri Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Hajji II. Barquq’s first reign was a time of conflict in which he faced the opposition of rebellious Mamluk amirs who routed his army and finally deposed him. Hajji was reinstated, while Barquq was interned in the fortress of Karak. However, he had a good deal of support and within a year he was able to raise new forces and overthrow his opponents. Hajji lost the throne once again, being replaced by Barquq, which brought an end to the long line of Qala‘unid Bahri Mamluks who had reigned for over a century. For the first two years of Barquq’s second reign rebellions continued, but then a far greater danger threatened Egypt with the expected advance of Timur (known in the west as Tamerlaine, Timur the Lame). Barquq hastily gathered his own army and joined with those of the princes of Asia Minor to withstand this new enemy, but, in the event, the dreaded invasion failed to materialise. Barquq died in 801 H/1399 CE after nine years of just and benevolent rule. During his reign the Burji Mamluk coinage remained the same as that of the Bahris, and mints were maintained in both Egypt and Syria. Those of Egypt, Cairo and Alexandria mainly issued gold and copper, while those of Syria, Halab and Dimashq, struck more silver, with some gold and copper. The gold coinage had no fixed weight, which made the coins little more than stamped ingots that guaranteed the purity of the gold from which they were struck. Payments had always to be weighed and valued against the current price of silver, although this metal too had an unstable value, making transactions complex and acted as a hindrance to trade. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was arête (‘virtue’) an important theme in Homer’s Iliad? Select two characters with which to make your points.
Virtue or arête was an important quality in Homeric society and one which features very heavily in the Iliad. Arête is achieved by one’s actions, generally in battle and is a combination of qualities such as courage, honour (‘time’) and sacrifice.([good] Homeric heroes possessed these qualities and they were recognised by the audience of the epics.( Outwardly, the heroes of the Iliad and the ones who possess arête in the greatest quantities are Achilles and Hector, equal heroes on each side of the Trojan war. In equal measure, although slightly less predominantly, is the arête displayed by Nestor and Priam, King of Troy.(
Achilles was born to an immortal goddess and his fate determined that his was to be a short, albeit glorious life. He had been warned that the war in Troy would spell his doom; however, seeking glory and honour the mighty Achilles went to war and was a force to be reckoned with. His honour is exhibited best by two main instances in this poem: the first, in regards to the war itself. [I think that you are confusing ‘honour/time’ with ‘arete’ ]
Achilles had been offended by Agamemnon who had taken Achilles’ prize (the slave-girl, Briseis) from him; this had offended Achilles because, in a sense, by taking Briseis Agamemnon had also taken [change to ‘insulted’] his honour.([good] In retaliation for this attack on his honour, Achilles refused to rejoin the war for the Greek army. [you could indicate the extent of Achilles’ anger by referring to ‘Iliad’1.407-412 where he begs his mother to ask Zeus to help the Trojans against the Greeks because of Agamemnon’s actions] However, when Achilles saw that the Trojans were gaining headway in the war and gaining ground, he felt that a suitable substitute would be to allow his comrade, Patroclus to don his armour and rejoin the fight to give the Greeks the...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:641af7f7-f023-462f-bbde-0fb7856aee14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Why-Was-Ar%C3%AAte-%E2%80%98Virtue%E2%80%99-An-Important-63733120.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.981229 | 499 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.672561883926391... | 1 | Why was arête (‘virtue’) an important theme in Homer’s Iliad? Select two characters with which to make your points.
Virtue or arête was an important quality in Homeric society and one which features very heavily in the Iliad. Arête is achieved by one’s actions, generally in battle and is a combination of qualities such as courage, honour (‘time’) and sacrifice.([good] Homeric heroes possessed these qualities and they were recognised by the audience of the epics.( Outwardly, the heroes of the Iliad and the ones who possess arête in the greatest quantities are Achilles and Hector, equal heroes on each side of the Trojan war. In equal measure, although slightly less predominantly, is the arête displayed by Nestor and Priam, King of Troy.(
Achilles was born to an immortal goddess and his fate determined that his was to be a short, albeit glorious life. He had been warned that the war in Troy would spell his doom; however, seeking glory and honour the mighty Achilles went to war and was a force to be reckoned with. His honour is exhibited best by two main instances in this poem: the first, in regards to the war itself. [I think that you are confusing ‘honour/time’ with ‘arete’ ]
Achilles had been offended by Agamemnon who had taken Achilles’ prize (the slave-girl, Briseis) from him; this had offended Achilles because, in a sense, by taking Briseis Agamemnon had also taken [change to ‘insulted’] his honour.([good] In retaliation for this attack on his honour, Achilles refused to rejoin the war for the Greek army. [you could indicate the extent of Achilles’ anger by referring to ‘Iliad’1.407-412 where he begs his mother to ask Zeus to help the Trojans against the Greeks because of Agamemnon’s actions] However, when Achilles saw that the Trojans were gaining headway in the war and gaining ground, he felt that a suitable substitute would be to allow his comrade, Patroclus to don his armour and rejoin the fight to give the Greeks the...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recently, Ivywood’s fifth graders concluded studying the Reformation, in History. As part of their study, the students did a reenactment of Galileo’s trial from 1633, where his world of humanism collided with the absolute power of the Catholic Church. The fifth graders learned that up until the work of Copernicus and Galileo, people had accepted the Ptolemaic system, which said that the Earth was stationary and at the center of the universe. The Ptolemaic system fit well with the teaching of the Catholic Church that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. The fifth grade class divided into two teams that made arguments for and against Galileo regarding his belief that the sun was at the center of the universe and that the Earth, the other planets, and the stars moved around it. This time, Galileo and his belief that the Earth revolves around the sun prevailed.
Skip back to main navigation | <urn:uuid:c522fb6f-53b6-46dd-9367-6e3a673e0933> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivywoodclassicalacademy.com/learning-corner-galileo-trial/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.98236 | 193 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2988971... | 4 | Recently, Ivywood’s fifth graders concluded studying the Reformation, in History. As part of their study, the students did a reenactment of Galileo’s trial from 1633, where his world of humanism collided with the absolute power of the Catholic Church. The fifth graders learned that up until the work of Copernicus and Galileo, people had accepted the Ptolemaic system, which said that the Earth was stationary and at the center of the universe. The Ptolemaic system fit well with the teaching of the Catholic Church that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. The fifth grade class divided into two teams that made arguments for and against Galileo regarding his belief that the sun was at the center of the universe and that the Earth, the other planets, and the stars moved around it. This time, Galileo and his belief that the Earth revolves around the sun prevailed.
Skip back to main navigation | 195 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How do we classify and define congenital conditions? There is a new classification that was modified in 2013 called the Oberg, Manske, and Tonkin (OMT) classification. It is good to be familiar with the OMT classification because it is being used most often by surgeons and by individuals who are performing research. The earlier classification systems were based on description or functional limitation, but the OMT classification focuses on the embryological developmental classification. The OMT breaks the embryological developmental classification down into malformations, and then divides it by axis of development, such as the whole limb vs. the hand plate, deformations and dysplasias.
Who is the Congenital Population?
The congenital population refers to a child who is born with a congenital hand developmental difference. Please do not reference these conditions as a "deformity" or by some of the more common names, such as a "claw-hand". It is important to try to use positive terminology not negative terminology. These children are not missing something because they never had a hand, digits, or the separation of digits.
Figure 1. Example of hand development difference.
When studying embryology, the upper limb is fully developed at 8 weeks of gestation. Typically, the upper limb is developed prior to most women even knowing they are pregnant. Many mothers may question, "What did I do wrong?", "How did I cause this?", "Why is this here?", or "How am I going to deal with it?" Most parents have a large amount of guilt when they are dealing with birth anomalies.
Treat the Family
One of the first jobs for both the OT and the surgical team is to reassure the family that the majority of congenital hand differences have no known cause or reason. This will educate the family so that they can start to deal with their guilt that they might have. This is a unique population because these patients are seen by OT at a very young age, typically newborns to six months. The baby and the family will come in to see the OT or the doctor, and they usually have multitudes of questions, "Why did this happen?" "What did I do?" "What kind of limitations are they going to have?"
I have had parents of babies that are a couple of months old come in and ask me, "How are they going to get their wedding ring on their hand?" or "How are they going to be able to put their hair up?" The parents are already thinking ahead about their children. I think one of the biggest jobs for OT is education. You are definitely treating the families when you are dealing with children with congenital hand differences. You are reassuring them that there is nothing that they have done or that they can do to change this at this time. Possibly there are some surgical interventions that may help them as they grow.
Reassuring the patient and the family is important. Educate them that no matter what their hands look like they will be able to do everything they want to do. They might just need to make some adaptations. These children are amazing. They teach me every day how to do different functional activities in ways that I had not thought about. | <urn:uuid:22081899-dd53-4b95-bbca-32cc801004cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.physicaltherapy.com/articles/treatment-pediatric-hand-patient-part-3008-4555 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.980226 | 651 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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Who is the Congenital Population?
The congenital population refers to a child who is born with a congenital hand developmental difference. Please do not reference these conditions as a "deformity" or by some of the more common names, such as a "claw-hand". It is important to try to use positive terminology not negative terminology. These children are not missing something because they never had a hand, digits, or the separation of digits.
Figure 1. Example of hand development difference.
When studying embryology, the upper limb is fully developed at 8 weeks of gestation. Typically, the upper limb is developed prior to most women even knowing they are pregnant. Many mothers may question, "What did I do wrong?", "How did I cause this?", "Why is this here?", or "How am I going to deal with it?" Most parents have a large amount of guilt when they are dealing with birth anomalies.
Treat the Family
One of the first jobs for both the OT and the surgical team is to reassure the family that the majority of congenital hand differences have no known cause or reason. This will educate the family so that they can start to deal with their guilt that they might have. This is a unique population because these patients are seen by OT at a very young age, typically newborns to six months. The baby and the family will come in to see the OT or the doctor, and they usually have multitudes of questions, "Why did this happen?" "What did I do?" "What kind of limitations are they going to have?"
I have had parents of babies that are a couple of months old come in and ask me, "How are they going to get their wedding ring on their hand?" or "How are they going to be able to put their hair up?" The parents are already thinking ahead about their children. I think one of the biggest jobs for OT is education. You are definitely treating the families when you are dealing with children with congenital hand differences. You are reassuring them that there is nothing that they have done or that they can do to change this at this time. Possibly there are some surgical interventions that may help them as they grow.
Reassuring the patient and the family is important. Educate them that no matter what their hands look like they will be able to do everything they want to do. They might just need to make some adaptations. These children are amazing. They teach me every day how to do different functional activities in ways that I had not thought about. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gamla (Hebrew:גמלא) or Gamala was an ancient Jewish city on the Golan Heights, believed to have been founded as a Seleucid fort during the Syrian Wars. The site of a Roman siege during the Great Revolt of the 1st century CE, Gamla is a symbol of heroism for the modern state of Israel and an important historical and archaeological site. It lies within the current Gamla nature reserve and is a prominent tourist attraction.
Situated at the southern part of the Golan, overlooking the Sea of Galilee, Gamla was built on a steep hill shaped like a camel's hump, from which it derives its name (Gamla meaning 'camel' in Aramaic). Although the site was inhabited since the Early Bronze Age, the city appears to have been founded as a Seleucid fort during the Syrian Wars (3rd century BCE) which later became a civilian settlement. Jews inhabited it from the last quarter of the 2nd century BCE, and it was annexed to the Hasmonean state under king Alexander Jannaeus in c. 81 BCE.
Josephus Flavius, Commander of Galilee during the Jewish Revolt against Rome, in 66 CE fortified Gamla as his main stronghold on the Golan. Josephus gives a very detailed topographical description of the city, which he also referred to as Gamala, and the steep ravines which precluded the need to build a wall around it. Only along the northern saddle, at the town's eastern extremity, was a 350 meters-long wall built. It was constructed by blocking gaps between existing houses and destroying houses that lay in its way.
Between London and the Strait of Dover, which separates it from mainland Europe, Kent has seen both diplomacy and conflict, ranging from the Leeds Castle peace talks of 1978 and 2004 to the Battle of Britain in World War II.
The town was first settled by Europeans in the mid-18th century by Zachariah Merritt and others, from New England, Westchester County, or the Fishkill area. Elisha Cole and his wife Hannah Smalley built Coles Mills in 1748, having moved to that location the previous year from Cape Cod. Coles Mill operated until 1888 when it was submerged under West Branch Reservoir. Around this same time the northeastern part of the county was settled by the Kent, Townsend, and Ludington families, among others. The father of Hannah Smalley and his family moved to Kent about two years before Elisha Cole and his family. | <urn:uuid:fd09a8ca-6698-4384-8200-c09ddcd468de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fr.wn.com/Gamla_Ullevi_Kent | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.982793 | 523 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.413818717002... | 12 | Gamla (Hebrew:גמלא) or Gamala was an ancient Jewish city on the Golan Heights, believed to have been founded as a Seleucid fort during the Syrian Wars. The site of a Roman siege during the Great Revolt of the 1st century CE, Gamla is a symbol of heroism for the modern state of Israel and an important historical and archaeological site. It lies within the current Gamla nature reserve and is a prominent tourist attraction.
Situated at the southern part of the Golan, overlooking the Sea of Galilee, Gamla was built on a steep hill shaped like a camel's hump, from which it derives its name (Gamla meaning 'camel' in Aramaic). Although the site was inhabited since the Early Bronze Age, the city appears to have been founded as a Seleucid fort during the Syrian Wars (3rd century BCE) which later became a civilian settlement. Jews inhabited it from the last quarter of the 2nd century BCE, and it was annexed to the Hasmonean state under king Alexander Jannaeus in c. 81 BCE.
Josephus Flavius, Commander of Galilee during the Jewish Revolt against Rome, in 66 CE fortified Gamla as his main stronghold on the Golan. Josephus gives a very detailed topographical description of the city, which he also referred to as Gamala, and the steep ravines which precluded the need to build a wall around it. Only along the northern saddle, at the town's eastern extremity, was a 350 meters-long wall built. It was constructed by blocking gaps between existing houses and destroying houses that lay in its way.
Between London and the Strait of Dover, which separates it from mainland Europe, Kent has seen both diplomacy and conflict, ranging from the Leeds Castle peace talks of 1978 and 2004 to the Battle of Britain in World War II.
The town was first settled by Europeans in the mid-18th century by Zachariah Merritt and others, from New England, Westchester County, or the Fishkill area. Elisha Cole and his wife Hannah Smalley built Coles Mills in 1748, having moved to that location the previous year from Cape Cod. Coles Mill operated until 1888 when it was submerged under West Branch Reservoir. Around this same time the northeastern part of the county was settled by the Kent, Townsend, and Ludington families, among others. The father of Hannah Smalley and his family moved to Kent about two years before Elisha Cole and his family. | 539 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Irish Famine By Ailbhe ,Amanda,Ryan
How it started ? • The famine started in 1845 • Potato blight was first noted in Waterford and Wexford • Half of the crop had failed from the fungus “phytoptherainfestans “ • Robert Peel, sent meal and corn also known as maze to Ireland for the starving people
But......... • The corn was sold at market prices so people could not buy it and they still starved. • Lord Russell chose to not send corn to Ireland because he felt people grew other crops. • He did not know that they had to be exported to Britain. • People did not have work, money or food which resulted in people dying.
Emigration • In 1846 lots of people still emigrated. • They emigrated because they could not find work in Ireland. • A ticket for the ship costed 3 pounds • The Quakers helped but there was an increase in emigration.
Eviction • If you did not pay your rent you were evicted from your home • Lots of people were evicted from their homes and left at the side of the road • Their houses were burnt down
Workhouses • When workhouses first opened very few people visited them. • However as food became more and more scarce many people over came their dislikes of workhouses. • Soon workhouses became packed as people desperately tried to find food and shelter.
Black 47 • 1847 was known as black 47 • A hard winter in 1847 made conditions even worse. • A horrible disease called typhus spread across Ireland. • Soup kitchens were established in winter of 1847.
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0.2265428900... | 1 | The Irish Famine By Ailbhe ,Amanda,Ryan
How it started ? • The famine started in 1845 • Potato blight was first noted in Waterford and Wexford • Half of the crop had failed from the fungus “phytoptherainfestans “ • Robert Peel, sent meal and corn also known as maze to Ireland for the starving people
But......... • The corn was sold at market prices so people could not buy it and they still starved. • Lord Russell chose to not send corn to Ireland because he felt people grew other crops. • He did not know that they had to be exported to Britain. • People did not have work, money or food which resulted in people dying.
Emigration • In 1846 lots of people still emigrated. • They emigrated because they could not find work in Ireland. • A ticket for the ship costed 3 pounds • The Quakers helped but there was an increase in emigration.
Eviction • If you did not pay your rent you were evicted from your home • Lots of people were evicted from their homes and left at the side of the road • Their houses were burnt down
Workhouses • When workhouses first opened very few people visited them. • However as food became more and more scarce many people over came their dislikes of workhouses. • Soon workhouses became packed as people desperately tried to find food and shelter.
Black 47 • 1847 was known as black 47 • A hard winter in 1847 made conditions even worse. • A horrible disease called typhus spread across Ireland. • Soup kitchens were established in winter of 1847.
Thank you • Thanks for watching our power point i hope you liked it from ailbheamanda and ryan | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 1 June 1731, the Billy brothers, Guillaume and François, waved goodbye to their ship, the Diligent, as it set sail from Brittany. It was weighed down with Indian cloth, cowry shells from the Maldives, white linen from Hamburg, guns, ammunition and smoking pipes from Holland, kegs of brandy from the Loire Valley, and with the all-important supplies for the crew: firewood and flour, dry biscuits, fava beans, hams, salt beef, cheese, white wine and water. There was one other item to be loaded: 150 slave irons with their locks and keys, manufactured by the Taquet brothers in Nantes. Each iron could restrain two slaves. The Diligent was setting off on its first slave-trading voyage.
The Africans who would wear these irons were destined for the French West Indian island of Martinique. French development of this and other islands had lagged behind the English. In 1700 there were about thirty thousand African slaves in the French colonies, compared with around a hundred thousand in the English ones, and sugar exports were correspondingly smaller, but the first decades of the 18th century would see a rapid growth in French involvement in the slave trade and in the development of their colonies. The activities of the Billy brothers were part of a more general trend, as the usually dirigiste French Crown gave a greater degree of freedom to merchants and entrepreneurs.
The 1731 voyage was the Billy brothers’ first involvement in the slave trade. It demanded a very significant investment: the cost of sending a ship on the African slave run was two or three times that of other branches of commerce. Outfitting the Diligent, including food, loading costs and two months’ salary for the crew, came to 80,000 livres – more than four times the price of the ship itself, and this before insurance. The Billy brothers were expecting big profits from the sale of Africans they would never see.
Robert Harms has based his riveting account of the ‘worlds of the slave trade’ on a journal kept by a young lieutenant on the Diligent, Robert Durand, a document sold in the 1980s to the Beinecke Library at Yale, where Harms teaches. Historians have uncovered records of more than seventeen thousand slaving voyages in the 18th century, but, as Harms points out, only a handful give us any insight into the daily life of the ship, the crew and its human cargo. Most are careful records of the ship’s passage, prices, rates of exchange, slaves’ vital statistics and deaths. As Robin Blackburn has argued, the slave trade and the slave plantation were run with an instrumental rationality, according to business principles that were ahead of their time, and produced an abundance of statistics. Durand’s journal is one of the handful of records that provides more than this, but even so it is characterised as much by its silences as by its evocative descriptions and jaunty drawings. ‘Curiously,’ Harms writes, ‘Robert Durand mentioned the African captives only twice during the entire 66 days of the middle passage, and then only to record deaths.’
Harms uses the voyage of the Diligent to take us through the ‘worlds’ of the Atlantic slave trade in the early 18th century. There are three of them in this case: France, West Africa and Martinique, with a few offshore islands thrown in. Harms’s argument is that these worlds are distinct, with their own histories and dynamics, but that during this period the slave trade was beginning to link their fates. Perhaps his most original contribution to the ever increasing scholarship on slavery, however, is his account of the French slave traders and the political and social context of early 18th-century French colonial commerce.
The ships that sailed from Brittany had their backs turned to the impoverished rural economy of the hinterland. The big players in colonial trade were Nantes and later Lorient, and though government-chartered companies had previously exercised near complete monopolies, by this time the merchants of Nantes were proving successful advocates of private enterprise. The development of the French colonies may have been dirigiste in comparison to the English, but the French King could not afford to ignore an increasingly vociferous group of private merchants pressing for reform of the now discredited system of corporate mercantilism. Still, French colonial trade, as Harms makes clear, was relatively unintegrated into the larger economy, which was still predominantly agricultural. In the 18th century, commercial cities like Nantes were a bit like the ‘free trade zones’ of the ‘Third World’ today – disconnected from the rest of the country, importing and exporting goods that most people would never own, and perhaps never see. Arriving in Nantes, with its grand merchants’ mansions and its opera house, the English traveller Arthur Young found himself in a strikingly different world from the one he had been journeying through: ‘Mon Dieu! I cried to myself, do all the wastes, the deserts, the heath, ling, furz, broom and bog that I have passed for three hundred miles lead to this spectacle? What a miracle, that all this splendour and wealth of the cities of France should be so unconnected with the country!’
The Billy brothers, like many others, wanted their share of the source of this wealth. Guillaume and François were the younger generation of an upwardly mobile merchant family from the much smaller and sleepier neighbouring port of Vannes – a conventional market town belonging to an older world, a major exporter of grain, deeply embedded in the region’s semi-feudal economy and society. Thanks to their father’s success in the grain trade, the Billy brothers were wealthy, but not wealthy enough to manoeuvre themselves into the local nobility. A major crisis in grain, and the glittering example of Nantes, encouraged them to move into the exotic world of colonial trade. In 1728, after much lobbying, the King’s Council granted the merchants of Vannes permission to participate (in a limited way) in trade with the West Indies. The brothers became minor investors in ships making the transatlantic crossing – transporting manufactured goods from France to the French West Indies and returning with cargoes of sugar and cotton. This was all very well, but no self-respecting entrepreneur could fail to notice that by adding another leg to these voyages, vastly greater profits could be made. Ships arriving in the West Indies from France could trade their load of manufactured cloth, brandy, wine and other goods for enough raw sugar to fill roughly a third of the hold. A load of African slaves, however, was worth nearly twice as much.
Although the French were relative latecomers to the Atlantic slave trade, their involvement grew rapidly in the 1700s, making them the third largest participant (after Britain and Portugal) by the end of the century. As Harms points out, in France in the first half of the century there was barely any recognition that the conduct of the slave trade might be a moral issue, though this would change in the run-up to the Revolution. So, when Harms asks rhetorically of Durand’s opening sentence ‘How could [he] outline such an evil mission in such impersonal prose?’ one suspects that he knows the answer. For investors like the Billy brothers the existence of the slaves was more virtual than real, but their decision to involve themselves more directly was nevertheless a big one: the risks were great, foremost among them disease and death, both of the human cargo and the crew. On average, slave traders in this period made returns of between 7 and 10 per cent annually – more or less in line with other branches of commerce. But the average clearly disguised huge variations, and huge expectations. The risks were high, but, if you were lucky, so were the profits.
In late 1730, then, the Billy brothers bought the Diligent, a modest grain-ship, and set about refitting and equipping it for the triangular trade. They would soon learn that it was a specialised business: in order to buy slaves on the coast of West Africa they would have to make sure they could supply the right goods to the picky African elite on whom they depended. That it was a global business is demonstrated by the inventory of goods loaded into the hold, only a fraction of which were produced in France. More than 40 per cent came from India and the Indian Ocean, and were purchased by the Billy brothers at the Company of Indies warehouse in Nantes. They included a bewildering variety of Indian cloth (fashions for which changed rapidly on the West African coast) and cowry shells, which served as currency on the slave coast. (So fundamental was the link between slaves, cowry shells and political authority that a Dahomian tradition held that when a king wanted cowry shells his henchmen would tie a rope around the neck of a slave and throw him into the ocean, where the shells would attach to his body like barnacles.) Equally crucial was the choice of a crew. They chose a captain with slaving experience, who then recruited the rest of the crew, from officers to accordion boy. This was Durand’s first slaving trip, and the journal would provide evidence of his familiarity with the trade, a valuable addition to his curriculum vitae. Crews on slave ships were well paid in compensation for the risks: four of the Diligent’s crew were to die in the course of this voyage.
Harms is a historian of Africa, and the richest section of this book concerns the complex politics of the African slave trade on the continent itself. Two months after leaving Vannes, and three weeks after leaving the ‘cultural halfway house’ of the Canary Islands, the crew spot first the Grain Coast and then the Gold Coast. The Dutch fort of Elmina on the Gold Coast had originally been built in 1482 by the Portuguese, who had used it as the base for their gold-buying operations. Durand was impressed, and drew a childish picture of the fortifications, the ‘pretty houses’, and the Dutch flag flapping in the ocean breeze. In fact, ‘Gold Coast’ was already becoming a misnomer, since Dutch interest in the area was rapidly switching from gold to slaves. Inland, imported guns were fuelling the rise of the great Asante empire and a fierce struggle for control over trade routes. Warfare produced slaves, now more likely than ever to be sold for export. Things had not always been this way, as Harms reminds us: between 1475 and 1540 more than twelve thousand slaves from the Bight of Benin and Sao Tomé had been imported to the Gold Coast by the Portuguese to be purchased by wealthy Africans, who used them as gold-field workers and porters on merchant caravans.
By the early 18th century, however, things had moved on. The sheer numbers involved in the Atlantic slave trade make this clear. In the course of the 16th century around 370,000 people were taken from Africa; in the next century this would rise to nearly two million, and in the 18th to more than six million. It has been estimated that in order to deliver the nine million slaves who arrived at the coast in the period from 1700 to 1850, around twenty-one million Africans were probably captured; five million of these would have died within a year of capture, and seven million remained in Africa as slaves. The population of certain regions of West and West Central Africa was significantly reduced.
The Diligent sailed on from Elmina, past a succession of English, Dutch and Danish forts, towards its destination: the part of the coast beyond the delta of the Volta river known as the Slave Coast. French slaving operations centred on the tiny kingdom of Whydah, which extended along forty miles of coastline and stretched twenty-five miles inland. Whydah was a trading kingdom, at that time exporting between sixteen and twenty thousand slaves a year, among whom were representatives of some thirty ethnic groups. King Huffon presided over the trade from his capital city, Savi. All the major European trading companies were represented there – the English, the French, the Dutch and the Portuguese – and their compounds were built into the walls of the royal palace. At his coronation ceremony in 1725, Huffon was surrounded not only by his forty elaborately dressed wives, but also by the representatives of all the trading companies, who were seated to his right on stuffed chairs. Huffon himself sat on a gilded throne decorated with the French coat of arms.
The ostentatious wealth and sophistication of Huffon’s kingdom drew admiring descriptions from amazed foreign visitors. The dense population was fed, in part, by an intensive agricultural system based on millet, but incorporating such New World crops as maize and sweet potatoes; within the city walls, a rich variety of both European and African goods could be purchased at a number of daily markets. But by the time of the Diligent’s voyage, Whydah was in a state of war. As on the Gold Coast, trade rivalry had resulted in a new, militarised African politics. The cause of the problems in Whydah was the rise of the rival kingdom of Dahomey, some fifty miles inland. Whydah controlled access to the European trading companies and their goods, while Dahomey’s King Agaja remained frustratedly dependent on his neighbour. Agaja had ambitions for what had been a small, peaceful kingdom. He built up a formidable professional army and armed his soldiers with imported flintlock muskets rather than the traditional longbows. His fascination with the arts of war was such that he later obtained for himself a French suit of armour which, according to one visitor, made him look like Don Quixote. He used psychology as part of his military strategy, with public sacrifices of captives helping to maintain a state of terror.
In 1724, during a raid on the kingdom of Allada (which lay between Whydah and Dahomey), he had taken captive an English employee of the Royal African Company, Bulfinch Lambe. Agaja had never seen a European before, though he had heard all about them, and for the next two years, with the aid of an interpreter, he held long conversations with Lambe. Agaja was, apparently, fascinated by literacy, and even invented his own script. He wanted to know about the economics of the slave trade and, in particular, what accounted for the Europeans’ insatiable appetite for slaves. Lambe explained that they were exported to be used on Caribbean plantations to produce wealth in the form of sugar. Agaja understood immediately, and announced that he would cease to be a mere exporter of slaves and would, instead, set up his own plantations. Lambe, seeing a way out of his captivity, persuaded Agaja that such a scheme should be executed in co-operation with King George I. Agaja dictated a personal letter to the English King and Lambe was released so that he could return to England to negotiate an agreement.
In 1727, Agaja’s army attacked Whydah, driving King Huffon and Captain Assou, the main ally of the French in Savi, into exile, and taking prisoners among the crew members guarding the slave ships in port. In 1731, a state of war still prevailed. Captain Assou, infuriated at his betrayal, attacked the Europeans’ tents in an attempt to disrupt the trade, which was now in the hands of Agaja. Reluctantly, the captain of the Diligent weighed anchor, and left.
When he arrived at the port of Jakin, there were 15 slave ships in the harbour, events at Whydah having driven everyone in this direction. While the crew set about making final alterations to the ship to prepare it for its cargo, Durand set up a large sail-cloth tent on the beach, from which he would conduct negotiations and make his purchases. With competition so fierce, prices were high and he had to bargain. He also had to be sure to obtain an optimum mix of men, women and children. He was buying slaves in exchange for cotton, firearms and other goods, whose relative values could vary wildly from Vannes to Jakin, making the calculation of profit a tricky business. Durand recorded every detail of his transactions – he knew that later he would have to account for it all. But, as Harms remarks, he gives no hint of how he felt about participating in this activity. Harms’s careful historical reconstruction has provided us with a rich description of the worlds of the slave trade, but having reached Jakin we are reminded of its banality, which is simultaneously its tragedy. Gender, age and a supposed ‘ethnicity’ were recorded, the naked bodies examined for defects, and then branded. Finally, 256 slaves made the terrifying canoe ride across the surf to the waiting ship.
Durand’s silence on the subject of his human cargo frustrates Harms, who wants to know whether he felt a sadistic sense of power over these Africans, or whether perhaps he felt compassion. But such self-examination is not the purpose of Durand’s journal, even assuming that he engaged in it. In fact he tells us little about the ‘middle passage’, and Harms uses a compilation of other sources to stop the gap. We gather that from the point of view of the slave trader, the faster this part of the journey was over the better: the quicker the crossing the lower the mortality rate, and the less the likelihood of a slave revolt. It may have been the slaves who were in chains but there was a degree of mutuality in the terror evoked. While Europeans dreamed of African cannibals, many enslaved Africans believed that they were destined to be eaten by their European captors – how else to explain the appetite for slaves that King Agaja had puzzled over? Such a fear could be so overwhelming as to lead them to suicide, or to acts of violence and insurrection against the terrified crew. Diseases spread, inevitably, from the slave deck to the crew quarters. In this atmosphere of terror and despair, Noël Magré, the ship’s accordion player, would have been put to work. Slave traders knew very well that melancholy was the enemy of profit, since slaves who were prone to depression were also prone to lie down and die. It was the accordion player’s job to ‘cheer them up’ with some jolly seafaring tunes, and to animate the enforced dancing that was part of the exercise regime.
This section of Harms’s account made me uncomfortable. His technique – the use of Durand’s journal as a peg on which to hang a revealing narrative – is valid and effective, and he has scoured a multitude of archives to fill out Durand’s account. The historian’s task of reconstruction seems all the more pressing in the case of slavery, in the course of which so many lives and so many histories were lost. But another of the historian’s responsibilities is to confront us with the absences. Toni Morrison has described her reluctance to represent the abjection of the middle passage: Beloved, she says, stands in for ‘those black slaves whom we don’t know . . . I had to be dragged, I suppose by them, kicking and screaming into this book, because it is just too much.’ Perhaps, then, Harms is right to drag us reluctantly into his reconstruction of the Diligent’s hold. But a historian is not a novelist, and arguably only a novelist (or a poet) can represent the unrepresentable trauma of the middle passage.
By the time the Diligent reached the harbour of St Pierre on Martinique, nine slaves had died – a relatively low mortality rate for the time. The survivors were bathed, shaved and their skin rubbed with palm oil. Dealers boarded the ship to inspect the human merchandise. The captain named his price – 950 livres each – but no one was offering anywhere near that figure. Just as the war in Whydah had forced up the price of slaves, so recent events had depressed selling prices in Martinique. The opening of the trade to private traders had increased supply, and in addition, the economy of Martinique was in crisis, owing to a combination of the massive earthquake of 1727 and disputes between small planters and the Company of the Indies. The Diligent’s captain held out for his price, but within a month the slaves began to die in the slave warehouse of St Pierre. He was forced to sell at less than half his original asking price. Most went to a dealer called Lamy, about whom we know little, except that he was an expert in this business and had calculated the timing of his offer carefully. The rest probably went to local officials and planters. This is the last we know of them.
The Diligent returned to Brittany loaded with cotton, sugar and rocou, a plant substance used in the dyeing process. The long voyage had certainly produced a profit, but not the profit the Billy brothers had dreamed of. They sued the captain, alleging that he had been profligate with supplies and that he had twice switched one of his personally purchased slaves for another belonging to the outfitters. The holding of the trial may well account for the survival of Durand’s journal – it was used in evidence. (The verdict, however, has not survived.) No such trace remains of the 242 surviving Africans who had been left on Martinique. Harms describes the enthusiasm with which he took himself off to the archives there in pursuit of the final part of his story. I’ve been there myself on a similar pursuit. The glistening new departmental archives sit on a hill overlooking Fort-de-France and the ocean. They are meticulously catalogued and the staff are ever helpful. But they yield nothing of the lives of the Africans who survived the experience of the Diligent: no names, no baptismal records, no marriages, no deaths. No trace. This is the end of the journey for both the historian and his readers.
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0.3934730887... | 4 | On 1 June 1731, the Billy brothers, Guillaume and François, waved goodbye to their ship, the Diligent, as it set sail from Brittany. It was weighed down with Indian cloth, cowry shells from the Maldives, white linen from Hamburg, guns, ammunition and smoking pipes from Holland, kegs of brandy from the Loire Valley, and with the all-important supplies for the crew: firewood and flour, dry biscuits, fava beans, hams, salt beef, cheese, white wine and water. There was one other item to be loaded: 150 slave irons with their locks and keys, manufactured by the Taquet brothers in Nantes. Each iron could restrain two slaves. The Diligent was setting off on its first slave-trading voyage.
The Africans who would wear these irons were destined for the French West Indian island of Martinique. French development of this and other islands had lagged behind the English. In 1700 there were about thirty thousand African slaves in the French colonies, compared with around a hundred thousand in the English ones, and sugar exports were correspondingly smaller, but the first decades of the 18th century would see a rapid growth in French involvement in the slave trade and in the development of their colonies. The activities of the Billy brothers were part of a more general trend, as the usually dirigiste French Crown gave a greater degree of freedom to merchants and entrepreneurs.
The 1731 voyage was the Billy brothers’ first involvement in the slave trade. It demanded a very significant investment: the cost of sending a ship on the African slave run was two or three times that of other branches of commerce. Outfitting the Diligent, including food, loading costs and two months’ salary for the crew, came to 80,000 livres – more than four times the price of the ship itself, and this before insurance. The Billy brothers were expecting big profits from the sale of Africans they would never see.
Robert Harms has based his riveting account of the ‘worlds of the slave trade’ on a journal kept by a young lieutenant on the Diligent, Robert Durand, a document sold in the 1980s to the Beinecke Library at Yale, where Harms teaches. Historians have uncovered records of more than seventeen thousand slaving voyages in the 18th century, but, as Harms points out, only a handful give us any insight into the daily life of the ship, the crew and its human cargo. Most are careful records of the ship’s passage, prices, rates of exchange, slaves’ vital statistics and deaths. As Robin Blackburn has argued, the slave trade and the slave plantation were run with an instrumental rationality, according to business principles that were ahead of their time, and produced an abundance of statistics. Durand’s journal is one of the handful of records that provides more than this, but even so it is characterised as much by its silences as by its evocative descriptions and jaunty drawings. ‘Curiously,’ Harms writes, ‘Robert Durand mentioned the African captives only twice during the entire 66 days of the middle passage, and then only to record deaths.’
Harms uses the voyage of the Diligent to take us through the ‘worlds’ of the Atlantic slave trade in the early 18th century. There are three of them in this case: France, West Africa and Martinique, with a few offshore islands thrown in. Harms’s argument is that these worlds are distinct, with their own histories and dynamics, but that during this period the slave trade was beginning to link their fates. Perhaps his most original contribution to the ever increasing scholarship on slavery, however, is his account of the French slave traders and the political and social context of early 18th-century French colonial commerce.
The ships that sailed from Brittany had their backs turned to the impoverished rural economy of the hinterland. The big players in colonial trade were Nantes and later Lorient, and though government-chartered companies had previously exercised near complete monopolies, by this time the merchants of Nantes were proving successful advocates of private enterprise. The development of the French colonies may have been dirigiste in comparison to the English, but the French King could not afford to ignore an increasingly vociferous group of private merchants pressing for reform of the now discredited system of corporate mercantilism. Still, French colonial trade, as Harms makes clear, was relatively unintegrated into the larger economy, which was still predominantly agricultural. In the 18th century, commercial cities like Nantes were a bit like the ‘free trade zones’ of the ‘Third World’ today – disconnected from the rest of the country, importing and exporting goods that most people would never own, and perhaps never see. Arriving in Nantes, with its grand merchants’ mansions and its opera house, the English traveller Arthur Young found himself in a strikingly different world from the one he had been journeying through: ‘Mon Dieu! I cried to myself, do all the wastes, the deserts, the heath, ling, furz, broom and bog that I have passed for three hundred miles lead to this spectacle? What a miracle, that all this splendour and wealth of the cities of France should be so unconnected with the country!’
The Billy brothers, like many others, wanted their share of the source of this wealth. Guillaume and François were the younger generation of an upwardly mobile merchant family from the much smaller and sleepier neighbouring port of Vannes – a conventional market town belonging to an older world, a major exporter of grain, deeply embedded in the region’s semi-feudal economy and society. Thanks to their father’s success in the grain trade, the Billy brothers were wealthy, but not wealthy enough to manoeuvre themselves into the local nobility. A major crisis in grain, and the glittering example of Nantes, encouraged them to move into the exotic world of colonial trade. In 1728, after much lobbying, the King’s Council granted the merchants of Vannes permission to participate (in a limited way) in trade with the West Indies. The brothers became minor investors in ships making the transatlantic crossing – transporting manufactured goods from France to the French West Indies and returning with cargoes of sugar and cotton. This was all very well, but no self-respecting entrepreneur could fail to notice that by adding another leg to these voyages, vastly greater profits could be made. Ships arriving in the West Indies from France could trade their load of manufactured cloth, brandy, wine and other goods for enough raw sugar to fill roughly a third of the hold. A load of African slaves, however, was worth nearly twice as much.
Although the French were relative latecomers to the Atlantic slave trade, their involvement grew rapidly in the 1700s, making them the third largest participant (after Britain and Portugal) by the end of the century. As Harms points out, in France in the first half of the century there was barely any recognition that the conduct of the slave trade might be a moral issue, though this would change in the run-up to the Revolution. So, when Harms asks rhetorically of Durand’s opening sentence ‘How could [he] outline such an evil mission in such impersonal prose?’ one suspects that he knows the answer. For investors like the Billy brothers the existence of the slaves was more virtual than real, but their decision to involve themselves more directly was nevertheless a big one: the risks were great, foremost among them disease and death, both of the human cargo and the crew. On average, slave traders in this period made returns of between 7 and 10 per cent annually – more or less in line with other branches of commerce. But the average clearly disguised huge variations, and huge expectations. The risks were high, but, if you were lucky, so were the profits.
In late 1730, then, the Billy brothers bought the Diligent, a modest grain-ship, and set about refitting and equipping it for the triangular trade. They would soon learn that it was a specialised business: in order to buy slaves on the coast of West Africa they would have to make sure they could supply the right goods to the picky African elite on whom they depended. That it was a global business is demonstrated by the inventory of goods loaded into the hold, only a fraction of which were produced in France. More than 40 per cent came from India and the Indian Ocean, and were purchased by the Billy brothers at the Company of Indies warehouse in Nantes. They included a bewildering variety of Indian cloth (fashions for which changed rapidly on the West African coast) and cowry shells, which served as currency on the slave coast. (So fundamental was the link between slaves, cowry shells and political authority that a Dahomian tradition held that when a king wanted cowry shells his henchmen would tie a rope around the neck of a slave and throw him into the ocean, where the shells would attach to his body like barnacles.) Equally crucial was the choice of a crew. They chose a captain with slaving experience, who then recruited the rest of the crew, from officers to accordion boy. This was Durand’s first slaving trip, and the journal would provide evidence of his familiarity with the trade, a valuable addition to his curriculum vitae. Crews on slave ships were well paid in compensation for the risks: four of the Diligent’s crew were to die in the course of this voyage.
Harms is a historian of Africa, and the richest section of this book concerns the complex politics of the African slave trade on the continent itself. Two months after leaving Vannes, and three weeks after leaving the ‘cultural halfway house’ of the Canary Islands, the crew spot first the Grain Coast and then the Gold Coast. The Dutch fort of Elmina on the Gold Coast had originally been built in 1482 by the Portuguese, who had used it as the base for their gold-buying operations. Durand was impressed, and drew a childish picture of the fortifications, the ‘pretty houses’, and the Dutch flag flapping in the ocean breeze. In fact, ‘Gold Coast’ was already becoming a misnomer, since Dutch interest in the area was rapidly switching from gold to slaves. Inland, imported guns were fuelling the rise of the great Asante empire and a fierce struggle for control over trade routes. Warfare produced slaves, now more likely than ever to be sold for export. Things had not always been this way, as Harms reminds us: between 1475 and 1540 more than twelve thousand slaves from the Bight of Benin and Sao Tomé had been imported to the Gold Coast by the Portuguese to be purchased by wealthy Africans, who used them as gold-field workers and porters on merchant caravans.
By the early 18th century, however, things had moved on. The sheer numbers involved in the Atlantic slave trade make this clear. In the course of the 16th century around 370,000 people were taken from Africa; in the next century this would rise to nearly two million, and in the 18th to more than six million. It has been estimated that in order to deliver the nine million slaves who arrived at the coast in the period from 1700 to 1850, around twenty-one million Africans were probably captured; five million of these would have died within a year of capture, and seven million remained in Africa as slaves. The population of certain regions of West and West Central Africa was significantly reduced.
The Diligent sailed on from Elmina, past a succession of English, Dutch and Danish forts, towards its destination: the part of the coast beyond the delta of the Volta river known as the Slave Coast. French slaving operations centred on the tiny kingdom of Whydah, which extended along forty miles of coastline and stretched twenty-five miles inland. Whydah was a trading kingdom, at that time exporting between sixteen and twenty thousand slaves a year, among whom were representatives of some thirty ethnic groups. King Huffon presided over the trade from his capital city, Savi. All the major European trading companies were represented there – the English, the French, the Dutch and the Portuguese – and their compounds were built into the walls of the royal palace. At his coronation ceremony in 1725, Huffon was surrounded not only by his forty elaborately dressed wives, but also by the representatives of all the trading companies, who were seated to his right on stuffed chairs. Huffon himself sat on a gilded throne decorated with the French coat of arms.
The ostentatious wealth and sophistication of Huffon’s kingdom drew admiring descriptions from amazed foreign visitors. The dense population was fed, in part, by an intensive agricultural system based on millet, but incorporating such New World crops as maize and sweet potatoes; within the city walls, a rich variety of both European and African goods could be purchased at a number of daily markets. But by the time of the Diligent’s voyage, Whydah was in a state of war. As on the Gold Coast, trade rivalry had resulted in a new, militarised African politics. The cause of the problems in Whydah was the rise of the rival kingdom of Dahomey, some fifty miles inland. Whydah controlled access to the European trading companies and their goods, while Dahomey’s King Agaja remained frustratedly dependent on his neighbour. Agaja had ambitions for what had been a small, peaceful kingdom. He built up a formidable professional army and armed his soldiers with imported flintlock muskets rather than the traditional longbows. His fascination with the arts of war was such that he later obtained for himself a French suit of armour which, according to one visitor, made him look like Don Quixote. He used psychology as part of his military strategy, with public sacrifices of captives helping to maintain a state of terror.
In 1724, during a raid on the kingdom of Allada (which lay between Whydah and Dahomey), he had taken captive an English employee of the Royal African Company, Bulfinch Lambe. Agaja had never seen a European before, though he had heard all about them, and for the next two years, with the aid of an interpreter, he held long conversations with Lambe. Agaja was, apparently, fascinated by literacy, and even invented his own script. He wanted to know about the economics of the slave trade and, in particular, what accounted for the Europeans’ insatiable appetite for slaves. Lambe explained that they were exported to be used on Caribbean plantations to produce wealth in the form of sugar. Agaja understood immediately, and announced that he would cease to be a mere exporter of slaves and would, instead, set up his own plantations. Lambe, seeing a way out of his captivity, persuaded Agaja that such a scheme should be executed in co-operation with King George I. Agaja dictated a personal letter to the English King and Lambe was released so that he could return to England to negotiate an agreement.
In 1727, Agaja’s army attacked Whydah, driving King Huffon and Captain Assou, the main ally of the French in Savi, into exile, and taking prisoners among the crew members guarding the slave ships in port. In 1731, a state of war still prevailed. Captain Assou, infuriated at his betrayal, attacked the Europeans’ tents in an attempt to disrupt the trade, which was now in the hands of Agaja. Reluctantly, the captain of the Diligent weighed anchor, and left.
When he arrived at the port of Jakin, there were 15 slave ships in the harbour, events at Whydah having driven everyone in this direction. While the crew set about making final alterations to the ship to prepare it for its cargo, Durand set up a large sail-cloth tent on the beach, from which he would conduct negotiations and make his purchases. With competition so fierce, prices were high and he had to bargain. He also had to be sure to obtain an optimum mix of men, women and children. He was buying slaves in exchange for cotton, firearms and other goods, whose relative values could vary wildly from Vannes to Jakin, making the calculation of profit a tricky business. Durand recorded every detail of his transactions – he knew that later he would have to account for it all. But, as Harms remarks, he gives no hint of how he felt about participating in this activity. Harms’s careful historical reconstruction has provided us with a rich description of the worlds of the slave trade, but having reached Jakin we are reminded of its banality, which is simultaneously its tragedy. Gender, age and a supposed ‘ethnicity’ were recorded, the naked bodies examined for defects, and then branded. Finally, 256 slaves made the terrifying canoe ride across the surf to the waiting ship.
Durand’s silence on the subject of his human cargo frustrates Harms, who wants to know whether he felt a sadistic sense of power over these Africans, or whether perhaps he felt compassion. But such self-examination is not the purpose of Durand’s journal, even assuming that he engaged in it. In fact he tells us little about the ‘middle passage’, and Harms uses a compilation of other sources to stop the gap. We gather that from the point of view of the slave trader, the faster this part of the journey was over the better: the quicker the crossing the lower the mortality rate, and the less the likelihood of a slave revolt. It may have been the slaves who were in chains but there was a degree of mutuality in the terror evoked. While Europeans dreamed of African cannibals, many enslaved Africans believed that they were destined to be eaten by their European captors – how else to explain the appetite for slaves that King Agaja had puzzled over? Such a fear could be so overwhelming as to lead them to suicide, or to acts of violence and insurrection against the terrified crew. Diseases spread, inevitably, from the slave deck to the crew quarters. In this atmosphere of terror and despair, Noël Magré, the ship’s accordion player, would have been put to work. Slave traders knew very well that melancholy was the enemy of profit, since slaves who were prone to depression were also prone to lie down and die. It was the accordion player’s job to ‘cheer them up’ with some jolly seafaring tunes, and to animate the enforced dancing that was part of the exercise regime.
This section of Harms’s account made me uncomfortable. His technique – the use of Durand’s journal as a peg on which to hang a revealing narrative – is valid and effective, and he has scoured a multitude of archives to fill out Durand’s account. The historian’s task of reconstruction seems all the more pressing in the case of slavery, in the course of which so many lives and so many histories were lost. But another of the historian’s responsibilities is to confront us with the absences. Toni Morrison has described her reluctance to represent the abjection of the middle passage: Beloved, she says, stands in for ‘those black slaves whom we don’t know . . . I had to be dragged, I suppose by them, kicking and screaming into this book, because it is just too much.’ Perhaps, then, Harms is right to drag us reluctantly into his reconstruction of the Diligent’s hold. But a historian is not a novelist, and arguably only a novelist (or a poet) can represent the unrepresentable trauma of the middle passage.
By the time the Diligent reached the harbour of St Pierre on Martinique, nine slaves had died – a relatively low mortality rate for the time. The survivors were bathed, shaved and their skin rubbed with palm oil. Dealers boarded the ship to inspect the human merchandise. The captain named his price – 950 livres each – but no one was offering anywhere near that figure. Just as the war in Whydah had forced up the price of slaves, so recent events had depressed selling prices in Martinique. The opening of the trade to private traders had increased supply, and in addition, the economy of Martinique was in crisis, owing to a combination of the massive earthquake of 1727 and disputes between small planters and the Company of the Indies. The Diligent’s captain held out for his price, but within a month the slaves began to die in the slave warehouse of St Pierre. He was forced to sell at less than half his original asking price. Most went to a dealer called Lamy, about whom we know little, except that he was an expert in this business and had calculated the timing of his offer carefully. The rest probably went to local officials and planters. This is the last we know of them.
The Diligent returned to Brittany loaded with cotton, sugar and rocou, a plant substance used in the dyeing process. The long voyage had certainly produced a profit, but not the profit the Billy brothers had dreamed of. They sued the captain, alleging that he had been profligate with supplies and that he had twice switched one of his personally purchased slaves for another belonging to the outfitters. The holding of the trial may well account for the survival of Durand’s journal – it was used in evidence. (The verdict, however, has not survived.) No such trace remains of the 242 surviving Africans who had been left on Martinique. Harms describes the enthusiasm with which he took himself off to the archives there in pursuit of the final part of his story. I’ve been there myself on a similar pursuit. The glistening new departmental archives sit on a hill overlooking Fort-de-France and the ocean. They are meticulously catalogued and the staff are ever helpful. But they yield nothing of the lives of the Africans who survived the experience of the Diligent: no names, no baptismal records, no marriages, no deaths. No trace. This is the end of the journey for both the historian and his readers.
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Please include name, address, and a telephone number. | 4,647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(October 25, 1811 – May 31, 1832)
Known for his brilliance as much as for his sociopolitical activism, Évariste Galois was a prodigy who made lasting contributions to mathematics: despite living for only 20 years. He cut his teeth with the works of Adrien-Marie Legendre and Joseph-Louis Lagrange (from whom he drew inspirations). He would later become the first person to apply the term “group” as we do now in contemporary algebra. A genius nonpareil, Galois solved a 350 year-old problem by deducing the logical conditions necessary for polynomials to become solvable by radicals. His works on Abstract Algebra are deep, far-reaching and extraordinary. They are often compared to those of Niels Henrik Abel (another genius who died young). Although Abel was the first person who proved conclusively that some polynomials have no algebraic solution, it was Galois that laid-out the “necessary and sufficient” conditions required for such solutions to exist. He advanced the Abelian Integrals, the Continued Fractions, and his own Galois Connections. His concept of normal subgroup is as extensive as that of his finite field, which is now called Galois field. In addition to algebra, Évariste Galois worked on Analysis and Number Theory. Although he did not live long enough to publish many treatises, his short life saw him make brilliant revolutions which secured him a spot in the lounge of the greatest mathematicians. Several of his mathematical concepts are named after him. Also dedicated to his memory is the 222-kilometer-wide Galois lunar impact crater situated near to the one named after Sergei Korolev. | <urn:uuid:e7487eb3-a05f-48a3-b210-bc54aec7a066> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sapaviva.com/evariste-galois/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.984383 | 354 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.22481293... | 3 | (October 25, 1811 – May 31, 1832)
Known for his brilliance as much as for his sociopolitical activism, Évariste Galois was a prodigy who made lasting contributions to mathematics: despite living for only 20 years. He cut his teeth with the works of Adrien-Marie Legendre and Joseph-Louis Lagrange (from whom he drew inspirations). He would later become the first person to apply the term “group” as we do now in contemporary algebra. A genius nonpareil, Galois solved a 350 year-old problem by deducing the logical conditions necessary for polynomials to become solvable by radicals. His works on Abstract Algebra are deep, far-reaching and extraordinary. They are often compared to those of Niels Henrik Abel (another genius who died young). Although Abel was the first person who proved conclusively that some polynomials have no algebraic solution, it was Galois that laid-out the “necessary and sufficient” conditions required for such solutions to exist. He advanced the Abelian Integrals, the Continued Fractions, and his own Galois Connections. His concept of normal subgroup is as extensive as that of his finite field, which is now called Galois field. In addition to algebra, Évariste Galois worked on Analysis and Number Theory. Although he did not live long enough to publish many treatises, his short life saw him make brilliant revolutions which secured him a spot in the lounge of the greatest mathematicians. Several of his mathematical concepts are named after him. Also dedicated to his memory is the 222-kilometer-wide Galois lunar impact crater situated near to the one named after Sergei Korolev. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|About the Book|
This study examines the transformation of the United States Navy as a fighting organization that took place on the North Atlantic Station between 1874 and 1897. At the beginning of this period, the warships assigned to this station were collectivelyMoreThis study examines the transformation of the United States Navy as a fighting organization that took place on the North Atlantic Station between 1874 and 1897. At the beginning of this period, the warships assigned to this station were collectively administered by a rear-admiral, but were operationally deployed as individual units, each of whose actions were directed by their captains. By 1897 the North Atlantic, or Home Squadron as it was known, was a group of warships constituting a protean battle fleet - that is, an organized body moving and fighting in close-order, which meant that the actions of the captains were directed by a commanding admiral.The process of the development of an American battle fleet resulted in the construction of a new organizational identity for the North Atlantic Squadron. This process was as critical as the eventual outcome. It was not linear, but one in which progress in critical areas was modulated by conflicting demands that caused distraction. From 1874-1888, exercises in fleet tactics under steam were carried out sporadically utilizing existing wooden cruising vessels. From 1889-1894, the last wooden cruisers were decommissioned and the Squadron consisted entirely of new steel warships. Ad-hoc concentrations of vessels for purposes besides exercise and training retarded the continued development of doctrine and tactics necessary for a multi-ship fighting capability during this time. However, much work was done to develop a concept of multi-ship operations. From 1895-1897, the identity of the North Atlantic Squadron as a combat unit solidified. Tactical exercises were held that had specific offensive and defensive wartime applications. These exercises were necessary to develop a combat capability.The results of this study demonstrate that the United States government had an interest in developing an offensive naval combat capability as early as the 1870s. Based on the record of the North Atlantic Squadron, it is argued that imperial aspirations, in the sense of possessing a capability to restrict the actions of other great powers in the Caribbean region, existed prior to the War of 1898. However, the process of change often resulted in the appearance of capability without the rigorous exercise necessary to possess it. | <urn:uuid:283a35be-39ac-4208-9935-402db069fac8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mkskutno.pl/law11be/home-squadron-the-us-navy-on-the-north-atlantic-station-52.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.984758 | 473 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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This study examines the transformation of the United States Navy as a fighting organization that took place on the North Atlantic Station between 1874 and 1897. At the beginning of this period, the warships assigned to this station were collectivelyMoreThis study examines the transformation of the United States Navy as a fighting organization that took place on the North Atlantic Station between 1874 and 1897. At the beginning of this period, the warships assigned to this station were collectively administered by a rear-admiral, but were operationally deployed as individual units, each of whose actions were directed by their captains. By 1897 the North Atlantic, or Home Squadron as it was known, was a group of warships constituting a protean battle fleet - that is, an organized body moving and fighting in close-order, which meant that the actions of the captains were directed by a commanding admiral.The process of the development of an American battle fleet resulted in the construction of a new organizational identity for the North Atlantic Squadron. This process was as critical as the eventual outcome. It was not linear, but one in which progress in critical areas was modulated by conflicting demands that caused distraction. From 1874-1888, exercises in fleet tactics under steam were carried out sporadically utilizing existing wooden cruising vessels. From 1889-1894, the last wooden cruisers were decommissioned and the Squadron consisted entirely of new steel warships. Ad-hoc concentrations of vessels for purposes besides exercise and training retarded the continued development of doctrine and tactics necessary for a multi-ship fighting capability during this time. However, much work was done to develop a concept of multi-ship operations. From 1895-1897, the identity of the North Atlantic Squadron as a combat unit solidified. Tactical exercises were held that had specific offensive and defensive wartime applications. These exercises were necessary to develop a combat capability.The results of this study demonstrate that the United States government had an interest in developing an offensive naval combat capability as early as the 1870s. Based on the record of the North Atlantic Squadron, it is argued that imperial aspirations, in the sense of possessing a capability to restrict the actions of other great powers in the Caribbean region, existed prior to the War of 1898. However, the process of change often resulted in the appearance of capability without the rigorous exercise necessary to possess it. | 514 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jane Austen, mostly known as the greatest novelist of manners, was born December 16th, 1775 at Steventon, Hampshire, England. Her novels portray the life of the people and especially of the women of 19th century England. She raised the whole genre to a new level of art. She is known best for her depiction of the society of 19th century England her insight of women’s life of that time.
She produced some greatest novel in English. This unpretentious daughter of Hampshire did not use exhibitionist critical apparatus and no pretentiously announced model, like Richardson, in her novel. Everyone recognised her ironic taste. She had an eye of the moral judgment peppered with the irony. Her use of wit not farcical; it was polished and very controlled beneath her claim moral apprehension of the nature of human relationships. All of her characters were shown with excellent social and economic propriety.
Jane Austen was gifted with writing skills. She began writing at an early age; however, the audience of her early work was her family only. Her indulgence towards writing helped her to produce stories in which she parodied with humour and fine sense of caricature.
Her novels revolve around the daily routine errands, visits, shopping, sewing, gossip, parties, meetings, and other trivial matter. Her subject matter was extracted out of above-mentioned trivial matters, but she was able to artistically erect a strong faced off her novels from them. In her novel, one can find the serenity and beauty of her country towns. She depicted her countryside as an unspoilt place with its well-kept estates and cheerful farms. These things provided a perfect background to her novel, which portrays a perfect and calm social life.
Although her ability to deal with social issues was beyond comparison, but still she lack few major issues that were prevailing in the society of her time. During her writing career, Napoleonic wars were going on but she avoided mentioning this major social issue in her novel for a reason unknown. Most of the critics believe that Jane Austen’s comfort zone of writing was very limited and she had always avoided to expend her horizon from trivial social matters to the serious world affairs which were not relevant to the situation she wanted to write about.
Jane Austen is known as the artist of miniature art. Her horizon was limited but still she got the ability to achieve so much meaning with a simple descriptive sentence. She was a novelist of manners with a brilliant ironic wit. She confined herself to the contemporary English social life and one can say that she had depicted that period justly. Her human comedy with pronounced art has the ability to outdo even the most artistic novel of our present time. | <urn:uuid:0c56a31a-c844-4fef-9ccd-af2c358505be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://speedyessay.com/jane-austen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.989445 | 556 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | Jane Austen, mostly known as the greatest novelist of manners, was born December 16th, 1775 at Steventon, Hampshire, England. Her novels portray the life of the people and especially of the women of 19th century England. She raised the whole genre to a new level of art. She is known best for her depiction of the society of 19th century England her insight of women’s life of that time.
She produced some greatest novel in English. This unpretentious daughter of Hampshire did not use exhibitionist critical apparatus and no pretentiously announced model, like Richardson, in her novel. Everyone recognised her ironic taste. She had an eye of the moral judgment peppered with the irony. Her use of wit not farcical; it was polished and very controlled beneath her claim moral apprehension of the nature of human relationships. All of her characters were shown with excellent social and economic propriety.
Jane Austen was gifted with writing skills. She began writing at an early age; however, the audience of her early work was her family only. Her indulgence towards writing helped her to produce stories in which she parodied with humour and fine sense of caricature.
Her novels revolve around the daily routine errands, visits, shopping, sewing, gossip, parties, meetings, and other trivial matter. Her subject matter was extracted out of above-mentioned trivial matters, but she was able to artistically erect a strong faced off her novels from them. In her novel, one can find the serenity and beauty of her country towns. She depicted her countryside as an unspoilt place with its well-kept estates and cheerful farms. These things provided a perfect background to her novel, which portrays a perfect and calm social life.
Although her ability to deal with social issues was beyond comparison, but still she lack few major issues that were prevailing in the society of her time. During her writing career, Napoleonic wars were going on but she avoided mentioning this major social issue in her novel for a reason unknown. Most of the critics believe that Jane Austen’s comfort zone of writing was very limited and she had always avoided to expend her horizon from trivial social matters to the serious world affairs which were not relevant to the situation she wanted to write about.
Jane Austen is known as the artist of miniature art. Her horizon was limited but still she got the ability to achieve so much meaning with a simple descriptive sentence. She was a novelist of manners with a brilliant ironic wit. She confined herself to the contemporary English social life and one can say that she had depicted that period justly. Her human comedy with pronounced art has the ability to outdo even the most artistic novel of our present time. | 556 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was the Aten revolution unsuccessful?
Akhenaten or Amenhotep IV wanted to user in Aten the sun God. When he ruled it accompanied the revolutionary period called Amarna. He ruled around 1350-1334 B.C. This was in the 18th dynasty. When Akhenaten wanted to usher in Aten he tried to usher in a monotheistic cult. This made the power of priest limited and they was used to directing to a innumerable cult of gods Religion was set during this time to find a nurturing loving God. However, it did not influence or affect the people as in that way. It opened the way for other religions the secretiveness and mystery of the cult religions.
This was controlled because it was directed through the rulers. It was not easy for the people to reject their old God’s, because they were centuries old. Rejecting their God’s was extremely difficult. Their religion was well-known. People had been threatened under Aten and under Amun-Re it was not it was actually more dominant. The worship under Aten never became well-known. Most Egyptians were not affected by the revolution. They remained dedicated to their old Gods. They thought there was no need to build sanctuaries to Aten. The religious leaders considered the religious rebellion unorthodox. Many of the court supporters were not dedicated to the revolution. The art and manners connected with the Amarna were considered anti cultural by conservatives and was never widely acceptable.
14. Why was Christianity so successful in recruiting | <urn:uuid:03928cc2-3d1e-4473-8a7b-f0764846f666> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Why-Was-the-Aten-Revolution-Usuccessful-FKXQ2L4CDM6A | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.99207 | 314 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2976756691932678,
0.3761833608150482,
-0.08076869696378708,
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0.24680519104003906,
-0.1046748235821724,
-0.4974777400493622,
0.11455360054969788,
0.2601929903030... | 3 | Why was the Aten revolution unsuccessful?
Akhenaten or Amenhotep IV wanted to user in Aten the sun God. When he ruled it accompanied the revolutionary period called Amarna. He ruled around 1350-1334 B.C. This was in the 18th dynasty. When Akhenaten wanted to usher in Aten he tried to usher in a monotheistic cult. This made the power of priest limited and they was used to directing to a innumerable cult of gods Religion was set during this time to find a nurturing loving God. However, it did not influence or affect the people as in that way. It opened the way for other religions the secretiveness and mystery of the cult religions.
This was controlled because it was directed through the rulers. It was not easy for the people to reject their old God’s, because they were centuries old. Rejecting their God’s was extremely difficult. Their religion was well-known. People had been threatened under Aten and under Amun-Re it was not it was actually more dominant. The worship under Aten never became well-known. Most Egyptians were not affected by the revolution. They remained dedicated to their old Gods. They thought there was no need to build sanctuaries to Aten. The religious leaders considered the religious rebellion unorthodox. Many of the court supporters were not dedicated to the revolution. The art and manners connected with the Amarna were considered anti cultural by conservatives and was never widely acceptable.
14. Why was Christianity so successful in recruiting | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Graham Bell is known as the man who invented the telephone in 1876. He was a visionary who changed the way people communicated. Bell contributed significantly to how the world is today. His groundbreaking invention enabled people from all over the world to talk over long distances via wires with his small gadget. The road from Bell’s telephone to the smartphones of today was long, but it was the telephone invention that enabled us to enjoy the technology we have now.
Bell spent most of his life studying the art of speech and public speaking. Active in this field from his early childhood, the Scotsman stemmed from a family primarily involved in the study of both verbal and visual communication. With the help of his father, grandfather, and his two brothers, Alexander Graham Bell, worked at improving the way people express themselves and communicate at an early age. He took a great interest in the matter and started experimenting very early on in his life.
His life was full of tragedy and difficulties, both on a personal and professional level. In his own life, he was annoyed by problems such as facing his brothers’ deaths and trying to communicate with his deaf mother and grandmother. On a professional level, Bell was subject to dozens of court cases regarding his telephone invention.
Bell’s achievements still stand today and bear an influence on our world. In this article, we will take a look at Alexander Graham Bell’s life and his invention of the telephone.
Quickfire Facts About Alexander Graham Bell
Date and Place of Birth: March 3rd, 1847, Edinburgh, Scotland
Death: August 2nd, 1922, Nova Scotia, Canada
Famous For: Invention of the telephone, improving communication, the invention of a photophone, the invention of an early metal detector
Spouse: Mabel Hubbard, married in 1877
Children: four: two sons died in infancy; his daughters were Elsie May Bell and Marian Hubbard Bell.
Education: Educated by father, the Royal High School of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, and University College London.
Other Interesting Facts: Alexander Bell added his middle name when he was 10, after one of his family friends, Alexander Graham.
The Life of A Visionary
The innovator was born on March 3rd in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Bell family lived in a small house on South Charlotte Street. Alexander had an older brother, Melville, and a younger one who was born in 1848 – Edward. Alexander’s grandfather and grandmother were also heavily involved during his childhood. Alexander’s father (Alexander Melville) and grandfather were both elocutionists – experts in speech. Alexander got involved in the art of communicating from his first days of life.
Even as a child of 11, Alexander started doing some experiments with his brothers and friend, Ben Herdman. Alexander was interested in his mother’s deafness and took a lot of effort to communicate with her. When he was just a child, he learned how to communicate with his mother using gestures, and later tried to communicate with her by talking directly to her forehead. This strategy enabled her to hear her son’s voice better. He often indulged in various exciting projects as a kid, such as recreating sounds of other people, ventriloquism, and other voice tricks. His stunts were famous at family gatherings.
Bell’s father and grandfather taught Alexander and his brothers a lot about sound. His father taught him to write and understand visible speech, which enabled him to communicate with deaf-mutes. His father also wrote one hundred and eighty-six editions of a journal named The Standard Elocutionist. In it, he debated and presented various speech methods and analyzed communication with deaf people.
Bell Took Little Interest in Learning Initially
In his childhood, Bell completed no formal education. Instead, he was taught at home by his father. It was clear that he was a talented kid, but took little interest in learning at the start. He was enrolled in the Royal High School in Edinburgh at an early age, but his results were disappointing. It was, most likely, due to a lack of interest and his preference in performing experiments. He never seemed to be able to complete any type of formal schooling.
His willingness to learn came to the forefront only when Alexander moved to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell. He instilled a hard-working mentality into his grandson and taught him many valuable lessons in both speech and elocution. Alexander studied elocution thoroughly and would start to learn how to pronounce words more clearly. Soon, he was able to give lectures at a very young age at a school in Elgin, Scotland. With this funding from his tutorship, the Scotsman was able to enroll in the University of Edinburgh. Later, he entered the University College of London.
At the age of 18, Bell was intrigued by a talking head, an experiment by a Hungarian scientist named Wolfgang von Kempelen. This talking head, or an automaton, was capable of producing speech-like sounds with the help of an operator, and it sounded like a baby’s first words. At the time, many people found this fascinating, and Bell was keen to do it on his own.
He set out to work on it with his brother, Melville. Their father offered them a big prize, should they succeed with the project. The boys were motivated to create something that would entertain the streets where the Bells lived. Soon, Melville and Alexander created a talking head that was capable of saying the word “Mama.” Later, they made a talking head of a terrier that appeared to mutter the words, “How are you, grandma?”. Unsurprisingly, these inventions gathered a lot of interest in the local community, and many people came to their home to see it.
Bell thought he was onto something, and that he achieved a feat that hasn’t yet been reached by anyone. But it turned out that was not the case after he contacted a close friend of his father, who was a reputable philologist at the time, about it.
In 1865, Bell continued experiments on his own. He was experimenting with sound and often used the telegraph. He was keen to produce and transfer tones with the use of electricity. He was mainly involved in school lecturing in Elgin and conducted experiments in his spare time.
Tragedy and Move to Canada
We could call the years between 1865 and 1870 the tragic years for Bell. This time shaped Alexander’s personal life and left scars on his mind forever. These events influenced his work and inventions in the wrong way, and these were the years when he wasn’t as prolific as later in his life.
During the years 1865, 1866, and 1867, Bell was very busy with his work on elocution. He was becoming an essential part of the family business. He continued carrying out his experiments with electrically produced sounds, while also working as an instructor in Bath, England. He was affected by the workload, as he was often too exhausted to be productive. But it was his brother, Edward, that fell seriously ill in 1867. In that same year, Alexander’s brother died of tuberculosis.
Edward’s death was a massive blow for the family. Alexander visited North America somewhere during that time, and his father saw a better living standard in Canada than back in the UK. Alexander disagreed at first and proceeded with his work in Bath and experiments. But soon, he moved back to his father’s home to help him due to Melville moving out and getting married. Melville, his older brother, also opened his own business that was thriving. In 1870, however, another tragedy struck the Bell family. Melville died due to tuberculosis, a disease that took two sons away from the Bell family. Alexander was the only son left.
After Melville’s death, Alexander was starting to consider the option of moving to Canada seriously. At the time, he was also sickly, and his parents were reluctant, but they decided to close the company in London and move to Ontario. There, a new chapter awaited Alexander Graham Bell and his family. At the age of 23, Alexander moved to Canada.
Bell’s Work on the Telephone
In Ontario, the family bought a farm outside the town of Brantford. This farm still stands today as a memorial to Bell. Alexander set up a workshop where he would be able to concentrate on his experiments with sound and speech. It was in this workshop that something special was beginning to happen.
Work With the Deaf
During 1870 and 1871, Bell was experimenting with speech. He started to focus on something beneficial for the world, as his father encouraged him to do. Bell worked with the deaf-mutes and tried to improve their lives by teaching them the visible speech method that he and his father worked on for many years. This work proved highly successful, and some clients saw significant improvements in speech. At this time, his father got a chance to become a professor in Boston. There, but he sent his son instead.
Soon, Bell established a school for the deaf in Boston. His first classes consisted of 30 deaf people, but the popularity grew from there. Soon, he had an entire school devoted to helping people communicate.
The Harmonic Telegraph
In Boston, Bell was fascinated by the idea of transmitting voice with the help of an electrical current. Bell started working on a harmonic telegraph. The sound transferred at different frequencies, and the device would act as a sound telegraph that would help people transfer words much faster and efficiently. There would be a voice telegraph on the sending side, and wires connected the receiving end. Bell started working on this idea in 1871 already but doubled his efforts from 1873 on. He had the first design of the telephone, albeit straightforward and unsophisticated.
In 1874, Bell became aware of work conducted by Meucci, an Italian inventor who was already working on a similar device to Bell. His design was much more advanced and already applied for a pattern. But Meucci got turned down, and Bell studied his patent thoroughly. He implemented some ideas from there. But Bell made many improvements on the harmonic telegraph on his own.
Finally, in 1874, he seemed to have made it work well enough to present his idea to Joseph Henry, the head of the Smithsonian Institute (an institution that helped innovators develop their concepts in the 19th century). Henry, himself being an inventor, was intrigued by the idea. Henry encouraged Bell to carry on with the project, but Bell thought he lacked the necessary knowledge and skills to complete it. Henry replied: “Get it (get the knowledge).” Since then, Bell worked day and night on his new project, changing things and trying new experiments. But by 1875, his efforts started to dwindle until Henry introduced Bell to Thomas Watson.
Watson was a highly skilled engineer and electrician. He was hired by Bell to help him complete the project. But the project still lacked financial backing. With Henry’s help again, the funding was to be provided by Sanders and Hubbard, who saw plenty of potential in the new telegraph. In 1875 came the breakthrough. Through an accident, Watson heard the voice of Bell transmitted through the line; it was still very indistinct, but the pair would work on that later. For now, they had invented the first working telephone.
Patent and Legal Troubles
Bell was sure that this was the breakthrough of the telephone and started with demonstrations of the new invention. People were amazed by it, and in 1876, Bell applied for the patent.
But he had many competitors at the time. One of the most notable competitors was Elisha Gray, who filed a patent on the same day as Bell. On March 7th, in 1876, Bell took out the license. It was the most significant moment of his life and would make him known worldwide for his invention of the telephone.
More than five hundred lawsuits followed. Some claimed the unoriginality of the telephone invention, while there were also claims that others did it first. Nonetheless, it was Bell’s patent that triumphed, and therefore we know him today as the inventor of the telephone.
Bell’s telephone is the great grandfather of modern smartphones. It was a natural precursor that launched the industry into some of the biggest industries in the world. This invention from 1876 gradually changed the world from how it communicated, how it behaved, and how it worked.
It is one of the most influential designs of all-time with enormous implications on the planet. It is a staple of the modern world, a technology without which we can’t dare to imagine.
Bell had a genuine interest in improving life for everyone. First, he worked with the deaf and strived to make the world better for them. He then changed the world for all of us with the invention of the telephone.
His whole life is a lesson for us all. He dealt with pressures in both his professional and personal life. No matter the challenges, Bell always found a way forward, and so can you. | <urn:uuid:139a2236-3e9a-4821-b839-cadf18137d3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inventiontherapy.com/alexander-graham-bell-and-smartphones/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.990462 | 2,725 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.027139455080... | 6 | Alexander Graham Bell is known as the man who invented the telephone in 1876. He was a visionary who changed the way people communicated. Bell contributed significantly to how the world is today. His groundbreaking invention enabled people from all over the world to talk over long distances via wires with his small gadget. The road from Bell’s telephone to the smartphones of today was long, but it was the telephone invention that enabled us to enjoy the technology we have now.
Bell spent most of his life studying the art of speech and public speaking. Active in this field from his early childhood, the Scotsman stemmed from a family primarily involved in the study of both verbal and visual communication. With the help of his father, grandfather, and his two brothers, Alexander Graham Bell, worked at improving the way people express themselves and communicate at an early age. He took a great interest in the matter and started experimenting very early on in his life.
His life was full of tragedy and difficulties, both on a personal and professional level. In his own life, he was annoyed by problems such as facing his brothers’ deaths and trying to communicate with his deaf mother and grandmother. On a professional level, Bell was subject to dozens of court cases regarding his telephone invention.
Bell’s achievements still stand today and bear an influence on our world. In this article, we will take a look at Alexander Graham Bell’s life and his invention of the telephone.
Quickfire Facts About Alexander Graham Bell
Date and Place of Birth: March 3rd, 1847, Edinburgh, Scotland
Death: August 2nd, 1922, Nova Scotia, Canada
Famous For: Invention of the telephone, improving communication, the invention of a photophone, the invention of an early metal detector
Spouse: Mabel Hubbard, married in 1877
Children: four: two sons died in infancy; his daughters were Elsie May Bell and Marian Hubbard Bell.
Education: Educated by father, the Royal High School of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, and University College London.
Other Interesting Facts: Alexander Bell added his middle name when he was 10, after one of his family friends, Alexander Graham.
The Life of A Visionary
The innovator was born on March 3rd in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Bell family lived in a small house on South Charlotte Street. Alexander had an older brother, Melville, and a younger one who was born in 1848 – Edward. Alexander’s grandfather and grandmother were also heavily involved during his childhood. Alexander’s father (Alexander Melville) and grandfather were both elocutionists – experts in speech. Alexander got involved in the art of communicating from his first days of life.
Even as a child of 11, Alexander started doing some experiments with his brothers and friend, Ben Herdman. Alexander was interested in his mother’s deafness and took a lot of effort to communicate with her. When he was just a child, he learned how to communicate with his mother using gestures, and later tried to communicate with her by talking directly to her forehead. This strategy enabled her to hear her son’s voice better. He often indulged in various exciting projects as a kid, such as recreating sounds of other people, ventriloquism, and other voice tricks. His stunts were famous at family gatherings.
Bell’s father and grandfather taught Alexander and his brothers a lot about sound. His father taught him to write and understand visible speech, which enabled him to communicate with deaf-mutes. His father also wrote one hundred and eighty-six editions of a journal named The Standard Elocutionist. In it, he debated and presented various speech methods and analyzed communication with deaf people.
Bell Took Little Interest in Learning Initially
In his childhood, Bell completed no formal education. Instead, he was taught at home by his father. It was clear that he was a talented kid, but took little interest in learning at the start. He was enrolled in the Royal High School in Edinburgh at an early age, but his results were disappointing. It was, most likely, due to a lack of interest and his preference in performing experiments. He never seemed to be able to complete any type of formal schooling.
His willingness to learn came to the forefront only when Alexander moved to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell. He instilled a hard-working mentality into his grandson and taught him many valuable lessons in both speech and elocution. Alexander studied elocution thoroughly and would start to learn how to pronounce words more clearly. Soon, he was able to give lectures at a very young age at a school in Elgin, Scotland. With this funding from his tutorship, the Scotsman was able to enroll in the University of Edinburgh. Later, he entered the University College of London.
At the age of 18, Bell was intrigued by a talking head, an experiment by a Hungarian scientist named Wolfgang von Kempelen. This talking head, or an automaton, was capable of producing speech-like sounds with the help of an operator, and it sounded like a baby’s first words. At the time, many people found this fascinating, and Bell was keen to do it on his own.
He set out to work on it with his brother, Melville. Their father offered them a big prize, should they succeed with the project. The boys were motivated to create something that would entertain the streets where the Bells lived. Soon, Melville and Alexander created a talking head that was capable of saying the word “Mama.” Later, they made a talking head of a terrier that appeared to mutter the words, “How are you, grandma?”. Unsurprisingly, these inventions gathered a lot of interest in the local community, and many people came to their home to see it.
Bell thought he was onto something, and that he achieved a feat that hasn’t yet been reached by anyone. But it turned out that was not the case after he contacted a close friend of his father, who was a reputable philologist at the time, about it.
In 1865, Bell continued experiments on his own. He was experimenting with sound and often used the telegraph. He was keen to produce and transfer tones with the use of electricity. He was mainly involved in school lecturing in Elgin and conducted experiments in his spare time.
Tragedy and Move to Canada
We could call the years between 1865 and 1870 the tragic years for Bell. This time shaped Alexander’s personal life and left scars on his mind forever. These events influenced his work and inventions in the wrong way, and these were the years when he wasn’t as prolific as later in his life.
During the years 1865, 1866, and 1867, Bell was very busy with his work on elocution. He was becoming an essential part of the family business. He continued carrying out his experiments with electrically produced sounds, while also working as an instructor in Bath, England. He was affected by the workload, as he was often too exhausted to be productive. But it was his brother, Edward, that fell seriously ill in 1867. In that same year, Alexander’s brother died of tuberculosis.
Edward’s death was a massive blow for the family. Alexander visited North America somewhere during that time, and his father saw a better living standard in Canada than back in the UK. Alexander disagreed at first and proceeded with his work in Bath and experiments. But soon, he moved back to his father’s home to help him due to Melville moving out and getting married. Melville, his older brother, also opened his own business that was thriving. In 1870, however, another tragedy struck the Bell family. Melville died due to tuberculosis, a disease that took two sons away from the Bell family. Alexander was the only son left.
After Melville’s death, Alexander was starting to consider the option of moving to Canada seriously. At the time, he was also sickly, and his parents were reluctant, but they decided to close the company in London and move to Ontario. There, a new chapter awaited Alexander Graham Bell and his family. At the age of 23, Alexander moved to Canada.
Bell’s Work on the Telephone
In Ontario, the family bought a farm outside the town of Brantford. This farm still stands today as a memorial to Bell. Alexander set up a workshop where he would be able to concentrate on his experiments with sound and speech. It was in this workshop that something special was beginning to happen.
Work With the Deaf
During 1870 and 1871, Bell was experimenting with speech. He started to focus on something beneficial for the world, as his father encouraged him to do. Bell worked with the deaf-mutes and tried to improve their lives by teaching them the visible speech method that he and his father worked on for many years. This work proved highly successful, and some clients saw significant improvements in speech. At this time, his father got a chance to become a professor in Boston. There, but he sent his son instead.
Soon, Bell established a school for the deaf in Boston. His first classes consisted of 30 deaf people, but the popularity grew from there. Soon, he had an entire school devoted to helping people communicate.
The Harmonic Telegraph
In Boston, Bell was fascinated by the idea of transmitting voice with the help of an electrical current. Bell started working on a harmonic telegraph. The sound transferred at different frequencies, and the device would act as a sound telegraph that would help people transfer words much faster and efficiently. There would be a voice telegraph on the sending side, and wires connected the receiving end. Bell started working on this idea in 1871 already but doubled his efforts from 1873 on. He had the first design of the telephone, albeit straightforward and unsophisticated.
In 1874, Bell became aware of work conducted by Meucci, an Italian inventor who was already working on a similar device to Bell. His design was much more advanced and already applied for a pattern. But Meucci got turned down, and Bell studied his patent thoroughly. He implemented some ideas from there. But Bell made many improvements on the harmonic telegraph on his own.
Finally, in 1874, he seemed to have made it work well enough to present his idea to Joseph Henry, the head of the Smithsonian Institute (an institution that helped innovators develop their concepts in the 19th century). Henry, himself being an inventor, was intrigued by the idea. Henry encouraged Bell to carry on with the project, but Bell thought he lacked the necessary knowledge and skills to complete it. Henry replied: “Get it (get the knowledge).” Since then, Bell worked day and night on his new project, changing things and trying new experiments. But by 1875, his efforts started to dwindle until Henry introduced Bell to Thomas Watson.
Watson was a highly skilled engineer and electrician. He was hired by Bell to help him complete the project. But the project still lacked financial backing. With Henry’s help again, the funding was to be provided by Sanders and Hubbard, who saw plenty of potential in the new telegraph. In 1875 came the breakthrough. Through an accident, Watson heard the voice of Bell transmitted through the line; it was still very indistinct, but the pair would work on that later. For now, they had invented the first working telephone.
Patent and Legal Troubles
Bell was sure that this was the breakthrough of the telephone and started with demonstrations of the new invention. People were amazed by it, and in 1876, Bell applied for the patent.
But he had many competitors at the time. One of the most notable competitors was Elisha Gray, who filed a patent on the same day as Bell. On March 7th, in 1876, Bell took out the license. It was the most significant moment of his life and would make him known worldwide for his invention of the telephone.
More than five hundred lawsuits followed. Some claimed the unoriginality of the telephone invention, while there were also claims that others did it first. Nonetheless, it was Bell’s patent that triumphed, and therefore we know him today as the inventor of the telephone.
Bell’s telephone is the great grandfather of modern smartphones. It was a natural precursor that launched the industry into some of the biggest industries in the world. This invention from 1876 gradually changed the world from how it communicated, how it behaved, and how it worked.
It is one of the most influential designs of all-time with enormous implications on the planet. It is a staple of the modern world, a technology without which we can’t dare to imagine.
Bell had a genuine interest in improving life for everyone. First, he worked with the deaf and strived to make the world better for them. He then changed the world for all of us with the invention of the telephone.
His whole life is a lesson for us all. He dealt with pressures in both his professional and personal life. No matter the challenges, Bell always found a way forward, and so can you. | 2,734 | ENGLISH | 1 |
They spoke a dialect of Iroquois language and their ancestral relatives the Iroquois occupied much of the Northeast cultural area. Corn was their main source of food, along with wild plants and roots that were common to their homeland.
Keetoowah is the name of the ancient Cherokee town in the eastern homelands, said to be the "Mother Town" of the people Conley Many of the Cherokee Indians originated here according to the traditions. The fertile lands of the Keetoowah were filled of many resources, but as the population grew too large for the town, many people had moved out and built new towns.
Overtime, many towns were built one after another.
Soon, there were approximately scattered tribes over vast areas that consisted of a number of politically independent tribes comprised of a war chief and peace chief as there government King Each tribe was politically independent due to the fact they didn't want a powerful central government; the idea that any one person had supreme power.
Thus, tribes were held together by a common culture, language, and tradition. Tradition played an important role in Cherokee clans. It made sure certain elements of a culture from generation to generation were passed down.
Such as, the traditional matrilineal Cherokee family structure, which means descent, is traced through the female line Conley The children belonged to the mother and her family clan. There was not any relatedness with the father and he's family clan. This family structure provided a safe and secure environment for women and children.
Also, it meant the man lived in the wife's house, surrounded by her clan's people, so he would not dare to abuse her unless he wanted a tribal beating.
Women were largely incorporated into the tribes. Not only was she the head of her domain with mutually respected power and authority, she had equal say in the affairs of war and peace.
She was also in charge of the household and nourishment of her family Lehochy. The women were involved in many functions of daily life. It seems as if the women were the tribe, but not for long. Years after the first American contact, European traders living amongst would marry Cherokee women.
European traders could not accept that fact of tracing descent through the female line, but slowly the clan system gave into the European style bilateral family, which traced descent through both male and female Conley The Cherokee were not too happy with this movement.
It jeopardized the Cherokee's clan traditional ways of a matrilineal family structure carried on for many centuries. Nevertheless, the Cherokees could do nothing about it. Before the first known contacts, life of the Cherokee nation had grown and thrived for many years in the southeastern United States in the lower Appalachian Mountains in states such as: However, the first recorded contact with outsiders was Hernado De Soto in his expedition ofin search of gold throughout the Cherokee county Martin.
Soto found no trace of gold and returned empty handed. The Spanish explorers noticed the Cherokee village they encountered was practically deserted. Many of the tribes would flee from the sight of the unknown.
One of the traders begun to establish his home among the Cherokee Indians, which didn't last for long before he was killed.The word Cherokee is believed to have evolved from a Choctaw word meaning “Cave People”.
It was picked up and used by Europeans and eventually accepted the adopted by Cherokees in . The Cherokee Indians were one of the four civilized tribes in the United States during colonial times. The Cherokee people were interested in the white men and their ways, and even using some of .
The Cherokee Indians were one of the four civilized tribes in the United States during colonial times. The Cherokee people were interested in the white men and their ways, and even using some of the new men's ways.
The Cherokee played an important role in Colonial American history with help from. Cherokee Indians Alicia Stephens AIU Abstract In this paper I will discuss the history of the Cherokee Indians in the United States.
First by describing the tribes pre-Columbian history to include the settlement dates and known cultural details.
Essay The Cherokee Indians The American Indian History in the Eastern part of the country is always associated with the Cherokee Indian nation.
The Cherokee's were by far the largest and most advanced of the tribes when Europeans first arrived and came in contact with Native Americans.
The Cherokee Indians The American Indian History in the Eastern part of the country is always associated with the Cherokee Indian nation. The Cherokee's were by far the largest and most advanced of the tribes when Europeans first arrived and came in contact with Native Americans. | <urn:uuid:ec665726-c53c-4419-bc96-979a7c7668f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tejyqujedisulibu.torosgazete.com/essays-on-cherokee-indians-26088xg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.986473 | 939 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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-0.012916134670376... | 1 | They spoke a dialect of Iroquois language and their ancestral relatives the Iroquois occupied much of the Northeast cultural area. Corn was their main source of food, along with wild plants and roots that were common to their homeland.
Keetoowah is the name of the ancient Cherokee town in the eastern homelands, said to be the "Mother Town" of the people Conley Many of the Cherokee Indians originated here according to the traditions. The fertile lands of the Keetoowah were filled of many resources, but as the population grew too large for the town, many people had moved out and built new towns.
Overtime, many towns were built one after another.
Soon, there were approximately scattered tribes over vast areas that consisted of a number of politically independent tribes comprised of a war chief and peace chief as there government King Each tribe was politically independent due to the fact they didn't want a powerful central government; the idea that any one person had supreme power.
Thus, tribes were held together by a common culture, language, and tradition. Tradition played an important role in Cherokee clans. It made sure certain elements of a culture from generation to generation were passed down.
Such as, the traditional matrilineal Cherokee family structure, which means descent, is traced through the female line Conley The children belonged to the mother and her family clan. There was not any relatedness with the father and he's family clan. This family structure provided a safe and secure environment for women and children.
Also, it meant the man lived in the wife's house, surrounded by her clan's people, so he would not dare to abuse her unless he wanted a tribal beating.
Women were largely incorporated into the tribes. Not only was she the head of her domain with mutually respected power and authority, she had equal say in the affairs of war and peace.
She was also in charge of the household and nourishment of her family Lehochy. The women were involved in many functions of daily life. It seems as if the women were the tribe, but not for long. Years after the first American contact, European traders living amongst would marry Cherokee women.
European traders could not accept that fact of tracing descent through the female line, but slowly the clan system gave into the European style bilateral family, which traced descent through both male and female Conley The Cherokee were not too happy with this movement.
It jeopardized the Cherokee's clan traditional ways of a matrilineal family structure carried on for many centuries. Nevertheless, the Cherokees could do nothing about it. Before the first known contacts, life of the Cherokee nation had grown and thrived for many years in the southeastern United States in the lower Appalachian Mountains in states such as: However, the first recorded contact with outsiders was Hernado De Soto in his expedition ofin search of gold throughout the Cherokee county Martin.
Soto found no trace of gold and returned empty handed. The Spanish explorers noticed the Cherokee village they encountered was practically deserted. Many of the tribes would flee from the sight of the unknown.
One of the traders begun to establish his home among the Cherokee Indians, which didn't last for long before he was killed.The word Cherokee is believed to have evolved from a Choctaw word meaning “Cave People”.
It was picked up and used by Europeans and eventually accepted the adopted by Cherokees in . The Cherokee Indians were one of the four civilized tribes in the United States during colonial times. The Cherokee people were interested in the white men and their ways, and even using some of .
The Cherokee Indians were one of the four civilized tribes in the United States during colonial times. The Cherokee people were interested in the white men and their ways, and even using some of the new men's ways.
The Cherokee played an important role in Colonial American history with help from. Cherokee Indians Alicia Stephens AIU Abstract In this paper I will discuss the history of the Cherokee Indians in the United States.
First by describing the tribes pre-Columbian history to include the settlement dates and known cultural details.
Essay The Cherokee Indians The American Indian History in the Eastern part of the country is always associated with the Cherokee Indian nation.
The Cherokee's were by far the largest and most advanced of the tribes when Europeans first arrived and came in contact with Native Americans.
The Cherokee Indians The American Indian History in the Eastern part of the country is always associated with the Cherokee Indian nation. The Cherokee's were by far the largest and most advanced of the tribes when Europeans first arrived and came in contact with Native Americans. | 919 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Founding Father: John Dickinson
John Dickinson was born on November 18, 1732 at the Crosiadore estate, near Trappe in Talbot County, Maryland. John Dickinson was the second son of Samuel Dickinson, who was a prosperous farmer, and his second wife, Mary Dickinson. In 1740, John Dickinson’s family moved from Maryland to Kent County, Delaware. Here, private tutors were hired to educate the John Dickinson. In 1750, he started to study law in Philadelphia with John Moland. In 1753, John Dickinson travelled to England in order to continue his education at London's Middle Temple. After four years, he came back to Philadelphia and quickly became a prominent lawyer. In 1770, John Dickinson married Mary Norris, the daughter of a wealthy merchant.
By this time, John Dickinson superior talents and education had placed him into politics. In 1760, Dickinson had already served in the assembly of the Three Lower Counties, where he was the speaker. Combining his Delaware and Pennsylvania careers, he won a seat as a member in the Pennsylvania assembly in 1762 and sat for another term in 1764. John Dickinsona became a leader of the conservative group in the political battles of the colonies. His defense of the governor against the group led by Benjamin Franklin damaged his popularity but earned him respect from others for his integrity. Nevertheless, in 1764 he lost his legislative seat.
Meantime, the tension between the colonies and Great Britain had gotten stronger and John Dickinson had become a prominent Revolutionary thinker. In the debates regarding the Stamp Act of 1765, he played a vital part. The same year, John Dickinson wrote “The Late Regulations Respecting British Colonies Considered”, which was a very influential pamphlet that begged Americans to fight for repeal of the act by putting pressure on British merchants. Because of this, the Pennsylvania legislature made him a Pennsylvania delegate to the Stamp Act Congress.
Between 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson wrote a set of newspaper articles in the Pennsylvania Chronicle that later was collectively called Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. These letters attacked the taxation policy of the British and urged the colonies to resist these unjust laws. The letters also emphasized the potential of a peaceful resolution. Because the letters were extremely popular in the colonies, John Dickinson was given an honorary LL.D. from the College of New Jersey along with public thanks during a meeting in Boston. In 1768, in response to the Townshend Duties, John Dickinson championed rigorous colonial resistance through the use of non-exportation and non-importation agreements.
In 1771, John Dickinson returned to the Pennsylvania legislature, where he drafted a petition intended for the king which was unanimously approved. However, because of his continuous opposition to the use of force, by 1774 he lost a lot of his popularity. He was extremely critical of the tactics used by New England leaders that year and refused to support any aid requested by Boston after the Intolerable Acts, although he sympathized with the plight of Boston. Reluctantly, John Dickinson was pushed into the Revolutionary fray. In 1774 he became chairman of the Philadelphia committee of correspondence and also briefly sat as a representative from Pennsylvania in the First Continental Congress.
Throughout 1775, John Dickinson supported the Whigs, but he continued to work for peace. Dickenson drew up many petitions questing redress of grievances from the king. At the same time, he also chaired a Philadelphia committee of safety and defense and also held a colonelcy in the very first battalion recruited to defend the city of Pennsylvania.
After Lexington and Concord, John Dickinson continued to wish for a peaceful solution. During the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1776, he drew up a Declaration of the Causes of Taking Up Arms as the representative from Pennsylvania. In the Pennsylvania assembly, he also drafted an authorization to send some delegates in 1776 to Congress. This draft directed them to look for redress of grievances, but also ordered them to oppose the separation of the American colonies from Great Britain.
By this time, John Dickinson’s moderate position had made him a member of the minority. In Congress, Dickinson voted in 1776 against the Declaration of Independence and. He refused to sign it. Even so, he became one of two contemporary congressional members, the other being Thomas McKean, who enrolled the military. When John Dickinson was not reelected, he resigned his commission as brigadier general and went back home to his estate in Delaware. In 1776, he was his new constituency reelected him to Congress, but he declined the position and also quit from the Pennsylvania Assembly.
John Dickinson came out of retirement in 1779 to take a seat in the Continental Congress, where he stayed till 1780. Here he was a signer of the Articles of Confederation. Before this he was the head the committee which had drafted these articles. In 1781, John Dickinson became president of the Supreme Executive Council of Delaware. After a little while, Dickinson moved back to Philadelphia. Once back, he became president of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1785. In 1786, John Dickinson represented Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, where he was a chairman.
The year after, Delaware sent John Dickinson to the Constitutional Convention. Because of his illness, he missed many of the sessions. However, he made many worthwhile contributions, such as his service as a member of the Committee on Postponed Matters. While he did not like the forcefulness of James Madison and many other nationalists, Dickinson helped create the Great Compromise and also wrote many public letters expressing support for the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his early departure from the Constitutional Convention, Dickinson was not actually able to sign the Constitution. However, he authorized his fellow-delegate and friend George Read to sign it for him.
John Dickinson lived for another two decades, but he did not hold any public offices during this time. Instead, Dickinson devoted himself to his writings on politics. In 1801, he published two volumes of his works. John Dickinson died at Wilmington on February 14, 1808 at the age of 75. He was entombed at the Friends Burial Ground. | <urn:uuid:fc95c2f1-2c27-4df5-9f24-88eef508ba2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/john-dickinson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.982449 | 1,256 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.1693271100... | 3 | Founding Father: John Dickinson
John Dickinson was born on November 18, 1732 at the Crosiadore estate, near Trappe in Talbot County, Maryland. John Dickinson was the second son of Samuel Dickinson, who was a prosperous farmer, and his second wife, Mary Dickinson. In 1740, John Dickinson’s family moved from Maryland to Kent County, Delaware. Here, private tutors were hired to educate the John Dickinson. In 1750, he started to study law in Philadelphia with John Moland. In 1753, John Dickinson travelled to England in order to continue his education at London's Middle Temple. After four years, he came back to Philadelphia and quickly became a prominent lawyer. In 1770, John Dickinson married Mary Norris, the daughter of a wealthy merchant.
By this time, John Dickinson superior talents and education had placed him into politics. In 1760, Dickinson had already served in the assembly of the Three Lower Counties, where he was the speaker. Combining his Delaware and Pennsylvania careers, he won a seat as a member in the Pennsylvania assembly in 1762 and sat for another term in 1764. John Dickinsona became a leader of the conservative group in the political battles of the colonies. His defense of the governor against the group led by Benjamin Franklin damaged his popularity but earned him respect from others for his integrity. Nevertheless, in 1764 he lost his legislative seat.
Meantime, the tension between the colonies and Great Britain had gotten stronger and John Dickinson had become a prominent Revolutionary thinker. In the debates regarding the Stamp Act of 1765, he played a vital part. The same year, John Dickinson wrote “The Late Regulations Respecting British Colonies Considered”, which was a very influential pamphlet that begged Americans to fight for repeal of the act by putting pressure on British merchants. Because of this, the Pennsylvania legislature made him a Pennsylvania delegate to the Stamp Act Congress.
Between 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson wrote a set of newspaper articles in the Pennsylvania Chronicle that later was collectively called Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania. These letters attacked the taxation policy of the British and urged the colonies to resist these unjust laws. The letters also emphasized the potential of a peaceful resolution. Because the letters were extremely popular in the colonies, John Dickinson was given an honorary LL.D. from the College of New Jersey along with public thanks during a meeting in Boston. In 1768, in response to the Townshend Duties, John Dickinson championed rigorous colonial resistance through the use of non-exportation and non-importation agreements.
In 1771, John Dickinson returned to the Pennsylvania legislature, where he drafted a petition intended for the king which was unanimously approved. However, because of his continuous opposition to the use of force, by 1774 he lost a lot of his popularity. He was extremely critical of the tactics used by New England leaders that year and refused to support any aid requested by Boston after the Intolerable Acts, although he sympathized with the plight of Boston. Reluctantly, John Dickinson was pushed into the Revolutionary fray. In 1774 he became chairman of the Philadelphia committee of correspondence and also briefly sat as a representative from Pennsylvania in the First Continental Congress.
Throughout 1775, John Dickinson supported the Whigs, but he continued to work for peace. Dickenson drew up many petitions questing redress of grievances from the king. At the same time, he also chaired a Philadelphia committee of safety and defense and also held a colonelcy in the very first battalion recruited to defend the city of Pennsylvania.
After Lexington and Concord, John Dickinson continued to wish for a peaceful solution. During the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1776, he drew up a Declaration of the Causes of Taking Up Arms as the representative from Pennsylvania. In the Pennsylvania assembly, he also drafted an authorization to send some delegates in 1776 to Congress. This draft directed them to look for redress of grievances, but also ordered them to oppose the separation of the American colonies from Great Britain.
By this time, John Dickinson’s moderate position had made him a member of the minority. In Congress, Dickinson voted in 1776 against the Declaration of Independence and. He refused to sign it. Even so, he became one of two contemporary congressional members, the other being Thomas McKean, who enrolled the military. When John Dickinson was not reelected, he resigned his commission as brigadier general and went back home to his estate in Delaware. In 1776, he was his new constituency reelected him to Congress, but he declined the position and also quit from the Pennsylvania Assembly.
John Dickinson came out of retirement in 1779 to take a seat in the Continental Congress, where he stayed till 1780. Here he was a signer of the Articles of Confederation. Before this he was the head the committee which had drafted these articles. In 1781, John Dickinson became president of the Supreme Executive Council of Delaware. After a little while, Dickinson moved back to Philadelphia. Once back, he became president of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1785. In 1786, John Dickinson represented Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, where he was a chairman.
The year after, Delaware sent John Dickinson to the Constitutional Convention. Because of his illness, he missed many of the sessions. However, he made many worthwhile contributions, such as his service as a member of the Committee on Postponed Matters. While he did not like the forcefulness of James Madison and many other nationalists, Dickinson helped create the Great Compromise and also wrote many public letters expressing support for the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his early departure from the Constitutional Convention, Dickinson was not actually able to sign the Constitution. However, he authorized his fellow-delegate and friend George Read to sign it for him.
John Dickinson lived for another two decades, but he did not hold any public offices during this time. Instead, Dickinson devoted himself to his writings on politics. In 1801, he published two volumes of his works. John Dickinson died at Wilmington on February 14, 1808 at the age of 75. He was entombed at the Friends Burial Ground. | 1,334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
November 18, 2019 report
Researchers in Japan uncover fossil of bird from Early Cretaceous
A combined team of researchers from Japan and China has announced the finding and study of the fossilized remains of a bird from the Early Cretaceous. In their paper published in the journal Communications Biology, the group describes where the fossil was found, its features and what it represents to avian evolutionary history.
The researchers report that the fossilized bird was found in a quarry just outside of Katsuyama in a central part of Japan. It has subsequently been named Fukuipteryx prima and has been dated to approximately 120 million years ago—putting it in the Early Cretaceous. The researchers note that the find represents the first fossilized remains of a bird from that period to be found outside of China. They report that the fossil was preserved in three dimensions, allowing scientists to see how its skeleton looked when it was alive—they also learned that it had brown feathers and was approximately the size of a modern pigeon.
A fossil named Archaeopteryx, found in Germany, is the oldest known remains of a bird—the raven-sized, bird-like creature existed during the late Jurassic period. Many scientists believe it represents the beginning of the divergence of dinosaurs that walked versus those that were able to fly. The earliest known birds from the Cretaceous were found in northeastern China and differ in one significant way from F. prima—they had no pygostyle, a bony triangular plate found at the back end of the backbone in modern birds. Its purpose is to serve as an anchor for tail feathers and the muscles that support them. That F. prima did have a pygostyle suggests that it was further along the evolutionary path toward what are now modern birds—at least in some respects.
The researchers note that despite having a pygostyle, F. prima did have a lot in common with Archaeopteryx, such as an unfused pelvis, a strong wishbone, forelimbs and clawed fingers. They also suggest the find indicates that bird evolution took many forms and thus did not follow a single line. They also note that the climate in which F. prima lived was much different from that of birds living in China from roughly the same time periods.
© 2019 Science X Network | <urn:uuid:5ada1aa6-c119-4e21-917a-98cc49558a60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phys.org/news/2019-11-japan-uncover-fossil-bird-early.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.98577 | 477 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.383038699626922... | 3 | November 18, 2019 report
Researchers in Japan uncover fossil of bird from Early Cretaceous
A combined team of researchers from Japan and China has announced the finding and study of the fossilized remains of a bird from the Early Cretaceous. In their paper published in the journal Communications Biology, the group describes where the fossil was found, its features and what it represents to avian evolutionary history.
The researchers report that the fossilized bird was found in a quarry just outside of Katsuyama in a central part of Japan. It has subsequently been named Fukuipteryx prima and has been dated to approximately 120 million years ago—putting it in the Early Cretaceous. The researchers note that the find represents the first fossilized remains of a bird from that period to be found outside of China. They report that the fossil was preserved in three dimensions, allowing scientists to see how its skeleton looked when it was alive—they also learned that it had brown feathers and was approximately the size of a modern pigeon.
A fossil named Archaeopteryx, found in Germany, is the oldest known remains of a bird—the raven-sized, bird-like creature existed during the late Jurassic period. Many scientists believe it represents the beginning of the divergence of dinosaurs that walked versus those that were able to fly. The earliest known birds from the Cretaceous were found in northeastern China and differ in one significant way from F. prima—they had no pygostyle, a bony triangular plate found at the back end of the backbone in modern birds. Its purpose is to serve as an anchor for tail feathers and the muscles that support them. That F. prima did have a pygostyle suggests that it was further along the evolutionary path toward what are now modern birds—at least in some respects.
The researchers note that despite having a pygostyle, F. prima did have a lot in common with Archaeopteryx, such as an unfused pelvis, a strong wishbone, forelimbs and clawed fingers. They also suggest the find indicates that bird evolution took many forms and thus did not follow a single line. They also note that the climate in which F. prima lived was much different from that of birds living in China from roughly the same time periods.
© 2019 Science X Network | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is important, because in the story Lilia, does not understand the conflict in Pakistan, much less cares about the issues, until Mr. Pirzada becomes a family friend. An example of this can be seen with the passage that says, “No one at school talked about the war followed so faithfully in my living room.” This is significant, because it shows how the lack of studying world history could cause, a disconnect, as the class would cause the students, to instinctively focus on those issue that are relevant from an American perspective. In many ways one could argue, that this is microcosm of the cultural assimilation that the entire family is going through. Evidence of this can be seen by looking no further than the passage that says, “It occurred to me that the television wasnt on at Doras house at all. Her father was lying on the couch, reading a magazine, with a glass of wine on the coffee table, and there was saxophone music playing on the stereo.” This is significant, because it illustrates how in school, the course of study is influencing the children. When they go home, the family embraces the same lifestyle as the new country. This is how the disconnect, between the home country and the new country take place, as it can change a family over time. As a result, the study of world history would help to keep things in more of an international focus.
To be ignorant to World History is doing an injustice to oneself because it affects us a whole.
The lack of learning World history has meant that Lila is having a more narrow focus, as to how she views the world around her. As the story unfolds, this is obvious as her perspectives begin to change, once she sees what is happening through the eyes of Mr. Pirzada.
An example of this can be seen with the excerpt from the text saying, “All of these facts I know only now, for they are available to me in any history book, in any library.” This is significant, because it shows how Lila could have easily been able to understand what was occurring, by doing research on her own. Instead, because of the focus on studying American history she does not. This is a tragedy, as the lack of studying World history, has made her unable to understand what was happening. Over the course of time, this will affect everyone, as these views would cause them to be less informed about history and how it applies to culture.
Clearly, the ability to understand the lessons of history will have an impact on everyone. This is because, the lack of learning and understanding the different lessons taught, will cause someone to view various issues from a more narrow focus. In the short story, When Mr. Pirzada came to Dine, this issue is highlighted through Lila and Mr. Pirzada. Where, their relationship shows this injustice that is occurring, as Lila does not understand or care about what is happening in India and Pakistan. This is despite the fact that her parents are from India. However, over the course of time, she begins to see what is happening from the views of Mr. Pizada. Once this takes place, is when Lila will have a greater understanding of the world around her. Therefore, the ideas that are presented in the story; shows how what is being taught in the classroom, will have upon the individual in the home.
“When Mr. Pizada Came to Dine.” Musings of a Bookish Kitty, 2010 . Web. 19 Jul.. | <urn:uuid:be513a20-9b8e-4a8b-8459-94f6b3435b5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://davisiaj.org/american-education-in-the-study/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00050.warc.gz | en | 0.980611 | 732 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.45007216930389404,... | 1 | This is important, because in the story Lilia, does not understand the conflict in Pakistan, much less cares about the issues, until Mr. Pirzada becomes a family friend. An example of this can be seen with the passage that says, “No one at school talked about the war followed so faithfully in my living room.” This is significant, because it shows how the lack of studying world history could cause, a disconnect, as the class would cause the students, to instinctively focus on those issue that are relevant from an American perspective. In many ways one could argue, that this is microcosm of the cultural assimilation that the entire family is going through. Evidence of this can be seen by looking no further than the passage that says, “It occurred to me that the television wasnt on at Doras house at all. Her father was lying on the couch, reading a magazine, with a glass of wine on the coffee table, and there was saxophone music playing on the stereo.” This is significant, because it illustrates how in school, the course of study is influencing the children. When they go home, the family embraces the same lifestyle as the new country. This is how the disconnect, between the home country and the new country take place, as it can change a family over time. As a result, the study of world history would help to keep things in more of an international focus.
To be ignorant to World History is doing an injustice to oneself because it affects us a whole.
The lack of learning World history has meant that Lila is having a more narrow focus, as to how she views the world around her. As the story unfolds, this is obvious as her perspectives begin to change, once she sees what is happening through the eyes of Mr. Pirzada.
An example of this can be seen with the excerpt from the text saying, “All of these facts I know only now, for they are available to me in any history book, in any library.” This is significant, because it shows how Lila could have easily been able to understand what was occurring, by doing research on her own. Instead, because of the focus on studying American history she does not. This is a tragedy, as the lack of studying World history, has made her unable to understand what was happening. Over the course of time, this will affect everyone, as these views would cause them to be less informed about history and how it applies to culture.
Clearly, the ability to understand the lessons of history will have an impact on everyone. This is because, the lack of learning and understanding the different lessons taught, will cause someone to view various issues from a more narrow focus. In the short story, When Mr. Pirzada came to Dine, this issue is highlighted through Lila and Mr. Pirzada. Where, their relationship shows this injustice that is occurring, as Lila does not understand or care about what is happening in India and Pakistan. This is despite the fact that her parents are from India. However, over the course of time, she begins to see what is happening from the views of Mr. Pizada. Once this takes place, is when Lila will have a greater understanding of the world around her. Therefore, the ideas that are presented in the story; shows how what is being taught in the classroom, will have upon the individual in the home.
“When Mr. Pizada Came to Dine.” Musings of a Bookish Kitty, 2010 . Web. 19 Jul.. | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com - Ptah was among the most revered creator gods of the Egyptian pantheon, next to Amun and Ra. He was the creator god and keeper of the craftsmen, architects and sculptors.
Ptah’s origin is widely accepted as unknown; he had no parents as he was the creator of everything from the beginning.
Ptah was an ancient god worshiped during the Early Dynastic Period and the earliest myths and legends related to him are lost and he is almost omitted in the Pyramid Texts but as the creator of agricultural fertility in Egypt, Ptah is better-known from the Coffin Texts and hymns dated to the Ramesside period (1189 BC to 1077 BC) where he is described as “Ptah, father of the gods, Tatenen, eldest of the originals… who begot himself by himself”.
Ptah was usually depicted as tightly wrapped like a mummy with green skin, symbolizing regeneration and rebirth. As a human figure, Ptah had false beard, his shaved head was covered with a blue cap crown and he was holding the Staff of Dominion combining the Ankh(life), the Djed (stability) and the Was Scepter symbolizing power.
Ptah was associated with the sacred bull Apis and as mortuary god, by being in a triad with Sokar (Seker, Sokaris), the Memphite god of the dead and with the god Osiris.
Ptah was known to have several epithets such as “Ptah master of justice”, “Ptah lord of truth”, “Ptah master of ceremonies”, “Ptah lord of eternity“ just to name a few. These epithets showed his importance both in ancient Egyptian religion and in society at the time, as well.
Ptah was both the sculptor and smith of mankind and creator of the arts and crafts
During the New Kingdom, Ptah was a state god and at that time, he was worshiped in many other places, such as Nubia, where his presence was found in several temples including those of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, el-Derr and Geri Hussein.
In the triad of Memphis, Ptah was the highest god with Sekhmet and Nefertem. He is the husband of Sekhmet and the father of Nefertum. He was also regarded as the father of the sage Imhotep.
Undoubtedly, Ptah was closely linked with the city of Memphis, which at the time of its founding was known as “Ineb-hedj” (White Walls) and later, around 3000 BC, during the unification of the country, it was called Memphis. During the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC), the great god Ptah was titled “Lord of Ankh-Tawy” and it referred to the city of Memphis.
Interestingly, there are many scholars who say that the name of Egypt itself is based on the Greek form of the Egyptian “Hut-ka-Ptah” which means “the temple of the ‘ka’ of Ptah”.
Ptah - tomb of Amenherkhepeshef, Valley of the Queen, western Thebes.
In his book "The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt" Richard H. Wilkinson says that “during the Old Kingdom the high priest of Ptah bore the title “wer-kherep-hemu”, which means “great leader of the craftsmen” and while the god’s name gives no firm clue to his origin it is perhaps based on a root of later words meaning “to sculpt” and thus related to his identity as a craftsman god…”
Ptah was both the sculptor and smith of mankind and creator of the arts and crafts... he was also clearly associated with other groups of craftsmen such as the workers of Deir-el-Medina who constructed the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Naturally enough the Greeks and Romans associated Ptah with their own smith gods Hephaistos and Vulcan…”
There are depictions of Ptah standing on a narrow plinth (a base or platform) like one of the hieroglyphs used to write the word “Maat ‘or ‘truth”. It is also believed that Ptah was depicted as a dwarf (a sacred dwarf Ptah-Partakos), as Herodotus claimed to see statues in this form in the temple of Hephaistos (Ptah) at Memphis.
On the other hand, Herodotus perhaps saw only “votive representations of dwarf workmen rather than the god Ptah himself...”
However, “the god also appears in the form of a dwarf on some of the magical ‘cippi’, which were healing tablets of the Late Period.”
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer | <urn:uuid:a61feef9-ceae-42f3-91bc-0ffd5f09165c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ancientpages.com/2018/04/17/god-ptah-lord-of-memphis-was-among-the-most-revered-creator-gods-of-ancient-egypt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.984872 | 1,078 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.10080534219741... | 1 | A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com - Ptah was among the most revered creator gods of the Egyptian pantheon, next to Amun and Ra. He was the creator god and keeper of the craftsmen, architects and sculptors.
Ptah’s origin is widely accepted as unknown; he had no parents as he was the creator of everything from the beginning.
Ptah was an ancient god worshiped during the Early Dynastic Period and the earliest myths and legends related to him are lost and he is almost omitted in the Pyramid Texts but as the creator of agricultural fertility in Egypt, Ptah is better-known from the Coffin Texts and hymns dated to the Ramesside period (1189 BC to 1077 BC) where he is described as “Ptah, father of the gods, Tatenen, eldest of the originals… who begot himself by himself”.
Ptah was usually depicted as tightly wrapped like a mummy with green skin, symbolizing regeneration and rebirth. As a human figure, Ptah had false beard, his shaved head was covered with a blue cap crown and he was holding the Staff of Dominion combining the Ankh(life), the Djed (stability) and the Was Scepter symbolizing power.
Ptah was associated with the sacred bull Apis and as mortuary god, by being in a triad with Sokar (Seker, Sokaris), the Memphite god of the dead and with the god Osiris.
Ptah was known to have several epithets such as “Ptah master of justice”, “Ptah lord of truth”, “Ptah master of ceremonies”, “Ptah lord of eternity“ just to name a few. These epithets showed his importance both in ancient Egyptian religion and in society at the time, as well.
Ptah was both the sculptor and smith of mankind and creator of the arts and crafts
During the New Kingdom, Ptah was a state god and at that time, he was worshiped in many other places, such as Nubia, where his presence was found in several temples including those of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, el-Derr and Geri Hussein.
In the triad of Memphis, Ptah was the highest god with Sekhmet and Nefertem. He is the husband of Sekhmet and the father of Nefertum. He was also regarded as the father of the sage Imhotep.
Undoubtedly, Ptah was closely linked with the city of Memphis, which at the time of its founding was known as “Ineb-hedj” (White Walls) and later, around 3000 BC, during the unification of the country, it was called Memphis. During the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC), the great god Ptah was titled “Lord of Ankh-Tawy” and it referred to the city of Memphis.
Interestingly, there are many scholars who say that the name of Egypt itself is based on the Greek form of the Egyptian “Hut-ka-Ptah” which means “the temple of the ‘ka’ of Ptah”.
Ptah - tomb of Amenherkhepeshef, Valley of the Queen, western Thebes.
In his book "The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt" Richard H. Wilkinson says that “during the Old Kingdom the high priest of Ptah bore the title “wer-kherep-hemu”, which means “great leader of the craftsmen” and while the god’s name gives no firm clue to his origin it is perhaps based on a root of later words meaning “to sculpt” and thus related to his identity as a craftsman god…”
Ptah was both the sculptor and smith of mankind and creator of the arts and crafts... he was also clearly associated with other groups of craftsmen such as the workers of Deir-el-Medina who constructed the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Naturally enough the Greeks and Romans associated Ptah with their own smith gods Hephaistos and Vulcan…”
There are depictions of Ptah standing on a narrow plinth (a base or platform) like one of the hieroglyphs used to write the word “Maat ‘or ‘truth”. It is also believed that Ptah was depicted as a dwarf (a sacred dwarf Ptah-Partakos), as Herodotus claimed to see statues in this form in the temple of Hephaistos (Ptah) at Memphis.
On the other hand, Herodotus perhaps saw only “votive representations of dwarf workmen rather than the god Ptah himself...”
However, “the god also appears in the form of a dwarf on some of the magical ‘cippi’, which were healing tablets of the Late Period.”
Written by – A. Sutherland AncientPages.com Staff Writer | 1,003 | ENGLISH | 1 |
President Abraham Lincoln was known for leading the bloodiest conflict in United States history during the Civil War. Lincoln successfully protected the slaves and the South from seceding. Lincoln’s career included the following influential positions: lawyer, senator, and eventually the President of the United States of America. The experiences of his personal life, career as a political man, and his ultimate contributions to America make him an important man in American history. On February 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in a log cabin. As a child Lincoln spends more time with his mother; Lincoln’s mother died in 1818 when he was nine. Lincoln had hard times with his father Thomas Lincoln. Lincoln moved to his older sister Sarah, instead of staying with his father Thomas (“Lincoln”). Soon Sarah died during childbirth in January 1828. Lincoln then had no choice but to move back with his father Thomas (“Abraham”). Thomas did not support Abraham’s schooling because Thomas assumed Abraham would be a farmer. Lincoln educated himself, by reading books (“Lincoln”).
Lincoln, attended school but not often, but he learned the basics of math, spelling, and grammar. After, learning Lincoln developed a passion of self-improvement and reading. In 1834 Lincoln taught himself the rules and laws by borrowing books; also he was given his license to practice law in September 9, 1836 (“Abraham”). At Lincoln’s adult age, he was nearly six feet four, strong and dexterous . | <urn:uuid:ef8f1040-7239-48b0-b6a9-792b13c14861> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Abrahan-Lincoln-and-the-American-Civil-War-FKJCDLEJ8M6A | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.989092 | 322 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.5581181645... | 1 | President Abraham Lincoln was known for leading the bloodiest conflict in United States history during the Civil War. Lincoln successfully protected the slaves and the South from seceding. Lincoln’s career included the following influential positions: lawyer, senator, and eventually the President of the United States of America. The experiences of his personal life, career as a political man, and his ultimate contributions to America make him an important man in American history. On February 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in a log cabin. As a child Lincoln spends more time with his mother; Lincoln’s mother died in 1818 when he was nine. Lincoln had hard times with his father Thomas Lincoln. Lincoln moved to his older sister Sarah, instead of staying with his father Thomas (“Lincoln”). Soon Sarah died during childbirth in January 1828. Lincoln then had no choice but to move back with his father Thomas (“Abraham”). Thomas did not support Abraham’s schooling because Thomas assumed Abraham would be a farmer. Lincoln educated himself, by reading books (“Lincoln”).
Lincoln, attended school but not often, but he learned the basics of math, spelling, and grammar. After, learning Lincoln developed a passion of self-improvement and reading. In 1834 Lincoln taught himself the rules and laws by borrowing books; also he was given his license to practice law in September 9, 1836 (“Abraham”). At Lincoln’s adult age, he was nearly six feet four, strong and dexterous . | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
War has plagued humans since the beginning of time bringing with it death and suffering. It is common to say that what happens during war is for a greater good, but this ideology is many times twisted by both sides of the conflict. The title I choose, Conduct of War, is to illustrate the irony that man has tried to create rules during war, a sort of etiquette to keep while killing each other. Towards the end of WWII the Allied Forces bombed Dresden, a German city, which resulted in huge casualties and controversy after the war pertaining to the justification for the bombing since the city served little purpose for the Nazi war machine. Kurt Vonnegut, the author of Slaughterhouse-Five, was a POW in the city and miraculously survived by hiding down in a meat locker. Although choosing the novel to be fiction it relates to his own experiences during the war. Kurt Vonnegut’s intent with the book is to show the absurdity of justifying killing civilians in war and war itself. He does this by creating a jagged timeline in the book, one that jumps around to create confusion and and instability giving the reader a glimpse of the emotion caused by war. When first giving the book to his publisher he told him that the book “is so short and jumbled and jangled, Sam, because there is nothing intelligent to say about a massacre. Everybody is supposed to be dead, to never say anything or want anything ever again” (Vonnegut 13). Vonnegut starts the book by explaining how the main character can travel through his lifetime in his mind, so the story may jump for the war to when he was a child. In the fist chapter he also tell us how the book is ends with a symbolic phrase “Poo-tee-weet” the noise a bird makes; the reason is because there is no real words or answer as to why the atrocity happened. It is also important to note the alternate title of the book The Children’s Crusade is explained that “The Crusaders were but ignorant and savage men, that their motives were those of bigotry unmitigated, and that their pathway was one of blood and wars. Mackay told us that the Children’s Crusade started in 1213, when two monks got the idea of raising armies of children in Germany and France, and selling them in North Africa as slaves” (11). The significance relates to the pointless death of the children mirroring the death of the citizens in Dresden. Vonnegut created the main character Billy to contrast greatly with what we would expect to see in a war hero, because he didn’t want him to be glorified, as said by the other soldiers “This damn college kid, who was so weak he shouldn’t even have been in the army, asked if he could come along. He didn’t even have a gun or a knife. He didn’t even have a helmet or a cap. He couldn’t even walk right-kept bobbing up-and down, up-and down, driving everybody crazy, giving their position away. He was pitiful.” (22).This illustration of a weal war hero goes against much of the pro war spirit at the time. A criticism I have of Vonnegut is he should have included outside facts about why the bombing was conterverly such as “Dresden’s contribution to the war effort was minimal compared with other German cities, refugees fleeing the Russian advance in the east took refuge there, and city defenses were minimal”(History.com) as well as opinions by the RAF Chief Leader ” I do not personally regard the whole of the remaining cities of Germany as worth the bones of one British Grenadier.”(Taylor). These reveal both sides going outside of killing military personnel to tactics of terrorizing civilians to demoralize a nation, exactly what Vonnegut is fighting against and hoping to inform people about.In the novel he goes about to reveal the effects of war on his character Billy. We can see emotional distress, disillusionment, revenge, and the emptiness of war through the character’s journey. When the timeline shifts to his post-war life we see Billy struggling “sleep would not come. Tears came instead. They seeped. Billy turned on the Magic Fingers(shakes bed), and he was jiggled as he wept.” (31). The character creates a fictitious tale of him being abducted to another planet where the aliens tell him about his ability to look at one’s past, present, and future but not be able to change it. This ideology of a destined future is seen after every death in the novel which is followed by the saying “So it goes”. This concept was a coping method for Billy to deal with all the deaths that he has seen. Revenge, normally hidden under the justification is symbolized when a different character takes revenge upon a dog that simply bit him but putting sharp iron into a steak “Blood started coming out of his mouth. He started crying, and he rolled on the ground, as though the knives were on the outside of him instead of on the inside of him. Then he tried to bite out his own insides. I laughed” (65), the cruelty of man to whip back is seen through wars in history with revenge normally being taken out on the citizens on the other side. After the bombing the character Billy is in his happiest moment riding in a coffin like wagon out of town, symbolic of death even while he is alive, “They were noticing what the Americans had not noticed-that the horses’ mouths were bleeding, gashed by the bits, that the horses’ hooves were broken, so that every step meant agony, that the horses were insane with thirst” (89). His happiest moment is turned into the the worst in his realization of the state of his horses representing the hollowness of the victory he has achieved. A key part of Billy traveling through his life was when he was in the hospital next to Rumfoord, a US Air Force historian who told his wife “Americans have finally heard about Dresden,’ said Rumfoord, twenty-three years after the raid. ‘A lot of them know now how much worse it was than Hiroshima. So I’ve got to put something about it in my book. From the official Air Force standpoint, it’ll all be new.’ ‘Why would they keep it a secret so long?’ said Lily. ‘For fear that a lot of bleeding hearts’ said Rumfoord, ‘might not think it was such a wonderful thing to do.'(87). The attempt of the generals to justify the actions is what can be dangerous to a society and makes it easier for people to let governments get involved in a war, an example seen with Vietnam. In conclusion Kurt Vonnegut through his fiction novel created for us a sense of confusion and frustration contrasting what we are expected to see war as it has often been glorified. We see the suffering not only upon the dead but the living as they go through life having to carry the burden of what they saw during war. This book is to shock us into reality and away from the glorification, as the book was published during the Vietnam war which had its own excuse for burning down citizens. While we try to create rules for engagement war itself is chaos without regard for human life. The book serves to make us see through the explanations we are given for war and question the very nature of what we are fighting for. | <urn:uuid:14fc141f-6902-46df-857c-012b72996723> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://maryelizabethbodycare.com/war-that-jumps-around-to-create-confusion-and-and/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.983515 | 1,567 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.2393206655979... | 4 | War has plagued humans since the beginning of time bringing with it death and suffering. It is common to say that what happens during war is for a greater good, but this ideology is many times twisted by both sides of the conflict. The title I choose, Conduct of War, is to illustrate the irony that man has tried to create rules during war, a sort of etiquette to keep while killing each other. Towards the end of WWII the Allied Forces bombed Dresden, a German city, which resulted in huge casualties and controversy after the war pertaining to the justification for the bombing since the city served little purpose for the Nazi war machine. Kurt Vonnegut, the author of Slaughterhouse-Five, was a POW in the city and miraculously survived by hiding down in a meat locker. Although choosing the novel to be fiction it relates to his own experiences during the war. Kurt Vonnegut’s intent with the book is to show the absurdity of justifying killing civilians in war and war itself. He does this by creating a jagged timeline in the book, one that jumps around to create confusion and and instability giving the reader a glimpse of the emotion caused by war. When first giving the book to his publisher he told him that the book “is so short and jumbled and jangled, Sam, because there is nothing intelligent to say about a massacre. Everybody is supposed to be dead, to never say anything or want anything ever again” (Vonnegut 13). Vonnegut starts the book by explaining how the main character can travel through his lifetime in his mind, so the story may jump for the war to when he was a child. In the fist chapter he also tell us how the book is ends with a symbolic phrase “Poo-tee-weet” the noise a bird makes; the reason is because there is no real words or answer as to why the atrocity happened. It is also important to note the alternate title of the book The Children’s Crusade is explained that “The Crusaders were but ignorant and savage men, that their motives were those of bigotry unmitigated, and that their pathway was one of blood and wars. Mackay told us that the Children’s Crusade started in 1213, when two monks got the idea of raising armies of children in Germany and France, and selling them in North Africa as slaves” (11). The significance relates to the pointless death of the children mirroring the death of the citizens in Dresden. Vonnegut created the main character Billy to contrast greatly with what we would expect to see in a war hero, because he didn’t want him to be glorified, as said by the other soldiers “This damn college kid, who was so weak he shouldn’t even have been in the army, asked if he could come along. He didn’t even have a gun or a knife. He didn’t even have a helmet or a cap. He couldn’t even walk right-kept bobbing up-and down, up-and down, driving everybody crazy, giving their position away. He was pitiful.” (22).This illustration of a weal war hero goes against much of the pro war spirit at the time. A criticism I have of Vonnegut is he should have included outside facts about why the bombing was conterverly such as “Dresden’s contribution to the war effort was minimal compared with other German cities, refugees fleeing the Russian advance in the east took refuge there, and city defenses were minimal”(History.com) as well as opinions by the RAF Chief Leader ” I do not personally regard the whole of the remaining cities of Germany as worth the bones of one British Grenadier.”(Taylor). These reveal both sides going outside of killing military personnel to tactics of terrorizing civilians to demoralize a nation, exactly what Vonnegut is fighting against and hoping to inform people about.In the novel he goes about to reveal the effects of war on his character Billy. We can see emotional distress, disillusionment, revenge, and the emptiness of war through the character’s journey. When the timeline shifts to his post-war life we see Billy struggling “sleep would not come. Tears came instead. They seeped. Billy turned on the Magic Fingers(shakes bed), and he was jiggled as he wept.” (31). The character creates a fictitious tale of him being abducted to another planet where the aliens tell him about his ability to look at one’s past, present, and future but not be able to change it. This ideology of a destined future is seen after every death in the novel which is followed by the saying “So it goes”. This concept was a coping method for Billy to deal with all the deaths that he has seen. Revenge, normally hidden under the justification is symbolized when a different character takes revenge upon a dog that simply bit him but putting sharp iron into a steak “Blood started coming out of his mouth. He started crying, and he rolled on the ground, as though the knives were on the outside of him instead of on the inside of him. Then he tried to bite out his own insides. I laughed” (65), the cruelty of man to whip back is seen through wars in history with revenge normally being taken out on the citizens on the other side. After the bombing the character Billy is in his happiest moment riding in a coffin like wagon out of town, symbolic of death even while he is alive, “They were noticing what the Americans had not noticed-that the horses’ mouths were bleeding, gashed by the bits, that the horses’ hooves were broken, so that every step meant agony, that the horses were insane with thirst” (89). His happiest moment is turned into the the worst in his realization of the state of his horses representing the hollowness of the victory he has achieved. A key part of Billy traveling through his life was when he was in the hospital next to Rumfoord, a US Air Force historian who told his wife “Americans have finally heard about Dresden,’ said Rumfoord, twenty-three years after the raid. ‘A lot of them know now how much worse it was than Hiroshima. So I’ve got to put something about it in my book. From the official Air Force standpoint, it’ll all be new.’ ‘Why would they keep it a secret so long?’ said Lily. ‘For fear that a lot of bleeding hearts’ said Rumfoord, ‘might not think it was such a wonderful thing to do.'(87). The attempt of the generals to justify the actions is what can be dangerous to a society and makes it easier for people to let governments get involved in a war, an example seen with Vietnam. In conclusion Kurt Vonnegut through his fiction novel created for us a sense of confusion and frustration contrasting what we are expected to see war as it has often been glorified. We see the suffering not only upon the dead but the living as they go through life having to carry the burden of what they saw during war. This book is to shock us into reality and away from the glorification, as the book was published during the Vietnam war which had its own excuse for burning down citizens. While we try to create rules for engagement war itself is chaos without regard for human life. The book serves to make us see through the explanations we are given for war and question the very nature of what we are fighting for. | 1,521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It has long been the conventional wisdom that the Irish in America trend Democratic in their voting tendencies. This was more true in the late 19th Century and in the 1880s, Republican Party election committees were hell-bent on mitigating that trend.
The large Irish population, concentrated as it was in several northeastern cities, made it relatively easy for political parties to ‘segment the market’ and target voters. New York State, with its 36 electoral college votes, was seen as the make-or-break state – a strategic objective for campaign planners.
By the campaign of 1880 senior Irish American Republicans were determined to facilitate an ‘Irish bolt’ from the Democratic party. In New York State, Republican party operatives were especially challenged in this as they had to confront the formidable power of Tammany. Dirty campaign tactics, muckraking, and bigotry contributed to the voter coercion and vote manipulation widely practiced by both parties. [Read more…] about Collections Mystery: The Emancipator Newspaper in 1888 | <urn:uuid:e9db0b71-c5c0-4850-a834-80788d4408e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkhistoryblog.org/tags/brooklyn/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.984022 | 205 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.038359... | 2 | It has long been the conventional wisdom that the Irish in America trend Democratic in their voting tendencies. This was more true in the late 19th Century and in the 1880s, Republican Party election committees were hell-bent on mitigating that trend.
The large Irish population, concentrated as it was in several northeastern cities, made it relatively easy for political parties to ‘segment the market’ and target voters. New York State, with its 36 electoral college votes, was seen as the make-or-break state – a strategic objective for campaign planners.
By the campaign of 1880 senior Irish American Republicans were determined to facilitate an ‘Irish bolt’ from the Democratic party. In New York State, Republican party operatives were especially challenged in this as they had to confront the formidable power of Tammany. Dirty campaign tactics, muckraking, and bigotry contributed to the voter coercion and vote manipulation widely practiced by both parties. [Read more…] about Collections Mystery: The Emancipator Newspaper in 1888 | 214 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first settlement on the site of Portland was built by Christopher Levett in 1623. The next year Levett returned to England, apparently to attempt to arouse interest in forming a city on the site, to be called York. He never returned, and nothing is known of the fate of the 10 men he left behind. In the ensuing years, the city was known by a succession of names and was the object of a confused flurry of land claims and counter-claims, until Massachusetts assumed control in 1652. By 1675 Falmouth, as it was then called, had achieved some prosperity, with a population of more than 400 settlers. That same year Indian wars broke out, and in 1676 the entire town was destroyed.
No permanent settlement was attempted after this until Samuel Moody was granted permission by the Massachusetts government to build a fort at Falmouth. Over the next fifty years the area grew as an important export and shipbuilding center, and by 1770 Falmouth was one of the most prosperous of the Colonial cities. At this time tensions against the British were rising and Falmouth was the scene of anti-British protests. In 1775 a British naval captain was seized by a party of Colonials and accused of spying; the captain was released on parole on condition that he return when requested. He did return a few months later, uninvited and in command of four warships. When the citizens of Falmouth refused his orders to evacuate the city or surrender their arms, the British opened fire and destroyed more than four hundred buildings. The town was not abandoned, however; during the Revolutionary War it served as an assembly ground for the military. By July 4, 1786, when the city took the name of Portland, the economy was thriving; forts and bridges were being constructed, the state's first bank and newspaper were established, and trade with the English and French was restored. Prosperity was checked by a depression from 1807 to 1809; the War of 1812 brought recovery, and Portland's industries and shipyards flourished once again. From 1820 to 1831 Portland served as the capital of Maine. Expansion continued with the development of steamboats and railroads.
Portland was actively involved in the Civil War of 1861 to 1865, contributing about a fifth of its total population to the effort. Following the war the city quickly resumed its usual activity but was jolted by what was perhaps the worst in its series of disasters when, on July 4, 1866, fire destroyed most of the city. Rebuilding began immediately and many improvements were made.
Portland continued to thrive through the twentieth century's two world wars as a center of commerce, shipping, and industry. During World War II, Portland was the base for the North Atlantic Fleet of the U.S. Navy. After World War II, the city emerged as a major oil port. Following a period of decline, with the introduction of Japanese technology, the city became known once again as a major shipbuilding center.
Portland has benefitted from the spread of the Massachusetts high-technology boom and has become a national leader in technical infrastructure. During the 1980s and 1990s, Portland enjoyed increasing tourism and developed a national reputation as a highly livable city. In 2003, Portland was ranked One of America's Dozen Distinctive Destinations by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The city has been named One of the 10 Great Adventure Towns, by National Geographic Adventure Magazine August 2004, and the #1 Top Market for Small Business Vitality by American City Business Journals, January 2005.
Historical Information: Center for Maine History, 485 Congress St., Portland, ME 04101; telephone (207)774-1822 | <urn:uuid:13e78f60-0da0-4bc6-8594-638eb9c5db28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Northeast/Portland-History.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.983857 | 753 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2331853508949... | 3 | The first settlement on the site of Portland was built by Christopher Levett in 1623. The next year Levett returned to England, apparently to attempt to arouse interest in forming a city on the site, to be called York. He never returned, and nothing is known of the fate of the 10 men he left behind. In the ensuing years, the city was known by a succession of names and was the object of a confused flurry of land claims and counter-claims, until Massachusetts assumed control in 1652. By 1675 Falmouth, as it was then called, had achieved some prosperity, with a population of more than 400 settlers. That same year Indian wars broke out, and in 1676 the entire town was destroyed.
No permanent settlement was attempted after this until Samuel Moody was granted permission by the Massachusetts government to build a fort at Falmouth. Over the next fifty years the area grew as an important export and shipbuilding center, and by 1770 Falmouth was one of the most prosperous of the Colonial cities. At this time tensions against the British were rising and Falmouth was the scene of anti-British protests. In 1775 a British naval captain was seized by a party of Colonials and accused of spying; the captain was released on parole on condition that he return when requested. He did return a few months later, uninvited and in command of four warships. When the citizens of Falmouth refused his orders to evacuate the city or surrender their arms, the British opened fire and destroyed more than four hundred buildings. The town was not abandoned, however; during the Revolutionary War it served as an assembly ground for the military. By July 4, 1786, when the city took the name of Portland, the economy was thriving; forts and bridges were being constructed, the state's first bank and newspaper were established, and trade with the English and French was restored. Prosperity was checked by a depression from 1807 to 1809; the War of 1812 brought recovery, and Portland's industries and shipyards flourished once again. From 1820 to 1831 Portland served as the capital of Maine. Expansion continued with the development of steamboats and railroads.
Portland was actively involved in the Civil War of 1861 to 1865, contributing about a fifth of its total population to the effort. Following the war the city quickly resumed its usual activity but was jolted by what was perhaps the worst in its series of disasters when, on July 4, 1866, fire destroyed most of the city. Rebuilding began immediately and many improvements were made.
Portland continued to thrive through the twentieth century's two world wars as a center of commerce, shipping, and industry. During World War II, Portland was the base for the North Atlantic Fleet of the U.S. Navy. After World War II, the city emerged as a major oil port. Following a period of decline, with the introduction of Japanese technology, the city became known once again as a major shipbuilding center.
Portland has benefitted from the spread of the Massachusetts high-technology boom and has become a national leader in technical infrastructure. During the 1980s and 1990s, Portland enjoyed increasing tourism and developed a national reputation as a highly livable city. In 2003, Portland was ranked One of America's Dozen Distinctive Destinations by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The city has been named One of the 10 Great Adventure Towns, by National Geographic Adventure Magazine August 2004, and the #1 Top Market for Small Business Vitality by American City Business Journals, January 2005.
Historical Information: Center for Maine History, 485 Congress St., Portland, ME 04101; telephone (207)774-1822 | 840 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Edison was born February 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio. He was nicknamed “Al” at an early age. At age 11, Edison moved to Michigan where he spent the remainder of his childhood.
Thomas Edison struggled in school but learned to love reading and conducting experiments from his mother who taught him at home. At age 15, Edison became a “tramp telegrapher,” sending and receiving messages via Morse code, an electronically conveyed alphabet using different clicks for each letter. Eventually, he worked for the Union Army as a telegrapher. Edison often entertained himself by taking things apart to see how they worked. Soon, he decided to become an inventor.
Improving the Telegraph
In 1870, Edison moved to New York City and improved the stock ticker. He soon formed his own company that manufactured the new stock tickers. He also began working on the telegraph and invented a version that could send four messages at once. Meanwhile, Edison married Mary Stillwell, had three children, and moved his family to Menlo Park, New Jersey, where he started his famous laboratory.
The Phonograph and Light Bulb
In 1877, Edison, with help from “muckers,” individuals from around the world looking to make fortunes in America, invented the phonograph. The phonograph was a machine that recorded and played back sounds. He perfected the phonograph by recording “Mary Had a Little Lamb” on a piece of tin foil! In 1878, Edison invented the light bulb as well as the power grid system, which could generate electricity and deliver it to homes through a network of wires. He subsequently started the Edison Electric Light Company in October of 1878.
Thomas Edison's Patent for the Electric Lamp
In 1884, after he attained great fame and fortune, Mary Stillwell died. Edison remarried 20-year-old Mina Miller in 1886. He had three more children and moved to West Orange, New Jersey. At West Orange, Edison built one of the largest laboratories in the world. He worked extremely hard and registered 1,093 patents. Edison continued to invent or improve products and make significant contributions to X-ray technology, storage batteries, and motion pictures (movies). He also invented the world’s first talking doll. His inventions changed the world forever. They still influence the way we live today. Edison worked until his death on October 18, 1931. | <urn:uuid:e640fa9b-0377-432f-93e4-7c12df444740> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/thomas-edison-biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.980348 | 505 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.01117523480... | 1 | Thomas Edison was born February 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio. He was nicknamed “Al” at an early age. At age 11, Edison moved to Michigan where he spent the remainder of his childhood.
Thomas Edison struggled in school but learned to love reading and conducting experiments from his mother who taught him at home. At age 15, Edison became a “tramp telegrapher,” sending and receiving messages via Morse code, an electronically conveyed alphabet using different clicks for each letter. Eventually, he worked for the Union Army as a telegrapher. Edison often entertained himself by taking things apart to see how they worked. Soon, he decided to become an inventor.
Improving the Telegraph
In 1870, Edison moved to New York City and improved the stock ticker. He soon formed his own company that manufactured the new stock tickers. He also began working on the telegraph and invented a version that could send four messages at once. Meanwhile, Edison married Mary Stillwell, had three children, and moved his family to Menlo Park, New Jersey, where he started his famous laboratory.
The Phonograph and Light Bulb
In 1877, Edison, with help from “muckers,” individuals from around the world looking to make fortunes in America, invented the phonograph. The phonograph was a machine that recorded and played back sounds. He perfected the phonograph by recording “Mary Had a Little Lamb” on a piece of tin foil! In 1878, Edison invented the light bulb as well as the power grid system, which could generate electricity and deliver it to homes through a network of wires. He subsequently started the Edison Electric Light Company in October of 1878.
Thomas Edison's Patent for the Electric Lamp
In 1884, after he attained great fame and fortune, Mary Stillwell died. Edison remarried 20-year-old Mina Miller in 1886. He had three more children and moved to West Orange, New Jersey. At West Orange, Edison built one of the largest laboratories in the world. He worked extremely hard and registered 1,093 patents. Edison continued to invent or improve products and make significant contributions to X-ray technology, storage batteries, and motion pictures (movies). He also invented the world’s first talking doll. His inventions changed the world forever. They still influence the way we live today. Edison worked until his death on October 18, 1931. | 519 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Such a fine, sunny day, and I have to go,” 21-year-old Sophie Scholl lamented, before she was guillotined by the Nazis. “But what does my death matter, if through us thousands of people are awakened and stirred to action?” Scholl was a member of the White Rose, a small, anonymous group of mostly university students who hoped that by distributing leaflets and graffitiing public spaces, they could awaken complacent German intellectuals.
Seven months earlier in June of 1942, Sophie was sitting in a lecture hall at the University of Munich when she noticed a slip of paper under her desk. She picked it up and began to read, “Who among us has any conception of the dimensions of shame that will befall us and our children when one day the veil has fallen from our eyes and the most horrible crimes — crimes that infinitely outdistance every human measure — reach light of day?”
The mass deportation of Jews to concentration camps was now fully underway. As a child, Sophie had been a member of the girl’s branch of the Hitler Youth, but had been troubled when her Jewish friend was prohibited from joining. As Jud Newborn and Annette Dumbach explained in their book, Sophie Scholl and the White Rose, Sophie and her siblings — still under the sway of the Hitler Youth — often clashed with their father, an avowed anti-Nazi. One evening, walking along the Danube, he had turned to his children suddenly and hissed, “All I want is for you to walk straight and free through life, even when it’s hard.” Slowly, skepticism wormed its way in. Her alienation reached fever pitch in high school as nearly everything she learned was steeped in Nazi propaganda. Then her father was arrested when his employer overheard him calling Hitler “the scourge of humanity.” But reading the pamphlet, Sophie was conflicted. She had two brothers at the front, her father was in jail awaiting sentencing, and her mother was ill. Waiting to report anti-Nazi literature was a crime. She walked out of the lecture hall with the pamphlet in hand.
Sophie went in search of her older brother Hans, who was a medical student also at the University of Munich. He wasn’t in his apartment, so she waited for him there. She found a book by the German poet, Friedrich Schiller on his desk and began reading. One page in particular was covered in marks. The exact words she had read in the pamphlet were underlined. Sophie was terrified. Her brother must have had something to do with the pamphlet. When he returned, Sophie confronted him. He demurred. Two of his friends arrived, and eventually they told her the truth. Her brother and four others were a part of an anonymous resistance campaign. Sophie decided to join them.
For the next month, the group worked on their campaign. They bought stamps and paper from different post offices to avoid arousing suspicion. They collected quotes and copied them with a mimeograph. The second pamphlet read, “Since the conquest of Poland 300,000 Jews have been murdered, a crime against human dignity.” The third called for the sabotage of armament plants, newspapers, and public ceremonies, and the awakening of the “lower classes.” Rumors buzzed about the pamphlets. As the language of the pamphlets became increasingly explicit, the gestapo ramped up their efforts to find the perpetrators, arresting anyone at the slightest suspicion of collaboration.
In July, four members of the White Rose including Hans were ordered to spend their summer break working as medics at the Russian front. On their way, they passed the Warsaw ghetto and were horrified. Once in Russia, they understood that Germany was losing to the Soviets despite the fact that the Nazis claimed otherwise. When they returned home in November, they were emboldened, and the White Rose increased the number of pamphlets they were publishing. The group traveled by train to distribute the leaflets all over Germany. They wanted to create the impression that the White Rose was a vast network, that the public was behind them. When the Germans admitted their loss to the Soviets in February of 1943, some White Rose members went out at night and graffitied the words “Freedom,” “Down with Hitler” and “Hitler mass murder” on the city hall and other public places. They believed Nazi Germany might be crumbling, they just needed the people to realize it.
OnFebruary 18, Sophie and Hans brought suitcases full of the sixth pamphlet to the University of Munich and left them in classrooms and hallways, and on windowsills. They — some accounts say just Sophie — went to a balcony that overlooked one of the university’s main courtyards. As hoards of students streamed out of class, the pamphlets fluttered down from the sky above them.
Sophie and Brother Hans
The sixth pamphlet was the last. A janitor had seen Sophie and her brother, reported them, and shortly thereafter they were arrested. Sophie was interrogated for seventeen hours. Four days later, when she finally emerged at the “People’s Court” in the Munich Palace of Justice, she had a broken leg. As Kathryn Atwood described in Women Heroes of World War II, the courtroom was a bevvy of Hitler supporters. The judge launched into a tirade about how the members of the White Rose were weakening Germany. The defendants were not given an opportunity to speak. And then, suddenly, a voice called out. It was Sophie. “Somebody had to make a start!” she yelled. “What we said and wrote are what many people are thinking. They just don’t dare say it out loud!”
After she interrupted the judge several more times, Sophie, her brother, and another member of the White Rose were sentenced to death. On the back of her indictment, Sophie scrawled the word “Freedom.” Within hours, the trio were lead to the guillotine. From the executioner’s block, her brother shouted, “Long live freedom!” (In total, roughly 5,000 dissenters would be similarly executed.)
After the execution, a pro-Nazi rally was held at their university, and the janitor who had reported them was given a standing ovation.
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Bon Jovi Opened 2 Restaurants That Allow People In Need To Eat Free Of Charge | <urn:uuid:468ded39-3bb9-43e0-b3bb-cbf9bd4be95b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educateinspirechange.org/alternative-news/young-activist-beheaded-nazis-age-21-fighting-white-supremacy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.980781 | 1,509 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.41535532474517... | 1 | “Such a fine, sunny day, and I have to go,” 21-year-old Sophie Scholl lamented, before she was guillotined by the Nazis. “But what does my death matter, if through us thousands of people are awakened and stirred to action?” Scholl was a member of the White Rose, a small, anonymous group of mostly university students who hoped that by distributing leaflets and graffitiing public spaces, they could awaken complacent German intellectuals.
Seven months earlier in June of 1942, Sophie was sitting in a lecture hall at the University of Munich when she noticed a slip of paper under her desk. She picked it up and began to read, “Who among us has any conception of the dimensions of shame that will befall us and our children when one day the veil has fallen from our eyes and the most horrible crimes — crimes that infinitely outdistance every human measure — reach light of day?”
The mass deportation of Jews to concentration camps was now fully underway. As a child, Sophie had been a member of the girl’s branch of the Hitler Youth, but had been troubled when her Jewish friend was prohibited from joining. As Jud Newborn and Annette Dumbach explained in their book, Sophie Scholl and the White Rose, Sophie and her siblings — still under the sway of the Hitler Youth — often clashed with their father, an avowed anti-Nazi. One evening, walking along the Danube, he had turned to his children suddenly and hissed, “All I want is for you to walk straight and free through life, even when it’s hard.” Slowly, skepticism wormed its way in. Her alienation reached fever pitch in high school as nearly everything she learned was steeped in Nazi propaganda. Then her father was arrested when his employer overheard him calling Hitler “the scourge of humanity.” But reading the pamphlet, Sophie was conflicted. She had two brothers at the front, her father was in jail awaiting sentencing, and her mother was ill. Waiting to report anti-Nazi literature was a crime. She walked out of the lecture hall with the pamphlet in hand.
Sophie went in search of her older brother Hans, who was a medical student also at the University of Munich. He wasn’t in his apartment, so she waited for him there. She found a book by the German poet, Friedrich Schiller on his desk and began reading. One page in particular was covered in marks. The exact words she had read in the pamphlet were underlined. Sophie was terrified. Her brother must have had something to do with the pamphlet. When he returned, Sophie confronted him. He demurred. Two of his friends arrived, and eventually they told her the truth. Her brother and four others were a part of an anonymous resistance campaign. Sophie decided to join them.
For the next month, the group worked on their campaign. They bought stamps and paper from different post offices to avoid arousing suspicion. They collected quotes and copied them with a mimeograph. The second pamphlet read, “Since the conquest of Poland 300,000 Jews have been murdered, a crime against human dignity.” The third called for the sabotage of armament plants, newspapers, and public ceremonies, and the awakening of the “lower classes.” Rumors buzzed about the pamphlets. As the language of the pamphlets became increasingly explicit, the gestapo ramped up their efforts to find the perpetrators, arresting anyone at the slightest suspicion of collaboration.
In July, four members of the White Rose including Hans were ordered to spend their summer break working as medics at the Russian front. On their way, they passed the Warsaw ghetto and were horrified. Once in Russia, they understood that Germany was losing to the Soviets despite the fact that the Nazis claimed otherwise. When they returned home in November, they were emboldened, and the White Rose increased the number of pamphlets they were publishing. The group traveled by train to distribute the leaflets all over Germany. They wanted to create the impression that the White Rose was a vast network, that the public was behind them. When the Germans admitted their loss to the Soviets in February of 1943, some White Rose members went out at night and graffitied the words “Freedom,” “Down with Hitler” and “Hitler mass murder” on the city hall and other public places. They believed Nazi Germany might be crumbling, they just needed the people to realize it.
OnFebruary 18, Sophie and Hans brought suitcases full of the sixth pamphlet to the University of Munich and left them in classrooms and hallways, and on windowsills. They — some accounts say just Sophie — went to a balcony that overlooked one of the university’s main courtyards. As hoards of students streamed out of class, the pamphlets fluttered down from the sky above them.
Sophie and Brother Hans
The sixth pamphlet was the last. A janitor had seen Sophie and her brother, reported them, and shortly thereafter they were arrested. Sophie was interrogated for seventeen hours. Four days later, when she finally emerged at the “People’s Court” in the Munich Palace of Justice, she had a broken leg. As Kathryn Atwood described in Women Heroes of World War II, the courtroom was a bevvy of Hitler supporters. The judge launched into a tirade about how the members of the White Rose were weakening Germany. The defendants were not given an opportunity to speak. And then, suddenly, a voice called out. It was Sophie. “Somebody had to make a start!” she yelled. “What we said and wrote are what many people are thinking. They just don’t dare say it out loud!”
After she interrupted the judge several more times, Sophie, her brother, and another member of the White Rose were sentenced to death. On the back of her indictment, Sophie scrawled the word “Freedom.” Within hours, the trio were lead to the guillotine. From the executioner’s block, her brother shouted, “Long live freedom!” (In total, roughly 5,000 dissenters would be similarly executed.)
After the execution, a pro-Nazi rally was held at their university, and the janitor who had reported them was given a standing ovation.
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Johann Sebastian Bach music quote
Next music quote:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“A man should hear a…
About Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [O.S. 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. He is known for instrumental compositions such as the Brandenburg Concertos and the Goldberg Variations, and for vocal music such as the St Matthew Passion and the Mass in B minor. Since the 19th-century Bach Revival he is generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time.
The Bach family already counted several composers when Johann Sebastian was born as the last child of a city musician in Eisenach. After being orphaned at age 10, he lived for five years with his eldest brother Johann Christoph, after which he continued his musical formation in Lüneburg. From 1703 he was back in Thuringia, working as a musician for Protestant churches in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen and, for longer stretches of time, at courts in Weimar, where he expanded his organ repertory, and Köthen, where he was mostly engaged with chamber music. From 1723 he was employed as Thomaskantor (cantor at St. Thomas) in Leipzig. He composed music for the principal Lutheran churches of the city, and for its university's student ensemble Collegium Musicum. From 1726 he published some of his keyboard and organ music. In Leipzig, as had happened during some of his earlier positions, he had difficult relations with his employer, a situation that was little remedied when he was granted the title of court composer by his sovereign, Augustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, in 1736. In the last decades of his life he reworked and extended many of his earlier compositions. He died of complications after eye surgery in 1750 at the age of 65.
Bach enriched established German styles through his mastery of counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and his adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Bach's compositions include hundreds of cantatas, both sacred and secular. He composed Latin church music, Passions, oratorios, and motets. He often adopted Lutheran hymns, not only in his larger vocal works, but for instance also in his four-part chorales and his sacred songs. He wrote extensively for organ and for other keyboard instruments. He composed concertos, for instance for violin and for harpsichord, and suites, as chamber music as well as for orchestra. Many of his works employ the genres of canon and fugue.
Throughout the 18th century Bach was primarily valued as organist, while his keyboard music, such as The Well-Tempered Clavier, was appreciated for its didactic qualities. The 19th century saw the publication of some major Bach biographies, and by the end of that century all of his known music had been printed. Dissemination of scholarship on the composer continued through periodicals (and later also websites) exclusively devoted to him, and other publications such as the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV, a numbered catalogue of his works) and new critical editions of his compositions. His music was further popularised through a multitude of arrangements, including, for instance, the Air on the G String, and of recordings, such as three different box sets with complete performances of the composer's oeuvre marking the 250th anniversary of his death.
Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons | <urn:uuid:8337ac4f-f600-410d-9c51-33ef7e1af1a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://starsandcatz.com/music-quote-images/johann-sebastian-bach-music-quote/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.988266 | 751 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.21730... | 1 | Johann Sebastian Bach music quote
Next music quote:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“A man should hear a…
About Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March [O.S. 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. He is known for instrumental compositions such as the Brandenburg Concertos and the Goldberg Variations, and for vocal music such as the St Matthew Passion and the Mass in B minor. Since the 19th-century Bach Revival he is generally regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time.
The Bach family already counted several composers when Johann Sebastian was born as the last child of a city musician in Eisenach. After being orphaned at age 10, he lived for five years with his eldest brother Johann Christoph, after which he continued his musical formation in Lüneburg. From 1703 he was back in Thuringia, working as a musician for Protestant churches in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen and, for longer stretches of time, at courts in Weimar, where he expanded his organ repertory, and Köthen, where he was mostly engaged with chamber music. From 1723 he was employed as Thomaskantor (cantor at St. Thomas) in Leipzig. He composed music for the principal Lutheran churches of the city, and for its university's student ensemble Collegium Musicum. From 1726 he published some of his keyboard and organ music. In Leipzig, as had happened during some of his earlier positions, he had difficult relations with his employer, a situation that was little remedied when he was granted the title of court composer by his sovereign, Augustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, in 1736. In the last decades of his life he reworked and extended many of his earlier compositions. He died of complications after eye surgery in 1750 at the age of 65.
Bach enriched established German styles through his mastery of counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and his adaptation of rhythms, forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Bach's compositions include hundreds of cantatas, both sacred and secular. He composed Latin church music, Passions, oratorios, and motets. He often adopted Lutheran hymns, not only in his larger vocal works, but for instance also in his four-part chorales and his sacred songs. He wrote extensively for organ and for other keyboard instruments. He composed concertos, for instance for violin and for harpsichord, and suites, as chamber music as well as for orchestra. Many of his works employ the genres of canon and fugue.
Throughout the 18th century Bach was primarily valued as organist, while his keyboard music, such as The Well-Tempered Clavier, was appreciated for its didactic qualities. The 19th century saw the publication of some major Bach biographies, and by the end of that century all of his known music had been printed. Dissemination of scholarship on the composer continued through periodicals (and later also websites) exclusively devoted to him, and other publications such as the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV, a numbered catalogue of his works) and new critical editions of his compositions. His music was further popularised through a multitude of arrangements, including, for instance, the Air on the G String, and of recordings, such as three different box sets with complete performances of the composer's oeuvre marking the 250th anniversary of his death.
Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons | 763 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander III of Macedonia, better known as Alexander the Great, is perhaps the greatest war leader the world has ever seen. Read a short biography of him here.
He first came to the war-front at the mere age of seventeen, leading a part of his father's cavalry. Alexander the Great, the most renowned king even two milleniums after his lifetime, began his journey there. He became the king at the age of 20 and soon the world added the word 'Great' with his name.
Alexander was born to the King Philip II of Macedonia in 356 BC. He was very brave and fearless from his childhood itself. He became the student of great philosopher Aristotle at 14 and was brilliant in politics and war techiques. He was included by his father in the discussions with the rulers of other kingdoms frequently.
It didn't take long for Alexander to be an assistant to his father in ruling and the leader of his military.
Alexander commenced his renowned world conquest at the age of 26, with an army of 30,000. He first led his troups to Persia, defeating their kingdom and possessing all of the Asia Minor region. Later he moved to Phoenicia. After a battle of 7 months, he conquered the city of Tier, which is considered to be his greatest military achievement. After the capture of Gaza, he moved to Egypt. He didn't have to face any resistance there, as the Egyptians were happy to receive him.
There was an island named Pharos to the west of Nile delta. Alexander bulit a town there, which was later known as Alexandria, the world famous city.
Alexander was soon attacked by the Persian forces. The battle was known as War of Arbela, from which Alexander emerged victorious. Later he went on to conquer Babylon and other Persian cities.
Continuing his conquest, he reached Afghanistan soon, having defeated the all the kingdoms west to Caspian Sea. He built many towns during the journey and married the daughter of a landlord he met.
Alexander expanded his forces including the Persian soldiers and reached India in 324 BC. He faced the largest challenge so far there, from the King of Punjab, Pores. Although he won the battle, Alexander was impressed with Pores and he returned all the captured places to him.
But his forces saw frequent internal revolts which made future conquests impossible. Alexander decided to return to his homeland, having had conquered a great part of Europe and Asia. He had also built 32 cities in his name by then.
However, during his return, he was bedlaid due to Malaria at Babylon. Not long after, the great conquerer said goodbye to the world, in 323 BC. Even after two thousand years, no campaigner comparable to him hasn't been born yet.
The article speaks about the love for the country of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. The country has forgotten him.
Did you know that the Ilocandia region has its own Filipino hero who fought bravely against the Japanese forces who invaded the Philippines in the 2nd World War? .
Do you know the first Filipino Fighter Pilot who was made a hero after he was killed during a dog fight with the Japanese planes who raided and invaded the Philippines during World War II at a very young age of 26? . | <urn:uuid:61da7f4b-e0f5-43ea-8467-73726899d142> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/alexander-great-singular-war-hero | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.992911 | 670 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.08379657566547... | 1 | Alexander III of Macedonia, better known as Alexander the Great, is perhaps the greatest war leader the world has ever seen. Read a short biography of him here.
He first came to the war-front at the mere age of seventeen, leading a part of his father's cavalry. Alexander the Great, the most renowned king even two milleniums after his lifetime, began his journey there. He became the king at the age of 20 and soon the world added the word 'Great' with his name.
Alexander was born to the King Philip II of Macedonia in 356 BC. He was very brave and fearless from his childhood itself. He became the student of great philosopher Aristotle at 14 and was brilliant in politics and war techiques. He was included by his father in the discussions with the rulers of other kingdoms frequently.
It didn't take long for Alexander to be an assistant to his father in ruling and the leader of his military.
Alexander commenced his renowned world conquest at the age of 26, with an army of 30,000. He first led his troups to Persia, defeating their kingdom and possessing all of the Asia Minor region. Later he moved to Phoenicia. After a battle of 7 months, he conquered the city of Tier, which is considered to be his greatest military achievement. After the capture of Gaza, he moved to Egypt. He didn't have to face any resistance there, as the Egyptians were happy to receive him.
There was an island named Pharos to the west of Nile delta. Alexander bulit a town there, which was later known as Alexandria, the world famous city.
Alexander was soon attacked by the Persian forces. The battle was known as War of Arbela, from which Alexander emerged victorious. Later he went on to conquer Babylon and other Persian cities.
Continuing his conquest, he reached Afghanistan soon, having defeated the all the kingdoms west to Caspian Sea. He built many towns during the journey and married the daughter of a landlord he met.
Alexander expanded his forces including the Persian soldiers and reached India in 324 BC. He faced the largest challenge so far there, from the King of Punjab, Pores. Although he won the battle, Alexander was impressed with Pores and he returned all the captured places to him.
But his forces saw frequent internal revolts which made future conquests impossible. Alexander decided to return to his homeland, having had conquered a great part of Europe and Asia. He had also built 32 cities in his name by then.
However, during his return, he was bedlaid due to Malaria at Babylon. Not long after, the great conquerer said goodbye to the world, in 323 BC. Even after two thousand years, no campaigner comparable to him hasn't been born yet.
The article speaks about the love for the country of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. The country has forgotten him.
Did you know that the Ilocandia region has its own Filipino hero who fought bravely against the Japanese forces who invaded the Philippines in the 2nd World War? .
Do you know the first Filipino Fighter Pilot who was made a hero after he was killed during a dog fight with the Japanese planes who raided and invaded the Philippines during World War II at a very young age of 26? . | 684 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pablo Picasso is probably the most important figure of 20th century, in terms of art, and art movements that occurred over this period. Before the age of 50, the Spanish born artist had become the most well known
name in modern art, with the most distinct style and eye for artistic creation. There had been no other artists, prior to Picasso, who had such an impact on the art world, or had a mass following of fans and critics alike, as he did.
Pablo Picasso was born in Spain in 1881, and was raised there before going on to spend most of his adult life working as an artist in France. Throughout the long course of his career, he created more than 20,000 paintings, drawings, sculptures, ceramics and other items such as costumes and theater sets. He is universally renowned as one of the most influential and celebrated artists of the twentieth century.
Picasso's ability to produce works in an astonishing range of styles made him well respected during his own lifetime. After his death in 1973 his value as an artist and inspiration to other artists has only grown. He is without a doubt destined to permanently etch himself into the fabric of humanity as one of the greatest artists of all time.
As an artist and an innovator, he is responsible for co-founding the entire Cubist movement alongside Georges Braque. Cubism was an avant-garde art movement that changed forever the face of European painting and sculpture while simultaneously affecting contemporary architecture, music and literature. Subjects and objects in Cubism are broken up into pieces and re-arranged in an abstract form. During the period from approximately 1910-1920 when Picasso and Braque were laying the foundation for Cubism in France, it's effects were so far-reaching as to inspire offshoots like the styles of Futurism, Dada, and Constructivism in other countries.
Picasso is also credited with inventing constructed sculpture and co-inventing the collage art style. He is also regarded as one of three artists in the twentieth century credited with defining the elements of plastic arts. This revolutionary art form led society toward societal advances in painting, sculpture, printmaking and ceramics by physically manipulating materials that had not previously been carved or shaped. These materials were not just plastic, they were things that could be moulded in some way, usually into three dimensions. Artists used clay, plaster, precious metals, and wood to create revolutionary sculptural art work the world had never seen before.
Art is a lie that makes us realize the truth." - Pablo Picasso
Picasso was born in Malaga, Spain, to Don Jose Ruiz y Blasco and Maria Picasso y Lopez. His baptized name is much longer than the Pablo Picasso, and in traditional Andalusian custom honored several saints and
relatives. His father was a painter and a professor of art, and was impressed by his son's drawing from an early age. His mother stated at one time that his first words were to ask for a pencil. At the age of
seven Picasso begin receiving formal training from his father. Because of his traditional academic training, Ruiz believed training consisted of copying of masterworks and drawing the human form from live
figure-models and plaster casts.
In 1891 at ten years old, the family moved to A Coruna where School of Fine Arts hired Ruiz to be a professor. They spent four years there where Ruiz felt his son surpassed him as an artist at the age of 13 and reportedly vowed to give up painting. Though paintings by Ruiz still seem to have been generated years later, Picasso's father certainly felt humbled by his son's natural skill and technique.
Picasso and his family were horrified when his seven year old sister died of diphtheria in 1895. They relocated to Barcelona and Ruiz began working at its School of Fine Arts. He persuaded officials there to let his son take an entrance exam for an advanced class and Picasso was admitted at the age of just 13. At the age of 16 he was sent to Spain's foremost art school in Madrid, the Royal Academy of San Fernando. Picasso disliked the formal instructions and decided to stop attending his classes soon after he arrived. He filled his days inside Madrid's Prado, which displayed paintings such as Francisco Goya and El Greco.
The body of work Picasso created throughout his lifetime is enormous and spans from his early childhood years until his death, creating a more comprehensive record of his development than perhaps any other artist. When examining the records of his early work there is said to be a shift where the child-like quality of his drawings vanished, therefore being the official beginning of his career. That date is said to be 1894, when Picasso was just 13. At the age of 14 he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a striking depiction that has been referred to as one of the best portraits in Spanish history. And at age 16, Picasso created his award-winning Science and Charity.
His technique for realism, so ingrained by his father and his childhood studies, evolved with his introduction to symbolist influences. It led Picasso to develop his own take on modernism, and then to make his first trip to Paris, France. The poet Max Jacob, a Parisian friend, taught Picasso French. They shared an apartment where they experienced the true meaning of what it meant to be a "starving artist." They were cold and in poverty, burning their own work to keep the apartment warm.
Picasso would predominately spend his working adult life in France. His work has been divided roughly by periods of time in which he would fully develop complex themes and feelings to create a unifying body of work.
Every act of creation is first of all an act of destruction." - Pablo Picasso
The somber period within which Picasso both personally experienced poverty and its effect on society right around him is characterized by paintings essentially monochromatic paintings in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. Picasso's works during this period depict malnutrition, prostitution, and the posthumous portraits of friend Carlos Casagemas after his suicide, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie. La Vie (1903) portrayed his friend's inner torment in the face of a lover he tried to murder.
Fitting to the name, once Picasso seemed to find some small measure of success and overcame some of his depression, he had a more cheery period featuring orange and pink hues and the playful
worlds of circus people and harlequins. Picasso met a bohemian artist named Fernande Olivier who became his lover. She subsequently appeared in many of these more optimistic paintings.
American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein became great fans of Picasso. They not only became his chief patrons, Gertrude was also pictured in his Portrait of Gertrude Stein, one of his most famous portraits.
For Picasso, the seminal moment was the Paul Cezanne retrospective held at the Salon d'Automne, one year after the artist's death in 1906. Though he previously had
been familiar with Cezanne, it was not until the retrospective that Picasso experienced the full impact of his artistic achievement. In Cezanne's works, Picasso found a model of how to distill the essential
from nature in order to achieve a cohesive surface that expressed the artist's singular vision. In about the same time, the aesthetics of traditional African sculpture became a powerful influence among European
artists. In France, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and their School of Paris friends start blending the highly stylized treatment of the human figure in African sculptures
with painting styles derived from the post-Impressionist works of Cezanne and Gauguin.
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was Picasso's first masterpiece. The painting depicts five naked women with figures composed of flat, splintered planes and faces inspired by Iberian sculpture and African masks. The compressed space the figures inhabit appears to project forward in jagged shards; a fiercely pointed slice of melon in the still life of fruit at the bottom of the composition teeters on an impossibly upturned tabletop. In this painting, Picasso makes a radical departure from traditional European painting by adaptation of Primitivism and abandonment of perspective in favor of a flat, two-dimensional picture plane.
When Les Demoiselles d'Avignon first appeared, it was as if the art world had collapsed. Known form and representation were completely abandoned. Hence it was called the most innovative painting in modern art history. With the new strategies applied in the painting, Picasso suddenly found freedom of expression away from current and classical French influences and was able to carve his own path. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.
Others have seen what is and asked why. I have seen what could be and asked why not."
- Pablo Picasso
It was a confluence of influences - from Paul Cézanne and Henri Rousseau, to archaic and tribal art - that encouraged Picasso to lend his figures more weight and structure around 1907. And they ultimately set him on the path towards Cubism, in which he deconstructed the conventions of perspective that had dominated Renaissance art. During this period, the style Georges Braque and Picasso developed used mainly neutral colors and was based in they're "taking apart" objects and "analyzing them" in terms of their shapes.Cubism, especially the second form, known as Synthetic Cubism, played a great role in the development of western art world. Works of this phase emphasize the combination, or synthesis, of forms in the picture. Colour is extremely important in the objects' shapes because they become larger and more decorative. Non-painted objects such as newspapers or tobacco wrappers, are frequently pasted on the canvas in combination with painted areas - the incorporation of a wide variety of extraneous materials is particularly associated with Picasso's novel technique of collage. This collage technique emphasizes the differences in texture and poses the question of what is reality and what is illusion in painting. With his use of color, shape and geometrical figures, and his unique approach to depict images, Picasso changed the direction of art for generations to come.
With an unsurpassed mastery of technique and skill, Picasso made his first trip to Italy in 1917 and promptly began a period of tribute to neoclassical style. Breaking from the extreme modernism he drew and painted work reminiscent of Raphael and Ingres. This was just a prelude before Picasso seemingly effortlessly began to combine his modernist concepts with his skill into surrealist masterpieces like Guernica, (1937), a frenzied and masterful combination of style that embodies the despair of war. Guernica is considered as the most powerful anti-war statement of modern art. It was done to showcase Picasso's support towards ending war, and a condemnation on fascism in general. From the beginning, Picasso chooses not to represent the horror of Guernica in realist or romantic terms. Key figures - a woman with outstretched arms, a bull, an agonized horse - are refined in sketch after sketch, then transferred to the capacious canvas, which he also reworks several times. Dark color and monochrome theme were used to depict the trying times, and the anguish which was being suffered. Guernica challenges the notions of warfare as heroic and exposes it as a brutal act of self-destruction. The works was not only a practical report or painting but also stays as a highly powerful political picture in modern art, rivaled by a few fresco paintings by Mexican artist Diego Rivera.
Picasso's final works were a mixed between the many styles he'd embraced throughout his life. He dared to make sculptures larger and his paintings more expressive and colorful. Towards the end of his career, Picasso enjoyed examining Classical works that had influenced his development over the years, and produced several series of variations of paintings of Old Master, including Rembrandt, Diego Velazquez, and Edouard Manet, the founder of modern traditions. Some of the most notable works he did, include Massacre in Korea after Goya, Las Meninas after Velazquez, and Luncheon on the Grass after Manet. Many of these pieces are still influential in the art world today; and, in fact, due to the vision and distinct creative style, are still among some of the most innovative pieces which have been introduced to the art world, even during recent years. A multitude of paintings Picasso painted during his final years are now widely accepted as the beginning of the Neo-Expressionism movement.
I do not seek. I find." - Pablo Picasso
When Picasso died at age 91 in April 1973, he had become one of the most famous and successful artist throughout history. Leonardo da Vinci of the 20th Century, Picasso's true greatness and significance lie in his dual role as revolutionary and traditionalist at once. Uniquely in the 20th century he was capable of radical innovation on the one hand but on the other of continuing traditional lines. Thus in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon he vanquished the representational picture, while in Guernica he revive the genre of historial painting in a new form. He is also undeniably the most prolific genius in the history of art. His career spanned over a 78 year period, in which he created: 13,500 paintings, 100,000 prints and engravings, and 34,000 illustrations. Picasso was, and still is, seen as a magician by writers and critics, a metaphor that captures both the sense of an artist who is able to transform everything around him at a touch and a man who can also transform himself, elude us, fascinate and mesmerise us.
Just like William Shakespeare on literature, and Sigmund Freud on psychology, Picasso's impact on art is tremendous. No one has achieved the same degree of widespread fame or displayed such incredible versatility as Pablo Picasso has in the art history. Picasso's free spirit, his eccentric style, and his complete disregard for what others thought of his work and creative style, made him a catalyst for artists to follow. Now known as the father of modern art, Picasso's originality touched every major artist and art movement that followed in his wake. Even as of today, his life and works continue to invite countless scholarly interpretation and attract thousands of followers around the world. | <urn:uuid:e25d8b6a-09c4-416b-9fa9-815d5ab8c167> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pablopicasso.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.982104 | 3,002 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.5768744945526123... | 2 | Pablo Picasso is probably the most important figure of 20th century, in terms of art, and art movements that occurred over this period. Before the age of 50, the Spanish born artist had become the most well known
name in modern art, with the most distinct style and eye for artistic creation. There had been no other artists, prior to Picasso, who had such an impact on the art world, or had a mass following of fans and critics alike, as he did.
Pablo Picasso was born in Spain in 1881, and was raised there before going on to spend most of his adult life working as an artist in France. Throughout the long course of his career, he created more than 20,000 paintings, drawings, sculptures, ceramics and other items such as costumes and theater sets. He is universally renowned as one of the most influential and celebrated artists of the twentieth century.
Picasso's ability to produce works in an astonishing range of styles made him well respected during his own lifetime. After his death in 1973 his value as an artist and inspiration to other artists has only grown. He is without a doubt destined to permanently etch himself into the fabric of humanity as one of the greatest artists of all time.
As an artist and an innovator, he is responsible for co-founding the entire Cubist movement alongside Georges Braque. Cubism was an avant-garde art movement that changed forever the face of European painting and sculpture while simultaneously affecting contemporary architecture, music and literature. Subjects and objects in Cubism are broken up into pieces and re-arranged in an abstract form. During the period from approximately 1910-1920 when Picasso and Braque were laying the foundation for Cubism in France, it's effects were so far-reaching as to inspire offshoots like the styles of Futurism, Dada, and Constructivism in other countries.
Picasso is also credited with inventing constructed sculpture and co-inventing the collage art style. He is also regarded as one of three artists in the twentieth century credited with defining the elements of plastic arts. This revolutionary art form led society toward societal advances in painting, sculpture, printmaking and ceramics by physically manipulating materials that had not previously been carved or shaped. These materials were not just plastic, they were things that could be moulded in some way, usually into three dimensions. Artists used clay, plaster, precious metals, and wood to create revolutionary sculptural art work the world had never seen before.
Art is a lie that makes us realize the truth." - Pablo Picasso
Picasso was born in Malaga, Spain, to Don Jose Ruiz y Blasco and Maria Picasso y Lopez. His baptized name is much longer than the Pablo Picasso, and in traditional Andalusian custom honored several saints and
relatives. His father was a painter and a professor of art, and was impressed by his son's drawing from an early age. His mother stated at one time that his first words were to ask for a pencil. At the age of
seven Picasso begin receiving formal training from his father. Because of his traditional academic training, Ruiz believed training consisted of copying of masterworks and drawing the human form from live
figure-models and plaster casts.
In 1891 at ten years old, the family moved to A Coruna where School of Fine Arts hired Ruiz to be a professor. They spent four years there where Ruiz felt his son surpassed him as an artist at the age of 13 and reportedly vowed to give up painting. Though paintings by Ruiz still seem to have been generated years later, Picasso's father certainly felt humbled by his son's natural skill and technique.
Picasso and his family were horrified when his seven year old sister died of diphtheria in 1895. They relocated to Barcelona and Ruiz began working at its School of Fine Arts. He persuaded officials there to let his son take an entrance exam for an advanced class and Picasso was admitted at the age of just 13. At the age of 16 he was sent to Spain's foremost art school in Madrid, the Royal Academy of San Fernando. Picasso disliked the formal instructions and decided to stop attending his classes soon after he arrived. He filled his days inside Madrid's Prado, which displayed paintings such as Francisco Goya and El Greco.
The body of work Picasso created throughout his lifetime is enormous and spans from his early childhood years until his death, creating a more comprehensive record of his development than perhaps any other artist. When examining the records of his early work there is said to be a shift where the child-like quality of his drawings vanished, therefore being the official beginning of his career. That date is said to be 1894, when Picasso was just 13. At the age of 14 he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a striking depiction that has been referred to as one of the best portraits in Spanish history. And at age 16, Picasso created his award-winning Science and Charity.
His technique for realism, so ingrained by his father and his childhood studies, evolved with his introduction to symbolist influences. It led Picasso to develop his own take on modernism, and then to make his first trip to Paris, France. The poet Max Jacob, a Parisian friend, taught Picasso French. They shared an apartment where they experienced the true meaning of what it meant to be a "starving artist." They were cold and in poverty, burning their own work to keep the apartment warm.
Picasso would predominately spend his working adult life in France. His work has been divided roughly by periods of time in which he would fully develop complex themes and feelings to create a unifying body of work.
Every act of creation is first of all an act of destruction." - Pablo Picasso
The somber period within which Picasso both personally experienced poverty and its effect on society right around him is characterized by paintings essentially monochromatic paintings in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. Picasso's works during this period depict malnutrition, prostitution, and the posthumous portraits of friend Carlos Casagemas after his suicide, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie. La Vie (1903) portrayed his friend's inner torment in the face of a lover he tried to murder.
Fitting to the name, once Picasso seemed to find some small measure of success and overcame some of his depression, he had a more cheery period featuring orange and pink hues and the playful
worlds of circus people and harlequins. Picasso met a bohemian artist named Fernande Olivier who became his lover. She subsequently appeared in many of these more optimistic paintings.
American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein became great fans of Picasso. They not only became his chief patrons, Gertrude was also pictured in his Portrait of Gertrude Stein, one of his most famous portraits.
For Picasso, the seminal moment was the Paul Cezanne retrospective held at the Salon d'Automne, one year after the artist's death in 1906. Though he previously had
been familiar with Cezanne, it was not until the retrospective that Picasso experienced the full impact of his artistic achievement. In Cezanne's works, Picasso found a model of how to distill the essential
from nature in order to achieve a cohesive surface that expressed the artist's singular vision. In about the same time, the aesthetics of traditional African sculpture became a powerful influence among European
artists. In France, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and their School of Paris friends start blending the highly stylized treatment of the human figure in African sculptures
with painting styles derived from the post-Impressionist works of Cezanne and Gauguin.
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was Picasso's first masterpiece. The painting depicts five naked women with figures composed of flat, splintered planes and faces inspired by Iberian sculpture and African masks. The compressed space the figures inhabit appears to project forward in jagged shards; a fiercely pointed slice of melon in the still life of fruit at the bottom of the composition teeters on an impossibly upturned tabletop. In this painting, Picasso makes a radical departure from traditional European painting by adaptation of Primitivism and abandonment of perspective in favor of a flat, two-dimensional picture plane.
When Les Demoiselles d'Avignon first appeared, it was as if the art world had collapsed. Known form and representation were completely abandoned. Hence it was called the most innovative painting in modern art history. With the new strategies applied in the painting, Picasso suddenly found freedom of expression away from current and classical French influences and was able to carve his own path. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.
Others have seen what is and asked why. I have seen what could be and asked why not."
- Pablo Picasso
It was a confluence of influences - from Paul Cézanne and Henri Rousseau, to archaic and tribal art - that encouraged Picasso to lend his figures more weight and structure around 1907. And they ultimately set him on the path towards Cubism, in which he deconstructed the conventions of perspective that had dominated Renaissance art. During this period, the style Georges Braque and Picasso developed used mainly neutral colors and was based in they're "taking apart" objects and "analyzing them" in terms of their shapes.Cubism, especially the second form, known as Synthetic Cubism, played a great role in the development of western art world. Works of this phase emphasize the combination, or synthesis, of forms in the picture. Colour is extremely important in the objects' shapes because they become larger and more decorative. Non-painted objects such as newspapers or tobacco wrappers, are frequently pasted on the canvas in combination with painted areas - the incorporation of a wide variety of extraneous materials is particularly associated with Picasso's novel technique of collage. This collage technique emphasizes the differences in texture and poses the question of what is reality and what is illusion in painting. With his use of color, shape and geometrical figures, and his unique approach to depict images, Picasso changed the direction of art for generations to come.
With an unsurpassed mastery of technique and skill, Picasso made his first trip to Italy in 1917 and promptly began a period of tribute to neoclassical style. Breaking from the extreme modernism he drew and painted work reminiscent of Raphael and Ingres. This was just a prelude before Picasso seemingly effortlessly began to combine his modernist concepts with his skill into surrealist masterpieces like Guernica, (1937), a frenzied and masterful combination of style that embodies the despair of war. Guernica is considered as the most powerful anti-war statement of modern art. It was done to showcase Picasso's support towards ending war, and a condemnation on fascism in general. From the beginning, Picasso chooses not to represent the horror of Guernica in realist or romantic terms. Key figures - a woman with outstretched arms, a bull, an agonized horse - are refined in sketch after sketch, then transferred to the capacious canvas, which he also reworks several times. Dark color and monochrome theme were used to depict the trying times, and the anguish which was being suffered. Guernica challenges the notions of warfare as heroic and exposes it as a brutal act of self-destruction. The works was not only a practical report or painting but also stays as a highly powerful political picture in modern art, rivaled by a few fresco paintings by Mexican artist Diego Rivera.
Picasso's final works were a mixed between the many styles he'd embraced throughout his life. He dared to make sculptures larger and his paintings more expressive and colorful. Towards the end of his career, Picasso enjoyed examining Classical works that had influenced his development over the years, and produced several series of variations of paintings of Old Master, including Rembrandt, Diego Velazquez, and Edouard Manet, the founder of modern traditions. Some of the most notable works he did, include Massacre in Korea after Goya, Las Meninas after Velazquez, and Luncheon on the Grass after Manet. Many of these pieces are still influential in the art world today; and, in fact, due to the vision and distinct creative style, are still among some of the most innovative pieces which have been introduced to the art world, even during recent years. A multitude of paintings Picasso painted during his final years are now widely accepted as the beginning of the Neo-Expressionism movement.
I do not seek. I find." - Pablo Picasso
When Picasso died at age 91 in April 1973, he had become one of the most famous and successful artist throughout history. Leonardo da Vinci of the 20th Century, Picasso's true greatness and significance lie in his dual role as revolutionary and traditionalist at once. Uniquely in the 20th century he was capable of radical innovation on the one hand but on the other of continuing traditional lines. Thus in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon he vanquished the representational picture, while in Guernica he revive the genre of historial painting in a new form. He is also undeniably the most prolific genius in the history of art. His career spanned over a 78 year period, in which he created: 13,500 paintings, 100,000 prints and engravings, and 34,000 illustrations. Picasso was, and still is, seen as a magician by writers and critics, a metaphor that captures both the sense of an artist who is able to transform everything around him at a touch and a man who can also transform himself, elude us, fascinate and mesmerise us.
Just like William Shakespeare on literature, and Sigmund Freud on psychology, Picasso's impact on art is tremendous. No one has achieved the same degree of widespread fame or displayed such incredible versatility as Pablo Picasso has in the art history. Picasso's free spirit, his eccentric style, and his complete disregard for what others thought of his work and creative style, made him a catalyst for artists to follow. Now known as the father of modern art, Picasso's originality touched every major artist and art movement that followed in his wake. Even as of today, his life and works continue to invite countless scholarly interpretation and attract thousands of followers around the world. | 2,983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 02, 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army had invaded and captured the whole of Manila. The Filipino and American forces retreated to the province of Bataan. This is an area of Luzon region to which the Americans had fortified in order to guard closely the entrance of the Manila Bay.
In Bataan, a bloody battle was erupted between the forces of the Filipino and American defenders against the Japanese Imperial Army. The defenders fought bravely in order to stop the advancing enemy to reach the northern provinces such as Pampanga, Tarlac, Pangasinan and the rest of the Ilocos region. The battle started from January 1 to 5, 1942; in Dinalupian, Bataan, the battle erupted on January 06 and in the areas of Orion – Bagac, and Mt Samat. The Filipino defenders was headed by General Vicente Lim and Brig. General Mateo Capinpin. Unfortunately, they were defeated by the more powerful Japanese Army.
On February 20, 1942, President Manuel L. Quezon left his Commonwealth Government and his family, from Corregidor and went to Washington, USA.
General Jonathan M. Wainwright was appointed as the Commander in Chief of the Filipino and American forces. Gen. Wainwright was mandated to never surrender his forces to the Japanese army. But, when Wainwright observes that there were already too many casualties amongst his men, he was forced to surrender on April 9, 1942.
According to Wainwright, it will be better to surrender than to lost all of his men’s lives in the battle. He directed General Edward P. King to see Col. Nakayama of the Japanese Army to inform him of their surrender. General King surrendered the Filipino and American forces to the Japanese Imperial Army. With this action, Bataan falls into the hands of the enemies.
The Filipinos and Americans who surrendered suffered brutally in the hands of their captors. The Japanese Imperial Army had violated all the rules stipulated in the Geneva Convention which gives a humane treatment of all the prisoners of war, including the wounded, and those that are sick. There were many Filipinos and Americans who were beheaded and was stab with a bayonet. It was not known of how many had died through massacres and those who are buried alive.
The gruesome and infamous Bataan Death March between the Filipinos and American prisoners of war started on April 9, 1942. The Japanese Imperial Army transferred all those who surrendered in Mariveles, Bataan to Camp O’Donnel in Capas, Tarlac. It was estimated that there were more 79,000 prisoners (at least 67,000 Filipinos, 11,800 Americans, including about 1,000 Chinese-Filipino soldiers) who marched from Bataan to Tarlac.
The prisoners marched without any stop and with no foods to eat or water to drink for three days. The water they could have were those found in the from filthy and muddy water buffalo flounder on the side of the road. These prisoners were promised to return to their families but was never been done by their captors. It was estimated that there were more than 5,000 prisoners who died in the Death March. Many of them died from starvation, killed, massacred, buried alive, exhaustion, and those who died out of heat-stroke considering that this was done during the sizzling heat of the Philippine summer month. The prisoners march for at least 55 miles from Mariveles, Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. From there, they were loaded in a train cars in a crammed condition to which many more died from suffocation. When they unload at Capas, they again marched forward for another 8 miles to reach Camp O’Donnel.
Today, there were more than a dozen of memorials that were dedicated to all of the Filipino and American prisoners of war who made the tragic Bataan Death March. We also commemorate it to honor them by declaring April 9 of each year as a National Legal Holiday knows as “Araw ng Kagitingan” (Day of Valor) in the whole country.
Author’s note: Another compiling story and history of my motherland and its citizens.
Lalgarh in Bengaluru is an excellent tourist location. Bengaluru is the capital of state of Karnataka.
India's culture and economy became popular in other countries through the travellers who visited here. Read about the important foreign travellers to here..
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. Their first landing was in Kerala and they took power here. | <urn:uuid:44d3ae56-aef3-44b3-963b-fa59a8736d2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/infamous-bataan-death-march-philippines-during-world-war-ii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.987258 | 953 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.843033611774444... | 1 | On January 02, 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army had invaded and captured the whole of Manila. The Filipino and American forces retreated to the province of Bataan. This is an area of Luzon region to which the Americans had fortified in order to guard closely the entrance of the Manila Bay.
In Bataan, a bloody battle was erupted between the forces of the Filipino and American defenders against the Japanese Imperial Army. The defenders fought bravely in order to stop the advancing enemy to reach the northern provinces such as Pampanga, Tarlac, Pangasinan and the rest of the Ilocos region. The battle started from January 1 to 5, 1942; in Dinalupian, Bataan, the battle erupted on January 06 and in the areas of Orion – Bagac, and Mt Samat. The Filipino defenders was headed by General Vicente Lim and Brig. General Mateo Capinpin. Unfortunately, they were defeated by the more powerful Japanese Army.
On February 20, 1942, President Manuel L. Quezon left his Commonwealth Government and his family, from Corregidor and went to Washington, USA.
General Jonathan M. Wainwright was appointed as the Commander in Chief of the Filipino and American forces. Gen. Wainwright was mandated to never surrender his forces to the Japanese army. But, when Wainwright observes that there were already too many casualties amongst his men, he was forced to surrender on April 9, 1942.
According to Wainwright, it will be better to surrender than to lost all of his men’s lives in the battle. He directed General Edward P. King to see Col. Nakayama of the Japanese Army to inform him of their surrender. General King surrendered the Filipino and American forces to the Japanese Imperial Army. With this action, Bataan falls into the hands of the enemies.
The Filipinos and Americans who surrendered suffered brutally in the hands of their captors. The Japanese Imperial Army had violated all the rules stipulated in the Geneva Convention which gives a humane treatment of all the prisoners of war, including the wounded, and those that are sick. There were many Filipinos and Americans who were beheaded and was stab with a bayonet. It was not known of how many had died through massacres and those who are buried alive.
The gruesome and infamous Bataan Death March between the Filipinos and American prisoners of war started on April 9, 1942. The Japanese Imperial Army transferred all those who surrendered in Mariveles, Bataan to Camp O’Donnel in Capas, Tarlac. It was estimated that there were more 79,000 prisoners (at least 67,000 Filipinos, 11,800 Americans, including about 1,000 Chinese-Filipino soldiers) who marched from Bataan to Tarlac.
The prisoners marched without any stop and with no foods to eat or water to drink for three days. The water they could have were those found in the from filthy and muddy water buffalo flounder on the side of the road. These prisoners were promised to return to their families but was never been done by their captors. It was estimated that there were more than 5,000 prisoners who died in the Death March. Many of them died from starvation, killed, massacred, buried alive, exhaustion, and those who died out of heat-stroke considering that this was done during the sizzling heat of the Philippine summer month. The prisoners march for at least 55 miles from Mariveles, Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. From there, they were loaded in a train cars in a crammed condition to which many more died from suffocation. When they unload at Capas, they again marched forward for another 8 miles to reach Camp O’Donnel.
Today, there were more than a dozen of memorials that were dedicated to all of the Filipino and American prisoners of war who made the tragic Bataan Death March. We also commemorate it to honor them by declaring April 9 of each year as a National Legal Holiday knows as “Araw ng Kagitingan” (Day of Valor) in the whole country.
Author’s note: Another compiling story and history of my motherland and its citizens.
Lalgarh in Bengaluru is an excellent tourist location. Bengaluru is the capital of state of Karnataka.
India's culture and economy became popular in other countries through the travellers who visited here. Read about the important foreign travellers to here..
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. Their first landing was in Kerala and they took power here. | 977 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January the 6th is a special day in Mexico, El Día de Reyes or Three Kings Day, is a holiday that represents the height of the Christmas season. It marks the culmination of the 12 days of Christmas and commemorates the three wise men who traveled from afar, bearing gifts for the infant baby Jesus. The children of Mexico in particular look forward to this holiday as traditionally, gifts are exchanged on this date, not on Christmas day.
In Mexico and many other Latin American countries, the three wise men are the bearers of gifts, who leave presents in or near the shoes of small children. The holiday is also known by the name of the Epiphany which dates back to the 4th century. A grand feast would be held on this day to honor the occasion of Jesus’ baptism and to pay homage to the three wise men.
Los Tres Reyes Magos
Many believe mysterious events preceded Jesus’ birth with perhaps the most notable being the appearance of the Star of Bethlehem. This new star appeared in the evening sky just prior to the arrival of Jesus. Three wise men or Magi as they were then known, whose names were Gaspar, Melchior and Balthasar, traveled a far distance to pay homage to the Christ child.
The symbolism of the Rosca de Reyes speaks of the Biblical story of Mary and Joseph’s flight to Egypt to protect the infant Jesus from the slaughter of the innocents. After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the time of King Herod, Magi from the east came to Jerusalem and asked, ‘Where is the one who has been born king of the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him.’
When King Herod heard this he was disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. When he had called together all the people’s chief priests and teachers of the law, he asked them where the Christ was to be born. ‘In Bethlehem in Judea,’ they replied, ‘for this is what the prophet has written: “‘But you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for out of you will come a ruler who will be the shepherd of my people Israel.'” Then Herod called the Magi secretly and found out from them the exact time the star had appeared. He sent them to Bethlehem and said, ‘Go and make a careful search for the child. As soon as you find him, report to me, so that I too may go and worship him.’
After they had heard the king, they went on their way, and the star they had seen in the east went ahead of them until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw the star, they were overjoyed.
On coming to the house, they saw the child with his mother Mary, and they bowed down and worshiped him. Then they opened their treasures and presented him with gifts of gold and of incense and of myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to go back to Herod, they returned to their country by another route. Matthew 2:1-12
Herod’s reaction to these predictions was swift and horrible. He ordered his minions to murder all male infants recently born in Bethlehem. However, as destiny would have it, Mary and Joseph found their lodgings in a manger, not an inn. Herod’s henchmen didn’t think to look for an infant in such a location.
Three Kings Day remains an important holiday for the people of Mexico. In addition to the gift-giving aspect of the day there is also a culinary treat that is specific to the holiday. Known as ‘Rosca de Reyes’ (King’s Cake), this holiday dessert offers much in the way of symbolism The person who finds the baby Jesus is symbolically his godparent and must sponsor the party when he is taken to the temple to be blessed, celebrated as Día de la Candelaria, or Candlemas, on February 2nd.
The shape of the Rosca symbolizes a crown, in this case, the crown of King Herod from whom they were trying to hide the infant Jesus. The circular form of the rosca represents God’s eternal love which has no beginning or end. The dried fruit placed on top are jewels on the crown. The small doll inside the rosca represents the Baby Jesus who was visited by the Three Kings and hidden away from King Herod. The figurine in the Rosca represents baby Jesus in hiding. | <urn:uuid:049cc01e-ebbd-49e9-a7c7-e03c9dfba107> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stbirish.net/dia-de-reyes-three-kings-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.981531 | 951 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.082859814167022... | 4 | January the 6th is a special day in Mexico, El Día de Reyes or Three Kings Day, is a holiday that represents the height of the Christmas season. It marks the culmination of the 12 days of Christmas and commemorates the three wise men who traveled from afar, bearing gifts for the infant baby Jesus. The children of Mexico in particular look forward to this holiday as traditionally, gifts are exchanged on this date, not on Christmas day.
In Mexico and many other Latin American countries, the three wise men are the bearers of gifts, who leave presents in or near the shoes of small children. The holiday is also known by the name of the Epiphany which dates back to the 4th century. A grand feast would be held on this day to honor the occasion of Jesus’ baptism and to pay homage to the three wise men.
Los Tres Reyes Magos
Many believe mysterious events preceded Jesus’ birth with perhaps the most notable being the appearance of the Star of Bethlehem. This new star appeared in the evening sky just prior to the arrival of Jesus. Three wise men or Magi as they were then known, whose names were Gaspar, Melchior and Balthasar, traveled a far distance to pay homage to the Christ child.
The symbolism of the Rosca de Reyes speaks of the Biblical story of Mary and Joseph’s flight to Egypt to protect the infant Jesus from the slaughter of the innocents. After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, during the time of King Herod, Magi from the east came to Jerusalem and asked, ‘Where is the one who has been born king of the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him.’
When King Herod heard this he was disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. When he had called together all the people’s chief priests and teachers of the law, he asked them where the Christ was to be born. ‘In Bethlehem in Judea,’ they replied, ‘for this is what the prophet has written: “‘But you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for out of you will come a ruler who will be the shepherd of my people Israel.'” Then Herod called the Magi secretly and found out from them the exact time the star had appeared. He sent them to Bethlehem and said, ‘Go and make a careful search for the child. As soon as you find him, report to me, so that I too may go and worship him.’
After they had heard the king, they went on their way, and the star they had seen in the east went ahead of them until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw the star, they were overjoyed.
On coming to the house, they saw the child with his mother Mary, and they bowed down and worshiped him. Then they opened their treasures and presented him with gifts of gold and of incense and of myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to go back to Herod, they returned to their country by another route. Matthew 2:1-12
Herod’s reaction to these predictions was swift and horrible. He ordered his minions to murder all male infants recently born in Bethlehem. However, as destiny would have it, Mary and Joseph found their lodgings in a manger, not an inn. Herod’s henchmen didn’t think to look for an infant in such a location.
Three Kings Day remains an important holiday for the people of Mexico. In addition to the gift-giving aspect of the day there is also a culinary treat that is specific to the holiday. Known as ‘Rosca de Reyes’ (King’s Cake), this holiday dessert offers much in the way of symbolism The person who finds the baby Jesus is symbolically his godparent and must sponsor the party when he is taken to the temple to be blessed, celebrated as Día de la Candelaria, or Candlemas, on February 2nd.
The shape of the Rosca symbolizes a crown, in this case, the crown of King Herod from whom they were trying to hide the infant Jesus. The circular form of the rosca represents God’s eternal love which has no beginning or end. The dried fruit placed on top are jewels on the crown. The small doll inside the rosca represents the Baby Jesus who was visited by the Three Kings and hidden away from King Herod. The figurine in the Rosca represents baby Jesus in hiding. | 928 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but communism had taken root in China. Eastern Europe remained under Russian control and in Vietnam the American feared threat of the spread communism seemed to be real.
During the 1950’s, America had developed her Domino Theory. This was the creation of John Foster Dulles, America’s Secretary of State. He believed that if one country was allowed to fall to communism, the country next to it would be the next to tumble just as when one domino falls the rest go with it if they are connected. In view of the fear in America of communism spreading throughout the world, the thought of Vietnam starting this process of turning to communism and then it spreading was unacceptable.
It quickly became apparent that the government of Ngo Dinh Diem was going to receive support from the Americans in an effort to avoid at all costs the further expansion of communism in Asia. Sure enough, after the Geneva Agreement of 1954, America swiftly gave military support to South Vietnam (strictly the Republic of Vietnam) through the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) led by Lieutenant General John O’Daniel.
In 1955 the US also began sending in “special advisors” to South Vietnam (Note: By 1961, there were 1,500 special advisors in the country. These were men from America’s Special Forces who were there to train the South Vietnamese Army in how to fight the Viet Cong. By 1963, there were 16,000 special advisors in South Vietnam).
One of the most pressing problems facing Diem was how to govern a country that had so many diverse religious and political groups within it. There was a genuine fear that a civil war might break out and one of MAAG’s first tasks was to create a national army for the South that would give some kind of national cohesion against the ‘natural’ enemy – the North. O’Daniel had about 300 to 400 personnel working on this task. In a relatively short space of time, the South had an army of 150,000 men financed by the US and trained by their men. These men were detailed to guard the demilitarised zone set up between the North and South after the Geneva Agreement. They were trained to fight a conventional war as opposed to a guerrilla one.
Though America supported Diem at military and financial levels, they were faced with a problem that they themselves could do little about in the late 1950’s. Diem had also created his own personal army of about 150,000 men that were answerable to him. This paramilitary force was used to act as a counter-balance to the South Vietnamese Army whose senior officers were known by Diem to have political ambitions. With one being played off against the other by Diem, America faced the problem of neither being able to fully focus their attention to what America assumed was the common enemy.
By the time of Kennedy’s presidency, it was clear in Washington DC that if there was to be a successful campaign against the North, Diem had to go as he was too much of a divisive leader. In September 1963, Kennedy stated that Diem’s government had to make more of an effort to win over those people in South Vietnam who were neither from his background nor Roman Catholic. Kennedy also stated that he thought, “the repressions against the Buddhists in the country were very unwise.”
There was criticism in America itself where the corruption of Diem was well known. By 1963, the US had spent $400,000,000 supporting South Vietnam but had seen little in return for their investment. The money had been meant to modernise the South Vietnamese Army but large sums had been pocketed by Diem, members of his family and his friends. It came as no surprise to the US when senior officers in the South’s army assassinated Diem and his brother. In fact, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had maintained contact with the generals involved in the plot for weeks leading up to Diem’s assassination. That they did nothing to stop it is indicative of their desire and support for any attempt to remove Diem from power. However, America’s support of Diem over eight years coincided with the time when the North made great inroads into gaining the support and trust of peasants in large areas in the South. Kennedy himself admitted that over 20% of all villages supported the NLF despite ‘Operation Strategic Hamlet’.
Regardless of their presence and attempts by the west to demonise the Viet Cong, it is probable that by 1962, over 75% of all south Vietnamese peasants supported the Viet Cong as they were seen as liberators from the unacceptable government of Diem. To “save” the peasants from the Viet Cong, Diem organised a system whereby whole villages were moved into defended camps – known as fortified villages. This policy backfired as the peasants did not want to be removed from their land and as such the policy played into the hands of the Viet Cong who were promising the peasants more land once communism have taken root in the south.
Diem’s unpopularity was so great that in November 1963, the South Vietnamese Army overthrew and killed him. The confusion at a political level in South Vietnam and the abuse of peasants rights within the agricultural community were two reasons for the spread of communism within the south. Such a development alarmed the American president, Lyndon Johnson, who had asked his military chiefs to formulate plans should a full-scale war break out. The one proviso the chiefs-of-staff had was that America had to be seen as the victim rather than the aggressor.
In August 1964, the Tongking Incident occurred when two American destroyers were attacked by North Vietnamese gunboats while they were in international waters. In response to this, the American Senate gave Johnson the power to give armed support to assist any country requesting help in defence of its freedom. In March 1965, the first American ground troops landed in South Vietnam and by December 1965, there were 150,000 stationed in the country. The bombing of North Vietnam had already started in February 1965.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but…
- John Fitzgerald Kennedy was a fervent believer in containing communism. In his first speech on becoming president, Kennedy made it clear that he would continue…
- America’s involvement in Vietnam, that was to lead to a full-scale military attack on North Vietnam, was all part of the Cold War scenario that… | <urn:uuid:5946967f-858a-47dc-8204-cda26f847cfd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/vietnam-war/america-and-vietnam-to-1965/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.989474 | 1,369 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.27209037542343... | 2 | The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but communism had taken root in China. Eastern Europe remained under Russian control and in Vietnam the American feared threat of the spread communism seemed to be real.
During the 1950’s, America had developed her Domino Theory. This was the creation of John Foster Dulles, America’s Secretary of State. He believed that if one country was allowed to fall to communism, the country next to it would be the next to tumble just as when one domino falls the rest go with it if they are connected. In view of the fear in America of communism spreading throughout the world, the thought of Vietnam starting this process of turning to communism and then it spreading was unacceptable.
It quickly became apparent that the government of Ngo Dinh Diem was going to receive support from the Americans in an effort to avoid at all costs the further expansion of communism in Asia. Sure enough, after the Geneva Agreement of 1954, America swiftly gave military support to South Vietnam (strictly the Republic of Vietnam) through the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) led by Lieutenant General John O’Daniel.
In 1955 the US also began sending in “special advisors” to South Vietnam (Note: By 1961, there were 1,500 special advisors in the country. These were men from America’s Special Forces who were there to train the South Vietnamese Army in how to fight the Viet Cong. By 1963, there were 16,000 special advisors in South Vietnam).
One of the most pressing problems facing Diem was how to govern a country that had so many diverse religious and political groups within it. There was a genuine fear that a civil war might break out and one of MAAG’s first tasks was to create a national army for the South that would give some kind of national cohesion against the ‘natural’ enemy – the North. O’Daniel had about 300 to 400 personnel working on this task. In a relatively short space of time, the South had an army of 150,000 men financed by the US and trained by their men. These men were detailed to guard the demilitarised zone set up between the North and South after the Geneva Agreement. They were trained to fight a conventional war as opposed to a guerrilla one.
Though America supported Diem at military and financial levels, they were faced with a problem that they themselves could do little about in the late 1950’s. Diem had also created his own personal army of about 150,000 men that were answerable to him. This paramilitary force was used to act as a counter-balance to the South Vietnamese Army whose senior officers were known by Diem to have political ambitions. With one being played off against the other by Diem, America faced the problem of neither being able to fully focus their attention to what America assumed was the common enemy.
By the time of Kennedy’s presidency, it was clear in Washington DC that if there was to be a successful campaign against the North, Diem had to go as he was too much of a divisive leader. In September 1963, Kennedy stated that Diem’s government had to make more of an effort to win over those people in South Vietnam who were neither from his background nor Roman Catholic. Kennedy also stated that he thought, “the repressions against the Buddhists in the country were very unwise.”
There was criticism in America itself where the corruption of Diem was well known. By 1963, the US had spent $400,000,000 supporting South Vietnam but had seen little in return for their investment. The money had been meant to modernise the South Vietnamese Army but large sums had been pocketed by Diem, members of his family and his friends. It came as no surprise to the US when senior officers in the South’s army assassinated Diem and his brother. In fact, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had maintained contact with the generals involved in the plot for weeks leading up to Diem’s assassination. That they did nothing to stop it is indicative of their desire and support for any attempt to remove Diem from power. However, America’s support of Diem over eight years coincided with the time when the North made great inroads into gaining the support and trust of peasants in large areas in the South. Kennedy himself admitted that over 20% of all villages supported the NLF despite ‘Operation Strategic Hamlet’.
Regardless of their presence and attempts by the west to demonise the Viet Cong, it is probable that by 1962, over 75% of all south Vietnamese peasants supported the Viet Cong as they were seen as liberators from the unacceptable government of Diem. To “save” the peasants from the Viet Cong, Diem organised a system whereby whole villages were moved into defended camps – known as fortified villages. This policy backfired as the peasants did not want to be removed from their land and as such the policy played into the hands of the Viet Cong who were promising the peasants more land once communism have taken root in the south.
Diem’s unpopularity was so great that in November 1963, the South Vietnamese Army overthrew and killed him. The confusion at a political level in South Vietnam and the abuse of peasants rights within the agricultural community were two reasons for the spread of communism within the south. Such a development alarmed the American president, Lyndon Johnson, who had asked his military chiefs to formulate plans should a full-scale war break out. The one proviso the chiefs-of-staff had was that America had to be seen as the victim rather than the aggressor.
In August 1964, the Tongking Incident occurred when two American destroyers were attacked by North Vietnamese gunboats while they were in international waters. In response to this, the American Senate gave Johnson the power to give armed support to assist any country requesting help in defence of its freedom. In March 1965, the first American ground troops landed in South Vietnam and by December 1965, there were 150,000 stationed in the country. The bombing of North Vietnam had already started in February 1965.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but…
- John Fitzgerald Kennedy was a fervent believer in containing communism. In his first speech on becoming president, Kennedy made it clear that he would continue…
- America’s involvement in Vietnam, that was to lead to a full-scale military attack on North Vietnam, was all part of the Cold War scenario that… | 1,415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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