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text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Behind the simplest words one can often find the most compelling questions. Take for example, “dog.”Canis familiaris, also known as “dog,” is essentially a domesticated wolf. The dog is a member of the Canidae family, like the jackal and the fox. The history of dog About seven centuries ago, the word “hound,” which came from the Old English hund, was the word for all domestic canines. “Dog” was just used to refer to a subgroup of hounds that includes the lovely but frequently slobbering mastiff. Of course, the opposite is now true. We use dog to talk about all of man’s best friends, from lovable golden retrievers to panting chow chows. And hound is now used to indicate a type of dog used just for hunting. Hound especially refers to a dog with a long face and large, droopy ears. Linguists still speculate about the reversal of fortune for “hound” and “dog.” One idea suggests that the sub-breed known as “dogs” became so populous that “dog” simply became the generic term (sort of an animal equivalent of the way brand names can become so ubiquitous that they start to be used as a general term for their purpose.) How else do we use dog? The number of uses of “dog” is remarkable even by the standards of the dictionary. We call sleazy men dogs. We also call our feet dogs. A worthless object, such as a wobbly, rusty bike, is also called a dog. And of course, we can’t forget about the hot dog. There also seems to be an endless number of idioms incorporating the word, such as “sick as a dog.” The expressions “a dog’s life” and “go to the dogs” likely refer to a time when the animals were used primarily for hunting and not kept as pets. The phrase “put on the dog” means to “get dressed up.” It may refer to the stiff, stand-up shirt collars (also known as dog collars) that were all the rage in the late nineteenth century. A dog-eared page is named after the way many dogs’ ears fold down, as opposed to the perky, upright wolf ear. Employing the phrase “hair of the dog” to talk about using alcohol as a hangover cure may be as old as drinking itself. The first recorded use is with Pliny, the ancient Roman writer.	<urn:uuid:f32d3597-3e83-4db4-82cb-fdc0e13fb101>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dictionary.com/e/dog/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00236.warc.gz	en	0.980549	560	3.484375	3	[ -0.05305926501750946, -0.4299625754356384, -0.006282566115260124, 0.0956067368388176, -0.13030296564102173, -0.2864174246788025, 0.6175582408905029, -0.01955791935324669, -0.11664176732301712, -0.23589012026786804, 0.08207394182682037, -0.2932063937187195, 0.09670136868953705, -0.246988818...	1	Behind the simplest words one can often find the most compelling questions. Take for example, “dog.”Canis familiaris, also known as “dog,” is essentially a domesticated wolf. The dog is a member of the Canidae family, like the jackal and the fox. The history of dog About seven centuries ago, the word “hound,” which came from the Old English hund, was the word for all domestic canines. “Dog” was just used to refer to a subgroup of hounds that includes the lovely but frequently slobbering mastiff. Of course, the opposite is now true. We use dog to talk about all of man’s best friends, from lovable golden retrievers to panting chow chows. And hound is now used to indicate a type of dog used just for hunting. Hound especially refers to a dog with a long face and large, droopy ears. Linguists still speculate about the reversal of fortune for “hound” and “dog.” One idea suggests that the sub-breed known as “dogs” became so populous that “dog” simply became the generic term (sort of an animal equivalent of the way brand names can become so ubiquitous that they start to be used as a general term for their purpose.) How else do we use dog? The number of uses of “dog” is remarkable even by the standards of the dictionary. We call sleazy men dogs. We also call our feet dogs. A worthless object, such as a wobbly, rusty bike, is also called a dog. And of course, we can’t forget about the hot dog. There also seems to be an endless number of idioms incorporating the word, such as “sick as a dog.” The expressions “a dog’s life” and “go to the dogs” likely refer to a time when the animals were used primarily for hunting and not kept as pets. The phrase “put on the dog” means to “get dressed up.” It may refer to the stiff, stand-up shirt collars (also known as dog collars) that were all the rage in the late nineteenth century. A dog-eared page is named after the way many dogs’ ears fold down, as opposed to the perky, upright wolf ear. Employing the phrase “hair of the dog” to talk about using alcohol as a hangover cure may be as old as drinking itself. The first recorded use is with Pliny, the ancient Roman writer.	505	ENGLISH	1
Edited from History of US and Sugar Changed the World. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Different Regions of the English Colonies The English colonies along the eastern coast of North America could be divided into regions based mostly on geographical conditions. These conditions—soil, climate, and access to navigable rivers—determined how the colonists survived and made their livings. The English colonies could be divided into the regions of North and South. The dividing line was the Mason-Dixon Line, named after the two surveyors who established the border between Pennsylvania and Maryland and Delaware. The North had two regions—New England and Middle. The New England soil was rocky; its climate was cold. The inhabitants could grow enough food for themselves, but not much more. When you grew enough food for your family but not enough to sell, you were called a subsistence farmer. The New Englanders made their money by taking advantage of their access to good fishing in the ocean. They fished for cod, which they salted so it could be preserved and traded to Europe or the Caribbean colonies. They also worked in the whaling industry, which provided blubber for boiling into oil. Besides fishing, the New England colonies—Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire—grew lots of timber, so the Northern settlers used the lumber to build ships. These ships allowed New Englanders to become worldwide traders selling wood products, oil and dried fish. Rhode Island also made rum and manufactured guns. The middle region, made up of Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York had better soil than New England, so they could grow cash crops. Additionally, there was some early manufacturing here involving the production of glass, textiles, and paper. Thousands also worked as craftsmen—shoemakers, tailors, blacksmiths, and watchmakers. The population was more diverse than in New England because immigrants tended to settle in this region. Though there was some manufacturing in the colonies, England, the mother country, wouldn’t let the colonists manufacture goods that competed with English goods. England wanted the colonists to buy most manufactured goods from England. The region of the South was different from both coastal New England and the more frontier region of the Middle colonies. The southern colony of Virginia had rich fertile land that farmers used to cultivate tobacco. This crop was grown on larger plantations. Southern colonies also grew indigo and rice. Tobacco, however, brought a tremendous amount of money to Southern plantation owners. Tobacco cultivation required a vast number of laborers. One way to increase profit was to find cheap labor. The Southern plantation owner quickly chose slave labor over free labor. Decreased labor costs meant increased profit. Indentured servants were relatively cheap, but eventually they worked off their contract and could go their own way. Slaves, on the other hand, never worked off their contract. Furthermore, they had children who became slaves. So how did the Southern farmers and plantation owners get their slaves? You need to understand the worldwide trading system that was in place (and growing!) at that time. By the 1700s, Yankees (a term for Northerners) were trading all kinds of things. They might take their salted cod to Barbados and trade it for cane sugar. Then they’d go to Virginia to pick up tobacco. They’d take the tobacco and sugar to England and trade them for cash, guns, and English cloth. Then on to Africa, where they exchanged the guns and cloth for men, women, and children. Read that last sentence again. It’s hard to believe that people were sold into slavery, but it’s part of our history. From there it was back across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies, where the people were sold into slavery. This system of trade routes has historically been called the Triangular Trade, but if you really look at the routes, you’ll see that to say this system involved only three points is too simplistic. So the phrase, Triangular Trade, makes you picture the triangle of routes between Europe, Africa, and the New World. But contrary to that simple image, the triangular slave trade that linked those three places was not a closed circuit. Asia was very much a part of this global trading system. For example, you’ve learned that the ships that went to Africa brought cloth to trade in exchange for slaves. England had wool cloth, but the Africans wanted cotton cloth. English slave traders needed a commodity that the African slave traders wanted. So England traded with India to get that cotton cloth. What did India want in exchange for the cloth? Yes, they wanted European guns, but more than that, they wanted silver. Where was silver coming from? The Spanish colonies in South America. Besides cotton from India, another commodity from Asia proved valuable to the Europeans buying and kidnapping slaves from the coast of West Africa: cowry shells. Europeans sailed to the Maldive Islands (near India) to get these cowry shells, which served as the major currency in West Africa. The Trade Routes You can see that the Triangular Trade name for this trading is really misleading. In fact, if you trace a line between all the countries that were trading, you would see that this was a web of trade routes. This was a global network of trade. Here is an accurate map of what was being traded to whom and from whom, but the world map below it gives you a better idea of this early globalization. You can see from this map that the trading going on in the 17th and 18th centuries included the entire world, not just a few triangular routes. Between 1526 and 1870, nearly 10 million slaves were shipped from Africa to: British North America and the United States Danish West Indies Slavery in Africa The European colonizers wanted African slaves to work in the sugar cane fields of the West Indies and Brazil, and to work in the tobacco and cotton fields of the Southern English colonies in North America. The Native Americans were not surviving amidst the hard conditions imposed on them. They were not immune to smallpox or malaria. The plantation owners soon realized that Africans survived the harsh conditions better than Native Americans. How did the Europeans acquire the slaves they wanted to bring to the New World? The Africans had been captured by enemy tribesmen and sold to African slave traders. The slave traders bargained with the New England boat captain, who bought as many people as he could squeeze on his ship. Some of the captives were children who were kidnapped from their parents. Olaudah Equiano was one of those children. He was 11 in 1756, when he was captured in Benin. He was the youngest of seven children. Like many other prosperous African families, his family had slaves. (So though it’s true that Africans themselves practiced slavery, the system and condition of servitude did not parallel the inhumane conditions of North and South American slavery that was based on racism.) Olaudah Equino’s autobiography gives us first-hand knowledge of what it was like to be captured and sold into slavery: One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my sister were left to mind the house, two men got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both; and without giving us time to cry out or to make any resistance, they ran off with us to the nearest wood. Here they tied our hands, and continued to carry us as far as they could, till night came on, when we reached a small house, where the robbers halted for refreshment and spent the night. Olaudah and his sister were taken on a long journey, separated, and sold. He was passed from person to person, staying a month here, a few weeks there. He tried unsuccessfully to run away. Finally, he was brought to the ocean, which he had never seen before. The first object which saluted my eyes when I arrived on the coast was the sea, and a slave ship, which was then riding at anchor and waiting for its cargo. These filled me with astonishment, which was soon converted into terror…When I was carried on board I was immediately handled, and tossed up to see if I was sound by some of the crew; and I was now persuaded that I had got into a world of bad spirits, and that they were going to kill me. Here is a diagram of a slave ship. The living conditions were beyond imagination. The enslaved Africans were housed right below deck, above the hold in cramped quarters, each in a space maybe 15 inches by 6 feet. Olaudah was tossed below deck, where the smell was so bad he became sick and couldn’t eat. When he refused food, he was tied down and beaten. Frightened, he was at first unable to find anyone who spoke his language. Finally he met some men who spoke the language of Benin. I asked them if they knew how the vessel moved. They told me they could not tell; but that there was cloth put upon the masts by the help of ropes I saw, and then the vessel went on; and the white men had some spell or magic they put in the water, when they liked, in order to stop the vessel. I was exceedingly amazed at his account, and really thought they were spirits. Olaudah learned that he was being taken to the white men’s country to work. I then was a little revived, and thought, if it were no worse than working, my situation was not so desperate; but still I feared I should be put to death, the white people looked and acted in so savage a manner; for I had never seen among any people such instances of brutal cruelty; and this is not only shown towards us blacks, but also to some of the whites themselves. One white man in particular I saw was, when we were permitted to be on deck, flogged so unmercifully with a large rope that he died in consequence of it; and they tossed him over the side. This made me fear these people the more; and I expected nothing less than to be treated in the same manner. Olaudah described the scene below decks, where people were packed so closely they could hardly turn over. The smells, he said, were “loathsome.” All is a “scene of horror.” One day, when we had a smooth sea, two of my wearied countrymen, who were chained together, preferring death to such a life of misery, somehow made through the nettings, and jumped into the sea. Olaudah was taken to Barbados in the West Indies, where he was sold. His story from there is different from most of the stories about slaves in the West Indies. Most worked and died while working on sugar cane plantations, but Equiano instead was taken on a ship where he became a seaman, eventually buying his own freedom after more than a decade as a slave. If you are interested in reading more about Olaudah Equiano, our library has a good book called A Kidnapped Prince.	<urn:uuid:d4fb1d73-1bed-4758-97c1-521a044a130f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/the-different-regions-of-the-english-colonies.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00338.warc.gz	en	0.986928	2,303	4.03125	4	[ 0.057874348014593124, 0.06736136972904205, 0.7276498675346375, -0.115644671022892, 0.29846063256263733, -0.08509524166584015, -0.28162622451782227, -0.028575509786605835, -0.45748573541641235, 0.08999335020780563, 0.08101074397563934, -0.31975048780441284, -0.09826238453388214, 0.246465668...	1	Edited from History of US and Sugar Changed the World. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Different Regions of the English Colonies The English colonies along the eastern coast of North America could be divided into regions based mostly on geographical conditions. These conditions—soil, climate, and access to navigable rivers—determined how the colonists survived and made their livings. The English colonies could be divided into the regions of North and South. The dividing line was the Mason-Dixon Line, named after the two surveyors who established the border between Pennsylvania and Maryland and Delaware. The North had two regions—New England and Middle. The New England soil was rocky; its climate was cold. The inhabitants could grow enough food for themselves, but not much more. When you grew enough food for your family but not enough to sell, you were called a subsistence farmer. The New Englanders made their money by taking advantage of their access to good fishing in the ocean. They fished for cod, which they salted so it could be preserved and traded to Europe or the Caribbean colonies. They also worked in the whaling industry, which provided blubber for boiling into oil. Besides fishing, the New England colonies—Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire—grew lots of timber, so the Northern settlers used the lumber to build ships. These ships allowed New Englanders to become worldwide traders selling wood products, oil and dried fish. Rhode Island also made rum and manufactured guns. The middle region, made up of Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York had better soil than New England, so they could grow cash crops. Additionally, there was some early manufacturing here involving the production of glass, textiles, and paper. Thousands also worked as craftsmen—shoemakers, tailors, blacksmiths, and watchmakers. The population was more diverse than in New England because immigrants tended to settle in this region. Though there was some manufacturing in the colonies, England, the mother country, wouldn’t let the colonists manufacture goods that competed with English goods. England wanted the colonists to buy most manufactured goods from England. The region of the South was different from both coastal New England and the more frontier region of the Middle colonies. The southern colony of Virginia had rich fertile land that farmers used to cultivate tobacco. This crop was grown on larger plantations. Southern colonies also grew indigo and rice. Tobacco, however, brought a tremendous amount of money to Southern plantation owners. Tobacco cultivation required a vast number of laborers. One way to increase profit was to find cheap labor. The Southern plantation owner quickly chose slave labor over free labor. Decreased labor costs meant increased profit. Indentured servants were relatively cheap, but eventually they worked off their contract and could go their own way. Slaves, on the other hand, never worked off their contract. Furthermore, they had children who became slaves. So how did the Southern farmers and plantation owners get their slaves? You need to understand the worldwide trading system that was in place (and growing!) at that time. By the 1700s, Yankees (a term for Northerners) were trading all kinds of things. They might take their salted cod to Barbados and trade it for cane sugar. Then they’d go to Virginia to pick up tobacco. They’d take the tobacco and sugar to England and trade them for cash, guns, and English cloth. Then on to Africa, where they exchanged the guns and cloth for men, women, and children. Read that last sentence again. It’s hard to believe that people were sold into slavery, but it’s part of our history. From there it was back across the Atlantic Ocean to the West Indies, where the people were sold into slavery. This system of trade routes has historically been called the Triangular Trade, but if you really look at the routes, you’ll see that to say this system involved only three points is too simplistic. So the phrase, Triangular Trade, makes you picture the triangle of routes between Europe, Africa, and the New World. But contrary to that simple image, the triangular slave trade that linked those three places was not a closed circuit. Asia was very much a part of this global trading system. For example, you’ve learned that the ships that went to Africa brought cloth to trade in exchange for slaves. England had wool cloth, but the Africans wanted cotton cloth. English slave traders needed a commodity that the African slave traders wanted. So England traded with India to get that cotton cloth. What did India want in exchange for the cloth? Yes, they wanted European guns, but more than that, they wanted silver. Where was silver coming from? The Spanish colonies in South America. Besides cotton from India, another commodity from Asia proved valuable to the Europeans buying and kidnapping slaves from the coast of West Africa: cowry shells. Europeans sailed to the Maldive Islands (near India) to get these cowry shells, which served as the major currency in West Africa. The Trade Routes You can see that the Triangular Trade name for this trading is really misleading. In fact, if you trace a line between all the countries that were trading, you would see that this was a web of trade routes. This was a global network of trade. Here is an accurate map of what was being traded to whom and from whom, but the world map below it gives you a better idea of this early globalization. You can see from this map that the trading going on in the 17th and 18th centuries included the entire world, not just a few triangular routes. Between 1526 and 1870, nearly 10 million slaves were shipped from Africa to: British North America and the United States Danish West Indies Slavery in Africa The European colonizers wanted African slaves to work in the sugar cane fields of the West Indies and Brazil, and to work in the tobacco and cotton fields of the Southern English colonies in North America. The Native Americans were not surviving amidst the hard conditions imposed on them. They were not immune to smallpox or malaria. The plantation owners soon realized that Africans survived the harsh conditions better than Native Americans. How did the Europeans acquire the slaves they wanted to bring to the New World? The Africans had been captured by enemy tribesmen and sold to African slave traders. The slave traders bargained with the New England boat captain, who bought as many people as he could squeeze on his ship. Some of the captives were children who were kidnapped from their parents. Olaudah Equiano was one of those children. He was 11 in 1756, when he was captured in Benin. He was the youngest of seven children. Like many other prosperous African families, his family had slaves. (So though it’s true that Africans themselves practiced slavery, the system and condition of servitude did not parallel the inhumane conditions of North and South American slavery that was based on racism.) Olaudah Equino’s autobiography gives us first-hand knowledge of what it was like to be captured and sold into slavery: One day, when all our people were gone out to their works as usual, and only I and my sister were left to mind the house, two men got over our walls, and in a moment seized us both; and without giving us time to cry out or to make any resistance, they ran off with us to the nearest wood. Here they tied our hands, and continued to carry us as far as they could, till night came on, when we reached a small house, where the robbers halted for refreshment and spent the night. Olaudah and his sister were taken on a long journey, separated, and sold. He was passed from person to person, staying a month here, a few weeks there. He tried unsuccessfully to run away. Finally, he was brought to the ocean, which he had never seen before. The first object which saluted my eyes when I arrived on the coast was the sea, and a slave ship, which was then riding at anchor and waiting for its cargo. These filled me with astonishment, which was soon converted into terror…When I was carried on board I was immediately handled, and tossed up to see if I was sound by some of the crew; and I was now persuaded that I had got into a world of bad spirits, and that they were going to kill me. Here is a diagram of a slave ship. The living conditions were beyond imagination. The enslaved Africans were housed right below deck, above the hold in cramped quarters, each in a space maybe 15 inches by 6 feet. Olaudah was tossed below deck, where the smell was so bad he became sick and couldn’t eat. When he refused food, he was tied down and beaten. Frightened, he was at first unable to find anyone who spoke his language. Finally he met some men who spoke the language of Benin. I asked them if they knew how the vessel moved. They told me they could not tell; but that there was cloth put upon the masts by the help of ropes I saw, and then the vessel went on; and the white men had some spell or magic they put in the water, when they liked, in order to stop the vessel. I was exceedingly amazed at his account, and really thought they were spirits. Olaudah learned that he was being taken to the white men’s country to work. I then was a little revived, and thought, if it were no worse than working, my situation was not so desperate; but still I feared I should be put to death, the white people looked and acted in so savage a manner; for I had never seen among any people such instances of brutal cruelty; and this is not only shown towards us blacks, but also to some of the whites themselves. One white man in particular I saw was, when we were permitted to be on deck, flogged so unmercifully with a large rope that he died in consequence of it; and they tossed him over the side. This made me fear these people the more; and I expected nothing less than to be treated in the same manner. Olaudah described the scene below decks, where people were packed so closely they could hardly turn over. The smells, he said, were “loathsome.” All is a “scene of horror.” One day, when we had a smooth sea, two of my wearied countrymen, who were chained together, preferring death to such a life of misery, somehow made through the nettings, and jumped into the sea. Olaudah was taken to Barbados in the West Indies, where he was sold. His story from there is different from most of the stories about slaves in the West Indies. Most worked and died while working on sugar cane plantations, but Equiano instead was taken on a ship where he became a seaman, eventually buying his own freedom after more than a decade as a slave. If you are interested in reading more about Olaudah Equiano, our library has a good book called A Kidnapped Prince.	2,285	ENGLISH	1
The Burning Tent Problem When on his annual camping trip along the St. Joe River, John, took a hike up Marble Creek. On his return to the campsite, he rounded the last bend in the trail; he could see up ahead that his tent was on fire. A quick glance around told him that he forgot to fill his bucket and take it back to the campsite. Instead John left his water bucket hanging on a branch along the trail he was hiking. John must run to the river fill his bucket and run to the burning tent to put out the fire. What’s the shortest path he can take? Activity 1: The Guess (conjecture) Draw a picture with a line segment AB representing the river.	<urn:uuid:ebfb250e-1884-4c63-96ba-e9d35b474ef4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://dentisty.org/the-burning-tent-problem.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00344.warc.gz	en	0.985369	151	3.265625	3	[ -0.4119497239589691, 0.6520238518714905, 0.2763363718986511, 0.10971387475728989, 0.17993409931659698, 0.3242189288139343, 0.20914936065673828, 0.11719019711017609, -0.6506034731864929, -0.15052363276481628, 0.055980194360017776, -0.2911773920059204, -0.11400210857391357, 0.419790387153625...	2	The Burning Tent Problem When on his annual camping trip along the St. Joe River, John, took a hike up Marble Creek. On his return to the campsite, he rounded the last bend in the trail; he could see up ahead that his tent was on fire. A quick glance around told him that he forgot to fill his bucket and take it back to the campsite. Instead John left his water bucket hanging on a branch along the trail he was hiking. John must run to the river fill his bucket and run to the burning tent to put out the fire. What’s the shortest path he can take? Activity 1: The Guess (conjecture) Draw a picture with a line segment AB representing the river.	148	ENGLISH	1
Claude Monet was fascinated by the outside world from a very young age and rarely spent time indoors, especially if painting. During his teen years, he had already gained some recognition for his charcoal caricatures and later, influenced by Eugéne Boudin, began painting with oil, mostly the residents in the port town “Le Havre” where he lived at that time. Nearing his twenties, Monet decided to move to Paris to pursue his artistic talent. There, he met his muze and future wife Camille Doncieux, as well as numerous artists that helped him shape his future vision of landscapes and the mastery over light and color. After years of working on a new technique, a process filled with bursts of depression, self doubt and burnt or cut paintings whose number goes beyond 500, the time to write history finally came. In 1874, Claude Monet showcased his work "Impression, Sunrise". Devoid of the photographic precision inherent to a traditional landscape, this depiction of port “Le Havre” at sunrise instantly became a statement. The work was widely unaccepted by the contemporary artistic community of that time. The piece was laughed at and ridiculed for its lack of precision and detail, an impression of an image, offering no more than a faint abstraction of what should be on the canvas. The renown of that time critic, Louis Leroy, wrote a satirical article from the perspective of an old-fashioned painter, shocked by the works of Mone, and little did he know, it would name the Impressionist Art movement. “-...What is this a painting of? Look in the catalogue. -Impression, Sunrise. -Impression-- I knew it. I was just saying to myself, if I'm impressed, there must be an impression in there… And what freedom, what ease in the brushwork! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more labored than this seascape!” Although the term “Impressionism” was used for the first time by critics in a humorous way, it started what we now call the Impressionist Movement. Monet offered a whole new outlook on what art can be and became the father of many more unique forms of abstraction. He filled the canvas using very fast and precise brush strokes, delivering unseen by that time realism in the perception of light. This technique was improved throughout his whole life and later became a key characteristic of the newly found Impressionist movement. Following his historical exposition, he managed to accumulate some wealth, but unfortunately, mostly all of it was spent on the medical bills of his wife. After giving birth to their second child, she became ill and eventually passed away. Monet’s intense grief can still be felt through his famous painting of Camillie on her deathbed. Around the 1890’s, he finally found financial success and married Alice Hoschede. They moved to Giverny, where Monet created a beautiful private garden from his passion for landscapes. The garden was his most valued work of art and he often painted the water lilies from the pond there, becoming one of his most famous series of paintings. A notable work ethic of Claude Monet was to paint the same scene over and over again, but from different times of the day, thus understanding how light interacts with objects and how he could replicate it onto a canvas. This was evident in many of his paintings as dark tones were used to highlight the brighter colors. Another interesting case is The Waterloo Bridge series by Claude Monet, that studied the vast variations in contrast, saturation and clarity caused by light scattering. Dynamic colors from an aerial perspective. The series consisted of over 40 paintings, successfully depicting the same cityscape and providing undisputed realism of tones and shades. The series of impressionist paintings often called “Haystacks” accurately described this idea. He painted the same haystacks at different times of the day and night, as well as from various angles, to show how even a slight change of the available light and color tones can drastically shift the perceived emotions from the paintings. Color, is nothing but a visual perception that exists only in our minds and is extremely subjective. The late paintings of the painter show us exactly how fragile this perception truly is. He suffered from cataracts, which shifted the range of the perceived wavelengths by his eyes. In 1911, following the death of his second wife Alice, Monet developed cataracts in his right eye, but it was not enough to keep him from painting. Ten years later, his cataracts had progressed to both eyes and some hues became indistinguishable to him. As a result of this health issue, his paintings shifted from a fine impression of reality to portraying the anxiety of a man losing the world around him. In 1923, he finally underwent surgery to replace the diseased lens in an attempt to save his failing sight. This surgery gave him the “superpower” of seeing some ultraviolet light, normally invisible to a healthy eye. And so, Monet’s successful career as a painter was not over. In a pursuit to understand the impression of light, he maniacally painted the colors only he could see till the rest of his days. Monet was truly the father of Impressionism. His method of rapidly painting a scene at an exact moment in time, allowed him to observe the variations of color and light, caused by the daily or seasonal changes. The focus was on what a person feels, their impression of the scenery. Claude Monet will remain in history as a person who broke free from the pre-19th century art norms and paved the way for many new forms of abstraction.	<urn:uuid:a8ca9e3c-0d24-41f3-961a-107a82fe442e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://abcofcolors.xyz/page/claude-monet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00321.warc.gz	en	0.983627	1,176	3.3125	3	[ -0.11998891085386276, 0.22722990810871124, 0.06969614326953888, -0.030183736234903336, 0.04214146360754967, 0.10944265127182007, 0.43616318702697754, 0.20873135328292847, -0.1109248548746109, 0.045220229774713516, 0.26355427503585815, -0.19289766252040863, 0.04219391196966171, 0.5608435273...	17	Claude Monet was fascinated by the outside world from a very young age and rarely spent time indoors, especially if painting. During his teen years, he had already gained some recognition for his charcoal caricatures and later, influenced by Eugéne Boudin, began painting with oil, mostly the residents in the port town “Le Havre” where he lived at that time. Nearing his twenties, Monet decided to move to Paris to pursue his artistic talent. There, he met his muze and future wife Camille Doncieux, as well as numerous artists that helped him shape his future vision of landscapes and the mastery over light and color. After years of working on a new technique, a process filled with bursts of depression, self doubt and burnt or cut paintings whose number goes beyond 500, the time to write history finally came. In 1874, Claude Monet showcased his work "Impression, Sunrise". Devoid of the photographic precision inherent to a traditional landscape, this depiction of port “Le Havre” at sunrise instantly became a statement. The work was widely unaccepted by the contemporary artistic community of that time. The piece was laughed at and ridiculed for its lack of precision and detail, an impression of an image, offering no more than a faint abstraction of what should be on the canvas. The renown of that time critic, Louis Leroy, wrote a satirical article from the perspective of an old-fashioned painter, shocked by the works of Mone, and little did he know, it would name the Impressionist Art movement. “-...What is this a painting of? Look in the catalogue. -Impression, Sunrise. -Impression-- I knew it. I was just saying to myself, if I'm impressed, there must be an impression in there… And what freedom, what ease in the brushwork! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more labored than this seascape!” Although the term “Impressionism” was used for the first time by critics in a humorous way, it started what we now call the Impressionist Movement. Monet offered a whole new outlook on what art can be and became the father of many more unique forms of abstraction. He filled the canvas using very fast and precise brush strokes, delivering unseen by that time realism in the perception of light. This technique was improved throughout his whole life and later became a key characteristic of the newly found Impressionist movement. Following his historical exposition, he managed to accumulate some wealth, but unfortunately, mostly all of it was spent on the medical bills of his wife. After giving birth to their second child, she became ill and eventually passed away. Monet’s intense grief can still be felt through his famous painting of Camillie on her deathbed. Around the 1890’s, he finally found financial success and married Alice Hoschede. They moved to Giverny, where Monet created a beautiful private garden from his passion for landscapes. The garden was his most valued work of art and he often painted the water lilies from the pond there, becoming one of his most famous series of paintings. A notable work ethic of Claude Monet was to paint the same scene over and over again, but from different times of the day, thus understanding how light interacts with objects and how he could replicate it onto a canvas. This was evident in many of his paintings as dark tones were used to highlight the brighter colors. Another interesting case is The Waterloo Bridge series by Claude Monet, that studied the vast variations in contrast, saturation and clarity caused by light scattering. Dynamic colors from an aerial perspective. The series consisted of over 40 paintings, successfully depicting the same cityscape and providing undisputed realism of tones and shades. The series of impressionist paintings often called “Haystacks” accurately described this idea. He painted the same haystacks at different times of the day and night, as well as from various angles, to show how even a slight change of the available light and color tones can drastically shift the perceived emotions from the paintings. Color, is nothing but a visual perception that exists only in our minds and is extremely subjective. The late paintings of the painter show us exactly how fragile this perception truly is. He suffered from cataracts, which shifted the range of the perceived wavelengths by his eyes. In 1911, following the death of his second wife Alice, Monet developed cataracts in his right eye, but it was not enough to keep him from painting. Ten years later, his cataracts had progressed to both eyes and some hues became indistinguishable to him. As a result of this health issue, his paintings shifted from a fine impression of reality to portraying the anxiety of a man losing the world around him. In 1923, he finally underwent surgery to replace the diseased lens in an attempt to save his failing sight. This surgery gave him the “superpower” of seeing some ultraviolet light, normally invisible to a healthy eye. And so, Monet’s successful career as a painter was not over. In a pursuit to understand the impression of light, he maniacally painted the colors only he could see till the rest of his days. Monet was truly the father of Impressionism. His method of rapidly painting a scene at an exact moment in time, allowed him to observe the variations of color and light, caused by the daily or seasonal changes. The focus was on what a person feels, their impression of the scenery. Claude Monet will remain in history as a person who broke free from the pre-19th century art norms and paved the way for many new forms of abstraction.	1,163	ENGLISH	1
Pablo Picasso, born in 1881 in Malaga, Spain, and died in 1973 in Mougins, France, was an active artist for most of his long life. His father was an artist himself, was Picasso’s first and most formative art teacher. Picasso has one of the most prolific creative careers in history, and his work was not only loved by art lovers around the world, but it was also incredibly influential for artists everywhere. But what was Picasso’s inspiration? What inspired these famous works? Picasso went through many creative phases in his career. These phases have been labeled as “periods” and show the different styles and mediums he was experimenting with during that time in his life. Picasso’s “Blue Period” started in 1901 and lasted until 1904. During this period, Picasso painted mostly in cool blue and green tones, sometimes using a warmer color to accent his works. These pieces have a melancholy about them, and are quite somber, featuring scenes of poverty and desolation. What was Picasso’s inspiration to start painting in this way? In the spring of 1901, one of Picasso’s dear friends, a painter and poet named Carlos Casagemas, committed suicide in a cafe in Paris. Picasso was deeply affected by his death, and sank into a depression that lasted several years. Picasso’s journey through his grief and depression is clearly reflected in his “Blue Period.” In 1904, Picasso moved to Montmartre in Paris, and settled into the community of bohemian artists and creators there. Coming out of his depression over his friend’s death, Picasso moved on from dark and serious subjects in his paintings to more lighthearted compositions featuring harlequins, clowns and carnival performers. His color palette warmed up as well, with his paintings now bathed in reds, oranges, pinks and earth tones. This period would be known as Picasso’s “Rose Period” and it lasted until 1906. So what can be credited with this major shift in his work? Picasso met a woman named Fernande Olivier in 1904 and they began a relationship that lasted seven years. Olivier would be the first of a long line of women who were muses and lovers to Picasso over the years. This relationship and the end of his bout of depression signaled a more positive phase of Picasso’s life. The overall tone of his work during this period is much more carefree and less somber. Citing beautiful women as inspiration would become a theme in Picasso’s life, all the way up until his death. Picasso has been quoted saying: “For me there are only two kinds of women, goddesses and doormats.” He often became obsessed with a young woman and she became an artistic muse for him, inspiring many works. All of the women Picasso took as either wives or lovers were painted by the artist. His second wife Jacqueline Roque was the subject of over 400 portraits by Picasso, and was a great source of inspiration to him. From 1906-1909 Picasso was heavily inspired by African art, after he was exposed to traditional African masks and other art objects coming from Africa into French museums in Paris. This phase has been called his “African Period,” and was a precursor to his most famous period, “Cubism.” Influenced by Paul Cezanne’s experimentation with three-dimensional spacing and perspective, Picasso and Georges Braque pioneered the artistic movement known as Cubism. This way of breaking down a form to its most basic forms and reconstructing them in an abstracted way is what Picasso is most known for. So what can we say was Picasso’s inspiration? Throughout his life, Picasso’s inspiration came in many different forms. Whether it be working through his emotions, responding to a difficult life event, meeting a beautiful young woman, an intense love affair or the work of his fellow artists, Picasso took inspiration from everywhere in his life. In turn, his life’s work has inspired and influenced millions of people around the world and forever changed the history of art. There is no denying the power of Picasso’s creative mind, and the effects of his stylistic experimentation in Cubism shaped the artistic movements that followed him. As an artist who would come to influence so many artists himself, Picasso is a pillar in the modern art world with a fascinating life full of inspiration.	<urn:uuid:4914d9d1-d198-4db7-bb10-f6270b30ee26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://news.masterworksfineart.com/2019/11/28/what-was-picassos-inspiration	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00090.warc.gz	en	0.988934	951	3.625	4	[ 0.03229595720767975, 0.48939040303230286, 0.11914265900850296, -0.20936664938926697, -0.4854080379009247, 0.18029087781906128, 0.2788311541080475, 0.1205240786075592, 0.31800732016563416, -0.11781616508960724, 0.22283786535263062, 0.2865048050880432, 0.03367040306329727, 0.5702542662620544...	6	Pablo Picasso, born in 1881 in Malaga, Spain, and died in 1973 in Mougins, France, was an active artist for most of his long life. His father was an artist himself, was Picasso’s first and most formative art teacher. Picasso has one of the most prolific creative careers in history, and his work was not only loved by art lovers around the world, but it was also incredibly influential for artists everywhere. But what was Picasso’s inspiration? What inspired these famous works? Picasso went through many creative phases in his career. These phases have been labeled as “periods” and show the different styles and mediums he was experimenting with during that time in his life. Picasso’s “Blue Period” started in 1901 and lasted until 1904. During this period, Picasso painted mostly in cool blue and green tones, sometimes using a warmer color to accent his works. These pieces have a melancholy about them, and are quite somber, featuring scenes of poverty and desolation. What was Picasso’s inspiration to start painting in this way? In the spring of 1901, one of Picasso’s dear friends, a painter and poet named Carlos Casagemas, committed suicide in a cafe in Paris. Picasso was deeply affected by his death, and sank into a depression that lasted several years. Picasso’s journey through his grief and depression is clearly reflected in his “Blue Period.” In 1904, Picasso moved to Montmartre in Paris, and settled into the community of bohemian artists and creators there. Coming out of his depression over his friend’s death, Picasso moved on from dark and serious subjects in his paintings to more lighthearted compositions featuring harlequins, clowns and carnival performers. His color palette warmed up as well, with his paintings now bathed in reds, oranges, pinks and earth tones. This period would be known as Picasso’s “Rose Period” and it lasted until 1906. So what can be credited with this major shift in his work? Picasso met a woman named Fernande Olivier in 1904 and they began a relationship that lasted seven years. Olivier would be the first of a long line of women who were muses and lovers to Picasso over the years. This relationship and the end of his bout of depression signaled a more positive phase of Picasso’s life. The overall tone of his work during this period is much more carefree and less somber. Citing beautiful women as inspiration would become a theme in Picasso’s life, all the way up until his death. Picasso has been quoted saying: “For me there are only two kinds of women, goddesses and doormats.” He often became obsessed with a young woman and she became an artistic muse for him, inspiring many works. All of the women Picasso took as either wives or lovers were painted by the artist. His second wife Jacqueline Roque was the subject of over 400 portraits by Picasso, and was a great source of inspiration to him. From 1906-1909 Picasso was heavily inspired by African art, after he was exposed to traditional African masks and other art objects coming from Africa into French museums in Paris. This phase has been called his “African Period,” and was a precursor to his most famous period, “Cubism.” Influenced by Paul Cezanne’s experimentation with three-dimensional spacing and perspective, Picasso and Georges Braque pioneered the artistic movement known as Cubism. This way of breaking down a form to its most basic forms and reconstructing them in an abstracted way is what Picasso is most known for. So what can we say was Picasso’s inspiration? Throughout his life, Picasso’s inspiration came in many different forms. Whether it be working through his emotions, responding to a difficult life event, meeting a beautiful young woman, an intense love affair or the work of his fellow artists, Picasso took inspiration from everywhere in his life. In turn, his life’s work has inspired and influenced millions of people around the world and forever changed the history of art. There is no denying the power of Picasso’s creative mind, and the effects of his stylistic experimentation in Cubism shaped the artistic movements that followed him. As an artist who would come to influence so many artists himself, Picasso is a pillar in the modern art world with a fascinating life full of inspiration.	909	ENGLISH	1
Nijmegen: city in the Netherlands, where several Roman settlements have been discovered. When the Romans built the legionary base at the Hunerberg, they started to live in a friendly territory. The local tribe, the Batavians, had been settled there recently, perhaps in 39 BCE, perhaps in 19, the year in which the Hunerberg fortress was built. Whatever the correct year of the arrival of the Batavians, it is certain that the legions needed them: as auxiliaries, as farmers, and as merchants. It comes as no surprise that a civil settlement came into being, west of the Hunerberg settlement. The distance between the western wall of the fortress and the town's eastern gate was less than 500 meter. Excavations at the St.-Josephhof (in 2005 and 2006) have proved that there were people living on that site in the decade BCE. This street - systematically developped - was at the southern edge of the town, and it is to be expected that excavations in the ancient center, at the Valkhof, will bring objects to light that are a bit older. This might help us establish whether the town was founded in 39 or 19, which in turn helps us understand whether the town owed its existence to the arrival of the legions, or that the legionary base was chosen because there was already a village. This civil settlement, in our sources sometimes called Batavodurum (Celtic for "marketplace of the Batavians") or Oppidum Batavorum ("town of the Batavians"), was on the hill known as Valkhof and a bit more to the east (map). Several scholars have argued that Batavodurum and Oppidum Batavorum were two towns. However, other cities did have two names, so we probably do not have to accept that there were two Batavian settlements. The site was well-chosen. The Valkhof and Hunerberg are part of an ice-pushed ridge south of the river Waal, the main distribuary branch of the Rhine. From Gaul, the river Meuse flows to the north, but it cannot break through the ridge, and turns to the west, joining the Waal further downstream. At Nijmegen, only ten kilometer separate the two streams, which means that it is easy to bring food supplies to the Hunerberg; Batavodurum was the logical point for traders to settle. Although excavations have taken place since 1910, it was not until the 1970s that the archaeologists realized what they had found. This can be explained from the fact that it is very hard to get an overall picture of the ancient settlement, which is situated underneath the very heart of a modern city. Besides, it turned out that Batavodurum was larger than anyone had expected: about a kilometer long, about 300 meter from the Waal to the south, covering at least twenty-five hectare. It may in fact have been larger, because the northern edge - along the river - has been washed away. Traces of the ditch have been found in the west near the medieval Town Hall, in the south near the Marienburg Chapel, and in the east in the Barbarossastraat. A monumental town There was another unexpected aspect: the Roman nature of the city. There are indications that from the very start, the town had a gridiron map, which made it look like a Roman town. (A parallel development took place in Tongeren.) The name, and the fact that it was settled with migrating Batavians, had led to the idea that Batavodurum had to have a more native look. One would even doubt whether the excavated settlement is really identical to the town of the Batavians, if the town had not been destroyed by fire in the third quarter of the first century: from the Roman historian Tacitus, we know that this was the ultimate fate of Batavodurum during the Batavian Revolt (70 CE).note[Tacitus, Histories 5.19.] The destroyed town offered little to archaeologists: everything above surface level was destroyed. The only really conspicuous monument that has been found, was a victory monument that was dedicated to the Roman emperor Tiberius. The archaeologists have to reconstruct Batavodurum from the cellars they have excavated. From these unpretentious remains, we learn that the first houses were made of wood, wattle, and daub. After 40 CE, several houses were erected out of stone, which had been imported from the Eifel Mountains. At least one house had a wall covered with a black-and-red fresco; again, there is a parallel to Tongeren. The streets were covered with pebbles. The Lange Hezelstraat and the Burchtstraat are continuations of the ancient main road, which went from east to west and connected the town to the Hunerberg fortress through the Barbarossastraat. South of the last-mentioned street was the cemetery, along the modern Hugo de Grootstraat and the Museum Kamstraat. There must have been about 4,000 cremation tombs. As the town existed from, say, 10 BCE to 70 CE, and the average life expectancy was about twenty years, we may deduce that there were about 1,000 people living in Batavodurum. Batavodurum was abandoned after 70; the survivors moved to Noviomagus. The old town was converted into a cemetery: many people were buried along the old main road;. The northwestern part of old Batavodurum remained in use as river port; and in the fourth century, the Valkhof was again in use, now as a castle - which it has remained until 1797.	<urn:uuid:726604fa-0b96-42fa-a1d2-b8863f7cfe88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/place/noviomagus/nijmegen-photos/nijmegen-batavodurum/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00290.warc.gz	en	0.985313	1,213	3.484375	3	[ -0.4750638008117676, 0.5240948796272278, 0.05660121142864227, 0.058139216154813766, -0.1038282960653305, -0.090617835521698, -0.22935600578784943, 0.2875889539718628, -0.5978153944015503, -0.2903508245944977, -0.02613542415201664, -1.0972797870635986, -0.671385645866394, 0.5461327433586121...	4	Nijmegen: city in the Netherlands, where several Roman settlements have been discovered. When the Romans built the legionary base at the Hunerberg, they started to live in a friendly territory. The local tribe, the Batavians, had been settled there recently, perhaps in 39 BCE, perhaps in 19, the year in which the Hunerberg fortress was built. Whatever the correct year of the arrival of the Batavians, it is certain that the legions needed them: as auxiliaries, as farmers, and as merchants. It comes as no surprise that a civil settlement came into being, west of the Hunerberg settlement. The distance between the western wall of the fortress and the town's eastern gate was less than 500 meter. Excavations at the St.-Josephhof (in 2005 and 2006) have proved that there were people living on that site in the decade BCE. This street - systematically developped - was at the southern edge of the town, and it is to be expected that excavations in the ancient center, at the Valkhof, will bring objects to light that are a bit older. This might help us establish whether the town was founded in 39 or 19, which in turn helps us understand whether the town owed its existence to the arrival of the legions, or that the legionary base was chosen because there was already a village. This civil settlement, in our sources sometimes called Batavodurum (Celtic for "marketplace of the Batavians") or Oppidum Batavorum ("town of the Batavians"), was on the hill known as Valkhof and a bit more to the east (map). Several scholars have argued that Batavodurum and Oppidum Batavorum were two towns. However, other cities did have two names, so we probably do not have to accept that there were two Batavian settlements. The site was well-chosen. The Valkhof and Hunerberg are part of an ice-pushed ridge south of the river Waal, the main distribuary branch of the Rhine. From Gaul, the river Meuse flows to the north, but it cannot break through the ridge, and turns to the west, joining the Waal further downstream. At Nijmegen, only ten kilometer separate the two streams, which means that it is easy to bring food supplies to the Hunerberg; Batavodurum was the logical point for traders to settle. Although excavations have taken place since 1910, it was not until the 1970s that the archaeologists realized what they had found. This can be explained from the fact that it is very hard to get an overall picture of the ancient settlement, which is situated underneath the very heart of a modern city. Besides, it turned out that Batavodurum was larger than anyone had expected: about a kilometer long, about 300 meter from the Waal to the south, covering at least twenty-five hectare. It may in fact have been larger, because the northern edge - along the river - has been washed away. Traces of the ditch have been found in the west near the medieval Town Hall, in the south near the Marienburg Chapel, and in the east in the Barbarossastraat. A monumental town There was another unexpected aspect: the Roman nature of the city. There are indications that from the very start, the town had a gridiron map, which made it look like a Roman town. (A parallel development took place in Tongeren.) The name, and the fact that it was settled with migrating Batavians, had led to the idea that Batavodurum had to have a more native look. One would even doubt whether the excavated settlement is really identical to the town of the Batavians, if the town had not been destroyed by fire in the third quarter of the first century: from the Roman historian Tacitus, we know that this was the ultimate fate of Batavodurum during the Batavian Revolt (70 CE).note[Tacitus, Histories 5.19.] The destroyed town offered little to archaeologists: everything above surface level was destroyed. The only really conspicuous monument that has been found, was a victory monument that was dedicated to the Roman emperor Tiberius. The archaeologists have to reconstruct Batavodurum from the cellars they have excavated. From these unpretentious remains, we learn that the first houses were made of wood, wattle, and daub. After 40 CE, several houses were erected out of stone, which had been imported from the Eifel Mountains. At least one house had a wall covered with a black-and-red fresco; again, there is a parallel to Tongeren. The streets were covered with pebbles. The Lange Hezelstraat and the Burchtstraat are continuations of the ancient main road, which went from east to west and connected the town to the Hunerberg fortress through the Barbarossastraat. South of the last-mentioned street was the cemetery, along the modern Hugo de Grootstraat and the Museum Kamstraat. There must have been about 4,000 cremation tombs. As the town existed from, say, 10 BCE to 70 CE, and the average life expectancy was about twenty years, we may deduce that there were about 1,000 people living in Batavodurum. Batavodurum was abandoned after 70; the survivors moved to Noviomagus. The old town was converted into a cemetery: many people were buried along the old main road;. The northwestern part of old Batavodurum remained in use as river port; and in the fourth century, the Valkhof was again in use, now as a castle - which it has remained until 1797.	1,241	ENGLISH	1
The Greek religion is one of the most versatile and vast domains of world mythology. It consists of a plethora of gods and goddesses as well as other mythical beings who make frequent appearances in their legends and literature. Did You Know? The ancient Greeks considered the Olympians as their main deities and believed that just like the humans, they were a family that would argue, fight, as well as care for each other. Greek mythology is a collection of a series of myths and legends that form an inevitable part of their ancient religious setup. Much like the other contemporary religious traditions, the religion of ancient Greece was polytheistic in nature. This is evident from the large number of narratives that explicitly detail the Greek religious lores. Even the two Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which are based on the Trojan war, refer to numerous Greek deities and try to relate to them in some way or the other. And of course, we have plenty of archaeological evidence including sculptures, reliefs, inscriptions and so on providing us with a clear description and depiction of the Greek divinities. The Greek Pantheon The Greek pantheon can be divided into four categories: – The Olympians were the principal deities of the pantheon. – The Primordial divinities were the first ones to have ever existed. They are supposed to be the antecedents of all the gods and goddesses. – The Titans were the first generation of Giants, who seemingly descended from Gaia and Ouranos. – The Giants were also the offspring of Gaia and Ouranos but were born after Ouranos was castrated and thus bore numerous deformities. The Olympians are a group of twelve (sometimes fourteen) principal divinities of the Greek pantheon. They are said to have defeated the Titans in the ‘War of Gods’ and thus achieved this supreme position. According to Greek mythology, their abode is on the top of Mount Olympus, hence the name Olympians. Description: Zeus rules over Mount Olympus and is the king of the Gods. He is the son of Cronus and Rhea, the husband to Hera, and has 15 children, all of whom are Olympians. Depiction: He is depicted as a tall and a sturdy man with regal attire. He has long hair and a long beard. Generally, he is depicted in a standing pose, but we also have some seated sculptures of Zeus. Attributes: The thunderbolt is his main attribute which is generally placed in his right hand. Sometimes, he carries a royal scepter in his left hand. The bull and eagle are his sacred animals. Description: Hades is the God of the dead. He is the lord of the Underworld and the guardian of all wealth that is hidden beneath the surface of the earth. He is the elder brother of Zeus and is married to Persephone. Depiction: Though he does not have many classical depictions, he has been depicted seated on his throne, along with his three-headed dog, Cerberus by his side. Attributes: He always holds a Helm of Darkness and the Key of Hades in his hands. His sacred bird is the screech owl. Description: Often known as Neptune, Poseidon is the lord of the sea. He is the one who creates the horses from sea-foam and is also the creator of earthquakes. He is the brother of Zeus and Hades. Depiction: He is depicted as a sturdy old man with a long beard, holding a trident in his hand. Attributes: He usually holds a trident, but the statue of Poseidon at Goteborg, Sweden, depicts him as a youth holding a fish and a conch shell in his hands. Description: Hera is the Goddess of childbirth and marriage. She is often said to be the Goddess of the feminine and is the wife and sister of Zeus. Depiction: She is depicted as a calm and an impressive woman, often seated on a throne and wearing a crown on her head. Attributes: She holds a pomegranate and a lotus-tipped staff in her hands. Animals associated with Hera include the lion and peacock. Description: Considered to be the deity of farmers, Demeter is the Goddess of fertility, grain, agriculture, harvest, and creativity. She is a sister of Zeus and the calmest of all deities. Depiction: She is represented, either standing or seated, as a motherly, matured woman, wearing a long attire and a veil. Attributes: She carries corn and a torch and sometimes, a wand. She is symbolized by the Cornucopia. Animals depicted alongside Demeter include pigs and serpents. Description: Hestia is the sister of Zeus and is the Goddess of homes, hearth, and cooking. She is the center point of all homes of the Greek civilization. Depiction: She is depicted in a standing pose as a modest mature woman wearing a veil. Attributes: Her common attributes include a hearth and a kettle. Description: Ares is the God of order, courage, violence, and bloodshed, thus highlighting both negative and positive aspects. He is the son of Zeus and Hera and the lover of Aphrodite. Depiction: He is depicted in a standing position either as a strong and matured person with a dark beard and dressed as a old or young warrior. Attributes: He holds a spear in his hand and has a helm on his head. Animals sacred to him are snakes, vultures, alligators, boars, and dogs. Description: This son of Zeus is the God of mischief, travel, trade, language, and animal husbandry. He is the messenger of Gods and has a humorous knack of playing tricks on people. Depiction: In common depictions, he is either a strong and an athletic youth or an old man with a long beard. Attributes: He carries a wand and wears a traveler’s cap. His sandals have wings. The animals associated with Hermes are hawk, tortoise, and ram. Description: A son of Zeus, Dionysus is the God of enjoyment and merriment. He governs the intoxication of wine, parties, festivals, and merry occasions. Depiction: He is represented as a drunk either as a young or old man. As a young man, he has long hair and is beardless. As an old man, he has a long beard. Attributes: His most common attributes include a drinking cup, grape-vine, and an ivy. He is depicted alongside animals such as snakes, dolphins, tigers, and sometimes donkeys. Description: Hephaestus, the husband of Aphrodite and son of Zeus, is the God of blacksmiths and all metal workers as well as stonemasons. He is also the God of technology and is considered to be so skilled that he made the arms and armor of Greek heroes such as Achilles. Depiction: He is depicted as a crippled old man holding hammer and tongs and sitting on a donkey. Attributes: Common attributes include blacksmith’s tools and sacred animals include a crane and a dog, other than his donkey. Description: Apollo is the most learned Greek God. He is the God of music, medicine, health, light, truth, and archery. He is associated with the sun, and is the most handsome deity. He is a son of Zeus and the twin of Artemis. Depiction: He is depicted as a tall young man with wavy hair and an elaborate hairdo. Most images depict him in a standing position. Attributes: His attributes are bows, lyres, and laurels. Animals sacred to him are swans, ravens, hawks, foxes, snakes, and crows. Description: She is the twin of Apollo and is associated with the moon. She is the Goddess of hunting, virginity, wildlife, and dew. Depiction: She is depicted as a young woman wearing a knee-length attire. She is always equipped with bows and arrows. Attributes: Apart from bows and arrows, her attributes include spears and animal hide. Many a time, she is accompanied by a deer. Other animals she is associated with include wild boars, bears, and dogs. Description: The adulterous consort of Hephaestus and the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite is the Goddess of love, lust, and beauty. Depiction: She is depicted as a beautiful young woman with an elaborate hairdo. She is also portrayed nude in order to indicate the sexual pleasures that she symbolizes. Attributes: Her sacred bird is the dove. Her common attributes include a scallop shell, a myrtle, a rose and a pomegranate. Description: She is the Goddess of wisdom and warfare. Athena was born from the head of Zeus with armor on her body, indicating that she was a born warrior. She is the patroness of the city of Athens. Depiction: She is depicted as a strong, long-haired woman with a crested helm on her head. Usually depicted in a standing pose, a rare portrayal of Athena seated on her throne along with her shield is found on a coin of Attalus I who ruled Pergamon in 200 B.C. Attributes: She holds a shield and a spear in her hands and is accompanied by an owl. The Primordial Divinities The primordial gods or the ‘Protogenoi’ as they are called are the entities which form the very fabric of the universe. They are the group of the ‘first born’ beings and it was from them that the entire universe sprang up. Hence, they are also immortal. There are not many anthropomorphic representations of the primordial entities but they do form a vital part in the list of Greek gods and goddesses. Aether- is an atmospheric entity. Ananke- represents importance of things and inevitability. Chaos- is an entity that symbolizes vacuum, void, or emptiness. Chronos- is the primordial entity representing time. Erebus- is the god of darkness and the creatures within. Gaia or Gaea- is the anthropomorphic form of mother Earth. Hemera- is the goddess of light. Nyx- is night personified. Ouranos- is the lord of heavens, the Ourea are the mountain spirits. Phanes- represents cosmos and reproduction. Pontus- is the father of marine life and the Nesoi are the guardian goddesses of the islands. Tartarus- refers to the underworld. It is the darkest and stratigraphically the lowest part of the universe. It also sometimes represents hell. The Titans or the ‘older gods’ are described to be a powerful race of gods who were the descendants (often considered to be the children) of Gaia and Ouranos. They were later on defeated by the Olympians in the famous ‘War of Gods’. Each Titan symbolized certain entities and values. Atlas- was the titan who was made to carry the universe on his shoulders by Zeus. Aura- is the titan of breeze. Cronus, was the king of the titans depicted with a scythe in his hand which he used in order to castrate his father Uranus. Eos- represents the daybreak. Helios- represents the rising and setting of the sun. Mnemosyne- represents remembrance and recollection. Oceanus- is the god of the rivers/fresh-water. Perses- represents both, peace as well as pandemonium. Phoebe- is the titan of astrology and prophecies. Prometheus- is the one who created the human race. Selene- represents the moon. Styx- is hatred and evil personified. It also represents the river Styx that flows in the underworld. Themis- is the titan of stability, law, and order of the universe. The Giants were born when the blood of Ouranos that flowed after he was castrated fecundated Gaia. They were huge beings born with a lot of deformities. They are often depicted as having numerous hands and eyes, serpent tails, wings, etc. However, all of them were born wearing the gear of a warrior and had spears in their hands. They were essentially the demi-gods. Alkyoneus- was considered to be immortal in his own territory, but was later on killed by Heracles. Antaeus- was also defeated and killed by Heracles. He used to fight and murder all those who dared enter his territory. Geryon- was a monstrous giant with three bodies, six legs, two pairs of wings and a tail of a serpent. Orion- was a very well-known giant and a handsome hunter who later on became a constellation of stars and was placed in the sky by Zeus. Polyphemus- is a giant who appears in Homer’s Odyssey. He captures the hero Odysseus and his troops only for a short while before being blinded by the hero of the epic. Porphyrion- was the ruler of the giants. Classical accounts state that he attempted to rape Hera and so was slain jointly by Zeus and Heracles. Talos- was a giant with a pair of wings who was gifted to Europa by her lover, Zeus, as her bodyguard. Tityos- was slain by the siblings Artemis and Apollo after he attempted to rape their mother. Typhon- was a winged giant with a snake’s tail who could command the storms. He could not be defeated as he was immortal and so he was captured alive and imprisoned in the dungeons of Tartarus. Apart from these four broad categories which are the part of the mainstream mythology, we also have several folk deities who have their own cults and are worshiped by various sects of people, especially in the rural areas. So, the Greek folk pantheon has a plethora of earthly gods, sea spirits, sky deities, deities of health and fertility, and various divinities worshiped by the farmers. Interestingly, there were also a number of mortals who were elevated to godly status by the gods themselves due to their success and heroic exploits. So, the Greek pantheon has various deities assigned with the tasks of overcoming all sorts of troubles and evils that the humans have to face in their day-to-day to lives.	<urn:uuid:e5e3b632-80ea-4577-9f10-900ca5519475>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://spiritualray.com/list-of-greek-gods-goddesses	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00442.warc.gz	en	0.9813	3,010	3.421875	3	[ 0.23380613327026367, 0.2430233657360077, 0.20970222353935242, -0.26005658507347107, -0.6239309310913086, -0.20509368181228638, 0.20560461282730103, 0.34458494186401367, 0.31575626134872437, -0.04295482486486435, -0.6211281418800354, -0.4335783123970032, -0.0907488688826561, 0.4260099530220...	6	The Greek religion is one of the most versatile and vast domains of world mythology. It consists of a plethora of gods and goddesses as well as other mythical beings who make frequent appearances in their legends and literature. Did You Know? The ancient Greeks considered the Olympians as their main deities and believed that just like the humans, they were a family that would argue, fight, as well as care for each other. Greek mythology is a collection of a series of myths and legends that form an inevitable part of their ancient religious setup. Much like the other contemporary religious traditions, the religion of ancient Greece was polytheistic in nature. This is evident from the large number of narratives that explicitly detail the Greek religious lores. Even the two Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which are based on the Trojan war, refer to numerous Greek deities and try to relate to them in some way or the other. And of course, we have plenty of archaeological evidence including sculptures, reliefs, inscriptions and so on providing us with a clear description and depiction of the Greek divinities. The Greek Pantheon The Greek pantheon can be divided into four categories: – The Olympians were the principal deities of the pantheon. – The Primordial divinities were the first ones to have ever existed. They are supposed to be the antecedents of all the gods and goddesses. – The Titans were the first generation of Giants, who seemingly descended from Gaia and Ouranos. – The Giants were also the offspring of Gaia and Ouranos but were born after Ouranos was castrated and thus bore numerous deformities. The Olympians are a group of twelve (sometimes fourteen) principal divinities of the Greek pantheon. They are said to have defeated the Titans in the ‘War of Gods’ and thus achieved this supreme position. According to Greek mythology, their abode is on the top of Mount Olympus, hence the name Olympians. Description: Zeus rules over Mount Olympus and is the king of the Gods. He is the son of Cronus and Rhea, the husband to Hera, and has 15 children, all of whom are Olympians. Depiction: He is depicted as a tall and a sturdy man with regal attire. He has long hair and a long beard. Generally, he is depicted in a standing pose, but we also have some seated sculptures of Zeus. Attributes: The thunderbolt is his main attribute which is generally placed in his right hand. Sometimes, he carries a royal scepter in his left hand. The bull and eagle are his sacred animals. Description: Hades is the God of the dead. He is the lord of the Underworld and the guardian of all wealth that is hidden beneath the surface of the earth. He is the elder brother of Zeus and is married to Persephone. Depiction: Though he does not have many classical depictions, he has been depicted seated on his throne, along with his three-headed dog, Cerberus by his side. Attributes: He always holds a Helm of Darkness and the Key of Hades in his hands. His sacred bird is the screech owl. Description: Often known as Neptune, Poseidon is the lord of the sea. He is the one who creates the horses from sea-foam and is also the creator of earthquakes. He is the brother of Zeus and Hades. Depiction: He is depicted as a sturdy old man with a long beard, holding a trident in his hand. Attributes: He usually holds a trident, but the statue of Poseidon at Goteborg, Sweden, depicts him as a youth holding a fish and a conch shell in his hands. Description: Hera is the Goddess of childbirth and marriage. She is often said to be the Goddess of the feminine and is the wife and sister of Zeus. Depiction: She is depicted as a calm and an impressive woman, often seated on a throne and wearing a crown on her head. Attributes: She holds a pomegranate and a lotus-tipped staff in her hands. Animals associated with Hera include the lion and peacock. Description: Considered to be the deity of farmers, Demeter is the Goddess of fertility, grain, agriculture, harvest, and creativity. She is a sister of Zeus and the calmest of all deities. Depiction: She is represented, either standing or seated, as a motherly, matured woman, wearing a long attire and a veil. Attributes: She carries corn and a torch and sometimes, a wand. She is symbolized by the Cornucopia. Animals depicted alongside Demeter include pigs and serpents. Description: Hestia is the sister of Zeus and is the Goddess of homes, hearth, and cooking. She is the center point of all homes of the Greek civilization. Depiction: She is depicted in a standing pose as a modest mature woman wearing a veil. Attributes: Her common attributes include a hearth and a kettle. Description: Ares is the God of order, courage, violence, and bloodshed, thus highlighting both negative and positive aspects. He is the son of Zeus and Hera and the lover of Aphrodite. Depiction: He is depicted in a standing position either as a strong and matured person with a dark beard and dressed as a old or young warrior. Attributes: He holds a spear in his hand and has a helm on his head. Animals sacred to him are snakes, vultures, alligators, boars, and dogs. Description: This son of Zeus is the God of mischief, travel, trade, language, and animal husbandry. He is the messenger of Gods and has a humorous knack of playing tricks on people. Depiction: In common depictions, he is either a strong and an athletic youth or an old man with a long beard. Attributes: He carries a wand and wears a traveler’s cap. His sandals have wings. The animals associated with Hermes are hawk, tortoise, and ram. Description: A son of Zeus, Dionysus is the God of enjoyment and merriment. He governs the intoxication of wine, parties, festivals, and merry occasions. Depiction: He is represented as a drunk either as a young or old man. As a young man, he has long hair and is beardless. As an old man, he has a long beard. Attributes: His most common attributes include a drinking cup, grape-vine, and an ivy. He is depicted alongside animals such as snakes, dolphins, tigers, and sometimes donkeys. Description: Hephaestus, the husband of Aphrodite and son of Zeus, is the God of blacksmiths and all metal workers as well as stonemasons. He is also the God of technology and is considered to be so skilled that he made the arms and armor of Greek heroes such as Achilles. Depiction: He is depicted as a crippled old man holding hammer and tongs and sitting on a donkey. Attributes: Common attributes include blacksmith’s tools and sacred animals include a crane and a dog, other than his donkey. Description: Apollo is the most learned Greek God. He is the God of music, medicine, health, light, truth, and archery. He is associated with the sun, and is the most handsome deity. He is a son of Zeus and the twin of Artemis. Depiction: He is depicted as a tall young man with wavy hair and an elaborate hairdo. Most images depict him in a standing position. Attributes: His attributes are bows, lyres, and laurels. Animals sacred to him are swans, ravens, hawks, foxes, snakes, and crows. Description: She is the twin of Apollo and is associated with the moon. She is the Goddess of hunting, virginity, wildlife, and dew. Depiction: She is depicted as a young woman wearing a knee-length attire. She is always equipped with bows and arrows. Attributes: Apart from bows and arrows, her attributes include spears and animal hide. Many a time, she is accompanied by a deer. Other animals she is associated with include wild boars, bears, and dogs. Description: The adulterous consort of Hephaestus and the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite is the Goddess of love, lust, and beauty. Depiction: She is depicted as a beautiful young woman with an elaborate hairdo. She is also portrayed nude in order to indicate the sexual pleasures that she symbolizes. Attributes: Her sacred bird is the dove. Her common attributes include a scallop shell, a myrtle, a rose and a pomegranate. Description: She is the Goddess of wisdom and warfare. Athena was born from the head of Zeus with armor on her body, indicating that she was a born warrior. She is the patroness of the city of Athens. Depiction: She is depicted as a strong, long-haired woman with a crested helm on her head. Usually depicted in a standing pose, a rare portrayal of Athena seated on her throne along with her shield is found on a coin of Attalus I who ruled Pergamon in 200 B.C. Attributes: She holds a shield and a spear in her hands and is accompanied by an owl. The Primordial Divinities The primordial gods or the ‘Protogenoi’ as they are called are the entities which form the very fabric of the universe. They are the group of the ‘first born’ beings and it was from them that the entire universe sprang up. Hence, they are also immortal. There are not many anthropomorphic representations of the primordial entities but they do form a vital part in the list of Greek gods and goddesses. Aether- is an atmospheric entity. Ananke- represents importance of things and inevitability. Chaos- is an entity that symbolizes vacuum, void, or emptiness. Chronos- is the primordial entity representing time. Erebus- is the god of darkness and the creatures within. Gaia or Gaea- is the anthropomorphic form of mother Earth. Hemera- is the goddess of light. Nyx- is night personified. Ouranos- is the lord of heavens, the Ourea are the mountain spirits. Phanes- represents cosmos and reproduction. Pontus- is the father of marine life and the Nesoi are the guardian goddesses of the islands. Tartarus- refers to the underworld. It is the darkest and stratigraphically the lowest part of the universe. It also sometimes represents hell. The Titans or the ‘older gods’ are described to be a powerful race of gods who were the descendants (often considered to be the children) of Gaia and Ouranos. They were later on defeated by the Olympians in the famous ‘War of Gods’. Each Titan symbolized certain entities and values. Atlas- was the titan who was made to carry the universe on his shoulders by Zeus. Aura- is the titan of breeze. Cronus, was the king of the titans depicted with a scythe in his hand which he used in order to castrate his father Uranus. Eos- represents the daybreak. Helios- represents the rising and setting of the sun. Mnemosyne- represents remembrance and recollection. Oceanus- is the god of the rivers/fresh-water. Perses- represents both, peace as well as pandemonium. Phoebe- is the titan of astrology and prophecies. Prometheus- is the one who created the human race. Selene- represents the moon. Styx- is hatred and evil personified. It also represents the river Styx that flows in the underworld. Themis- is the titan of stability, law, and order of the universe. The Giants were born when the blood of Ouranos that flowed after he was castrated fecundated Gaia. They were huge beings born with a lot of deformities. They are often depicted as having numerous hands and eyes, serpent tails, wings, etc. However, all of them were born wearing the gear of a warrior and had spears in their hands. They were essentially the demi-gods. Alkyoneus- was considered to be immortal in his own territory, but was later on killed by Heracles. Antaeus- was also defeated and killed by Heracles. He used to fight and murder all those who dared enter his territory. Geryon- was a monstrous giant with three bodies, six legs, two pairs of wings and a tail of a serpent. Orion- was a very well-known giant and a handsome hunter who later on became a constellation of stars and was placed in the sky by Zeus. Polyphemus- is a giant who appears in Homer’s Odyssey. He captures the hero Odysseus and his troops only for a short while before being blinded by the hero of the epic. Porphyrion- was the ruler of the giants. Classical accounts state that he attempted to rape Hera and so was slain jointly by Zeus and Heracles. Talos- was a giant with a pair of wings who was gifted to Europa by her lover, Zeus, as her bodyguard. Tityos- was slain by the siblings Artemis and Apollo after he attempted to rape their mother. Typhon- was a winged giant with a snake’s tail who could command the storms. He could not be defeated as he was immortal and so he was captured alive and imprisoned in the dungeons of Tartarus. Apart from these four broad categories which are the part of the mainstream mythology, we also have several folk deities who have their own cults and are worshiped by various sects of people, especially in the rural areas. So, the Greek folk pantheon has a plethora of earthly gods, sea spirits, sky deities, deities of health and fertility, and various divinities worshiped by the farmers. Interestingly, there were also a number of mortals who were elevated to godly status by the gods themselves due to their success and heroic exploits. So, the Greek pantheon has various deities assigned with the tasks of overcoming all sorts of troubles and evils that the humans have to face in their day-to-day to lives.	2,931	ENGLISH	1
The Magdalene Laundries were institutions ran by the Catholic church in Ireland, which were used to house 30,000 women from the late 18th century to the 20th century. The first one was founded on Lower Leeson Street in Dublin in 1756 and the last one didn’t close down until 1996. If a woman slept with a man outside of marriage, she shamed her family and became an outcast of society. For women who had unplanned pregnancies outside of marriage, unless she agreed to marry the father before the baby was born, she would be driven out of the family home. If pregnancy occurred and marriage was not likely, she would be sent away until the baby was born. Women would be expected to give the baby up for adoption, never to speak of the matter and to have no contact with the child. The ‘fallen women’ of Ireland were sent to these institutions. The work came in the form of laundry, the nuns made a business from washing the clothes and linen of wealthy families and businesses in the area. Remember this was all done without the use of a washing machine, which meant long days of scrubbing, bleaching, wringing, pressing and packaging and folding. On top of this work, these women were also subjected to a rigorous schedule of prayers and penance to atone for their sins. Since they were not considered ‘good catholic’ girls they were treated harshly. The women could never leave the grounds unless a family member had signed their release for them to come home. In the outside world, they were treated with weariness and contempt, subject to staring and verbal abuse. They became known as ‘the maggies’ and over time the laundries became more like a prison. The survivors of the Magdalene laundries suffered physical, emotional and spiritual abuse. Tackle the rabbit (2018) are performative photographs of a pregnant woman in modern rural Ireland in 2018. The performer conveys those dark times for the women of Ireland who suffered in silence, the women who thought they didn’t have a voice, the women who suffered turmoil because of the actions of someone else, the women who didn’t have the right to a say of their own bodies, the women who were labelled prostitutes, homewreckers, dirty, used, criminals, unfit mother, and for the women who didn’t feel welcome in their own country. For the ‘fallen women’ of society, who challenged traditional notions of Irish morality, the performer stands with confidence, with her hands placed on her unborn child, showing us strength, confidence and freedom. On the 25th of May 2018, it was a monumental day for the women of Ireland, their voice was finally heard. The country voted yes against anti-abortion laws and it was a huge turning point for the women and men of Ireland, for our future generation. The minister for health Simon Harris stated: ‘‘Under the eighth amendment we used to say to women in crisis: take the boat or take the plane. Today we say, take our hand.” (The Guardian, 2018). It was a quiet revolution that has been taking part in Ireland for the past 10 or 20 years and the people of Ireland have spoken. Ireland has been influenced by America and Europe and has changed and is changing as Mr. Varadkar said ‘’we want a modern constitution for a modern country’’ (The New York Times, 2018) The Eight amendment being abolished shows us that our country respect women, respect their bodies and their right to make their own decisions, we are not treated like second class citizens anymore, we have a voice and we will use it. For many abortion supporters the result was an affirmation of being accepted by society and separating the church from the state. The catholic church influenced Ireland for over a decade and was heavily involved in referendums, the decision was hard for a lot of people in a country where the legacy of the catholic church remains powerful.	<urn:uuid:6cb96f74-9b1f-4486-a47c-ebcf4dd2df6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://social-art-award.org/tackle-the-rabbit-2018	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00434.warc.gz	en	0.985572	824	3.453125	3	[ -0.034668270498514175, -0.008074186742305756, -0.1894344538450241, 0.002468663267791271, 0.06624622642993927, 0.3499199151992798, -0.03103824146091938, -0.2409261018037796, 0.3591573238372803, -0.1810920536518097, -0.2538808286190033, -0.16521865129470825, 0.13548390567302704, 0.2613048851...	7	The Magdalene Laundries were institutions ran by the Catholic church in Ireland, which were used to house 30,000 women from the late 18th century to the 20th century. The first one was founded on Lower Leeson Street in Dublin in 1756 and the last one didn’t close down until 1996. If a woman slept with a man outside of marriage, she shamed her family and became an outcast of society. For women who had unplanned pregnancies outside of marriage, unless she agreed to marry the father before the baby was born, she would be driven out of the family home. If pregnancy occurred and marriage was not likely, she would be sent away until the baby was born. Women would be expected to give the baby up for adoption, never to speak of the matter and to have no contact with the child. The ‘fallen women’ of Ireland were sent to these institutions. The work came in the form of laundry, the nuns made a business from washing the clothes and linen of wealthy families and businesses in the area. Remember this was all done without the use of a washing machine, which meant long days of scrubbing, bleaching, wringing, pressing and packaging and folding. On top of this work, these women were also subjected to a rigorous schedule of prayers and penance to atone for their sins. Since they were not considered ‘good catholic’ girls they were treated harshly. The women could never leave the grounds unless a family member had signed their release for them to come home. In the outside world, they were treated with weariness and contempt, subject to staring and verbal abuse. They became known as ‘the maggies’ and over time the laundries became more like a prison. The survivors of the Magdalene laundries suffered physical, emotional and spiritual abuse. Tackle the rabbit (2018) are performative photographs of a pregnant woman in modern rural Ireland in 2018. The performer conveys those dark times for the women of Ireland who suffered in silence, the women who thought they didn’t have a voice, the women who suffered turmoil because of the actions of someone else, the women who didn’t have the right to a say of their own bodies, the women who were labelled prostitutes, homewreckers, dirty, used, criminals, unfit mother, and for the women who didn’t feel welcome in their own country. For the ‘fallen women’ of society, who challenged traditional notions of Irish morality, the performer stands with confidence, with her hands placed on her unborn child, showing us strength, confidence and freedom. On the 25th of May 2018, it was a monumental day for the women of Ireland, their voice was finally heard. The country voted yes against anti-abortion laws and it was a huge turning point for the women and men of Ireland, for our future generation. The minister for health Simon Harris stated: ‘‘Under the eighth amendment we used to say to women in crisis: take the boat or take the plane. Today we say, take our hand.” (The Guardian, 2018). It was a quiet revolution that has been taking part in Ireland for the past 10 or 20 years and the people of Ireland have spoken. Ireland has been influenced by America and Europe and has changed and is changing as Mr. Varadkar said ‘’we want a modern constitution for a modern country’’ (The New York Times, 2018) The Eight amendment being abolished shows us that our country respect women, respect their bodies and their right to make their own decisions, we are not treated like second class citizens anymore, we have a voice and we will use it. For many abortion supporters the result was an affirmation of being accepted by society and separating the church from the state. The catholic church influenced Ireland for over a decade and was heavily involved in referendums, the decision was hard for a lot of people in a country where the legacy of the catholic church remains powerful.	840	ENGLISH	1
Category:Queen Elizabeth class The Queen Elizabeth-class battleships were a class of five super-dreadnoughts of the Royal Navy commissioned in 1915–16. The lead ship was named after Elizabeth I of England. These battleships were superior in firepower, protection and speed to their Royal Navy predecessors of the Iron Duke class as well as preceding German classes such as the König class. The corresponding Bayern-class ships were generally considered competitive, although the Queen Elizabeth class were 2 knots (3.7 km/h) faster and outnumbered the German class 5:2. The Queen Elizabeths are generally considered the first fast battleships in their day. They were the first battleships to be armed with 15-inch (381 mm) guns, and were described in the 1919 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships as "the most successful type of capital ship yet designed." They saw much service in both world wars. HMS Barham was lost to U-boat attack in 1941, but the others survived the wars and were scrapped in the late 1940s.	<urn:uuid:54940501-e3bf-4b36-80fc-4808958b235d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://azurlane.koumakan.jp/Category:Queen_Elizabeth_class	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00082.warc.gz	en	0.98881	215	3.375	3	[ -0.0064337351359426975, 0.12262625247240067, -0.007632057182490826, -0.5002830028533936, -0.10387805849313736, -0.1826561540365219, -0.18006734549999237, 0.13235518336296082, -0.21231305599212646, -0.44893330335617065, 0.10624060779809952, -0.3955271244049072, -0.07137037813663483, 0.24794...	6	Category:Queen Elizabeth class The Queen Elizabeth-class battleships were a class of five super-dreadnoughts of the Royal Navy commissioned in 1915–16. The lead ship was named after Elizabeth I of England. These battleships were superior in firepower, protection and speed to their Royal Navy predecessors of the Iron Duke class as well as preceding German classes such as the König class. The corresponding Bayern-class ships were generally considered competitive, although the Queen Elizabeth class were 2 knots (3.7 km/h) faster and outnumbered the German class 5:2. The Queen Elizabeths are generally considered the first fast battleships in their day. They were the first battleships to be armed with 15-inch (381 mm) guns, and were described in the 1919 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships as "the most successful type of capital ship yet designed." They saw much service in both world wars. HMS Barham was lost to U-boat attack in 1941, but the others survived the wars and were scrapped in the late 1940s.	231	ENGLISH	1
The original city hall from pre-Revolutionary War times stood at this location. It was the site of the famous trial of John Peter Zenger. In 1765, it was where the Stamp Act Congress took place, with delegates from different colonies protesting their dissatisfaction of taxation without representation. After the Revolutionary War, it was here that George Washington was inaugurated, and also where the Bill of Rights was passed. The building was demolished in 1812, and rebuilt in the Greek-revival style. The building was used as a U.S. custom house, New York sub-Treasury, and finally the memorial that we now see today. The present day Federal Hall stands in the same location as the original City Hall that existed during colonial times. It was in that building where printer and journalist John Peter Zenger was tried for libel in 1733, after publishing views that criticized the royal governor. However, when Zenger's lawyer argued that the truth is a defense against libel, the jury decided that Zenger was, in fact, not guilty. This event would further help the people's case for liberty and freedom. In 1765, the Stamp Act Congress took place in the City Hall. It was here where the delegates from the colonies protested their dissatisfaction with taxation without representation. During this meeting, the Congress drafted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances. The document consisted of 13 points of the colonists' protests.This was a major historical event, since it was the first united action by the colonies. After the Revolutionary War, the nation searched for a location to establish a capital. New York City decided to hire architect Pierre L'Enfant to help remodel the old City Hall, and offered it to the national government. On April 30, 1789, at this location, George Washington took his first oath of office and was inaugurated as the first president of the United States. Federal Hall became home to the first Congress, Supreme Court, and Executive Branch offices. It was also where the Bill of Rights would be drafted, and eventually ratified. In 1812, the building was demolished when the capital was moved south to Washington, D.C. The remains were sold for scrap, for around $425. A new building was built in its place using a Greek-revival style. This is the building that we currently see today. From 1842-1862, it served as the U.S. custom house for the Port of New York. Then, from 1862-1920, it served as the New-York sub-Treasury, storing up to 80% of the nation's wealth until the Federal Reserve was built in 1914. In 1939 the Secretary of the Interior declared that the building was a National Historic Shrine, and in 1955 Congress renamed the building to Federal Hall, in honor of the previously existed building.	<urn:uuid:860bf042-ce93-482c-bce1-e042dab1310c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/19914	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00356.warc.gz	en	0.984004	574	3.53125	4	[ -0.5026097893714905, 0.3327907919883728, 0.4146128296852112, 0.11347254365682602, -0.25134000182151794, 0.3441162109375, -0.01345050148665905, 0.2737116515636444, -0.3783892095088959, 0.10605865716934204, 0.18674618005752563, 0.4736524820327759, -0.5534981489181519, 0.47524479031562805, ...	2	The original city hall from pre-Revolutionary War times stood at this location. It was the site of the famous trial of John Peter Zenger. In 1765, it was where the Stamp Act Congress took place, with delegates from different colonies protesting their dissatisfaction of taxation without representation. After the Revolutionary War, it was here that George Washington was inaugurated, and also where the Bill of Rights was passed. The building was demolished in 1812, and rebuilt in the Greek-revival style. The building was used as a U.S. custom house, New York sub-Treasury, and finally the memorial that we now see today. The present day Federal Hall stands in the same location as the original City Hall that existed during colonial times. It was in that building where printer and journalist John Peter Zenger was tried for libel in 1733, after publishing views that criticized the royal governor. However, when Zenger's lawyer argued that the truth is a defense against libel, the jury decided that Zenger was, in fact, not guilty. This event would further help the people's case for liberty and freedom. In 1765, the Stamp Act Congress took place in the City Hall. It was here where the delegates from the colonies protested their dissatisfaction with taxation without representation. During this meeting, the Congress drafted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances. The document consisted of 13 points of the colonists' protests.This was a major historical event, since it was the first united action by the colonies. After the Revolutionary War, the nation searched for a location to establish a capital. New York City decided to hire architect Pierre L'Enfant to help remodel the old City Hall, and offered it to the national government. On April 30, 1789, at this location, George Washington took his first oath of office and was inaugurated as the first president of the United States. Federal Hall became home to the first Congress, Supreme Court, and Executive Branch offices. It was also where the Bill of Rights would be drafted, and eventually ratified. In 1812, the building was demolished when the capital was moved south to Washington, D.C. The remains were sold for scrap, for around $425. A new building was built in its place using a Greek-revival style. This is the building that we currently see today. From 1842-1862, it served as the U.S. custom house for the Port of New York. Then, from 1862-1920, it served as the New-York sub-Treasury, storing up to 80% of the nation's wealth until the Federal Reserve was built in 1914. In 1939 the Secretary of the Interior declared that the building was a National Historic Shrine, and in 1955 Congress renamed the building to Federal Hall, in honor of the previously existed building.	620	ENGLISH	1
The Effects Of Colonialism In Things Fall The Effects Of Colonialism In Things Fall Apart Essay, Research Paper Analyze the effects of colonialism in Things Fall Apart. In the novel, Things Fall Apart, the effects of colonialism were extremely evident in the Igbo society. As the white Englanders moved into the native’s land, their cultural values changed. Examples of these changes were evident in all aspects of the Igbo people’s lives, in their religion, family life, children, and the dead. Many of the Igboians were upset by the colonialism of their society, but in the end they were completely incapable of doing anything to reverse the changes that had already taken place in their society. As the English began to colonize the Igbo society, there were few natives who opposed it, they others just felt that the English would come and go, but they were wrong. Soon, the English began to introduce “white man’s religion.” This new religion was completely the opposite from what the natives were accustomed to. Christianity was rather intriguing to many of the natives and many of them turned away from their families and everything they were to become a member of this new religion. Before this, they natives had been very superstious, but as they new religion flooded over the peoples, their superstiousocity began to lessen and their belief in the many gods they had previously believed in. Also, as many of the natives ran to the new Christian faith, many family bonds were broken. Before colonialism took place, family was an important thing in the Igbo society. It was not often that a man would give his son away for any reason, but because of the English coming in and teaching a new faith, many families were forced to give up their sons, daughters, and even some men were forced to give up their wives. The new religion also affected the way certain customs took place in the Igbo society. An example would be when one of the newly converted Christians killed the highly honored snake. In my opinion, the biggest effect that colonialism had on the Igbo society was the way in which their dead and infants were treated. In the traditional society, those who killed themselves were thrown into the Evil Forest, as where twins and children who died at young ages. As Christianity began to grow the converts took the twins who were sent to the Evil Forest and gave them homes. Also, many of those who had twins or children who died while still infants looked at the situation much differently. Overall, the colonialism of the Igbo society affected them in many different ways. Each aspect of their lives and culture were consumed by English’s belief systems. Whether it was their religion, family life, children, or their dead—the white’s beliefs and systematic way of life took over the traditional systems and beliefs.	<urn:uuid:6b0b67df-8a4e-4cbe-aa0f-797e7b5b6c8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://referat.ru/referat/the-effects-of-colonialism-in-things-fall-461365	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00436.warc.gz	en	0.99453	575	3.5625	4	[ 0.12866760790348053, 0.19489678740501404, 0.7352299094200134, 0.05423238128423691, 0.011784661561250687, 0.05068625509738922, 0.08689010143280029, -0.014441174454987049, -0.07338367402553558, 0.13437321782112122, 0.07186925411224365, 0.19008266925811768, 0.11963482946157455, 0.312031656503...	3	The Effects Of Colonialism In Things Fall The Effects Of Colonialism In Things Fall Apart Essay, Research Paper Analyze the effects of colonialism in Things Fall Apart. In the novel, Things Fall Apart, the effects of colonialism were extremely evident in the Igbo society. As the white Englanders moved into the native’s land, their cultural values changed. Examples of these changes were evident in all aspects of the Igbo people’s lives, in their religion, family life, children, and the dead. Many of the Igboians were upset by the colonialism of their society, but in the end they were completely incapable of doing anything to reverse the changes that had already taken place in their society. As the English began to colonize the Igbo society, there were few natives who opposed it, they others just felt that the English would come and go, but they were wrong. Soon, the English began to introduce “white man’s religion.” This new religion was completely the opposite from what the natives were accustomed to. Christianity was rather intriguing to many of the natives and many of them turned away from their families and everything they were to become a member of this new religion. Before this, they natives had been very superstious, but as they new religion flooded over the peoples, their superstiousocity began to lessen and their belief in the many gods they had previously believed in. Also, as many of the natives ran to the new Christian faith, many family bonds were broken. Before colonialism took place, family was an important thing in the Igbo society. It was not often that a man would give his son away for any reason, but because of the English coming in and teaching a new faith, many families were forced to give up their sons, daughters, and even some men were forced to give up their wives. The new religion also affected the way certain customs took place in the Igbo society. An example would be when one of the newly converted Christians killed the highly honored snake. In my opinion, the biggest effect that colonialism had on the Igbo society was the way in which their dead and infants were treated. In the traditional society, those who killed themselves were thrown into the Evil Forest, as where twins and children who died at young ages. As Christianity began to grow the converts took the twins who were sent to the Evil Forest and gave them homes. Also, many of those who had twins or children who died while still infants looked at the situation much differently. Overall, the colonialism of the Igbo society affected them in many different ways. Each aspect of their lives and culture were consumed by English’s belief systems. Whether it was their religion, family life, children, or their dead—the white’s beliefs and systematic way of life took over the traditional systems and beliefs.	566	ENGLISH	1
Huck Finn’s relationship with slavery is very complex and often contradictory. He has been brought up to accept slavery. He can think of no worse crime than helping to free a slave. Despite this, he finds himself on the run with Jim, a runaway slave, and doing everything in his power to protect him. Huck Finn grew up around slavery. His father is a violent racist, who launches into tirades at the idea of free blacks roaming around the countryside. Miss Watson owns slaves, including Jim, so that no matter where he goes, the idea of blacks as slaves is reinforced. The story takes place during the 1840’s, at a time when racial tensions were on the rise, as northern abolitionists tried to stir up trouble in the South. This prompted a backlash from Southerners, which entrenched the institution more than ever. Huck Finn could not be against slavery, because if he were, he would be a traitor to the South and its way of life. Huck’s first moral dilemma comes when he meets Jim on Jackson Island. Huck’s initial reaction on hearing of Jim’s escape is one of shock, he could not believe someone could run away from his master. Huck does promise to keep his secret, however, despite knowing that “people will call him a low-down abolitionist and despise him for keeping mum”. Although Huck disagrees vehemently with the idea of runaway slaves, he quite likes Jim, and so warns him that dogs are coming on to the island. This shows that Huck’s heart and Huck’s mind are often in disagreement with one another when it comes to the issue of slavery. Despite being good friends with Jim, Huck does not hide his obvious prejudice against blacks. Because blacks are uneducated, he sees them as stupid and stubborn. He frequently tells stories to Jim, mainly about foreign kings and history. When Jim disagrees with Huck, Jim becomes very stubborn and refuses to listen to explanations. Huck eventually concludes, “You can’t learn a nigger to argue”. Jim also seems to accept that whites are naturally superior to blacks. He knows that Huck is far smarter than he is. When Tom Sawyer and Huck are planning an elaborate breakout for Jim, he allows their outrageous plan to continue because they “was white folks and knowed better than him”. This mutual acceptance of whites as superior to blacks shows how deeply rooted slavery was in Southern culture. This made it very difficult for Huck to help Jim. When Tom Sawyer says he will help free Jim, Huck is very disappointed. He had never thought that Tom Sawyer, of all people, would be a “nigger stealer”. Huck had always considered Tom respectable and educated, and yet Tom was prepared to condemn himself to damnation by freeing a runaway slave. This confuses Huck greatly, who no longer knows what to think about his situation with Jim. When Huck is forced to make a decision regarding slavery, he invariably sides with his emotions. Huck does not turn Jim in, despite having several chances. His best chance to do what he believes is right comes as they are rafting towards Cairo, Illinois. Huck finally manages to convince himself that turning in Jim is the only way to clear his conscience, and so he sets off towards shore to tell the authorities. Before he has gone halfway, a skiff with slave hunter stops him and asks if the man aboard Huck’s raft is black or white. This is the perfect opportunity for Huck to do what he, as a white southerner, should do. Instead, he tells them that the only man aboard is his father, who has smallpox. Later in the story, he writes Miss Watson a letter revealing Jim’s whereabouts. As he is about to send it, however, he remembers all Jim and he have been through together; how he is Jim’s only friend in the world. Finally Huck remarks “All right then, I’ll go to Hell,” and tears up the letter. These scenes confirm for the reader that Huck does not have the heart to betray a friend, black or white. Huckleberry Finn has a very complicated relationship with the concept of slavery. Being a Southerner, he naturally supports the institution, as it is all he has ever known. Once he meets Jim, however, his opinions begin to change. He cannot bring himself to turn in Jim, although he believes it to be the moral thing to do. During his adventure down the Mississippi, Huck constantly sees evidence of the good inherent in Jim and other blacks, as well as the wickedness evident in some of his white acquaintances. This causes Huck to consider the fact that blacks are not necessarily inferior to whites. Because of this, he manages to justify, in his own mind at least, both slavery and his freeing Jim. He is thus trapped in a contradiction, which he must deal with for the entire adventure.	<urn:uuid:f820c05b-ada8-4523-be58-f02e739a4d11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/huck-finns-relationship-with-slavery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00311.warc.gz	en	0.982668	1,017	3.6875	4	[ -0.3387150466442108, 0.3264189064502716, -0.23135459423065186, -0.1105058342218399, -0.33800655603408813, 0.006431121379137039, 0.5924222469329834, -0.31983035802841187, -0.16088829934597015, -0.006825155112892389, 0.024769093841314316, -0.32988762855529785, 0.3381081819534302, 0.451024979...	6	Huck Finn’s relationship with slavery is very complex and often contradictory. He has been brought up to accept slavery. He can think of no worse crime than helping to free a slave. Despite this, he finds himself on the run with Jim, a runaway slave, and doing everything in his power to protect him. Huck Finn grew up around slavery. His father is a violent racist, who launches into tirades at the idea of free blacks roaming around the countryside. Miss Watson owns slaves, including Jim, so that no matter where he goes, the idea of blacks as slaves is reinforced. The story takes place during the 1840’s, at a time when racial tensions were on the rise, as northern abolitionists tried to stir up trouble in the South. This prompted a backlash from Southerners, which entrenched the institution more than ever. Huck Finn could not be against slavery, because if he were, he would be a traitor to the South and its way of life. Huck’s first moral dilemma comes when he meets Jim on Jackson Island. Huck’s initial reaction on hearing of Jim’s escape is one of shock, he could not believe someone could run away from his master. Huck does promise to keep his secret, however, despite knowing that “people will call him a low-down abolitionist and despise him for keeping mum”. Although Huck disagrees vehemently with the idea of runaway slaves, he quite likes Jim, and so warns him that dogs are coming on to the island. This shows that Huck’s heart and Huck’s mind are often in disagreement with one another when it comes to the issue of slavery. Despite being good friends with Jim, Huck does not hide his obvious prejudice against blacks. Because blacks are uneducated, he sees them as stupid and stubborn. He frequently tells stories to Jim, mainly about foreign kings and history. When Jim disagrees with Huck, Jim becomes very stubborn and refuses to listen to explanations. Huck eventually concludes, “You can’t learn a nigger to argue”. Jim also seems to accept that whites are naturally superior to blacks. He knows that Huck is far smarter than he is. When Tom Sawyer and Huck are planning an elaborate breakout for Jim, he allows their outrageous plan to continue because they “was white folks and knowed better than him”. This mutual acceptance of whites as superior to blacks shows how deeply rooted slavery was in Southern culture. This made it very difficult for Huck to help Jim. When Tom Sawyer says he will help free Jim, Huck is very disappointed. He had never thought that Tom Sawyer, of all people, would be a “nigger stealer”. Huck had always considered Tom respectable and educated, and yet Tom was prepared to condemn himself to damnation by freeing a runaway slave. This confuses Huck greatly, who no longer knows what to think about his situation with Jim. When Huck is forced to make a decision regarding slavery, he invariably sides with his emotions. Huck does not turn Jim in, despite having several chances. His best chance to do what he believes is right comes as they are rafting towards Cairo, Illinois. Huck finally manages to convince himself that turning in Jim is the only way to clear his conscience, and so he sets off towards shore to tell the authorities. Before he has gone halfway, a skiff with slave hunter stops him and asks if the man aboard Huck’s raft is black or white. This is the perfect opportunity for Huck to do what he, as a white southerner, should do. Instead, he tells them that the only man aboard is his father, who has smallpox. Later in the story, he writes Miss Watson a letter revealing Jim’s whereabouts. As he is about to send it, however, he remembers all Jim and he have been through together; how he is Jim’s only friend in the world. Finally Huck remarks “All right then, I’ll go to Hell,” and tears up the letter. These scenes confirm for the reader that Huck does not have the heart to betray a friend, black or white. Huckleberry Finn has a very complicated relationship with the concept of slavery. Being a Southerner, he naturally supports the institution, as it is all he has ever known. Once he meets Jim, however, his opinions begin to change. He cannot bring himself to turn in Jim, although he believes it to be the moral thing to do. During his adventure down the Mississippi, Huck constantly sees evidence of the good inherent in Jim and other blacks, as well as the wickedness evident in some of his white acquaintances. This causes Huck to consider the fact that blacks are not necessarily inferior to whites. Because of this, he manages to justify, in his own mind at least, both slavery and his freeing Jim. He is thus trapped in a contradiction, which he must deal with for the entire adventure.	979	ENGLISH	1
Sure, Washington, D.C., has served as America's capital for more than 200 years. Still, city isn't part of our country's birth story. In fact, it didn't even exist at the time of the Revolution and didn't become the official capital until 1800. That means other locations served as America's capital. According to the United States Senate, eight cities served as the home of the federal government before Washington, D.C., came on the scene. To draw as little attention to themselves as possible, delegates held secret meetings at a private home owned by one Henry Fite. The latter leased the house to Congress for 60 pounds for a period of three months. At first glance, Lancaster may seem like an unlikely choice for a national capital. Maybe our forefathers agreed, because its stint as capital lasted just one day: September 27, 1777. However, it was a very important day. According to The History Channel, Philadelphia was captured by the British the day before the Second Continental Congress convened in Lancaster. The delegates made it to Lancaster just in time. Knowing that British troops were close behind, Congress decided to stay on the move. After Lancaster, York became the capital for about nine months. The city likes to say it was the first capital of the United States, but if you've read this far, you can see that's not exactly true. To be fair, several major events took place in York: the Articles of Confederation were adopted there, and the first National Day of Thanksgiving was proclaimed in the city. It wasn't enough to keep the capital there, however. To evade British troops again, Congress soon began looking for a new location for our nation's capital. The City of Brotherly Love first became the nation's capital in 1774, before the United States was officially a country. It continued its prestigious station through 1777 and 1778. Finally, it served as America's temporary capital from 1790 to 1800, while Washington, D.C., was being built. Of course, Philadelphia is also famous for another reason: it's the birthplace of our nation. Both the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution were signed by our Founding Fathers in Philadelphia's Independence Hall. But, why didn't the capital just stay in Philadelphia? The answer may surprise you. It all boiled down to a broken promise. When the Continental Congress met in Independence Hall in 1783, delegates didn't expect to be accosted by disgruntled soldiers from the Continental Army. In fact, Congress was barred from leaving the building altogether. The reason: It had neglected to pay hundreds of American troops during the war against the British. Eventually, the legislators sent Alexander Hamilton to negotiate with the angry soldiers. On good faith, the soldiers agreed to let the legislators out if they made good on their promise to pay. Meanwhile, Hamilton approached John Dickinson, Pennsylvania's head of state, to ask for physical protection for Congress. For his part, Dickinson saw no reason to commit Philadelphia troops. On day, the delegates turned tail for Princeton, which brings us to the next location for the nation's capital. Princeton, New Jersey Indeed, the Princeton Alumni Weekly points out that it was a strange move, taking the capital from the most celebrated, cosmopolitan city to a little village that had seen great damage during the American Revolution. Still, the legislators didn't dare return to Philadelphia to face the soldiers they hadn't paid. Sadly, Princeton's size couldn't accommodate the growing number of delegates, so Congress was forced to make another move after just four months. Congress arrived in Annapolis in November of 1783 and stayed for about nine months. It was here that the Treaty of Paris was ratified, officially ending the American Revolution, and it's also where George Washington stepped down as our nation's first commander-in-chief. By all indications, his work was done and it was time to enjoy a quiet life back at his Mount Vernon plantation. But, as fate would have it, America wasn't finished with Washington, yet. To his great surprise, Washington was unanimously elected as the president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. Then, on April 20, 1789, America voted him in as the first president of the United States. Washington didn't get to return to his beloved Mount Vernon until after he'd served two terms. So much for rest for an old warrior. Meanwhile, Annapolis turned its attention back to its primary role as the capital of Maryland. In 1845, it became the home of the United States Naval Academy, originally called the Naval School, which opened with seven professors and fifty midshipmen. Trenton, New Jersey Back to New Jersey — but only for a couple of months leading up to Christmas in 1784. The building of choice for the seat of government? A Trenton tavern, according to the Office of the Historian. That said, nothing notable happened during this Congressional session, perhaps because the delegates were distracted by the upcoming holidays. But, there was also another reason nothing of consequence happened. The bright lights of New York were calling, and the delegates were bewitched by their brilliance. Congress packed up for New York on Christmas Eve, and the city of Trenton got its tavern back. New York City, New York On January 11, 1785, the government settled into New York while Congress was still an entity under the Articles of Confederation. And, on July 26, 1788, New York became the 11th state to ratify the Constitution, making New York City the first U.S. capital post-Constitution. Despite their love for New York, the delegates felt uncomfortable putting the national capital under the permanent jurisdiction of any particular state. They decided that it would be better to set aside an official terrain for the capital. In 1790, Washington, D.C., was founded on land chosen by George Washington himself. The land once belonged to the states of Maryland and Virginia. Meanwhile, the new district was to be designed by Pierre Charles L'Enfant, who was also chosen by Washington. On November 17, 1800, Washington, D.C., officially became the capital of the United States of America.	<urn:uuid:69e270d6-543b-42a7-9d37-6e9657befe2c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.traveltrivia.com/us-capitals-before-washington-dc/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00374.warc.gz	en	0.980459	1,275	3.703125	4	[ 0.04469991475343704, 0.07784106582403183, 0.22646714746952057, 0.06695389747619629, -0.3237769603729248, 0.20610111951828003, 0.43285074830055237, 0.03160228580236435, 0.032768040895462036, 0.04112301766872406, 0.24651847779750824, 0.30342569947242737, -0.007189142983406782, -0.00863625947...	2	Sure, Washington, D.C., has served as America's capital for more than 200 years. Still, city isn't part of our country's birth story. In fact, it didn't even exist at the time of the Revolution and didn't become the official capital until 1800. That means other locations served as America's capital. According to the United States Senate, eight cities served as the home of the federal government before Washington, D.C., came on the scene. To draw as little attention to themselves as possible, delegates held secret meetings at a private home owned by one Henry Fite. The latter leased the house to Congress for 60 pounds for a period of three months. At first glance, Lancaster may seem like an unlikely choice for a national capital. Maybe our forefathers agreed, because its stint as capital lasted just one day: September 27, 1777. However, it was a very important day. According to The History Channel, Philadelphia was captured by the British the day before the Second Continental Congress convened in Lancaster. The delegates made it to Lancaster just in time. Knowing that British troops were close behind, Congress decided to stay on the move. After Lancaster, York became the capital for about nine months. The city likes to say it was the first capital of the United States, but if you've read this far, you can see that's not exactly true. To be fair, several major events took place in York: the Articles of Confederation were adopted there, and the first National Day of Thanksgiving was proclaimed in the city. It wasn't enough to keep the capital there, however. To evade British troops again, Congress soon began looking for a new location for our nation's capital. The City of Brotherly Love first became the nation's capital in 1774, before the United States was officially a country. It continued its prestigious station through 1777 and 1778. Finally, it served as America's temporary capital from 1790 to 1800, while Washington, D.C., was being built. Of course, Philadelphia is also famous for another reason: it's the birthplace of our nation. Both the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution were signed by our Founding Fathers in Philadelphia's Independence Hall. But, why didn't the capital just stay in Philadelphia? The answer may surprise you. It all boiled down to a broken promise. When the Continental Congress met in Independence Hall in 1783, delegates didn't expect to be accosted by disgruntled soldiers from the Continental Army. In fact, Congress was barred from leaving the building altogether. The reason: It had neglected to pay hundreds of American troops during the war against the British. Eventually, the legislators sent Alexander Hamilton to negotiate with the angry soldiers. On good faith, the soldiers agreed to let the legislators out if they made good on their promise to pay. Meanwhile, Hamilton approached John Dickinson, Pennsylvania's head of state, to ask for physical protection for Congress. For his part, Dickinson saw no reason to commit Philadelphia troops. On day, the delegates turned tail for Princeton, which brings us to the next location for the nation's capital. Princeton, New Jersey Indeed, the Princeton Alumni Weekly points out that it was a strange move, taking the capital from the most celebrated, cosmopolitan city to a little village that had seen great damage during the American Revolution. Still, the legislators didn't dare return to Philadelphia to face the soldiers they hadn't paid. Sadly, Princeton's size couldn't accommodate the growing number of delegates, so Congress was forced to make another move after just four months. Congress arrived in Annapolis in November of 1783 and stayed for about nine months. It was here that the Treaty of Paris was ratified, officially ending the American Revolution, and it's also where George Washington stepped down as our nation's first commander-in-chief. By all indications, his work was done and it was time to enjoy a quiet life back at his Mount Vernon plantation. But, as fate would have it, America wasn't finished with Washington, yet. To his great surprise, Washington was unanimously elected as the president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. Then, on April 20, 1789, America voted him in as the first president of the United States. Washington didn't get to return to his beloved Mount Vernon until after he'd served two terms. So much for rest for an old warrior. Meanwhile, Annapolis turned its attention back to its primary role as the capital of Maryland. In 1845, it became the home of the United States Naval Academy, originally called the Naval School, which opened with seven professors and fifty midshipmen. Trenton, New Jersey Back to New Jersey — but only for a couple of months leading up to Christmas in 1784. The building of choice for the seat of government? A Trenton tavern, according to the Office of the Historian. That said, nothing notable happened during this Congressional session, perhaps because the delegates were distracted by the upcoming holidays. But, there was also another reason nothing of consequence happened. The bright lights of New York were calling, and the delegates were bewitched by their brilliance. Congress packed up for New York on Christmas Eve, and the city of Trenton got its tavern back. New York City, New York On January 11, 1785, the government settled into New York while Congress was still an entity under the Articles of Confederation. And, on July 26, 1788, New York became the 11th state to ratify the Constitution, making New York City the first U.S. capital post-Constitution. Despite their love for New York, the delegates felt uncomfortable putting the national capital under the permanent jurisdiction of any particular state. They decided that it would be better to set aside an official terrain for the capital. In 1790, Washington, D.C., was founded on land chosen by George Washington himself. The land once belonged to the states of Maryland and Virginia. Meanwhile, the new district was to be designed by Pierre Charles L'Enfant, who was also chosen by Washington. On November 17, 1800, Washington, D.C., officially became the capital of the United States of America.	1,321	ENGLISH	1
Who Was Walt Whitman? Considered one of America's most influential poets, Walt Whitman aimed to transcend traditional epics and eschew normal aesthetic form to mirror the potential freedoms to be found in America. In 1855, he self-published the collection Leaves of Grass; the book is now a landmark in American literature, though at the time of its publication it was considered highly controversial. Whitman later worked as a volunteer nurse during the Civil War, writing the collection Drum Taps (1865) in connection to the experiences of war-torn soldiers. Having continued to produce new editions of Leaves of Grass along with original works, Whitman died on March 26, 1892, in Camden, New Jersey. Background and Early Years Called the "Bard of Democracy" and considered one of America's most influential poets, Walt Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Long Island, New York. The second of Louisa Van Velsor's and Walter Whitman's eight surviving children, he grew up in a family of modest means. While earlier Whitmans had owned a large parcel of farmland, much of it had been sold off by the time he was born. As a result, Whitman's father struggled through a series of attempts to recoup some of that earlier wealth as a farmer, carpenter and real estate speculator. Whitman's own love for America and its democracy can be at least partially attributed to his upbringing and his parents, who showed their own admiration for their country by naming Whitman's younger brothers after their favorite American heroes. The names included George Washington Whitman, Thomas Jefferson Whitman and Andrew Jackson Whitman. At the age of three, the young Whitman moved with his family to Brooklyn, where his father hoped to take advantage of the economic opportunities in New York City. But his bad investments prevented him from achieving the success he craved. At 11, Whitman was taken out of school by his father to help out with household income. He started to work as an office boy for a Brooklyn-based attorney team and eventually found employment in the printing business. His father's increasing dependence on alcohol and conspiracy-driven politics contrasted sharply with his son's preference for a more optimistic course more in line with his mother's disposition. "I stand for the sunny point of view," he'd eventually be quoted as saying. When he was 17, Whitman turned to teaching, working as an educator for five years in various parts of Long Island. Whitman generally loathed the work, especially considering the rough circumstances he was forced to teach under, and by 1841, he set his sights on journalism. In 1838, he had started a weekly called the Long Islander that quickly folded (though the publication would eventually be reborn) and later returned to New York City, where he worked on fiction and continued his newspaper career. In 1846, he became editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, a prominent newspaper, serving in that capacity for almost two years. Whitman proved to be a volatile journalist, with a sharp pen and a set of opinions that didn't always align with his bosses or his readers. He backed what some considered radical positions on women's property rights, immigration and labor issues. He lambasted the infatuation he saw among his fellow New Yorkers with certain European ways and wasn't afraid to go after the editors of other newspapers. Not surprisingly, his job tenure was often short and had a tarnished reputation with several different newspapers. In 1848, Whitman left New York for New Orleans, where he became editor of the Crescent. It was a relatively short stay for Whitman—just three months—but it was where he saw for the first time the wickedness of slavery. Whitman returned to Brooklyn in the autumn of 1848 and started a new "free soil" newspaper called the Brooklyn Freeman, which eventually became a daily despite initial challenges. Over the ensuing years, as the nation's temperature over the slavery question continued to rise, Whitman's own anger over the issue elevated as well. He often worried about the impact of slavery on the future of the country and its democracy. It was during this time that he turned to a simple 3.5 by 5.5 inch notebook, writing down his observations and shaping what would eventually be viewed as trailblazing poetic works. 'Leaves of Grass' In the spring of 1855, Whitman, finally finding the style and voice he'd been searching for, self-published a slim collection of 12 unnamed poems with a preface titled Leaves of Grass. Whitman could only afford to print 795 copies of the book. Leaves of Grass marked a radical departure from established poetic norms. Tradition was discarded in favor of a voice that came at the reader directly, in the first person, in lines that didn't rely on rigid meter and instead exhibited an openness to playing with form while approaching prose. On the book's cover was an iconic image of the bearded poet himself. Leaves of Grass received little attention at first, though it did catch the eye of fellow poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote Whitman to praise the collection as "the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom" to come from an American pen. The following year, Whitman published a revised edition of Leaves of Grass that featured 32 poems, including a new piece, "Sun-Down Poem" (later renamed "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry"), as well as Emerson's letter to Whitman and the poet's long response to him. Fascinated by this newcomer to the poetry scene, writers Henry David Thoreau and Bronson Alcott ventured to Brooklyn to meet Whitman. Whitman, now living at home and truly the man of the homestead (his father passed away in 1855) resided in the attic of the family house. By this point, Whitman's family was marked by dysfunction, inspiring a fervent need to escape home life. His heavy-drinking older brother Jesse would eventually be committed to Kings County Lunatic Asylum in 1864, while his brother Andrew was also an alcoholic. His sister Hannah was emotionally unwell and Whitman himself had to share his bed with his mentally handicapped brother. Alcott described Whitman' as ''Bacchus-browed, bearded like a satyr, and rank" while his voice was heard as "deep, sharp, tender sometimes and almost melting." Like its earlier edition, this second version of Leaves of Grass failed to gain much commercial traction. In 1860, a Boston publisher issued a third edition of Leaves of Grass. The revised book held some promise, and also was noted for a sensual grouping of poems—the "Children of Adam" series, which explored female-male eroticism, and the "Calamus" series, which explored intimacy between men. But the start of the Civil War drove the publishing company out of business, furthering Whitman's financial struggles as a pirated copy of Leaves came to be available for some time. Hardships of the Civil War In later 1862, Whitman traveled to Fredericksburg to search for his brother George, who fought for the Union and was being treated there for a wound he suffered. Whitman moved to Washington, D.C. the next year and found part-time work in the paymaster's office, spending much of the rest of his time visiting wounded soldiers. This volunteer work proved to be both life-changing and exhausting. By his own rough estimates, Whitman made 600 hospital visits and saw anywhere from 80,000 to 100,000 patients. The work took a toll physically, but also propelled him to return to poetry. In 1865, he published a new collection called Drum-Taps, which represented a more solemn realization of what the Civil War meant for those in the thick of it as seen with poems like "Beat! Beat! Drums!" and "Vigil Strange I Kept on the Field One Night." A follow-up edition, Sequel, was published the same year and featured 18 new poems, including his elegy on President Abraham Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd. Peter Doyle and Later Years In the immediate years after the Civil War, Whitman continued to visit wounded veterans. Soon after the war, he met Peter Doyle, a young Confederate soldier and train car conductor. Whitman, who had a quiet history of becoming close with younger men amidst a time of great taboo around homosexuality, developed an instant and intense romantic bond with Doyle. As Whitman's health began to unravel in the 1860s, Doyle helped nurse him back to health. The two's relationship experienced a number of changes over the ensuing years, with Whitman believed to have suffered greatly from feeling rejected by Doyle, though the two would later remain friends. In the mid-1860s, Whitman had found steady work in Washington as a clerk at the Indian Bureau of the Department of the Interior. He continued to pursue literary projects, and in 1870, he published two new collections, Democratic Vistas and Passage to India, along with a fifth edition of Leaves of Grass. But in 1873 his life took a dramatic turn for the worse. In January of that year, he suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed. In May he traveled to Camden, New Jersey, to see his ailing mother, who died just three days after his arrival. Frail himself, Whitman found it impossible to continue with his job in Washington and relocated to Camden to live with his brother George and sister-in-law Lou. Over the next two decades, Whitman continued to tinker with Leaves of Grass. An 1882 edition of the collection earned the poet some fresh newspaper coverage after a Boston district attorney objected to and blocked its publication. That, in turn, resulted in robust sales, enough so that Whitman was able to buy a modest house of his own in Camden. These final years proved to be both fruitful and frustrating for Whitman. His life's work received much-needed validation in terms of recognition, especially overseas, as over the course of his career many of his contemporaries had viewed his output as prurient, distasteful and unsophisticated. Yet even as Whitman felt new appreciation, the America he saw emerge from the Civil War disappointed him. His health, too, continued to deteriorate. Death and Legacy On March 26, 1892, Whitman passed away in Camden. Right up until the end, he'd continued to work with Leaves of Grass, which during his lifetime had gone through many editions and expanded to some 300 poems. Whitman's final book, Good-Bye, My Fancy, was published the year before his death. He was buried in a large mausoleum he had built in Camden's Harleigh Cemetery. Despite the previous outcry surrounding his work, Whitman is considered one of America's most groundbreaking poets, having inspired an array of dedicated scholarship and media that continues to grow. Books on the writer include the award-winning Walt Whitman's America: A Cultural Biography (1995), by David S. Reynolds, and Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself (1999), by Jerome Loving. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:a0ca70d6-1cb0-4b24-8a1d-0a6d359e5bfc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/writer/walt-whitman	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00239.warc.gz	en	0.984626	2,278	3.765625	4	[ -0.04943756014108658, 0.2059071660041809, 0.35311979055404663, -0.007985379546880722, -0.0745399072766304, 0.1447117030620575, 0.506452739238739, 0.01293193083256483, -0.16485947370529175, 0.099948450922966, 0.08426925539970398, 0.39391762018203735, -0.030712148174643517, 0.675798475742340...	13	Who Was Walt Whitman? Considered one of America's most influential poets, Walt Whitman aimed to transcend traditional epics and eschew normal aesthetic form to mirror the potential freedoms to be found in America. In 1855, he self-published the collection Leaves of Grass; the book is now a landmark in American literature, though at the time of its publication it was considered highly controversial. Whitman later worked as a volunteer nurse during the Civil War, writing the collection Drum Taps (1865) in connection to the experiences of war-torn soldiers. Having continued to produce new editions of Leaves of Grass along with original works, Whitman died on March 26, 1892, in Camden, New Jersey. Background and Early Years Called the "Bard of Democracy" and considered one of America's most influential poets, Walt Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Long Island, New York. The second of Louisa Van Velsor's and Walter Whitman's eight surviving children, he grew up in a family of modest means. While earlier Whitmans had owned a large parcel of farmland, much of it had been sold off by the time he was born. As a result, Whitman's father struggled through a series of attempts to recoup some of that earlier wealth as a farmer, carpenter and real estate speculator. Whitman's own love for America and its democracy can be at least partially attributed to his upbringing and his parents, who showed their own admiration for their country by naming Whitman's younger brothers after their favorite American heroes. The names included George Washington Whitman, Thomas Jefferson Whitman and Andrew Jackson Whitman. At the age of three, the young Whitman moved with his family to Brooklyn, where his father hoped to take advantage of the economic opportunities in New York City. But his bad investments prevented him from achieving the success he craved. At 11, Whitman was taken out of school by his father to help out with household income. He started to work as an office boy for a Brooklyn-based attorney team and eventually found employment in the printing business. His father's increasing dependence on alcohol and conspiracy-driven politics contrasted sharply with his son's preference for a more optimistic course more in line with his mother's disposition. "I stand for the sunny point of view," he'd eventually be quoted as saying. When he was 17, Whitman turned to teaching, working as an educator for five years in various parts of Long Island. Whitman generally loathed the work, especially considering the rough circumstances he was forced to teach under, and by 1841, he set his sights on journalism. In 1838, he had started a weekly called the Long Islander that quickly folded (though the publication would eventually be reborn) and later returned to New York City, where he worked on fiction and continued his newspaper career. In 1846, he became editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, a prominent newspaper, serving in that capacity for almost two years. Whitman proved to be a volatile journalist, with a sharp pen and a set of opinions that didn't always align with his bosses or his readers. He backed what some considered radical positions on women's property rights, immigration and labor issues. He lambasted the infatuation he saw among his fellow New Yorkers with certain European ways and wasn't afraid to go after the editors of other newspapers. Not surprisingly, his job tenure was often short and had a tarnished reputation with several different newspapers. In 1848, Whitman left New York for New Orleans, where he became editor of the Crescent. It was a relatively short stay for Whitman—just three months—but it was where he saw for the first time the wickedness of slavery. Whitman returned to Brooklyn in the autumn of 1848 and started a new "free soil" newspaper called the Brooklyn Freeman, which eventually became a daily despite initial challenges. Over the ensuing years, as the nation's temperature over the slavery question continued to rise, Whitman's own anger over the issue elevated as well. He often worried about the impact of slavery on the future of the country and its democracy. It was during this time that he turned to a simple 3.5 by 5.5 inch notebook, writing down his observations and shaping what would eventually be viewed as trailblazing poetic works. 'Leaves of Grass' In the spring of 1855, Whitman, finally finding the style and voice he'd been searching for, self-published a slim collection of 12 unnamed poems with a preface titled Leaves of Grass. Whitman could only afford to print 795 copies of the book. Leaves of Grass marked a radical departure from established poetic norms. Tradition was discarded in favor of a voice that came at the reader directly, in the first person, in lines that didn't rely on rigid meter and instead exhibited an openness to playing with form while approaching prose. On the book's cover was an iconic image of the bearded poet himself. Leaves of Grass received little attention at first, though it did catch the eye of fellow poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote Whitman to praise the collection as "the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom" to come from an American pen. The following year, Whitman published a revised edition of Leaves of Grass that featured 32 poems, including a new piece, "Sun-Down Poem" (later renamed "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry"), as well as Emerson's letter to Whitman and the poet's long response to him. Fascinated by this newcomer to the poetry scene, writers Henry David Thoreau and Bronson Alcott ventured to Brooklyn to meet Whitman. Whitman, now living at home and truly the man of the homestead (his father passed away in 1855) resided in the attic of the family house. By this point, Whitman's family was marked by dysfunction, inspiring a fervent need to escape home life. His heavy-drinking older brother Jesse would eventually be committed to Kings County Lunatic Asylum in 1864, while his brother Andrew was also an alcoholic. His sister Hannah was emotionally unwell and Whitman himself had to share his bed with his mentally handicapped brother. Alcott described Whitman' as ''Bacchus-browed, bearded like a satyr, and rank" while his voice was heard as "deep, sharp, tender sometimes and almost melting." Like its earlier edition, this second version of Leaves of Grass failed to gain much commercial traction. In 1860, a Boston publisher issued a third edition of Leaves of Grass. The revised book held some promise, and also was noted for a sensual grouping of poems—the "Children of Adam" series, which explored female-male eroticism, and the "Calamus" series, which explored intimacy between men. But the start of the Civil War drove the publishing company out of business, furthering Whitman's financial struggles as a pirated copy of Leaves came to be available for some time. Hardships of the Civil War In later 1862, Whitman traveled to Fredericksburg to search for his brother George, who fought for the Union and was being treated there for a wound he suffered. Whitman moved to Washington, D.C. the next year and found part-time work in the paymaster's office, spending much of the rest of his time visiting wounded soldiers. This volunteer work proved to be both life-changing and exhausting. By his own rough estimates, Whitman made 600 hospital visits and saw anywhere from 80,000 to 100,000 patients. The work took a toll physically, but also propelled him to return to poetry. In 1865, he published a new collection called Drum-Taps, which represented a more solemn realization of what the Civil War meant for those in the thick of it as seen with poems like "Beat! Beat! Drums!" and "Vigil Strange I Kept on the Field One Night." A follow-up edition, Sequel, was published the same year and featured 18 new poems, including his elegy on President Abraham Lincoln, "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd. Peter Doyle and Later Years In the immediate years after the Civil War, Whitman continued to visit wounded veterans. Soon after the war, he met Peter Doyle, a young Confederate soldier and train car conductor. Whitman, who had a quiet history of becoming close with younger men amidst a time of great taboo around homosexuality, developed an instant and intense romantic bond with Doyle. As Whitman's health began to unravel in the 1860s, Doyle helped nurse him back to health. The two's relationship experienced a number of changes over the ensuing years, with Whitman believed to have suffered greatly from feeling rejected by Doyle, though the two would later remain friends. In the mid-1860s, Whitman had found steady work in Washington as a clerk at the Indian Bureau of the Department of the Interior. He continued to pursue literary projects, and in 1870, he published two new collections, Democratic Vistas and Passage to India, along with a fifth edition of Leaves of Grass. But in 1873 his life took a dramatic turn for the worse. In January of that year, he suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed. In May he traveled to Camden, New Jersey, to see his ailing mother, who died just three days after his arrival. Frail himself, Whitman found it impossible to continue with his job in Washington and relocated to Camden to live with his brother George and sister-in-law Lou. Over the next two decades, Whitman continued to tinker with Leaves of Grass. An 1882 edition of the collection earned the poet some fresh newspaper coverage after a Boston district attorney objected to and blocked its publication. That, in turn, resulted in robust sales, enough so that Whitman was able to buy a modest house of his own in Camden. These final years proved to be both fruitful and frustrating for Whitman. His life's work received much-needed validation in terms of recognition, especially overseas, as over the course of his career many of his contemporaries had viewed his output as prurient, distasteful and unsophisticated. Yet even as Whitman felt new appreciation, the America he saw emerge from the Civil War disappointed him. His health, too, continued to deteriorate. Death and Legacy On March 26, 1892, Whitman passed away in Camden. Right up until the end, he'd continued to work with Leaves of Grass, which during his lifetime had gone through many editions and expanded to some 300 poems. Whitman's final book, Good-Bye, My Fancy, was published the year before his death. He was buried in a large mausoleum he had built in Camden's Harleigh Cemetery. Despite the previous outcry surrounding his work, Whitman is considered one of America's most groundbreaking poets, having inspired an array of dedicated scholarship and media that continues to grow. Books on the writer include the award-winning Walt Whitman's America: A Cultural Biography (1995), by David S. Reynolds, and Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself (1999), by Jerome Loving. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	2,399	ENGLISH	1
History: About Panipat According to the legend, Panipat was one of the five cities (Prastha) established by the Pandava brothers during the Mahabharata. Its historical name is Panduprasath. Panipat witnesses three major battles in Indian history. The first battle of Panipat was fought on 21 April 1526 between the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur. Babur’s army defeated more than one lakh soldiers of Ibrahim. Thus the first battle of Panipat ended the ‘Lodi dynasty’ established by Bahlul Lodi in India. The second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Emperor Hem Chandra Vikramaditya on 5 November 1556, Emperor Hem Chandra was the king of North India and belonged to Rewari in Haryana. Hem Chandra defeated the forces of Akbar and captured the large kingdoms of Agra and Delhi. This king is also known as Vikramaditya. This king had won 22 wars against Afghan rebels from Punjab to Bengal from 1553–1556 and had his coronation at Purana Qila in Delhi on 7 October 1556 and established the ‘Hindu Raj’ in North India before the Second Battle of Panipat. was. Hem Chandra had a large army, and initially his army was winning, but suddenly an arrow was struck in Hemu’s eye and he lost his senses. Not seeing his king on the back of an elephant, his army fled. He was later captured by the Mughals and beheaded. His head was sent to Kabul for Delhi Darwaza and his torso was hung outside Purana Qila in Delhi. This second battle of Panipat temporarily ended the ‘Hindu Raj’ established by Hemu in North India. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between the Marathas under the Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Abdali and Sadashivrao Bhau Peshwa of Pune. This battle was won by Ahmed Shah Abdali defeating Sadashivrao Bhau. This defeat was the worst defeat of Marathas in history. This war gave birth to a new power, which has since opened the way for the victory of the British in India. Famous Urdu poet Maulana Hali was also born in Panipat.	<urn:uuid:453485c9-81f0-40e7-8ac6-12356a3ced65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.achhilekh.com/history-about-panipat/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00263.warc.gz	en	0.98733	488	3.53125	4	[ -0.26993346214294434, 0.43038487434387207, 0.0648161768913269, 0.22594188153743744, -0.6523601412773132, -0.18658822774887085, 0.5284078121185303, 0.3126383423805237, 0.3070915639400482, -0.23796683549880981, 0.013009686954319477, -0.8080847859382629, 0.0829152911901474, 0.1510394662618637...	5	History: About Panipat According to the legend, Panipat was one of the five cities (Prastha) established by the Pandava brothers during the Mahabharata. Its historical name is Panduprasath. Panipat witnesses three major battles in Indian history. The first battle of Panipat was fought on 21 April 1526 between the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur. Babur’s army defeated more than one lakh soldiers of Ibrahim. Thus the first battle of Panipat ended the ‘Lodi dynasty’ established by Bahlul Lodi in India. The second battle of Panipat was fought between Akbar and Emperor Hem Chandra Vikramaditya on 5 November 1556, Emperor Hem Chandra was the king of North India and belonged to Rewari in Haryana. Hem Chandra defeated the forces of Akbar and captured the large kingdoms of Agra and Delhi. This king is also known as Vikramaditya. This king had won 22 wars against Afghan rebels from Punjab to Bengal from 1553–1556 and had his coronation at Purana Qila in Delhi on 7 October 1556 and established the ‘Hindu Raj’ in North India before the Second Battle of Panipat. was. Hem Chandra had a large army, and initially his army was winning, but suddenly an arrow was struck in Hemu’s eye and he lost his senses. Not seeing his king on the back of an elephant, his army fled. He was later captured by the Mughals and beheaded. His head was sent to Kabul for Delhi Darwaza and his torso was hung outside Purana Qila in Delhi. This second battle of Panipat temporarily ended the ‘Hindu Raj’ established by Hemu in North India. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between the Marathas under the Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Abdali and Sadashivrao Bhau Peshwa of Pune. This battle was won by Ahmed Shah Abdali defeating Sadashivrao Bhau. This defeat was the worst defeat of Marathas in history. This war gave birth to a new power, which has since opened the way for the victory of the British in India. Famous Urdu poet Maulana Hali was also born in Panipat.	503	ENGLISH	1
A great philosopher by the name of Plutarch once wrote that the dolphin “is the only creature who loves man for his own sake. To the dolphin alone, nature has given what the best philosophers seek: friendship for no advantage.” The foundation to a relationship like this is based on communication. In this paper, evidence will be presented to show that it is possible for dolphins and humans to communicate in a significant and meaningful way. Throughout recorded time, man has shown a fascination with dolphins. This is shown by many ancient stories which were told through writings and verbal accounts. Some of these stories originate from ancient Greece and were told by great philosophers. One such story claims that Odysseus’ son, Telemachos, was saved from drowning by a dolphin. Dolphins have also been accounted for in writing. In the play Twelfth Night by Shakespeare, a singer by the name of Arion was sentenced to be thrown into the sea by pirates. Before he was thrown into the sea, he asked for one last wish: to sing a song and then jump overboard himself. The pirates granted him this wish, and he began to sing a high-pitched song. When he was finished with his song, he jumped overboard and was saved by a dolphin which carried him two hundred miles to shore. Obviously, dolphins and humans have been interacting together throughout recorded history. According to the theory of evolution, it is most likely that the dolphin was once a land mammal. It is likely that sixty million years ago a cow, the distant cousin of the dolphin, decided to take his life to the sea. This is shown by the findings of hooves on dolphin fossils. The appearance of dolphins has intrigued man’s interest in the physical makeup of these mammals. Dolphins are carried by their mothers for twelve months before they are born. Once they are born, they immediately swim to the surface for their first breath of air. At the time of their birth, dolphins are three feet long and weigh approximately thirty pounds. By adulthood, the dolphin will have grown to nine feet in length and will weigh over four-hundred pounds. The life expectancy of the dolphin is estimated at twenty-five years, but one dolphin living in Sarasota, Florida, was reported to be forty-four years of age when he died. The physical features of the dolphin make it an interesting mammal. Dolphins have silky smooth skin that helps them glide through the water with ease. Their ears are small openings on the sides of their head which pick up sound with great ability. Dolphins have no vocal cords; instead they make sounds while underwater by moving air from their lungs with their blow hole closed. The dolphin uses sonar to help it see underwater. Ken Norris, Dean of Researchers in Santa Cruz, California, explains that the dolphin can use its sonar to identify species, look at the internal organs of other fish, and even kill fish. (Nature video). The internal features of the dolphin allow it to be...	<urn:uuid:70743bc1-da9e-41c8-ae39-4c5de624defb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/dolphins-2-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00395.warc.gz	en	0.983604	609	3.71875	4	[ 0.11200282722711563, 0.19037209451198578, 0.179861381649971, -0.25999197363853455, -0.3017467260360718, -0.1817794144153595, 0.42717891931533813, 0.30441275238990784, 0.4007742404937744, -0.1851814240217209, -0.0997263640165329, -0.35054683685302734, 0.04083416610956192, 0.4204889535903930...	1	A great philosopher by the name of Plutarch once wrote that the dolphin “is the only creature who loves man for his own sake. To the dolphin alone, nature has given what the best philosophers seek: friendship for no advantage.” The foundation to a relationship like this is based on communication. In this paper, evidence will be presented to show that it is possible for dolphins and humans to communicate in a significant and meaningful way. Throughout recorded time, man has shown a fascination with dolphins. This is shown by many ancient stories which were told through writings and verbal accounts. Some of these stories originate from ancient Greece and were told by great philosophers. One such story claims that Odysseus’ son, Telemachos, was saved from drowning by a dolphin. Dolphins have also been accounted for in writing. In the play Twelfth Night by Shakespeare, a singer by the name of Arion was sentenced to be thrown into the sea by pirates. Before he was thrown into the sea, he asked for one last wish: to sing a song and then jump overboard himself. The pirates granted him this wish, and he began to sing a high-pitched song. When he was finished with his song, he jumped overboard and was saved by a dolphin which carried him two hundred miles to shore. Obviously, dolphins and humans have been interacting together throughout recorded history. According to the theory of evolution, it is most likely that the dolphin was once a land mammal. It is likely that sixty million years ago a cow, the distant cousin of the dolphin, decided to take his life to the sea. This is shown by the findings of hooves on dolphin fossils. The appearance of dolphins has intrigued man’s interest in the physical makeup of these mammals. Dolphins are carried by their mothers for twelve months before they are born. Once they are born, they immediately swim to the surface for their first breath of air. At the time of their birth, dolphins are three feet long and weigh approximately thirty pounds. By adulthood, the dolphin will have grown to nine feet in length and will weigh over four-hundred pounds. The life expectancy of the dolphin is estimated at twenty-five years, but one dolphin living in Sarasota, Florida, was reported to be forty-four years of age when he died. The physical features of the dolphin make it an interesting mammal. Dolphins have silky smooth skin that helps them glide through the water with ease. Their ears are small openings on the sides of their head which pick up sound with great ability. Dolphins have no vocal cords; instead they make sounds while underwater by moving air from their lungs with their blow hole closed. The dolphin uses sonar to help it see underwater. Ken Norris, Dean of Researchers in Santa Cruz, California, explains that the dolphin can use its sonar to identify species, look at the internal organs of other fish, and even kill fish. (Nature video). The internal features of the dolphin allow it to be...	597	ENGLISH	1
Tiberius’ early life Tiberius Claudius Nero, later to become Tiberius Caesar, was born on 16 November, 42 BC; this was the year which saw Octavian and Marc Antony inflict defeat upon Brutus and Cassius, thus finally avenging the murder of Julius Caesar two years previously. As a member of the Claudian family (gens Claudia), Tiberius could look back to a long line of famous, often brilliantly talented, ancestors. Few generations of the Roman republic had not seen a Claudian exercising a dominant or maverick role; they were a family firmly at the centre of the network of aristocratic patronage which had been the life-blood of the respublica. Tiberius’ parents were in fact both Claudians, though from different branches of the family. His father was, like Tiberius himself, called Tiberius Claudius Nero; his branch of the family was comparatively undistinguished. Some members had been active at the time of the Punic wars in the third century BC; more recently, only Tiberius’ paternal grandfather, also called Tiberius Claudius Nero, appears to have played an active role in politics (see Figure 1).	<urn:uuid:75683140-f4a9-46d3-a75e-2d477f25c2b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203976340/chapters/10.4324/9780203976340-10	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00046.warc.gz	en	0.983787	252	3.953125	4	[ 0.05919649824500084, 0.7295764684677124, 0.4976459741592407, 0.2259860336780548, -0.35189637541770935, -0.23456107079982758, 0.21708691120147705, 0.06767771393060684, 0.20810425281524658, -0.47139132022857666, 0.15437810122966766, -0.23697564005851746, -0.10898170620203018, 0.4492503702640...	1	Tiberius’ early life Tiberius Claudius Nero, later to become Tiberius Caesar, was born on 16 November, 42 BC; this was the year which saw Octavian and Marc Antony inflict defeat upon Brutus and Cassius, thus finally avenging the murder of Julius Caesar two years previously. As a member of the Claudian family (gens Claudia), Tiberius could look back to a long line of famous, often brilliantly talented, ancestors. Few generations of the Roman republic had not seen a Claudian exercising a dominant or maverick role; they were a family firmly at the centre of the network of aristocratic patronage which had been the life-blood of the respublica. Tiberius’ parents were in fact both Claudians, though from different branches of the family. His father was, like Tiberius himself, called Tiberius Claudius Nero; his branch of the family was comparatively undistinguished. Some members had been active at the time of the Punic wars in the third century BC; more recently, only Tiberius’ paternal grandfather, also called Tiberius Claudius Nero, appears to have played an active role in politics (see Figure 1).	251	ENGLISH	1
LGBT is the acronym Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender. In recent years, it has been extended to LGBTQ+, including the term “Queer” and the “+” indicating that there are various sexualities and gender types that people identify themselves as. However, the issue that will be covered pertains more towards those that are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender because they tend to be more open about their identity. One of the many issues that the LGBT youth face in today’s society is oppression in schools, especially in middle and high schools. This oppression is typically overlooked because most people assume that those of the LGBT have all of the rights equal to those that their fellow heterosexual, cisgender citizens have, but that doesn’t rule out the fact that they are still discriminated against and oppressed because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.Order now Same-sex marriage has been legalized in all 50 states of America, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that doesn’t benefit those of the LGBT community that is not currently thinking of marriage: the LGBT youth. This group of people have different concerns from their adult counterparts, like whether or not they feel safe in their school environment and if they are learning about subjects that will help them out later in life, like safe homosexual sex. There are many schools that lack the resources and curriculum that are required for the LGBT youth to feel like they are actually a part of the school and that they will learn something that will be useful for them when they are out in the real world. Those of the LGBT youth community experience a lot of hostility from their heterosexual peers, especially those who were brought up believing that being LGBT was a sin, or is j. .ore than 4,000 GSAs nationwide. There is a federal law that says that “any schools that allows one extracurricular club must allow all others, including Gay-Straight Alliances. With GSAs, reports say that student of the LGBT community feel safer and the climate is more favorable compared to schools that do not have a Gay-Straight Alliance club. The GSA gives LGBT youth, and even allies, a chance to have someone to talk to about any problems that they have without feeling uncomfortable or like they are being judged. There are less reports of depressive symptoms and more reports of high self-esteem, and there is also evidence suggesting that LGBT students who participate in GSAs are better off in life than those who do not. There have been reports of belongingness, great self-efficacy, and openness about sexual orientation among those LGBT youth that are a part of GSA.	<urn:uuid:02df6ba5-9d62-42bf-a07f-59affbb4775e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/lgbt-views-on-lgbt-society-essay-110604/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00433.warc.gz	en	0.981175	535	3.515625	4	[ 0.2902268171310425, -0.06257650256156921, 0.09309124201536179, -0.4384268522262573, -0.17531901597976685, 0.575884222984314, -0.0810905247926712, -0.021386122331023216, 0.218450665473938, 0.08355341851711273, 0.12671947479248047, 0.19487522542476654, 0.16099870204925537, -0.102623470127582...	4	LGBT is the acronym Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender. In recent years, it has been extended to LGBTQ+, including the term “Queer” and the “+” indicating that there are various sexualities and gender types that people identify themselves as. However, the issue that will be covered pertains more towards those that are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender because they tend to be more open about their identity. One of the many issues that the LGBT youth face in today’s society is oppression in schools, especially in middle and high schools. This oppression is typically overlooked because most people assume that those of the LGBT have all of the rights equal to those that their fellow heterosexual, cisgender citizens have, but that doesn’t rule out the fact that they are still discriminated against and oppressed because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.Order now Same-sex marriage has been legalized in all 50 states of America, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that doesn’t benefit those of the LGBT community that is not currently thinking of marriage: the LGBT youth. This group of people have different concerns from their adult counterparts, like whether or not they feel safe in their school environment and if they are learning about subjects that will help them out later in life, like safe homosexual sex. There are many schools that lack the resources and curriculum that are required for the LGBT youth to feel like they are actually a part of the school and that they will learn something that will be useful for them when they are out in the real world. Those of the LGBT youth community experience a lot of hostility from their heterosexual peers, especially those who were brought up believing that being LGBT was a sin, or is j. .ore than 4,000 GSAs nationwide. There is a federal law that says that “any schools that allows one extracurricular club must allow all others, including Gay-Straight Alliances. With GSAs, reports say that student of the LGBT community feel safer and the climate is more favorable compared to schools that do not have a Gay-Straight Alliance club. The GSA gives LGBT youth, and even allies, a chance to have someone to talk to about any problems that they have without feeling uncomfortable or like they are being judged. There are less reports of depressive symptoms and more reports of high self-esteem, and there is also evidence suggesting that LGBT students who participate in GSAs are better off in life than those who do not. There have been reports of belongingness, great self-efficacy, and openness about sexual orientation among those LGBT youth that are a part of GSA.	526	ENGLISH	1
One of the great landmarks of ancient Rome is the Pantheon. Built around the year 126 AD by emperor Hadrian, it initially served as a temple to all gods. However, in the Early Middle Ages the Pantheon would be repurposed. This story is told in the recently published article “The Pantheon in the Middle Ages,” by Erik Thuno. He notes that often records about the Pantheon are scarce in this period, particular before the seventh-century, when the city of Rome was in decline and partially abandoned. “The long history of the Pantheon in the Middle Ages is inextricably bound up with the decision made during the pontificate of Boniface IV (608-615) to transform the ancient building into a Christian church,” Thuno writes. “Because Rome was under Byzantine control during this period, the pope had asked the emperor under Phocas (602-610) in Constantinople for permission to appropriate the building for the Church. The contemporary account of the life and donations of Pope Boniface (in the Liber Pontificalis) mentions briefly that ‘he [Boniface] asked the emperor Phocas for the temple called the Pantheon, and in it he made the church of the ever-virgin St Mary and all the martyrs; in this church the emperor presented many gifts.’” Thuno believes that the consecration of the Pantheon took place in the year 609. He also dismisses a story that states Pope Boniface brought 28 cartloads of martyrs’ bones to the site, as this tale was probably invented in the 16th century. Despite its new status, the Pantheon was still vulnerable to be plundered for its pieces. Paul the Deacon reports that when Emperor Constans II visited Rome in 663 he took a liking to the old Roman temple: Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary], which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honour of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople. While the new church was dedicated to both to the Virgin Mary and the martyrs of the Catholic church, it soon began to be identified more exclusively with the former. By the second half of the eighth-century it gained an unofficial nickname: Sanctae Mariae Rotundae. It was also probably around this period that an icon of the Virgin and Child was placed inside the Pantheon – it can still be seen there today. Thuno explains that besides the addition of an altar, little was changed on the interior of the Pantheon. The exterior, on the other hand, had several changes over the centuries, including the addition of a cross and the removal of some of its marble and architectural features. Another interesting note about the Pantheon was that it served as the prototype for a number of medieval churches that were built around Europe and dedicated to Mary – architectural historians have noticed that elements from the ancient structure were replicated in medieval buildings, although never as grand as the original. As this was happening, the Pantheon continued to find use as a church, although it was usually only used for special occasions. The Pope himself would hold special services there on January 1st, Easter Friday, and May 13th (the day honour its original consecration). Around the year 1100, the New Year’s Day ceremony was moved to another church, and the service known as Dominica de Rosa was hosted at the Pantheon – during this mass, roses would be dropped into the church through its cupola, symbolizing the return of the Holy Spirit. Thuno explains that it made good sense for the Popes to use the Pantheon only a few times per year – the building was located in a bustling part of the city, and if you wanted to hold a Papal mass you needed to have a large space to accommodate the many parishioners. Moreover, he writes: the cupola’s huge open eye would have made regular service rather uncomfortable at times; aside from rain that kept the faithful from standing in the center of the church, the opening in the dome would have rendered the space both damp and chilly during the winter season. Clearly, as long as the open eye was not closed – which it never was – the Pantheon was not really a suitable building for daily services. Quite simply, it did not work as an ordinary church. But precisely because of this shortcomings entailed by its unique architectural form, Santa Maria Rotunda was all the more magnificent as a setting for the pope’s occasional appearances in the centre of medieval Rome. Erik Thuno’s article, “The Pantheon in the Middle Ages,” appears in the book The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tod A. Marder and Mark Wilson Jones. See also The Medieval History of Stonehenge	<urn:uuid:33cfa194-ff2f-4ef2-bf0f-50b1f6c53cb0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medievalists.net/2017/07/medieval-history-pantheon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00147.warc.gz	en	0.983361	1,078	3.71875	4	[ -0.17352159321308136, 0.4985928237438202, 0.18465274572372437, 0.048340436071157455, -0.3437647819519043, 0.14374564588069916, -0.2534346878528595, 0.048055194318294525, 0.24527564644813538, -0.1161927580833435, -0.22629216313362122, -0.09509938955307007, -0.09217941761016846, 0.3829871416...	4	One of the great landmarks of ancient Rome is the Pantheon. Built around the year 126 AD by emperor Hadrian, it initially served as a temple to all gods. However, in the Early Middle Ages the Pantheon would be repurposed. This story is told in the recently published article “The Pantheon in the Middle Ages,” by Erik Thuno. He notes that often records about the Pantheon are scarce in this period, particular before the seventh-century, when the city of Rome was in decline and partially abandoned. “The long history of the Pantheon in the Middle Ages is inextricably bound up with the decision made during the pontificate of Boniface IV (608-615) to transform the ancient building into a Christian church,” Thuno writes. “Because Rome was under Byzantine control during this period, the pope had asked the emperor under Phocas (602-610) in Constantinople for permission to appropriate the building for the Church. The contemporary account of the life and donations of Pope Boniface (in the Liber Pontificalis) mentions briefly that ‘he [Boniface] asked the emperor Phocas for the temple called the Pantheon, and in it he made the church of the ever-virgin St Mary and all the martyrs; in this church the emperor presented many gifts.’” Thuno believes that the consecration of the Pantheon took place in the year 609. He also dismisses a story that states Pope Boniface brought 28 cartloads of martyrs’ bones to the site, as this tale was probably invented in the 16th century. Despite its new status, the Pantheon was still vulnerable to be plundered for its pieces. Paul the Deacon reports that when Emperor Constans II visited Rome in 663 he took a liking to the old Roman temple: Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary], which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honour of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople. While the new church was dedicated to both to the Virgin Mary and the martyrs of the Catholic church, it soon began to be identified more exclusively with the former. By the second half of the eighth-century it gained an unofficial nickname: Sanctae Mariae Rotundae. It was also probably around this period that an icon of the Virgin and Child was placed inside the Pantheon – it can still be seen there today. Thuno explains that besides the addition of an altar, little was changed on the interior of the Pantheon. The exterior, on the other hand, had several changes over the centuries, including the addition of a cross and the removal of some of its marble and architectural features. Another interesting note about the Pantheon was that it served as the prototype for a number of medieval churches that were built around Europe and dedicated to Mary – architectural historians have noticed that elements from the ancient structure were replicated in medieval buildings, although never as grand as the original. As this was happening, the Pantheon continued to find use as a church, although it was usually only used for special occasions. The Pope himself would hold special services there on January 1st, Easter Friday, and May 13th (the day honour its original consecration). Around the year 1100, the New Year’s Day ceremony was moved to another church, and the service known as Dominica de Rosa was hosted at the Pantheon – during this mass, roses would be dropped into the church through its cupola, symbolizing the return of the Holy Spirit. Thuno explains that it made good sense for the Popes to use the Pantheon only a few times per year – the building was located in a bustling part of the city, and if you wanted to hold a Papal mass you needed to have a large space to accommodate the many parishioners. Moreover, he writes: the cupola’s huge open eye would have made regular service rather uncomfortable at times; aside from rain that kept the faithful from standing in the center of the church, the opening in the dome would have rendered the space both damp and chilly during the winter season. Clearly, as long as the open eye was not closed – which it never was – the Pantheon was not really a suitable building for daily services. Quite simply, it did not work as an ordinary church. But precisely because of this shortcomings entailed by its unique architectural form, Santa Maria Rotunda was all the more magnificent as a setting for the pope’s occasional appearances in the centre of medieval Rome. Erik Thuno’s article, “The Pantheon in the Middle Ages,” appears in the book The Pantheon: From Antiquity to the Present, edited by Tod A. Marder and Mark Wilson Jones. See also The Medieval History of Stonehenge	1,060	ENGLISH	1
See Article History Alternative Titles: The only president elected to the office four times, Roosevelt led the United States through two of the greatest crises of the 20th century: In so doing, he greatly expanded the powers of the federal government through a series of programs and reforms known as the New Dealand he served as the principal architect of the successful effort to rid the world of German National Socialism and Japanese militarism. He was so sickly that he almost did not survive, and his worried parents held off naming him for two months. James lived a life similar to an English country gentleman, with a large estate at Hyde Park in New York. His age and her difficulty giving birth to Franklin prevented them from having any more children, and Franklin grew up as their beloved only child. His relationship with his parents, especially his mother, was very strong. It was her unshakeable faith in him that many believe gave him the self-confidence that enabled him to succeed later in life. French and German governesses educated Roosevelt until he was fourteen, and he spent most of his free time riding on the estate and playing by himself. He accompanied his parents on their travels to Europe and to all their social engagements. This youth spent in the company of adults helped him develop a charm that would prove indispensable later in life, but left him ill used to being around children his own age. This proved to be a drawback when his parents sent him away to the Groton School, a recently opened school that had the backing of many of the leading men in America, such as J. It may have been the bitter memories of his years at Groton that made FDR determined to become a leader at Harvard, which he entered at the turn of the century. Unlike many of his fellow classmates, who were used to living the life of the idle rich, FDR set the pace with his enthusiasm and energy. He studied subjects that would be of great use to him in his political career—history, government, economics, English and public speaking. He lived in one of the three-room apartments on Mt. FDR cut quite a figure in Boston society, and was especially popular with the women. He was elected editor-in-chief of the Crimson, partly because of his enthusiasm and partly because his connections to the White House through the Roosevelt family allowed him access to stories other students could not get. It was during his late college years that FDR met and fell in love with Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant cousin whom he had first met at a family Christmas party in Eleanor had had a very different family experience from FDR. Her father had doted on her, but her mother had separated from him on account of his alcoholism. Her mother, who had once been a great beauty, mocked Eleanor for her plainness and favored her younger children. Intwo years later, her father died in a fit of delirium. FDR asked Eleanor to marry him ina year before he had finished his degree at Harvard. His mother was heartbroken: The young couple was married in March of in New York, where FDR was attending law school at Columbia and Eleanor was working in one of the settlement houses. At the ceremony, Eleanor was given away by none other than her uncle, President Teddy Roosevelt himself. Eleanor and Franklin had five children: Anna, James, Elliott, Franklin, Jr.Early Life . Franklin D. Roosevelt was born on January 30, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park. His father, James Roosevelt, Sr., and his mother, Sara Ann Delano, were each from wealthy old New York families, of Dutch and French ancestry respectively. Fulfillment by Amazon (FBA) is a service we offer sellers that lets them store their products in Amazon's fulfillment centers, and we directly pack, ship, and provide customer service for these products. Who Was Franklin D. Roosevelt? Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, to April 12, ) was the 32nd American president who led the United States through the Great Depression and World War. Key events in the life of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Early life. Roosevelt was the only child of James and Sara Delano Roosevelt. Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR): Early Political Career. BACK; NEXT ; After passing the bar exam, FDR went to work for a law firm in New York City that represented some of the most powerful big businesses in the country, including Standard Oil. However, he had no intention of remaining a lawyer for long. Born on January 30, , on a large estate near the village of Hyde Park, New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the only child of his wealthy parents, James and Sara Delano alphabetnyc.com was.	<urn:uuid:d0b5257f-f12e-4bc7-8225-84a12c0471e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pocofyfaguqinade.alphabetnyc.com/the-early-life-and-career-of-franklin-delano-roosevelt-48177vg.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00379.warc.gz	en	0.991369	975	3.375	3	[ 0.024652712047100067, 0.27601566910743713, 0.3074107766151428, -0.19426795840263367, 0.30945417284965515, 0.5359315872192383, -0.0835818201303482, 0.02370348945260048, 0.011535247787833214, -0.22163665294647217, 0.5570646524429321, 0.4551882743835449, 0.11061733961105347, 0.351142436265945...	1	See Article History Alternative Titles: The only president elected to the office four times, Roosevelt led the United States through two of the greatest crises of the 20th century: In so doing, he greatly expanded the powers of the federal government through a series of programs and reforms known as the New Dealand he served as the principal architect of the successful effort to rid the world of German National Socialism and Japanese militarism. He was so sickly that he almost did not survive, and his worried parents held off naming him for two months. James lived a life similar to an English country gentleman, with a large estate at Hyde Park in New York. His age and her difficulty giving birth to Franklin prevented them from having any more children, and Franklin grew up as their beloved only child. His relationship with his parents, especially his mother, was very strong. It was her unshakeable faith in him that many believe gave him the self-confidence that enabled him to succeed later in life. French and German governesses educated Roosevelt until he was fourteen, and he spent most of his free time riding on the estate and playing by himself. He accompanied his parents on their travels to Europe and to all their social engagements. This youth spent in the company of adults helped him develop a charm that would prove indispensable later in life, but left him ill used to being around children his own age. This proved to be a drawback when his parents sent him away to the Groton School, a recently opened school that had the backing of many of the leading men in America, such as J. It may have been the bitter memories of his years at Groton that made FDR determined to become a leader at Harvard, which he entered at the turn of the century. Unlike many of his fellow classmates, who were used to living the life of the idle rich, FDR set the pace with his enthusiasm and energy. He studied subjects that would be of great use to him in his political career—history, government, economics, English and public speaking. He lived in one of the three-room apartments on Mt. FDR cut quite a figure in Boston society, and was especially popular with the women. He was elected editor-in-chief of the Crimson, partly because of his enthusiasm and partly because his connections to the White House through the Roosevelt family allowed him access to stories other students could not get. It was during his late college years that FDR met and fell in love with Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant cousin whom he had first met at a family Christmas party in Eleanor had had a very different family experience from FDR. Her father had doted on her, but her mother had separated from him on account of his alcoholism. Her mother, who had once been a great beauty, mocked Eleanor for her plainness and favored her younger children. Intwo years later, her father died in a fit of delirium. FDR asked Eleanor to marry him ina year before he had finished his degree at Harvard. His mother was heartbroken: The young couple was married in March of in New York, where FDR was attending law school at Columbia and Eleanor was working in one of the settlement houses. At the ceremony, Eleanor was given away by none other than her uncle, President Teddy Roosevelt himself. Eleanor and Franklin had five children: Anna, James, Elliott, Franklin, Jr.Early Life . Franklin D. Roosevelt was born on January 30, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park. His father, James Roosevelt, Sr., and his mother, Sara Ann Delano, were each from wealthy old New York families, of Dutch and French ancestry respectively. Fulfillment by Amazon (FBA) is a service we offer sellers that lets them store their products in Amazon's fulfillment centers, and we directly pack, ship, and provide customer service for these products. Who Was Franklin D. Roosevelt? Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, to April 12, ) was the 32nd American president who led the United States through the Great Depression and World War. Key events in the life of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Early life. Roosevelt was the only child of James and Sara Delano Roosevelt. Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR): Early Political Career. BACK; NEXT ; After passing the bar exam, FDR went to work for a law firm in New York City that represented some of the most powerful big businesses in the country, including Standard Oil. However, he had no intention of remaining a lawyer for long. Born on January 30, , on a large estate near the village of Hyde Park, New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the only child of his wealthy parents, James and Sara Delano alphabetnyc.com was.	973	ENGLISH	1
The South Korean capital of Seoul was a major battleground during the Korean War with the North taking it twice and the U.S and U.N. forces retaking the city each time. The fourth battle of Seoul, planned by U.S. Eighth Army Commander Matthew Ridgeway was intended to destroy as much of the North’s military forces around Seoul and to also move the U.N. troops back to the 38th parallel. The operation began in March 1951 and by mid-month, the North’s forces had been forced to withdraw from Seoul and the city was retaken by the U.S. Military. This would be the last time the capital would change hands. Meanwhile, controversy over policy issues regarding the conduct and scope of the war was building between General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea, and President Truman. On April 11, 1951, Truman relieved MacArthur with General Matthew Ridgeway elevated to the supreme commander’s post in Korea.	<urn:uuid:d256a7b9-6e13-4b47-a91f-c20925e73035>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://valoroustv.com/video/first-to-fight-ep-111-the-fall-of-caesar/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00433.warc.gz	en	0.98188	198	3.671875	4	[ -0.2016972005367279, 0.357271671295166, 0.6766122579574585, -0.3257559835910797, 0.12418849021196365, 0.22724364697933197, 0.17097529768943787, -0.08654744178056717, -0.45265886187553406, -0.2429920881986618, 0.3136952221393585, 0.19407299160957336, 0.4181227385997772, 0.39256516098976135,...	8	The South Korean capital of Seoul was a major battleground during the Korean War with the North taking it twice and the U.S and U.N. forces retaking the city each time. The fourth battle of Seoul, planned by U.S. Eighth Army Commander Matthew Ridgeway was intended to destroy as much of the North’s military forces around Seoul and to also move the U.N. troops back to the 38th parallel. The operation began in March 1951 and by mid-month, the North’s forces had been forced to withdraw from Seoul and the city was retaken by the U.S. Military. This would be the last time the capital would change hands. Meanwhile, controversy over policy issues regarding the conduct and scope of the war was building between General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea, and President Truman. On April 11, 1951, Truman relieved MacArthur with General Matthew Ridgeway elevated to the supreme commander’s post in Korea.	200	ENGLISH	1
Eleven Days of Rain: the Ohio River Valley Flood of 1937 The largest flood ever to strike the Ohio River Valley occurred in January 1937. Leaving over one million people homeless and over $500 million ($8.7 billion in today’s dollars) in property damage, the flood caused catastrophic destruction to cities and towns located along the banks of the Ohio River. Many communities in Southern Indiana were severely damaged or destroyed by the flood’s waters. On January 5, 1937, water began rising in the Ohio River. It had been unseasonably warm and rainy in the preceding days. By January 9, the weather changed course, turning cold. The next day, the skies dumped the worst sleet and snow storm that Southern Indiana had seen in several years. The river swelled close to its banks, and soon flood warnings were issued. At first, most people assumed that the flooding would be mild. That soon changed as record rainfall pelted the region from January 13 through January 24. Sixteen inches of rain fell in just 11 days. The Ohio River rose to its highest level ever recorded, cresting at 54 feet. On January 24, flood conditions were so bad that martial law was declared in Evansville, Indiana. Tell City, Cannelton, and New Albany were also hit hard. In Jeffersonville, 90% of the city flooded. Numerous other small river towns in Southern Indiana were severely damaged or destroyed. Works Progress Administration workers across Indiana were sent to aid flood victims, clear debris, and rebuild cities. One thousand WPA workers alone were sent into Jeffersonville. Discover more stories like this in INVENTING INDIANA, now available in paperback and Kindle at Amazon. Across Indiana, these workers created sanitary toilets, evacuated stranded flood victims, brought in relief supplies to devastated areas, cooked meals, and served as guardsmen as the flood raged on around them. Their help was instrumental in saving lives, and later, in cleaning up and rebuilding devastated cities and towns. With so many homeless flood victims, trains carried thousands of people to Indianapolis, where many were housed at the Indiana State Fairgrounds. A hospital was set up in the fairground’s Colosseum. Floodwaters slowly receded, and by February 19, the Ohio River had finally sunk below flood level. The damage was surveyed. Some towns in Southern Indiana had been destroyed. Others needed extensive repair. Because the flood occurred during the Great Depression, funding for restoration and rebuilding was tight. Some smaller towns in Southern Indiana were never fully rebuilt. In Evansville, a gas boom the following year aided the city’s full recovery. The city later built a levee system to prevent future disasters. The Ohio River Flood of 1937 remains one of the largest floods in American history. It devastated numerous cities and towns in Southern Indiana and neighboring states, far surpassing the damage caused by the great flood of 1913. Hopefully, the precautions put in place in the aftermath of the flood will continue to be enough to prevent a future flood disaster.	<urn:uuid:e953e9f4-9a21-4559-8273-7495a6e3227e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://orangebeanindiana.com/2020/01/12/eleven-days-of-rain-the-ohio-river-valley-flood-of-1937/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00135.warc.gz	en	0.980152	624	3.703125	4	[ -0.33995679020881653, -0.2864730954170227, 0.24838250875473022, 0.076442189514637, -0.15617094933986664, -0.25165852904319763, -0.15276336669921875, 0.008832477033138275, -0.32046329975128174, 0.15574902296066284, 0.02906450256705284, -0.34878891706466675, -0.03139304369688034, 0.027033785...	9	Eleven Days of Rain: the Ohio River Valley Flood of 1937 The largest flood ever to strike the Ohio River Valley occurred in January 1937. Leaving over one million people homeless and over $500 million ($8.7 billion in today’s dollars) in property damage, the flood caused catastrophic destruction to cities and towns located along the banks of the Ohio River. Many communities in Southern Indiana were severely damaged or destroyed by the flood’s waters. On January 5, 1937, water began rising in the Ohio River. It had been unseasonably warm and rainy in the preceding days. By January 9, the weather changed course, turning cold. The next day, the skies dumped the worst sleet and snow storm that Southern Indiana had seen in several years. The river swelled close to its banks, and soon flood warnings were issued. At first, most people assumed that the flooding would be mild. That soon changed as record rainfall pelted the region from January 13 through January 24. Sixteen inches of rain fell in just 11 days. The Ohio River rose to its highest level ever recorded, cresting at 54 feet. On January 24, flood conditions were so bad that martial law was declared in Evansville, Indiana. Tell City, Cannelton, and New Albany were also hit hard. In Jeffersonville, 90% of the city flooded. Numerous other small river towns in Southern Indiana were severely damaged or destroyed. Works Progress Administration workers across Indiana were sent to aid flood victims, clear debris, and rebuild cities. One thousand WPA workers alone were sent into Jeffersonville. Discover more stories like this in INVENTING INDIANA, now available in paperback and Kindle at Amazon. Across Indiana, these workers created sanitary toilets, evacuated stranded flood victims, brought in relief supplies to devastated areas, cooked meals, and served as guardsmen as the flood raged on around them. Their help was instrumental in saving lives, and later, in cleaning up and rebuilding devastated cities and towns. With so many homeless flood victims, trains carried thousands of people to Indianapolis, where many were housed at the Indiana State Fairgrounds. A hospital was set up in the fairground’s Colosseum. Floodwaters slowly receded, and by February 19, the Ohio River had finally sunk below flood level. The damage was surveyed. Some towns in Southern Indiana had been destroyed. Others needed extensive repair. Because the flood occurred during the Great Depression, funding for restoration and rebuilding was tight. Some smaller towns in Southern Indiana were never fully rebuilt. In Evansville, a gas boom the following year aided the city’s full recovery. The city later built a levee system to prevent future disasters. The Ohio River Flood of 1937 remains one of the largest floods in American history. It devastated numerous cities and towns in Southern Indiana and neighboring states, far surpassing the damage caused by the great flood of 1913. Hopefully, the precautions put in place in the aftermath of the flood will continue to be enough to prevent a future flood disaster.	645	ENGLISH	1
1825—in a Washington D.C. art studio, a servant pressed a heavy letter into the stained hand of painter Samuel Morse. Samuel Morse was at the top of his field and hard at work completing a portrait of Marquis de Lafayette, hero of the American Revolution. The Lafayette portrait was one of the most sought-after painting commissions in the United States and paid a cool $1,000 (almost $23,000 today). It was the second letter from his father in several days, the first informing him that his wife, Lucretia, had been feeling ill. Morse had written a reply, wishing her a quick recovery and highlighting his time in the capital. He promised to return to his Massachusetts home as soon as possible. After just a few sentences of second letter, he forgot about the war hero Lafayette. His father was heartbroken to inform him of “…the sudden & unexpected death of your dear & deservedly loved wife. Her disease proved to be an affection of the heart…” Samuel Morse left without finishing the Lafayette portrait and hurried home, but compounding tragedy upon tragedy, he was too late to even see to her funeral. By the time he arrived at their New Haven home 300 miles from Washington, his young and beautiful wife was buried. Morse found himself a lonely widower with three children. The tragedy affected him deeply, and his restless mind began obsessing over a method of communication using the power of electricity. He knew such a method could cross hundreds, even thousands, of miles instantaneously. Had such technology existed, Samuel Morse would at the very least been able to see his wife one last time before internment. He continued painting, but his artwork simply became his method of revenue. His true interest was now long-distance communication using electricity, or, in a term becoming more common in his day, electric telegraphy. In 1831, working hand-in-hand with a Boston physician and amateur engineer, Samuel Morse put aside his painting and developed the simplest, most effective method of electric communication possible—a single-wire rhythmic transmitter, which could send messages based on pulses tapped out by hand. The code utilized by this invention, which was a series of long and short electric pulses, would become known as Morse Code, which is still in use today. Given the widespread knowledge of electricity and the need for communication, Morse was not the first to patent a telegraph machine. Within years of his device, two other patents were recorded by competing inventors. These inventions quickly came and went, with both too expensive and complicated for widespread application. Morse’s invention is best remembered because it was simple, cheap, and effective. Sadly, Morse’s impressive legacy as a painter, inventor, and visionary was eclipsed by his more controversial beliefs. He held strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments, and joined the infamous New York Nativist Party, unsuccessfully running for the New York City’s mayor under their banner. His dislike for Catholic was so venomous, in fact, that while visiting Rome, but refused to even remove his hat while meeting the pope. As the Civil War loomed on a divided country, Morse surprised the public by publicly stating slavery was sanctioned by God and natural. In his 1863 Slavery Pamphlet #60, Morse insisted that slavery was “ordained from the beginning of the world for the wisest purposes, benevolent and disciplinary, by Divine Wisdom.” While less controversial in the mid-1800s, these delusional beliefs have relegated him to the margins of history today. While his inventions and advances are celebrated, the inventor is not. Discover more stories like this in INVENTING INDIANA, now available on Amazon in paperback and Kindle.	<urn:uuid:9a59f2f2-19f0-4a4c-8a24-d449ab6c2002>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://orangebeanindiana.com/2020/01/11/the-tragedy-behind-the-telegraph/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00307.warc.gz	en	0.985865	775	3.328125	3	[ -0.28068065643310547, 0.18876096606254578, 0.24974070489406586, -0.29633253812789917, -0.67930668592453, 0.18390372395515442, 0.1584453284740448, 0.32921144366264343, -0.08584779500961304, 0.22425135970115662, 0.04572788625955582, 0.3060210049152374, 0.34104371070861816, 0.1590338796377182...	15	1825—in a Washington D.C. art studio, a servant pressed a heavy letter into the stained hand of painter Samuel Morse. Samuel Morse was at the top of his field and hard at work completing a portrait of Marquis de Lafayette, hero of the American Revolution. The Lafayette portrait was one of the most sought-after painting commissions in the United States and paid a cool $1,000 (almost $23,000 today). It was the second letter from his father in several days, the first informing him that his wife, Lucretia, had been feeling ill. Morse had written a reply, wishing her a quick recovery and highlighting his time in the capital. He promised to return to his Massachusetts home as soon as possible. After just a few sentences of second letter, he forgot about the war hero Lafayette. His father was heartbroken to inform him of “…the sudden & unexpected death of your dear & deservedly loved wife. Her disease proved to be an affection of the heart…” Samuel Morse left without finishing the Lafayette portrait and hurried home, but compounding tragedy upon tragedy, he was too late to even see to her funeral. By the time he arrived at their New Haven home 300 miles from Washington, his young and beautiful wife was buried. Morse found himself a lonely widower with three children. The tragedy affected him deeply, and his restless mind began obsessing over a method of communication using the power of electricity. He knew such a method could cross hundreds, even thousands, of miles instantaneously. Had such technology existed, Samuel Morse would at the very least been able to see his wife one last time before internment. He continued painting, but his artwork simply became his method of revenue. His true interest was now long-distance communication using electricity, or, in a term becoming more common in his day, electric telegraphy. In 1831, working hand-in-hand with a Boston physician and amateur engineer, Samuel Morse put aside his painting and developed the simplest, most effective method of electric communication possible—a single-wire rhythmic transmitter, which could send messages based on pulses tapped out by hand. The code utilized by this invention, which was a series of long and short electric pulses, would become known as Morse Code, which is still in use today. Given the widespread knowledge of electricity and the need for communication, Morse was not the first to patent a telegraph machine. Within years of his device, two other patents were recorded by competing inventors. These inventions quickly came and went, with both too expensive and complicated for widespread application. Morse’s invention is best remembered because it was simple, cheap, and effective. Sadly, Morse’s impressive legacy as a painter, inventor, and visionary was eclipsed by his more controversial beliefs. He held strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments, and joined the infamous New York Nativist Party, unsuccessfully running for the New York City’s mayor under their banner. His dislike for Catholic was so venomous, in fact, that while visiting Rome, but refused to even remove his hat while meeting the pope. As the Civil War loomed on a divided country, Morse surprised the public by publicly stating slavery was sanctioned by God and natural. In his 1863 Slavery Pamphlet #60, Morse insisted that slavery was “ordained from the beginning of the world for the wisest purposes, benevolent and disciplinary, by Divine Wisdom.” While less controversial in the mid-1800s, these delusional beliefs have relegated him to the margins of history today. While his inventions and advances are celebrated, the inventor is not. Discover more stories like this in INVENTING INDIANA, now available on Amazon in paperback and Kindle.	768	ENGLISH	1
A 'bucket' in basketball is a slang term for a made shot resulting in two or three points, depending on where the ball was shot from. The exact origin of the term is unknown, although it is likely derived from the early days in which basketball was first invented by tossing a ball into a peach basket. The term 'bucket' is not used merely to describe a shot attempt. In order for a shot to be considered a bucket, the ball must go through the hoop that is attached to the basket. Buckets can come in all different forms, including layups, jump shots and floaters (tossing the ball up mid-stride). Shots made from inside the three-point line (the arch that stretches across the court) are worth two points, while shots made from behind the line are worth three points. 'Buckets' can be incorporated into basketball conversations in a variety of ways, both by players and announcers alike. While watching a game on TV, you might hear the announcer say something like "count the bucket," which simply means that a player has made a shot that will add points to the team's total on the scoreboard. You also might observe a player being referred to as a "walking bucket," meaning the player is very talented and scores multiple baskets throughout the course of a game.	<urn:uuid:51a60076-c0e0-4c40-8e4a-ede254bb469a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/basketball/terms/buckets/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00184.warc.gz	en	0.983717	272	3.53125	4	[ -0.21407170593738556, -0.6723493337631226, -0.016438379883766174, -0.1715228110551834, 0.20781488716602325, -0.009096152149140835, 1.326211929321289, -0.23245924711227417, 0.039605818688869476, 0.30415940284729004, 0.04791820049285889, -0.5316852331161499, -0.06795839220285416, -0.56797397...	7	A 'bucket' in basketball is a slang term for a made shot resulting in two or three points, depending on where the ball was shot from. The exact origin of the term is unknown, although it is likely derived from the early days in which basketball was first invented by tossing a ball into a peach basket. The term 'bucket' is not used merely to describe a shot attempt. In order for a shot to be considered a bucket, the ball must go through the hoop that is attached to the basket. Buckets can come in all different forms, including layups, jump shots and floaters (tossing the ball up mid-stride). Shots made from inside the three-point line (the arch that stretches across the court) are worth two points, while shots made from behind the line are worth three points. 'Buckets' can be incorporated into basketball conversations in a variety of ways, both by players and announcers alike. While watching a game on TV, you might hear the announcer say something like "count the bucket," which simply means that a player has made a shot that will add points to the team's total on the scoreboard. You also might observe a player being referred to as a "walking bucket," meaning the player is very talented and scores multiple baskets throughout the course of a game.	265	ENGLISH	1
A program that aimed at separating the rural folks from the guerrillas known as The Strategic Hamlet Program had failed. This program was not successful because one of the leaders of the program, Colonel Pham Ngoc Thao, was an agent of communism. He worked against what the rest of the troop believed in and thus was causing them to fall back on the progress. The program was aimed at sending the rural folks to fortified camps. Here, these rural folks would have the opportunity of getting access to the health and educational facilities without ado. The peasants opposed the move. They felt that the idea of taking them away from their villages was not a good one as it would result in them being homeless in the end. Because of this resistance by the villagers to oppose the move, this led to the failure of the program (The Vietnam War the Bitter End 1969 – 1975, 1997).	<urn:uuid:18cb038a-cd24-41c0-8bac-557d85d55eb0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.customessaylive.com/essay-strategic-hamlet-program/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00408.warc.gz	en	0.984755	179	3.546875	4	[ -0.3730965852737427, 0.3311068117618561, -0.0834234356880188, 0.023179348558187485, 0.46522289514541626, 0.16666461527347565, -0.06876707822084427, 0.020117981359362602, -0.7280415892601013, 0.00044784185593016446, 0.3744748532772064, -0.015771985054016113, 0.36910149455070496, 0.345246642...	10	A program that aimed at separating the rural folks from the guerrillas known as The Strategic Hamlet Program had failed. This program was not successful because one of the leaders of the program, Colonel Pham Ngoc Thao, was an agent of communism. He worked against what the rest of the troop believed in and thus was causing them to fall back on the progress. The program was aimed at sending the rural folks to fortified camps. Here, these rural folks would have the opportunity of getting access to the health and educational facilities without ado. The peasants opposed the move. They felt that the idea of taking them away from their villages was not a good one as it would result in them being homeless in the end. Because of this resistance by the villagers to oppose the move, this led to the failure of the program (The Vietnam War the Bitter End 1969 – 1975, 1997).	189	ENGLISH	1
The Lubbock Lights were an unusual formation of lights seen over the city of Lubbock, Texas, from August–September 1951. The Lubbock Lights incident received national publicity and is regarded as one of the first great UFO cases in the United States. The Lubbock Lights were investigated by the U.S. Air Force in 1951. The Air Force initially believed the lights were caused by a type of bird called a plover, but eventually concluded that the lights “weren’t birds… but they weren’t spaceships…the [Lubbock Lights] have been positively identified as a very commonplace and easily explainable natural phenomenon.” However, to maintain the anonymity of the scientist who had provided the explanation, the Air Force refrained from providing any details regarding their explanation for the lights. The first publicized sighting of the lights occurred on August 25, 1951, at around 9 pm. Three professors from Texas Technological College (now Texas Tech University), located in Lubbock, were sitting in the backyard of one of the professor’s homes when they observed the “lights” fly overhead. A total of 20-30 lights, as bright as stars but larger in size, flew over the yard in a matter of seconds. The professors immediately ruled out meteors as a possible cause for the sightings, and as they discussed their sighting a second, similar, group of lights flew overhead. The three professors – Dr. A.G. Oberg, chemical engineer, Dr. W.L. Ducker, a department head and petroleum engineer, and Dr. W.I. Robinson, a geologist – reported their sighting to the local newspaper, the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. Following the newspaper’s article, three women in Lubbock reported that they had observed “peculiar flashing lights” in the sky on the same night of the professor’s sightings. Dr. Carl Hemminger, a professor of German at Texas Tech, also reported seeing the objects, as did the head of the college’s journalism department. The three professors became determined to view the objects again and perhaps discover their identity. On September 5, 1951, all three men, along with two other professors from Texas Tech, were sitting in Dr. Robinson’s front yard when the lights flew overhead. According to Dr. Grayson Mead the lights “appeared to be about the size of a dinner plate and they were greenish-blue, slightly fluorescent in color. They were smaller than the full moon at the horizon. There were about a dozen to fifteen of these lights… they were absolutely circular… it gave all of us… an extremely eerie feeling.” Mead claimed that the lights could not have been birds, but he also stated that they “went over so fast… that we wished we could have had a better look.” The professors observed one formation of lights flying above a thin cloud at about 2,000 feet (610 m); this allowed them to calculate that the lights were traveling at over 600 miles per hour (970 km/h). The Hart photographs On the evening of August 30, 1951, Carl Hart, Jr., a freshman at Texas Tech, was lying in bed looking out of the window of his room when he observed a group of 18-20 white lights in a “v” formation flying overhead. Hart took a 35-mm Kodak camera and walked to the backyard of his parent’s home to see if the lights would return. Two more flights passed overhead, and Hart was able to take a total of five photos before they disappeared. After having the photos developed Hart took them to the offices of the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. After examining the photos the newspaper’s editor, Jay Harris, told Hart that he would print them in the paper, but that he would “run him (Hart) out of town” if the photos were fake. When Hart assured him that the photos were genuine, Harris paid Hart $10 for the pictures. The photographs were soon reprinted in newspapers around the nation, and were printed in Life magazine, thus giving them wide publicity. The physics laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio analyzed the Hart photographs. After an extensive analysis and investigation of the photos, Lieutenant Edward J. Ruppelt, the supervisor of the Air Force’s Project Blue Book, released a written statement to the press that “the [Hart] photos were never proven to be a hoax, but neither were they proven to be genuine.” Hart has consistently maintained to this day that the photos are genuine. Curiously, the Texas Tech professors claimed that the photos did not represent what they had seen, since their objects had flown in a “u” formation instead of the “v” formation depicted in Hart’s photos. Air Force investigation and controversy In late September 1951, Lieutenant Ruppelt read about the Lubbock Lights and decided to investigate them. Project Blue Book, founded in 1948 as Project Sign, was the Air Force’s official research group assigned to investigate UFO reports. Ruppelt traveled to Lubbock and interviewed the professors, Carl Hart, and others who claimed to have witnessed the lights. Ruppelt’s conclusion at the time was that the professors had seen a type of bird called a plover. The city of Lubbock had installed new vapor street lights in 1951, and Ruppelt believed that the plovers, flying over Lubbock in their annual migration, were reflecting the new street lights at night. Witnesses who supported this assertion were T.E. Snider, a local farmer who on August 31, 1951 had observed some birds flying over a drive-in movie theater; the birds’ undersides were reflected in the light. Another witness, Joe Bryant, had been sitting outside his home with his wife on August 25 – the same night on which the three professors had first seen the lights. According to Bryant, he and his wife had seen a group of lights fly overhead, and then two other flights. Like the professors, they were at first baffled by the objects, but when the third group of lights passed overhead they began to circle the Bryants’ home. Mr. Bryant and his wife then noticed that the lights were actually plovers, and could hear them as well. In addition, Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer and one of Project Blue Book’s scientific consultants, contacted one of the Texas Tech professors in 1959 and learned that the professor, after careful research, had concluded that he had actually been observing the plovers. However, not everyone agreed with this explanation. William Hams, the chief photographer for the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal, took several nighttime photos of birds flying over Lubbock’s vapor street lights and found that he could not duplicate Hart’s photos – the images were too dim to be developed. Dr. J.C. Cross, the head of Texas Tech’s biology department, ruled out the possibility that birds could have caused the sightings. A game warden Ruppelt interviewed felt that the sightings could not have been caused by plovers, due to their slow speed (50 mph or 80 km/h) and tendency to fly in groups much smaller than the number of objects reported by eyewitnesses. The warden did admit that an unusually large number of plovers had been seen in the fall of 1951. Dr. Mead, who had observed the lights, strongly disputed the plover explanation: “these objects were too large for any bird…I have had enough experience hunting and I don’t know of any bird that could go this fast we would not be able to hear…to have gone as fast as this, to be birds, they would have to have been exceedingly low to disappear quite so quickly.” In his 1956 book The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects, Ruppelt rejected the plover hypothesis but declined to say what the lights were: “They weren’t birds, they weren’t refracted light, but they weren’t spaceships. The lights… have been positively identified as a very commonplace and easily explainable natural phenomenon. It is very unfortunate that I can’t divulge… the way the answer was found…. Telling the story would lead to [the identity of the scientist who “finally hit upon the answer”] and… I promised the man complete anonymity.” The flying wing While investigating the Lubbock Lights, Ruppelt also learned that several people in and around Lubbock claimed to have seen a “flying wing” moving over the city. Among the witnesses was the wife of Dr. Ducker, who reported that in August 1951 she had observed a “huge, soundless flying wing” pass over her house. Ruppelt knew that the US Air Force did possess a “flying wing” jet bomber, and he felt that at least some of the sightings had been caused by the bomber, although he could not explain why, according to the witnesses, the wing made no sound as it flew overhead. Publicity and media The Lubbock Lights were one of the best-publicized events in American UFO history. In April 1952 Life magazine published a popular article about the UFO phenomenon; the Lubbock Lights were a prominent feature of the article. Lieutenant (later Captain) Ruppelt devoted an entire chapter of his bestselling 1956 book to the incident. A novel, by Dr. David Wheeler, focuses on the Lubbock Lights. In 1994, the Albuquerque-based progressive rock band Skumbaag staged a rock opera called “The Lubbock Lights- a melodrama and interpretive ballet” inspired by the 1951 sightings with music and words by John Bartlit and Wm. Craig McClelland. In November 1999, Dallas, Texas-based television station KDFW aired a news story about the Lubbock Lights. Reporter Richard Ray interviewed Carl Hart, Jr. about taking the famous photos and being investigated by the U.S. Air Force. The coverage concluded that after decades of intense scrutiny, Hart’s photos are still among the most remarkable and vexing in UFO history. The Lubbock Lights were featured prominently in the 2002 Sci Fi Channel miniseries Taken, in which one alien poses as a human in the Lubbock area for a brief period of time. In 2005, a film called Lubbock Lights was released about the music scene in Lubbock which describes some theories about the lights by the musicians from the area. In 2006, Lubbock-based alternative country band Thrift Store Cowboys wrote and recorded a song entitled “Lubbock Lights” on their third album, Lay Low While Crawling or Creeping. The third episode of the 2019 History Channel television series Project Blue Book is entitled “The Lubbock Lights”, and is based on the Lubbock Lights incident.	<urn:uuid:7a7ae8d3-65a8-485d-a3c7-8d302407a566>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.creativespirits.net/lubbock-lights/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00063.warc.gz	en	0.981813	2,287	3.421875	3	[ -0.0726623386144638, -0.16151770949363708, -0.016667205840349197, 0.019238591194152832, 0.2535717785358429, 0.11063884198665619, 0.45796334743499756, 0.16482678055763245, -0.013576585799455643, 0.09060779958963394, 0.4472595453262329, 0.32429736852645874, -0.22324630618095398, 0.1743326783...	6	The Lubbock Lights were an unusual formation of lights seen over the city of Lubbock, Texas, from August–September 1951. The Lubbock Lights incident received national publicity and is regarded as one of the first great UFO cases in the United States. The Lubbock Lights were investigated by the U.S. Air Force in 1951. The Air Force initially believed the lights were caused by a type of bird called a plover, but eventually concluded that the lights “weren’t birds… but they weren’t spaceships…the [Lubbock Lights] have been positively identified as a very commonplace and easily explainable natural phenomenon.” However, to maintain the anonymity of the scientist who had provided the explanation, the Air Force refrained from providing any details regarding their explanation for the lights. The first publicized sighting of the lights occurred on August 25, 1951, at around 9 pm. Three professors from Texas Technological College (now Texas Tech University), located in Lubbock, were sitting in the backyard of one of the professor’s homes when they observed the “lights” fly overhead. A total of 20-30 lights, as bright as stars but larger in size, flew over the yard in a matter of seconds. The professors immediately ruled out meteors as a possible cause for the sightings, and as they discussed their sighting a second, similar, group of lights flew overhead. The three professors – Dr. A.G. Oberg, chemical engineer, Dr. W.L. Ducker, a department head and petroleum engineer, and Dr. W.I. Robinson, a geologist – reported their sighting to the local newspaper, the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. Following the newspaper’s article, three women in Lubbock reported that they had observed “peculiar flashing lights” in the sky on the same night of the professor’s sightings. Dr. Carl Hemminger, a professor of German at Texas Tech, also reported seeing the objects, as did the head of the college’s journalism department. The three professors became determined to view the objects again and perhaps discover their identity. On September 5, 1951, all three men, along with two other professors from Texas Tech, were sitting in Dr. Robinson’s front yard when the lights flew overhead. According to Dr. Grayson Mead the lights “appeared to be about the size of a dinner plate and they were greenish-blue, slightly fluorescent in color. They were smaller than the full moon at the horizon. There were about a dozen to fifteen of these lights… they were absolutely circular… it gave all of us… an extremely eerie feeling.” Mead claimed that the lights could not have been birds, but he also stated that they “went over so fast… that we wished we could have had a better look.” The professors observed one formation of lights flying above a thin cloud at about 2,000 feet (610 m); this allowed them to calculate that the lights were traveling at over 600 miles per hour (970 km/h). The Hart photographs On the evening of August 30, 1951, Carl Hart, Jr., a freshman at Texas Tech, was lying in bed looking out of the window of his room when he observed a group of 18-20 white lights in a “v” formation flying overhead. Hart took a 35-mm Kodak camera and walked to the backyard of his parent’s home to see if the lights would return. Two more flights passed overhead, and Hart was able to take a total of five photos before they disappeared. After having the photos developed Hart took them to the offices of the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. After examining the photos the newspaper’s editor, Jay Harris, told Hart that he would print them in the paper, but that he would “run him (Hart) out of town” if the photos were fake. When Hart assured him that the photos were genuine, Harris paid Hart $10 for the pictures. The photographs were soon reprinted in newspapers around the nation, and were printed in Life magazine, thus giving them wide publicity. The physics laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio analyzed the Hart photographs. After an extensive analysis and investigation of the photos, Lieutenant Edward J. Ruppelt, the supervisor of the Air Force’s Project Blue Book, released a written statement to the press that “the [Hart] photos were never proven to be a hoax, but neither were they proven to be genuine.” Hart has consistently maintained to this day that the photos are genuine. Curiously, the Texas Tech professors claimed that the photos did not represent what they had seen, since their objects had flown in a “u” formation instead of the “v” formation depicted in Hart’s photos. Air Force investigation and controversy In late September 1951, Lieutenant Ruppelt read about the Lubbock Lights and decided to investigate them. Project Blue Book, founded in 1948 as Project Sign, was the Air Force’s official research group assigned to investigate UFO reports. Ruppelt traveled to Lubbock and interviewed the professors, Carl Hart, and others who claimed to have witnessed the lights. Ruppelt’s conclusion at the time was that the professors had seen a type of bird called a plover. The city of Lubbock had installed new vapor street lights in 1951, and Ruppelt believed that the plovers, flying over Lubbock in their annual migration, were reflecting the new street lights at night. Witnesses who supported this assertion were T.E. Snider, a local farmer who on August 31, 1951 had observed some birds flying over a drive-in movie theater; the birds’ undersides were reflected in the light. Another witness, Joe Bryant, had been sitting outside his home with his wife on August 25 – the same night on which the three professors had first seen the lights. According to Bryant, he and his wife had seen a group of lights fly overhead, and then two other flights. Like the professors, they were at first baffled by the objects, but when the third group of lights passed overhead they began to circle the Bryants’ home. Mr. Bryant and his wife then noticed that the lights were actually plovers, and could hear them as well. In addition, Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer and one of Project Blue Book’s scientific consultants, contacted one of the Texas Tech professors in 1959 and learned that the professor, after careful research, had concluded that he had actually been observing the plovers. However, not everyone agreed with this explanation. William Hams, the chief photographer for the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal, took several nighttime photos of birds flying over Lubbock’s vapor street lights and found that he could not duplicate Hart’s photos – the images were too dim to be developed. Dr. J.C. Cross, the head of Texas Tech’s biology department, ruled out the possibility that birds could have caused the sightings. A game warden Ruppelt interviewed felt that the sightings could not have been caused by plovers, due to their slow speed (50 mph or 80 km/h) and tendency to fly in groups much smaller than the number of objects reported by eyewitnesses. The warden did admit that an unusually large number of plovers had been seen in the fall of 1951. Dr. Mead, who had observed the lights, strongly disputed the plover explanation: “these objects were too large for any bird…I have had enough experience hunting and I don’t know of any bird that could go this fast we would not be able to hear…to have gone as fast as this, to be birds, they would have to have been exceedingly low to disappear quite so quickly.” In his 1956 book The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects, Ruppelt rejected the plover hypothesis but declined to say what the lights were: “They weren’t birds, they weren’t refracted light, but they weren’t spaceships. The lights… have been positively identified as a very commonplace and easily explainable natural phenomenon. It is very unfortunate that I can’t divulge… the way the answer was found…. Telling the story would lead to [the identity of the scientist who “finally hit upon the answer”] and… I promised the man complete anonymity.” The flying wing While investigating the Lubbock Lights, Ruppelt also learned that several people in and around Lubbock claimed to have seen a “flying wing” moving over the city. Among the witnesses was the wife of Dr. Ducker, who reported that in August 1951 she had observed a “huge, soundless flying wing” pass over her house. Ruppelt knew that the US Air Force did possess a “flying wing” jet bomber, and he felt that at least some of the sightings had been caused by the bomber, although he could not explain why, according to the witnesses, the wing made no sound as it flew overhead. Publicity and media The Lubbock Lights were one of the best-publicized events in American UFO history. In April 1952 Life magazine published a popular article about the UFO phenomenon; the Lubbock Lights were a prominent feature of the article. Lieutenant (later Captain) Ruppelt devoted an entire chapter of his bestselling 1956 book to the incident. A novel, by Dr. David Wheeler, focuses on the Lubbock Lights. In 1994, the Albuquerque-based progressive rock band Skumbaag staged a rock opera called “The Lubbock Lights- a melodrama and interpretive ballet” inspired by the 1951 sightings with music and words by John Bartlit and Wm. Craig McClelland. In November 1999, Dallas, Texas-based television station KDFW aired a news story about the Lubbock Lights. Reporter Richard Ray interviewed Carl Hart, Jr. about taking the famous photos and being investigated by the U.S. Air Force. The coverage concluded that after decades of intense scrutiny, Hart’s photos are still among the most remarkable and vexing in UFO history. The Lubbock Lights were featured prominently in the 2002 Sci Fi Channel miniseries Taken, in which one alien poses as a human in the Lubbock area for a brief period of time. In 2005, a film called Lubbock Lights was released about the music scene in Lubbock which describes some theories about the lights by the musicians from the area. In 2006, Lubbock-based alternative country band Thrift Store Cowboys wrote and recorded a song entitled “Lubbock Lights” on their third album, Lay Low While Crawling or Creeping. The third episode of the 2019 History Channel television series Project Blue Book is entitled “The Lubbock Lights”, and is based on the Lubbock Lights incident.	2,290	ENGLISH	1
As Du Bois’s biographers have noted, that question became unavoidable on April 24, 1899. On that day, Du Bois walked along Mitchell Street towards downtown Atlanta. He carried a letter of introduction addressed to Joel Chandler Harris, an editor at the Atlanta Constitution. He also held a proposed editorial protesting the recent lynching of Sam Hose, a black farmhand accused of murdering his employer before raping the employer’s wife. Du Bois, familiar with the work of anti-lynching activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett, knew that the charges were false. He would expose the truth: that Hose killed his employer in self-defense and had not raped the wife. He would demonstrate through objective research that Hose’s only “crime” was being black in America.	<urn:uuid:e2d72b6d-dd3d-484b-a478-782d66eb1fa9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.schoolinfosystem.org/2016/08/24/the-black-intellectual-tradition-and-the-myth-of-objectivity/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00395.warc.gz	en	0.981324	167	3.34375	3	[ -0.13725416362285614, 0.08043058961629868, -0.13272035121917725, 0.2850727438926697, 0.4357546865940094, 0.10551265627145767, 0.2598212659358978, 0.024708356708288193, 0.04562307149171829, 0.02135232836008072, 0.24142417311668396, 0.34792882204055786, -0.2878332734107971, 0.109413251280784...	2	As Du Bois’s biographers have noted, that question became unavoidable on April 24, 1899. On that day, Du Bois walked along Mitchell Street towards downtown Atlanta. He carried a letter of introduction addressed to Joel Chandler Harris, an editor at the Atlanta Constitution. He also held a proposed editorial protesting the recent lynching of Sam Hose, a black farmhand accused of murdering his employer before raping the employer’s wife. Du Bois, familiar with the work of anti-lynching activist Ida B. Wells-Barnett, knew that the charges were false. He would expose the truth: that Hose killed his employer in self-defense and had not raped the wife. He would demonstrate through objective research that Hose’s only “crime” was being black in America.	161	ENGLISH	1
Orange Shirt Day is a day when we honour the Indigenous children who were sent away to residential schools in Canada and learn more about the history of those schools. The “orange shirt” in Orange Shirt Day refers to the new shirt that Phyllis Webstad was given to her by her grandmother for her first day of school at St. Joseph’s Mission residential school in British Columbia. When Phyllis got to school, they took away her clothes, including her new shirt. It was never returned. To Phyllis, the colour orange has always reminded her of her experiences at residential school and, as she has said, “how my feelings didn’t matter, how no one cared and I felt like I was worth nothing. All of us little children were crying and no one cared.” The message that Phyllis wants to pass along on Orange Shirt Day — and every day — is that every child matters. Orange Shirt Day was started by Phyllis to educate people about residential schools and fight racism and bullying.	<urn:uuid:987a8693-124c-46ae-86d0-ca6270059a00>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stjp.eics.ab.ca/home/news/post/83194	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00405.warc.gz	en	0.990367	215	3.46875	3	[ 0.12336854636669159, 0.07659824937582016, 0.3908098340034485, 0.003826538333669305, -0.1032918319106102, -0.07464174926280975, 0.14917750656604767, 0.47079214453697205, -0.1717643141746521, 0.3232172727584839, 0.33976998925209045, -0.49619704484939575, -0.1114497184753418, 0.32144609093666...	10	Orange Shirt Day is a day when we honour the Indigenous children who were sent away to residential schools in Canada and learn more about the history of those schools. The “orange shirt” in Orange Shirt Day refers to the new shirt that Phyllis Webstad was given to her by her grandmother for her first day of school at St. Joseph’s Mission residential school in British Columbia. When Phyllis got to school, they took away her clothes, including her new shirt. It was never returned. To Phyllis, the colour orange has always reminded her of her experiences at residential school and, as she has said, “how my feelings didn’t matter, how no one cared and I felt like I was worth nothing. All of us little children were crying and no one cared.” The message that Phyllis wants to pass along on Orange Shirt Day — and every day — is that every child matters. Orange Shirt Day was started by Phyllis to educate people about residential schools and fight racism and bullying.	204	ENGLISH	1
The Disastrous Burke and Wills Expedition of 1860. Robert O’Hara Burke was born in Ireland in 1821. Because of the Victorian gold rush, there was a shortage of police and so he joined the Victorian police force. William John Wills was born in England in 1834 and had come to Australia when he was eighteen. He was a surveyor, meteorologist and astronomer. Wills would have made a much better leader than Burke, although he too, had no experience as an explorer. Although the colony had grown, much of Australia was still undiscovered. Also, a route for an overland telegraph line was needed and the Victorian government offered a prize for the first expedition to cross Australia from south to north. Although Burke had no experience as an explorer or a bushman, he was chosen to lead the expedition together with a man called George Landells. However, it was not long before Burke had an argument with Landells and replaced him with Wills. Their well-equipped expedition set off 1860. Burke was afraid that he would be beaten by John Stuart to be the first to explore inland Australia, and so he set off on camel with his expedition. Meanwhile, unknown to Burke, John Stuart had turned back and so there was no need now for Burke to hurry or take risks. Burke was very impatient and would not let the expedition slow down for any reason. In addition, he set off without his medical officer and 2 other important members of the expedition. Unfortunately, there was no one in the group who was a good bushman. Burke was so impatient to reach the Gulf, that he left some of his party behind with supplies at Menindee and set off with a party of nine men. Burke then decided to push on towards the Gulf, even though it meant travelling in the heat of a northern summer. He took with him, Wills, King and Grey. He left the rest of the party at the Cooper’s creek camp with orders that the party was to return to Menindee in three months if the explorers hadn’t returned by then. After nearly two months the party reached the Gulf of Carpentaria, but were unable to see the waters of the Gulf because of the mangrove swamps. Burke would not wait to rest, and after only one day set off on the return journey which was made worse by fierce storms which turned the ground to mud. There was also a lack of food. Grey became ill and probably half mad when he stole food from their supplies. Burke was in a rage and gave him a severe thrashing from which he never recovered. Grey became ill and died of scurvy a week later. In addition the party who were supposed to be waiting at Cooper’s Creek for Burke to return, had left that morning and the depot was deserted. Brahe had waited 4 months and only left then because his men were getting sick from scurvy. Wills wanted to stay at Cooper’s Creek, feeling sure that help would arrive. Burke ignored his advice and decided to set off for a police station at Mt. Hopeless. As leader of the expedition, he ordered that they all go on. Unfortunately, he did not leave a message at Cooper’s Creek, and when Brahe returned, he did not know that the party had been there. The camels were dying, there was no food and the water was all gone. Both Burke and Wills were too weak by then to travel. First Wills, and then Burke died. For three months, friendly aboriginals cared for John King, who was the only survivor, until help arrived. He was rescued by a search party from Melbourne. Although Burke and Wills died, they had proved that there was no inland sea and were the first to cross Australia from south to north, providing more valuable information on inland Australia. via Burke & Wills The 4th of July 1838 was a dreadful day in Silkstone’s history. It was when 26 children between the ages of 7 and 17, working as ‘hurriers’ and ‘trappers’, were drowned after the dayhole through which they were attempting to escape from the Husker (or Huskar) Pit at Moorend was flooded. This happened during a summer thunderstorm when a clap of thunder was mistaken for an explosion. Forty-four children were working below ground and, ignoring instructions to stay where they were, they decided that, if there had been an explosion, the dayhole was a quick and safe way out. A dayhole is an old mine seam which has been dug out and the hole left. No one had thought to shut down this potentially dangerous old working. Rather, as it zigzagged its way down three-quarters of a mile to the coalface, it was used as an alternative route. However, as the children neared the surface, a nearby ditch flooded and the water poured into the dayhole. Twenty-six children died, their mangled bodies thrown together. Later, the bodies were brought back into the village in carts. Silkstone was devastated, and the accident shocked the country. A report was published in The Times, and the wider British public learned for the first time that women and children worked in the mines. There was a public outcry, led by politician and reformer Anthony Ashley Cooper, later Lord Shaftesbury. He called for a Royal Commission inquiry into the working conditions of children and women in Britain’s mines. Eventually, after the report had become a bestseller, the law was changed. On Saturday 27 November 2004, as part of the Woodland Trust’s children’s tree-planting campaign, Tree For All, a tree was planted in Nabs Wood for each of the 26 children who died. The trees were planted by local children whose ages and genders matched those of the victims. In time, the trees will form an avenue near the memorial by the entrance to Nabs Wood. Alan Gallop, Children of the Dark: Life and Death Underground in Victoria’s England (Sutton Publishing, 2003) A full moon rises behind burning moorland as a large wildfire sweeps across the moors between Dovestone and Buckton Vale in Stalybridge, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom on 26 June 2018 Image Credit: Photograph by Anthony Devlin/Getty Images The happy couple planned the Perfect Wedding, at beautiful Sellicks Beach located South of Adelaide. The weather forecaster said, ‘No bloody worries, it’s going to be a belter.’ So with hope in their heart and their wonderful relatives and friends in tow hey made their way down to the beach. Everyone was just so excited for the beautiful couple and then they looked up and saw this on the horizon. Oh! My goodness, A storm was gathering. It would be bringing buckets and buckets of rain There was no alternative venue planned. Bugger that weather forecaster. So what to do? Were these good people going to let a bit of water spoil the wedding? No way, and then with classic cleverness those stupid enough to stay out in the rain made themselves some quite stylish and practical water hats using the council’s dog poo collection bags sold to them by Alex Riley at $10 each. Three Cheers for Alex and Capitalism.	<urn:uuid:c45b8e4d-6628-41e5-8a30-b6c1cc7252ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://derwombat.net/tag/disasters/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00524.warc.gz	en	0.988335	1,547	3.4375	3	[ 0.038583915680646896, 0.17204195261001587, 0.3536738157272339, 0.18140777945518494, -0.12616436183452606, -0.36998239159584045, 0.028301075100898743, -0.18432657420635223, -0.47334372997283936, 0.005649684928357601, -0.054681770503520966, -0.5648369193077087, 0.4075607657432556, 0.50306248...	1	The Disastrous Burke and Wills Expedition of 1860. Robert O’Hara Burke was born in Ireland in 1821. Because of the Victorian gold rush, there was a shortage of police and so he joined the Victorian police force. William John Wills was born in England in 1834 and had come to Australia when he was eighteen. He was a surveyor, meteorologist and astronomer. Wills would have made a much better leader than Burke, although he too, had no experience as an explorer. Although the colony had grown, much of Australia was still undiscovered. Also, a route for an overland telegraph line was needed and the Victorian government offered a prize for the first expedition to cross Australia from south to north. Although Burke had no experience as an explorer or a bushman, he was chosen to lead the expedition together with a man called George Landells. However, it was not long before Burke had an argument with Landells and replaced him with Wills. Their well-equipped expedition set off 1860. Burke was afraid that he would be beaten by John Stuart to be the first to explore inland Australia, and so he set off on camel with his expedition. Meanwhile, unknown to Burke, John Stuart had turned back and so there was no need now for Burke to hurry or take risks. Burke was very impatient and would not let the expedition slow down for any reason. In addition, he set off without his medical officer and 2 other important members of the expedition. Unfortunately, there was no one in the group who was a good bushman. Burke was so impatient to reach the Gulf, that he left some of his party behind with supplies at Menindee and set off with a party of nine men. Burke then decided to push on towards the Gulf, even though it meant travelling in the heat of a northern summer. He took with him, Wills, King and Grey. He left the rest of the party at the Cooper’s creek camp with orders that the party was to return to Menindee in three months if the explorers hadn’t returned by then. After nearly two months the party reached the Gulf of Carpentaria, but were unable to see the waters of the Gulf because of the mangrove swamps. Burke would not wait to rest, and after only one day set off on the return journey which was made worse by fierce storms which turned the ground to mud. There was also a lack of food. Grey became ill and probably half mad when he stole food from their supplies. Burke was in a rage and gave him a severe thrashing from which he never recovered. Grey became ill and died of scurvy a week later. In addition the party who were supposed to be waiting at Cooper’s Creek for Burke to return, had left that morning and the depot was deserted. Brahe had waited 4 months and only left then because his men were getting sick from scurvy. Wills wanted to stay at Cooper’s Creek, feeling sure that help would arrive. Burke ignored his advice and decided to set off for a police station at Mt. Hopeless. As leader of the expedition, he ordered that they all go on. Unfortunately, he did not leave a message at Cooper’s Creek, and when Brahe returned, he did not know that the party had been there. The camels were dying, there was no food and the water was all gone. Both Burke and Wills were too weak by then to travel. First Wills, and then Burke died. For three months, friendly aboriginals cared for John King, who was the only survivor, until help arrived. He was rescued by a search party from Melbourne. Although Burke and Wills died, they had proved that there was no inland sea and were the first to cross Australia from south to north, providing more valuable information on inland Australia. via Burke & Wills The 4th of July 1838 was a dreadful day in Silkstone’s history. It was when 26 children between the ages of 7 and 17, working as ‘hurriers’ and ‘trappers’, were drowned after the dayhole through which they were attempting to escape from the Husker (or Huskar) Pit at Moorend was flooded. This happened during a summer thunderstorm when a clap of thunder was mistaken for an explosion. Forty-four children were working below ground and, ignoring instructions to stay where they were, they decided that, if there had been an explosion, the dayhole was a quick and safe way out. A dayhole is an old mine seam which has been dug out and the hole left. No one had thought to shut down this potentially dangerous old working. Rather, as it zigzagged its way down three-quarters of a mile to the coalface, it was used as an alternative route. However, as the children neared the surface, a nearby ditch flooded and the water poured into the dayhole. Twenty-six children died, their mangled bodies thrown together. Later, the bodies were brought back into the village in carts. Silkstone was devastated, and the accident shocked the country. A report was published in The Times, and the wider British public learned for the first time that women and children worked in the mines. There was a public outcry, led by politician and reformer Anthony Ashley Cooper, later Lord Shaftesbury. He called for a Royal Commission inquiry into the working conditions of children and women in Britain’s mines. Eventually, after the report had become a bestseller, the law was changed. On Saturday 27 November 2004, as part of the Woodland Trust’s children’s tree-planting campaign, Tree For All, a tree was planted in Nabs Wood for each of the 26 children who died. The trees were planted by local children whose ages and genders matched those of the victims. In time, the trees will form an avenue near the memorial by the entrance to Nabs Wood. Alan Gallop, Children of the Dark: Life and Death Underground in Victoria’s England (Sutton Publishing, 2003) A full moon rises behind burning moorland as a large wildfire sweeps across the moors between Dovestone and Buckton Vale in Stalybridge, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom on 26 June 2018 Image Credit: Photograph by Anthony Devlin/Getty Images The happy couple planned the Perfect Wedding, at beautiful Sellicks Beach located South of Adelaide. The weather forecaster said, ‘No bloody worries, it’s going to be a belter.’ So with hope in their heart and their wonderful relatives and friends in tow hey made their way down to the beach. Everyone was just so excited for the beautiful couple and then they looked up and saw this on the horizon. Oh! My goodness, A storm was gathering. It would be bringing buckets and buckets of rain There was no alternative venue planned. Bugger that weather forecaster. So what to do? Were these good people going to let a bit of water spoil the wedding? No way, and then with classic cleverness those stupid enough to stay out in the rain made themselves some quite stylish and practical water hats using the council’s dog poo collection bags sold to them by Alex Riley at $10 each. Three Cheers for Alex and Capitalism.	1,513	ENGLISH	1
John Fuller: Birth: 1647 in Salem, Essex, Massachusetts. Death: 23 AUG 1676 in Rehoboth, Bristol County MA Killed by King Phillips' Indians Samuel Fuller: Birth: 1649 in Salem, Essex, Massachusetts. Death: 15 AUG 1676 in Killed by Indians-King Phillips War Salem, Rehoboth, Essex County, MA Note: The first record of Robert Fuller in this country was in Salem, MA in 1639 when he requested 5 acres to plant. He is believed to have arrived on the "Bevis" which left England in May 1638. England. It was in that year that Governor Winslow ceased to record the arrival of ships, there being so many, 20 in that year with over 3000 persons. Perhaps Robert and his brother Thomas of Woburn slipped in among that large group of unrecorded persons. It is known they came from England. Robert Fuller was a bricklayer by trade. In those days the mason gathered, hauled and cleaned his stone for construction. Usually stone was used for the foundation, chimneys, and cellar walls. At some point he moved from Salem to Rehoboth. He owned property there in 1645. His wife, Sarah Bowen had sisters and brothers already living in Rehoboth. Of Robert Fuller family and his early descendants it is said: "The Fuller families were of strong Puritanical character; marked for integrity, industry, a strict regard for truth and justice, accompanied by an affability or manners both pleasing and of controlling influence." Robert FULLER Of Salem and Rehoboth was born about 1616 in Southampton, Hampshire, England. He died on 10 May 1706 in Rehoboth, Bristol, Massachusetts. Robert Fuller was born about 1615 perhaps in Suffolk or Norfolk county near the southeastern coast of England. Most everyone with the surname of "Fuller" lived in this region when the name first came into use because it was where the woolen cloth manufacturers were located. The name comes from the trade of "fuller." A fuller's job was important to the refinement of finished cloth. A fuller scoured wool and other cloth after it was woven to make it whiter, tighter, thicker, and more durable. In part of his process, the fuller would sprinkle the woven cloth with a clay called "fuller's earth", then fold and soak the cloth in a tub of water. While in the tub, he would walk on the cloth with his bare feet to even out the fill. In 1638, Robert Fuller is said to have sailed from the port of Southampton to Salem, which was in the English-chartered, Massachusetts Bay Colony. His passage was probably on the ship "Bevis of Hampton." The Bevis made only one voyage to America and Robert's name does not appear in the ship's manifest. However, he may have worked for his passage as an ordinary seaman, in which case, his name would not have appeared among those of the regular passengers. At the time of his arrival, colonial Salem was twelve years old. There were already several other Fullers living in Massachusetts when Robert arrived. Some had sailed with the Puritans from England to Plymouth Rock in 1620 on the Mayflower. It has not been shown using civil records that Robert was in fact related to these other Fullers, but it is remotely possible. If Robert was related to brothers Samuel and Edward Fuller, or Susanna (Fuller) White of the Mayflower, then he was probably a nephew. If so, he would have been the son of Thomas Fuller, who remained in England. Robert may also have had an older brother named Thomas who came to Massachusetts in 1638, but lived first in Woburn and then in Salem. Again, no proof has been found yet of this relationship. Robert married Sarah Bowen at Salem in about 1639. She was born in Wales in about 1616 to Richard and Ann Bowen. The entire Bowen family was living in Salem--already a busy seaport--by the time Robert arrived. In 1645, however, Robert was given land in Rehoboth, which was in an unsettled area to the southwest of Salem about 60 miles away. By 1650, he had moved his family there. Robert and Sarah had six children: Jonathan, Elizabeth, John, Samuel, Abigail, and Benjamin. He and Sarah built a new home at the southwest end of a scenic area called the "Ring of Green" which was on the Seekonk plain. The family lived there for about the next twenty-five years, until serious problems with Indian attacks made life there intolerable. Today this land is part of East Providence, Rhode Island. During his first years in America, Robert made his living as a bricklayer. He is mentioned many times in this regard in the early records of Town meetings of both Salem and Rehoboth. In those days, a bricklayer's job consisted mainly of building fireplaces, bake ovens, chimneys, foundations, and cellar walls. Houses were not generally brick, but were back-plastered with lime on the walls and ceilings for greater warmth. At first, a bricklayer in Massachusetts had his pay set by the Court of Assistants; In 1630, the order had been that carpenters, joiners, sawyers, bricklayers, and thatchers could be paid no more than two shillings a day. This order was repealed, however, because it failed to promote the skilled labor which was vital to the growing colony. Robert did not become a "freeman" until 1655. Unless you were granted the status of freeman, you could not vote or hold public office. In order to be a freeman in the Plymouth Colony, however, you had to be approved by the minister of the congregation--in Massachusetts this meant you had to be a Puritan. Indeed, Robert was a loyal Congregationalist, and received his grant. Later, in 1668, he and his brother-in-law were elected constables for one year. "Att the General Court of Elections held att Plymouth the third Day of June, Anno Dom 1668, Prence Gour, Constables of Rehoboth-- Robert ffuller George Kendricke" Constables kept the peace, made arrests, served warrants, and among other popular activities, collected taxes. In 1675 and 1676, Rehoboth was attacked several times by the Wampanoag Indians in what was called "King Philip's War." Scores of townspeople were ambushed in the fields or killed in surprise attacks by angry natives. King Philip, or "Metacomet" (which was his Indian name), was the son of Massasoit, chief of the Wampanog tribe. Apparently, the Indians had become increasingly angry with the encroachments of the early settlers, and resorted to violence. As a result of these attacks, Robert lost his wife, Sarah, and three of his children, John, Samuel, and Abigail. His daughter Elizabeth lost her husband, Nehemiah Sabin. Shortly after these tragic losses, Robert returned to Salem. Soon he remarried to Margaret Waller, whose husband had also been killed. Margaret and Robert lived in Salem until the late 1690s. Fortunately for them, they were not among the 125 persons accused of witchcraft in 1692. After trial, many witches were hanged. (None was ever burned.) The governor of the Massachusetts colony finally put a stop to the incredible nonsense in 1693. Eventually, Robert went back to Rehoboth to live out his last years with his grown children. Margaret died about 1700 and Robert in 1706. They are both probably buried in the oldest cemetery in Rehoboth. [Much of the above was based on information provided by Clarence C. Fuller in his book "Robert Fuller of Salem"] He was married to Sarah BOWEN in 1639 in Salem, Massachusetts Bay Colony. RootsWeb.com is NOT responsible for the content of the GEDCOMs uploaded through the WorldConnect Program. The creator of each GEDCOM is solely responsible for its content.	<urn:uuid:07fec01b-277d-4420-8ce6-f64ed65cd148>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldconnect.rootsweb.com/trees/226527/I039006/-/individual	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00495.warc.gz	en	0.987534	1,678	3.296875	3	[ 0.02382848970592022, 0.3910144865512848, 0.32801443338394165, 0.1004413440823555, 0.0215790793299675, 0.2916638255119324, 0.05110057443380356, -0.027692623436450958, -0.2147776186466217, 0.04799164831638336, -0.061363689601421356, -0.4643601179122925, 0.23185569047927856, 0.711544036865234...	1	John Fuller: Birth: 1647 in Salem, Essex, Massachusetts. Death: 23 AUG 1676 in Rehoboth, Bristol County MA Killed by King Phillips' Indians Samuel Fuller: Birth: 1649 in Salem, Essex, Massachusetts. Death: 15 AUG 1676 in Killed by Indians-King Phillips War Salem, Rehoboth, Essex County, MA Note: The first record of Robert Fuller in this country was in Salem, MA in 1639 when he requested 5 acres to plant. He is believed to have arrived on the "Bevis" which left England in May 1638. England. It was in that year that Governor Winslow ceased to record the arrival of ships, there being so many, 20 in that year with over 3000 persons. Perhaps Robert and his brother Thomas of Woburn slipped in among that large group of unrecorded persons. It is known they came from England. Robert Fuller was a bricklayer by trade. In those days the mason gathered, hauled and cleaned his stone for construction. Usually stone was used for the foundation, chimneys, and cellar walls. At some point he moved from Salem to Rehoboth. He owned property there in 1645. His wife, Sarah Bowen had sisters and brothers already living in Rehoboth. Of Robert Fuller family and his early descendants it is said: "The Fuller families were of strong Puritanical character; marked for integrity, industry, a strict regard for truth and justice, accompanied by an affability or manners both pleasing and of controlling influence." Robert FULLER Of Salem and Rehoboth was born about 1616 in Southampton, Hampshire, England. He died on 10 May 1706 in Rehoboth, Bristol, Massachusetts. Robert Fuller was born about 1615 perhaps in Suffolk or Norfolk county near the southeastern coast of England. Most everyone with the surname of "Fuller" lived in this region when the name first came into use because it was where the woolen cloth manufacturers were located. The name comes from the trade of "fuller." A fuller's job was important to the refinement of finished cloth. A fuller scoured wool and other cloth after it was woven to make it whiter, tighter, thicker, and more durable. In part of his process, the fuller would sprinkle the woven cloth with a clay called "fuller's earth", then fold and soak the cloth in a tub of water. While in the tub, he would walk on the cloth with his bare feet to even out the fill. In 1638, Robert Fuller is said to have sailed from the port of Southampton to Salem, which was in the English-chartered, Massachusetts Bay Colony. His passage was probably on the ship "Bevis of Hampton." The Bevis made only one voyage to America and Robert's name does not appear in the ship's manifest. However, he may have worked for his passage as an ordinary seaman, in which case, his name would not have appeared among those of the regular passengers. At the time of his arrival, colonial Salem was twelve years old. There were already several other Fullers living in Massachusetts when Robert arrived. Some had sailed with the Puritans from England to Plymouth Rock in 1620 on the Mayflower. It has not been shown using civil records that Robert was in fact related to these other Fullers, but it is remotely possible. If Robert was related to brothers Samuel and Edward Fuller, or Susanna (Fuller) White of the Mayflower, then he was probably a nephew. If so, he would have been the son of Thomas Fuller, who remained in England. Robert may also have had an older brother named Thomas who came to Massachusetts in 1638, but lived first in Woburn and then in Salem. Again, no proof has been found yet of this relationship. Robert married Sarah Bowen at Salem in about 1639. She was born in Wales in about 1616 to Richard and Ann Bowen. The entire Bowen family was living in Salem--already a busy seaport--by the time Robert arrived. In 1645, however, Robert was given land in Rehoboth, which was in an unsettled area to the southwest of Salem about 60 miles away. By 1650, he had moved his family there. Robert and Sarah had six children: Jonathan, Elizabeth, John, Samuel, Abigail, and Benjamin. He and Sarah built a new home at the southwest end of a scenic area called the "Ring of Green" which was on the Seekonk plain. The family lived there for about the next twenty-five years, until serious problems with Indian attacks made life there intolerable. Today this land is part of East Providence, Rhode Island. During his first years in America, Robert made his living as a bricklayer. He is mentioned many times in this regard in the early records of Town meetings of both Salem and Rehoboth. In those days, a bricklayer's job consisted mainly of building fireplaces, bake ovens, chimneys, foundations, and cellar walls. Houses were not generally brick, but were back-plastered with lime on the walls and ceilings for greater warmth. At first, a bricklayer in Massachusetts had his pay set by the Court of Assistants; In 1630, the order had been that carpenters, joiners, sawyers, bricklayers, and thatchers could be paid no more than two shillings a day. This order was repealed, however, because it failed to promote the skilled labor which was vital to the growing colony. Robert did not become a "freeman" until 1655. Unless you were granted the status of freeman, you could not vote or hold public office. In order to be a freeman in the Plymouth Colony, however, you had to be approved by the minister of the congregation--in Massachusetts this meant you had to be a Puritan. Indeed, Robert was a loyal Congregationalist, and received his grant. Later, in 1668, he and his brother-in-law were elected constables for one year. "Att the General Court of Elections held att Plymouth the third Day of June, Anno Dom 1668, Prence Gour, Constables of Rehoboth-- Robert ffuller George Kendricke" Constables kept the peace, made arrests, served warrants, and among other popular activities, collected taxes. In 1675 and 1676, Rehoboth was attacked several times by the Wampanoag Indians in what was called "King Philip's War." Scores of townspeople were ambushed in the fields or killed in surprise attacks by angry natives. King Philip, or "Metacomet" (which was his Indian name), was the son of Massasoit, chief of the Wampanog tribe. Apparently, the Indians had become increasingly angry with the encroachments of the early settlers, and resorted to violence. As a result of these attacks, Robert lost his wife, Sarah, and three of his children, John, Samuel, and Abigail. His daughter Elizabeth lost her husband, Nehemiah Sabin. Shortly after these tragic losses, Robert returned to Salem. Soon he remarried to Margaret Waller, whose husband had also been killed. Margaret and Robert lived in Salem until the late 1690s. Fortunately for them, they were not among the 125 persons accused of witchcraft in 1692. After trial, many witches were hanged. (None was ever burned.) The governor of the Massachusetts colony finally put a stop to the incredible nonsense in 1693. Eventually, Robert went back to Rehoboth to live out his last years with his grown children. Margaret died about 1700 and Robert in 1706. They are both probably buried in the oldest cemetery in Rehoboth. [Much of the above was based on information provided by Clarence C. Fuller in his book "Robert Fuller of Salem"] He was married to Sarah BOWEN in 1639 in Salem, Massachusetts Bay Colony. RootsWeb.com is NOT responsible for the content of the GEDCOMs uploaded through the WorldConnect Program. The creator of each GEDCOM is solely responsible for its content.	1,774	ENGLISH	1
In the run-up to Congo’s independence from its Belgian colonisers in 1960, the Belgian state arranged to bring everything that was Belgian back to Europe, including children born to a black African mother and a white Belgian father. These so-called ‘métis’ children were declared property of the Belgian state and forcibly taken from their mothers to be put on a plane to Belgium, where they often ended up in orphanages or foster families. Métis children are the children that were born in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi under Belgian rule. They were sometimes the result of love between a colonial settler and a native woman, but more often the product of the colonisers’ abuse of power. In older official documents and newspapers, métis children were often called ‘half-bloods’, referring to only half of their blood being European, or ‘mulattos’, which has its origin in the Latin word mulus, the bastard offspring of a horse and a donkey. Not only do both these words carry very pejorative connotations, but they also only refer to the children’s mixed skin colour. The word métis, however, carries no negative undertones and also refers to the children’s colonial background. It is the word Congolese people with a white parent or grandparent now call themselves. Children of the sin The exact number of métis children in Belgium is unknown. According to the Save institute in Rwanda, they hosted 124 children when they were brought to Belgium, and 881 other children were taken from Ruanda-Urundi and the region around the Kivu lake. However, some files have next to no information about what happened to them, or if they even came to Belgium in the first place. These files only exist if the children were officially registered with the Belgian colonial authorities when they were born, which usually did not happen, meaning the number of métis children is likely to be much higher. Relations between white and black people were not only disapproved of, but often sanctioned, and one of the reasons many Belgian fathers did not acknowledge their mixed-race children. Even under colonial rule in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, mixed-race métis children were not tolerated. Black people were made to live completely separate from their white colonisers, and ‘half-blood’ children were the visible proof of the disrupted colonial order and had to be taken out of sight. Mothers were pressured to sign documents in a language they did not understand to give away their ‘children of the sin’ to institutions like the Witte Zusters (White Sisters) in one of the first Catholic missions in Save, Rwanda. “When I was six years old, I was taken to the school in Save. I only have a few memories of my mother and father,” Jaak Albert, who is 67-years-old and the son of a white Belgian father and a native Tutsi woman in Rwanda, told The Brussels Times. Jaak was one of the first métis children taken to Belgium before the decolonisation. “I was too dark-skinned to be allowed to go to one of the white schools, but because I was mixed-race, the ‘fully’ black children often bullied me. When I was seven, I was put on a plane with the other children in Save and taken to Villa Bambino, an orphanage in Belgium. I have lived with several foster families, but I finally found a nice working-class family in Antwerp where I had a nice youth. Many of us did not. I was lucky,” he added. Once in Belgium, the children were often not recognised as official Belgian citizens, and were de facto stateless. They did not have a birth certificate, often not even a last name, and had to deal with many administrative problems later on in life. “Under the pretext of the violent incidents associated with Congo’s independence in 1960, all the métis children that were held in the orphanage in Save and elsewhere were collected in Usumbura (the former capital of Burundi, now called Bujumbura), with the support of the Belgian authorities. Without informing our mothers, we were flown to Belgium by plane,” reads the website of miXed2020, an association for and by métis children to help each other find family and peers. This ‘evacuation’, which was essentially an abduction of the métis children, allowed the Belgian authorities and charities to systemically label them as orphans to be adopted or placed in foster homes, regardless of whether or not their mothers in Congo or their fathers in Belgium were still alive. “People were convinced that a new start with a clean slate would be better for the children. However, nowadays, pedagogues and psychologists agree that it is much better for adopted and placed children to have the opportunity to find out what their personal trajectory and history is. The ‘clean break’ policy that was applied by the Belgian state in the 50s and 60s is now considered traumatic,” said Sarah Heynssens, a historian at the National Archives of Belgium and the Ghent University. “Being a person who does not know where they come from, does not know why they were not raised by their parents, and grew up with the idea that their parents abandoned them even though they did not, is a difficult challenge. The ‘clean break’ policy had a lot of negative effects on the psychological well-being of these people,” she added, as the métis children were not only left in the dark about their personal history, but their shared cultural heritage as well. “I have looked for my biological parents my entire life,” said Albert. “However, as I officially did not have a family name, it was incredibly difficult to find any useful information,” he added. His first name, ‘Jaak’, is officially spelled the French way, ‘Jacques’, as it was given to him by the Belgian French-speaking authorities in Congo. Even though it is still spelled ‘Jacques’ on official documents, he prefers to use the Dutch spelling whenever he can. Sorry is a start Associations of métis children, like MiXed2020 and Métis de Belgique/Metissen van België, have been asking the Belgian state to acknowledge their suffering, and take action for reparations. “We have studied, found a job, built our lives. Some were surrounded, educated, followed up on better than others. Many, unfortunately, have suffered greatly,” their website states. In 2017, the Belgian Catholic Church officially apologised to the métis children for the part it played in separating them from their families. It asked all catholic institutions in Belgium, Africa and Rome to make available all documents that they have regarding the colonial period which could help the métis children find their parents or ancestry in Africa. In April 2019, the then Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel officially apologised in Parliament for the treatment of the métis children under colonial rule and in Belgium, as well. After Michel’s apologies and the admittance of blame of the Belgian state, many métis children gathered all the files they had proving their abduction, lack of official documents and subsequent difficulties they experienced, to file a lawsuit, according to Albert. Heidi De Rudder, the Belgian daughter of a métis mother said the apologies were an important step in the process. “Sorry is not everything, but it is a start. My mother, now 70-years-old, was put on a plane from Congo to Belgium when she was ten. The Minister’s apology is important, but a little more cooperation from the government to find our families would be nice too,” she said. “Perhaps the government could make an explicit appeal to all the fathers, to make themselves known?” she added. “A crucial collection of personal files of the métis children that were compiled by the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi will be transferred in due course to the National Archives of Belgium. The files contain information about the fathers and mothers of mixed-heritage children. The intention was to evaluate whether or not the child was acknowledged by the European father. If so, the child could stay with him or his family. If not, it was forcibly taken from the mother and placed in one of the institutions like the one in Save,” Heynssens said. However, the lists of names that exist are often not enough. The individual files of the métis children were made by colonial officers who only superficially informed themselves about the children. Many files only contain a first name, sometimes even only a nickname, according to Heynssens. “In the Africa archives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Brussels, I found two different files about me. The thinnest file was named ‘Jacques Albert’ and contained official documents from the public prosecutor, the village leader in Rwanda, and the Mother-Superior from the Institute for Mulattos. According to that file, my parents were unknown and I did not have a birth certificate. The name Albert, which is not actually a surname but more like a second first name, was given to me by Mother-Superior after I was baptised, right before the journey to Belgium,” said Albert. “In the thicker file, labelled ‘Jacques’, I also found official files from the police, the public prosecutor and Mother-Superior. But there were also confidential documents like proofs of payment from my father, correspondence with the savings fund in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, letters from my father, and the identity of both my parents,” he said. “So many pieces of the puzzle came together. All my unanswered questions were finally answered. I even discovered that I had a brother, who I met for the first time in November 2015, after not knowing he existed for 63 years,” Albert added. “It is the government’s duty to open up these sources, make them available for research, and make them accessible for everyone who is directly involved. However, almost 60 years after the decolonisation, this has still not happened, which leaves a great part of the archives unable to be consulted,” said Heynssens. “Hopefully our lawsuit will change something. We will know the outcome by the end of 2019. It has been almost 60 years, we have waited long enough,” Albert concluded. By Maïthé Chini	<urn:uuid:6cb89ce6-de86-4c12-8ae0-4e6fe44bdb32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/belgium-all-news/85671/legacies-of-the-colony-the-lost-children-of-congo/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00297.warc.gz	en	0.984461	2,260	3.71875	4	[ -0.13196495175361633, 0.22540752589702606, 0.5301370620727539, 0.22810131311416626, -0.15025275945663452, -0.25029680132865906, -0.04630604386329651, 0.2354327142238617, -0.2586686611175537, 0.4452400803565979, 0.37784695625305176, -0.5781669616699219, 0.04052053391933441, 0.02196569740772...	6	In the run-up to Congo’s independence from its Belgian colonisers in 1960, the Belgian state arranged to bring everything that was Belgian back to Europe, including children born to a black African mother and a white Belgian father. These so-called ‘métis’ children were declared property of the Belgian state and forcibly taken from their mothers to be put on a plane to Belgium, where they often ended up in orphanages or foster families. Métis children are the children that were born in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi under Belgian rule. They were sometimes the result of love between a colonial settler and a native woman, but more often the product of the colonisers’ abuse of power. In older official documents and newspapers, métis children were often called ‘half-bloods’, referring to only half of their blood being European, or ‘mulattos’, which has its origin in the Latin word mulus, the bastard offspring of a horse and a donkey. Not only do both these words carry very pejorative connotations, but they also only refer to the children’s mixed skin colour. The word métis, however, carries no negative undertones and also refers to the children’s colonial background. It is the word Congolese people with a white parent or grandparent now call themselves. Children of the sin The exact number of métis children in Belgium is unknown. According to the Save institute in Rwanda, they hosted 124 children when they were brought to Belgium, and 881 other children were taken from Ruanda-Urundi and the region around the Kivu lake. However, some files have next to no information about what happened to them, or if they even came to Belgium in the first place. These files only exist if the children were officially registered with the Belgian colonial authorities when they were born, which usually did not happen, meaning the number of métis children is likely to be much higher. Relations between white and black people were not only disapproved of, but often sanctioned, and one of the reasons many Belgian fathers did not acknowledge their mixed-race children. Even under colonial rule in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, mixed-race métis children were not tolerated. Black people were made to live completely separate from their white colonisers, and ‘half-blood’ children were the visible proof of the disrupted colonial order and had to be taken out of sight. Mothers were pressured to sign documents in a language they did not understand to give away their ‘children of the sin’ to institutions like the Witte Zusters (White Sisters) in one of the first Catholic missions in Save, Rwanda. “When I was six years old, I was taken to the school in Save. I only have a few memories of my mother and father,” Jaak Albert, who is 67-years-old and the son of a white Belgian father and a native Tutsi woman in Rwanda, told The Brussels Times. Jaak was one of the first métis children taken to Belgium before the decolonisation. “I was too dark-skinned to be allowed to go to one of the white schools, but because I was mixed-race, the ‘fully’ black children often bullied me. When I was seven, I was put on a plane with the other children in Save and taken to Villa Bambino, an orphanage in Belgium. I have lived with several foster families, but I finally found a nice working-class family in Antwerp where I had a nice youth. Many of us did not. I was lucky,” he added. Once in Belgium, the children were often not recognised as official Belgian citizens, and were de facto stateless. They did not have a birth certificate, often not even a last name, and had to deal with many administrative problems later on in life. “Under the pretext of the violent incidents associated with Congo’s independence in 1960, all the métis children that were held in the orphanage in Save and elsewhere were collected in Usumbura (the former capital of Burundi, now called Bujumbura), with the support of the Belgian authorities. Without informing our mothers, we were flown to Belgium by plane,” reads the website of miXed2020, an association for and by métis children to help each other find family and peers. This ‘evacuation’, which was essentially an abduction of the métis children, allowed the Belgian authorities and charities to systemically label them as orphans to be adopted or placed in foster homes, regardless of whether or not their mothers in Congo or their fathers in Belgium were still alive. “People were convinced that a new start with a clean slate would be better for the children. However, nowadays, pedagogues and psychologists agree that it is much better for adopted and placed children to have the opportunity to find out what their personal trajectory and history is. The ‘clean break’ policy that was applied by the Belgian state in the 50s and 60s is now considered traumatic,” said Sarah Heynssens, a historian at the National Archives of Belgium and the Ghent University. “Being a person who does not know where they come from, does not know why they were not raised by their parents, and grew up with the idea that their parents abandoned them even though they did not, is a difficult challenge. The ‘clean break’ policy had a lot of negative effects on the psychological well-being of these people,” she added, as the métis children were not only left in the dark about their personal history, but their shared cultural heritage as well. “I have looked for my biological parents my entire life,” said Albert. “However, as I officially did not have a family name, it was incredibly difficult to find any useful information,” he added. His first name, ‘Jaak’, is officially spelled the French way, ‘Jacques’, as it was given to him by the Belgian French-speaking authorities in Congo. Even though it is still spelled ‘Jacques’ on official documents, he prefers to use the Dutch spelling whenever he can. Sorry is a start Associations of métis children, like MiXed2020 and Métis de Belgique/Metissen van België, have been asking the Belgian state to acknowledge their suffering, and take action for reparations. “We have studied, found a job, built our lives. Some were surrounded, educated, followed up on better than others. Many, unfortunately, have suffered greatly,” their website states. In 2017, the Belgian Catholic Church officially apologised to the métis children for the part it played in separating them from their families. It asked all catholic institutions in Belgium, Africa and Rome to make available all documents that they have regarding the colonial period which could help the métis children find their parents or ancestry in Africa. In April 2019, the then Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel officially apologised in Parliament for the treatment of the métis children under colonial rule and in Belgium, as well. After Michel’s apologies and the admittance of blame of the Belgian state, many métis children gathered all the files they had proving their abduction, lack of official documents and subsequent difficulties they experienced, to file a lawsuit, according to Albert. Heidi De Rudder, the Belgian daughter of a métis mother said the apologies were an important step in the process. “Sorry is not everything, but it is a start. My mother, now 70-years-old, was put on a plane from Congo to Belgium when she was ten. The Minister’s apology is important, but a little more cooperation from the government to find our families would be nice too,” she said. “Perhaps the government could make an explicit appeal to all the fathers, to make themselves known?” she added. “A crucial collection of personal files of the métis children that were compiled by the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi will be transferred in due course to the National Archives of Belgium. The files contain information about the fathers and mothers of mixed-heritage children. The intention was to evaluate whether or not the child was acknowledged by the European father. If so, the child could stay with him or his family. If not, it was forcibly taken from the mother and placed in one of the institutions like the one in Save,” Heynssens said. However, the lists of names that exist are often not enough. The individual files of the métis children were made by colonial officers who only superficially informed themselves about the children. Many files only contain a first name, sometimes even only a nickname, according to Heynssens. “In the Africa archives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Brussels, I found two different files about me. The thinnest file was named ‘Jacques Albert’ and contained official documents from the public prosecutor, the village leader in Rwanda, and the Mother-Superior from the Institute for Mulattos. According to that file, my parents were unknown and I did not have a birth certificate. The name Albert, which is not actually a surname but more like a second first name, was given to me by Mother-Superior after I was baptised, right before the journey to Belgium,” said Albert. “In the thicker file, labelled ‘Jacques’, I also found official files from the police, the public prosecutor and Mother-Superior. But there were also confidential documents like proofs of payment from my father, correspondence with the savings fund in Congo and Ruanda-Urundi, letters from my father, and the identity of both my parents,” he said. “So many pieces of the puzzle came together. All my unanswered questions were finally answered. I even discovered that I had a brother, who I met for the first time in November 2015, after not knowing he existed for 63 years,” Albert added. “It is the government’s duty to open up these sources, make them available for research, and make them accessible for everyone who is directly involved. However, almost 60 years after the decolonisation, this has still not happened, which leaves a great part of the archives unable to be consulted,” said Heynssens. “Hopefully our lawsuit will change something. We will know the outcome by the end of 2019. It has been almost 60 years, we have waited long enough,” Albert concluded. By Maïthé Chini	2,135	ENGLISH	1
Michelangelo and Da Vinci Influence in the 16th Century Art Appreciation Instructor Elia Haggar May 27, 2013 Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo Bunonarroti were considered to be amazing painter of their time. Although their work has many similarities they had different views. I am going to discuss the difference in the work that was produced from both Leonardo and Michelangelo during the 16th century and the influence it had on Italy and Europe. Throughout history these two artist have paid tribute and in some ways and had an impact of the way some people live today. Leonard DaVinci was born in the Italian town of Vinci in 1452. As a teenager, he was apprenticed to the artist Verrocchio. Leonardo is one of the most famous artists of all time. He also painted the Mona Lisa which remains a very famous painting. He also painted the famous Last Supper. He, above anyone else embodies the term “Renaissance Man” because he did everything. He excelled in painting, sculptor, botany, and science. He was also a skilled architect and poet. He was very curious and hardly ever finished any of his works. Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in 1475 in the village of Caprese. Michelangelo is arguably the most famous and skilled painter of all time. But all he wanted to do was sculpt. He didn’t even think of himself as a painter. His most famous work is probably the David, his 18-foot marble statue of the Biblical hero. Another of Michelangelo’s famed masterpieces is his frescoes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The frescoes took 4 years to complete. The panels show the stories of the Bible from the creation to Noah in reverse order. Michelangelo also painted the famous Last Judgment on one of the walls in the Sistine. Some of his other works include the Pieta, the Moses, and the Madonna. Michelangelo and da Vinci are both artists of the Renaissance, and they have many points of similarity and difference. Some similarities that they had in common, was both artist gained a lot of there inspiration from passages in the bible. Michelangelo and Leonardo were known to be innovators through there powerful imagery, brilliant colors and their unusual ways to create depth and volume in their piece of art. Both individuals “earned their reputations not just as painters and sculptors but as architects and draftsmen as well. ” (Kleiner, 2010). The one greatest similarity was they both wished to return the art to its original glory in Rome. However, the biggest difference was the way they chose to do so. Michelangelo chose to turn to both drawing and sculpture. We all know his David and Sistine Chapel was example of both techniques. He chose to profit his art by creating his own “gods” of beauty. He was very accurate about the human form and took it to perfection. Leonardo da Vinci chose to take art to a science point of view. He would draw figures as research in the beginning, and once he understood both the inside and outside of the body did he start to create masterpieces. He was big on details of every sort, starting from bodies and ending with cloth and landscape. You will notice the style difference between Michelangelo and Da Vinci. In Leonardo composition like the Last Supper, Mona Lisa and Madonna of the Rocks, his characters are painted with clothes and the body features are well defined. However, in looking at Michelangelo painting composition like The Manchester Madonna, and The Last Judgment you will notice he has fewer cloths and the characters are very muscular. In the 16th century the center for Renaissance artists shifted from Florence to Rome. Almost every great name in 16th century art went to Rome either to work on projects for the pope or the nobility, this included Michelangelo and Da Vinci. Leonardo Da Vinci is the perfect example of a Renaissance man, because he was interested in and well informed about a great many subjects. Like many artists of the time, he was a sculptor and an architect as well as a painter. The unique way he handled light and shadow is his most unusual characteristic. Leonardo’s remarkable ability to grasp and express the mysteries of man and nature made him one of the greatest painters during this era. Michelangelo’s created pieces of art for instance the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, which took Renaissance art over the top. Although both Michelangelo and Da Vince had different styles, they were known to be the master’s of art of Renaissance. Both artist displayed mannerism in their compositions. Renaissance remained as a permanent heritage to all artists. Michelangelo and Da Vinci contribution of the Renaissance was their vision of beautiful characters.	<urn:uuid:f8bef382-388c-40d6-805c-a7eb2acf02f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newyorkessays.com/essay-michelangelo-and-da-vinci-influence-in-the-16th-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00505.warc.gz	en	0.985506	994	3.515625	4	[ -0.19296467304229736, 0.4536943733692169, 0.2748382091522217, 0.1510491669178009, -0.6326103210449219, -0.045579854398965836, 0.29360270500183105, 0.3102076053619385, 0.15176966786384583, -0.12029239535331726, -0.04113773629069328, -0.29699137806892395, 0.2147499918937683, 0.30262452363967...	1	Michelangelo and Da Vinci Influence in the 16th Century Art Appreciation Instructor Elia Haggar May 27, 2013 Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo Bunonarroti were considered to be amazing painter of their time. Although their work has many similarities they had different views. I am going to discuss the difference in the work that was produced from both Leonardo and Michelangelo during the 16th century and the influence it had on Italy and Europe. Throughout history these two artist have paid tribute and in some ways and had an impact of the way some people live today. Leonard DaVinci was born in the Italian town of Vinci in 1452. As a teenager, he was apprenticed to the artist Verrocchio. Leonardo is one of the most famous artists of all time. He also painted the Mona Lisa which remains a very famous painting. He also painted the famous Last Supper. He, above anyone else embodies the term “Renaissance Man” because he did everything. He excelled in painting, sculptor, botany, and science. He was also a skilled architect and poet. He was very curious and hardly ever finished any of his works. Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in 1475 in the village of Caprese. Michelangelo is arguably the most famous and skilled painter of all time. But all he wanted to do was sculpt. He didn’t even think of himself as a painter. His most famous work is probably the David, his 18-foot marble statue of the Biblical hero. Another of Michelangelo’s famed masterpieces is his frescoes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The frescoes took 4 years to complete. The panels show the stories of the Bible from the creation to Noah in reverse order. Michelangelo also painted the famous Last Judgment on one of the walls in the Sistine. Some of his other works include the Pieta, the Moses, and the Madonna. Michelangelo and da Vinci are both artists of the Renaissance, and they have many points of similarity and difference. Some similarities that they had in common, was both artist gained a lot of there inspiration from passages in the bible. Michelangelo and Leonardo were known to be innovators through there powerful imagery, brilliant colors and their unusual ways to create depth and volume in their piece of art. Both individuals “earned their reputations not just as painters and sculptors but as architects and draftsmen as well. ” (Kleiner, 2010). The one greatest similarity was they both wished to return the art to its original glory in Rome. However, the biggest difference was the way they chose to do so. Michelangelo chose to turn to both drawing and sculpture. We all know his David and Sistine Chapel was example of both techniques. He chose to profit his art by creating his own “gods” of beauty. He was very accurate about the human form and took it to perfection. Leonardo da Vinci chose to take art to a science point of view. He would draw figures as research in the beginning, and once he understood both the inside and outside of the body did he start to create masterpieces. He was big on details of every sort, starting from bodies and ending with cloth and landscape. You will notice the style difference between Michelangelo and Da Vinci. In Leonardo composition like the Last Supper, Mona Lisa and Madonna of the Rocks, his characters are painted with clothes and the body features are well defined. However, in looking at Michelangelo painting composition like The Manchester Madonna, and The Last Judgment you will notice he has fewer cloths and the characters are very muscular. In the 16th century the center for Renaissance artists shifted from Florence to Rome. Almost every great name in 16th century art went to Rome either to work on projects for the pope or the nobility, this included Michelangelo and Da Vinci. Leonardo Da Vinci is the perfect example of a Renaissance man, because he was interested in and well informed about a great many subjects. Like many artists of the time, he was a sculptor and an architect as well as a painter. The unique way he handled light and shadow is his most unusual characteristic. Leonardo’s remarkable ability to grasp and express the mysteries of man and nature made him one of the greatest painters during this era. Michelangelo’s created pieces of art for instance the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, which took Renaissance art over the top. Although both Michelangelo and Da Vince had different styles, they were known to be the master’s of art of Renaissance. Both artist displayed mannerism in their compositions. Renaissance remained as a permanent heritage to all artists. Michelangelo and Da Vinci contribution of the Renaissance was their vision of beautiful characters.	980	ENGLISH	1
Garvey was an influential proponent of repatriating, which helped mobilize powerful movements all throughout South Africa and lay the foundation for politics in the region. “Preaching the unity of all blacks, he claimed that liberty would come about only through the return of all Afro-Americans to their ancestral homes — and to this end he had founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association in 1914,” according to sahistory.org. “By 1925 opponents of white racism, in cities and rural districts but especially in the eastern Cape had adapted the teachings of Garvey to fit in with the black South African experience. Thus the return of land to its ancestral owners became one of the central themes around which opposition to white settler rule was mobilized.” Following World War II, the region now known as Tanzania was placed under United Nations Trusteeship, and development of the region was under British control. During a host of independent movements sparking as a result of Garvey’s push for African nationalism, the Tanganyika Africa National Union (TANU) emerged as one of the strongest groups. According to an article published in the Journal of Black Studies, TANU was led by none other than Julius Nyerere, an influential leader of the people who credited much of his own knowledge to Garvey’s teachings. As TANU grew, elections were scheduled to take place in 1960 and the land that is now known as Tanzania became an independent county in 1961.	<urn:uuid:47cb40fc-0727-4bc3-b853-186a85cc5831>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://atlantablackstar.com/2015/04/16/8-african-countries-whose-independence-is-a-direct-result-of-the-teachings-of-marcus-garvey/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00377.warc.gz	en	0.981651	299	3.84375	4	[ -0.40277576446533203, 0.5037618279457092, -0.1195726990699768, 0.07935335487127304, 0.06706895679235458, 0.002564919413998723, 0.12717124819755554, -0.07770568877458572, -0.3344297707080841, 0.06844069063663483, 0.14177308976650238, -0.27729544043540955, 0.13327355682849884, 0.296542376279...	2	Garvey was an influential proponent of repatriating, which helped mobilize powerful movements all throughout South Africa and lay the foundation for politics in the region. “Preaching the unity of all blacks, he claimed that liberty would come about only through the return of all Afro-Americans to their ancestral homes — and to this end he had founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association in 1914,” according to sahistory.org. “By 1925 opponents of white racism, in cities and rural districts but especially in the eastern Cape had adapted the teachings of Garvey to fit in with the black South African experience. Thus the return of land to its ancestral owners became one of the central themes around which opposition to white settler rule was mobilized.” Following World War II, the region now known as Tanzania was placed under United Nations Trusteeship, and development of the region was under British control. During a host of independent movements sparking as a result of Garvey’s push for African nationalism, the Tanganyika Africa National Union (TANU) emerged as one of the strongest groups. According to an article published in the Journal of Black Studies, TANU was led by none other than Julius Nyerere, an influential leader of the people who credited much of his own knowledge to Garvey’s teachings. As TANU grew, elections were scheduled to take place in 1960 and the land that is now known as Tanzania became an independent county in 1961.	304	ENGLISH	1
William Seward, the former Governor of the state of New York, was the odds-on-favorite to win the Republican nomination for President in 1860. Narrowly defeated by Lincoln at the Republican National Convention in 1860, Seward reluctantly accepted the position of Secretary of State. Seward was an excellent choice and would become Lincoln's most trusted advisor. He was a staunch abolitionist and superb politician who spoke out vociferously about the evils of slavery. He was widely credited from preventing foreign intervention in the Civil War. On April 14, 1865, Seward was severely wounded by Lewis Powell in his Washington home as part of a larger assassination plot that would claim the life of President Lincoln. Seward remained Secretary of State during Andrew Johnson's presidency and was widely criticized for the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million dollars. The purchase, which would become known as "Seward's Folly," was, in time, to prove his foresight and genius. He died on October 10, 1872, at the age of 71. Secretary of War - Edwin M. Stanton Edwin M. Stanton became War Secretary after Lincoln dismissed the original War Secretary Simon Cameron in 1862. Lincoln had long been impressed with Stanton, despite the fact that Stanton had felt quite the opposite at first and had called Lincoln a "gorilla" in the past. The disagreeable and sometimes grumpy Stanton was reluctant to accept the position, but conceded in an attempt to "save the country." Stanton proved a wise choice as War Secretary. His management of the massive efforts required to sustain the Union Army and its movements helped perpetuate the Union cause. Stanton, however, could be quite argumentative and sometimes even refused the president's order or to carry out his wishes. As time progressed, Stanton became a great admirer of the president. It was Stanton who first arrived at the scene at the Petersen House following the President's assassination. It was he, upon Lincoln's death, who uttered the famous words "Now, he belongs to the ages." He also helped organize the search for John Wilkes Booth and the trials and executions of his co-conspirators. Stanton continued as Secretary of War during Johnson's presidency. Disagreements between he and Johnson, however, led to his dismissal. It was the questionable legality behind this dismissal by President Johnson that resulted in Johnson's impeachment, making him the first president to be impeached. Secretary of the Treasury - Salmon P. Chase Salmon P. Chase, the former Governor and Senator of Ohio, was bitterly disappointed at his failure to receive the Republican presidential nomination in the Election of 1860. Despite his acceptance of the position of Secretary of Treasury, Chase was outwardly jealous of Lincoln and often served his own interests in a quest to secure the nomination in the 1864 Election. Chase, however, proved an excellent Treasury secretary and ingeniously managed the finances of the Union during the Civil War. His ideas to issue paper currency and to sell debt to pay for the war effort helped to keep the Union financially solvent during the war. Throughout Lincoln's administration, Chase would threaten to resign his post because of perceived slights or disagreements with other cabinet members. Lincoln, who understood Chase's contributions rebuffed his resignation letters time and time again until finally, in 1864, much to the surprise and chagrin of Chase, accepted his resignation. Lincoln then appointed William Fessenden to replace him. To placate Chase, however, Lincoln nominated him to the vacant position of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, which Chase held until his death in 1873 at the age of 65. Attorney General - Edward Bates Edward Bates, a popular Missouri Senator and Representative, was one of three “political rivals” that ran against Lincoln in the Presidential Election of 1860. In 1861, Lincoln appointed Bates as Attorney General. Although he was born in Virginia, Bates became the first cabinet member who lived west of the Mississippi River. Unlike the majority of Lincoln’s cabinet, however, Bates never joined the Republican Party, and remained a Whig throughout his tenure. He believed in the preservation of the Union and of the need for internal improvements. Although Bates was an abolitionist, he was known to believe in the inferiority of Blacks, though he did side with Lincoln in his decision that Black soldiers in the Union Army should receive the same pay as White soldiers. He was more radical than Lincoln in his beliefs of how the South should be treated after the war. He believed in total and universal amnesty to all officers of the South, and in the restoration of property rights. Bates resigned in 1864, discouraged by the increasing influence of Radical Republicans. Postmaster General- Montgomery Blair Montgomery Blair, who came from a prominent political family, was named Postmaster General in Lincoln's Cabinet. Although he did an admirable job as Postmaster General, Blair was hot-tempered and frequently clashed with other members of the cabinet. Blair was not as staunch in his abolitionist views as other cabinet members, and spoke out against Lincoln's plan for emancipating the slaves. He also believed that Lincoln should have dealt severely with the secessionist states after the war. Radical Republicans, who believed in the total and complete emancipation of the slaves, despised Blair, who spoke out against them, and ultimately caused Lincoln numerous political headaches. In 1864, Lincoln accepted Blair's resignation (which was probably a nice way of dismissing Blair), as an attempt to keep the Radical Republicans happy. Despite the resignation, Blair continued to campaign for Lincoln in the Election of 1864, but switched to the Democratic Party in 1865. Secretary of the Navy - Gideon Welles The staunch abolitionist Gideon Welles was named Secretary of the Navy in Lincoln's cabinet. Welles was an excellent choice for this post and his organization of the Union Navy and its efforts to blockade southern ports was extremely effective. Under his leadership, the Navy became ten times larger during the Civil War than it was before the war. His blockades worked to strangle the finances of the South, disabling them from much of their exporting and importing. Despite his success in Lincoln's cabinet, Welles is probably best known for the diary he kept during his tenure as in Lincoln's and Andrew Johnson's cabinets. His three volume diary provided valuable insight into the inner-workings of Lincoln's wartime cabinet. Personal Assistant - John Nicolay The appointment of John Nicolay as his private secretary in 1861 was Abraham Lincoln's first appointment as president. Nicolay and John Hay, another of Lincoln's assistants, lived together in a room in the corner of the second floor of the White House. Hay's position often caused him to clash with Mary Todd Lincoln, who could be critical over his handling of social events and budget of the White House. After the president's death, Nicolay and Hay collaborated on a biography of the President, which became the definitive source about Lincoln's life during that time, and which Nicolay would consider his life's work. Personal Assistant - John Hay John Hay was the assistant private secretary of the President. The appointment of his position was urged by his friend John Nicolay, Lincoln's private secretary. The well-liked Hay would become a surrogate son to Lincoln, and would become great friends with the president's son, Robert. Hay was indispensable to Lincoln in performing administrative tasks and often wrote letters or newspaper correspondences on the President's behalf. Like John Nicolay, Hay often clashed with Mary Todd Lincoln and even referred to her at least once as "hellcat." Hay, who had boundless admiration for the President, collaborated with Nicolay to produce a comprehensive biography on Lincoln that would become the definitive source on Lincoln at the time. Unlike Nicolay, Hay enjoyed an active and successful political career after the Civil War. He would serve as Secretary of State under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. Today, the famous Hay-Adams Hotel in Washington, D.C. stands where Hay once lived.	<urn:uuid:3dfb34b9-a46e-4f0a-a2db-edea8bdb42ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/lincoln-s-cabinet-a-historical-account	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00428.warc.gz	en	0.98674	1,621	3.53125	4	[ -0.4933317303657532, 0.1857171356678009, 0.3895096182823181, 0.2843555212020874, -0.2510197162628174, -0.0026358384639024734, 0.4777235984802246, 0.04453311488032341, -0.4217570424079895, 0.01838953047990799, -0.11001089215278625, 0.5920822620391846, -0.07383149117231369, 0.690929055213928...	1	William Seward, the former Governor of the state of New York, was the odds-on-favorite to win the Republican nomination for President in 1860. Narrowly defeated by Lincoln at the Republican National Convention in 1860, Seward reluctantly accepted the position of Secretary of State. Seward was an excellent choice and would become Lincoln's most trusted advisor. He was a staunch abolitionist and superb politician who spoke out vociferously about the evils of slavery. He was widely credited from preventing foreign intervention in the Civil War. On April 14, 1865, Seward was severely wounded by Lewis Powell in his Washington home as part of a larger assassination plot that would claim the life of President Lincoln. Seward remained Secretary of State during Andrew Johnson's presidency and was widely criticized for the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million dollars. The purchase, which would become known as "Seward's Folly," was, in time, to prove his foresight and genius. He died on October 10, 1872, at the age of 71. Secretary of War - Edwin M. Stanton Edwin M. Stanton became War Secretary after Lincoln dismissed the original War Secretary Simon Cameron in 1862. Lincoln had long been impressed with Stanton, despite the fact that Stanton had felt quite the opposite at first and had called Lincoln a "gorilla" in the past. The disagreeable and sometimes grumpy Stanton was reluctant to accept the position, but conceded in an attempt to "save the country." Stanton proved a wise choice as War Secretary. His management of the massive efforts required to sustain the Union Army and its movements helped perpetuate the Union cause. Stanton, however, could be quite argumentative and sometimes even refused the president's order or to carry out his wishes. As time progressed, Stanton became a great admirer of the president. It was Stanton who first arrived at the scene at the Petersen House following the President's assassination. It was he, upon Lincoln's death, who uttered the famous words "Now, he belongs to the ages." He also helped organize the search for John Wilkes Booth and the trials and executions of his co-conspirators. Stanton continued as Secretary of War during Johnson's presidency. Disagreements between he and Johnson, however, led to his dismissal. It was the questionable legality behind this dismissal by President Johnson that resulted in Johnson's impeachment, making him the first president to be impeached. Secretary of the Treasury - Salmon P. Chase Salmon P. Chase, the former Governor and Senator of Ohio, was bitterly disappointed at his failure to receive the Republican presidential nomination in the Election of 1860. Despite his acceptance of the position of Secretary of Treasury, Chase was outwardly jealous of Lincoln and often served his own interests in a quest to secure the nomination in the 1864 Election. Chase, however, proved an excellent Treasury secretary and ingeniously managed the finances of the Union during the Civil War. His ideas to issue paper currency and to sell debt to pay for the war effort helped to keep the Union financially solvent during the war. Throughout Lincoln's administration, Chase would threaten to resign his post because of perceived slights or disagreements with other cabinet members. Lincoln, who understood Chase's contributions rebuffed his resignation letters time and time again until finally, in 1864, much to the surprise and chagrin of Chase, accepted his resignation. Lincoln then appointed William Fessenden to replace him. To placate Chase, however, Lincoln nominated him to the vacant position of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, which Chase held until his death in 1873 at the age of 65. Attorney General - Edward Bates Edward Bates, a popular Missouri Senator and Representative, was one of three “political rivals” that ran against Lincoln in the Presidential Election of 1860. In 1861, Lincoln appointed Bates as Attorney General. Although he was born in Virginia, Bates became the first cabinet member who lived west of the Mississippi River. Unlike the majority of Lincoln’s cabinet, however, Bates never joined the Republican Party, and remained a Whig throughout his tenure. He believed in the preservation of the Union and of the need for internal improvements. Although Bates was an abolitionist, he was known to believe in the inferiority of Blacks, though he did side with Lincoln in his decision that Black soldiers in the Union Army should receive the same pay as White soldiers. He was more radical than Lincoln in his beliefs of how the South should be treated after the war. He believed in total and universal amnesty to all officers of the South, and in the restoration of property rights. Bates resigned in 1864, discouraged by the increasing influence of Radical Republicans. Postmaster General- Montgomery Blair Montgomery Blair, who came from a prominent political family, was named Postmaster General in Lincoln's Cabinet. Although he did an admirable job as Postmaster General, Blair was hot-tempered and frequently clashed with other members of the cabinet. Blair was not as staunch in his abolitionist views as other cabinet members, and spoke out against Lincoln's plan for emancipating the slaves. He also believed that Lincoln should have dealt severely with the secessionist states after the war. Radical Republicans, who believed in the total and complete emancipation of the slaves, despised Blair, who spoke out against them, and ultimately caused Lincoln numerous political headaches. In 1864, Lincoln accepted Blair's resignation (which was probably a nice way of dismissing Blair), as an attempt to keep the Radical Republicans happy. Despite the resignation, Blair continued to campaign for Lincoln in the Election of 1864, but switched to the Democratic Party in 1865. Secretary of the Navy - Gideon Welles The staunch abolitionist Gideon Welles was named Secretary of the Navy in Lincoln's cabinet. Welles was an excellent choice for this post and his organization of the Union Navy and its efforts to blockade southern ports was extremely effective. Under his leadership, the Navy became ten times larger during the Civil War than it was before the war. His blockades worked to strangle the finances of the South, disabling them from much of their exporting and importing. Despite his success in Lincoln's cabinet, Welles is probably best known for the diary he kept during his tenure as in Lincoln's and Andrew Johnson's cabinets. His three volume diary provided valuable insight into the inner-workings of Lincoln's wartime cabinet. Personal Assistant - John Nicolay The appointment of John Nicolay as his private secretary in 1861 was Abraham Lincoln's first appointment as president. Nicolay and John Hay, another of Lincoln's assistants, lived together in a room in the corner of the second floor of the White House. Hay's position often caused him to clash with Mary Todd Lincoln, who could be critical over his handling of social events and budget of the White House. After the president's death, Nicolay and Hay collaborated on a biography of the President, which became the definitive source about Lincoln's life during that time, and which Nicolay would consider his life's work. Personal Assistant - John Hay John Hay was the assistant private secretary of the President. The appointment of his position was urged by his friend John Nicolay, Lincoln's private secretary. The well-liked Hay would become a surrogate son to Lincoln, and would become great friends with the president's son, Robert. Hay was indispensable to Lincoln in performing administrative tasks and often wrote letters or newspaper correspondences on the President's behalf. Like John Nicolay, Hay often clashed with Mary Todd Lincoln and even referred to her at least once as "hellcat." Hay, who had boundless admiration for the President, collaborated with Nicolay to produce a comprehensive biography on Lincoln that would become the definitive source on Lincoln at the time. Unlike Nicolay, Hay enjoyed an active and successful political career after the Civil War. He would serve as Secretary of State under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. Today, the famous Hay-Adams Hotel in Washington, D.C. stands where Hay once lived.	1,676	ENGLISH	1
FREE Catholic Classes An important tribe or confederacy of Muskogean stock formerly holding most of Southern Alabama and Mississippi, with adjoining portions of Louisiana, U.S.A. but now resident in Eastern Oklahoma. The origin and meaning of the name are uncertain. According to their own tradition, which agrees with linguistic evidence, they were formerly connected with the Chickasaw and crossed the Mississippi together from the West. Their first appearance in history was in 1540, when their giant chief, Toscalusa the "Black Warrior", opposed De Soto's march in what was perhaps the most terrible Indian battle ever fought in the Eastern United States. Their connected history dates from the establishment of the French at Biloxi in 1699. They were generally more friendly to the French than to the English, but were always unsatisfactory and uncertain allies. They made their first treaty with the United States in 1786, since which time they have never been at war with the Government. In 1820 they sold their last remaining lands east of the Mississippi and agreed to remove to Oklahoma, but the removal was not completed until about twenty years later. Even then a considerable band, known later as Mississippi Choctaw, remained behind, most of whom, however, have recently joined the main body, though there are still hundreds in Louisiana. Those in the Territory constituted an autonomous Government under the title of the Choctaw Nation until 1906, when they were admitted to American citizenship. They number now altogether about 18,000 souls, probably their original number. The Choctaw were agricultural, dwelling in regularly arranged towns, with houses of logs plastered with clay, or of poles covered with mats or thatch. They were noted for their beautiful pottery and artistic basketry. Among their peculiar customs was that of flattening the head, and of digging up and cleaning the bones of the dead, after a short internment, for preservation in the family. They were much given to an athletic ball-play, which is still a favourite among them in the West. Not much is known of their myths or religion, which probably resembled those of the Muskogean tribes generally. Their tribal organization was lax and without central authority. They had the clan system, with descent in the female line, but the number of their clans is not definitely known. Catholic mission work in the tribe was begun early in the French period, and though renewed effort was made under Jesuit auspices some years later, there were few results. In later years the work has been more successful, and the majority of those still remaining in their old homes are now Catholics, while two mission schools are also in operation among those in Oklahoma. The earlier missions among the Choctaw were intrusted to the Jesuits. Father Mathurin le Petit began work in the tribe in 1726, and continued until his transfer to New Orleans as superior of the Louisiana missions about two years later. He was succeeded by Father Michel Baudouin, who continued with them eighteen years, often in extreme danger from their treacherous and insolent disposition and the hostility of the English traders, until both governor and superior deemed it necessary to recall him and discontinue the work for a time. It was afterwards taken up by Father Nicholas le Febvre, who appears to have continued it until the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1764. Protestant work was begun in Mississippi by the American Board of Foreign Missions in 1818, and continued with success in the West. The Baptists began work in the Territory about 1832. Of the Protestant missionaries the most noted names are those of the Revs. Cyrus Byington and Allen Wright, both of whom have made important contributions to our knowledge of the language. In accordance with a former policy the earlier Protestant establishments were supported largely by Government funds. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:90578933-67d9-4c8a-a0f9-0a4ea9f41ab8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=2894	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00521.warc.gz	en	0.982745	903	3.78125	4	[ -0.011846699751913548, -0.09922347962856293, 0.3618778586387634, -0.1279505044221878, -0.0693894699215889, -0.2649844288825989, -0.1047697365283966, 0.010912546887993813, 0.10402176529169083, -0.06953360885381699, 0.0030917224939912558, -0.2364102005958557, -0.2123630940914154, 0.051614213...	1	FREE Catholic Classes An important tribe or confederacy of Muskogean stock formerly holding most of Southern Alabama and Mississippi, with adjoining portions of Louisiana, U.S.A. but now resident in Eastern Oklahoma. The origin and meaning of the name are uncertain. According to their own tradition, which agrees with linguistic evidence, they were formerly connected with the Chickasaw and crossed the Mississippi together from the West. Their first appearance in history was in 1540, when their giant chief, Toscalusa the "Black Warrior", opposed De Soto's march in what was perhaps the most terrible Indian battle ever fought in the Eastern United States. Their connected history dates from the establishment of the French at Biloxi in 1699. They were generally more friendly to the French than to the English, but were always unsatisfactory and uncertain allies. They made their first treaty with the United States in 1786, since which time they have never been at war with the Government. In 1820 they sold their last remaining lands east of the Mississippi and agreed to remove to Oklahoma, but the removal was not completed until about twenty years later. Even then a considerable band, known later as Mississippi Choctaw, remained behind, most of whom, however, have recently joined the main body, though there are still hundreds in Louisiana. Those in the Territory constituted an autonomous Government under the title of the Choctaw Nation until 1906, when they were admitted to American citizenship. They number now altogether about 18,000 souls, probably their original number. The Choctaw were agricultural, dwelling in regularly arranged towns, with houses of logs plastered with clay, or of poles covered with mats or thatch. They were noted for their beautiful pottery and artistic basketry. Among their peculiar customs was that of flattening the head, and of digging up and cleaning the bones of the dead, after a short internment, for preservation in the family. They were much given to an athletic ball-play, which is still a favourite among them in the West. Not much is known of their myths or religion, which probably resembled those of the Muskogean tribes generally. Their tribal organization was lax and without central authority. They had the clan system, with descent in the female line, but the number of their clans is not definitely known. Catholic mission work in the tribe was begun early in the French period, and though renewed effort was made under Jesuit auspices some years later, there were few results. In later years the work has been more successful, and the majority of those still remaining in their old homes are now Catholics, while two mission schools are also in operation among those in Oklahoma. The earlier missions among the Choctaw were intrusted to the Jesuits. Father Mathurin le Petit began work in the tribe in 1726, and continued until his transfer to New Orleans as superior of the Louisiana missions about two years later. He was succeeded by Father Michel Baudouin, who continued with them eighteen years, often in extreme danger from their treacherous and insolent disposition and the hostility of the English traders, until both governor and superior deemed it necessary to recall him and discontinue the work for a time. It was afterwards taken up by Father Nicholas le Febvre, who appears to have continued it until the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1764. Protestant work was begun in Mississippi by the American Board of Foreign Missions in 1818, and continued with success in the West. The Baptists began work in the Territory about 1832. Of the Protestant missionaries the most noted names are those of the Revs. Cyrus Byington and Allen Wright, both of whom have made important contributions to our knowledge of the language. In accordance with a former policy the earlier Protestant establishments were supported largely by Government funds. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	943	ENGLISH	1
Post-impressionism (or Post-Impressionism) is a term used to describe the development of French art after Manet (1832–1883). The British artist and art critic Roger Fry used the term in 1910, and it is now a standard art term. Fry organized the 1910 exhibition Manet and the Post-Impressionists. The post-impressionists were artists of the late 19th century who saw the work of the French Impressionist painters and were influenced by them. Their art styles grew out of the style called Impressionism. The word "Post-" means "after", so "post-impressionist" painting came after "impressionist" painting. These artists developed impressionism but rejected its limitations. They continued using the real-life subject matter, with vivid colours, often with thick paint. However, they added other ideas. Using geometric forms, to distorting form for effect, and using unnatural colours are some of their ways. The critic Rewald said "the term 'post-impressionism' is not a very precise one, though a very convenient one". The main post-impressionist painters were Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Henri Toulouse-Lautrec and Henri Rousseau ('Le Douanier'). Picasso and Braque were certainly post-impressionists, but we describe them as Cubists. The post-impressionist painters lived in France and knew each other, but they did not work together as a group, in the way that some of the impressionists did. They painted in ways that were different from each other. The post-impressionists led the way for other artists to experiment and develop all the different styles of Modern art in the 20th century. - Paul Cezanne was friendly with Claude Monet and the other Impressionist painters, and used to show his paintings in the Impressionist exhibitions. But after a time, his style became quite different to theirs. He began to paint the landscape in planes of colour. (A plane is a flat surface). His ideas about constructing things in pictures out of planes of colour influenced other artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque to paint pictures in a style called Cubism. - Paul Gauguin liked to paint in very bright colours and flat patterns. He often painted village people in their bright clothes. Vincent van Gogh met Gauguin and invited him to live with him so that they could share their ideas about paintings. But this did not work well, and van Gogh became very upset. Gauguin left France and went to live on the island of Tahiti, where he painted the people. His ideas about colour and pattern influenced other artists such as Henri Matisse to paint brightly-coloured pictures in a style called Fauvism. - Vincent van Gogh, like Gaugin, painted in bright colours. His style is very different to that of Gauguin, because he often put paint onto the canvas in short brushstrokes that make lots of wavy lines. His style is very different to any other artist's. Van Gogh suffered from mental illness most of his life, and never sold a painting. It is thought that the way that he painted was affected by his illness. Other artist were influenced by his work, because they felt that they could be free to "express their feelings" in their paintings, instead of trying to paint realistically. One group of painters who were influenced by van Gogh and Gauguin were the Expressionist painters. - Henri Toulouse-Lautrec was a rich, but sickly and disabled man who lived in Paris and painted the people that he met at nightclubs, cafes and theatres. He was excellent at drawing, and most of his paintings are thinly painted so that they are really drawings in paint. Some of them are drawings in pastel. Toulouse-Lautrec made many portraits and scenes of the "night-life" of Paris. He also designed many posters to advertise the entertainments. - Georges Seurat, like Cezanne, was a friend of the Impressionists. Like them, he was interested in understanding the effects of light on colour. He studied light and experimented with painting pictures in hundreds of tiny dots of bright colour. Seurat's style of painting is called Pointillism. - Henri Rousseau was another artist who knew the Impressionists. He worked as a toll collector, so his friends called him Le Douanier, the customs official. He painted as a hobby. Although he sometimes painted portraits, most of his pictures are from his imagination and are like dreams. He never had any lessons, and his paintings have a rather child-like quality. Artists that paint like this are called 'naive' artists. The Post-Impressionist painters all experimented in different ways with the ideas of the Impressionists. Most of the important art movements (styles) of the twentieth century developed out of their work. Even though the Post-Impressionist painters were not well known in their lifetimes, they became so famous that in the 21st century their paintings sell for millions of dollars. Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge, (1895) The artist left his wealthy home and went to live in Montmartre in Paris where he painted the people of the bars and theatres.	<urn:uuid:1a8b0afa-727e-4446-accc-3e5ab18a69d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Impressionists	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00495.warc.gz	en	0.982266	1,135	3.953125	4	[ 0.12299951910972595, 0.344823956489563, 0.16339728236198425, -0.014866918325424194, -0.5439649224281311, 0.14645113050937653, 0.19345423579216003, 0.1502794325351715, 0.19440823793411255, 0.09940582513809204, 0.32638776302337646, -0.22547847032546997, 0.17985305190086365, 0.099297277629375...	8	Post-impressionism (or Post-Impressionism) is a term used to describe the development of French art after Manet (1832–1883). The British artist and art critic Roger Fry used the term in 1910, and it is now a standard art term. Fry organized the 1910 exhibition Manet and the Post-Impressionists. The post-impressionists were artists of the late 19th century who saw the work of the French Impressionist painters and were influenced by them. Their art styles grew out of the style called Impressionism. The word "Post-" means "after", so "post-impressionist" painting came after "impressionist" painting. These artists developed impressionism but rejected its limitations. They continued using the real-life subject matter, with vivid colours, often with thick paint. However, they added other ideas. Using geometric forms, to distorting form for effect, and using unnatural colours are some of their ways. The critic Rewald said "the term 'post-impressionism' is not a very precise one, though a very convenient one". The main post-impressionist painters were Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Henri Toulouse-Lautrec and Henri Rousseau ('Le Douanier'). Picasso and Braque were certainly post-impressionists, but we describe them as Cubists. The post-impressionist painters lived in France and knew each other, but they did not work together as a group, in the way that some of the impressionists did. They painted in ways that were different from each other. The post-impressionists led the way for other artists to experiment and develop all the different styles of Modern art in the 20th century. - Paul Cezanne was friendly with Claude Monet and the other Impressionist painters, and used to show his paintings in the Impressionist exhibitions. But after a time, his style became quite different to theirs. He began to paint the landscape in planes of colour. (A plane is a flat surface). His ideas about constructing things in pictures out of planes of colour influenced other artists like Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque to paint pictures in a style called Cubism. - Paul Gauguin liked to paint in very bright colours and flat patterns. He often painted village people in their bright clothes. Vincent van Gogh met Gauguin and invited him to live with him so that they could share their ideas about paintings. But this did not work well, and van Gogh became very upset. Gauguin left France and went to live on the island of Tahiti, where he painted the people. His ideas about colour and pattern influenced other artists such as Henri Matisse to paint brightly-coloured pictures in a style called Fauvism. - Vincent van Gogh, like Gaugin, painted in bright colours. His style is very different to that of Gauguin, because he often put paint onto the canvas in short brushstrokes that make lots of wavy lines. His style is very different to any other artist's. Van Gogh suffered from mental illness most of his life, and never sold a painting. It is thought that the way that he painted was affected by his illness. Other artist were influenced by his work, because they felt that they could be free to "express their feelings" in their paintings, instead of trying to paint realistically. One group of painters who were influenced by van Gogh and Gauguin were the Expressionist painters. - Henri Toulouse-Lautrec was a rich, but sickly and disabled man who lived in Paris and painted the people that he met at nightclubs, cafes and theatres. He was excellent at drawing, and most of his paintings are thinly painted so that they are really drawings in paint. Some of them are drawings in pastel. Toulouse-Lautrec made many portraits and scenes of the "night-life" of Paris. He also designed many posters to advertise the entertainments. - Georges Seurat, like Cezanne, was a friend of the Impressionists. Like them, he was interested in understanding the effects of light on colour. He studied light and experimented with painting pictures in hundreds of tiny dots of bright colour. Seurat's style of painting is called Pointillism. - Henri Rousseau was another artist who knew the Impressionists. He worked as a toll collector, so his friends called him Le Douanier, the customs official. He painted as a hobby. Although he sometimes painted portraits, most of his pictures are from his imagination and are like dreams. He never had any lessons, and his paintings have a rather child-like quality. Artists that paint like this are called 'naive' artists. The Post-Impressionist painters all experimented in different ways with the ideas of the Impressionists. Most of the important art movements (styles) of the twentieth century developed out of their work. Even though the Post-Impressionist painters were not well known in their lifetimes, they became so famous that in the 21st century their paintings sell for millions of dollars. Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge, (1895) The artist left his wealthy home and went to live in Montmartre in Paris where he painted the people of the bars and theatres.	1,112	ENGLISH	1
Founding Father: Thomas Nelson Thomas Nelson, Jr. was born at Yorktown, Virginia on December 26, 1738. He was the son of Elizabeth Burwell and William Nelson. Like many other people from Virginia, Thomas went to England to go to school. He went to Eton, a school from boys between the ages of 13-18, and afterwards, he went to Christ’s College, which was at Cambridge University. Thomas Nelson graduated from in 1760, and then came back home to Virginia. When Thomas Nelson came back home, he started to work at the family business. He was also elected to the Virginia House of Burgess while on his ship ride home. On July 29, 1762, Thomas Nelson got married to Lucy Grymes. He had 11 children together with her. He kept his position at the House of Burgesses, until it was closed in 1774 by the royal governor Dunmore. After this, Thomas Nelson helped send supplies to Boston by using his own money. He also helped set up a Yorktown tea party, which was similar to the Boston Tea Party. Thomas Nelson became the York County’s representative the general Convention which was in Williamsburg on August 1, 1774. The next year, Thomas Nelson returned for a second time to the general convention. Here, he wrote a resolution that helped the army. In July 1755, he attended the third convention of Virginia, which was held in Richmond. That same month, Thomas became a colonel for a regiment in Virginia. The next month, Thomas Nelson was appointed a delegate to serve in the Second Continental Congress. In order to do this, he resigned as colonel and took his Congress on September 13. From then until May, 1777, Thomas Nelson continued to represent the Virginia in the council, where he was involved in many important committees. Nelson was respected by the other representatives because of his good judgment and liberal feelings. Not only did Thomas Nelson vote for independence for the colonies, he also signed the Declaration of Independence. In May 1977, while he was in Congress, Nelson was attacked suddenly with some sort of mental disease. Afterwards, it was a lot harder for his to think and remember things. He decided to resign from his seat in Congress and go back to Virginia. When he started feeling a bit healthier, he became the commander in chief and brigadier general of the military. Here, he was very important to the country and to Virginia. He had enough money to help him support the military whenever they were struggling. In 1781, Thomas Nelson became Governor of Virginia. Soon after, the French army attacked the town and he helped defend Virginia with his own money. When the Revolutionary War ended, Thomas Nelson did not have much money left. Unfortunately, the government never paid him back for the money he put towards winning the war. He became very sick that year and could not be Governor anymore, so he stepped down. Thomas Nelson went to live with his son, until he passed away on January 4, 1789. Fun Facts for Kids about Thomas Nelson • During the Yorktown Tea Party, Thomas Nelson helped throw two half-chests of tea into the York River. • Thomas Nelson is a descendant of King Henry III. • When Thomas Nelson’s father died, Thomas received 20,000 acres of land and over 400 slaves. • You can still see damage from cannons that shot into Nelson’s house during the battle of Yorktown. • Thomas Nelson was born on December 26, which makes him a Capricorn.	<urn:uuid:aad67cc8-e0c5-4f8a-80de-aed5a806a503>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/thomas-nelson	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00060.warc.gz	en	0.991634	729	3.390625	3	[ 0.016749558970332146, -0.009754173457622528, 0.40702447295188904, -0.6029369235038757, -0.2647228538990021, -0.004472796339541674, 0.11640124768018723, -0.2026292085647583, -0.22697098553180695, -0.2971459627151489, 0.3089400827884674, -0.22492197155952454, -0.14795765280723572, -0.2102019...	4	Founding Father: Thomas Nelson Thomas Nelson, Jr. was born at Yorktown, Virginia on December 26, 1738. He was the son of Elizabeth Burwell and William Nelson. Like many other people from Virginia, Thomas went to England to go to school. He went to Eton, a school from boys between the ages of 13-18, and afterwards, he went to Christ’s College, which was at Cambridge University. Thomas Nelson graduated from in 1760, and then came back home to Virginia. When Thomas Nelson came back home, he started to work at the family business. He was also elected to the Virginia House of Burgess while on his ship ride home. On July 29, 1762, Thomas Nelson got married to Lucy Grymes. He had 11 children together with her. He kept his position at the House of Burgesses, until it was closed in 1774 by the royal governor Dunmore. After this, Thomas Nelson helped send supplies to Boston by using his own money. He also helped set up a Yorktown tea party, which was similar to the Boston Tea Party. Thomas Nelson became the York County’s representative the general Convention which was in Williamsburg on August 1, 1774. The next year, Thomas Nelson returned for a second time to the general convention. Here, he wrote a resolution that helped the army. In July 1755, he attended the third convention of Virginia, which was held in Richmond. That same month, Thomas became a colonel for a regiment in Virginia. The next month, Thomas Nelson was appointed a delegate to serve in the Second Continental Congress. In order to do this, he resigned as colonel and took his Congress on September 13. From then until May, 1777, Thomas Nelson continued to represent the Virginia in the council, where he was involved in many important committees. Nelson was respected by the other representatives because of his good judgment and liberal feelings. Not only did Thomas Nelson vote for independence for the colonies, he also signed the Declaration of Independence. In May 1977, while he was in Congress, Nelson was attacked suddenly with some sort of mental disease. Afterwards, it was a lot harder for his to think and remember things. He decided to resign from his seat in Congress and go back to Virginia. When he started feeling a bit healthier, he became the commander in chief and brigadier general of the military. Here, he was very important to the country and to Virginia. He had enough money to help him support the military whenever they were struggling. In 1781, Thomas Nelson became Governor of Virginia. Soon after, the French army attacked the town and he helped defend Virginia with his own money. When the Revolutionary War ended, Thomas Nelson did not have much money left. Unfortunately, the government never paid him back for the money he put towards winning the war. He became very sick that year and could not be Governor anymore, so he stepped down. Thomas Nelson went to live with his son, until he passed away on January 4, 1789. Fun Facts for Kids about Thomas Nelson • During the Yorktown Tea Party, Thomas Nelson helped throw two half-chests of tea into the York River. • Thomas Nelson is a descendant of King Henry III. • When Thomas Nelson’s father died, Thomas received 20,000 acres of land and over 400 slaves. • You can still see damage from cannons that shot into Nelson’s house during the battle of Yorktown. • Thomas Nelson was born on December 26, which makes him a Capricorn.	763	ENGLISH	1
Reverse : Central square element imitating the holing of Chinese cast cash-coins with a dot in center, surrounded by Tibetan characters. Legend: bca''chin pa'u gtsang. A few coins from other countries were also occasionally in use. Coins were first used in a more extensive way in the 17th century: these were silver coins supplied by Nepal. There were however various difficulties with this system. In 1763/64 and 1785 the first silver coins were struck in Tibet. In 1792 the first mass-produced silver coins were created under joint Chinese and Tibetan authority.Coins bearing Tibetan inscriptions only were subsequently replaced by issues which had Chinese and Tibetan legends. This lasted until the 1830s. In 1791 it was originally planned by the Chinese authorities to cast copper cash coins in Tibet. Had this plan been carried out, the Tibetan coinage could have become part of the Chinese currency system. But this plan was abandoned because it was found to be too expensive to transport copper from China to Tibet in order to cast cash coinage in Lhasa.Between 1791 and 1836 the Tibetan currency was largely decided on by the Chinese government in consultation with Tibetan authorities, and silver coins were struck to the sho (zho) standard i. About 3.7 grams in the 58th, 59th and 60th year of Qianlong (1793, 1794 and 1795). The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 1711 7 February 1799) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Born Hongli , the fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796.1 On 8 February, he abdicated in favour of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power as the Emperor Emeritus (or Retired Emperor) until his death in 1799; he thus was the longest-reigning. Ruler in the history of China, and dying at the age of 87, the longest-living. As a capable and cultured ruler inheriting a thriving empire, during his long reign the Qing Empire reached its most splendid and prosperous era, boasting a large population and economy.As a military leader, he led military campaigns expanding the dynastic territory to the largest extent by conquering and sometimes destroying Central Asian kingdoms. This turned around in his late years: the Qing empire began to decline with corruption and wastefulness in his court and a stagnating civil society. A British valet who accompanied his diplomat master to the Qing court in 1793 described the emperor. The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; his nose is rather aquiline, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanied by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. His dress consisted of a loose robe of yellow silk, a cap of black velvet with a red ball on the top, and adorned with a peacock's feather, which is the peculiar distinction of mandarins of the first class. He wore silk boots embroidered with gold, and a sash of blue girded his waist. The item "1803, Tibet, Qian Long. Scarce Silver Sino-Tibetan Sho Coin. PCGS XF+" is in sale since Monday, October 7, 2019. This item is in the category "Coins & Paper Money\Coins\ World\Asia\China\Empire (up to 1948)". The seller is "coinworldtv" and is located in Europe. This item can be shipped worldwide.	<urn:uuid:6575a265-41a8-4bf7-aa3d-1249dcceeeed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://silverworldcoins.com/1803-tibet-qian-long-scarce-silver-sino-tibetan-sho-coin-year-8-pcgs-xf.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00382.warc.gz	en	0.980053	836	3.59375	4	[ -0.2527892589569092, 0.29536038637161255, 0.06454813480377197, 0.1392800211906433, -0.3905290961265564, 0.2696218490600586, 0.1274440884590149, -0.05098545551300049, -0.3206915855407715, -0.07566903531551361, 0.24690066277980804, -0.2917627692222595, 0.32967740297317505, 0.1488757878541946...	2	Reverse : Central square element imitating the holing of Chinese cast cash-coins with a dot in center, surrounded by Tibetan characters. Legend: bca''chin pa'u gtsang. A few coins from other countries were also occasionally in use. Coins were first used in a more extensive way in the 17th century: these were silver coins supplied by Nepal. There were however various difficulties with this system. In 1763/64 and 1785 the first silver coins were struck in Tibet. In 1792 the first mass-produced silver coins were created under joint Chinese and Tibetan authority.Coins bearing Tibetan inscriptions only were subsequently replaced by issues which had Chinese and Tibetan legends. This lasted until the 1830s. In 1791 it was originally planned by the Chinese authorities to cast copper cash coins in Tibet. Had this plan been carried out, the Tibetan coinage could have become part of the Chinese currency system. But this plan was abandoned because it was found to be too expensive to transport copper from China to Tibet in order to cast cash coinage in Lhasa.Between 1791 and 1836 the Tibetan currency was largely decided on by the Chinese government in consultation with Tibetan authorities, and silver coins were struck to the sho (zho) standard i. About 3.7 grams in the 58th, 59th and 60th year of Qianlong (1793, 1794 and 1795). The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 1711 7 February 1799) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Born Hongli , the fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796.1 On 8 February, he abdicated in favour of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power as the Emperor Emeritus (or Retired Emperor) until his death in 1799; he thus was the longest-reigning. Ruler in the history of China, and dying at the age of 87, the longest-living. As a capable and cultured ruler inheriting a thriving empire, during his long reign the Qing Empire reached its most splendid and prosperous era, boasting a large population and economy.As a military leader, he led military campaigns expanding the dynastic territory to the largest extent by conquering and sometimes destroying Central Asian kingdoms. This turned around in his late years: the Qing empire began to decline with corruption and wastefulness in his court and a stagnating civil society. A British valet who accompanied his diplomat master to the Qing court in 1793 described the emperor. The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; his nose is rather aquiline, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanied by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. His dress consisted of a loose robe of yellow silk, a cap of black velvet with a red ball on the top, and adorned with a peacock's feather, which is the peculiar distinction of mandarins of the first class. He wore silk boots embroidered with gold, and a sash of blue girded his waist. The item "1803, Tibet, Qian Long. Scarce Silver Sino-Tibetan Sho Coin. PCGS XF+" is in sale since Monday, October 7, 2019. This item is in the category "Coins & Paper Money\Coins\ World\Asia\China\Empire (up to 1948)". The seller is "coinworldtv" and is located in Europe. This item can be shipped worldwide.	899	ENGLISH	1
Titus Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Early Life And Education Titus was born in Rome, around 30 December 39 AD. He was born to Titus Flavius Vespasianus, called Vespasian, and Domitilla the Elder. Titus was the eldest of three children. He had a younger sister, Domitilla the Younger, and a brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus, called Domitian. During the first century BC in Rome, a civil war was rife for several decades. This saw the fall of ‘old’ aristocracy in Rome and allowed for families that had previously been unknown, to become powerful and prominent in a short space of time. The gens Flavia was one of those families. His great-grandfather served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar’s civil war. This allowed him to marry into wealth, which then elevated the status of his son, Titus Flavius Sabinus I (Titus’s grandfather). Sabinus grew his wealth through his position as tax collector in Asia, and also a banker in Helvetia. He married Vespasia Polla, who had a wealthier station yet again, and this continued the elevation of his sons, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, and Vespasian, who both became a senator In 57 – 59, Titus served in Germania and Britannia. He continued to serve in the military and was greatly renowned as a commander. When Nero died in 68, his father ascended the throne as emperor. Titus was left to finish off the Jewish rebellion they had been fighting at the time. In 70 AD Titus overran and captured Jerusalem. He destroyed the city, and as a thank you was awarded the Arch of Titus, which stands even now, in modern times, to remember his victory. Titus took over as emperor in 79AD, upon the death of his father. His most famous work was the completion of the Colosseum, which still stands today. Titus is also well remembered for his generosity. There were two great disasters in his time, and only a year apart. In 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, and in 80, there was a fire in Rome. Both caused massive chaos and death, and Titus looked after his people in both instances. After only two years as emperor, Titus died in 81. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian, and deified by the Roman Senate, on the orders of his brother. Titus married Arrecina Tertulla in 62 AD. She died in 63 AD. She was the daughter of a senior official retired from the Praetorian Guard. He then married Marcia Furnilla in 63 AD, who was from a family with far more nobility. He ended up divorcing her in 65 AD and never remarried. Titus had several daughters, and at least one of them was with his second wife, Furnilla. The only daughter known to have lived through to adulthood was Julia Flavia. There are preserved statues of Titus in all the famous museums of the world, including the British Museum, the Louvre in Paris, and the Vatican Museum. The two most notable monuments, though, are the Colosseum, and the Arch of Titus. Records indicate he was a well-loved emperor who looked after his people, albeit only for a short while. More People From Lazio Marcus Junius Brutus Antonio Sabato, Jr. Juan Carlos I of Spain	<urn:uuid:e570ce9d-6feb-4e03-8d5d-acf4adee59e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/titus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00463.warc.gz	en	0.99194	736	3.453125	3	[ -0.07953457534313202, 0.591193675994873, 0.6242978572845459, -0.12275386601686478, -0.4101012349128723, -0.1246032863855362, 0.2345995008945465, 0.20462048053741455, -0.0015281019732356071, -0.3684028685092926, -0.15491662919521332, -0.5319827198982239, 0.12957662343978882, 0.6504002809524...	1	Titus Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Early Life And Education Titus was born in Rome, around 30 December 39 AD. He was born to Titus Flavius Vespasianus, called Vespasian, and Domitilla the Elder. Titus was the eldest of three children. He had a younger sister, Domitilla the Younger, and a brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus, called Domitian. During the first century BC in Rome, a civil war was rife for several decades. This saw the fall of ‘old’ aristocracy in Rome and allowed for families that had previously been unknown, to become powerful and prominent in a short space of time. The gens Flavia was one of those families. His great-grandfather served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar’s civil war. This allowed him to marry into wealth, which then elevated the status of his son, Titus Flavius Sabinus I (Titus’s grandfather). Sabinus grew his wealth through his position as tax collector in Asia, and also a banker in Helvetia. He married Vespasia Polla, who had a wealthier station yet again, and this continued the elevation of his sons, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, and Vespasian, who both became a senator In 57 – 59, Titus served in Germania and Britannia. He continued to serve in the military and was greatly renowned as a commander. When Nero died in 68, his father ascended the throne as emperor. Titus was left to finish off the Jewish rebellion they had been fighting at the time. In 70 AD Titus overran and captured Jerusalem. He destroyed the city, and as a thank you was awarded the Arch of Titus, which stands even now, in modern times, to remember his victory. Titus took over as emperor in 79AD, upon the death of his father. His most famous work was the completion of the Colosseum, which still stands today. Titus is also well remembered for his generosity. There were two great disasters in his time, and only a year apart. In 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, and in 80, there was a fire in Rome. Both caused massive chaos and death, and Titus looked after his people in both instances. After only two years as emperor, Titus died in 81. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian, and deified by the Roman Senate, on the orders of his brother. Titus married Arrecina Tertulla in 62 AD. She died in 63 AD. She was the daughter of a senior official retired from the Praetorian Guard. He then married Marcia Furnilla in 63 AD, who was from a family with far more nobility. He ended up divorcing her in 65 AD and never remarried. Titus had several daughters, and at least one of them was with his second wife, Furnilla. The only daughter known to have lived through to adulthood was Julia Flavia. There are preserved statues of Titus in all the famous museums of the world, including the British Museum, the Louvre in Paris, and the Vatican Museum. The two most notable monuments, though, are the Colosseum, and the Arch of Titus. Records indicate he was a well-loved emperor who looked after his people, albeit only for a short while. More People From Lazio Marcus Junius Brutus Antonio Sabato, Jr. Juan Carlos I of Spain	758	ENGLISH	1
\|Santa Anna's Captivity From the Life of Santa Anna by Clarence Wharton, 1926 (edited) When Santa Anna approached Houston after the Battle of San Jacinto, General Houston was lying wounded under a large oak tree A short dialogue ensued. El Presidente Santa Anna threw himself on Houston's mercy, advising that since Houston had conquered and captured the Napoleon of the West, he could afford to be merciful. After negotiations Santa Anna sent a dispatch to the rest of the Mexican Army in Texas: "I have agreed with General Houston for an armistice (peace treaty) and the war will cease forever." Two treaties were prepared for Santa Anna, known as the treaties of Velasco. A public treaty which stated: "All hostilities will cease, and Santa Anna would not cause arms to be taken up against the people of Texas." The secret treaty stated: "That El Presidente should be sent home at once to Vera Cruz, Mexico and that he would prepare things in Mexico so that a commission sent by the Texas government should be received, and that by means of negotiations all differences between Texas and Mexico should be settled and independence of Texas acknowledged. The Rio Grande was agreed upon as the boundary." These bargains arranged, El Presidente embarked on a schooner named the Invincible at the mouth of the Brazos on June 3, 1836, bound for Vera Cruz. He was quite happy at having traded these treaties for his life, and issued a happy farewell address to the Texas people. There was a tremendous outcry in Texas at this time for Santa Anna’s execution, and the provisional government had great difficulty in keeping order. A few hours before the schooner sailed, a ship came into the Brazos from New Orleans, bearing a company of soldiers from the United States for the war in Texas. After the news of San Jacinto's outcome was spread to the U.S. there was a rush of adventurous people who wanted to participate in the war, and these newcomers determined that the Mexican President should be kept in Texas. They defied the provisional government, and boarded the Invincible before it could set sail, and forcibly took possession of El Presidente with the purpose of having him tried and shot. He was taken up the Brazos river to the Phelps plantation, about 30 miles from Velasco, and kept there during the summer and autumn. A rumor was spread that an attempt was to be made to rescue him, and indeed such a plan was in progress, and he was put in irons and chained to a live oak tree. Santa Anna’s imprisonment under these circumstances weighed so heavily upon him that he became melancholy. The first congress of the Republic of Texas assembled at Columbia on the Brazos in October, and the fate of the captive president was a great question on which was debated in both houses. The leaders in congress were in favor for his execution, and if the matter had been left to a vote, he would no doubt have lost. But General Houston, who had been elected President of Texas in September, 1836, had determined that to spare his life was the right thing to do. Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, had written Houston, urging that he be released. In November, while the congressmen at Columbia were debating the fate of the "illustrious prisoner," President Houston cut the debate short by deciding to send him to Washington with an escort. Well armed, the escort party and Santa Anna left the Brazos on the 25th of November, 1836, and rode toward the Lynchburg crossing of the San Jacinto, and near the sunset hour on a November day they rode across the battlefield. El Presidente turned and cast a long and remorseful look at the scene of his greatest disaster. Santa Anna did not want to go to New Orleans, for the Texan spirit of revolution was so strong there that he feared for his life, and they rode through northern Louisiana to the Mississippi River, where they took a passing steamboat up the 'Mississippi to the Ohio, and up the latter river to Louisville, Ky., which place they reached on Christmas day, 1836. News that the Mexican president was passing through the country excited lively interest, and crowds were gathered at each stopping place for a look at him. Everywhere he was treated with the utmost courtesy and curiosity. In Washington, he visited President Jackson. The real story of Santa Anna's trip to Washington has never been widely known. There was a fight in the American Congress, upon the recognition of Texas' independence. Jackson's administration was coming to a close and he was to be succeeded the following March by Martin Van Buren who was very conservative about the recognition of Texas, or any other act that would bring on war with Mexico. President Houston of Texas thought that it would help the situation if Santa Anna would go in person to Washington and say to President Andrew Jackson that Mexico did not intend to make an effort to reconquer Texas. This would be an answer to the critics in Congress who were urging that the recognition of Texas would be considered an unfriendly act by Mexico. Because of this guarantee Jackson was able to recognize Texas. It was one of the conditions of Santa Anna's release that he should do this, and though he was supposed to be freed when he left Texas under an escort, in fact he was a still a prisoner until he left Washington. He carried out his part of the bargain and in private conversations with President Jackson gave the message that he had been sent to deliver and this was a powerful aid to the recognition of Texas which was accomplished during the last hours of the Jackson administration. Santa Anna was speedily as possible set sail for home. He was sent to Vera Cruz on the United States frigate Pioneer, as the guest of the American Navy. El Presidente landed at Vera Cruz on his return from Washington and the Texas campaign on February 23, 1837, an absence of a little more than one year, and went direct to his plantation, where he announced his retirement from public life. While he was away, his old enemy, Bustamente, whom he had overthrown and sent into exile in 1832, had returned, and in June, 1837, while Santa Anna was at his plantation, Bustamente was elected President of Mexico for a five-year term. Santa Anna remained on his plantation for the next two years, planning a return to power and overthrowing Bustamente once again. Santa Anna's Captivity Questions All Questions should be answered in complete sentences. 1) What did the Treaty of Velasco give Texas? 2) What was the general feeling on what should be done with Santa Anna by the majority of Texans? Why did Sam Houston disagree with these feelings? 3) What caused Santa Anna to not return to Mexico when the Provisional Government tried to send him to Vera Cruz, Mexico on the Schooner Invincible? 4) What guarantees did Sam Houston and U.S. President Andrew Jackson want from Santa Anna before he was allowed to go back to Mexico? What did this allow President Jackson to do regarding Texas? 5) What had changed in Mexico since Santa Anna had left? What did Santa Anna do once he returned?	<urn:uuid:58fadb3b-6131-4972-b160-658e992d1b9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://azrefs.org/santa-annas-captivity-from-the-life-of-santa-anna-by-clarence.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00254.warc.gz	en	0.985147	1,482	3.28125	3	[ -0.058903709053993225, 0.2900523245334625, 0.4740195870399475, -0.2669108510017395, 0.23807576298713684, -0.04824730008840561, -0.1309337019920349, -0.03273072838783264, -0.06265458464622498, -0.3473256230354309, 0.44312435388565063, 0.16743239760398865, 0.4578307867050171, 0.2827826142311...	2	\|Santa Anna's Captivity From the Life of Santa Anna by Clarence Wharton, 1926 (edited) When Santa Anna approached Houston after the Battle of San Jacinto, General Houston was lying wounded under a large oak tree A short dialogue ensued. El Presidente Santa Anna threw himself on Houston's mercy, advising that since Houston had conquered and captured the Napoleon of the West, he could afford to be merciful. After negotiations Santa Anna sent a dispatch to the rest of the Mexican Army in Texas: "I have agreed with General Houston for an armistice (peace treaty) and the war will cease forever." Two treaties were prepared for Santa Anna, known as the treaties of Velasco. A public treaty which stated: "All hostilities will cease, and Santa Anna would not cause arms to be taken up against the people of Texas." The secret treaty stated: "That El Presidente should be sent home at once to Vera Cruz, Mexico and that he would prepare things in Mexico so that a commission sent by the Texas government should be received, and that by means of negotiations all differences between Texas and Mexico should be settled and independence of Texas acknowledged. The Rio Grande was agreed upon as the boundary." These bargains arranged, El Presidente embarked on a schooner named the Invincible at the mouth of the Brazos on June 3, 1836, bound for Vera Cruz. He was quite happy at having traded these treaties for his life, and issued a happy farewell address to the Texas people. There was a tremendous outcry in Texas at this time for Santa Anna’s execution, and the provisional government had great difficulty in keeping order. A few hours before the schooner sailed, a ship came into the Brazos from New Orleans, bearing a company of soldiers from the United States for the war in Texas. After the news of San Jacinto's outcome was spread to the U.S. there was a rush of adventurous people who wanted to participate in the war, and these newcomers determined that the Mexican President should be kept in Texas. They defied the provisional government, and boarded the Invincible before it could set sail, and forcibly took possession of El Presidente with the purpose of having him tried and shot. He was taken up the Brazos river to the Phelps plantation, about 30 miles from Velasco, and kept there during the summer and autumn. A rumor was spread that an attempt was to be made to rescue him, and indeed such a plan was in progress, and he was put in irons and chained to a live oak tree. Santa Anna’s imprisonment under these circumstances weighed so heavily upon him that he became melancholy. The first congress of the Republic of Texas assembled at Columbia on the Brazos in October, and the fate of the captive president was a great question on which was debated in both houses. The leaders in congress were in favor for his execution, and if the matter had been left to a vote, he would no doubt have lost. But General Houston, who had been elected President of Texas in September, 1836, had determined that to spare his life was the right thing to do. Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, had written Houston, urging that he be released. In November, while the congressmen at Columbia were debating the fate of the "illustrious prisoner," President Houston cut the debate short by deciding to send him to Washington with an escort. Well armed, the escort party and Santa Anna left the Brazos on the 25th of November, 1836, and rode toward the Lynchburg crossing of the San Jacinto, and near the sunset hour on a November day they rode across the battlefield. El Presidente turned and cast a long and remorseful look at the scene of his greatest disaster. Santa Anna did not want to go to New Orleans, for the Texan spirit of revolution was so strong there that he feared for his life, and they rode through northern Louisiana to the Mississippi River, where they took a passing steamboat up the 'Mississippi to the Ohio, and up the latter river to Louisville, Ky., which place they reached on Christmas day, 1836. News that the Mexican president was passing through the country excited lively interest, and crowds were gathered at each stopping place for a look at him. Everywhere he was treated with the utmost courtesy and curiosity. In Washington, he visited President Jackson. The real story of Santa Anna's trip to Washington has never been widely known. There was a fight in the American Congress, upon the recognition of Texas' independence. Jackson's administration was coming to a close and he was to be succeeded the following March by Martin Van Buren who was very conservative about the recognition of Texas, or any other act that would bring on war with Mexico. President Houston of Texas thought that it would help the situation if Santa Anna would go in person to Washington and say to President Andrew Jackson that Mexico did not intend to make an effort to reconquer Texas. This would be an answer to the critics in Congress who were urging that the recognition of Texas would be considered an unfriendly act by Mexico. Because of this guarantee Jackson was able to recognize Texas. It was one of the conditions of Santa Anna's release that he should do this, and though he was supposed to be freed when he left Texas under an escort, in fact he was a still a prisoner until he left Washington. He carried out his part of the bargain and in private conversations with President Jackson gave the message that he had been sent to deliver and this was a powerful aid to the recognition of Texas which was accomplished during the last hours of the Jackson administration. Santa Anna was speedily as possible set sail for home. He was sent to Vera Cruz on the United States frigate Pioneer, as the guest of the American Navy. El Presidente landed at Vera Cruz on his return from Washington and the Texas campaign on February 23, 1837, an absence of a little more than one year, and went direct to his plantation, where he announced his retirement from public life. While he was away, his old enemy, Bustamente, whom he had overthrown and sent into exile in 1832, had returned, and in June, 1837, while Santa Anna was at his plantation, Bustamente was elected President of Mexico for a five-year term. Santa Anna remained on his plantation for the next two years, planning a return to power and overthrowing Bustamente once again. Santa Anna's Captivity Questions All Questions should be answered in complete sentences. 1) What did the Treaty of Velasco give Texas? 2) What was the general feeling on what should be done with Santa Anna by the majority of Texans? Why did Sam Houston disagree with these feelings? 3) What caused Santa Anna to not return to Mexico when the Provisional Government tried to send him to Vera Cruz, Mexico on the Schooner Invincible? 4) What guarantees did Sam Houston and U.S. President Andrew Jackson want from Santa Anna before he was allowed to go back to Mexico? What did this allow President Jackson to do regarding Texas? 5) What had changed in Mexico since Santa Anna had left? What did Santa Anna do once he returned?	1,477	ENGLISH	1
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) was the Shakespeare of opera, the composer of Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Traviata, Aida and Otello. The chorus of Hebrew slaves from Nabucco (1842) is regarded in Italy as virtually an alternative national anthem - and the great tragedian rounded off his career fifty years later with a rousing comedy, Falstaff. When Verdi was born, much of northern Italy was under Napoleonic rule, and Verdi grew up dreaming of a time when the peninsula might be governed by Italians. When this was achieved, in 1861, he became a deputy in the first all-Italian parliament. While in his 20s, Verdi lost his two children and then his wife (many Verdi operas feature poignant parent-child relationships). Later, he retired, with his second wife, to his beloved farmlands, refusing for long stretches to return to composition. Verdi died in January 1901, universally mourned as the supreme embodiment of the nation he had helped create. Daniel Snowman is the author o"f The Gilded Stage: A Social History of Opera."	<urn:uuid:9e6f5691-e9c7-40a0-82cb-f1736a538486>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://readersemporium.com.au/p/history-humanities-giuseppe-verdi-pocket-giants?barcode=9780752493251	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00005.warc.gz	en	0.982243	241	3.609375	4	[ -0.15183773636817932, 0.5535545945167542, 0.4058493673801422, 0.22289662063121796, -0.8530940413475037, 0.20997540652751923, 0.117251455783844, 0.1781345158815384, 0.09390200674533844, -0.49339964985847473, 0.08189505338668823, 0.07112658023834229, 0.21126516163349152, 0.19721314311027527,...	4	Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) was the Shakespeare of opera, the composer of Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Traviata, Aida and Otello. The chorus of Hebrew slaves from Nabucco (1842) is regarded in Italy as virtually an alternative national anthem - and the great tragedian rounded off his career fifty years later with a rousing comedy, Falstaff. When Verdi was born, much of northern Italy was under Napoleonic rule, and Verdi grew up dreaming of a time when the peninsula might be governed by Italians. When this was achieved, in 1861, he became a deputy in the first all-Italian parliament. While in his 20s, Verdi lost his two children and then his wife (many Verdi operas feature poignant parent-child relationships). Later, he retired, with his second wife, to his beloved farmlands, refusing for long stretches to return to composition. Verdi died in January 1901, universally mourned as the supreme embodiment of the nation he had helped create. Daniel Snowman is the author o"f The Gilded Stage: A Social History of Opera."	252	ENGLISH	1
Several advancements were made in medical and surgical practices by both sides during the war. Asepsis and Germ Theory were not yet understood during the war, so hygiene was not well practiced. This poor hygienic practice resulted in the rate of mortality after an operation being 14.2%, on average.6 In trying to alleviate these high death rates, surgeons unintentionally discovered some principles of asepsis. For example, Confederate surgeons did not have access to sponges because of a blockade, so they used rags instead. Because the rags were much more easily cleaned than the sponges, the spread of disease was reduced.6 This medical improvement was noted and preserved. Surgeons also falsely attributed gangrene to the conditions of the hospital rather than the condition of the wound. However, this did result in successful attempts to make hospitals less crowded and more open. The contribution to surgical knowledge was enormous. Surgeons recorded thousands of pages of data and information, as well as engravings. An article produced from data collected during the war and entitled “Hip-Joint Amputations” covered nearly one hundred pages.4 Surgeons developed a deeper and greater understanding of when and how to operate and do amputations. Finally, great organizational advancements occurred during the war. The Sanitary Commission carried out inspections and made reports on the setup of military hospitals. Aspects of the hospitals deemed unsanitary or unsafe could be corrected when the next hospital was erected. Furthermore, surgeons kept meticulous organizational and administrative records that were carried over and used as prototypes and standards far into the future. This organizational knowledge, obtained by trial and error, was as valuable to future surgeons as the medical knowledge obtained.	<urn:uuid:de20da19-1c14-4168-8810-59990185d05f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://cw-butchers.leadr.msu.edu/medical-innovations/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00243.warc.gz	en	0.983417	347	3.53125	4	[ -0.3297443389892578, 0.52303546667099, 0.5872663259506226, -0.14883644878864288, 0.038989126682281494, -0.01998579129576683, 0.2109733670949936, 0.5894696712493896, 0.03579840809106827, 0.10518491268157959, 0.16094712913036346, -0.19601158797740936, -0.013926278799772263, 0.358906924724578...	3	Several advancements were made in medical and surgical practices by both sides during the war. Asepsis and Germ Theory were not yet understood during the war, so hygiene was not well practiced. This poor hygienic practice resulted in the rate of mortality after an operation being 14.2%, on average.6 In trying to alleviate these high death rates, surgeons unintentionally discovered some principles of asepsis. For example, Confederate surgeons did not have access to sponges because of a blockade, so they used rags instead. Because the rags were much more easily cleaned than the sponges, the spread of disease was reduced.6 This medical improvement was noted and preserved. Surgeons also falsely attributed gangrene to the conditions of the hospital rather than the condition of the wound. However, this did result in successful attempts to make hospitals less crowded and more open. The contribution to surgical knowledge was enormous. Surgeons recorded thousands of pages of data and information, as well as engravings. An article produced from data collected during the war and entitled “Hip-Joint Amputations” covered nearly one hundred pages.4 Surgeons developed a deeper and greater understanding of when and how to operate and do amputations. Finally, great organizational advancements occurred during the war. The Sanitary Commission carried out inspections and made reports on the setup of military hospitals. Aspects of the hospitals deemed unsanitary or unsafe could be corrected when the next hospital was erected. Furthermore, surgeons kept meticulous organizational and administrative records that were carried over and used as prototypes and standards far into the future. This organizational knowledge, obtained by trial and error, was as valuable to future surgeons as the medical knowledge obtained.	345	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 21/05/2012) is the twenty-fourth Jain Tirthankara. Though he was born with worldly comforts and luxuries; he always remained detached from them. He became an ascetic at the age of thirty. He spent most of his time in austerity and in meditation for twelve and a half years. At the age of forty-two he attained omniscience, Kevalgyan. He thus became a Jina. During his life Mahavira organised a systematic religion and philosophy. He laid down a social order for his large group of followers. He revived the religious order consisting of monks, nuns, Shravaks and Shravikas. This order is known as the Jain Sangh. The first disciple of Mahavira called was Gautamswami. The Sangh helped in strengthening the structure of his organisation. Mahavira formed a community of fourteen thousand monks and placed them under the charge of Indrabhuti. He formed the organisation to regulate and control those temptations and dangers which set upon the ascetics during their wandering life. For it, he divided the fourteen thousand monks into nine schools called Ganas. He placed each school under the leadership of one of his chief disciples or ganadharas. Each Ganadhara depending according to their rank had two hundred and fifty to five hundred monks under him. These teachers guided and instructed separate groups of Nirgranthas. The second order consisted of women followers. They were almost thirty six thousand in number. They had renounced the world and became nuns. His third order comprised of pious laymen or Sravakas. They were almost one lakh and fifty nine thousand and their head was Sankha Sataka. These laymen were required to follow the five anuvratas. The Sravakas were not required to renounce the world. The Sravakas and the monks followed many similar religious duties that brought them close to each other and helped them develop a bonding. The laymen thus could enjoy the life of a monk without renouncing the world. The fourth order comprised of devout laywomen or Sravikas. They were about three lakh and fifty eight thousand with Sulasa and Revati at their heads. The women remained engaged in their regular household chores and also served the ascetics in different ways. Apart from the four orders there were almost three hundred sages, who were well versed about the fourteen Purvas, sages who possessed the Avadhi knowledge and kevalins who had the best of knowledge and intuition. There were also sages of high intellect who were acquainted with all the thoughts and feelings of all living beings. Many people belonging to the order could resolve their lives and acquire liberation. It is thus quite eminent that Lord Mahavira could convert a large number of people to Jainism	<urn:uuid:6adcd1f2-948e-42f1-80cf-8ad92f4590fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/60/four_orders_jainism.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00103.warc.gz	en	0.985875	589	3.40625	3	[ -0.0493534579873085, 0.37599194049835205, -0.220102459192276, -0.043265581130981445, -0.4998015761375427, 0.08664117753505707, 0.33563944697380066, 0.017991680651903152, 0.14378245174884796, 0.09731601923704147, -0.012080449610948563, -0.21763944625854492, 0.16688159108161926, 0.3980493545...	1	(Last Updated on : 21/05/2012) is the twenty-fourth Jain Tirthankara. Though he was born with worldly comforts and luxuries; he always remained detached from them. He became an ascetic at the age of thirty. He spent most of his time in austerity and in meditation for twelve and a half years. At the age of forty-two he attained omniscience, Kevalgyan. He thus became a Jina. During his life Mahavira organised a systematic religion and philosophy. He laid down a social order for his large group of followers. He revived the religious order consisting of monks, nuns, Shravaks and Shravikas. This order is known as the Jain Sangh. The first disciple of Mahavira called was Gautamswami. The Sangh helped in strengthening the structure of his organisation. Mahavira formed a community of fourteen thousand monks and placed them under the charge of Indrabhuti. He formed the organisation to regulate and control those temptations and dangers which set upon the ascetics during their wandering life. For it, he divided the fourteen thousand monks into nine schools called Ganas. He placed each school under the leadership of one of his chief disciples or ganadharas. Each Ganadhara depending according to their rank had two hundred and fifty to five hundred monks under him. These teachers guided and instructed separate groups of Nirgranthas. The second order consisted of women followers. They were almost thirty six thousand in number. They had renounced the world and became nuns. His third order comprised of pious laymen or Sravakas. They were almost one lakh and fifty nine thousand and their head was Sankha Sataka. These laymen were required to follow the five anuvratas. The Sravakas were not required to renounce the world. The Sravakas and the monks followed many similar religious duties that brought them close to each other and helped them develop a bonding. The laymen thus could enjoy the life of a monk without renouncing the world. The fourth order comprised of devout laywomen or Sravikas. They were about three lakh and fifty eight thousand with Sulasa and Revati at their heads. The women remained engaged in their regular household chores and also served the ascetics in different ways. Apart from the four orders there were almost three hundred sages, who were well versed about the fourteen Purvas, sages who possessed the Avadhi knowledge and kevalins who had the best of knowledge and intuition. There were also sages of high intellect who were acquainted with all the thoughts and feelings of all living beings. Many people belonging to the order could resolve their lives and acquire liberation. It is thus quite eminent that Lord Mahavira could convert a large number of people to Jainism	585	ENGLISH	1
Africans are unique in the contributions they have made to the history of music in the west. Although I think its an over simplification, we are told by music historians that where as Europeans have been responsible for harmony it is the African influence that has led the innovation in the rhythms we hear in main stream popular music. A classic example is what the slaves did to European hymns. It has been documented in the USA as well as the Caribbean islands that Africans were very inventive with the rhythms of the European hymns so that many songs would no longer be recognisable once altered sometimes resulting in folk spirituals. When many people from west and central Africa were taken as slaves, their European and Euro-American oppressors attempted to crush African cultural and musical values. At times, resources for self-expression were scarce and so for the African the whole body came to be viewed as a musical instrument. Innovations such as pattin’ juba, the juba dance and the hambone became popular ways of supporting the music. Other innovations include tap dance, step dance and human beat boxing. Instruments for slaves were banned in many places in America and the Caribbean at different points during the mid 1700s. This was because some would use instruments as a means of communication and could incite rebellion. The innovation of body percussion demonstrates how determined Africans were to express themselves through music. The instinct of Africans has always been to resist oppression of any kind. Lack of resources was no hindrance to the creation of great art. The African creation of body percussion, tap dance and beat boxing demonstrate this.	<urn:uuid:0560905f-27f8-459a-a60c-bab8da7a18d1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blackmusichistory.com/single-post/2019/02/03/Rhythmic-Rebellion	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00222.warc.gz	en	0.985409	327	3.859375	4	[ -0.18305344879627228, 0.3459249436855316, 0.3499763607978821, -0.18967393040657043, -0.09088080376386642, 0.14669916033744812, -0.046691033989191055, -0.1351272165775299, 0.11256247013807297, 0.3072218894958496, 0.23795226216316223, -0.07554687559604645, -0.361612468957901, -0.132033869624...	3	Africans are unique in the contributions they have made to the history of music in the west. Although I think its an over simplification, we are told by music historians that where as Europeans have been responsible for harmony it is the African influence that has led the innovation in the rhythms we hear in main stream popular music. A classic example is what the slaves did to European hymns. It has been documented in the USA as well as the Caribbean islands that Africans were very inventive with the rhythms of the European hymns so that many songs would no longer be recognisable once altered sometimes resulting in folk spirituals. When many people from west and central Africa were taken as slaves, their European and Euro-American oppressors attempted to crush African cultural and musical values. At times, resources for self-expression were scarce and so for the African the whole body came to be viewed as a musical instrument. Innovations such as pattin’ juba, the juba dance and the hambone became popular ways of supporting the music. Other innovations include tap dance, step dance and human beat boxing. Instruments for slaves were banned in many places in America and the Caribbean at different points during the mid 1700s. This was because some would use instruments as a means of communication and could incite rebellion. The innovation of body percussion demonstrates how determined Africans were to express themselves through music. The instinct of Africans has always been to resist oppression of any kind. Lack of resources was no hindrance to the creation of great art. The African creation of body percussion, tap dance and beat boxing demonstrate this.	322	ENGLISH	1
Sugary Beverages Lead to Obesity in Preschoolers Obesity has become a worldwide pandemic, putting pressure on countries to revise their health care systems to provide for and prevent future cases. Due to numerous studies, people know that maintaining a healthy diet and an active physical life are key to staving off obesity. These methods have mostly been geared towards adults who have more control over their lifestyles. However, since obesity has become a growing problem for children and young adults, getting this age group to starting caring for their bodies is extremely important as well. One of the latest obesity studies that was published today remind parents that sugary drinks for preschoolers leads to obesity. "Even though sugar-sweetened beverages are relatively a small percentage of the calories that children take in, that additional amount of calories did contribute to more weight gain over time," the lead investigator, Dr. Mark DeBoer from University of Virginia in Charlottesville, said according to FOX News. For this study, DeBoer and his colleagues administered surveys to a nationally representative group consisting of 9,600 children who were all born in 2001. The surveys were conducted when the children were aged two, four and five. The survey measured the parents' income, education, hours spent in front of a television and amount of sugary beverages their children drank. The researchers weighed mother and child every time the participants came in for a survey visit. The researchers reported that around nine to 13 percent of children consumed at least a sugary drink, which included soda, sports drinks or sugar-sweetened juices, every day. Within this proportion, the researchers calculated that these toddlers watched at least two hours of TV when they were four or five-years-old. These children were also more likely to have an overweight mother. Studies have reported that children of obese parents are more likely to be obese themselves, creating a vicious cycle that needs to be stopped. The researcher also reported that preschoolers, who are five-years-old, were 43 percent more likely to be obese if they drank at least one sugary beverage a day in comparison to children who did not drink sweet beverages or did so at a less frequent rate. Childhood obesity was measured by taking the toddlers' body mass index (BMI), which measures weight in relation to height. A BMI that sits above the 95th percentile relative to age and gender would be considered obese. The researchers calculated that 15 percent of the five-year-olds fit that category. The researchers reported that for four-year-olds, the link between sugary drinks and obesity also existed. However, for toddlers at the age of two, there was no relationship. Even though the researchers did not measure the children's overall diet and exercise level, the relationship between sweetened drinks and obesity is quite clear. They hope that their study's findings will prompt parents to become more aware of the risk factors involved when it comes to what they are giving their children to eat and drink. The study was published in Pediatrics.	<urn:uuid:2d20bb69-292b-4c6a-8236-355236d8ed39>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.counselheal.com/articles/6275/20130805/sugary-beverages-lead-obesity-preschoolers.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00520.warc.gz	en	0.98488	609	3.40625	3	[ 0.202291801571846, 0.0695086419582367, 0.3695666193962097, -0.17383156716823578, -0.014818472787737846, 0.3902692496776581, -0.22119373083114624, 0.24898138642311096, -0.40034568309783936, 0.0568535178899765, 0.1883651316165924, -0.37174752354621887, -0.08607956767082214, 0.149125784635543...	3	Sugary Beverages Lead to Obesity in Preschoolers Obesity has become a worldwide pandemic, putting pressure on countries to revise their health care systems to provide for and prevent future cases. Due to numerous studies, people know that maintaining a healthy diet and an active physical life are key to staving off obesity. These methods have mostly been geared towards adults who have more control over their lifestyles. However, since obesity has become a growing problem for children and young adults, getting this age group to starting caring for their bodies is extremely important as well. One of the latest obesity studies that was published today remind parents that sugary drinks for preschoolers leads to obesity. "Even though sugar-sweetened beverages are relatively a small percentage of the calories that children take in, that additional amount of calories did contribute to more weight gain over time," the lead investigator, Dr. Mark DeBoer from University of Virginia in Charlottesville, said according to FOX News. For this study, DeBoer and his colleagues administered surveys to a nationally representative group consisting of 9,600 children who were all born in 2001. The surveys were conducted when the children were aged two, four and five. The survey measured the parents' income, education, hours spent in front of a television and amount of sugary beverages their children drank. The researchers weighed mother and child every time the participants came in for a survey visit. The researchers reported that around nine to 13 percent of children consumed at least a sugary drink, which included soda, sports drinks or sugar-sweetened juices, every day. Within this proportion, the researchers calculated that these toddlers watched at least two hours of TV when they were four or five-years-old. These children were also more likely to have an overweight mother. Studies have reported that children of obese parents are more likely to be obese themselves, creating a vicious cycle that needs to be stopped. The researcher also reported that preschoolers, who are five-years-old, were 43 percent more likely to be obese if they drank at least one sugary beverage a day in comparison to children who did not drink sweet beverages or did so at a less frequent rate. Childhood obesity was measured by taking the toddlers' body mass index (BMI), which measures weight in relation to height. A BMI that sits above the 95th percentile relative to age and gender would be considered obese. The researchers calculated that 15 percent of the five-year-olds fit that category. The researchers reported that for four-year-olds, the link between sugary drinks and obesity also existed. However, for toddlers at the age of two, there was no relationship. Even though the researchers did not measure the children's overall diet and exercise level, the relationship between sweetened drinks and obesity is quite clear. They hope that their study's findings will prompt parents to become more aware of the risk factors involved when it comes to what they are giving their children to eat and drink. The study was published in Pediatrics.	608	ENGLISH	1
One school described the shock of seeing its results... - Education Professionals Children's accents develop at nursery Dr Caroline Floccia, an associate professor in the university's school of psychology, said the study dismissed traditional ideas that accents are formed at school or home. She said: ''It might widely be assumed that toddlers pick up their early grasp of language from their parents. But this research shows their social context is much more important than people might think, even at an early age. “Studies have shown that, once they reach the age of five, children are more likely to speak with the accents they are surrounded by at school. But this is the first time it has been shown to apply to younger children." For the study, researchers at the Universities Babylab unit presented toddlers with pictures of familiar objects. All the children were able to identify which object the speaker was referring to when the word was in a regional accent - even if their parents are from outside the area. This was not the case when the word was called out without an accent.	<urn:uuid:4c155e2a-7b83-4e4a-bb42-103fea791e8e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.schoolsworld.tv/node/4029	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00214.warc.gz	en	0.981995	217	3.328125	3	[ 0.06495607644319534, -0.053524717688560486, 0.1717877835035324, -0.39023998379707336, -0.21141314506530762, 0.1599702686071396, 0.05743672326207161, 0.05472346022725105, -0.29426416754722595, -0.1722887009382248, 0.4216926395893097, 0.1998988687992096, 0.2291896641254425, 0.158099293708801...	1	One school described the shock of seeing its results... - Education Professionals Children's accents develop at nursery Dr Caroline Floccia, an associate professor in the university's school of psychology, said the study dismissed traditional ideas that accents are formed at school or home. She said: ''It might widely be assumed that toddlers pick up their early grasp of language from their parents. But this research shows their social context is much more important than people might think, even at an early age. “Studies have shown that, once they reach the age of five, children are more likely to speak with the accents they are surrounded by at school. But this is the first time it has been shown to apply to younger children." For the study, researchers at the Universities Babylab unit presented toddlers with pictures of familiar objects. All the children were able to identify which object the speaker was referring to when the word was in a regional accent - even if their parents are from outside the area. This was not the case when the word was called out without an accent.	211	ENGLISH	1
In 1742, Oliver Miller and his family traveled to America from Northern Ireland to start a new life. Oliver Miller married Mary Tidball and traveled west to Cecil County, Maryland where he worked as a small merchant and farmer. When land opened up for settlers in 1770, Oliver Miller took his wife and their ten children by horseback across the Allegheny Mountains to claim land. On July 4, 1772 he purchased land at Catfish Run from Silas Dackster and settled on the land. Oliver Miller then build a one of a kind two story log house and used split shingles for the roof. Oliver Miller was latter appointed to the Justice of Peace of Yohogania County, Virginia; which is present day Allegheny County. Olive Miller was required to help build the local jail and court house. After Oliver Miller death in 1782; his will divided his land between his six sons. Oliver Miller's two story log house went to his son James Miller where his wife and youngest daughter would also live. In March 1798, James Miller applied and received a patent for his father's four hundred twenty four acre plantation under the name Mansfield; during the Virginia and Pennsylvania territory dispute. In 1794 when the federal government proposed a law that all whisky stills must be registered and whisky would be taxed prior to being made. The law then started the Whisky Rebellion. Whisky was the main cash crop for farmers during this time. Shortly after Oliver Miller's sons, William, John, Thomas, and James became directly involved in the Whisky Rebellion. On July 15, 1794, General John Neville, an inspector of the revenue, guided US Marshall David Lenox to the Miller property. They went to serve a fine for two hundred fifty dollars for having a whisky still not registered. William and the officers began to argue and demanded they leave his property. As this was going on some nearby harvesters heard the argument. The harvesters then came over and shot at the officers; these shots where the first shots taken in the Whisky Rebellion. Word spread about the incident at William Miller's farm to nearby farmers. On July 17, 1794 nearly five hundred men marched to General John Neville's home and began burned his barn and house to the ground. These actions were taken as a serious threat to the federal government; which lead President George Washington to send twelve thousand five hundred men to the area to put the rebellion to a stop. The incidents that lead twelve thousand five hundred men to stop the rebellion ended up serving a great importance to the area. By doing so, it improved the roads to the east because of the constant coming and going of the soldiers. This made it easier for more people to travel in and out of the area raising the population; which help pump more money into the local economy making it an overall better place to live. The people also gained more respect for the federal government because they handle the situation by making quick decisions and with firm actions. The Oliver Miller Stone House was put as a National Historic Places in 1934 because of the Miller family heavy involvement in the Whisky Rebellion. The stone house was lived in by five generations of Millers until 1927 when Allegheny Country purchased it. The stone house that still exists today was figured to be built in many different stages. It was believed that the kitchen was added in the late 1700s and in 1808 James Miller added a two story addition to fight the needs of his family. Not until the 1830s was the house was changed from the original wood structure to the stone structure seen today. Other buildings have been added to the site over the years, to include a working bake oven, a 2-story log house (1988), a blacksmith's forge (1991), and a demonstration shed in which visitors can see various frontier demonstrations such as furniture and barrel making. Gardens have also been incorporated into the homestead, such as a kitchen garden, known as the Constant Garden and Emily's Garden, a wildflower garden. The homestead also sponsors numerous events throughout the year. These events include, but aren't limited to Giving Thanks on the Frontier, Hogmanay (a Scottish New Year's Eve celebration), The Children's Harvest Festival, and Whiskey Rebellion Day which takes place in mid-July.	<urn:uuid:cc121cd2-390d-4d42-a334-35a08b187fd2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/27502	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00258.warc.gz	en	0.982068	868	3.875	4	[ -0.21768319606781006, 0.1336134374141693, 0.34545671939849854, 0.19776761531829834, 0.04043574631214142, -0.24556779861450195, 0.06658990681171417, -0.1886884570121765, -0.5564977526664734, -0.057041216641664505, -0.1719745695590973, -0.23666216433048248, 0.0030928337946534157, 0.132685601...	1	In 1742, Oliver Miller and his family traveled to America from Northern Ireland to start a new life. Oliver Miller married Mary Tidball and traveled west to Cecil County, Maryland where he worked as a small merchant and farmer. When land opened up for settlers in 1770, Oliver Miller took his wife and their ten children by horseback across the Allegheny Mountains to claim land. On July 4, 1772 he purchased land at Catfish Run from Silas Dackster and settled on the land. Oliver Miller then build a one of a kind two story log house and used split shingles for the roof. Oliver Miller was latter appointed to the Justice of Peace of Yohogania County, Virginia; which is present day Allegheny County. Olive Miller was required to help build the local jail and court house. After Oliver Miller death in 1782; his will divided his land between his six sons. Oliver Miller's two story log house went to his son James Miller where his wife and youngest daughter would also live. In March 1798, James Miller applied and received a patent for his father's four hundred twenty four acre plantation under the name Mansfield; during the Virginia and Pennsylvania territory dispute. In 1794 when the federal government proposed a law that all whisky stills must be registered and whisky would be taxed prior to being made. The law then started the Whisky Rebellion. Whisky was the main cash crop for farmers during this time. Shortly after Oliver Miller's sons, William, John, Thomas, and James became directly involved in the Whisky Rebellion. On July 15, 1794, General John Neville, an inspector of the revenue, guided US Marshall David Lenox to the Miller property. They went to serve a fine for two hundred fifty dollars for having a whisky still not registered. William and the officers began to argue and demanded they leave his property. As this was going on some nearby harvesters heard the argument. The harvesters then came over and shot at the officers; these shots where the first shots taken in the Whisky Rebellion. Word spread about the incident at William Miller's farm to nearby farmers. On July 17, 1794 nearly five hundred men marched to General John Neville's home and began burned his barn and house to the ground. These actions were taken as a serious threat to the federal government; which lead President George Washington to send twelve thousand five hundred men to the area to put the rebellion to a stop. The incidents that lead twelve thousand five hundred men to stop the rebellion ended up serving a great importance to the area. By doing so, it improved the roads to the east because of the constant coming and going of the soldiers. This made it easier for more people to travel in and out of the area raising the population; which help pump more money into the local economy making it an overall better place to live. The people also gained more respect for the federal government because they handle the situation by making quick decisions and with firm actions. The Oliver Miller Stone House was put as a National Historic Places in 1934 because of the Miller family heavy involvement in the Whisky Rebellion. The stone house was lived in by five generations of Millers until 1927 when Allegheny Country purchased it. The stone house that still exists today was figured to be built in many different stages. It was believed that the kitchen was added in the late 1700s and in 1808 James Miller added a two story addition to fight the needs of his family. Not until the 1830s was the house was changed from the original wood structure to the stone structure seen today. Other buildings have been added to the site over the years, to include a working bake oven, a 2-story log house (1988), a blacksmith's forge (1991), and a demonstration shed in which visitors can see various frontier demonstrations such as furniture and barrel making. Gardens have also been incorporated into the homestead, such as a kitchen garden, known as the Constant Garden and Emily's Garden, a wildflower garden. The homestead also sponsors numerous events throughout the year. These events include, but aren't limited to Giving Thanks on the Frontier, Hogmanay (a Scottish New Year's Eve celebration), The Children's Harvest Festival, and Whiskey Rebellion Day which takes place in mid-July.	918	ENGLISH	1
Stockings & siren suits: 1930s women’s fashion Depression and war inspired many innovative designs in women's fashion, including miraculous liquid stockings (A.K.A. 'gravy') The financial hardship that hit much of Britain during the Great Depression meant that fashion in the 1930s was a far cry from the ostentatious 1920s, as simple cuts intended to conserve fabric were the order of the day. With the outbreak of World War II and the introduction of clothes rationing, fashionistas had to be innovative in order to keep up to speed with the latest trends. With the outbreak of World War II and the introduction of clothes rationing, fashionistas had to be innovative in order to keep up to speed with the latest trends. Austerity led to many clever innovations in fashion. Materials that were previously easier to come by, such as silk, became less commonplace. Nylon would be used as a substitute for garments like stockings, but even that became difficult to come by, meaning that many women would paint their legs with makeup (or, in some cases, gravy) and draw on seams to give the appearance of stockings. Companies even began to produce bottles of beige liquid that were marketed as “Liquid Stockings”. For those women who wanted to avoid the mess of liquid stockings, trousers were starting to become more commonplace, especially for working women and for playing sports. In 1939 Vogue published their first fashion feature picturing women in trousers. In 1939 Vogue published their first fashion feature picturing women in trousers The blackout was an unlikely source of fashion inspiration. In an attempt to tackle both fashion and safety in one go people started to make luminous accessories such as flower pins for bags or coats that reflected light and made the wearer more visible at night. Another blackout invention was buttons that were reflective in the dark but looked like ordinary by day. People also wore white hats and light clothes to make themselves more visible at night. Clothes that provided practical solutions to wartime problems were also a favourite. The “siren suit” was a boiler suit style construction which could be quickly slipped on over regular clothes to protect them from the dirt of the air raid shelters. The women’s version was also available with fashionable features such as puffed shoulders, bell bottomed legs and a fitted hood. There was also a practical panel at the back which allowed the user to go to the toilet without removing the suit. Siren suits became hugely popular with stores offering a variety of different styles. Winston Churchill was the unlikely poster boy of the trend. Another fashionable reply to the functionality of wartime was that of the gas mask handbag. To encourage people to always carry it with them, gas masks were provided with a regulation cardboard box with a string to be worn over the shoulder. For the fashion conscious a new line of handbags were produced which featured a special compartment designed specifically for gas masks.	<urn:uuid:e695d604-aa6b-4731-8724-94998baef2ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.findmypast.ie/1939register/stockings-siren-suits-women-fashion-1939/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00317.warc.gz	en	0.985156	604	3.3125	3	[ -0.12248712033033371, 0.34688156843185425, 0.3847617506980896, 0.18729262053966522, 0.33544206619262695, 0.20205006003379822, -0.004378535784780979, 0.30832186341285706, -0.3710947334766388, -0.19804710149765015, 0.06031782925128937, -0.058211807161569595, 0.05723834037780762, 0.3671463727...	20	Stockings & siren suits: 1930s women’s fashion Depression and war inspired many innovative designs in women's fashion, including miraculous liquid stockings (A.K.A. 'gravy') The financial hardship that hit much of Britain during the Great Depression meant that fashion in the 1930s was a far cry from the ostentatious 1920s, as simple cuts intended to conserve fabric were the order of the day. With the outbreak of World War II and the introduction of clothes rationing, fashionistas had to be innovative in order to keep up to speed with the latest trends. With the outbreak of World War II and the introduction of clothes rationing, fashionistas had to be innovative in order to keep up to speed with the latest trends. Austerity led to many clever innovations in fashion. Materials that were previously easier to come by, such as silk, became less commonplace. Nylon would be used as a substitute for garments like stockings, but even that became difficult to come by, meaning that many women would paint their legs with makeup (or, in some cases, gravy) and draw on seams to give the appearance of stockings. Companies even began to produce bottles of beige liquid that were marketed as “Liquid Stockings”. For those women who wanted to avoid the mess of liquid stockings, trousers were starting to become more commonplace, especially for working women and for playing sports. In 1939 Vogue published their first fashion feature picturing women in trousers. In 1939 Vogue published their first fashion feature picturing women in trousers The blackout was an unlikely source of fashion inspiration. In an attempt to tackle both fashion and safety in one go people started to make luminous accessories such as flower pins for bags or coats that reflected light and made the wearer more visible at night. Another blackout invention was buttons that were reflective in the dark but looked like ordinary by day. People also wore white hats and light clothes to make themselves more visible at night. Clothes that provided practical solutions to wartime problems were also a favourite. The “siren suit” was a boiler suit style construction which could be quickly slipped on over regular clothes to protect them from the dirt of the air raid shelters. The women’s version was also available with fashionable features such as puffed shoulders, bell bottomed legs and a fitted hood. There was also a practical panel at the back which allowed the user to go to the toilet without removing the suit. Siren suits became hugely popular with stores offering a variety of different styles. Winston Churchill was the unlikely poster boy of the trend. Another fashionable reply to the functionality of wartime was that of the gas mask handbag. To encourage people to always carry it with them, gas masks were provided with a regulation cardboard box with a string to be worn over the shoulder. For the fashion conscious a new line of handbags were produced which featured a special compartment designed specifically for gas masks.	599	ENGLISH	1
On Jan. 15, the Catholic Church remembers Saint Paul of Thebes, whose life of solitude and penance gave inspiration to the monastic movement during its early years. Surviving in the Egyptian desert on a small amount of daily food, St. Paul the Hermit lived in close communion with God. Before the end of his life at age 113, he met with St. Anthony the Great, who led an early community of monks elsewhere in the Egyptian desert. Born in approximately 230, the future hermit Paul received a solid religious and secular education, but lost his parents at age 15. During the year 250, the Roman Emperor Decius carried out a notorious persecution of the Church, executing clergy and forcing laypersons to prove their loyalty by worshiping idols. The state used torture, as well as the threat of death to coerce believers into making pagan sacrifices. Paul went into hiding during the Decian persecution, but became aware of a family member’s plan to betray him to the authorities. The young man retreated to a remote desert location, where he discovered a large abandoned cave that had once been used as a facility for making counterfeit coins. He found that he could survive on water from a spring. A raven brought him half a loaf of bread daily. Forced into the wilderness by circumstance, Paul found he loved the life of prayer and simplicity that it made possible. Thus, he never returned to the outside world, even though he lived well into the era of the Church’s legalization and acceptance by the Roman Empire. Later on, his way of life inspired Catholics who sought a deeper relationship with God through spiritual discipline and isolation from the outside world. One of these faithful was Anthony of Egypt, born in the vicinity of Cairo around 251, who also lived to an old age after deciding during his youth to live in the desert out of devotion to God. Paul of Thebes is known to posterity because Anthony, around the year 342, was told in a dream about the older hermit’s existence, and went to find him. A similar knowledge about Anthony had been mysteriously given to the earlier hermit. Thus, when he appeared at Paul’s cave, they greeted each other by name, though they had never met. Out of contact with the Roman Empire for almost a century, Paul asked about its condition, and whether paganism was still practiced. He told Anthony how, for the last 60 years, a bird had brought him a ration of bread each day â€“ a mode of subsistence also granted to the Old Testament prophet Elijah. After 113 years, most of them spent in solitary devotion, Paul understood that he was nearing the end of his earthly life. He asked Anthony to return to his own hermitage, and bring back a cloak that had been given to the younger monk by the bishop St. Athanasius. That heroically orthodox bishop had not yet been born when Paul first fled to the desert, and Anthony had never mentioned him or the cloak in question. Amazed, Anthony paid reverence to Paul and set out to fulfill his request. During the return trip, Anthony was shown a vision of St. Paul of Thebes’ soul, glorified and ascending toward Heaven. On returning to the first hermit’s cave, he venerated the body of its inhabitant, wrapped him in Athanasius’ cloak, and carried him outdoors. Saint Jerome, in his â€œLife of St. Paul the First Hermit,â€� attests that two lions arrived, demonstrated their reverence, and dug a grave for the saint. Having given him Athanasius’ cloak, St. Anthony took back to his hermitage the garment which St. Paul of Thebes had woven for himself from palm leaves. Anthony passed on the account of his journey and the saint’s life to his own growing group of monastic disciples, and it was written down by St. Jerome around the year 375 â€“ approximately 33 years after the death of the first hermit. Venerated on the same day by Roman Catholics, Eastern Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians, St. Paul of Thebes is also the namesake of a Catholic monastic order â€“ the Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit â€“ founded in Hungary during the 13th century and still in operation.	<urn:uuid:4ab05090-b75c-4e3d-a4d1-d4882e300e88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cathlinks.com/st-paul-of-thebes-3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00217.warc.gz	en	0.981489	902	3.5625	4	[ -0.21954354643821716, 0.6361348628997803, 0.07220204919576645, -0.2623322010040283, -0.23064738512039185, 0.05729693919420242, 0.029254429042339325, -0.18465447425842285, 0.1979173719882965, 0.019409429281949997, 0.022922564297914505, -0.0886518806219101, 0.0008421815000474453, 0.128968715...	3	On Jan. 15, the Catholic Church remembers Saint Paul of Thebes, whose life of solitude and penance gave inspiration to the monastic movement during its early years. Surviving in the Egyptian desert on a small amount of daily food, St. Paul the Hermit lived in close communion with God. Before the end of his life at age 113, he met with St. Anthony the Great, who led an early community of monks elsewhere in the Egyptian desert. Born in approximately 230, the future hermit Paul received a solid religious and secular education, but lost his parents at age 15. During the year 250, the Roman Emperor Decius carried out a notorious persecution of the Church, executing clergy and forcing laypersons to prove their loyalty by worshiping idols. The state used torture, as well as the threat of death to coerce believers into making pagan sacrifices. Paul went into hiding during the Decian persecution, but became aware of a family member’s plan to betray him to the authorities. The young man retreated to a remote desert location, where he discovered a large abandoned cave that had once been used as a facility for making counterfeit coins. He found that he could survive on water from a spring. A raven brought him half a loaf of bread daily. Forced into the wilderness by circumstance, Paul found he loved the life of prayer and simplicity that it made possible. Thus, he never returned to the outside world, even though he lived well into the era of the Church’s legalization and acceptance by the Roman Empire. Later on, his way of life inspired Catholics who sought a deeper relationship with God through spiritual discipline and isolation from the outside world. One of these faithful was Anthony of Egypt, born in the vicinity of Cairo around 251, who also lived to an old age after deciding during his youth to live in the desert out of devotion to God. Paul of Thebes is known to posterity because Anthony, around the year 342, was told in a dream about the older hermit’s existence, and went to find him. A similar knowledge about Anthony had been mysteriously given to the earlier hermit. Thus, when he appeared at Paul’s cave, they greeted each other by name, though they had never met. Out of contact with the Roman Empire for almost a century, Paul asked about its condition, and whether paganism was still practiced. He told Anthony how, for the last 60 years, a bird had brought him a ration of bread each day â€“ a mode of subsistence also granted to the Old Testament prophet Elijah. After 113 years, most of them spent in solitary devotion, Paul understood that he was nearing the end of his earthly life. He asked Anthony to return to his own hermitage, and bring back a cloak that had been given to the younger monk by the bishop St. Athanasius. That heroically orthodox bishop had not yet been born when Paul first fled to the desert, and Anthony had never mentioned him or the cloak in question. Amazed, Anthony paid reverence to Paul and set out to fulfill his request. During the return trip, Anthony was shown a vision of St. Paul of Thebes’ soul, glorified and ascending toward Heaven. On returning to the first hermit’s cave, he venerated the body of its inhabitant, wrapped him in Athanasius’ cloak, and carried him outdoors. Saint Jerome, in his â€œLife of St. Paul the First Hermit,â€� attests that two lions arrived, demonstrated their reverence, and dug a grave for the saint. Having given him Athanasius’ cloak, St. Anthony took back to his hermitage the garment which St. Paul of Thebes had woven for himself from palm leaves. Anthony passed on the account of his journey and the saint’s life to his own growing group of monastic disciples, and it was written down by St. Jerome around the year 375 â€“ approximately 33 years after the death of the first hermit. Venerated on the same day by Roman Catholics, Eastern Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians, St. Paul of Thebes is also the namesake of a Catholic monastic order â€“ the Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit â€“ founded in Hungary during the 13th century and still in operation.	895	ENGLISH	1
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leon Idas. Leon Idas was born in 1925 in Athens, Greece, and grew up in an ethnically diverse neighborhood with his father, a textiles merchant, mother, four brothers, and sister. He attended a private school run by the Greek Orthodox Church. Shortly after the beginning of the German occupation of Greece in 1941, sixteen year-old Leon joined a group of partisans fighting for the liberation of Greece under a socialist banner. At that time, there were three groups of partisans in Greece, socialist, democratic, and loyalist. Leon fought and served as communications specialist with the partisans for more than two years, setting up wires that wound through the trees in various villages to enable telephone communication. The partisans lived in and organized armed resistance against the German army from bases in the mountains of Greece, aided by nearby villages, British airdrops of supplies, and their own resourcefulness. They employed mostly ambush and guerrilla tactics against the German army, and the Germans in turn attempted to eliminate the partisans by destroying villages that supported them. During his more than three years with the partisans, Leon suffered hunger, lacked adequate clothing, and had virtually no contact with his family, save for a single encounter with one of his brothers who was fighting for another partisan group. At the end of the war in December 1945, Leon left the partisans and returned to his family home in Athens. Once there, he was reunited with what was left of his family and learned that his parents and brother Gabriel had died in Auschwitz during this time. Leon eventually made his way to the United States with no more than 50 cents in his pocket and settled in Baltimore, MD. He married and raised a family of three sons and one daughter, started his own clothing business, Royal Vintage Clothing. Leon passed away in April of 2013. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leon Idas' decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	<urn:uuid:83019237-18d8-47ab-a58d-145da7b1993f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/leon-idas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00070.warc.gz	en	0.982807	497	3.84375	4	[ -0.4707549214363098, 0.45711857080459595, -0.28849542140960693, 0.02218765951693058, 0.35789754986763, 0.003791767405346036, -0.2552947402000427, 0.3589266538619995, -0.21134266257286072, -0.3860531747341156, 0.10367365926504135, 0.17864719033241272, 0.10829820483922958, 0.3422507345676422...	13	Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leon Idas. Leon Idas was born in 1925 in Athens, Greece, and grew up in an ethnically diverse neighborhood with his father, a textiles merchant, mother, four brothers, and sister. He attended a private school run by the Greek Orthodox Church. Shortly after the beginning of the German occupation of Greece in 1941, sixteen year-old Leon joined a group of partisans fighting for the liberation of Greece under a socialist banner. At that time, there were three groups of partisans in Greece, socialist, democratic, and loyalist. Leon fought and served as communications specialist with the partisans for more than two years, setting up wires that wound through the trees in various villages to enable telephone communication. The partisans lived in and organized armed resistance against the German army from bases in the mountains of Greece, aided by nearby villages, British airdrops of supplies, and their own resourcefulness. They employed mostly ambush and guerrilla tactics against the German army, and the Germans in turn attempted to eliminate the partisans by destroying villages that supported them. During his more than three years with the partisans, Leon suffered hunger, lacked adequate clothing, and had virtually no contact with his family, save for a single encounter with one of his brothers who was fighting for another partisan group. At the end of the war in December 1945, Leon left the partisans and returned to his family home in Athens. Once there, he was reunited with what was left of his family and learned that his parents and brother Gabriel had died in Auschwitz during this time. Leon eventually made his way to the United States with no more than 50 cents in his pocket and settled in Baltimore, MD. He married and raised a family of three sons and one daughter, started his own clothing business, Royal Vintage Clothing. Leon passed away in April of 2013. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leon Idas' decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	513	ENGLISH	1
The story is a Victorian morality tale of an old and bitter miser, Ebenezer Scrooge, who undergoes a profound experience of redemption when he is haunted by ghosts on Christmas Eve. During the course of the night, he is visited by the spirits of "Christmas Past," "Christmas Present," and the ghost of "Christmas Yet to Come." The spirits show Scrooge moments from his life that open his eyes and make him realize that he desperately needs redemption and forgiveness from his fellow men. In the end, Scrooge changes his life and becomes a kind-hearted soul. The story deals extensively with one of Dickens' perennial themes, that of poverty, and its causes and effects. Incidentally, the first edition of A Christmas Carol was illustrated by John Leech a politically radical artist who in the cartoon Substance and Shadow printed earlier in 1843, had explicitly criticised artists who failed to address social issues. A Christmas Carol has been adapted to movies and TV countless times. According to the Internet Movie Database, various movie adaptations of the story were filmed as early as 1910. On December 25, 1939 it was read before a CBS radio audience and this marked the first time this story was transmitted over radio. The story has also been used by successive generations of movie-makers and television directors to make their own points. In particular, many sitcoms have had episodes adapting or spoofing the story. According to critics, the most popular and most enduring motion picture adaptation of the story was made in England in 1951. Originally titled Scrooge (and renamed to A Christmas Carol for its American theatrical release), it starred Alastair Sim as Scrooge, and was directed by Brian Desmond-Hurst. Other noteworthy adaptations of the story include See also Tiny Tim.	<urn:uuid:b2ea5cfc-46de-440f-bb52-3f338d49ccb1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fact-index.com/a/a_/a_christmas_carol.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00291.warc.gz	en	0.981857	361	3.3125	3	[ 0.10750074684619904, 0.093197301030159, 0.30867481231689453, -0.15913505852222443, 0.13329117000102997, 0.09776181727647781, -0.29073935747146606, -0.021566834300756454, -0.3277924060821533, 0.45644351840019226, 0.18309848010540009, 0.44072219729423523, -0.00896266009658575, 0.087517119944...	4	The story is a Victorian morality tale of an old and bitter miser, Ebenezer Scrooge, who undergoes a profound experience of redemption when he is haunted by ghosts on Christmas Eve. During the course of the night, he is visited by the spirits of "Christmas Past," "Christmas Present," and the ghost of "Christmas Yet to Come." The spirits show Scrooge moments from his life that open his eyes and make him realize that he desperately needs redemption and forgiveness from his fellow men. In the end, Scrooge changes his life and becomes a kind-hearted soul. The story deals extensively with one of Dickens' perennial themes, that of poverty, and its causes and effects. Incidentally, the first edition of A Christmas Carol was illustrated by John Leech a politically radical artist who in the cartoon Substance and Shadow printed earlier in 1843, had explicitly criticised artists who failed to address social issues. A Christmas Carol has been adapted to movies and TV countless times. According to the Internet Movie Database, various movie adaptations of the story were filmed as early as 1910. On December 25, 1939 it was read before a CBS radio audience and this marked the first time this story was transmitted over radio. The story has also been used by successive generations of movie-makers and television directors to make their own points. In particular, many sitcoms have had episodes adapting or spoofing the story. According to critics, the most popular and most enduring motion picture adaptation of the story was made in England in 1951. Originally titled Scrooge (and renamed to A Christmas Carol for its American theatrical release), it starred Alastair Sim as Scrooge, and was directed by Brian Desmond-Hurst. Other noteworthy adaptations of the story include See also Tiny Tim.	371	ENGLISH	1
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are archeological sites in Pakistan which are among the greatest achievements in the civilization of the Indus Valley. These two cities are famous for their organized, impressive, and regular layout. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were built around 2500 BC, and it is among the largest settlements of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. They are regarded as some of the earliest major cities together with Norte Chico, Minoan Crete, Mesopotamia, and Ancient Egypt. It is believed that in 1500 BC, Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned after civilization in the Indus Valley declined, and it remained largely unknown until the 1920s when it was rediscovered. Mohenjo-Daro was listed by UNESCO in 1981 as a World Heritage Site, while Harappa was submitted to the tentative list in 2004. Location Of Mohenjo-Daro Mohenjo-Daro is found in the district of Larkana on the western side of the Indus Valley in Sindh, Pakistan, and it lies between Ghaggar-Hakra River and the Indus River. It was built on a Pleistocene ridge which is located at the floodplain of the Indus Valley lying approximately 17 miles from the town of Larkana. At the time of Indus Valley civilization, the ridge was prominent because it allowed the city to stand above the floods in the surrounding area. However, over the years, the ridge has been buried by silt from flood deposits. The Indus River is still flowing to the east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra river on the Western side has dried. Location Of Harappa The Harappa is an archaeological site located in Punjab, Pakistan, lying about 15 miles west of the Sahiwal city. The name of the site is derived from the modern village found near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs 5 miles in the North. The modern Harappa village is about 0.62 miles from the ancient city. The ancient Harappa was a fortified city and lay between Punjab and Sindh. It is believed it had a population of about 23,500 people occupying an area of about 370 acres, which is considered a large city for the time. The houses in the city were built with clay bricks, and it was heavily damaged during the British rule. The bricks were taken and used as track ballast when they were constructing the Lahore Multan railway. It is believed that the two ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro began to emerge in about 2600 BC within the Indus Valley in Sindh and Punjab. It is also believed that the civilization had developed some writing system with the urban center and diversified economic and social system. The two sites were rediscovered in the 1920s when excavations were made at Mohenjo-Daro near Larkana in Sindh. At the time Harappa in the south of Lahore in Punjab was also discovered. In 1857, the Harappa archaeological site was extensively damaged during the construction of the Lahore Multan Railroad, because the bricks were used as track ballast. The bricks were made of red sand, stones, and clay which were baked at extremely high temperatures. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:5a630b02-c346-4880-bb27-a49a2ec0f480>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/where-are-the-ancient-archeological-sites-of-mohenjo-daro-and-harappa-located.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00064.warc.gz	en	0.980106	738	3.5625	4	[ -0.4686274528503418, 0.5333408117294312, 0.3307202160358429, 0.39261186122894287, -0.3832581639289856, -0.34145820140838623, 0.21629230678081512, -0.1741887331008911, -0.3646587133407593, -0.25193747878074646, 0.26305797696113586, -0.745524525642395, 0.23241394758224487, 0.3493085205554962...	2	Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are archeological sites in Pakistan which are among the greatest achievements in the civilization of the Indus Valley. These two cities are famous for their organized, impressive, and regular layout. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were built around 2500 BC, and it is among the largest settlements of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. They are regarded as some of the earliest major cities together with Norte Chico, Minoan Crete, Mesopotamia, and Ancient Egypt. It is believed that in 1500 BC, Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned after civilization in the Indus Valley declined, and it remained largely unknown until the 1920s when it was rediscovered. Mohenjo-Daro was listed by UNESCO in 1981 as a World Heritage Site, while Harappa was submitted to the tentative list in 2004. Location Of Mohenjo-Daro Mohenjo-Daro is found in the district of Larkana on the western side of the Indus Valley in Sindh, Pakistan, and it lies between Ghaggar-Hakra River and the Indus River. It was built on a Pleistocene ridge which is located at the floodplain of the Indus Valley lying approximately 17 miles from the town of Larkana. At the time of Indus Valley civilization, the ridge was prominent because it allowed the city to stand above the floods in the surrounding area. However, over the years, the ridge has been buried by silt from flood deposits. The Indus River is still flowing to the east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra river on the Western side has dried. Location Of Harappa The Harappa is an archaeological site located in Punjab, Pakistan, lying about 15 miles west of the Sahiwal city. The name of the site is derived from the modern village found near the former course of the Ravi River which now runs 5 miles in the North. The modern Harappa village is about 0.62 miles from the ancient city. The ancient Harappa was a fortified city and lay between Punjab and Sindh. It is believed it had a population of about 23,500 people occupying an area of about 370 acres, which is considered a large city for the time. The houses in the city were built with clay bricks, and it was heavily damaged during the British rule. The bricks were taken and used as track ballast when they were constructing the Lahore Multan railway. It is believed that the two ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro began to emerge in about 2600 BC within the Indus Valley in Sindh and Punjab. It is also believed that the civilization had developed some writing system with the urban center and diversified economic and social system. The two sites were rediscovered in the 1920s when excavations were made at Mohenjo-Daro near Larkana in Sindh. At the time Harappa in the south of Lahore in Punjab was also discovered. In 1857, the Harappa archaeological site was extensively damaged during the construction of the Lahore Multan Railroad, because the bricks were used as track ballast. The bricks were made of red sand, stones, and clay which were baked at extremely high temperatures. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	764	ENGLISH	1
A black history narrative. James and Mary Kendrick are a local black family who went to school in the days of segregation in the deep south of Georgia. African-American children and white children were not allowed to go to school together for quite a while before equal rights were won with the decision of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The Kendricks said that black children went to their own school but could only use the materials that the white children had already used: typewriters, books, band uniforms and even music instruments. Often times this meant that when the black children received them, they were “tattered and torn,” recalled Mrs Kendrick. Mr. Kendrick continued by saying that he would end up taking home the used instruments and “welding the joints back together” to make the instrument “sound the way it should again” for their school band. Let’s listen as James and Mary Kendrick recall a time where they went to school during segregation: Education has come a long way from the 1940s to the year 2014. Blacks and whites not only go to school together but they also work, eat, and play together. As the school systems were integrated over the years, textbooks and other materials became the same for all races. The first computers were introduced in the early 2000s, as mentioned in a previous article “Integrating Technology Into the Classroom Past to Present.” For schools to advance from the typewriter to digital technology education finally began to have level playing fields for all races. Now, in the year 2014, technology has advanced so far that more schools have begun to incorporate digital learning through iPads and other tablet devices into the classroom curriculum. 9,130 total views, no views todayby	<urn:uuid:4fa851a6-5424-4413-b4cf-81d82600a9ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amandamscisney.com/tag/family/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00220.warc.gz	en	0.983542	362	3.3125	3	[ -0.16714462637901306, -0.017598789185285568, 0.20098373293876648, -0.43205949664115906, -0.48480549454689026, 0.08317694067955017, -0.46180814504623413, -0.05591954290866852, 0.051625534892082214, 0.05793704092502594, -0.15898090600967407, 0.26023754477500916, 0.12049387395381927, 0.385986...	1	A black history narrative. James and Mary Kendrick are a local black family who went to school in the days of segregation in the deep south of Georgia. African-American children and white children were not allowed to go to school together for quite a while before equal rights were won with the decision of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The Kendricks said that black children went to their own school but could only use the materials that the white children had already used: typewriters, books, band uniforms and even music instruments. Often times this meant that when the black children received them, they were “tattered and torn,” recalled Mrs Kendrick. Mr. Kendrick continued by saying that he would end up taking home the used instruments and “welding the joints back together” to make the instrument “sound the way it should again” for their school band. Let’s listen as James and Mary Kendrick recall a time where they went to school during segregation: Education has come a long way from the 1940s to the year 2014. Blacks and whites not only go to school together but they also work, eat, and play together. As the school systems were integrated over the years, textbooks and other materials became the same for all races. The first computers were introduced in the early 2000s, as mentioned in a previous article “Integrating Technology Into the Classroom Past to Present.” For schools to advance from the typewriter to digital technology education finally began to have level playing fields for all races. Now, in the year 2014, technology has advanced so far that more schools have begun to incorporate digital learning through iPads and other tablet devices into the classroom curriculum. 9,130 total views, no views todayby	364	ENGLISH	1
Trump is not the first American President to be impeached. Others were as the following: Andrew Johnson was the US’s 17th President and he served from April 1865 to March 1869. After the latter was assassinated he was the Vice President and assumed presidency of President Abraham Lincoln. He came to power as the Civil War concluded and according to a BBC report, Johnson always sparred over how to rebuild the defeated US South. The Republicans pushed for a legislation to punish former leaders and safeguard the rights of slaves. Johnson used his presidential veto to block the Republican efforts. This led to a conflict, resulting in his impeachment by the House of Representatives. Richard Nixon served from January 1969. His near-impeachment traces back to the 1972 break-in of the Democratic Party’s headquarters in the Watergate office complex in Washington D.C. Investigations revealed that the burglars were paid by funds from Nixon’s re-election campaign. In August 1974, as the House Judiciary Committee prepared impeachment articles, Nixon was forced to launch Oval Office recordings where he was heard ordering his team to have the CIA tell the FBI to stop its investigation into the Watergate break-in. Fearing a loss of support and that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned that same month. He remains the only US President in history to have done so. Within a year of taking office Bill Clinton was with a Justice Department special prosecutor into real estate transactions and his affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted along party lines to impeach Clinton on two counts: perjury and obstruction of Congress. But in February 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Republican-controlled Senate. For the year the scandal consumed the country, the President resisted calls to resign, the BBC said in a report. However, Clinton left office with a 65 percent approval rating – the highest of any of American President since the Second World War.	<urn:uuid:326a5e0d-a395-48a9-8736-480ddc2d4854>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://carrymystyle.com/2019/12/20/presidents-were-impeached-by-the-three/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00454.warc.gz	en	0.983716	400	3.578125	4	[ 0.07699284702539444, 0.23980499804019928, 0.4868479371070862, -0.12600255012512207, 0.011919308453798294, 0.18364304304122925, -0.13467487692832947, -0.2038927972316742, 0.23096749186515808, 0.245361328125, 0.3519429564476013, 0.49911653995513916, -0.08277174085378647, 0.44709911942481995,...	2	Trump is not the first American President to be impeached. Others were as the following: Andrew Johnson was the US’s 17th President and he served from April 1865 to March 1869. After the latter was assassinated he was the Vice President and assumed presidency of President Abraham Lincoln. He came to power as the Civil War concluded and according to a BBC report, Johnson always sparred over how to rebuild the defeated US South. The Republicans pushed for a legislation to punish former leaders and safeguard the rights of slaves. Johnson used his presidential veto to block the Republican efforts. This led to a conflict, resulting in his impeachment by the House of Representatives. Richard Nixon served from January 1969. His near-impeachment traces back to the 1972 break-in of the Democratic Party’s headquarters in the Watergate office complex in Washington D.C. Investigations revealed that the burglars were paid by funds from Nixon’s re-election campaign. In August 1974, as the House Judiciary Committee prepared impeachment articles, Nixon was forced to launch Oval Office recordings where he was heard ordering his team to have the CIA tell the FBI to stop its investigation into the Watergate break-in. Fearing a loss of support and that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned that same month. He remains the only US President in history to have done so. Within a year of taking office Bill Clinton was with a Justice Department special prosecutor into real estate transactions and his affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted along party lines to impeach Clinton on two counts: perjury and obstruction of Congress. But in February 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Republican-controlled Senate. For the year the scandal consumed the country, the President resisted calls to resign, the BBC said in a report. However, Clinton left office with a 65 percent approval rating – the highest of any of American President since the Second World War.	416	ENGLISH	1
Mr Lindop: October 2019 It's been an incredible STEM week at Wrenbury Primary School as our children have experienced a huge range of science, technology, engineering and maths. From using teamwork and design skills to help solve world poverty, to making predictions and observations in early years, to even learning about the world of marine biology, we've been blown away by some incredible new experiences. On Tuesday, Key Stage 1 and 2 took on the Squashed Tomato Challenge. We heard about Suchana Mijar, a young farmer from Nepal who had to carry heavy loads to market across challenging terrain, even whilst she was pregnant. The children considered the impact that this had on Suchana and farmers like her, linking them to the Global Goals for Sustainable Development. We then learned about how engineering and technology had helped Suchana when the charity, Practical Action developed and built a rope system to transport crops and produce safely down the mountains. Then it was our turn! Key stage 2 set about designing and building their own systems to transport tomatoes. They had to travel quite a distance and we did have one or two instances of squashed tomatoes along the way. Everyone worked brilliantly in their teams, testing and redesigning if they needed to, before evaluating which system worked best. In Key stage 1, we investigated which materials would be best to wrap the tomatoes in to keep them safe on their journey. We explored a huge range of different materials and talked about their properties. Then, wrapped them up before running, hopping, skipping with, and even dropping our tomatoes. We found that cotton wool was the best material to use because it was soft and thick, but the tin foil was too rough and too thin to work, leading to some very squashed tomatoes! Our early years children have also had lots of different experiments and discoveries to make. We've been building boats out of different materials and building the strongest, tallest towers we can. We've made lots of discoveries and made some excellent predictions — already starting to think like scientists and engineers! Finally, Base 5 were also lucky enough to have a visit from a marine engineer on Tuesday. John came to speak to Base 5 about his work and gave us some wonderful demonstrations. We learnt about the different forces that act upon a boat, how to calculate the density of a material and how to change the shape of something in order to make it float. We used this knowledge to build out own boats out of just cardboard and tin-foil, with some boats, which weighed just 6 grams, being able to keep over 500g of marbles afloat. Amazing engineering, Base 5. A huge thank you to everyone who took part in STEM week, particularly parents who were able to join our assembly on Tuesday to share some of the wonderful work our children had produced. We really appreciate your support! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en... A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %... What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look...	<urn:uuid:fb11bb46-7a1c-411b-9c1e-a64ca927a40e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/stem-week.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00174.warc.gz	en	0.981035	812	3.359375	3	[ -0.33380255103111267, 0.19987565279006958, 0.05044923722743988, -0.032957397401332855, -0.0357341393828392, 0.04462442919611931, -0.1479271650314331, 0.542134165763855, -0.4440613389015198, -0.13738548755645752, 0.2862526476383209, -0.3210432529449463, 0.21354280412197113, 0.49571377038955...	1	Mr Lindop: October 2019 It's been an incredible STEM week at Wrenbury Primary School as our children have experienced a huge range of science, technology, engineering and maths. From using teamwork and design skills to help solve world poverty, to making predictions and observations in early years, to even learning about the world of marine biology, we've been blown away by some incredible new experiences. On Tuesday, Key Stage 1 and 2 took on the Squashed Tomato Challenge. We heard about Suchana Mijar, a young farmer from Nepal who had to carry heavy loads to market across challenging terrain, even whilst she was pregnant. The children considered the impact that this had on Suchana and farmers like her, linking them to the Global Goals for Sustainable Development. We then learned about how engineering and technology had helped Suchana when the charity, Practical Action developed and built a rope system to transport crops and produce safely down the mountains. Then it was our turn! Key stage 2 set about designing and building their own systems to transport tomatoes. They had to travel quite a distance and we did have one or two instances of squashed tomatoes along the way. Everyone worked brilliantly in their teams, testing and redesigning if they needed to, before evaluating which system worked best. In Key stage 1, we investigated which materials would be best to wrap the tomatoes in to keep them safe on their journey. We explored a huge range of different materials and talked about their properties. Then, wrapped them up before running, hopping, skipping with, and even dropping our tomatoes. We found that cotton wool was the best material to use because it was soft and thick, but the tin foil was too rough and too thin to work, leading to some very squashed tomatoes! Our early years children have also had lots of different experiments and discoveries to make. We've been building boats out of different materials and building the strongest, tallest towers we can. We've made lots of discoveries and made some excellent predictions — already starting to think like scientists and engineers! Finally, Base 5 were also lucky enough to have a visit from a marine engineer on Tuesday. John came to speak to Base 5 about his work and gave us some wonderful demonstrations. We learnt about the different forces that act upon a boat, how to calculate the density of a material and how to change the shape of something in order to make it float. We used this knowledge to build out own boats out of just cardboard and tin-foil, with some boats, which weighed just 6 grams, being able to keep over 500g of marbles afloat. Amazing engineering, Base 5. A huge thank you to everyone who took part in STEM week, particularly parents who were able to join our assembly on Tuesday to share some of the wonderful work our children had produced. We really appreciate your support! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en... A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %... What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look...	817	ENGLISH	1
Poetry’s Influences on the Harlem Renaissance Essay 7 months ago, Thu, Jul 4, 2019, 19:19:03 Racial equality has been the topic of many works for centuries. Many of those works weren’t written by those actually affected by inequality. During the 1920’s African Americans began to express their opinions on the issue more frequently through the arts. Poetry was among the most prominent forms of art used for spreading equality and justice. Poets like Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Claude McKay wrote many poems that spoke on equality in society. African Americans felt betrayed after the civil war.They had given their lives and after the war nothing had changed (Cartwright, “The Harlem Renaissance”). They were still not treated equal and didn’t get paid as much as any other worker. During the 1920’s they started a cultural and racial movement in Harlem, New York called the Harlem Renaissance.	<urn:uuid:4029ce32-e565-4786-a9a8-a26e3514ae85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bookmarkingbase.com/print/147293	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00026.warc.gz	en	0.981359	199	3.890625	4	[ -0.13983023166656494, 0.07775291800498962, 0.02146318554878235, 0.38512250781059265, -0.43333205580711365, 0.21547339856624603, -0.09814956039190292, 0.2198035567998886, -0.3433939218521118, 0.1019667536020279, 0.2531839609146118, 0.2974897623062134, -0.13677161931991577, 0.102108225226402...	1	Poetry’s Influences on the Harlem Renaissance Essay 7 months ago, Thu, Jul 4, 2019, 19:19:03 Racial equality has been the topic of many works for centuries. Many of those works weren’t written by those actually affected by inequality. During the 1920’s African Americans began to express their opinions on the issue more frequently through the arts. Poetry was among the most prominent forms of art used for spreading equality and justice. Poets like Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Claude McKay wrote many poems that spoke on equality in society. African Americans felt betrayed after the civil war.They had given their lives and after the war nothing had changed (Cartwright, “The Harlem Renaissance”). They were still not treated equal and didn’t get paid as much as any other worker. During the 1920’s they started a cultural and racial movement in Harlem, New York called the Harlem Renaissance.	201	ENGLISH	1
The first-ever built underground line of London still lies under the city. One hundred and fifty years after it was built, the tunnel still hasn’t been destroyed, keeping a piece of History below Londoners, MyLondon reports. Known as the Tower Subway, the tunnel was excavated in 1869. It is a quarter of a mile long and was dug to become a connection between Tower Hill, which sits north of the river, and Tooley Street, which sits south of the river. The tunnel was the first in the world to be excavated with James Greathead's 'shield' technology, which is essentially a protective structure used in tunneling, and was dug in less than a year. Before its closing in 1898, the underground would only allow 12 passengers at a time but one still had the option to buy first-class or second-class tickets. However, the trains stopped almost 20 years before, in 1870. The passage was still opened for people to walk under the city, although it was probably filled with damp, rats and criminals. Now all that remains of the tunnel above ground is a cylinder structure, a former entrance to the once busy tunnel.	<urn:uuid:2d6ef457-aac2-4670-b89a-577baef98388>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/uk-news/here-story-first-london-underground-17455139	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00322.warc.gz	en	0.984001	244	3.28125	3	[ -0.21483205258846283, -0.23309148848056793, 0.7576963901519775, 0.08095742762088776, -0.673963725566864, 0.0038782365154474974, -0.030765162780880928, -0.1575290858745575, -0.2413075864315033, -0.052316464483737946, 0.08733975887298584, -0.23721180856227875, -0.028896169736981392, 0.320220...	3	The first-ever built underground line of London still lies under the city. One hundred and fifty years after it was built, the tunnel still hasn’t been destroyed, keeping a piece of History below Londoners, MyLondon reports. Known as the Tower Subway, the tunnel was excavated in 1869. It is a quarter of a mile long and was dug to become a connection between Tower Hill, which sits north of the river, and Tooley Street, which sits south of the river. The tunnel was the first in the world to be excavated with James Greathead's 'shield' technology, which is essentially a protective structure used in tunneling, and was dug in less than a year. Before its closing in 1898, the underground would only allow 12 passengers at a time but one still had the option to buy first-class or second-class tickets. However, the trains stopped almost 20 years before, in 1870. The passage was still opened for people to walk under the city, although it was probably filled with damp, rats and criminals. Now all that remains of the tunnel above ground is a cylinder structure, a former entrance to the once busy tunnel.	247	ENGLISH	1
Next school trips: Science and Industry - 12th December 2019 Learning Outside The Classroom Year 5A have been reading and writing about Ebenezer Scrooge from The Christmas Carol. The story has been very popular and it was set in Victorian Britain. To embrace the tale, we visited Salford Museum where we were able to relive the atmosphere of the life of Victorian people which would have been in the time of Ebenezer Scrooge. We turned into Time Detectives and Artists at the Salford Museum & Art Gallery. We took a tour of Victorian Street and carried out detective work in pairs to discover how different historical sources can help us to find out how people lived in the past and what life would have been like in Victorian times. Then, we were went to art gallery where there were famous Victorian paintings were displayed on the wall with some of Victorian objects/artefacts in the glass cabinets. We had so much fun re-drawing these pictures in our very own version. We’re so fortunate and proud to have such a magnificent and historical building in our wonderful City of Salford.	<urn:uuid:498565bf-d4fe-48c1-a48f-8b65c4642e04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irkvalley.manchester.sch.uk/school-trips-and-photographs-4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00018.warc.gz	en	0.981727	233	3.328125	3	[ 0.12855055928230286, 0.2355501651763916, 0.7564222812652588, -0.0816103145480156, 0.21996384859085083, -0.09686770290136337, -0.08182210475206375, 0.2896379232406616, -0.3654022812843323, 0.23206380009651184, 0.16537903249263763, -0.0371394008398056, -0.031114468351006508, 0.21972525119781...	3	Next school trips: Science and Industry - 12th December 2019 Learning Outside The Classroom Year 5A have been reading and writing about Ebenezer Scrooge from The Christmas Carol. The story has been very popular and it was set in Victorian Britain. To embrace the tale, we visited Salford Museum where we were able to relive the atmosphere of the life of Victorian people which would have been in the time of Ebenezer Scrooge. We turned into Time Detectives and Artists at the Salford Museum & Art Gallery. We took a tour of Victorian Street and carried out detective work in pairs to discover how different historical sources can help us to find out how people lived in the past and what life would have been like in Victorian times. Then, we were went to art gallery where there were famous Victorian paintings were displayed on the wall with some of Victorian objects/artefacts in the glass cabinets. We had so much fun re-drawing these pictures in our very own version. We’re so fortunate and proud to have such a magnificent and historical building in our wonderful City of Salford.	232	ENGLISH	1
French physician René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec invented the stethoscope. It helped doctors listen to the sounds of patients’ bodies. Laennec began his medical studies with his uncle, a doctor in Nantes, but the French Revolution interrupted his training. He served as a medical cadet in the revolutionary army before moving to Paris in 1801 to continue studying. Laennec was an outstanding student, receiving several prizes, and had a gift for pathological anatomy. His teacher Corvisart introduced him to the diagnostic technique of percussion, which Corvisart had learned about from a publication by Austrian physician Auenbrugger. Laennec’s political conservatism long prevented his appointment to a prestigious academic post. It took until the French monarchy was restored in 1815 for him to receive a position at the Necker Hospital, and later at the Paris Medical School. Laennec made an observation around 1816 which changed diagnosis history. He was consulted by a young female patient with heart problems. Laennec considered it improper to listen to her heart by putting his head on her chest. Instead he rolled a piece of paper into an elongated tube. He placed one end on the patient’s chest and the other at his own ear. The tube communicated the sounds of the heart, and so helped him diagnose his patient without jeopardising her modesty. He subsequently developed a robust wooden tube to replace the paper tube, calling it the stethoscope. The instrument helped doctors diagnose by supporting their natural sense of hearing. It also supported Laennec’s belief that diseases are caused by pathological alterations, so-called ‘lesions’, located in specific parts of the body.	<urn:uuid:9343f7e4-e969-41a5-b85c-f8e804acd0de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tracesdefrance.fr/2019/11/23/rene-theophile-hyacinthe-laennec-1781-1826/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00516.warc.gz	en	0.982943	352	3.609375	4	[ 0.12200705707073212, 0.2693658173084259, 0.3294728994369507, -0.3634791672229767, -0.402208149433136, -0.20487558841705322, 0.48181021213531494, 0.4102098047733307, -0.19293752312660217, 0.21353206038475037, -0.028622152283787727, -0.3775339126586914, 0.050699178129434586, 0.14263072609901...	4	French physician René Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec invented the stethoscope. It helped doctors listen to the sounds of patients’ bodies. Laennec began his medical studies with his uncle, a doctor in Nantes, but the French Revolution interrupted his training. He served as a medical cadet in the revolutionary army before moving to Paris in 1801 to continue studying. Laennec was an outstanding student, receiving several prizes, and had a gift for pathological anatomy. His teacher Corvisart introduced him to the diagnostic technique of percussion, which Corvisart had learned about from a publication by Austrian physician Auenbrugger. Laennec’s political conservatism long prevented his appointment to a prestigious academic post. It took until the French monarchy was restored in 1815 for him to receive a position at the Necker Hospital, and later at the Paris Medical School. Laennec made an observation around 1816 which changed diagnosis history. He was consulted by a young female patient with heart problems. Laennec considered it improper to listen to her heart by putting his head on her chest. Instead he rolled a piece of paper into an elongated tube. He placed one end on the patient’s chest and the other at his own ear. The tube communicated the sounds of the heart, and so helped him diagnose his patient without jeopardising her modesty. He subsequently developed a robust wooden tube to replace the paper tube, calling it the stethoscope. The instrument helped doctors diagnose by supporting their natural sense of hearing. It also supported Laennec’s belief that diseases are caused by pathological alterations, so-called ‘lesions’, located in specific parts of the body.	348	ENGLISH	1
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation Biography of Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman was born in 1820 on a big plantation in Dorchester County, Maryland. She was the sixth of eleven kids. She had been born at a really little on-room log hut, which was situated behind her families owners dwelling. The huthad a dirt floor, no windows, and no furniture. Her fater, Benjamin Ross, and mom, Harriet Green, were both slaves. They were out of the Ashanti ribe of West Africa. Edward Brodas, Harriet's owner, hired her out as a laborer by the age of five. The buying and selling of humans was a huge deal in the united states between the late 1600's and the 1800's. By 1835 there were two thousand black men, women, and children that were slaves. These individuals were bought and sold. No one cared for husbands and wives obtained weparated or if children were separated from their parents. Slaves weren't treated like people. Nobody actually cared what happend to them. Harriet was beaten by her masters all the time. They watched as a wild child. One tiem, Harriet saw a bowl filled with lumps of suger and decided to take one. Harriet's mistress, Miss.. Susan, saw her take it started chasing her with a whip. Harriet ran off and hid out with the pigs. She ahd to go bakc, since she was really hungrey. When she went she got whipped over and over again. She explained, "Now you understand , I never needed anything great, no candies, no suger, and that sugar right by me did seem nice." By her early teens, Harriet was no longer permitted to work inside, so she was hired as a registered hand. She work very hard and long hours out in the fields. There was not any such thing as a break for slaves. In 1835, Harriet came between her owner and a slave who was running away. The owner drove a lead weight, that weighed 2 punds, in the runaway, but it hit Harriet instead. The hit placed hir in a coma and it took months for her to recover. She never fully recovered from the strike and following that suffered from blackouts, really bad headaches, and sleeping spelss for the rest of her lifetime. In 1844, Harriet meet a free black man named John Tubman. They have married, but Harriet was still a servant. They got to stay in his cottage at night. Harriet's owner died and she knew she was going to be offered to somebody else. She was really afraid of being sent to the deep south. The deep south has been the worse p.. .	<urn:uuid:b46301f4-d0f3-4b74-9776-a444ea1747bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/biology/1015962/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00220.warc.gz	en	0.991853	563	3.296875	3	[ -0.13499990105628967, 0.24888229370117188, 0.47118425369262695, 0.05801951885223389, 0.1655634045600891, -0.09560398757457733, 0.1174873560667038, -0.00923965871334076, -0.36840903759002686, 0.16777406632900238, 0.38393911719322205, -0.10764660686254501, 0.03228190541267395, 0.036511965095...	1	Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation Biography of Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman was born in 1820 on a big plantation in Dorchester County, Maryland. She was the sixth of eleven kids. She had been born at a really little on-room log hut, which was situated behind her families owners dwelling. The huthad a dirt floor, no windows, and no furniture. Her fater, Benjamin Ross, and mom, Harriet Green, were both slaves. They were out of the Ashanti ribe of West Africa. Edward Brodas, Harriet's owner, hired her out as a laborer by the age of five. The buying and selling of humans was a huge deal in the united states between the late 1600's and the 1800's. By 1835 there were two thousand black men, women, and children that were slaves. These individuals were bought and sold. No one cared for husbands and wives obtained weparated or if children were separated from their parents. Slaves weren't treated like people. Nobody actually cared what happend to them. Harriet was beaten by her masters all the time. They watched as a wild child. One tiem, Harriet saw a bowl filled with lumps of suger and decided to take one. Harriet's mistress, Miss.. Susan, saw her take it started chasing her with a whip. Harriet ran off and hid out with the pigs. She ahd to go bakc, since she was really hungrey. When she went she got whipped over and over again. She explained, "Now you understand , I never needed anything great, no candies, no suger, and that sugar right by me did seem nice." By her early teens, Harriet was no longer permitted to work inside, so she was hired as a registered hand. She work very hard and long hours out in the fields. There was not any such thing as a break for slaves. In 1835, Harriet came between her owner and a slave who was running away. The owner drove a lead weight, that weighed 2 punds, in the runaway, but it hit Harriet instead. The hit placed hir in a coma and it took months for her to recover. She never fully recovered from the strike and following that suffered from blackouts, really bad headaches, and sleeping spelss for the rest of her lifetime. In 1844, Harriet meet a free black man named John Tubman. They have married, but Harriet was still a servant. They got to stay in his cottage at night. Harriet's owner died and she knew she was going to be offered to somebody else. She was really afraid of being sent to the deep south. The deep south has been the worse p.. .	590	ENGLISH	1
Sometimes the decision of an individual can make all the difference. Febb Burns knew what she wanted, and what she wanted was the right to vote. A college-educated white woman, she yearned to do what her white male neighbors in East Tennessee did every election day. But while she did not have that right, her son, Harry, did—not just as a citizen, but as a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives. The last to vote on ratification of the 19th Amendment, the body was closely divided between “yea” and “nay.” Even though Harry wore a red rose signifying opposition, he also carried with him a letter from his mother urging him to support the amendment. Listening to his mother and his conscience, vote “yea” he did, knowingly risking his seat. Boxer tells the story succinctly, clearly drawing the political lines so that young readers will understand the dynamics. Mildenberger’s inclusion of a few black women among those demonstrating for the vote reflects the historical reality that black women were part of the suffrage movement, but it also implies greater equality than truly existed, compounding Boxer’s elision of the fact that Jim Crow laws denied African Americans, both male and female, the vote. Irritatingly, though an illustration includes part of what is presumably Febb’s letter, that those were her words is never confirmed. An inspiring though incomplete look at a critical historical moment. (author’s note, timeline) (Informational picture book. 5-8)	<urn:uuid:5e73c6c0-ee6a-4420-b260-efa9f18fc86d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/elisa-boxer/the-voice-that-won-the-vote/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00114.warc.gz	en	0.98165	328	3.671875	4	[ -0.43131303787231445, 0.2098730504512787, 0.21754691004753113, -0.05299663543701172, -0.21783007681369781, 0.47652527689933777, 0.37198394536972046, -0.10623142123222351, -0.151112362742424, 0.34102216362953186, 0.17477324604988098, 0.17970715463161469, 0.021722888574004173, -0.09114593267...	1	Sometimes the decision of an individual can make all the difference. Febb Burns knew what she wanted, and what she wanted was the right to vote. A college-educated white woman, she yearned to do what her white male neighbors in East Tennessee did every election day. But while she did not have that right, her son, Harry, did—not just as a citizen, but as a member of the Tennessee House of Representatives. The last to vote on ratification of the 19th Amendment, the body was closely divided between “yea” and “nay.” Even though Harry wore a red rose signifying opposition, he also carried with him a letter from his mother urging him to support the amendment. Listening to his mother and his conscience, vote “yea” he did, knowingly risking his seat. Boxer tells the story succinctly, clearly drawing the political lines so that young readers will understand the dynamics. Mildenberger’s inclusion of a few black women among those demonstrating for the vote reflects the historical reality that black women were part of the suffrage movement, but it also implies greater equality than truly existed, compounding Boxer’s elision of the fact that Jim Crow laws denied African Americans, both male and female, the vote. Irritatingly, though an illustration includes part of what is presumably Febb’s letter, that those were her words is never confirmed. An inspiring though incomplete look at a critical historical moment. (author’s note, timeline) (Informational picture book. 5-8)	310	ENGLISH	1
Hitler dropped out of school and moved to be a laborer and watercolors painter. After being denied the acceptance into the Academy of Fine Arts twice Doll moved into a homeless shelter. Without any money he remained there for many years. This is thought of when he first had Anti-Semitism ideas. Hitler signed up to serve in the German army when World War 1 broke out. He was wounded at Some and was also awarded the iron cross. When the war effort ended he was furious and stunned that Germany surrendered. Fighting in the war only grew his nationalism toward Germany. He blamed the surrender of the war on the betrayal of civilian leaders and the Marxist. While working for the military intelligence officer he inherited many of the anti-Semitic, nationalist, and anti-Marxist ideas from the TAP party’s founder, Anton Drexel. He soon Joined the German Worker’s Party (TAP) and personally designed the banner, a swastika in a white circle on a red background. Doll Hitler then went around making speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, Marxist and Jews. Hitler made many promises to the country of Germany in order to come to power. Don’t waste your time! Order your assignment! Most of the promises he made, he did not keep. Germany’s extreme depression created a great platform for him to gain power. At this time the people wanted somebody to come to power to fix their problems. Hitler said that he could help the people of Germany and promised them all relief. He also promised Jobs for the unemployed and a market for the farmer’s goods. Hitler began to appeal to people’s emotions instead of their reason. The people of Germany heard what they wanted to hear and ignored the violence of the Nazi party. He told the people that Germany’s problems were caused by corrupt Laotians, communists, and Jews, and if they got rid of these people that the economy would become better. His beer hall speeches attracted bigger and bigger audiences. These speeches were protected by the Streamlining. The Streamlining (AS) was the muscle of the party. Their intimidating, violent ways kept the people from acting out against the party. This was done publicly so people knew what would happen if they acted out. Hitler ran for presidency in 1932 against Hindering. Hitler lost the election but gain popularity in German politics. Due to his, Hindering made Doll the chancellor of Germany. Here he made many laws that Just gave the government more and more power over the people. He gained full control over legislative and executive branches. Other parties were scared to fight against Hitler so the Nazis became the only legal political party in Germany. Military opposition was also punished during the Night of Long Knives. Ernst Room, other AS leaders and political enemies were rounded up and shot. Hitler then became the head of the government due to abolishing the office of president and combining its rowers with those of the chancellor. Doll created a fascism government in which he controlled all the power. He became the supreme commander of the armed forces and began to mobile for war. The military quickly grew from a massive expansion. The government was also changing to the Nazi regime which included social reform measures. New laws were created that banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and deprived “non-Aryans” of the benefits of German citizenship. He also targeted mentally and physically disabled children and adults. There was non a search for all Jews in Europe during WWW. The Jews were sent to concentration and extermination camps were they were treated incredibly harsh and were killed in mass executions. Other “imperfect” citizens also were sent to concentration camps such as Poles, communists, homosexuals, and others. At the end of World War 2 a total of 6,000,000 people were killed in German concentration camps. While this was happening the German people Just turned their back like they had no idea what was happening. Doll Hitler was Time magazine’s Man of the Year for 1938, for creating the Munich Agreement. This agreement ceded the Sutherland districts to Germany, reversing part of the Versailles Treaty. Shortly after this Germany invaded Poland, thus Britain and France declared war on Germany creating World War 2. After his army was pushed back into Germany, Hitler knew that he wouldn’t win the war. While Allied troops surrounded Berlin where Doll was hiding, he committed suicide. He didn’t want himself to be captured by enemy hands after being informed about the execution of Mussolini. Hitter’s political program left all of Europe in a trail of destruction and Germany devastated. His policies created an amazing amount of human suffering and also the dead of 40 million people, 27 million of these deaths were from the Soviet Union. Hitler ‘s death declared the end of a horrible time in Germany and also the defeat of fascism. A democracy is so much better than a dictatorship. There are many differences between the two types of government. The major difference is in the daily lives of the people. In a free society people are free to accomplish whatever they desire. The people have the freedom to be a great athlete or search what you want on the internet. In a dictatorship the government controls everything. They censor stuff on the internet that would go against a dictatorship or provoke a free society. The people in a dictatorship have no say in the government due to that fact that all the power is kept to one individual, unlike a democracy where the people are governed by the people. The laws in dictatorships can get a little out of hand and lawless because there isn’t anyone to vote on them. Law enforcement then becomes very brutal and violent to show the power of the dictatorship to the people. That is why I believe a free society is an amazing thing.	<urn:uuid:ac8acb55-62ab-4afd-a482-af288da9f652>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://anyassignment.com/history/adolf-hitler-assignment-47096/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00339.warc.gz	en	0.985232	1,190	3.59375	4	[ -0.5171648263931274, 0.6669526100158691, -0.02509266510605812, 0.03465195745229721, -0.06313169747591019, 0.25669893622398376, -0.004895295016467571, 0.04814533144235611, 0.1327861249446869, -0.22919583320617676, 0.3090815842151642, -0.05146137997508049, 0.25174689292907715, 0.310033857822...	3	Hitler dropped out of school and moved to be a laborer and watercolors painter. After being denied the acceptance into the Academy of Fine Arts twice Doll moved into a homeless shelter. Without any money he remained there for many years. This is thought of when he first had Anti-Semitism ideas. Hitler signed up to serve in the German army when World War 1 broke out. He was wounded at Some and was also awarded the iron cross. When the war effort ended he was furious and stunned that Germany surrendered. Fighting in the war only grew his nationalism toward Germany. He blamed the surrender of the war on the betrayal of civilian leaders and the Marxist. While working for the military intelligence officer he inherited many of the anti-Semitic, nationalist, and anti-Marxist ideas from the TAP party’s founder, Anton Drexel. He soon Joined the German Worker’s Party (TAP) and personally designed the banner, a swastika in a white circle on a red background. Doll Hitler then went around making speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, Marxist and Jews. Hitler made many promises to the country of Germany in order to come to power. Don’t waste your time! Order your assignment! Most of the promises he made, he did not keep. Germany’s extreme depression created a great platform for him to gain power. At this time the people wanted somebody to come to power to fix their problems. Hitler said that he could help the people of Germany and promised them all relief. He also promised Jobs for the unemployed and a market for the farmer’s goods. Hitler began to appeal to people’s emotions instead of their reason. The people of Germany heard what they wanted to hear and ignored the violence of the Nazi party. He told the people that Germany’s problems were caused by corrupt Laotians, communists, and Jews, and if they got rid of these people that the economy would become better. His beer hall speeches attracted bigger and bigger audiences. These speeches were protected by the Streamlining. The Streamlining (AS) was the muscle of the party. Their intimidating, violent ways kept the people from acting out against the party. This was done publicly so people knew what would happen if they acted out. Hitler ran for presidency in 1932 against Hindering. Hitler lost the election but gain popularity in German politics. Due to his, Hindering made Doll the chancellor of Germany. Here he made many laws that Just gave the government more and more power over the people. He gained full control over legislative and executive branches. Other parties were scared to fight against Hitler so the Nazis became the only legal political party in Germany. Military opposition was also punished during the Night of Long Knives. Ernst Room, other AS leaders and political enemies were rounded up and shot. Hitler then became the head of the government due to abolishing the office of president and combining its rowers with those of the chancellor. Doll created a fascism government in which he controlled all the power. He became the supreme commander of the armed forces and began to mobile for war. The military quickly grew from a massive expansion. The government was also changing to the Nazi regime which included social reform measures. New laws were created that banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and deprived “non-Aryans” of the benefits of German citizenship. He also targeted mentally and physically disabled children and adults. There was non a search for all Jews in Europe during WWW. The Jews were sent to concentration and extermination camps were they were treated incredibly harsh and were killed in mass executions. Other “imperfect” citizens also were sent to concentration camps such as Poles, communists, homosexuals, and others. At the end of World War 2 a total of 6,000,000 people were killed in German concentration camps. While this was happening the German people Just turned their back like they had no idea what was happening. Doll Hitler was Time magazine’s Man of the Year for 1938, for creating the Munich Agreement. This agreement ceded the Sutherland districts to Germany, reversing part of the Versailles Treaty. Shortly after this Germany invaded Poland, thus Britain and France declared war on Germany creating World War 2. After his army was pushed back into Germany, Hitler knew that he wouldn’t win the war. While Allied troops surrounded Berlin where Doll was hiding, he committed suicide. He didn’t want himself to be captured by enemy hands after being informed about the execution of Mussolini. Hitter’s political program left all of Europe in a trail of destruction and Germany devastated. His policies created an amazing amount of human suffering and also the dead of 40 million people, 27 million of these deaths were from the Soviet Union. Hitler ‘s death declared the end of a horrible time in Germany and also the defeat of fascism. A democracy is so much better than a dictatorship. There are many differences between the two types of government. The major difference is in the daily lives of the people. In a free society people are free to accomplish whatever they desire. The people have the freedom to be a great athlete or search what you want on the internet. In a dictatorship the government controls everything. They censor stuff on the internet that would go against a dictatorship or provoke a free society. The people in a dictatorship have no say in the government due to that fact that all the power is kept to one individual, unlike a democracy where the people are governed by the people. The laws in dictatorships can get a little out of hand and lawless because there isn’t anyone to vote on them. Law enforcement then becomes very brutal and violent to show the power of the dictatorship to the people. That is why I believe a free society is an amazing thing.	1,169	ENGLISH	1
In Early Modern The european countries festivals were the setting for heroes and their tales, to be recognized by the human population. They asked a change off their everyday life. In those days people lived in remembrance of 1 festival and expectance with the next. Different kinds of festivals had been celebrated in different ways. There are festivals that marked an individual occasion and weren’t part of the festival work schedule, like family members festivals including weddings and christenings. A lot of took place at the same time every year and ere for everyone, like community festivals like the different saints’ days. Pilgrimages took place month in month out. Annuals conventions like Holiday and Midsummer always came about on the same day time every year. Just the average village in American Europe celebrated at least 17 festivals annually, certainly not counting family members occasions and saints’ days. Some conventions, such as Carnival, lasted several days or perhaps sometimes even many weeks. In the Netherlands Carnival started out every year in the 11th of November (St. Martin) and culminated within a big event of ‘Dranck, pleijsier ende vrouwen’ (Drink, fun and women) at the end with the Carnival eriod, preceding the time of Given. Festivals were meant to take those minds of the people off their everyday activities, off the hard times and their operate. Everyday life in Early Modern The european union was stuffed with rituals, equally religious and secular. Songs and tales played a significant role within their lives, even though sometimes tweaked the details from the legends and stories to fit the way they thought a certain festivity should take place. Popular culture was combined with ecclesiastical culture in many ways. The storyplot of St . John the Baptist is a good example of this. The old ritual farrenheit bathing and lighting fire during Midsummer’s Eve was a remnant of your ritual from your pre-Christian period. Fire and water, emblems of filter, could be known as the tools of St . David the Baptist, and therefore a combination of the two components of popular and ecclesiastical culture was evident. It looks like the Old Church overtook the celebration and made it theirs. A similar thing happened to the Midwinter Festivity, which started to be linked with the birth of Christ, on twenty-five December. There are plenty of more cases to be found, including the connection between St . Matn and geese caused by the simple fact that the St Martins Day time (11 November) coincided with the period where the people accustomed to kill their very own geese inside the period preceding the Christian period. Carnival plays a unique role in popular traditions in Early Modern Europe. It is a great example of a festival of images and texts. It absolutely was a popular festivity, taking on distinct forms in various regions of The european countries. Aside from local variations, these types of differences were also caused by factors such as the climate, the politics situation as well as the economical condition in an area. On a entire Carnival were only available in late Dec or early on January and reached ts peak upon approaching Loaned. The actual party, taking place towards the end of the joyous period, could take days and would usually involve lots of food and drinks. The festival happened in the open air flow in the centre of your town or perhaps city. Within a region, just how Carnival was celebrated varied from area to community. The celebration was a perform, with the pavements as a stage and the persons as celebrities and spectators. They often portrayed everyday life views and made fun of them. Relaxed events occurred throughout the Carnival period. There was clearly massive eating and drinking, as a way of ‘stocking up’ for Lent. People did and danced in the pavements, using the special songs of Carnival, and folks wore goggles and fancy-dress. There was mental aggression, insults were traded and satirical verses were sung. More formally set ups events were concentrated in the last days of the Carnival period. These incidents took locations in the central squares and were generally organised simply by clubs or perhaps fraternities. The key theme during Carnival was usually ‘The World Benefit Down’. Scenarios got turned around. It was a great enactment on the planet turned the other way up. Men decked out as girls, women decked out as guys, the abundant traded places with the poor, etc . There were physical reversal: people standing on their heads, horses heading backwards and fishes traveling. There was change of relationships between person and beast: the horses shoeing the master or maybe the fish ingesting the angler. The additional reversal is that of interactions between men: servants offering orders with their masters or perhaps men feeding children while their wives worked the fields. Many events centered on the determine of ‘Carnival’, often depicted as a fat man, cheerful and surrounded by food. The figure of ‘Lent’, pertaining to contrast, often took the form of a slender, old female, dressed in grayscale hung with fish. These types of depictions various in form and brand in the diverse regions in Europe. A recurring factor was the efficiency of a play, usually a farce. Make fun of battles were also a favourite pass-time during the Carnival period. Carnival usually ended with the beat of ‘Carnival’ by ‘Lent’. This could happen in the form of the mock trial and performance of ‘Carnival’, (Bologna, Italy, 16th century), the beheading of a this halloween (Venice, Italy), or the burial of a sardine (Madrid, Spain). So what was your meaning of Carnival in Early Modern The european countries? Was it merely an excuse for the populace to go crazy or did Carnival have a deeper eaning hidden at the rear of the act of meals, violence and sex? Carnival was a holiday break, a game. It was a time of ecstasy and liberation. The form was dependant on three major themes: foodstuff, sex and violence. It absolutely was the time of indulgence, of abundance. It had been also a moments of intense sexual activity ” furniture of the in season movement of conceptions in 18th century France show a top around Feb. Carnival was also a festivity of hostility, destruction and desecration. It had been the ideal time for you to insult or perhaps pester individuals that had wronged someone, frequently in the form of a mock battle of a football match. An occasion for settling old grudges. Serious violence was not prevented and in the majority of areas the rates of significant crimes and killings proceeded to go up during Carnival. It had been also a time of opposition, in more than one of many ways. It compared the ecclesiastical ritual of Lent. Lent was a period of fasting and abstinence coming from all things appreciated by the persons, not just drink and food but also sex and recreation. The elements that had been taken out of lifestyle during Given were emphasised during Carnival. All that was portrayed by the figures of ‘Carnival’ and ‘Lent’ (fat versus thin). Carnival was polysemous, which means different things to be able to people in ifferent areas. In different regions, different characters were celebrated. Sometimes components were absorbed from other regions. Carnival would not have the same importance all over The european union. In the north of Europe (Britain, Scandinavia) it was significantly less important than in the rest of Europe. This was probably partially due to the climate which frustrated an elaborate streets festival during that time of the year. In these parts, people preferred to complex the festivals during the Midsummer festival (St. John’s Eve). Two reasons for this are the pagan survivals that were more robust in these parts, partly since they were solated from the associated with Europe as a result of geographical obstacles, causing a smaller ecclesiastical effect, and the climatic situation as stated before. Carnival was obviously a festival in extremis, although elements of Carnival can be found in just about every festival that was celebrated in Early Modern day Europe. Through the harvest season, all over Europe festivals and rituals were hosted. The harvesting was commemorated, again, with elaborate drinking and ingesting, although in a more moderate method than the Carnival celebrations. These festival got one thing in accordance: they provided the people a getaway from their everyday life and a way to express themselves. That offered the folks a way to port their problems and some kind of entertainment. Conventions were an escape from their fight to earn a living. These people were something to look forward to and were a celebration of the community and a display of its capacity to put on a great show. It is known that the mocking of outsiders (the neighbouring village or perhaps Jews) and animals may be seen as a dramatic expression of community solidarity. Some rituals might be seen as an form of interpersonal control, in this way that it was a means for a community to express all their discontent with certain embers of the community (charivari). The ritual of public consequence can be seen in this kind of light, as it was used to deter people from committing criminal offenses. Professor Utmost Gluckman applied the Photography equipment popular culture to explain the social function of the habit of reversal of functions as it happened during rituals as Carnival. Similar rituals still take place in certain parts in The african continent. Gluckman clarifies this routine as an emphasis of certain guidelines and taboos through working out with them for a certain time frame. The noticeable protests resistant to the social purchase were meant to preserve and in many cases to trengthen the established order. Being a counter example Gluckman claims that: inch? in locations where the social order can be seriously questioned, ‘rites of protest’ will not occur. Riots and rebellions frequently took place during major celebrations. Rebels and rioters utilized rituals and symbols to legitimise their very own actions. Inhibitions against articulating hostility on the authorities or perhaps individuals were weakened by the excitement with the festival and the consumption of large quantities of alcohol. If perhaps those factors were put together with discontent more than a bad pick, tax raises or additional calamities, this ituation could get out of control. It could prove a good opportunity for persons excluded from power to try and enforce certain changes. It truly is hardly astonishing that members of the uppr classes often suggested that one festivals must be abolished. That they felt endangered by the human population who during festivals tried to revolt against the ruling classes and change the economical situation they were in. The change of popular festivals was instigated by the will of some of the ‘educated’ to change the attitudes and values with the rest of the inhabitants ( to enhance them). This kind of reformation got on several forms in various regions and it took place at several moments over time. There were also differences in the practices which were being reformed. Catholics and Protestants opposed to different portions of popular celebrations and they did so for different factors. Even inside the Protestant movement, the opinions towards reformation of festivals and popular rituals different. Missionaries upon both sides performed in Europe to install their religious values in the local persons. Reformers in both sides objected in particular to certain factors in well-known religion. Celebrations were component to popular religious beliefs or were at least disguised a muslim popular religion. The event of Martinmas (11 November) was a very good example of this. What were the objections of the government bodies against these elements of well-liked culture generally speaking and well-known religion particularly? There were two essential religious objections. Firstly, the majority of conventions were seen while remnants of ancient paganism. Secondly, the festivals presented the people an occasion to over-indulge in wrong or questionable behaviour, at many occasions attacking the establishment (both ecclesiastical and civil). The first objection meant that reformers disliked a lot of the popular traditions because they contained remnants of historic customs online dating from pre-Christian times. Simple reformers went very far in their objections, even denouncing a number of Catholic rituals as being pre-Christian survivals, considering the new orleans saints as successors of pagan gods and heroes, taking over their curative and defensive functions. Magic was likewise considered a pagan remnant: the Protestants accused the Catholics of practising a pagan ritual by claiming that certain holy places held magical forces and could remedy people. The reformers denounced the rituals they missed fitting as being irreverent and blasphemous. Carnival and the charivaris were deemed “the work of the devil, because it manufactured a mockery of specific godly elements the Cathedral held holy. The reformers thought people who didn’t honor God inside their way to become heathen, condemned to spend their particular afterlife in eternal damning. Flamboyance was to be chased out of all religious areas of culture, and, where possible, out of most other aspects of life, in line with the Protestant doctrine. In some areas, gesturing during church services was banned, as was laughter. These things looked as irreverent, making a mockery of faith. All these changes were presented in order to produce a sharper separating between the ‘sacred’ and the ‘profane’. The ecclesiastical authorities had been out to eliminate the traditional familiarity with the almost holy because “familiarity breeds irreverence. The doubt against popular recreations been a result of the idea that we were holding ‘vanities’, displeasing God mainly because they were a waste of time and money and distracted persons from going to church. This objection was shared by both the ecclesiastical and detrimental authorities. These mainly bjected because it diverted the people from their function, which in turn damaged the revenues of the leading upper classes, or from the other activities that had been benefiting the rich, factors that would change per region. Catholic and Protestant reformers were not similarly hostile to popular tradition, nor had been they aggressive for quite the same factors. Protestant reformers were even more radical, denouncing festivals since relics of popery and searching to abolish feast-days as well as the feast installed with it, because that they considered the new orleans saints that were famous during these celebrations as remains of a pre-Christian era. Several of these Protestant reformers were equally radical in their attacks upon holy images, which they considered ‘idols’. Throughout the end with the 16th and the first half the 17th 100 years Dutch chapels were pillaged by Protestants trying to damage all religious relics and images (de Beeldenstorm). Catholic reformers were more modified inside their actions, that they tried to reach a certain customization of well-liked religious traditions, even planning to adapt specific elements towards the Catholic way of worshipping and incorporating well-liked elements into their religion. They will insisted that some in the past it was holier than others, and so they id object to the expand to which the holy days were celebrated with drink and food. Some contended that it was difficult to follow the rituals of Given with proper reverence and devotion if they had indulged in Carnival right before. Catholic reformers also set up rules to be able to regulate particular popular festivals and rituals, such as a prohibition on going to the party as a member with the clergy during Carnival or maybe a prohibition in dancing or performing plays in chapels or churchyards. Contrary to the Protestant reformers however , the Catholic reformers would not set out to eliminate estivals and rituals entirely. Civil government bodies had their own reasons to target to well-liked festivals at the begining of Modern The european union. Apart from taking the people faraway from work or perhaps other obligations, the regulators feared that during the time of a festival, the abundance of alcohol may stir in the feelings of discontent the individuals had been hiding all all year round. Misery and alcohol created a dangerous blend that would give people the courage they needed to rebel against government bodies. This was a good reason for the authorities in an attempt to stop, at least control, well-known festivals.	<urn:uuid:b6b8a196-cb60-4f26-8458-2d3ce8bafecb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://e-vocable.com/23164966-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00335.warc.gz	en	0.983262	3,340	3.390625	3	[ 0.32648685574531555, 0.4919097125530243, 0.3239263892173767, -0.17747697234153748, -0.03376404568552971, -0.02829672023653984, -0.1606484353542328, -0.015031027607619762, 0.028281325474381447, -0.03969521448016167, -0.13395166397094727, 0.6581958532333374, 0.0761399120092392, 0.02137195318...	5	In Early Modern The european countries festivals were the setting for heroes and their tales, to be recognized by the human population. They asked a change off their everyday life. In those days people lived in remembrance of 1 festival and expectance with the next. Different kinds of festivals had been celebrated in different ways. There are festivals that marked an individual occasion and weren’t part of the festival work schedule, like family members festivals including weddings and christenings. A lot of took place at the same time every year and ere for everyone, like community festivals like the different saints’ days. Pilgrimages took place month in month out. Annuals conventions like Holiday and Midsummer always came about on the same day time every year. Just the average village in American Europe celebrated at least 17 festivals annually, certainly not counting family members occasions and saints’ days. Some conventions, such as Carnival, lasted several days or perhaps sometimes even many weeks. In the Netherlands Carnival started out every year in the 11th of November (St. Martin) and culminated within a big event of ‘Dranck, pleijsier ende vrouwen’ (Drink, fun and women) at the end with the Carnival eriod, preceding the time of Given. Festivals were meant to take those minds of the people off their everyday activities, off the hard times and their operate. Everyday life in Early Modern The european union was stuffed with rituals, equally religious and secular. Songs and tales played a significant role within their lives, even though sometimes tweaked the details from the legends and stories to fit the way they thought a certain festivity should take place. Popular culture was combined with ecclesiastical culture in many ways. The storyplot of St . John the Baptist is a good example of this. The old ritual farrenheit bathing and lighting fire during Midsummer’s Eve was a remnant of your ritual from your pre-Christian period. Fire and water, emblems of filter, could be known as the tools of St . David the Baptist, and therefore a combination of the two components of popular and ecclesiastical culture was evident. It looks like the Old Church overtook the celebration and made it theirs. A similar thing happened to the Midwinter Festivity, which started to be linked with the birth of Christ, on twenty-five December. There are plenty of more cases to be found, including the connection between St . Matn and geese caused by the simple fact that the St Martins Day time (11 November) coincided with the period where the people accustomed to kill their very own geese inside the period preceding the Christian period. Carnival plays a unique role in popular traditions in Early Modern Europe. It is a great example of a festival of images and texts. It absolutely was a popular festivity, taking on distinct forms in various regions of The european countries. Aside from local variations, these types of differences were also caused by factors such as the climate, the politics situation as well as the economical condition in an area. On a entire Carnival were only available in late Dec or early on January and reached ts peak upon approaching Loaned. The actual party, taking place towards the end of the joyous period, could take days and would usually involve lots of food and drinks. The festival happened in the open air flow in the centre of your town or perhaps city. Within a region, just how Carnival was celebrated varied from area to community. The celebration was a perform, with the pavements as a stage and the persons as celebrities and spectators. They often portrayed everyday life views and made fun of them. Relaxed events occurred throughout the Carnival period. There was clearly massive eating and drinking, as a way of ‘stocking up’ for Lent. People did and danced in the pavements, using the special songs of Carnival, and folks wore goggles and fancy-dress. There was mental aggression, insults were traded and satirical verses were sung. More formally set ups events were concentrated in the last days of the Carnival period. These incidents took locations in the central squares and were generally organised simply by clubs or perhaps fraternities. The key theme during Carnival was usually ‘The World Benefit Down’. Scenarios got turned around. It was a great enactment on the planet turned the other way up. Men decked out as girls, women decked out as guys, the abundant traded places with the poor, etc . There were physical reversal: people standing on their heads, horses heading backwards and fishes traveling. There was change of relationships between person and beast: the horses shoeing the master or maybe the fish ingesting the angler. The additional reversal is that of interactions between men: servants offering orders with their masters or perhaps men feeding children while their wives worked the fields. Many events centered on the determine of ‘Carnival’, often depicted as a fat man, cheerful and surrounded by food. The figure of ‘Lent’, pertaining to contrast, often took the form of a slender, old female, dressed in grayscale hung with fish. These types of depictions various in form and brand in the diverse regions in Europe. A recurring factor was the efficiency of a play, usually a farce. Make fun of battles were also a favourite pass-time during the Carnival period. Carnival usually ended with the beat of ‘Carnival’ by ‘Lent’. This could happen in the form of the mock trial and performance of ‘Carnival’, (Bologna, Italy, 16th century), the beheading of a this halloween (Venice, Italy), or the burial of a sardine (Madrid, Spain). So what was your meaning of Carnival in Early Modern The european countries? Was it merely an excuse for the populace to go crazy or did Carnival have a deeper eaning hidden at the rear of the act of meals, violence and sex? Carnival was a holiday break, a game. It was a time of ecstasy and liberation. The form was dependant on three major themes: foodstuff, sex and violence. It absolutely was the time of indulgence, of abundance. It had been also a moments of intense sexual activity ” furniture of the in season movement of conceptions in 18th century France show a top around Feb. Carnival was also a festivity of hostility, destruction and desecration. It had been the ideal time for you to insult or perhaps pester individuals that had wronged someone, frequently in the form of a mock battle of a football match. An occasion for settling old grudges. Serious violence was not prevented and in the majority of areas the rates of significant crimes and killings proceeded to go up during Carnival. It had been also a time of opposition, in more than one of many ways. It compared the ecclesiastical ritual of Lent. Lent was a period of fasting and abstinence coming from all things appreciated by the persons, not just drink and food but also sex and recreation. The elements that had been taken out of lifestyle during Given were emphasised during Carnival. All that was portrayed by the figures of ‘Carnival’ and ‘Lent’ (fat versus thin). Carnival was polysemous, which means different things to be able to people in ifferent areas. In different regions, different characters were celebrated. Sometimes components were absorbed from other regions. Carnival would not have the same importance all over The european union. In the north of Europe (Britain, Scandinavia) it was significantly less important than in the rest of Europe. This was probably partially due to the climate which frustrated an elaborate streets festival during that time of the year. In these parts, people preferred to complex the festivals during the Midsummer festival (St. John’s Eve). Two reasons for this are the pagan survivals that were more robust in these parts, partly since they were solated from the associated with Europe as a result of geographical obstacles, causing a smaller ecclesiastical effect, and the climatic situation as stated before. Carnival was obviously a festival in extremis, although elements of Carnival can be found in just about every festival that was celebrated in Early Modern day Europe. Through the harvest season, all over Europe festivals and rituals were hosted. The harvesting was commemorated, again, with elaborate drinking and ingesting, although in a more moderate method than the Carnival celebrations. These festival got one thing in accordance: they provided the people a getaway from their everyday life and a way to express themselves. That offered the folks a way to port their problems and some kind of entertainment. Conventions were an escape from their fight to earn a living. These people were something to look forward to and were a celebration of the community and a display of its capacity to put on a great show. It is known that the mocking of outsiders (the neighbouring village or perhaps Jews) and animals may be seen as a dramatic expression of community solidarity. Some rituals might be seen as an form of interpersonal control, in this way that it was a means for a community to express all their discontent with certain embers of the community (charivari). The ritual of public consequence can be seen in this kind of light, as it was used to deter people from committing criminal offenses. Professor Utmost Gluckman applied the Photography equipment popular culture to explain the social function of the habit of reversal of functions as it happened during rituals as Carnival. Similar rituals still take place in certain parts in The african continent. Gluckman clarifies this routine as an emphasis of certain guidelines and taboos through working out with them for a certain time frame. The noticeable protests resistant to the social purchase were meant to preserve and in many cases to trengthen the established order. Being a counter example Gluckman claims that: inch? in locations where the social order can be seriously questioned, ‘rites of protest’ will not occur. Riots and rebellions frequently took place during major celebrations. Rebels and rioters utilized rituals and symbols to legitimise their very own actions. Inhibitions against articulating hostility on the authorities or perhaps individuals were weakened by the excitement with the festival and the consumption of large quantities of alcohol. If perhaps those factors were put together with discontent more than a bad pick, tax raises or additional calamities, this ituation could get out of control. It could prove a good opportunity for persons excluded from power to try and enforce certain changes. It truly is hardly astonishing that members of the uppr classes often suggested that one festivals must be abolished. That they felt endangered by the human population who during festivals tried to revolt against the ruling classes and change the economical situation they were in. The change of popular festivals was instigated by the will of some of the ‘educated’ to change the attitudes and values with the rest of the inhabitants ( to enhance them). This kind of reformation got on several forms in various regions and it took place at several moments over time. There were also differences in the practices which were being reformed. Catholics and Protestants opposed to different portions of popular celebrations and they did so for different factors. Even inside the Protestant movement, the opinions towards reformation of festivals and popular rituals different. Missionaries upon both sides performed in Europe to install their religious values in the local persons. Reformers in both sides objected in particular to certain factors in well-known religion. Celebrations were component to popular religious beliefs or were at least disguised a muslim popular religion. The event of Martinmas (11 November) was a very good example of this. What were the objections of the government bodies against these elements of well-liked culture generally speaking and well-known religion particularly? There were two essential religious objections. Firstly, the majority of conventions were seen while remnants of ancient paganism. Secondly, the festivals presented the people an occasion to over-indulge in wrong or questionable behaviour, at many occasions attacking the establishment (both ecclesiastical and civil). The first objection meant that reformers disliked a lot of the popular traditions because they contained remnants of historic customs online dating from pre-Christian times. Simple reformers went very far in their objections, even denouncing a number of Catholic rituals as being pre-Christian survivals, considering the new orleans saints as successors of pagan gods and heroes, taking over their curative and defensive functions. Magic was likewise considered a pagan remnant: the Protestants accused the Catholics of practising a pagan ritual by claiming that certain holy places held magical forces and could remedy people. The reformers denounced the rituals they missed fitting as being irreverent and blasphemous. Carnival and the charivaris were deemed “the work of the devil, because it manufactured a mockery of specific godly elements the Cathedral held holy. The reformers thought people who didn’t honor God inside their way to become heathen, condemned to spend their particular afterlife in eternal damning. Flamboyance was to be chased out of all religious areas of culture, and, where possible, out of most other aspects of life, in line with the Protestant doctrine. In some areas, gesturing during church services was banned, as was laughter. These things looked as irreverent, making a mockery of faith. All these changes were presented in order to produce a sharper separating between the ‘sacred’ and the ‘profane’. The ecclesiastical authorities had been out to eliminate the traditional familiarity with the almost holy because “familiarity breeds irreverence. The doubt against popular recreations been a result of the idea that we were holding ‘vanities’, displeasing God mainly because they were a waste of time and money and distracted persons from going to church. This objection was shared by both the ecclesiastical and detrimental authorities. These mainly bjected because it diverted the people from their function, which in turn damaged the revenues of the leading upper classes, or from the other activities that had been benefiting the rich, factors that would change per region. Catholic and Protestant reformers were not similarly hostile to popular tradition, nor had been they aggressive for quite the same factors. Protestant reformers were even more radical, denouncing festivals since relics of popery and searching to abolish feast-days as well as the feast installed with it, because that they considered the new orleans saints that were famous during these celebrations as remains of a pre-Christian era. Several of these Protestant reformers were equally radical in their attacks upon holy images, which they considered ‘idols’. Throughout the end with the 16th and the first half the 17th 100 years Dutch chapels were pillaged by Protestants trying to damage all religious relics and images (de Beeldenstorm). Catholic reformers were more modified inside their actions, that they tried to reach a certain customization of well-liked religious traditions, even planning to adapt specific elements towards the Catholic way of worshipping and incorporating well-liked elements into their religion. They will insisted that some in the past it was holier than others, and so they id object to the expand to which the holy days were celebrated with drink and food. Some contended that it was difficult to follow the rituals of Given with proper reverence and devotion if they had indulged in Carnival right before. Catholic reformers also set up rules to be able to regulate particular popular festivals and rituals, such as a prohibition on going to the party as a member with the clergy during Carnival or maybe a prohibition in dancing or performing plays in chapels or churchyards. Contrary to the Protestant reformers however , the Catholic reformers would not set out to eliminate estivals and rituals entirely. Civil government bodies had their own reasons to target to well-liked festivals at the begining of Modern The european union. Apart from taking the people faraway from work or perhaps other obligations, the regulators feared that during the time of a festival, the abundance of alcohol may stir in the feelings of discontent the individuals had been hiding all all year round. Misery and alcohol created a dangerous blend that would give people the courage they needed to rebel against government bodies. This was a good reason for the authorities in an attempt to stop, at least control, well-known festivals.	3,270	ENGLISH	1
Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi was born on September 1207 in Vakhsh, now in Tajikistan. His family was Persian, from Balkh in today’s Afghanistan, and his father was an intellectual with a strong leaning towards mystical Islam. Rumi’s family left their home around 1216, perhaps in fear of the advancing Mongols. They travelled around the Middle East, including Damascus, Baghdad, and Mecca, before settling in Anatolia. The region was widely known as Rum (Rome), hence his name: Rumi. Aged 17, Rumi married Gowhar Khatun, and they eventually had two sons. (After her death, Rumi remarried, and had a further son and daughter.) By 1228, the family had made its home in Konya, but when his father died, Rumi travelled to Damascus and Aleppo for several years to deepen his classical religious studies. On returning to Konya, he took up teaching at the institution where his father had taught, all the while becoming increasingly fascinated with mystical Islam, and undergoing the arduous ascetic training of a Sufi. A short while later, when Rumi was 37, his life changed forever. While walking across the market place in Konya, he fell into conversation with Shams ad-Din Tabrizi, a charismatic dervish. Their discussion electrified Rumi, and he embarked on a series of ever-deeper mystical explorations and reflections. During this period, Rumi and Shams became inseparable, with Rumi seeking to learn everything he could from his new-found master. Modern efforts to claim the men were lovers remain speculative, but the relationship was intense and all-consuming. However, to Rumi’s anguish, Shams disappeared forever in December 1248. Hagiographical tradition says that Rumi’s neglected disciples and sons killed him out of jealousy, although the real reason for his disappearance remains a mystery. Rumi felt shattered at the loss of Shams, but found an outlet for his pain in poetry, which he wrote in Persian, with smatterings of Arabic, Turkish, and Greek. He composed around 3,000 verses of ghazals (Persian love-and-loss poems) and 2,000 ruba’iyat, or quatrains, frequently using the pen name Shams. In these writings, his love of God, Muhammad, and Shams intertwined in an intense outpouring of ecstasy and agony. He and his disciples had already taken up regular dancing to flutes and drums, and these sessions also became occasions for the recital or singing of his poetry. Rumi’s son noted that eventually, filled with mystical poetry, Rumi finally found Shams in himself, radiant like the moon. Some while after Shams’s death, Rumi became friendly with an illiterate goldsmith named Salah ad-Din Zarkub, who Rumi saw as an incarnation of Shams, and the relationship helped inspire a further torrent of poetry. After Zarkub’s death, Rumi found a new spiritual companion in Hussam ad-Din Chelebi. Encouraged by his new friend, Rumi set about composing the Masnavi-yi Ma’navi, or Spiritual Couplets. The result was a multi-layered work of mystical Sufism, comprising 26,000 couplets blending the radiance of divine and earthly love with an encyclopaedic collection of theosophical thoughts and experiences. The impact of the book down the ages has been so enormous that Sufis sometimes call it the Persian Qur’an. In addition to poetry, Rumi also wrote talks, sermons, and letters. Towards the end of his life he was a pillar of the establishment in Konya, and revered by the city’s non-Sufi Muslims, Christians, and Jews, as well as by his own immediate followers. Rumi died on December 17, 1273 in Konya. His disciples bound themselves together into the Mawlaw’iyyah order – better known today as the Whirling Dervishes – which venerates Rumi as its founder. Rumi’s poetry remains a gem of medieval literature, and is widely treasured in Iran, Turkey, and India. In the twentieth century, his poetry has also become popular in the West, and he is widely quoted on social media as a type of New Age guru. He ranks consistently among the best-selling poets in the United States, and was the overall bestselling poet of the 1990s according to the LA Times. His tomb in the family mausoleum in Konya remains a highly popular pilgrimage site, and is the venue for an annual Sufi festival every December, 17.	<urn:uuid:ed1f3a2e-2732-45e6-8e5c-f6c93bb61134>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/12/17/day-1273-rumi-great-poet-founder-whirling-dervishes-dies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00245.warc.gz	en	0.983711	1,011	3.53125	4	[ 0.19037048518657684, 0.7113185524940491, 0.08677119016647339, 0.25930118560791016, -0.0717863067984581, 0.09215358644723892, 0.19763420522212982, 0.0034384673926979303, 0.13590551912784576, -0.36619043350219727, -0.2505130171775818, -0.25723665952682495, 0.5192729234695435, 0.4968030452728...	3	Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi was born on September 1207 in Vakhsh, now in Tajikistan. His family was Persian, from Balkh in today’s Afghanistan, and his father was an intellectual with a strong leaning towards mystical Islam. Rumi’s family left their home around 1216, perhaps in fear of the advancing Mongols. They travelled around the Middle East, including Damascus, Baghdad, and Mecca, before settling in Anatolia. The region was widely known as Rum (Rome), hence his name: Rumi. Aged 17, Rumi married Gowhar Khatun, and they eventually had two sons. (After her death, Rumi remarried, and had a further son and daughter.) By 1228, the family had made its home in Konya, but when his father died, Rumi travelled to Damascus and Aleppo for several years to deepen his classical religious studies. On returning to Konya, he took up teaching at the institution where his father had taught, all the while becoming increasingly fascinated with mystical Islam, and undergoing the arduous ascetic training of a Sufi. A short while later, when Rumi was 37, his life changed forever. While walking across the market place in Konya, he fell into conversation with Shams ad-Din Tabrizi, a charismatic dervish. Their discussion electrified Rumi, and he embarked on a series of ever-deeper mystical explorations and reflections. During this period, Rumi and Shams became inseparable, with Rumi seeking to learn everything he could from his new-found master. Modern efforts to claim the men were lovers remain speculative, but the relationship was intense and all-consuming. However, to Rumi’s anguish, Shams disappeared forever in December 1248. Hagiographical tradition says that Rumi’s neglected disciples and sons killed him out of jealousy, although the real reason for his disappearance remains a mystery. Rumi felt shattered at the loss of Shams, but found an outlet for his pain in poetry, which he wrote in Persian, with smatterings of Arabic, Turkish, and Greek. He composed around 3,000 verses of ghazals (Persian love-and-loss poems) and 2,000 ruba’iyat, or quatrains, frequently using the pen name Shams. In these writings, his love of God, Muhammad, and Shams intertwined in an intense outpouring of ecstasy and agony. He and his disciples had already taken up regular dancing to flutes and drums, and these sessions also became occasions for the recital or singing of his poetry. Rumi’s son noted that eventually, filled with mystical poetry, Rumi finally found Shams in himself, radiant like the moon. Some while after Shams’s death, Rumi became friendly with an illiterate goldsmith named Salah ad-Din Zarkub, who Rumi saw as an incarnation of Shams, and the relationship helped inspire a further torrent of poetry. After Zarkub’s death, Rumi found a new spiritual companion in Hussam ad-Din Chelebi. Encouraged by his new friend, Rumi set about composing the Masnavi-yi Ma’navi, or Spiritual Couplets. The result was a multi-layered work of mystical Sufism, comprising 26,000 couplets blending the radiance of divine and earthly love with an encyclopaedic collection of theosophical thoughts and experiences. The impact of the book down the ages has been so enormous that Sufis sometimes call it the Persian Qur’an. In addition to poetry, Rumi also wrote talks, sermons, and letters. Towards the end of his life he was a pillar of the establishment in Konya, and revered by the city’s non-Sufi Muslims, Christians, and Jews, as well as by his own immediate followers. Rumi died on December 17, 1273 in Konya. His disciples bound themselves together into the Mawlaw’iyyah order – better known today as the Whirling Dervishes – which venerates Rumi as its founder. Rumi’s poetry remains a gem of medieval literature, and is widely treasured in Iran, Turkey, and India. In the twentieth century, his poetry has also become popular in the West, and he is widely quoted on social media as a type of New Age guru. He ranks consistently among the best-selling poets in the United States, and was the overall bestselling poet of the 1990s according to the LA Times. His tomb in the family mausoleum in Konya remains a highly popular pilgrimage site, and is the venue for an annual Sufi festival every December, 17.	1,004	ENGLISH	1
MORE ABOUT THIS BOOK Two Miserable Presidents How to Rip a Country Apart On May 22, 1856, a congressman from South Carolina walked into the Senate chamber, looking for trouble. With a cane in his hand, Preston Brooks scanned the nearly empty room and spotted the man he wanted: Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. Sumner was sitting at a desk, writing letters, unaware he had a visitor. He became aware a moment later, when he looked up from his papers just in time to see Preston Brooks's metal-tipped cane rising high above his head. Stop That Cane! So Preston Brooks's metal-tipped cane is about to land on a senator's head. Interesting. But before that cane actually crashes onto Charles Sumner's skull, let's step back and take a look at the events leading up to this moment. Because, believe it or not, if you can figure out why Preston Brooks was so eager to attack Charles Sumner, you'll understand the forces that ripped the United States apart and led to the Civil War. Mr. Brooks, please hold that cane in the air for just a few minutes. We're going to run through a quick thirteen-step guide to tearing a country in two. Step 1: Plant Cotton After finishing college in 1792, a young man from Massachusetts named Eli Whitney headed south in search of a teaching job. He wasn't too interested in teaching, though--he really wanted to be an inventor. Whitney got his big chance when he met Catherine Greene, who owned a plantation in Georgia. Greene told Whitney that plantation owners wanted to grow more cotton. The problem was, cotton had to be cleaned by hand and it took forever to pick the sticky green seeds out of the fluffy white cotton. If only there was a way to clean cotton more quickly, planters could grow and sell much more of it. Greene set up a workshop for Whitney, and he quickly came up with an invention he called the cotton gin ("gin" was short for engine). Whitney proudly announced the benefits of using his machine: "One man will clean ten times as much cotton as he can in any other way before known and also clean it much better." Before Whitney's invention, farmers grew cotton only along the Atlantic coast. Now they raced to plant more cotton, forming a wide belt of cotton plantations across the southern United States, from the Atlantic Ocean all the way west to Louisiana and Texas. Plantation owners made huge profits selling their cotton to clothing factories in the northern United States and in Great Britain. Cotton became so valuable to the economy that Southerners declared: "Cotton is King!" This was great for Southern plantation owners and Northern factory owners. But it was terrible for enslaved African Americans. Planting and picking cotton took huge amounts of work, and that work was done by slaves. So as plantation owners planted more and more cotton, they decided that they needed more and more slaves. The number of people enslaved in the South jumped from just over 1 million in 1820 to about 4 million by 1860. Step 2: Grow Apart At the same time, the states of the North gradually ended slavery. This was partly because many Northerners thought slavery was wrong. But let's be honest: it was mainly because slavery just didn't make sense in the Northern economy. Most farmers owned small family farms, so they couldn't afford slaves. And factory owners had no interest in owning their workers--they made more money by hiring workers and paying them a few cents an hour. Slavery was only one of many differences between the North and South in the first half of the 1800s. Most Americans still lived and worked on farms in both the North and South. But life in the North was changing as more and more people moved to cities and took jobs in factories. Immigrants from Europe were also settling in growing northern cities. Northerners were busy building canals and railroads to connect cities and farms. There was less change in the South, where more than ninety percent of the people lived on farms or in small towns. The Southern economy was based on farm products: sugar, rice, tobacco, and especially "king" cotton. The North and South were developing different ways of life--so what? These differences mattered because they made it harder for Northerners and Southerners to agree on plans for the future. For example, take the issue of tariffs, or taxes on imported goods. Sounds pretty boring, right? But tariffs got people excited in those days. Suppose you asked a Northern factory owner and a Southern plantation owner: "Do you support a tariff on manufactured goods imported from Europe?" "Of course!" the factory owner might say. "Tariffs make imported goods more expensive. So Americans are more likely to buy things made here in our own factories. And that's good for American companies." "No way!" the plantation owner might say. "We want to buy the goods we need at the best possible prices. Why should we pay higher prices for manufactured goods just to help make Northern factory owners richer?" Step 3: Keep Your Balance Now that the North and South are growing apart, let's look at another issue that's about to cause trouble: land. To put the problem simply: What's going to happen with all that land west of the Mississippi River? As you probably know, the United States started out as thirteen states along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. But the country had grown quickly: Why is this new land important to our story? In 1819 there were a total of twenty-two states: eleven "slave states," or states with slavery, and eleven "free states," or states where slavery was illegal. Most members of Congress thought it was a good idea to keep this balance between free and slave states. That way neither North nor South would get too much power in government (or get too angry at the other side). But everyone knew that western territories would soon be divided up into states--would those new states allow slavery? That was the question Northerners and Southerners were beginning to argue about. So when Missouri asked to join the Union as a slave state, Congress worked out a deal called the Missouri Compromise. In 1820 Missouri joined the Union as a slave state. And to keep the balance, Maine joined as a free state. What about all the land west of Missouri? Members of Congress drew a line west from the southern border of Missouri. They agreed that the territory north of the line would someday be divided into free states, and the territory south of the line would be divided into slave states. The goal was to protect the balance between North and South. Think it worked? Step 4: Fight Slavery Frederick Douglass was not interested in keeping the balance. Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass grew up working on farms--and thinking nonstop about slavery. How could one person own another? "Why am I a slave?" he wondered. "I will run away. I will not stand it." When Douglass was eighteen, the man who owned him put him to work in a Baltimore shipyard. One day four white workers attacked him with bricks, knocking him down and kicking him in the face over and over. Fifty white men just stood there watching. Douglass's owner ("Master Hugh," as Frederick called him) went to a judge to complain: Judge Watson: Who saw this assault of which you speak? Master Hugh: It was done, sir, in the presence of a shipyard full of hands. Judge Watson: Sir, I am sorry, but I cannot move in this matter, except upon the oath of white witnesses. Master Hugh: But here's the boy; look at his head and face, they show what has been done. But Douglass was a slave, a person with no rights. His word meant nothing. The white workers who had seen the beating refused to testify, so the men who had attacked Douglass were never punished. Douglass continued working (and giving every cent he earned to Master Hugh). And he thought more and more about trying toescape to the North. He knew the danger. If caught, he could be sold to a cotton plantation far to the south. He came up with a simple, daring plan. In the South, free African Americans had to carry "free papers"--identification papers proving they were not slaves. Douglass borrowed these papers from a free friend who was a sailor. Then he dressed in sailor's clothes, put the borrowed papers in his pocket, and boldly walked onto a train. The train started north through Maryland. There was only one problem: free papers included a description of the person, and Douglass looked nothing like his friend. Douglass tried to quiet his pounding heart as the conductor came through the black passengers' car inspecting everyone's papers. "This moment of time was one of the most anxious I ever experienced," he later wrote. "Had the conductor looked closely at the paper, he could not have failed to discover that it called for a very different looking person from myself, and in that case it would have been his duty to arrest me to Baltimore." But the conductor only glanced at the papers, then handed them back to Douglass. The train sped north, and that afternoon Douglass reached the free state of Pennsylvania. He continued on to New York. "I found myself in the big city of NewYork," he remembered, "a free man." Douglass soon found work in a Massachusetts shipyard. And he became an active abolitionist--part of a movement to end slavery in the United States. Step 5: Build a Railroad Frederick Douglass found another way to battle slavery. He used his house as part of the Underground Railroad, a secret system of routes used by people escaping from slavery. Houses like Douglass's were known as "stations"--places where runaway slaves could rest and hide during the day. Daring "conductors," both black and white, guided escaping slaves from station to station all the way to Canada, where slavery was illegal. The most famous Underground Railroad conductor was a fivefoot-tall woman named Harriet Tubman. Tubman grew up enslaved in Maryland, suffering beatings and whippings that left permanent scars on her body. In 1849, when she was twenty-nine, she found out she was about to be sold. She set off on a hundred-mile walk to freedom, helped along by Underground Railroad conductors who guided her to Pennsylvania. "When I found I had crossed that line, I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person," she said. "I was free, but there was no one to welcome me to the land of freedom." She was thinking of her family--they were all still living in slavery. "I was free, and they should be free." Tubman said. "I would make a home in the North and bring them there." Tubman spent the next ten years planning and carrying out at least thirteen rescue missions, guiding about three hundred people to freedom. Can you guess why she liked to operate in winter? The nights were longer in winter, and it was safer to travel in darkness. Safer not only for escaping slaves, but for Tubman too. Angry slave owners were offering a $40,000 reward for her capture. Only a small minority of Northerners were abolitionists or Underground Railroad conductors. But their work was causing growing anger in the South. Slave owners saw it like this: Slavery is perfectly legal in the South, and we have invested our money in slaves. Slaves are our legal property. These abolitionists are trying to steal our property. They're trying to make us poor! How would they like it if we came up north and took away their farms and factories? You might answer: But you have no right to own slaves in the first place! But for now we're not talking about right and wrong. We're just trying to figure out how Northerners and Southerners got angry enough at each other to rip the country in two. Step 6: Get More Land Speaking of getting angry, the North and South soon had something else to fight over--more land. By 1848 the United States looked like this: Then gold was discovered in California and thousands of miners raced west, dreaming of quick riches. Suddenly California had enough people to become a state--and it wanted to enter the Union as a free state. At this time there were thirty states: fifteen free states and fifteen slave states. Was California going to upset this careful balance? Not if Southern leaders could help it. Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi summed up Southern fears: "For the first time, we are about to permanently destroy the balance of power between the sections." Some Southern members of Congress began to talk openly of "disunion"--the breakup of the United States. Step 7: Try to Compromise Hold on , said Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, we canwork this out. Clay offered a compromise designed to keep the peace between North and South. The two most important points were these: California will be admitted to the Union as a free state. Congress will pass the Fugitive Slave Act, which will make it easier for slave owners to catch escaping slaves. By 1850, though, a lot of people didn't feel like compromising anymore. Senator John C. Calhoun from South Carolina declared that the Union could be saved only if the North met Southern demands: stop helping escaped slaves, stop the abolitionist movement, and promise to keep the balance between free states and slave states. He was too sick to give a long speech (he actually died a month later), but he sat in the Senate chamber, a blanket over his legs, while a fellow senator read his emotional words: "The South asks for justice, simple justice, and less she ought not to take." Senator William Seward of New York rejected Calhoun's demands. Slavery was going to end whether Calhoun liked it or not, Seward insisted. And there was no way he was going to allow slavery to spread into California or any other new territory. "I cannot consent to introduce slavery into any part of this continent which is now exempt from what seems to me so great an evil," Seward said. This was all part of a months-long argument that included a few fistfights on the floor of Congress. At one point Senator Henry Foote of Mississippi actually pulled out a pistol and aimed it at Missouri senator Thomas Hart Benton. "I have no pistols!" Benton shouted. "Let him fire! Stand out of the way and let the assassin fire!" Foote didn't fire. In the end, most members of Congress agreed with Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Webster spoke passionately in favor of keeping the peace between North and South: "I wish to speak today, not as a Massachusetts man, nor as a Northern man, but as an American ... I speak today for the preservation of the Union." Congress eventually agreed to the compromise outlined by Henry Clay--the Compromise of 1850, as it was called. "The Union is saved!" shouted people in the streets of Washington, D.C. Unfortunately for the Union, the Compromise of 1850 made people madder than ever. Step 8: Chase Fugitives According to the tough new Fugitive Slave Act, any African American suspected of being a fugitive slave could be captured and dragged before a judge. The accused person had no right to testify, and no right to a trial by jury. The judge simply decided if this person was really a runaway slave. The judge got five dollars if he set the person free, and ten dollars if he sent the person into slavery! Many Northerners, even if they had not been abolitionists before, howled in anger at what they saw as a cruel and unjust law. And escaped slaves living in the North knew they were in serious danger. Just ask Henry Brown. A year before, Brown had escaped from slavery by packing himself into a small wooden crate in Richmond, Virginia, and instructing his friends to mail him to an abolitionist office in Philadelphia. The friends wrote "This side up, with care" on the crate. But the people handling the box didn't pay much attention, and Brown spent several miserable hours upside down. After a twenty-six-hour train ride, Brown, dying of heat and thirst, heard people prying open the box. He had no way of knowing where he was. So as the top of the crate was lifted, it was with tremendous joy that he looked up and saw four fairly confused Philadelphia abolitionists staring down at him. Brown stood up and reached out his hand and said, "Good morning, gentlemen. Soon after passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, Henry Brown (now famous as Henry "Box" Brown) was attacked and nearly captured in Providence, Rhode Island. He managed to beat up the kidnappers, but he knew he could be grabbed at any moment. He got on a ship and sailed to Britain. Step 9: Write Books Henry Brown was lucky--most fugitives didn't have rich friends to buy them tickets to Europe. Slave catchers stalked the streets of Northern cities, kidnapping escaped slaves and sometimes even African Americans born free in the North. A writer named Harriet Beecher Stowe was so mad, she had to do something. But what? Her sister-in-law gave her an idea: "Hattie, if I could use a pen as you can, I would write something that will make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing slavery is." Stowe began writing a book, working at night (after putting her six children to bed) at the kitchen table in her family's house in Maine.In her novel, which she called Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe tried to make readers feel the horrors of slavery. She forced parents to imagine what it would be like to see a slave trader coming to buy their only child. "If it were your Harry, mother, or your Willie, that were going to be torn from you by a brutal trader, tomorrow morning,--if you had seen the man, and heard that the papers were signed and delivered, and you had only from twelve o'clock till morning to make good your escape,--how fast could you walk? How many miles could you make in those few brief hours ... ?" Published in 1852, Uncle Tom's Cabin broke readers' hearts, inspiring many in the North to hate slavery like never before. Offended Southern writers fired back with books of their own, arguing that slaves in the South were actually well treated and happy. They insisted that Northern factory workers were much worse off than enslaved African Americans. Step 10: Divide Nebraska With tensions between North and South reaching new heights, we now turn back to the most explosive issue: what to do with all that western land? Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois thought it was time to divide the huge Nebraska Territory into smaller territories that could become states. But there was a problem. All this land was north of the line drawn in the Missouri Compromise (see Step 3), so it could only be made into free states. Southern senators would never allow this, Douglas knew. Douglas proposed a solution: We'll throw out the Missouri Compromise and make a new deal called the Kansas-Nebraska Act. We'll divide the territory in two: Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. And we'll let the people who settle in the territories vote on whether or not they want slavery. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, and President Franklin Pierce signed it into law. Douglas really thought this would stop the North and South from fighting over slavery in the territories. After all, now it was up to the settlers themselves to decide the slavery question. That was democracy, right? Self-government? Who could be against that? Actually, lots of people. When Douglas went home to give a speech in Chicago, an angry crowd shouted at him for two solid hours, finally driving him off the stage. In Peoria, Illinois, people were calm enough to listen to Douglas's defense of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Then a lawyer and former member of Congress named Abraham Lincoln rose to respond. Lincoln was so tall and skinny, people said it looked as if he unfolded as he stood up. Lincoln launched his attack based on one simple idea: "There can be no moral right in connection with one man's making a slave of another." Slavery was wrong, he argued, and they should not allow it to spread to new territories. Did white people really have the right to vote on whether or not they could own black people? Was this really self-government? "When the white man governs himself, that is self-government; but when he governs himself, and also governs another man, that is more than self-government--that is despotism.1" But whether Lincoln liked it or not, the people of Kansas were going to vote on the slavery question. Which side would win? That would depend on who got there first. Step 11: Race to Kansas Supporters and opponents of slavery set off on a race to Kansas. New England abolitionist groups sent money and guns to anti-slavery settlers. But the pro-slavery side had an advantage: the slave state of Missouri was right next to Kansas. The Missouri senator David Atchison took a vacation from Congress to personally lead Missouri men into Kansas. "There are eleven hundred men coming over from Platte County [Missouri] to vote," he said, "and if that ain't enough we can send five thousand--enough to kill every *#$%! abolitionist in the Territory." And sure enough, just as Kansas was about to elect its first government, five thousand Missouri men rode in and voted--illegally, since only real residents of Kansas were supposed to vote. The new legislature quickly legalized slavery in Kansas. Calling this government "the bogus legislature," anti-slavery settlers held their own election. The anti-slavery settlers, also known as "Free-Soilers," chose their own government, and, of course, banned slavery. So by the beginning of 1856, Kansas had two different governments meeting in two different cities. Both sides were storing up weapons and organizing armies. Luckily, that winter was bitterly cold, with temperatures dropping to twenty-nine degrees below zero. Most people stayed inside. But by May it was warm enough to fight. An eight-hundred-man pro-slavery army marched to Lawrence, home of the Free-Soilers' government. The invading army chased out the Free-Soil leaders, dumped two newspaper printing presses into the Kansas River, and fired a cannon at the Free State Hotel. The hands of Northern readers shook with fury as they read the next day's newspapers. "STARTLING NEWS FROM KANSAS--THE WAR ACTUALLY BEGUN--LAWRENCE IN RUINS--SEVERAL PERSONS SLAUGHTERED," shouted the headlines of the New York Tribune . (Actually, no one was slaughtered, though one pro-slavery man died when a chunk of the Free State Hotel fell on his head.) Step 12: Insult Senators No one was angrier about events in Kansas than Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. In a speech he called "The Crime Against Kansas," Sumner called the pro-slavery army "murderous robbers from Missouri ... picked from the drunken spew and vomit." He also slammed senators who supported the Kansas-Nebraska Act, saving his most personal attack for Andrew Butler of South Carolina. Sumner charged Butler with loving slavery--and also hinted that Butler stammered and spat when he talked. This was a low blow, since Butler had difficulty speaking due to a stroke that had left him partially paralyzed. Even Sumner's friends were a bit offended. And Butler's friends were exploding with rage. That brings us all the way back to the point where we began: with the caneswinging Congressman Preston Brooks. Step 13: Hit Him Again! Preston Brooks was Senator Butler's cousin. Two days after Sumner's speech, Brooks walked into the Senate chamber looking for revenge. He strode up to Sumner's desk and declared: "I have read your speech twice over, carefully. It is libel [a false and harmful statement] on both South Carolina and on Senator Butler, who is a relative of mine." Then Brooks began beating Sumner on the head with his metal-tipped cane. Blood flowed down Sumner's face as he tried to wriggle his long legs out from under his desk, which was screwed into the floor. Sumner finally ripped up the desk, along with some of the floor, then stumbled to the ground. Brooks continued smacking Sumner until his cane snapped and he was yanked away by other members of Congress. Brooks was thrilled to find that his attack on Sumner made him a hero in the South. "Every Southern man is delighted," he boasted. One Virginia newspaper commented: "The only regret we feel is that Mr. Brooks did not employ a horsewhip ... instead of a cane." Dozens of Southerners sent him new canes, some with cute sayings on them such as "Hit Him Again!" Northerners were stunned by this reaction. One member of Congress had beaten another nearly to death and was considered a hero! Now you know why Brooks attacked Sumner--and you can see that the events leading to this attack were splitting the country apart. The conflict between the North and South was bitter, personal, and a little bit bloody. It was about to turn seriously violent. Text copyright © 2008 by Steve Sheinkin	<urn:uuid:08b5700a-bf6c-43bf-8410-acad68fe138e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://us.macmillan.com/excerpt?isbn=9781429932745	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00239.warc.gz	en	0.982992	5,359	3.296875	3	[ -0.2978775203227997, -0.04343853145837784, 0.36879339814186096, 0.06872040033340454, 0.19695451855659485, -0.26405370235443115, 0.1392521858215332, -0.10559488832950592, -0.09131506085395813, 0.31846874952316284, 0.1616208553314209, 0.01179522555321455, 0.2997911274433136, 0.40313571691513...	2	MORE ABOUT THIS BOOK Two Miserable Presidents How to Rip a Country Apart On May 22, 1856, a congressman from South Carolina walked into the Senate chamber, looking for trouble. With a cane in his hand, Preston Brooks scanned the nearly empty room and spotted the man he wanted: Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. Sumner was sitting at a desk, writing letters, unaware he had a visitor. He became aware a moment later, when he looked up from his papers just in time to see Preston Brooks's metal-tipped cane rising high above his head. Stop That Cane! So Preston Brooks's metal-tipped cane is about to land on a senator's head. Interesting. But before that cane actually crashes onto Charles Sumner's skull, let's step back and take a look at the events leading up to this moment. Because, believe it or not, if you can figure out why Preston Brooks was so eager to attack Charles Sumner, you'll understand the forces that ripped the United States apart and led to the Civil War. Mr. Brooks, please hold that cane in the air for just a few minutes. We're going to run through a quick thirteen-step guide to tearing a country in two. Step 1: Plant Cotton After finishing college in 1792, a young man from Massachusetts named Eli Whitney headed south in search of a teaching job. He wasn't too interested in teaching, though--he really wanted to be an inventor. Whitney got his big chance when he met Catherine Greene, who owned a plantation in Georgia. Greene told Whitney that plantation owners wanted to grow more cotton. The problem was, cotton had to be cleaned by hand and it took forever to pick the sticky green seeds out of the fluffy white cotton. If only there was a way to clean cotton more quickly, planters could grow and sell much more of it. Greene set up a workshop for Whitney, and he quickly came up with an invention he called the cotton gin ("gin" was short for engine). Whitney proudly announced the benefits of using his machine: "One man will clean ten times as much cotton as he can in any other way before known and also clean it much better." Before Whitney's invention, farmers grew cotton only along the Atlantic coast. Now they raced to plant more cotton, forming a wide belt of cotton plantations across the southern United States, from the Atlantic Ocean all the way west to Louisiana and Texas. Plantation owners made huge profits selling their cotton to clothing factories in the northern United States and in Great Britain. Cotton became so valuable to the economy that Southerners declared: "Cotton is King!" This was great for Southern plantation owners and Northern factory owners. But it was terrible for enslaved African Americans. Planting and picking cotton took huge amounts of work, and that work was done by slaves. So as plantation owners planted more and more cotton, they decided that they needed more and more slaves. The number of people enslaved in the South jumped from just over 1 million in 1820 to about 4 million by 1860. Step 2: Grow Apart At the same time, the states of the North gradually ended slavery. This was partly because many Northerners thought slavery was wrong. But let's be honest: it was mainly because slavery just didn't make sense in the Northern economy. Most farmers owned small family farms, so they couldn't afford slaves. And factory owners had no interest in owning their workers--they made more money by hiring workers and paying them a few cents an hour. Slavery was only one of many differences between the North and South in the first half of the 1800s. Most Americans still lived and worked on farms in both the North and South. But life in the North was changing as more and more people moved to cities and took jobs in factories. Immigrants from Europe were also settling in growing northern cities. Northerners were busy building canals and railroads to connect cities and farms. There was less change in the South, where more than ninety percent of the people lived on farms or in small towns. The Southern economy was based on farm products: sugar, rice, tobacco, and especially "king" cotton. The North and South were developing different ways of life--so what? These differences mattered because they made it harder for Northerners and Southerners to agree on plans for the future. For example, take the issue of tariffs, or taxes on imported goods. Sounds pretty boring, right? But tariffs got people excited in those days. Suppose you asked a Northern factory owner and a Southern plantation owner: "Do you support a tariff on manufactured goods imported from Europe?" "Of course!" the factory owner might say. "Tariffs make imported goods more expensive. So Americans are more likely to buy things made here in our own factories. And that's good for American companies." "No way!" the plantation owner might say. "We want to buy the goods we need at the best possible prices. Why should we pay higher prices for manufactured goods just to help make Northern factory owners richer?" Step 3: Keep Your Balance Now that the North and South are growing apart, let's look at another issue that's about to cause trouble: land. To put the problem simply: What's going to happen with all that land west of the Mississippi River? As you probably know, the United States started out as thirteen states along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. But the country had grown quickly: Why is this new land important to our story? In 1819 there were a total of twenty-two states: eleven "slave states," or states with slavery, and eleven "free states," or states where slavery was illegal. Most members of Congress thought it was a good idea to keep this balance between free and slave states. That way neither North nor South would get too much power in government (or get too angry at the other side). But everyone knew that western territories would soon be divided up into states--would those new states allow slavery? That was the question Northerners and Southerners were beginning to argue about. So when Missouri asked to join the Union as a slave state, Congress worked out a deal called the Missouri Compromise. In 1820 Missouri joined the Union as a slave state. And to keep the balance, Maine joined as a free state. What about all the land west of Missouri? Members of Congress drew a line west from the southern border of Missouri. They agreed that the territory north of the line would someday be divided into free states, and the territory south of the line would be divided into slave states. The goal was to protect the balance between North and South. Think it worked? Step 4: Fight Slavery Frederick Douglass was not interested in keeping the balance. Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass grew up working on farms--and thinking nonstop about slavery. How could one person own another? "Why am I a slave?" he wondered. "I will run away. I will not stand it." When Douglass was eighteen, the man who owned him put him to work in a Baltimore shipyard. One day four white workers attacked him with bricks, knocking him down and kicking him in the face over and over. Fifty white men just stood there watching. Douglass's owner ("Master Hugh," as Frederick called him) went to a judge to complain: Judge Watson: Who saw this assault of which you speak? Master Hugh: It was done, sir, in the presence of a shipyard full of hands. Judge Watson: Sir, I am sorry, but I cannot move in this matter, except upon the oath of white witnesses. Master Hugh: But here's the boy; look at his head and face, they show what has been done. But Douglass was a slave, a person with no rights. His word meant nothing. The white workers who had seen the beating refused to testify, so the men who had attacked Douglass were never punished. Douglass continued working (and giving every cent he earned to Master Hugh). And he thought more and more about trying toescape to the North. He knew the danger. If caught, he could be sold to a cotton plantation far to the south. He came up with a simple, daring plan. In the South, free African Americans had to carry "free papers"--identification papers proving they were not slaves. Douglass borrowed these papers from a free friend who was a sailor. Then he dressed in sailor's clothes, put the borrowed papers in his pocket, and boldly walked onto a train. The train started north through Maryland. There was only one problem: free papers included a description of the person, and Douglass looked nothing like his friend. Douglass tried to quiet his pounding heart as the conductor came through the black passengers' car inspecting everyone's papers. "This moment of time was one of the most anxious I ever experienced," he later wrote. "Had the conductor looked closely at the paper, he could not have failed to discover that it called for a very different looking person from myself, and in that case it would have been his duty to arrest me to Baltimore." But the conductor only glanced at the papers, then handed them back to Douglass. The train sped north, and that afternoon Douglass reached the free state of Pennsylvania. He continued on to New York. "I found myself in the big city of NewYork," he remembered, "a free man." Douglass soon found work in a Massachusetts shipyard. And he became an active abolitionist--part of a movement to end slavery in the United States. Step 5: Build a Railroad Frederick Douglass found another way to battle slavery. He used his house as part of the Underground Railroad, a secret system of routes used by people escaping from slavery. Houses like Douglass's were known as "stations"--places where runaway slaves could rest and hide during the day. Daring "conductors," both black and white, guided escaping slaves from station to station all the way to Canada, where slavery was illegal. The most famous Underground Railroad conductor was a fivefoot-tall woman named Harriet Tubman. Tubman grew up enslaved in Maryland, suffering beatings and whippings that left permanent scars on her body. In 1849, when she was twenty-nine, she found out she was about to be sold. She set off on a hundred-mile walk to freedom, helped along by Underground Railroad conductors who guided her to Pennsylvania. "When I found I had crossed that line, I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person," she said. "I was free, but there was no one to welcome me to the land of freedom." She was thinking of her family--they were all still living in slavery. "I was free, and they should be free." Tubman said. "I would make a home in the North and bring them there." Tubman spent the next ten years planning and carrying out at least thirteen rescue missions, guiding about three hundred people to freedom. Can you guess why she liked to operate in winter? The nights were longer in winter, and it was safer to travel in darkness. Safer not only for escaping slaves, but for Tubman too. Angry slave owners were offering a $40,000 reward for her capture. Only a small minority of Northerners were abolitionists or Underground Railroad conductors. But their work was causing growing anger in the South. Slave owners saw it like this: Slavery is perfectly legal in the South, and we have invested our money in slaves. Slaves are our legal property. These abolitionists are trying to steal our property. They're trying to make us poor! How would they like it if we came up north and took away their farms and factories? You might answer: But you have no right to own slaves in the first place! But for now we're not talking about right and wrong. We're just trying to figure out how Northerners and Southerners got angry enough at each other to rip the country in two. Step 6: Get More Land Speaking of getting angry, the North and South soon had something else to fight over--more land. By 1848 the United States looked like this: Then gold was discovered in California and thousands of miners raced west, dreaming of quick riches. Suddenly California had enough people to become a state--and it wanted to enter the Union as a free state. At this time there were thirty states: fifteen free states and fifteen slave states. Was California going to upset this careful balance? Not if Southern leaders could help it. Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi summed up Southern fears: "For the first time, we are about to permanently destroy the balance of power between the sections." Some Southern members of Congress began to talk openly of "disunion"--the breakup of the United States. Step 7: Try to Compromise Hold on , said Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, we canwork this out. Clay offered a compromise designed to keep the peace between North and South. The two most important points were these: California will be admitted to the Union as a free state. Congress will pass the Fugitive Slave Act, which will make it easier for slave owners to catch escaping slaves. By 1850, though, a lot of people didn't feel like compromising anymore. Senator John C. Calhoun from South Carolina declared that the Union could be saved only if the North met Southern demands: stop helping escaped slaves, stop the abolitionist movement, and promise to keep the balance between free states and slave states. He was too sick to give a long speech (he actually died a month later), but he sat in the Senate chamber, a blanket over his legs, while a fellow senator read his emotional words: "The South asks for justice, simple justice, and less she ought not to take." Senator William Seward of New York rejected Calhoun's demands. Slavery was going to end whether Calhoun liked it or not, Seward insisted. And there was no way he was going to allow slavery to spread into California or any other new territory. "I cannot consent to introduce slavery into any part of this continent which is now exempt from what seems to me so great an evil," Seward said. This was all part of a months-long argument that included a few fistfights on the floor of Congress. At one point Senator Henry Foote of Mississippi actually pulled out a pistol and aimed it at Missouri senator Thomas Hart Benton. "I have no pistols!" Benton shouted. "Let him fire! Stand out of the way and let the assassin fire!" Foote didn't fire. In the end, most members of Congress agreed with Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Webster spoke passionately in favor of keeping the peace between North and South: "I wish to speak today, not as a Massachusetts man, nor as a Northern man, but as an American ... I speak today for the preservation of the Union." Congress eventually agreed to the compromise outlined by Henry Clay--the Compromise of 1850, as it was called. "The Union is saved!" shouted people in the streets of Washington, D.C. Unfortunately for the Union, the Compromise of 1850 made people madder than ever. Step 8: Chase Fugitives According to the tough new Fugitive Slave Act, any African American suspected of being a fugitive slave could be captured and dragged before a judge. The accused person had no right to testify, and no right to a trial by jury. The judge simply decided if this person was really a runaway slave. The judge got five dollars if he set the person free, and ten dollars if he sent the person into slavery! Many Northerners, even if they had not been abolitionists before, howled in anger at what they saw as a cruel and unjust law. And escaped slaves living in the North knew they were in serious danger. Just ask Henry Brown. A year before, Brown had escaped from slavery by packing himself into a small wooden crate in Richmond, Virginia, and instructing his friends to mail him to an abolitionist office in Philadelphia. The friends wrote "This side up, with care" on the crate. But the people handling the box didn't pay much attention, and Brown spent several miserable hours upside down. After a twenty-six-hour train ride, Brown, dying of heat and thirst, heard people prying open the box. He had no way of knowing where he was. So as the top of the crate was lifted, it was with tremendous joy that he looked up and saw four fairly confused Philadelphia abolitionists staring down at him. Brown stood up and reached out his hand and said, "Good morning, gentlemen. Soon after passage of the Fugitive Slave Act, Henry Brown (now famous as Henry "Box" Brown) was attacked and nearly captured in Providence, Rhode Island. He managed to beat up the kidnappers, but he knew he could be grabbed at any moment. He got on a ship and sailed to Britain. Step 9: Write Books Henry Brown was lucky--most fugitives didn't have rich friends to buy them tickets to Europe. Slave catchers stalked the streets of Northern cities, kidnapping escaped slaves and sometimes even African Americans born free in the North. A writer named Harriet Beecher Stowe was so mad, she had to do something. But what? Her sister-in-law gave her an idea: "Hattie, if I could use a pen as you can, I would write something that will make this whole nation feel what an accursed thing slavery is." Stowe began writing a book, working at night (after putting her six children to bed) at the kitchen table in her family's house in Maine.In her novel, which she called Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe tried to make readers feel the horrors of slavery. She forced parents to imagine what it would be like to see a slave trader coming to buy their only child. "If it were your Harry, mother, or your Willie, that were going to be torn from you by a brutal trader, tomorrow morning,--if you had seen the man, and heard that the papers were signed and delivered, and you had only from twelve o'clock till morning to make good your escape,--how fast could you walk? How many miles could you make in those few brief hours ... ?" Published in 1852, Uncle Tom's Cabin broke readers' hearts, inspiring many in the North to hate slavery like never before. Offended Southern writers fired back with books of their own, arguing that slaves in the South were actually well treated and happy. They insisted that Northern factory workers were much worse off than enslaved African Americans. Step 10: Divide Nebraska With tensions between North and South reaching new heights, we now turn back to the most explosive issue: what to do with all that western land? Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois thought it was time to divide the huge Nebraska Territory into smaller territories that could become states. But there was a problem. All this land was north of the line drawn in the Missouri Compromise (see Step 3), so it could only be made into free states. Southern senators would never allow this, Douglas knew. Douglas proposed a solution: We'll throw out the Missouri Compromise and make a new deal called the Kansas-Nebraska Act. We'll divide the territory in two: Nebraska in the north and Kansas in the south. And we'll let the people who settle in the territories vote on whether or not they want slavery. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, and President Franklin Pierce signed it into law. Douglas really thought this would stop the North and South from fighting over slavery in the territories. After all, now it was up to the settlers themselves to decide the slavery question. That was democracy, right? Self-government? Who could be against that? Actually, lots of people. When Douglas went home to give a speech in Chicago, an angry crowd shouted at him for two solid hours, finally driving him off the stage. In Peoria, Illinois, people were calm enough to listen to Douglas's defense of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Then a lawyer and former member of Congress named Abraham Lincoln rose to respond. Lincoln was so tall and skinny, people said it looked as if he unfolded as he stood up. Lincoln launched his attack based on one simple idea: "There can be no moral right in connection with one man's making a slave of another." Slavery was wrong, he argued, and they should not allow it to spread to new territories. Did white people really have the right to vote on whether or not they could own black people? Was this really self-government? "When the white man governs himself, that is self-government; but when he governs himself, and also governs another man, that is more than self-government--that is despotism.1" But whether Lincoln liked it or not, the people of Kansas were going to vote on the slavery question. Which side would win? That would depend on who got there first. Step 11: Race to Kansas Supporters and opponents of slavery set off on a race to Kansas. New England abolitionist groups sent money and guns to anti-slavery settlers. But the pro-slavery side had an advantage: the slave state of Missouri was right next to Kansas. The Missouri senator David Atchison took a vacation from Congress to personally lead Missouri men into Kansas. "There are eleven hundred men coming over from Platte County [Missouri] to vote," he said, "and if that ain't enough we can send five thousand--enough to kill every *#$%! abolitionist in the Territory." And sure enough, just as Kansas was about to elect its first government, five thousand Missouri men rode in and voted--illegally, since only real residents of Kansas were supposed to vote. The new legislature quickly legalized slavery in Kansas. Calling this government "the bogus legislature," anti-slavery settlers held their own election. The anti-slavery settlers, also known as "Free-Soilers," chose their own government, and, of course, banned slavery. So by the beginning of 1856, Kansas had two different governments meeting in two different cities. Both sides were storing up weapons and organizing armies. Luckily, that winter was bitterly cold, with temperatures dropping to twenty-nine degrees below zero. Most people stayed inside. But by May it was warm enough to fight. An eight-hundred-man pro-slavery army marched to Lawrence, home of the Free-Soilers' government. The invading army chased out the Free-Soil leaders, dumped two newspaper printing presses into the Kansas River, and fired a cannon at the Free State Hotel. The hands of Northern readers shook with fury as they read the next day's newspapers. "STARTLING NEWS FROM KANSAS--THE WAR ACTUALLY BEGUN--LAWRENCE IN RUINS--SEVERAL PERSONS SLAUGHTERED," shouted the headlines of the New York Tribune . (Actually, no one was slaughtered, though one pro-slavery man died when a chunk of the Free State Hotel fell on his head.) Step 12: Insult Senators No one was angrier about events in Kansas than Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. In a speech he called "The Crime Against Kansas," Sumner called the pro-slavery army "murderous robbers from Missouri ... picked from the drunken spew and vomit." He also slammed senators who supported the Kansas-Nebraska Act, saving his most personal attack for Andrew Butler of South Carolina. Sumner charged Butler with loving slavery--and also hinted that Butler stammered and spat when he talked. This was a low blow, since Butler had difficulty speaking due to a stroke that had left him partially paralyzed. Even Sumner's friends were a bit offended. And Butler's friends were exploding with rage. That brings us all the way back to the point where we began: with the caneswinging Congressman Preston Brooks. Step 13: Hit Him Again! Preston Brooks was Senator Butler's cousin. Two days after Sumner's speech, Brooks walked into the Senate chamber looking for revenge. He strode up to Sumner's desk and declared: "I have read your speech twice over, carefully. It is libel [a false and harmful statement] on both South Carolina and on Senator Butler, who is a relative of mine." Then Brooks began beating Sumner on the head with his metal-tipped cane. Blood flowed down Sumner's face as he tried to wriggle his long legs out from under his desk, which was screwed into the floor. Sumner finally ripped up the desk, along with some of the floor, then stumbled to the ground. Brooks continued smacking Sumner until his cane snapped and he was yanked away by other members of Congress. Brooks was thrilled to find that his attack on Sumner made him a hero in the South. "Every Southern man is delighted," he boasted. One Virginia newspaper commented: "The only regret we feel is that Mr. Brooks did not employ a horsewhip ... instead of a cane." Dozens of Southerners sent him new canes, some with cute sayings on them such as "Hit Him Again!" Northerners were stunned by this reaction. One member of Congress had beaten another nearly to death and was considered a hero! Now you know why Brooks attacked Sumner--and you can see that the events leading to this attack were splitting the country apart. The conflict between the North and South was bitter, personal, and a little bit bloody. It was about to turn seriously violent. Text copyright © 2008 by Steve Sheinkin	5,308	ENGLISH	1
Africa has produced arguably the most vibrant of nationalists from the pre-colonial period right up to post-colonialism. The list cannot be exhausted but the following are part of the crème de la crème of African nationalism. Being a leader is not being a government official, it is having the necessary political clout to start a meaningful movement and contribute to African development. Nkrumah was a Ghanaian nationalist leader who led the country from 1957 to 1966. Nkrumah’s political journey started in 1935 when he entered Lincoln University in Pennsylvania in 1935. He graduated in 1939 and obtained master’s degrees from Lincoln and the University of Pennsylvania. At this point, Nkrumah had started his political journey having become the president of the African Students’ Organisation of the United States and Canada. He formed the Convention Peoples’ Party in June 1949. The party initiated a “positive action” campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities in January 1950. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment. In the Gold Coast’s February 1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and released from prison to become leader of government business. He became Prime Minister of the Gold Coast in 1952 and when the Gold Coast became an independent state within the British Commonwealth, he became the new nation, Ghana’s first Prime Minister. His leadership was authoritarian but he improved the infrastructure of the country and his Africanisation policies created better career opportunities for Ghanaians. He was deposed in a coup in 1966. Nkrumah’s beliefs are best expressed in his quote, “No people without a government of their own can expect to be treated on the same level as people of independent sovereign states. It is far better to be free to govern or misgovern yourself than to be governed by anybody else…” Nelson Mandela was the first black President of South Africa in 1994. He joined the African National Congress in 1944 when he helped to form the ANC Youth League. Through Nelson Mandela’s efforts, the ANC adopted a radical mass-based policy, the Programme of Action, in 1949.Mandela was arrested in a nationwide police operation on 5 December 1955. He was acquitted on 29 March 1961. On 21March 1960, police killed 69 people in a protest in Sharpeville and soon after, the government banned the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress. In 1961, he was called to lead the Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation) which was launched on 16 December 1961. Using the alias, David Motsamayi, he travelled around Africa garnering support for the armed struggle. He returned to South Africa in July 1962. Mandela and his counterparts are best known for the Rivonia trial of 1963 which resulted in him being imprisoned for 27 years. His famous “Speech from the Dock” quote is an immortal showpiece of nationalistic passion, “I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.” Julius Kambarage Nyerere, known as Mwalimu (teacher) was a shrewd politician, which is way more than can be said for most these days. Born to a chief in a small village, he had to walk 26 miles to get to school but he defied odds and excelled. He went to Tabora Government Secondary School and again, against every odd excelled. Nyerere became the first Tanzanian to study at a British university, the University of Edinburgh. At this point, he was already playing around with socialist ideas and on his return was made to choose between his teaching career and politics. His choice is clear, as he soon started working towards the unification of different nationalist factions. In 1954, TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) was formed and he became its President until 1977. He was elected President of the country in 1962. Tanzania was liberated without much bloodshed because of Nyerere’s willingness to work with different people. His skills helped the country deal with the Zanzibar coup in 1964 by incorporating the leaders into the union government. This incorporation spread out to community level with the formation of the organised villages to extend traditional values and responsibilities around kinship. No quote captures what Mwalimu stood for better than this, “The objective of socialism in the United Republic of Tanzania is to build a society in which all members have equal rights and equal opportunities; in which all can live in peace with their neighbours without suffering or imposing injustice, being exploited, or exploiting; and in increasing basic level of material welfare before any individual lives in luxury.” Robert Mugabe is the Zimbabwean premier and has led the Southern African nation since its liberation from colonial rule in 1980. His heroic stance against capitalism and neo-colonialism has earned him worldwide fame. The approach has not really changed, he is still a guerrilla fighter against the forces of imperialism at heart. Mugabe spent 11 years as a political prisoner under the Ian Smith regime and rose to lead the Zimbabwe African National Union in 1977. He was a major negotiator for ZANU in the Lancaster House Agreement which led to the liberation of Zimbabwe from minority rule. The Zimbabwean leader is also a man of great intelligence and was said to have taught inmates English and earned multiple degrees from the University of London while in prison. He was released from prison in 1977. Mugabe has said many things over the years but his Africanist ideologies are best expressed here; “Africa must revert to what it was before the imperialists divided it. These are artificial divisions which we, in our pan-African concept will seek to remove.” Patrice Emery Lumumba was born Elias Okit’Asombo on July 2, 1925 in the then Belgian Congo. Lumumba was mainly known for his poems and essays which opened doors for political involvement. Having been established as a leader in organising unions, he co-established the Congolese National Movement in 1958 and called for countrywide unity, blind to ethnicity and for freedom from colonialism. On June 30, the Democratic Republic of Congo took its independence from Belgium and 35 year old Lumumba became the Prime Minister. He however, faced numerous revolts as many other leaders were vying for power. Lumumba called for United Nations aid but got none and turned to the Soviet Union which did not go down well with the United States. It has emerged that a CIA operative was instructed to poison Lumumba but he chose not to. The country was taken over by Josephy Mobutu and Lumumba was captured and beaten to death in Katanga on the 17th of January 1961. Lumumba’s death is indeed a curious case. “The colonialists care nothing for Africa for her own sake. They are attracted by African riches and their actions are guided by the desire to preserve their interests in Africa against the wishes of the African people. For the colonialists all means are good if they help them to possess these riches,” went his speech at the All-African Conference in Leopoldville, in August 1960. Africa today was shaped by the African pride and hunger for African development of these and more great men. Books of their legacies have been and will be written but one thing is certain, their stories can be captured in one line; They are African heroes.	<urn:uuid:b18261d9-7500-4888-accb-29f318437fe0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.africanexponent.com/post/africas-nationalist-leaders-biographies-and-contributions-2823	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00094.warc.gz	en	0.982547	1,587	3.40625	3	[ -0.3400804400444031, 0.9995022416114807, 0.17111414670944214, -0.16981758177280426, 0.20694226026535034, 0.18559801578521729, 0.11800215393304825, -0.08546334505081177, -0.4838774800300598, 0.4913855791091919, 0.3530893325805664, -0.2860710024833679, 0.029595062136650085, 0.328017234802246...	6	Africa has produced arguably the most vibrant of nationalists from the pre-colonial period right up to post-colonialism. The list cannot be exhausted but the following are part of the crème de la crème of African nationalism. Being a leader is not being a government official, it is having the necessary political clout to start a meaningful movement and contribute to African development. Nkrumah was a Ghanaian nationalist leader who led the country from 1957 to 1966. Nkrumah’s political journey started in 1935 when he entered Lincoln University in Pennsylvania in 1935. He graduated in 1939 and obtained master’s degrees from Lincoln and the University of Pennsylvania. At this point, Nkrumah had started his political journey having become the president of the African Students’ Organisation of the United States and Canada. He formed the Convention Peoples’ Party in June 1949. The party initiated a “positive action” campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities in January 1950. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment. In the Gold Coast’s February 1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and released from prison to become leader of government business. He became Prime Minister of the Gold Coast in 1952 and when the Gold Coast became an independent state within the British Commonwealth, he became the new nation, Ghana’s first Prime Minister. His leadership was authoritarian but he improved the infrastructure of the country and his Africanisation policies created better career opportunities for Ghanaians. He was deposed in a coup in 1966. Nkrumah’s beliefs are best expressed in his quote, “No people without a government of their own can expect to be treated on the same level as people of independent sovereign states. It is far better to be free to govern or misgovern yourself than to be governed by anybody else…” Nelson Mandela was the first black President of South Africa in 1994. He joined the African National Congress in 1944 when he helped to form the ANC Youth League. Through Nelson Mandela’s efforts, the ANC adopted a radical mass-based policy, the Programme of Action, in 1949.Mandela was arrested in a nationwide police operation on 5 December 1955. He was acquitted on 29 March 1961. On 21March 1960, police killed 69 people in a protest in Sharpeville and soon after, the government banned the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress. In 1961, he was called to lead the Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation) which was launched on 16 December 1961. Using the alias, David Motsamayi, he travelled around Africa garnering support for the armed struggle. He returned to South Africa in July 1962. Mandela and his counterparts are best known for the Rivonia trial of 1963 which resulted in him being imprisoned for 27 years. His famous “Speech from the Dock” quote is an immortal showpiece of nationalistic passion, “I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.” Julius Kambarage Nyerere, known as Mwalimu (teacher) was a shrewd politician, which is way more than can be said for most these days. Born to a chief in a small village, he had to walk 26 miles to get to school but he defied odds and excelled. He went to Tabora Government Secondary School and again, against every odd excelled. Nyerere became the first Tanzanian to study at a British university, the University of Edinburgh. At this point, he was already playing around with socialist ideas and on his return was made to choose between his teaching career and politics. His choice is clear, as he soon started working towards the unification of different nationalist factions. In 1954, TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) was formed and he became its President until 1977. He was elected President of the country in 1962. Tanzania was liberated without much bloodshed because of Nyerere’s willingness to work with different people. His skills helped the country deal with the Zanzibar coup in 1964 by incorporating the leaders into the union government. This incorporation spread out to community level with the formation of the organised villages to extend traditional values and responsibilities around kinship. No quote captures what Mwalimu stood for better than this, “The objective of socialism in the United Republic of Tanzania is to build a society in which all members have equal rights and equal opportunities; in which all can live in peace with their neighbours without suffering or imposing injustice, being exploited, or exploiting; and in increasing basic level of material welfare before any individual lives in luxury.” Robert Mugabe is the Zimbabwean premier and has led the Southern African nation since its liberation from colonial rule in 1980. His heroic stance against capitalism and neo-colonialism has earned him worldwide fame. The approach has not really changed, he is still a guerrilla fighter against the forces of imperialism at heart. Mugabe spent 11 years as a political prisoner under the Ian Smith regime and rose to lead the Zimbabwe African National Union in 1977. He was a major negotiator for ZANU in the Lancaster House Agreement which led to the liberation of Zimbabwe from minority rule. The Zimbabwean leader is also a man of great intelligence and was said to have taught inmates English and earned multiple degrees from the University of London while in prison. He was released from prison in 1977. Mugabe has said many things over the years but his Africanist ideologies are best expressed here; “Africa must revert to what it was before the imperialists divided it. These are artificial divisions which we, in our pan-African concept will seek to remove.” Patrice Emery Lumumba was born Elias Okit’Asombo on July 2, 1925 in the then Belgian Congo. Lumumba was mainly known for his poems and essays which opened doors for political involvement. Having been established as a leader in organising unions, he co-established the Congolese National Movement in 1958 and called for countrywide unity, blind to ethnicity and for freedom from colonialism. On June 30, the Democratic Republic of Congo took its independence from Belgium and 35 year old Lumumba became the Prime Minister. He however, faced numerous revolts as many other leaders were vying for power. Lumumba called for United Nations aid but got none and turned to the Soviet Union which did not go down well with the United States. It has emerged that a CIA operative was instructed to poison Lumumba but he chose not to. The country was taken over by Josephy Mobutu and Lumumba was captured and beaten to death in Katanga on the 17th of January 1961. Lumumba’s death is indeed a curious case. “The colonialists care nothing for Africa for her own sake. They are attracted by African riches and their actions are guided by the desire to preserve their interests in Africa against the wishes of the African people. For the colonialists all means are good if they help them to possess these riches,” went his speech at the All-African Conference in Leopoldville, in August 1960. Africa today was shaped by the African pride and hunger for African development of these and more great men. Books of their legacies have been and will be written but one thing is certain, their stories can be captured in one line; They are African heroes.	1,680	ENGLISH	1
Medieval Lviv was surrounded by several rows of fortifications, walls with towers, and bastions. These fortifications were dismantled in 1772-1840, as they became ineffective at that time due to the emergence of new ways of battle. At that time, later bastion fortifications, surrounding a much larger area around the city, were dismantled too. On the one hand, it was a significant loss for the city, since some valuable examples of the 14th-18th cc. defensive architecture were destroyed. On the other hand, while compared to most cities of that time, Lviv got a much better possibility of territorial development. Its historic center was not closed any more, and new streets, public and residential buildings, public promenades, gardens, and parks began to appear on the territory of its suburbs which had actually looked more like a village before. Lviv was not an industrial center, but, being the capital of Galicia, it attracted people from surrounding villages and towns. That is why the city was constantly expanding in the 19th c., and the territory around its center was made more dense while the number of stories in buildings increased. At that time, one of the biggest challenges for the city was the need for more and more affordable housing. In the second half of the 19th c. the urban construction was aimed mostly at handling this problem. As in most European cities, it was mostly residential buildings that were constructed in Lviv at that time. These apartment buildings were built chiefly under typical projects; separate apartments or rooms in them were rented out. Whole streets of such houses grew in place of former palaces, villas, monastery gardens in different parts of the city. Lack of professional specialists and regulation in the field of construction were the main causes of disordered, often chaotic housing, whose effects are felt particularly acutely today. The city authorities were not prepared for the rapid growth of the city in the second half of the 19th c., both from administrative and technical points of view. New streets were laid then without understanding of the "general picture" of the city development. In many cases, engineers involved in designing the townhouses had no education in urban planning (Mączyński, 1908; Drexler, 1912). The plots were built up to the maximum limit (according to the 1885 building statute, only 13% of the plot were to remain free from housing; however, if several buildings were given a common courtyard, the percentage could be even lower). This led to the appearance of closely packed blocks of row housing with uncomfortable layout, with small and therefore badly lit and mostly wet courtyards, with awkwardly shaped rooms. Given that in the 1870-1880s, that is, in the first period of the so-called construction "boom" there was no electricity or centralized water supply and sanitation in the city, a large number of residential buildings needed modernization as early as the second half of the 1890s. "Designers are aimed only at getting as much income from land and buildings as possible and with minimum investment. Cities are built by profiteers, each in his own part, taking no care of general needs." Ignacy Drexler, Miasta ogrodowe, 1912, 4	<urn:uuid:9e5cc5bd-9b29-444d-b9f2-00fff07c478f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lia.lvivcenter.org/en/themes/bohomoltsia-street/urban-transformations-19th-c/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00261.warc.gz	en	0.99052	668	3.625	4	[ 0.08315455913543701, 0.17817625403404236, 0.4636940658092499, 0.6802256107330322, 0.17786964774131775, -0.09702076762914658, -0.6155699491500854, 0.3147539496421814, -0.10545362532138824, -0.001464339904487133, -0.007433322723954916, 0.006486563943326473, 0.02920697256922722, 0.15443792939...	8	Medieval Lviv was surrounded by several rows of fortifications, walls with towers, and bastions. These fortifications were dismantled in 1772-1840, as they became ineffective at that time due to the emergence of new ways of battle. At that time, later bastion fortifications, surrounding a much larger area around the city, were dismantled too. On the one hand, it was a significant loss for the city, since some valuable examples of the 14th-18th cc. defensive architecture were destroyed. On the other hand, while compared to most cities of that time, Lviv got a much better possibility of territorial development. Its historic center was not closed any more, and new streets, public and residential buildings, public promenades, gardens, and parks began to appear on the territory of its suburbs which had actually looked more like a village before. Lviv was not an industrial center, but, being the capital of Galicia, it attracted people from surrounding villages and towns. That is why the city was constantly expanding in the 19th c., and the territory around its center was made more dense while the number of stories in buildings increased. At that time, one of the biggest challenges for the city was the need for more and more affordable housing. In the second half of the 19th c. the urban construction was aimed mostly at handling this problem. As in most European cities, it was mostly residential buildings that were constructed in Lviv at that time. These apartment buildings were built chiefly under typical projects; separate apartments or rooms in them were rented out. Whole streets of such houses grew in place of former palaces, villas, monastery gardens in different parts of the city. Lack of professional specialists and regulation in the field of construction were the main causes of disordered, often chaotic housing, whose effects are felt particularly acutely today. The city authorities were not prepared for the rapid growth of the city in the second half of the 19th c., both from administrative and technical points of view. New streets were laid then without understanding of the "general picture" of the city development. In many cases, engineers involved in designing the townhouses had no education in urban planning (Mączyński, 1908; Drexler, 1912). The plots were built up to the maximum limit (according to the 1885 building statute, only 13% of the plot were to remain free from housing; however, if several buildings were given a common courtyard, the percentage could be even lower). This led to the appearance of closely packed blocks of row housing with uncomfortable layout, with small and therefore badly lit and mostly wet courtyards, with awkwardly shaped rooms. Given that in the 1870-1880s, that is, in the first period of the so-called construction "boom" there was no electricity or centralized water supply and sanitation in the city, a large number of residential buildings needed modernization as early as the second half of the 1890s. "Designers are aimed only at getting as much income from land and buildings as possible and with minimum investment. Cities are built by profiteers, each in his own part, taking no care of general needs." Ignacy Drexler, Miasta ogrodowe, 1912, 4	703	ENGLISH	1
Christina of Markyate made a formal vow of virginity at age 14, in about the year 1110. Two years later her family, an upper-class, Anglo-Saxon family in England, forced Christina into a betrothal. She was kept in physical custody for a year, during which an ecclesiastical judge was bribed to set aside her vow of virginity. The marriage took place at last. The resisting bride, however, would not consent to its physical consummation. She spent the night prepared for her deflowering recounting to her husband the story of St. Cecilia—the saint who had convinced her husband, Valerian, to live with her chastely until each could enter a monastery. Christina’s husband had other dreams. The situation was at an impasse. Christina then fled, with the aid of a local hermit. An anchoress (see “Terms of the Religious Life”) named Alfwen hid her for two years. Christina was then moved to a hermitage at Markyate, where some male hermits lived, and they secreted her for four more years. Ultimately her family accepted that her resolve would not weaken. The marriage was dissolved, and Christina became technically free to live a more “normal” religious life. By this time, however, the solitary lifestyle had become established. She became a hermitess, inheriting the site where she had hid for four years. In time a group of disciples formed around her, the hermitage becoming first a group household and ultimately a convent with Christina as abbess. Christina’s story takes us into all the types of religious life of her period. She was in turn a consecrated virgin, a recluse, a hermitess, and a nun. A traditional anchoress figures in her story as well. As her life illustrates, to be a bride of Christ was not necessarily to be a nun. Especially in the later Middle Ages, women pursued the religious life in a variety of forms. Most medieval women married the men their families chose for them or peaceably accepted consignment to the convent, the fate of many upper-class women of the High and Late Middle Ages. Such marriages, whether to men or to Christ, were reasonably successful. To be a bride of Christ was for many women not a denial of the “natural” desire to marry and bear children, but rather the route to a life more independent and intellectually creative than in the marriage of the day. Nuns were regulars, that is, they lived communally under rule (Latin regula) and took the three monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. They came to the convent, often as children, from the households of the rich and powerful; the shelter of a medieval nunnery was available to the daughters only of those who had the resources to build and endow them. One example was the great Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), famed mystic, author, and adviser to popes, kings, and emperors. As a frail child, she was dedicated to the church by her family, minor nobles in Rhineland Germany. At age 8, Hildegard was delivered into the care of a woman named Jutta, the daughter of the regional lord and a hermitess or anchoress. In her youth, Jutta had refused both marriage and the convent. She chose the solitary life and the anchorhold. Her father provided the setting and financial support. But Jutta’s renowned holiness soon brought her not only the young Hildegard as disciple but also others desiring to be associated with her. What had been a cell for a solitary gradually became an irregular (without rule) household for a group. By the time Hildegard was old enough to take vows, the household had been formally constituted as a convent with Jutta as abbess. So it was that Hildegard rode out her career as a nun and later as an abbess. While Hildegard’s religious decision was made for her by her family, and Jutta chose her religious vocation with the support of her family, other women made religious choices in opposition to the voices of their families. They demanded the right to be religious and if necessary connived to achieve it. Women may have been consigned to a nunnery, but never to any of the following professions. These were all lives of choice, lives embraced and desired, often against familial wishes. Occasionally women chose to be hermitesses. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, some women of religious bent rejected the communal and regulated life of the convent for the desolation and difficulty of a solitary life in the wilderness. Like many men in this period of religious revival, they took to the forests, the deserts, and the bogs. Alone or with a small group of like-minded individuals, they lived in makeshift dwellings and sought a mystical relationship with God. These hermitesses stood largely outside the formal organization of the church, unless they chose to accept the counsel of a caring clergyman. The nunneries of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the hermitages that grew in this same period, were aspects of a society almost completely rural. There remained abundant land, yet uncleared, on which a pious noble might found a convent for his daughter; there were forests within which an enterprising hermitess might establish herself. Towns were few, the distances between them long. These religious movements of withdrawal, paradoxically, gradually tamed and eliminated the environment to which they had fled. They cleared the land and provided outposts of civilization, encouraging and aiding the growth of towns and cities. By the thirteenth century western Europe was considerably deforested. The eremitic age was over, and new religious vocations for women emerged. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a more urban age, was the age of beguines and tertiaries. The beguine was merely a religious woman, mulier religiosa. She took temporary vows, usually of chastity and simplicity of life, donned some kind of identifying habit, and dedicated herself to good works. The beguine, a product of the growing cities of thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Europe, worked in those cities, answering the needs of the displaced poor and sick. She was bound to no order. She might live at home or with a group who shared her values. She could later renounce her vows and marry without difficulty. The beguine movement was the only religious current of the Middle Ages that was female in conception. It did not owe its impetus, its main support, or its direction to men. Pressure for the beguine movements (and the tertiary movements) was generated in part by an imbalance in the numbers of men and women of marriageable age. From this pool of unattached women arose more women who wanted to assume religious lives and more women available (because unmarried) to lead them. They awaited only the right stimulus to aid them in focusing their lives religiously. That stimulus emerged in late twelfth-century Belgium, from two women: Ivetta of Huy and Mary of Oignies. Ivetta of Huy (1157–1228) was born to an affluent family near Liege. She was married at 13 and widowed at 18, already the mother of three sons. She resisted the demands of her family to remarry and with the support and encouragement of the Bishop of Liege, she was allowed to take widow’s vows. She gave the care of her children to her father and spent the next ten years using her home as a hostel for pilgrims and travelers and working in a nearby leper colony. Still feeling too much contact with worldly affairs, Ivetta then moved to the leper colony, enclosed herself in a cell, and lived there as an anchoress until her death forty-eight years later, by then famed as a mystic. Mary of Oignies (1177–1213) also was born to wealth in the Brabant region. She was married at 14, against her will. More successful than Christina of Markyate, she was able to convince her husband that they live in continence and share a religious vocation. They worked together caring for lepers. Mary’s reputation spread, and she became the center of a group of women who lived chastely and worked among the sick. In 1207, after about fifteen years of work with the lepers and of exercising a kind of moral leadership over the amorphous community that had grown up around her, she retired to an anchorhold near Oignes. She lived in the cell only six years before dying at the age of 36. Mary and Ivetta both began their religious lives in the world. Though both gradually withdrew from the world, the concept that a religious life could be lived in the world was central to their perception. Poverty was also a tenet of their ideology; the families of these women had to constantly stand guard that they not decimate the family fortune with excessive almsgiving. Combining apostolic poverty and service in the world, they thus shared characteristics of the movements spurred later by St. Francis. From these women the beguines developed. The movement swept through the Low Countries and Germany in the thirteenth century, centered in the cities. The beguine movement accommodated women of more middling status than those who filled the nunneries. The beguines lived in the world, supporting themselves with any manner of honest work and spending the remainder of their time in charitable works. They served the poor and the sick in the urban environment. They banded together, unattached women of the cities, living separately or communally in houses (later called beguinages) built or bought with their own resources. To get a sense of how many there may have been, by the end of the fourteenth century there were about 1,500 beguines living in Cologne, a city whose general population was only about 20,000. Over a two-hundred-year period, on average, perhaps one in ten residents was a beguine. While acknowledging the social and demographic components of the movement, it is important to stress that this was essentially a religious happening, a great outpouring of religious fervor. These women, who stood apart from hierarchy and structure, were degraded by many. The word beguine itself was a smear meaning “heretic.” Yet the movement could not be stopped. It offered women a wide range of charitable employment with a minimum of complication, a self-regulated balance between outreach and contemplative withdrawal, and the freedom to change one’s mind and later marry or assume another religious role. Following upon the success of Francis of Assisi in the early thirteenth century, a number of mendicant communities (those who begged alms for a living) arose. These quickly organized into three orders. First Orders were the friars themselves—groups of wandering male preachers vowed to absolute poverty and complete dependence upon alms. Second Orders were for women in enclosed nunneries who sought to participate in the voluntary poverty of the friars, but in traditional form as nuns vowed to obedience. Third Orders took in laypersons, male and female, married and single, who in some measure identified with the reformist ideals and apostolic fervor of the early followers of Francis. Among these were many women, virgins as well as widows, who took vows (revocable), donned habits, and led religious lives of varying intensity. A tertiary was a member of such a Third Order. One of the most famous tertiaries was Catherine of Siena (1347–1380). The twenty-fourth of twenty-five children, her family was of a middling class. At 6 she had a mystical experience; at 7 she consecrated her virginity to Christ; at 16 she received the habit of a Dominican tertiary and then withdrew to a cell-like room in her family home for a prolonged period of intense mystical activity. She emerged after three years, committed to a religious life in the world. It was a brief life, but it took her into conversation and concert with princes and the popes of Avignon and Italy. Like the beguine movement, the tertiaries were a natural development, hard to date and hard to fully account for in their sudden explosion. Certainly the Franciscan movement had awakened a hunger in many for a return to the apostolic ideal of Scripture. More secure than the beguines, because they had the religious protection of the orders to which they were attached, tertiaries organized in several ways. While some tertiaries merely supported local friaries, others viewed their status as tertiary as a vocation in itself. In the late thirteenth century the ranks of the fully committed tertiaries split. Some remained seculars, like Catherine of Siena, living in the world, while others moved toward community and rule. One more major vocation existed: that of the anchoress. The anchoress was a solitary who, having made the decision to live alone, took vows and was forever bound to her cell. Free of rule, she was literally enclosed, most often in a room or little house attached to a church. Common throughout the period from 1100 to 1500, anchoresses were found next to village churches, town chapels, cathedrals in episcopal sees, or guild churches in commercial cities.	<urn:uuid:bb52f942-b8d5-4884-95df-8f1355ad02a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://triciaokekeblog.com/2017/09/five-religious-options-for-medieval-women/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00152.warc.gz	en	0.98479	2,826	3.375	3	[ -0.019041001796722412, 0.7989168763160706, -0.06853188574314117, 0.0636449009180069, -0.22499226033687592, 0.28393447399139404, -0.3689380884170532, -0.08735854923725128, 0.6705113053321838, 0.35680317878723145, 0.004820941016077995, 0.11530942469835281, 0.22111544013023376, -0.03747813031...	2	Christina of Markyate made a formal vow of virginity at age 14, in about the year 1110. Two years later her family, an upper-class, Anglo-Saxon family in England, forced Christina into a betrothal. She was kept in physical custody for a year, during which an ecclesiastical judge was bribed to set aside her vow of virginity. The marriage took place at last. The resisting bride, however, would not consent to its physical consummation. She spent the night prepared for her deflowering recounting to her husband the story of St. Cecilia—the saint who had convinced her husband, Valerian, to live with her chastely until each could enter a monastery. Christina’s husband had other dreams. The situation was at an impasse. Christina then fled, with the aid of a local hermit. An anchoress (see “Terms of the Religious Life”) named Alfwen hid her for two years. Christina was then moved to a hermitage at Markyate, where some male hermits lived, and they secreted her for four more years. Ultimately her family accepted that her resolve would not weaken. The marriage was dissolved, and Christina became technically free to live a more “normal” religious life. By this time, however, the solitary lifestyle had become established. She became a hermitess, inheriting the site where she had hid for four years. In time a group of disciples formed around her, the hermitage becoming first a group household and ultimately a convent with Christina as abbess. Christina’s story takes us into all the types of religious life of her period. She was in turn a consecrated virgin, a recluse, a hermitess, and a nun. A traditional anchoress figures in her story as well. As her life illustrates, to be a bride of Christ was not necessarily to be a nun. Especially in the later Middle Ages, women pursued the religious life in a variety of forms. Most medieval women married the men their families chose for them or peaceably accepted consignment to the convent, the fate of many upper-class women of the High and Late Middle Ages. Such marriages, whether to men or to Christ, were reasonably successful. To be a bride of Christ was for many women not a denial of the “natural” desire to marry and bear children, but rather the route to a life more independent and intellectually creative than in the marriage of the day. Nuns were regulars, that is, they lived communally under rule (Latin regula) and took the three monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. They came to the convent, often as children, from the households of the rich and powerful; the shelter of a medieval nunnery was available to the daughters only of those who had the resources to build and endow them. One example was the great Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), famed mystic, author, and adviser to popes, kings, and emperors. As a frail child, she was dedicated to the church by her family, minor nobles in Rhineland Germany. At age 8, Hildegard was delivered into the care of a woman named Jutta, the daughter of the regional lord and a hermitess or anchoress. In her youth, Jutta had refused both marriage and the convent. She chose the solitary life and the anchorhold. Her father provided the setting and financial support. But Jutta’s renowned holiness soon brought her not only the young Hildegard as disciple but also others desiring to be associated with her. What had been a cell for a solitary gradually became an irregular (without rule) household for a group. By the time Hildegard was old enough to take vows, the household had been formally constituted as a convent with Jutta as abbess. So it was that Hildegard rode out her career as a nun and later as an abbess. While Hildegard’s religious decision was made for her by her family, and Jutta chose her religious vocation with the support of her family, other women made religious choices in opposition to the voices of their families. They demanded the right to be religious and if necessary connived to achieve it. Women may have been consigned to a nunnery, but never to any of the following professions. These were all lives of choice, lives embraced and desired, often against familial wishes. Occasionally women chose to be hermitesses. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, some women of religious bent rejected the communal and regulated life of the convent for the desolation and difficulty of a solitary life in the wilderness. Like many men in this period of religious revival, they took to the forests, the deserts, and the bogs. Alone or with a small group of like-minded individuals, they lived in makeshift dwellings and sought a mystical relationship with God. These hermitesses stood largely outside the formal organization of the church, unless they chose to accept the counsel of a caring clergyman. The nunneries of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the hermitages that grew in this same period, were aspects of a society almost completely rural. There remained abundant land, yet uncleared, on which a pious noble might found a convent for his daughter; there were forests within which an enterprising hermitess might establish herself. Towns were few, the distances between them long. These religious movements of withdrawal, paradoxically, gradually tamed and eliminated the environment to which they had fled. They cleared the land and provided outposts of civilization, encouraging and aiding the growth of towns and cities. By the thirteenth century western Europe was considerably deforested. The eremitic age was over, and new religious vocations for women emerged. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, a more urban age, was the age of beguines and tertiaries. The beguine was merely a religious woman, mulier religiosa. She took temporary vows, usually of chastity and simplicity of life, donned some kind of identifying habit, and dedicated herself to good works. The beguine, a product of the growing cities of thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Europe, worked in those cities, answering the needs of the displaced poor and sick. She was bound to no order. She might live at home or with a group who shared her values. She could later renounce her vows and marry without difficulty. The beguine movement was the only religious current of the Middle Ages that was female in conception. It did not owe its impetus, its main support, or its direction to men. Pressure for the beguine movements (and the tertiary movements) was generated in part by an imbalance in the numbers of men and women of marriageable age. From this pool of unattached women arose more women who wanted to assume religious lives and more women available (because unmarried) to lead them. They awaited only the right stimulus to aid them in focusing their lives religiously. That stimulus emerged in late twelfth-century Belgium, from two women: Ivetta of Huy and Mary of Oignies. Ivetta of Huy (1157–1228) was born to an affluent family near Liege. She was married at 13 and widowed at 18, already the mother of three sons. She resisted the demands of her family to remarry and with the support and encouragement of the Bishop of Liege, she was allowed to take widow’s vows. She gave the care of her children to her father and spent the next ten years using her home as a hostel for pilgrims and travelers and working in a nearby leper colony. Still feeling too much contact with worldly affairs, Ivetta then moved to the leper colony, enclosed herself in a cell, and lived there as an anchoress until her death forty-eight years later, by then famed as a mystic. Mary of Oignies (1177–1213) also was born to wealth in the Brabant region. She was married at 14, against her will. More successful than Christina of Markyate, she was able to convince her husband that they live in continence and share a religious vocation. They worked together caring for lepers. Mary’s reputation spread, and she became the center of a group of women who lived chastely and worked among the sick. In 1207, after about fifteen years of work with the lepers and of exercising a kind of moral leadership over the amorphous community that had grown up around her, she retired to an anchorhold near Oignes. She lived in the cell only six years before dying at the age of 36. Mary and Ivetta both began their religious lives in the world. Though both gradually withdrew from the world, the concept that a religious life could be lived in the world was central to their perception. Poverty was also a tenet of their ideology; the families of these women had to constantly stand guard that they not decimate the family fortune with excessive almsgiving. Combining apostolic poverty and service in the world, they thus shared characteristics of the movements spurred later by St. Francis. From these women the beguines developed. The movement swept through the Low Countries and Germany in the thirteenth century, centered in the cities. The beguine movement accommodated women of more middling status than those who filled the nunneries. The beguines lived in the world, supporting themselves with any manner of honest work and spending the remainder of their time in charitable works. They served the poor and the sick in the urban environment. They banded together, unattached women of the cities, living separately or communally in houses (later called beguinages) built or bought with their own resources. To get a sense of how many there may have been, by the end of the fourteenth century there were about 1,500 beguines living in Cologne, a city whose general population was only about 20,000. Over a two-hundred-year period, on average, perhaps one in ten residents was a beguine. While acknowledging the social and demographic components of the movement, it is important to stress that this was essentially a religious happening, a great outpouring of religious fervor. These women, who stood apart from hierarchy and structure, were degraded by many. The word beguine itself was a smear meaning “heretic.” Yet the movement could not be stopped. It offered women a wide range of charitable employment with a minimum of complication, a self-regulated balance between outreach and contemplative withdrawal, and the freedom to change one’s mind and later marry or assume another religious role. Following upon the success of Francis of Assisi in the early thirteenth century, a number of mendicant communities (those who begged alms for a living) arose. These quickly organized into three orders. First Orders were the friars themselves—groups of wandering male preachers vowed to absolute poverty and complete dependence upon alms. Second Orders were for women in enclosed nunneries who sought to participate in the voluntary poverty of the friars, but in traditional form as nuns vowed to obedience. Third Orders took in laypersons, male and female, married and single, who in some measure identified with the reformist ideals and apostolic fervor of the early followers of Francis. Among these were many women, virgins as well as widows, who took vows (revocable), donned habits, and led religious lives of varying intensity. A tertiary was a member of such a Third Order. One of the most famous tertiaries was Catherine of Siena (1347–1380). The twenty-fourth of twenty-five children, her family was of a middling class. At 6 she had a mystical experience; at 7 she consecrated her virginity to Christ; at 16 she received the habit of a Dominican tertiary and then withdrew to a cell-like room in her family home for a prolonged period of intense mystical activity. She emerged after three years, committed to a religious life in the world. It was a brief life, but it took her into conversation and concert with princes and the popes of Avignon and Italy. Like the beguine movement, the tertiaries were a natural development, hard to date and hard to fully account for in their sudden explosion. Certainly the Franciscan movement had awakened a hunger in many for a return to the apostolic ideal of Scripture. More secure than the beguines, because they had the religious protection of the orders to which they were attached, tertiaries organized in several ways. While some tertiaries merely supported local friaries, others viewed their status as tertiary as a vocation in itself. In the late thirteenth century the ranks of the fully committed tertiaries split. Some remained seculars, like Catherine of Siena, living in the world, while others moved toward community and rule. One more major vocation existed: that of the anchoress. The anchoress was a solitary who, having made the decision to live alone, took vows and was forever bound to her cell. Free of rule, she was literally enclosed, most often in a room or little house attached to a church. Common throughout the period from 1100 to 1500, anchoresses were found next to village churches, town chapels, cathedrals in episcopal sees, or guild churches in commercial cities.	2,820	ENGLISH	1
5. The First Plan of Attack Was Hit with Roadblocks The British set out on their mission, reinforcing their defenses and carrying heavy artillery. The bombardment, which began on June 24th, led to the use of 1.7 million shells, which had been fired off in just under a week. Miners even dug tunnels to fill with explosives, hoping to annihilate 17 of the German defensive points from below. Unfortunately for Haig, the attack was less than effective. Many of the fired shells didn’t manage to cut through the protective barbed wire, and a substantial 30% of them didn’t explode at all. This meant the Germans were still able to safely return to their bunkers during heavy fire, avoiding any major pitfalls from shrapnel. Then, when the main assault was supposed to be underway on June 29th, weather had a different idea. Heavy rains made the grounds muddy and unusable, so any further attack was delayed even more. 4. The French Helped The British Fight Back on an Otherwise Deadly First Day July 1st was soon to become one of the deadliest days of the entire campaign – and it was only the first day of the main attack. The strategy to form a creeping barrage and make only small advances wasn’t proving very successful, as the Germans had more than enough time not facing heavy fire to return to their trenches and recreate their own stronghold. To make matters worse, the mud hadn’t dried from the heavy rainstorms, while the barbed wire was still in place. By the end of that day, the British were soon made aware of the huge cost of their amateur planning. They had endured 57,470 casualties – an astounding loss that is immeasurable to many others in war history. And though the French weren’t able to provide as many troops as they’d hoped, the arrival of their forces considerably helped. They brought with them large amounts of heavy artillery, and their continued support allowed the British in the south to make greater strides than their fellow men farther north.	<urn:uuid:299d783e-32fe-4602-8473-aed4348709c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/battle-somme-7-interesting-facts-shed-light-fateful-day/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00361.warc.gz	en	0.986895	426	3.375	3	[ -0.45596829056739807, 0.2563267946243286, 0.041891973465681076, -0.22459575533866882, -0.22899742424488068, 0.14601051807403564, -0.22305820882320404, 0.2563296854496002, 0.0487821064889431, -0.16296637058258057, 0.019205043092370033, -0.39791515469551086, 0.07811694592237473, 0.4894030690...	2	5. The First Plan of Attack Was Hit with Roadblocks The British set out on their mission, reinforcing their defenses and carrying heavy artillery. The bombardment, which began on June 24th, led to the use of 1.7 million shells, which had been fired off in just under a week. Miners even dug tunnels to fill with explosives, hoping to annihilate 17 of the German defensive points from below. Unfortunately for Haig, the attack was less than effective. Many of the fired shells didn’t manage to cut through the protective barbed wire, and a substantial 30% of them didn’t explode at all. This meant the Germans were still able to safely return to their bunkers during heavy fire, avoiding any major pitfalls from shrapnel. Then, when the main assault was supposed to be underway on June 29th, weather had a different idea. Heavy rains made the grounds muddy and unusable, so any further attack was delayed even more. 4. The French Helped The British Fight Back on an Otherwise Deadly First Day July 1st was soon to become one of the deadliest days of the entire campaign – and it was only the first day of the main attack. The strategy to form a creeping barrage and make only small advances wasn’t proving very successful, as the Germans had more than enough time not facing heavy fire to return to their trenches and recreate their own stronghold. To make matters worse, the mud hadn’t dried from the heavy rainstorms, while the barbed wire was still in place. By the end of that day, the British were soon made aware of the huge cost of their amateur planning. They had endured 57,470 casualties – an astounding loss that is immeasurable to many others in war history. And though the French weren’t able to provide as many troops as they’d hoped, the arrival of their forces considerably helped. They brought with them large amounts of heavy artillery, and their continued support allowed the British in the south to make greater strides than their fellow men farther north.	423	ENGLISH	1
Alboin, (died June 28, 572 or 573, Verona, Lombardy [Italy]), king of the Germanic Lombards whose exceptional military and political skills enabled him to conquer northern Italy. When Alboin succeeded his father, Audoin, about 565, the Lombards occupied Noricum and Pannonia (now in Austria and western Hungary), while their long-standing enemies the Gepidae bordered them on the east in Dacia (now Hungary). Astutely allying himself with the Avars, the eastern neighbours of the Gepidae, Alboin defeated his foes and killed their king, Cunimund. After the death of his first wife, he forced Cunimund’s daughter Rosamund to marry him. Wars against the Gepidae probably resumed thereafter nonetheless. Alboin assembled adventurers from other Germanic tribes, including some Saxons, and prepared his combined forces, together with their women and children, for a migration across the Alps into Italy, which was held at that time by the Byzantines. The severely disorganized and generally unprepared provinces in northern Italy offered little resistance to the invading Lombards. Having swept through Venice, Milan, Tuscany, and Benevento, in 572 or 573 Alboin conquered Pavia, on the Ticino River, the future capital of the newly created Lombard kingdom. According to tradition, Alboin was assassinated by order of his wife Rosamund after he had forced her to follow the Lombard custom of drinking from the skull of her slain father; the Byzantines seem to have had a hand in the plot.	<urn:uuid:f88671f7-958e-4809-bb77-2aa231e8cc70>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/print/article/13066	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00207.warc.gz	en	0.980891	343	3.46875	3	[ -0.756388783454895, 0.8677480816841125, -0.0006548531819134951, -0.005068494006991386, -0.5354035496711731, -0.3630502223968506, 0.15571582317352295, 0.09269116073846817, -0.05316518619656563, -0.4703771471977234, -0.44109708070755005, -0.4528403878211975, 0.13604113459587097, 0.2427805215...	2	Alboin, (died June 28, 572 or 573, Verona, Lombardy [Italy]), king of the Germanic Lombards whose exceptional military and political skills enabled him to conquer northern Italy. When Alboin succeeded his father, Audoin, about 565, the Lombards occupied Noricum and Pannonia (now in Austria and western Hungary), while their long-standing enemies the Gepidae bordered them on the east in Dacia (now Hungary). Astutely allying himself with the Avars, the eastern neighbours of the Gepidae, Alboin defeated his foes and killed their king, Cunimund. After the death of his first wife, he forced Cunimund’s daughter Rosamund to marry him. Wars against the Gepidae probably resumed thereafter nonetheless. Alboin assembled adventurers from other Germanic tribes, including some Saxons, and prepared his combined forces, together with their women and children, for a migration across the Alps into Italy, which was held at that time by the Byzantines. The severely disorganized and generally unprepared provinces in northern Italy offered little resistance to the invading Lombards. Having swept through Venice, Milan, Tuscany, and Benevento, in 572 or 573 Alboin conquered Pavia, on the Ticino River, the future capital of the newly created Lombard kingdom. According to tradition, Alboin was assassinated by order of his wife Rosamund after he had forced her to follow the Lombard custom of drinking from the skull of her slain father; the Byzantines seem to have had a hand in the plot.	352	ENGLISH	1
Similarities and differences between Elizabethan and Jacobean Era fashion. The Elizabethan and Jacobean Era fashion had a lot of similarities along with many differences. They both had a unique way of fashion whereby fashion to them brought great and better organize and proper foundation. The Elizabeth era were more into the v shape clothing whereby the clothes were more to fit the shape and body structure. While during the Jacobean era more of the “U” shaped clothing was worn. The Jacobean Era came up to be so enticed by ruffs, where clothing made from shiny, smooth silk satins and play of light on these fine fabrics. But the French or “wheel” farthingale from the Elizabethan Era had be replaced with a softer mode of kilting the gown skirts. The open jacket and gown shaped like the letter “U” were now being worn over the abdomen. They both on the other hand, used clothing as a way to distinguish and set standards, differential their time and build a society of more civilized and great power. The Elizabethan Era was into being quite elegant and classy .It was just another fashion conscious era, in which the way to show their personality and individuality was through their way of style and fashion. They were more known on fashion ideas and the way people found self-expression through it. In the beginning of the Elizabethan Era, women dressed casual and formal and The Elizabethan Era simply refers to a period, which was under the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Elizabethan Era is also known as the Golden Age in History. This was the time when one saw the great new formation of English literature. It was also a brief period, which saw some amount of internal peace between the English Reformation and the clashes between other communities. Clothing in the Elizabethan Era also saw an influence of geometric shapes. They took time and effort in showing of the natural shape and structure of their individual bodies. They decorated their body with fine materials that was quite great in amount, size and quality. They did this so to perceive an impression of a small waist. And this was not only shown in women but men as well, where they also wanted really thin body so to show their masculinity. One would also need to note that the Elizabethan Era was one such period, which saw a proper division of class. With it, fashion was a way to distinguish great class and status. The Sumptuary Laws were passed that stated the kind of clothing one would have to wear. Fashion also saw many changes and in the beginning of the Elizabethan Era, one can notice that the Elizabethan clothing was styled to cover every part of a woman’s body. Elizabethan clothing was also characterized by the kind of class one belonged to. People who belonged to the lower strata of society wore clothing made from materials like wool, sheepskin and even linen. People who belonged to this category were not allowed to wear materials in silk or even have velvet trimmings. Men’s clothing in the Elizabethan Era also witnessed quite a few changes. Men wore ‘jerkins’ which were shirts with buttons down in the front. Men who belonged to the upper class also wore fine silk hats with a single feather. Shoes were always made of fine quality leather. Long, flowing cloaks and tall hats were also added to the kind of clothing worn in the Elizabethan Era. These laws were passed by Queen Elizabeth and were also known as Statutes of Apparel. It was basically done to clearly demarcate the social structure existing in the Elizabethan Era. The Queen herself and only her relations were allowed to wear clothing that used gold or gold tissue as an embellishment. In the Jacobean Era, as the ruff grew in size and ornamentation, the rest of the clothing became more simple and elegant but if one was to look carefully, one will notice clothing made from shiny, smooth silk satins and painters who reveled in the play of light on these fine fabrics. The drape of these glorious textiles was emphasized by the arrangement of the fabric over the hips. Another style exists about the same time. Open-front jackets or gowns reveal brightly colored brocade stomachers shaped in a low U over the abdomen. The style is best portrayed in Ruben’s Portrait of himself, where his first wife, Isabella Brant. Most of the portraits of women drawn of the Jacobean Era, they featured women wearing the ornate stomachers, whish are usually in only bit of color in an outfit of the rest of which is shockingly black. This stomachers seems to be the Dutchwoman’s outlet for panache. The bodice is still quite structured, varying from a shockingly low necking to a high collar, but the gown skirts or petticoats have become softer and no longer appear to be worn with a farthingale. The ornate decoration of the Elizabethan period also seems to be subsiding. It is being replaced by the sumptuous silks and minimal trim that so clearly mark the Stuart fashions to come The Fashion in the Elizabethan Era and Jacobean Era both gave way to a new era o fashion and clothing. They brought out some of the ideas in which are still present in today’s dressing. It is quite obvious that they centered on fashion and many other things, but with it they brought great changes to the world as a whole. The changes and influence they had and still have on the world is quite enormous. The doors they open for us and the eyes they widened are those that let us all to build our own way and new way of STYLE.	<urn:uuid:f26a91d5-75a4-4976-9c87-0553a35c1804>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://getfreeessays.com/fashion-in-the-elizabethan-and-jacobean-era/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00325.warc.gz	en	0.986293	1,174	3.546875	4	[ -0.08732762187719345, 0.24863992631435394, 0.6313775181770325, 0.0757012665271759, 0.020185133442282677, 0.1482345014810562, 0.02568896859884262, -0.05889147147536278, -0.4781672954559326, -0.6304857730865479, -0.22500616312026978, 0.06531127542257309, 0.19464713335037231, 0.10693461447954...	4	Similarities and differences between Elizabethan and Jacobean Era fashion. The Elizabethan and Jacobean Era fashion had a lot of similarities along with many differences. They both had a unique way of fashion whereby fashion to them brought great and better organize and proper foundation. The Elizabeth era were more into the v shape clothing whereby the clothes were more to fit the shape and body structure. While during the Jacobean era more of the “U” shaped clothing was worn. The Jacobean Era came up to be so enticed by ruffs, where clothing made from shiny, smooth silk satins and play of light on these fine fabrics. But the French or “wheel” farthingale from the Elizabethan Era had be replaced with a softer mode of kilting the gown skirts. The open jacket and gown shaped like the letter “U” were now being worn over the abdomen. They both on the other hand, used clothing as a way to distinguish and set standards, differential their time and build a society of more civilized and great power. The Elizabethan Era was into being quite elegant and classy .It was just another fashion conscious era, in which the way to show their personality and individuality was through their way of style and fashion. They were more known on fashion ideas and the way people found self-expression through it. In the beginning of the Elizabethan Era, women dressed casual and formal and The Elizabethan Era simply refers to a period, which was under the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Elizabethan Era is also known as the Golden Age in History. This was the time when one saw the great new formation of English literature. It was also a brief period, which saw some amount of internal peace between the English Reformation and the clashes between other communities. Clothing in the Elizabethan Era also saw an influence of geometric shapes. They took time and effort in showing of the natural shape and structure of their individual bodies. They decorated their body with fine materials that was quite great in amount, size and quality. They did this so to perceive an impression of a small waist. And this was not only shown in women but men as well, where they also wanted really thin body so to show their masculinity. One would also need to note that the Elizabethan Era was one such period, which saw a proper division of class. With it, fashion was a way to distinguish great class and status. The Sumptuary Laws were passed that stated the kind of clothing one would have to wear. Fashion also saw many changes and in the beginning of the Elizabethan Era, one can notice that the Elizabethan clothing was styled to cover every part of a woman’s body. Elizabethan clothing was also characterized by the kind of class one belonged to. People who belonged to the lower strata of society wore clothing made from materials like wool, sheepskin and even linen. People who belonged to this category were not allowed to wear materials in silk or even have velvet trimmings. Men’s clothing in the Elizabethan Era also witnessed quite a few changes. Men wore ‘jerkins’ which were shirts with buttons down in the front. Men who belonged to the upper class also wore fine silk hats with a single feather. Shoes were always made of fine quality leather. Long, flowing cloaks and tall hats were also added to the kind of clothing worn in the Elizabethan Era. These laws were passed by Queen Elizabeth and were also known as Statutes of Apparel. It was basically done to clearly demarcate the social structure existing in the Elizabethan Era. The Queen herself and only her relations were allowed to wear clothing that used gold or gold tissue as an embellishment. In the Jacobean Era, as the ruff grew in size and ornamentation, the rest of the clothing became more simple and elegant but if one was to look carefully, one will notice clothing made from shiny, smooth silk satins and painters who reveled in the play of light on these fine fabrics. The drape of these glorious textiles was emphasized by the arrangement of the fabric over the hips. Another style exists about the same time. Open-front jackets or gowns reveal brightly colored brocade stomachers shaped in a low U over the abdomen. The style is best portrayed in Ruben’s Portrait of himself, where his first wife, Isabella Brant. Most of the portraits of women drawn of the Jacobean Era, they featured women wearing the ornate stomachers, whish are usually in only bit of color in an outfit of the rest of which is shockingly black. This stomachers seems to be the Dutchwoman’s outlet for panache. The bodice is still quite structured, varying from a shockingly low necking to a high collar, but the gown skirts or petticoats have become softer and no longer appear to be worn with a farthingale. The ornate decoration of the Elizabethan period also seems to be subsiding. It is being replaced by the sumptuous silks and minimal trim that so clearly mark the Stuart fashions to come The Fashion in the Elizabethan Era and Jacobean Era both gave way to a new era o fashion and clothing. They brought out some of the ideas in which are still present in today’s dressing. It is quite obvious that they centered on fashion and many other things, but with it they brought great changes to the world as a whole. The changes and influence they had and still have on the world is quite enormous. The doors they open for us and the eyes they widened are those that let us all to build our own way and new way of STYLE.	1,129	ENGLISH	1
Tuskaloosa (Tuskalusa, Tastaluca, Tuskaluza) (died 1540) was a paramount chief of a Mississippian chiefdom in what is now the U.S. state of Alabama. His people were possibly ancestors to the several southern Native American confederacies (the Choctaw and Creek peoples) who later emerged in the region. The modern city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama is named for him. Tuskaloosa is notable for leading the Battle of Mabila at his fortified village against the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto. After being taken hostage by the Spanish as they passed through his territory, Tuskaloosa organized a surprise attack on his captors at Mabila, but was ultimately defeated. Contemporary records describe the paramount chief as being very tall and well built, with some of the chroniclers saying Tuaskaloosa stood a foot and a half taller than the Spaniards. His name, derived from the western Muskogean language elements taska and losa, means "Black Warrior".	<urn:uuid:63002974-3b97-4c53-bd6b-1ee5c774301f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://findwords.info/term/tuskaloosa	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00098.warc.gz	en	0.981682	227	3.578125	4	[ -0.5529099106788635, 0.11306164413690567, 0.2821369767189026, 0.1140761449933052, -0.42262396216392517, -0.14432348310947418, 0.3003315329551697, -0.06313817203044891, -0.45731520652770996, -0.2991936504840851, 0.12789186835289001, -0.3363948464393616, 0.0953841283917427, 0.122643642127513...	1	Tuskaloosa (Tuskalusa, Tastaluca, Tuskaluza) (died 1540) was a paramount chief of a Mississippian chiefdom in what is now the U.S. state of Alabama. His people were possibly ancestors to the several southern Native American confederacies (the Choctaw and Creek peoples) who later emerged in the region. The modern city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama is named for him. Tuskaloosa is notable for leading the Battle of Mabila at his fortified village against the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto. After being taken hostage by the Spanish as they passed through his territory, Tuskaloosa organized a surprise attack on his captors at Mabila, but was ultimately defeated. Contemporary records describe the paramount chief as being very tall and well built, with some of the chroniclers saying Tuaskaloosa stood a foot and a half taller than the Spaniards. His name, derived from the western Muskogean language elements taska and losa, means "Black Warrior".	225	ENGLISH	1
The Africans have been ignorant of the bounty so munificently made available to them by nature. They were mostly engaged in hewing the wood and drawing water for their European overlords. The Europeans’ race for exploiting the resources of Africa began seriously in 1870 and it was completed by 1898. The European settlements were mostly concentrated in those areas where the white men had found the climate favourable and conditions good for raising the crops. The French Africa had an area of about 10.300,000 square km; the British Africa 5,150,000 square km. The Belgians mainly confined to Congo, ruled over an area of 2,345,410 square km; the Portuguese Africa contained 2,000,000 square km and Spain was content with a moderate 345,000 square km. All that the European nations had to do was to reach any particular territory first of all and each of them claimed it as its own. There were only about 50 lakh whites to govern this vast continent. Out of this number 25 lakhs were in South Africa, and 16 lakhs were in French North Africa. There were only about a million white Europeans in the rest of Africa. In 1951, there were only four independent African States. Egypt, Ethiopia. South Africa and Liberia; the last having been formed by American Colonisation Society in 1870 as a home for the repatriated Negro slaves.	<urn:uuid:f0d4c3bc-0315-451f-a5ba-ded4ee3e3e25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://houghtonlakeboard.org/few-amazing-facts-about-african-nations-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00301.warc.gz	en	0.987589	279	3.375	3	[ -0.14509810507297516, 0.46440839767456055, 0.1231158897280693, 0.16035321354866028, -0.029562359675765038, -0.36445173621177673, -0.07786591351032257, -0.18871639668941498, -0.0006379290134645998, 0.6821451783180237, 0.4123525023460388, -0.9741591215133667, -0.16077660024166107, 0.18528738...	3	The Africans have been ignorant of the bounty so munificently made available to them by nature. They were mostly engaged in hewing the wood and drawing water for their European overlords. The Europeans’ race for exploiting the resources of Africa began seriously in 1870 and it was completed by 1898. The European settlements were mostly concentrated in those areas where the white men had found the climate favourable and conditions good for raising the crops. The French Africa had an area of about 10.300,000 square km; the British Africa 5,150,000 square km. The Belgians mainly confined to Congo, ruled over an area of 2,345,410 square km; the Portuguese Africa contained 2,000,000 square km and Spain was content with a moderate 345,000 square km. All that the European nations had to do was to reach any particular territory first of all and each of them claimed it as its own. There were only about 50 lakh whites to govern this vast continent. Out of this number 25 lakhs were in South Africa, and 16 lakhs were in French North Africa. There were only about a million white Europeans in the rest of Africa. In 1951, there were only four independent African States. Egypt, Ethiopia. South Africa and Liberia; the last having been formed by American Colonisation Society in 1870 as a home for the repatriated Negro slaves.	323	ENGLISH	1
A depiction of pigs in a medieval church in northern Italy made Pig Progress editor Vincent ter Beek wonder what pig production must have been like in Italy in the early 12th century. It’s a story of oak forests, sheep, guilds and indigenous breeds. If you didn’t know they were there, you may never have noticed them. The pigs on the picture below I photographed myself when being on holiday in Aosta, a city in the north of Italy, in a valley in the Alps. Photo: Vincent ter Beek, RBI The pigs formed the top decoration of columns in church cloisters, those of the St Orso collegiate church. These were constructed in 1133 AD, almost 900 years ago, I read. Taking a closer look, I noticed the animals seem to have hairs on their backs – are they wild boars? No, just look in the background – there’s a similar column, showing sheep. I found pigs – even here in a place that breathes history! Mirroring daily life It is not as surprising as it might seem. Sculptures like these can be found in many medieval churches. Between religious works, usually craftsmen added elements from day-to-day life, sometimes even being slightly cheeky and furtively mocking ruling classes. Often, however, they just mirrored daily life. Pig farming clearly was important enough in daily life to make it to a craftsman’s imagination. My mind drifted off. What kind of pig farming were we talking about in 12th century Italy? Pig farming was profitable Various sources report that the business had been very profitable, already in the Late Roman Empire, say from the years 0-400 AD. Just imagine the thriving city of classical Rome requiring tonnes of pork every year and it’s easy to imagine why providing pork to Rome alone would have been a very good business to be in. Pigs, oaks and chestnuts Interestingly, I found, pig production was an activity that was connected to oak forests, especially in the early Middle Ages. The pigs were usually kept in forests and usually fed on acorns. Prof Paolo Squatriti, Michigan University, USA, wrote in 2013 in his book Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy that the “size [of woodland] was evaluated in terms of the number of pigs a wood of oak could maintain.” Prof Squatriti goes on to describe, however, as the centuries went by, chestnut forests became more preferred by Italy’s inhabitants, as chestnuts were versatile trees and unlike acorns, chestnuts were commonly also eaten by humans. As pigs eat anything, pigs and chestnut groves therefore did not go well together. When chestnuts – castagna – became a staple diet, goats and sheep gained in importance, as they showed to have no interest in the chestnuts. Pigs were liked The growing importance of the chestnut trees is not likely to have caused a dip in pig production. In personal correspondence, Prof Squatriti e-mailed me, “the bones of pigs are found quite abundantly in early medieval garbage dumps.” Likely, the forests led to ‘spatial zoning’, pigs were restricted to mature forests but kept away from the ‘nut-producing groves’. After all, pigs were useful, he writes in his book, “Pigs were the most efficient transformers available in the Mediterranean of materials people could not eat into something people liked.” And people did like pork! When Italy’s medieval cities gradually started to flourish after the year 1000 – guilds of pig slaughterers and processors sprang up everywhere. The city of Bologna for instance, knew powerful groups of skilled workers specialised in preserving pork meat. In the late 13th century, almost 300 of these shops had formed. A quick word on the breed of pigs they might have used: Italy used to know a wide variety of indigenous breeds, of which most have disappeared. In total, 6 have been saved from extinction only a few years ago and have been given official protective status by the Italian ministry of agriculture and forestry. These are the Apulo-Calabrese, the Casertana, the Cinta Senese, the Mora Romagnola, the Nero Siciliano and the Sarda. All continue to exist now, mostly in fairly small populations. And yes, some of these breeds have been known for a long time. The picture below shows a fragment of a mural painting, which can be found in Siena’s town hall – it shows a pig farmer, most probably having a Cinta Senese breed with him. The painting is dated back to 1339. So where was pig production at in Northern Italy in 1133, at the time when the stone pigs were carved on top of the column? I conclude it must have been a fairly profitable business – in oak forests or with special care around chestnut forests. I imagine the early pig herdsmen to be using local breeds – and there were definitely people in the cities who knew how to deal with pig carcasses. Aosta Valley in 2016 Nowadays, there are no pigs any more in the Aosta Valley. Pigs haven’t been counted there since the mid-1990s. As motorways have made the area very accessible, it’s probably easier to transport pork there than to try and raise pigs against alpine slopes. Dairy cows, that’s about it, according to Eurostat.	<urn:uuid:9a90c9ee-38c7-414d-a444-a649f87b9d11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pigprogress.net/Finishers/Articles/2016/7/Producing-pigs--what-was-it-like-in-the-Middle-Ages-16693E/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00178.warc.gz	en	0.980413	1,156	3.40625	3	[ -0.10298244655132294, 0.5264924764633179, -0.050372105091810226, 0.3557088375091553, -0.19994936883449554, 0.10685946047306061, -0.6719563007354736, -0.03512252867221832, 0.12985077500343323, 0.36298513412475586, -0.35297781229019165, -0.6871613264083862, 0.22461864352226257, 0.43178480863...	5	A depiction of pigs in a medieval church in northern Italy made Pig Progress editor Vincent ter Beek wonder what pig production must have been like in Italy in the early 12th century. It’s a story of oak forests, sheep, guilds and indigenous breeds. If you didn’t know they were there, you may never have noticed them. The pigs on the picture below I photographed myself when being on holiday in Aosta, a city in the north of Italy, in a valley in the Alps. Photo: Vincent ter Beek, RBI The pigs formed the top decoration of columns in church cloisters, those of the St Orso collegiate church. These were constructed in 1133 AD, almost 900 years ago, I read. Taking a closer look, I noticed the animals seem to have hairs on their backs – are they wild boars? No, just look in the background – there’s a similar column, showing sheep. I found pigs – even here in a place that breathes history! Mirroring daily life It is not as surprising as it might seem. Sculptures like these can be found in many medieval churches. Between religious works, usually craftsmen added elements from day-to-day life, sometimes even being slightly cheeky and furtively mocking ruling classes. Often, however, they just mirrored daily life. Pig farming clearly was important enough in daily life to make it to a craftsman’s imagination. My mind drifted off. What kind of pig farming were we talking about in 12th century Italy? Pig farming was profitable Various sources report that the business had been very profitable, already in the Late Roman Empire, say from the years 0-400 AD. Just imagine the thriving city of classical Rome requiring tonnes of pork every year and it’s easy to imagine why providing pork to Rome alone would have been a very good business to be in. Pigs, oaks and chestnuts Interestingly, I found, pig production was an activity that was connected to oak forests, especially in the early Middle Ages. The pigs were usually kept in forests and usually fed on acorns. Prof Paolo Squatriti, Michigan University, USA, wrote in 2013 in his book Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy that the “size [of woodland] was evaluated in terms of the number of pigs a wood of oak could maintain.” Prof Squatriti goes on to describe, however, as the centuries went by, chestnut forests became more preferred by Italy’s inhabitants, as chestnuts were versatile trees and unlike acorns, chestnuts were commonly also eaten by humans. As pigs eat anything, pigs and chestnut groves therefore did not go well together. When chestnuts – castagna – became a staple diet, goats and sheep gained in importance, as they showed to have no interest in the chestnuts. Pigs were liked The growing importance of the chestnut trees is not likely to have caused a dip in pig production. In personal correspondence, Prof Squatriti e-mailed me, “the bones of pigs are found quite abundantly in early medieval garbage dumps.” Likely, the forests led to ‘spatial zoning’, pigs were restricted to mature forests but kept away from the ‘nut-producing groves’. After all, pigs were useful, he writes in his book, “Pigs were the most efficient transformers available in the Mediterranean of materials people could not eat into something people liked.” And people did like pork! When Italy’s medieval cities gradually started to flourish after the year 1000 – guilds of pig slaughterers and processors sprang up everywhere. The city of Bologna for instance, knew powerful groups of skilled workers specialised in preserving pork meat. In the late 13th century, almost 300 of these shops had formed. A quick word on the breed of pigs they might have used: Italy used to know a wide variety of indigenous breeds, of which most have disappeared. In total, 6 have been saved from extinction only a few years ago and have been given official protective status by the Italian ministry of agriculture and forestry. These are the Apulo-Calabrese, the Casertana, the Cinta Senese, the Mora Romagnola, the Nero Siciliano and the Sarda. All continue to exist now, mostly in fairly small populations. And yes, some of these breeds have been known for a long time. The picture below shows a fragment of a mural painting, which can be found in Siena’s town hall – it shows a pig farmer, most probably having a Cinta Senese breed with him. The painting is dated back to 1339. So where was pig production at in Northern Italy in 1133, at the time when the stone pigs were carved on top of the column? I conclude it must have been a fairly profitable business – in oak forests or with special care around chestnut forests. I imagine the early pig herdsmen to be using local breeds – and there were definitely people in the cities who knew how to deal with pig carcasses. Aosta Valley in 2016 Nowadays, there are no pigs any more in the Aosta Valley. Pigs haven’t been counted there since the mid-1990s. As motorways have made the area very accessible, it’s probably easier to transport pork there than to try and raise pigs against alpine slopes. Dairy cows, that’s about it, according to Eurostat.	1,132	ENGLISH	1
World War I began in the year 1914 and lasted through to 1918. While the war started off in Europe, with Germany attempting to become the supreme power in the region, its influence was not limited to that region. The Middle East too was severely impacted by the global turbulence. The Great War carved the history of the Arab world by triggering crucial political upheavals and changes in core beliefs. The Ottoman Empire had been in power for over four centuries and had become the biggest Islamic power in the world. Neutrality in international conflicts, especially the Great War, had been a rule that the Empire had enforced upon itself. However, in 1914, it declared war on Great Britain, Russia and France, becoming actively involved in the war. The Ottoman Empire has suffered several defeats in its campaigns against Libya and the Balkans. While getting embroiled in an international conflict may seem unreasonable, the Ottomans were far too confident of Germany’s military capabilities. They saw the war as an opportunity to form an alliance with the growing imperial powers in Europe and regain lost territories in the process, maybe even expand its borders . While Britain was aware that the Ottoman Empire had a massive army, they were uncertain of its capabilities. However, considering that it was a German ally, Britain initiated a pre-emptive strike by landing troops in Basra. The Central powers retaliated by attempting to seize the Suez Canal but faced defeat and heavy losses. Britain, wanting to push the Ottomans out of the war, further launched a naval attack against them. However, not being able to cross the Dardanelles, it was the British who faced defeat at the Gallipoli peninsula. The British responded to this embarrassment by initiating a modern weapons intensive offensive against Istanbul, a force that the Ottomans could not possible match . In April 1916, the British strengthened their forces in Mesopotamia as well as Egypt and prepared to annex Palestine. By 1917, Britain was almost certain of overthrowing the Ottoman Empire. Baghdad was defeated on 11 March, which was followed by a blitz attack on Gaza. However, this proved to be a disaster and the British faced heavy losses. Allied forces were facing losses in Europe around the same time, with the March Revolution rendering Russian forces inert and the French army’s mutiny weakened the forces further. The burden of battling with Central Powers in the Middle East, hence, fell on Britain . Strengthened by soldiers from Australia and New Zealand, General Sir Edmund Allenby conquered Jerusalem on 11 December 1917. After a few months of setbacks, Allenby was reinforced with soldiers from India. On 19 September 1918, he launched an artillery and air force offensive in the Battle of Megiddo and successfully defeated the Ottoman armies. He moved further, conquering Damascus on 1 October, finally taking Aleppo on 26 October. An armistice with the Ottoman Empire was brought into effect and marked the official fall of the Ottoman Empire . It was discovered that the Syrians wanted independent rule under Faysal and, under no circumstances, wanted any involvement of the French. However, Palestine presented a much greater and sensitive problem. Supporting the Zionist claims would trigger a long term conflict among the Jews and the Arabs, a struggle that has continued to haunt the region in modern times. Hence, the commission decided to reduce Jewish immigration into Palestine and any claims to make Palestine a Zionist home land were not entertained . However, President Wilson died and the report remained unpublished for years. Britain and France resolved their differences, with France gaining control over Syria and Lebanon while Palestine and Iraq fell into British hands. This distribution was agreed to by the French and British at San Marino, Italy, in 1920, while the Ottoman authorities signed the Treaty of Sevres in August 1920 . Further, all freed lands were placed under the ‘tutelage’ of a great power with the aim of learning effective governance. The great powers in turn reported to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations in an attempt to prevent exploitation of the freed people. Hence, none of the promises made to the Arabs were fulfilled, setting the stage for a political crisis that is continuing nearly a century later. The French followed the imperialistic approach of divide and rule, and spilt Syria up into several smaller states. The most crucial of this carving into states was the separation of Lebanon. Syria and Lebanon continue to be at logger heads even today. The British tried to follow a more diplomatic approach when dealing with its territories. Although Husayn, of the Hashmites, ruled the Hijaz, his erratic behavior and growing discords, led the British to withdraw their support. They did not intercede when the Saudi Arabians invaded and annexed Hijaz. In order to curb growing revolts in Iraq, the British brought Faysal back, considering the fact that he was supported and respected by most of the Arabian tribes However, Abdallah had won over Amman and, not being given the opportunity to rule Bagdhad, threatened to launch an attack of the French occupied Syria. In order to avoid further strife and revolt in an already volatile Arab region, the then Colonial Secretary, Winston Churchill gave him temporary rule of that part of Palestine that lay on the Eastern side of the river Jordan. This arrangement was favored by the Zionists who saw it as an opportunity to gain permissions for Jewish settlements across Palestine, eventually leading to a Jewish state. However, the French looked at this development as a threat to its absolute rule over Syria and Lebanon . In conclusion, the smaller tribes of Arabs had supported the British as well as the French in bringing down the Ottoman Empire. They had done so with the hope that, once the Ottoman rule was over, they would be granted independence and allowed to rule their lands as per their own principles of governance. However, once World War I was over and the Ottoman Empire had fallen, the Allied powers failed to keep their pledges and the Arabs found themselves to have been betrayed. Yet, this sudden exposure to international politics created awareness among the Arabs about the lack of political understanding and manipulation within their own ranks. This awareness led to the Arabs to reconsider their political doctrines and methods and take measures to reconcile their development with the rest of their world. As a result, several smaller nations progressed at a faster rate than they had in the past and began to emerge as contenders for Allied power occupied territories. The tribes that had been betrayed turned into states that have continued to strive to regain lost territories. Of these, the Palestine – Israel and Syria – Lebanon conflicts have been the most pre-dominant. The entire Middle Eastern region has been a constant area of revolts and uprisings, with its political geography being re-arranged time and again. While the Arabs may have inter-personal discords, they are united in their negativity towards Western nations, which greatly hampers diplomatic solutions to various crisis’s even today. The short term political decisions made during and immediately after World War I, have had a severe and lasting long term impact on the Middle East. Goldschmidt, A. Jr. and L. Davidson. A Concise History of the Middle east, Ninth Edition. Boulder: Westview Press, 2010. Woodword, D. R. BBC History – The Middle East During World War One. 3 October 2011. 24 October 2011	<urn:uuid:a2ac6f78-c539-4c5b-ac35-c2ad4b0cab78>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/pre-and-post-world-war-i-middle-east-essay-sample/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00325.warc.gz	en	0.981088	1,491	3.640625	4	[ -0.1030602753162384, 0.3845646381378174, 0.3938233256340027, -0.12351031601428986, -0.16775766015052795, 0.03246693313121796, -0.20523104071617126, 0.23367507755756378, 0.18517570197582245, -0.14087210595607758, 0.19206735491752625, -0.3455350995063782, 0.18465793132781982, 0.3419000804424...	1	World War I began in the year 1914 and lasted through to 1918. While the war started off in Europe, with Germany attempting to become the supreme power in the region, its influence was not limited to that region. The Middle East too was severely impacted by the global turbulence. The Great War carved the history of the Arab world by triggering crucial political upheavals and changes in core beliefs. The Ottoman Empire had been in power for over four centuries and had become the biggest Islamic power in the world. Neutrality in international conflicts, especially the Great War, had been a rule that the Empire had enforced upon itself. However, in 1914, it declared war on Great Britain, Russia and France, becoming actively involved in the war. The Ottoman Empire has suffered several defeats in its campaigns against Libya and the Balkans. While getting embroiled in an international conflict may seem unreasonable, the Ottomans were far too confident of Germany’s military capabilities. They saw the war as an opportunity to form an alliance with the growing imperial powers in Europe and regain lost territories in the process, maybe even expand its borders . While Britain was aware that the Ottoman Empire had a massive army, they were uncertain of its capabilities. However, considering that it was a German ally, Britain initiated a pre-emptive strike by landing troops in Basra. The Central powers retaliated by attempting to seize the Suez Canal but faced defeat and heavy losses. Britain, wanting to push the Ottomans out of the war, further launched a naval attack against them. However, not being able to cross the Dardanelles, it was the British who faced defeat at the Gallipoli peninsula. The British responded to this embarrassment by initiating a modern weapons intensive offensive against Istanbul, a force that the Ottomans could not possible match . In April 1916, the British strengthened their forces in Mesopotamia as well as Egypt and prepared to annex Palestine. By 1917, Britain was almost certain of overthrowing the Ottoman Empire. Baghdad was defeated on 11 March, which was followed by a blitz attack on Gaza. However, this proved to be a disaster and the British faced heavy losses. Allied forces were facing losses in Europe around the same time, with the March Revolution rendering Russian forces inert and the French army’s mutiny weakened the forces further. The burden of battling with Central Powers in the Middle East, hence, fell on Britain . Strengthened by soldiers from Australia and New Zealand, General Sir Edmund Allenby conquered Jerusalem on 11 December 1917. After a few months of setbacks, Allenby was reinforced with soldiers from India. On 19 September 1918, he launched an artillery and air force offensive in the Battle of Megiddo and successfully defeated the Ottoman armies. He moved further, conquering Damascus on 1 October, finally taking Aleppo on 26 October. An armistice with the Ottoman Empire was brought into effect and marked the official fall of the Ottoman Empire . It was discovered that the Syrians wanted independent rule under Faysal and, under no circumstances, wanted any involvement of the French. However, Palestine presented a much greater and sensitive problem. Supporting the Zionist claims would trigger a long term conflict among the Jews and the Arabs, a struggle that has continued to haunt the region in modern times. Hence, the commission decided to reduce Jewish immigration into Palestine and any claims to make Palestine a Zionist home land were not entertained . However, President Wilson died and the report remained unpublished for years. Britain and France resolved their differences, with France gaining control over Syria and Lebanon while Palestine and Iraq fell into British hands. This distribution was agreed to by the French and British at San Marino, Italy, in 1920, while the Ottoman authorities signed the Treaty of Sevres in August 1920 . Further, all freed lands were placed under the ‘tutelage’ of a great power with the aim of learning effective governance. The great powers in turn reported to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the League of Nations in an attempt to prevent exploitation of the freed people. Hence, none of the promises made to the Arabs were fulfilled, setting the stage for a political crisis that is continuing nearly a century later. The French followed the imperialistic approach of divide and rule, and spilt Syria up into several smaller states. The most crucial of this carving into states was the separation of Lebanon. Syria and Lebanon continue to be at logger heads even today. The British tried to follow a more diplomatic approach when dealing with its territories. Although Husayn, of the Hashmites, ruled the Hijaz, his erratic behavior and growing discords, led the British to withdraw their support. They did not intercede when the Saudi Arabians invaded and annexed Hijaz. In order to curb growing revolts in Iraq, the British brought Faysal back, considering the fact that he was supported and respected by most of the Arabian tribes However, Abdallah had won over Amman and, not being given the opportunity to rule Bagdhad, threatened to launch an attack of the French occupied Syria. In order to avoid further strife and revolt in an already volatile Arab region, the then Colonial Secretary, Winston Churchill gave him temporary rule of that part of Palestine that lay on the Eastern side of the river Jordan. This arrangement was favored by the Zionists who saw it as an opportunity to gain permissions for Jewish settlements across Palestine, eventually leading to a Jewish state. However, the French looked at this development as a threat to its absolute rule over Syria and Lebanon . In conclusion, the smaller tribes of Arabs had supported the British as well as the French in bringing down the Ottoman Empire. They had done so with the hope that, once the Ottoman rule was over, they would be granted independence and allowed to rule their lands as per their own principles of governance. However, once World War I was over and the Ottoman Empire had fallen, the Allied powers failed to keep their pledges and the Arabs found themselves to have been betrayed. Yet, this sudden exposure to international politics created awareness among the Arabs about the lack of political understanding and manipulation within their own ranks. This awareness led to the Arabs to reconsider their political doctrines and methods and take measures to reconcile their development with the rest of their world. As a result, several smaller nations progressed at a faster rate than they had in the past and began to emerge as contenders for Allied power occupied territories. The tribes that had been betrayed turned into states that have continued to strive to regain lost territories. Of these, the Palestine – Israel and Syria – Lebanon conflicts have been the most pre-dominant. The entire Middle Eastern region has been a constant area of revolts and uprisings, with its political geography being re-arranged time and again. While the Arabs may have inter-personal discords, they are united in their negativity towards Western nations, which greatly hampers diplomatic solutions to various crisis’s even today. The short term political decisions made during and immediately after World War I, have had a severe and lasting long term impact on the Middle East. Goldschmidt, A. Jr. and L. Davidson. A Concise History of the Middle east, Ninth Edition. Boulder: Westview Press, 2010. Woodword, D. R. BBC History – The Middle East During World War One. 3 October 2011. 24 October 2011	1,537	ENGLISH	1
The beothuk an extinct nationWho are the beothuk? Why are they relevant to Canadian history? Why are they extinct? ”The Beothuk are a group of extinct first nations peoples from Newfoundland who were Algonquian speaking hunter gatherers”- Ralph T. Pastore. The beothuk were indigenous to newfoundland for thousands of years. The adjustment to the newcomer European explorers were not beneficial in there own favour. But before contact what were there traditions and relations to the other indigenous groups of newfoundland? And why did the turn out of post contact affect them to be extinct?The beothuk inhabited the island of newfoundland estimated since the 1500s and are believed to be the ancestors of people they call ”the little passage people”. Today they believe that the Innu are there closest relatives to the Beothuk because on the land of Newfoundland, Labrador and parts of Quebec had a group of people named “the revenge point“ which were the closes related to Innu and Beothuk. The Beothuk are not the first group of humans to reside on Newfoundland but were still indigenous to that land at a later period. With not having records of population there is no actual answer as to how many people were from this indigenous group. The Beothuk population estimates there could have been 500-2000 which is a very wide range in numbers.Similar to majority of indigenous societies the Beothuk were very knowledgeable about their surroundings and relied on the land. These people are said to have had the knowledge of plants in the area and would harvest edible roots, berries and fruits. Hunting was a huge part of survival, The areas of the island had many options for hunting as they could fish, hunt sea mammals or inland animals. The most common animal to hunt would be the caribou because of the food source, hyde and fur to keep warm. Relating to other groups it seems by archaeologist dig sites that they had a migration system on land dependent on season which would circle other animal systems that most benefited towards hunting. There is not much evidence and knowledge as to traditions culture or religion because of the minimal connections to these people. A forsure part to their lives that we can be certain about was the technologies they used and had further adapted as settlers came. For hunting they had used spears and harpoons made from wood. With caribou traveling the land as a migration system and having the Beothuk knowledgeable of when and where they would have been in the area, they would build fences made from cut trees to trap the caribou as a hunting technique. From the many tools they made it was common to use red ochre on the different resources as well as they would use it on their bodies. When settlers and explorers arrived they had described the beothuk as ” red indians” since having the ochre on them which is interesting to think that may be a part of the origins of describing indignouse as red skinned people. Housing for this group of individuals looked similar to a wigwam and tipis combined, Using wood or birchbark homes without hyde but in a triangular shape. The Beothuk also had separate housing to store there food in 10 feet long buildings made of wood that looked similar to a longhouses used by other indigenous groups. To prevent rotting and to utilize proper perseverance of their food they would dry and smoke meat then place the meat in birchbark baskets, They would also store fat of seal to use for heating up on a fire and a technique for cooking. After contact there were abandoned european sites from returnal or simply moving elsewhere on the island and the Beothuk were known for taking left items and transforming the objects for personal use which changed some habits but aided. Their homes remain the same but tools like a spear for example would now have iron tips and partially change traditions.The Beothuk were isolated from outer peoples and may have had trading networks or relations with fellow indigenous peoples of newfoundland but it is unknown. They were commonly said to travel separate in groups from 50-90 as large families. European explorer John Cabot( Giovanni Caboto) arrived to Newfoundland being one of the first settlers to have encountered possibly the Beothuk or Innu in Canadian history. Later John Cabot after his first arrival in 1497s attempted to claim land for Henry VII of england and returned two other times. Shortly after the arrival Europeans developed relationship trading networks with other indigenous groups on the island mainly mi’kmaq.The explorers began to come in larger numbers taking up more land space. The Beothuk avoid contact with europeans and were almost never involved in trade. With taking up larger spaces the beothuk were forced to areas that were different from their main hunting grounds. Over 300+ years the Beothuk slowly died out with as they know the last one of their kind passing in 1829. It is not certain if there may have been a few unknown Beothuk still alive after for further years but still being extinct within that time period. Reasoning of extinction basses off the loss of the main areas that were now inhabited by settlers that they followed for hunting strategies and became scarce on food. A huge factor that was a main theory as to an addition on how the Beothuk people became extinct is catching the foreign viruses from there new neighbors such as smallpox. The interesting part is they have no official documentation as to official reasoning of death so there is no guarantee that there prefered idea of what would make sense beliefs are true that leads people to different conspiracies.The Beothuk one of the indigenous groups from the past that are now gone and still a mystery to us today. With Newfoundland being the first place to be colonized even if it was the last province added to Canada after a 49/50 vote out of 100 it shows the impact towards indigenous peoples throughout Canadian history. There extinction is tragic but not forgotten as they have good representation historically in St.John’s museum The Rooms. Hopefully in the future we’ll find more information by artifacts to learn more on this society. The Beothuk were one of the many indigenous groups on newfoundland and first to be discovered in canadian history as we know.	<urn:uuid:098a6168-a389-48ee-92e5-615c5647a79d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://firstnightdanbury.org/the-on-the-land-of-newfoundland-labrador/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00080.warc.gz	en	0.986326	1,283	3.828125	4	[ -0.22668585181236267, 0.5251193642616272, 0.265136182308197, 0.17063015699386597, -0.04128448665142059, -0.34202757477760315, 0.03970199078321457, 0.1571863889694214, -0.3253207504749298, 0.26337870955467224, 0.09130805730819702, -0.5517908930778503, 0.24606215953826904, 0.1085749566555023...	2	The beothuk an extinct nationWho are the beothuk? Why are they relevant to Canadian history? Why are they extinct? ”The Beothuk are a group of extinct first nations peoples from Newfoundland who were Algonquian speaking hunter gatherers”- Ralph T. Pastore. The beothuk were indigenous to newfoundland for thousands of years. The adjustment to the newcomer European explorers were not beneficial in there own favour. But before contact what were there traditions and relations to the other indigenous groups of newfoundland? And why did the turn out of post contact affect them to be extinct?The beothuk inhabited the island of newfoundland estimated since the 1500s and are believed to be the ancestors of people they call ”the little passage people”. Today they believe that the Innu are there closest relatives to the Beothuk because on the land of Newfoundland, Labrador and parts of Quebec had a group of people named “the revenge point“ which were the closes related to Innu and Beothuk. The Beothuk are not the first group of humans to reside on Newfoundland but were still indigenous to that land at a later period. With not having records of population there is no actual answer as to how many people were from this indigenous group. The Beothuk population estimates there could have been 500-2000 which is a very wide range in numbers.Similar to majority of indigenous societies the Beothuk were very knowledgeable about their surroundings and relied on the land. These people are said to have had the knowledge of plants in the area and would harvest edible roots, berries and fruits. Hunting was a huge part of survival, The areas of the island had many options for hunting as they could fish, hunt sea mammals or inland animals. The most common animal to hunt would be the caribou because of the food source, hyde and fur to keep warm. Relating to other groups it seems by archaeologist dig sites that they had a migration system on land dependent on season which would circle other animal systems that most benefited towards hunting. There is not much evidence and knowledge as to traditions culture or religion because of the minimal connections to these people. A forsure part to their lives that we can be certain about was the technologies they used and had further adapted as settlers came. For hunting they had used spears and harpoons made from wood. With caribou traveling the land as a migration system and having the Beothuk knowledgeable of when and where they would have been in the area, they would build fences made from cut trees to trap the caribou as a hunting technique. From the many tools they made it was common to use red ochre on the different resources as well as they would use it on their bodies. When settlers and explorers arrived they had described the beothuk as ” red indians” since having the ochre on them which is interesting to think that may be a part of the origins of describing indignouse as red skinned people. Housing for this group of individuals looked similar to a wigwam and tipis combined, Using wood or birchbark homes without hyde but in a triangular shape. The Beothuk also had separate housing to store there food in 10 feet long buildings made of wood that looked similar to a longhouses used by other indigenous groups. To prevent rotting and to utilize proper perseverance of their food they would dry and smoke meat then place the meat in birchbark baskets, They would also store fat of seal to use for heating up on a fire and a technique for cooking. After contact there were abandoned european sites from returnal or simply moving elsewhere on the island and the Beothuk were known for taking left items and transforming the objects for personal use which changed some habits but aided. Their homes remain the same but tools like a spear for example would now have iron tips and partially change traditions.The Beothuk were isolated from outer peoples and may have had trading networks or relations with fellow indigenous peoples of newfoundland but it is unknown. They were commonly said to travel separate in groups from 50-90 as large families. European explorer John Cabot( Giovanni Caboto) arrived to Newfoundland being one of the first settlers to have encountered possibly the Beothuk or Innu in Canadian history. Later John Cabot after his first arrival in 1497s attempted to claim land for Henry VII of england and returned two other times. Shortly after the arrival Europeans developed relationship trading networks with other indigenous groups on the island mainly mi’kmaq.The explorers began to come in larger numbers taking up more land space. The Beothuk avoid contact with europeans and were almost never involved in trade. With taking up larger spaces the beothuk were forced to areas that were different from their main hunting grounds. Over 300+ years the Beothuk slowly died out with as they know the last one of their kind passing in 1829. It is not certain if there may have been a few unknown Beothuk still alive after for further years but still being extinct within that time period. Reasoning of extinction basses off the loss of the main areas that were now inhabited by settlers that they followed for hunting strategies and became scarce on food. A huge factor that was a main theory as to an addition on how the Beothuk people became extinct is catching the foreign viruses from there new neighbors such as smallpox. The interesting part is they have no official documentation as to official reasoning of death so there is no guarantee that there prefered idea of what would make sense beliefs are true that leads people to different conspiracies.The Beothuk one of the indigenous groups from the past that are now gone and still a mystery to us today. With Newfoundland being the first place to be colonized even if it was the last province added to Canada after a 49/50 vote out of 100 it shows the impact towards indigenous peoples throughout Canadian history. There extinction is tragic but not forgotten as they have good representation historically in St.John’s museum The Rooms. Hopefully in the future we’ll find more information by artifacts to learn more on this society. The Beothuk were one of the many indigenous groups on newfoundland and first to be discovered in canadian history as we know.	1,292	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (619 words) Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar (June 23, 47 BC – August 23, 30 BC), better known by the nicknames Caesarion and Ptolemy Caesar, was the last king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, who reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. Caesarion was proclaimed a god, son of god and “King of Kings”. Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra’s son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. However, Caesarion’s guardians, including his tutor, either were themselves lured by false promises of mercy into returning the boy to Alexandria or perhaps even betrayed him; on the ground that Octavian invited him to take the kingdom of Egypt. The final conflict between Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) and Octavian (future Emperor Augustus), Antony shared control of the Republic in a triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, but Lepidus was forced into retirement by Octavian in 36 BC, leaving Antony and Octavian as rivals. Two years later, in 34 BC, Antony granted various eastern lands and titles to Caesarion and to his own three children with Cleopatra. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian’s forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of a snake bite on August 12, 30 BC. She was briefly outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but he was soon killed on Octavian’s orders, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus. Had Caesarion executed in Alexandria, following the advice of Arius Didymus, he advised Augustus to execute Caesarion, with the words “ouk agathon polukaisarie” (“it’s not good to have too many Caesars”) Augustus (Octavian) (September 23, 63 BC – August 19, 14 AD) is the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD. Augustus died in 14 AD at the age of 75. He may have died from natural causes, though there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law) Tiberius. Alexander Helios (25 December 40 BC – possibly between 29 BC – 25 BC) was a Ptolemaic prince and was the eldest son of Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony. Cleopatra Selene II (25 December 40 BC-anywhere from 9 March 5 BC to 6), also known as Cleopatra VIII of Egypt or Cleopatra VIII was a Ptolemaic Princess and was the only daughter to Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony. Ptolemy Philadelphus ( August/September 36 BC – 29 BC) was a Ptolemaic prince and was the youngest and fourth child of Greek Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and her third with Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. Octavian took him and elder siblings Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II from Egypt to Italy. Octavian celebrated his military triumph in Rome, by parading the three orphans in heavy golden chains in the streets of Rome. The chains were so heavy they could not walk, prompting reactions of sympathy from the Romans. The three siblings were taken by Octavian and given to Octavia Minor, Octavian’s second elder sister and the siblings’ father Mark Antony’s former wife. Tiberius (16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD), was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Pontius Pilatus, known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate, was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus’ trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus. As prefect, he served under Emperor Tiberius. Cite this page Jesus or Caesarion. (2018, Aug 08). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/jesus-or-caesarion-essay	<urn:uuid:f350fe5f-bd30-4614-99ff-332cc4b4a625>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/jesus-or-caesarion-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00350.warc.gz	en	0.981688	974	3.484375	3	[ -0.1481400430202484, 0.4491562247276306, 0.13075077533721924, 0.28807592391967773, -0.7864758968353271, -0.46585872769355774, 0.49013346433639526, 0.4021809995174408, 0.2960166335105896, 0.04454314336180687, 0.21806946396827698, -0.6526409983634949, -0.2159627228975296, 0.2312837541103363,...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (619 words) Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar (June 23, 47 BC – August 23, 30 BC), better known by the nicknames Caesarion and Ptolemy Caesar, was the last king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, who reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. Caesarion was proclaimed a god, son of god and “King of Kings”. Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra’s son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. However, Caesarion’s guardians, including his tutor, either were themselves lured by false promises of mercy into returning the boy to Alexandria or perhaps even betrayed him; on the ground that Octavian invited him to take the kingdom of Egypt. The final conflict between Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) and Octavian (future Emperor Augustus), Antony shared control of the Republic in a triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, but Lepidus was forced into retirement by Octavian in 36 BC, leaving Antony and Octavian as rivals. Two years later, in 34 BC, Antony granted various eastern lands and titles to Caesarion and to his own three children with Cleopatra. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian’s forces, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of a snake bite on August 12, 30 BC. She was briefly outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but he was soon killed on Octavian’s orders, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus. Had Caesarion executed in Alexandria, following the advice of Arius Didymus, he advised Augustus to execute Caesarion, with the words “ouk agathon polukaisarie” (“it’s not good to have too many Caesars”) Augustus (Octavian) (September 23, 63 BC – August 19, 14 AD) is the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD. Augustus died in 14 AD at the age of 75. He may have died from natural causes, though there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law) Tiberius. Alexander Helios (25 December 40 BC – possibly between 29 BC – 25 BC) was a Ptolemaic prince and was the eldest son of Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony. Cleopatra Selene II (25 December 40 BC-anywhere from 9 March 5 BC to 6), also known as Cleopatra VIII of Egypt or Cleopatra VIII was a Ptolemaic Princess and was the only daughter to Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony. Ptolemy Philadelphus ( August/September 36 BC – 29 BC) was a Ptolemaic prince and was the youngest and fourth child of Greek Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, and her third with Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. Octavian took him and elder siblings Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene II from Egypt to Italy. Octavian celebrated his military triumph in Rome, by parading the three orphans in heavy golden chains in the streets of Rome. The chains were so heavy they could not walk, prompting reactions of sympathy from the Romans. The three siblings were taken by Octavian and given to Octavia Minor, Octavian’s second elder sister and the siblings’ father Mark Antony’s former wife. Tiberius (16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD), was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Pontius Pilatus, known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate, was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus’ trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus. As prefect, he served under Emperor Tiberius. Cite this page Jesus or Caesarion. (2018, Aug 08). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/jesus-or-caesarion-essay	986	ENGLISH	1
Today we went on a walk around our local area. As part of our Geography Topic work we had planned a route from our school to Red House Park. We followed our route today and visited the park. The children were very sensible and they stayed safe by crossing the road carefully at the crossing […] This week we went to collect data by counting vehicles we could see on the Stoney Stanton Road. We created a tally chart then used the vocabulary ‘more than’ and ‘less than’ to describe what we saw. On Monday 20th January, Year 1 are going for a walk around our local area. As part of our learning in Topic we have planned a route on a map to walk to Red House Park We are going to use this map to find our way there on Monday. We are looking for parent […] This week the children have worked really hard in maths. They are getting really good at recalling number bonds to 10 and have shared this by matching numbers using Numicon tiles. They have also been adding using different representations. They used cubes, drew pictures and wrote number sentences to show their thinking. This week the children have been working really hard learning about Kenya. They have located Africa and Kenya on a map and looked at the weather there. They have been learning about what Kenya is like and Christmas traditions they have there. Some of them are the same as ours in the U.K. Well done […] We have been learning about 2D and 3D shapes, the children are getting really good at naming the shapes. Can you see any of these shapes in your house? The children have been learning about the seasons. The looked at what happened in each season and how things change throughout the year. We have also been learning about the weather and the symbols that represent different types of weather. Today we compared Winter to Summer. This week we have been learning to read, follow and write instructions. We followed instructions to make jam sandwiches, and when we followed the last rule to eat them…we though they were delicious! This week the children have worked hard to learn the letters of the alphabet and use the correct names of the letters when spelling words. They have also been using the alphabet to put words in order. What are the letters in your name? Can you spell your name using the correct names for the […] This week we had a very enjoyable trip to the theatre to watch ‘The Gruffalo’ and ‘Zog’ written by Julia Donaldson. The children have talked about their trip and recounted it using time connectives. We have been learning about the 4 seasons, Summer, Autumn, Spring and Winter. We learnt about how the trees change in each season. We had great fun finger painting to show the leaves in each season. England 🏴 scored 9 tries, then they scored 5 more. How many tries did they score altogether? Write the number sentences and work out the answer. The final score was England 🏴 28 South Africa 🇿🇦 12. Who won? Explain how you know. I had 15 tickets to the World Cup, I gave 6 away […] This week the children have been developing their maths and investigation skills. We have had lots of fun playing lots of different games and keeping score. We have also been to the class shop and used our number bonds to help us work out how much change we would get if we paid with 10p. […] We had a great time acting out, and retelling the story ‘Room on the Broom’ by Julia Donaldson. This week in book week we have been sharing lots of stories. The children have enjoyed listening to stories by Julia Donaldson and they like to read stories with their friends. We are getting really good at reading our reading books. Well done 1 White. As part of our Health and Wellbeing day today we thought about how to keep our minds healthy. We know we can do lots of things and get better if we practise and try hard…this is called having a ‘Growth mindset’. If at first we don’t succeed, we try, try again! This week in Maths we have been learning to use a variety of positional language. We used words like under, above, next to, left and right, inside and behind. Can you describe somethings in your house using positional language. This week the children have been learning all the different ways to make 10. They are getting better at recalling them and we have used our song to help us to remember them. What number bonds do you know that make 10? This week as part of our Geography topic we went on a walk around our local area. We saw lots of different places and identified them on the map. The children walked very sensibly and we are very proud of how well behaved they were on our walk. Well done 1 White. Back at school, […] We have really enjoyed reading the story ‘Peace at last’ by Jill Murphy. We know the story well and have enjoyed retelling it. As part of our Geography topic this half term Year 1 will be going for a walk around the local area on Monday 23rd September in the afternoon. If any parents would like to join us on this walk please speak to your child’s class teacher. This week in Science the children were learning to name the parts of their body. We sang songs and played games to name their body parts, then had great fun drawing around each other and labelling these parts using post-it notes. Well done 1 White we are very proud of how hard you are working. The children in 1 White are superstars and they know how to follow the rules. We thought about how to be a good citizen and what we want to be like in our class and our school. We used bees as our inspiration, as one of the artists we have learnt about this week, Graham […] Today the children have worked really hard and we are all so proud of them on their first day in year 1. They started our art week off by doing lots of drawing, painting and making. A great start 1 White, keep up the good work! We had fun today looking a different bicycles and cars and observing how they have changed over time. We even spotted James Starley, can you see him in our video? This week the children have been having good fun learning about James Starley who was the father of the bicycle industry. Today we read a pirate poem called ‘Meet the Pirates’. The children rehearsed the poem then performed it in a group with their friends. We were very impressed with how confident you were when you spoke and how you used loud clear voices. Well done! Today we had the most fantastic day on our trip to Coombe Abbey. The children were great at spotting and naming wild plants. They also enjoyed the pond dipping and feeding the birds. Well done 1 White we are so proud of you!	<urn:uuid:d1010701-95ff-4ba9-ab56-af414ddb983c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.broadheath.coventry.sch.uk/author/lramsell/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00213.warc.gz	en	0.982834	1,439	3.453125	3	[ -0.26499825716018677, -0.353547066450119, 0.384082555770874, 0.14034885168075562, -0.2675667405128479, 0.4391138553619385, 0.1377774327993393, -0.03855109214782715, -0.5229043960571289, 0.26501044631004333, 0.34576743841171265, -0.2689172327518463, 0.11961402744054794, 0.3605746030807495, ...	1	Today we went on a walk around our local area. As part of our Geography Topic work we had planned a route from our school to Red House Park. We followed our route today and visited the park. The children were very sensible and they stayed safe by crossing the road carefully at the crossing […] This week we went to collect data by counting vehicles we could see on the Stoney Stanton Road. We created a tally chart then used the vocabulary ‘more than’ and ‘less than’ to describe what we saw. On Monday 20th January, Year 1 are going for a walk around our local area. As part of our learning in Topic we have planned a route on a map to walk to Red House Park We are going to use this map to find our way there on Monday. We are looking for parent […] This week the children have worked really hard in maths. They are getting really good at recalling number bonds to 10 and have shared this by matching numbers using Numicon tiles. They have also been adding using different representations. They used cubes, drew pictures and wrote number sentences to show their thinking. This week the children have been working really hard learning about Kenya. They have located Africa and Kenya on a map and looked at the weather there. They have been learning about what Kenya is like and Christmas traditions they have there. Some of them are the same as ours in the U.K. Well done […] We have been learning about 2D and 3D shapes, the children are getting really good at naming the shapes. Can you see any of these shapes in your house? The children have been learning about the seasons. The looked at what happened in each season and how things change throughout the year. We have also been learning about the weather and the symbols that represent different types of weather. Today we compared Winter to Summer. This week we have been learning to read, follow and write instructions. We followed instructions to make jam sandwiches, and when we followed the last rule to eat them…we though they were delicious! This week the children have worked hard to learn the letters of the alphabet and use the correct names of the letters when spelling words. They have also been using the alphabet to put words in order. What are the letters in your name? Can you spell your name using the correct names for the […] This week we had a very enjoyable trip to the theatre to watch ‘The Gruffalo’ and ‘Zog’ written by Julia Donaldson. The children have talked about their trip and recounted it using time connectives. We have been learning about the 4 seasons, Summer, Autumn, Spring and Winter. We learnt about how the trees change in each season. We had great fun finger painting to show the leaves in each season. England 🏴 scored 9 tries, then they scored 5 more. How many tries did they score altogether? Write the number sentences and work out the answer. The final score was England 🏴 28 South Africa 🇿🇦 12. Who won? Explain how you know. I had 15 tickets to the World Cup, I gave 6 away […] This week the children have been developing their maths and investigation skills. We have had lots of fun playing lots of different games and keeping score. We have also been to the class shop and used our number bonds to help us work out how much change we would get if we paid with 10p. […] We had a great time acting out, and retelling the story ‘Room on the Broom’ by Julia Donaldson. This week in book week we have been sharing lots of stories. The children have enjoyed listening to stories by Julia Donaldson and they like to read stories with their friends. We are getting really good at reading our reading books. Well done 1 White. As part of our Health and Wellbeing day today we thought about how to keep our minds healthy. We know we can do lots of things and get better if we practise and try hard…this is called having a ‘Growth mindset’. If at first we don’t succeed, we try, try again! This week in Maths we have been learning to use a variety of positional language. We used words like under, above, next to, left and right, inside and behind. Can you describe somethings in your house using positional language. This week the children have been learning all the different ways to make 10. They are getting better at recalling them and we have used our song to help us to remember them. What number bonds do you know that make 10? This week as part of our Geography topic we went on a walk around our local area. We saw lots of different places and identified them on the map. The children walked very sensibly and we are very proud of how well behaved they were on our walk. Well done 1 White. Back at school, […] We have really enjoyed reading the story ‘Peace at last’ by Jill Murphy. We know the story well and have enjoyed retelling it. As part of our Geography topic this half term Year 1 will be going for a walk around the local area on Monday 23rd September in the afternoon. If any parents would like to join us on this walk please speak to your child’s class teacher. This week in Science the children were learning to name the parts of their body. We sang songs and played games to name their body parts, then had great fun drawing around each other and labelling these parts using post-it notes. Well done 1 White we are very proud of how hard you are working. The children in 1 White are superstars and they know how to follow the rules. We thought about how to be a good citizen and what we want to be like in our class and our school. We used bees as our inspiration, as one of the artists we have learnt about this week, Graham […] Today the children have worked really hard and we are all so proud of them on their first day in year 1. They started our art week off by doing lots of drawing, painting and making. A great start 1 White, keep up the good work! We had fun today looking a different bicycles and cars and observing how they have changed over time. We even spotted James Starley, can you see him in our video? This week the children have been having good fun learning about James Starley who was the father of the bicycle industry. Today we read a pirate poem called ‘Meet the Pirates’. The children rehearsed the poem then performed it in a group with their friends. We were very impressed with how confident you were when you spoke and how you used loud clear voices. Well done! Today we had the most fantastic day on our trip to Coombe Abbey. The children were great at spotting and naming wild plants. They also enjoyed the pond dipping and feeding the birds. Well done 1 White we are so proud of you!	1,423	ENGLISH	1
Key facts about the history and uses of the Queen’s House Greenwich, designed by Inigo Jones and the first Classical building in England. It's inspired by Italy The famous English architect Inigo Jones designed the Queen’s House, inspired by his travels in Italy. It is widely known as the first Classical building in England. Inigo Jones used a lot of symmetry and proportion in his design, which is reflected in the perfect cube of the Great Hall. He also worked on the outfits for many of the masques that took place in the Queen's House. It's an apology The Queen’s House was commissioned by James I’s wife Anne of Denmark. She had reportedly been given the manor of Greenwich after he swore in front of her when she accidentally killed his favourite hunting dog. Anne missed out Anne of Denmark never got to see her vision for the house fulfilled – she died in 1619, before the ground floor was completed. After her death building work on the house stopped. Henrietta saw it through It was under the direction of Charles I’s wife, Henrietta Maria, that the building was finally finished, around 1638. It's still got its original design Inigo Jones’s original design features can still be seen in the Great Hall, which is a perfect cube in shape, and the Tulip Stairs, as well as the distinctive marble flooring with its black and white, geometric pattern. It was sold off (in part) The English Civil War saw Henrietta Maria flee the country in 1643 and when her husband Charles I was executed in 1649, his estate – including artworks in the Queen’s House – was sold off. Charles had it extended Charles II took an interest in Greenwich and the Queen’s House, extending the building, and renovating what became known as the Queen’s Presence Chamber. More about the Queen's Presence Chamber It's got a good view Queen Mary asked that the Royal Naval College not block the view from the Queen’s House to the Thames, a request taken into account by Sir Christopher Wren’s design for the building. It's an art gallery The Queen’s House is now home to a collection of great artworks, including paintings by William Hodges, George Stubbs, Hans Holbein, William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough. There's also a large collection of work by Dutch maritime artists the Van de Veldes, who had a studio here for 20 years, starting in the 1670s. More about our outstanding fine art collection The house is famously thought to be haunted, after visiting tourists from Canada had their photographs developed and saw what appears to be a ghost (or ghosts) on the Tulip Stairs. More about the Queen's House ghost	<urn:uuid:f0501307-7f6b-4c4b-9277-b379b059f25d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rmg.co.uk/queens-house/history/ten-things	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00515.warc.gz	en	0.983592	593	3.34375	3	[ 0.06586913764476776, 0.29427939653396606, 0.7614444494247437, 0.017073241993784904, -0.369231253862381, 0.13076907396316528, -0.027538374066352844, -0.11124230921268463, 0.28567492961883545, 0.05743461847305298, -0.20539598166942596, -0.27626532316207886, -0.21070106327533722, 0.5162956714...	3	Key facts about the history and uses of the Queen’s House Greenwich, designed by Inigo Jones and the first Classical building in England. It's inspired by Italy The famous English architect Inigo Jones designed the Queen’s House, inspired by his travels in Italy. It is widely known as the first Classical building in England. Inigo Jones used a lot of symmetry and proportion in his design, which is reflected in the perfect cube of the Great Hall. He also worked on the outfits for many of the masques that took place in the Queen's House. It's an apology The Queen’s House was commissioned by James I’s wife Anne of Denmark. She had reportedly been given the manor of Greenwich after he swore in front of her when she accidentally killed his favourite hunting dog. Anne missed out Anne of Denmark never got to see her vision for the house fulfilled – she died in 1619, before the ground floor was completed. After her death building work on the house stopped. Henrietta saw it through It was under the direction of Charles I’s wife, Henrietta Maria, that the building was finally finished, around 1638. It's still got its original design Inigo Jones’s original design features can still be seen in the Great Hall, which is a perfect cube in shape, and the Tulip Stairs, as well as the distinctive marble flooring with its black and white, geometric pattern. It was sold off (in part) The English Civil War saw Henrietta Maria flee the country in 1643 and when her husband Charles I was executed in 1649, his estate – including artworks in the Queen’s House – was sold off. Charles had it extended Charles II took an interest in Greenwich and the Queen’s House, extending the building, and renovating what became known as the Queen’s Presence Chamber. More about the Queen's Presence Chamber It's got a good view Queen Mary asked that the Royal Naval College not block the view from the Queen’s House to the Thames, a request taken into account by Sir Christopher Wren’s design for the building. It's an art gallery The Queen’s House is now home to a collection of great artworks, including paintings by William Hodges, George Stubbs, Hans Holbein, William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough. There's also a large collection of work by Dutch maritime artists the Van de Veldes, who had a studio here for 20 years, starting in the 1670s. More about our outstanding fine art collection The house is famously thought to be haunted, after visiting tourists from Canada had their photographs developed and saw what appears to be a ghost (or ghosts) on the Tulip Stairs. More about the Queen's House ghost	572	ENGLISH	1
Prayer: Our Father, Our King What is God? \| Total Comments: 0 \| Total Topics: 0 The origin of Jewish prayer is rather vague. But there is one prayer that has a somewhat concrete history of its development. This is called Avinu Malkenu (Our Father, our King). The Talmud (Ta’anit 25b) records an incident in which a drought occurred and Rabbi Eliezer led the community in a 24-blessing Amidah, the expanded format when prayer for community emergencies. His prayers were not successful. He was followed by Rabbi Akiva who said, ‘Our Father, our King, we have no King other than You; our Father, our King, for Your sake he has mercy upon us’. The rains came. The Talmud continues that a heavenly voice resounded and explained that it wasn’t because Rabbi Akiva was greater than Rabbi Eliezer that this was the way things worked out, but because Rabbi Akiva was able to overcome his own personality glitches more than Rabbi Eliezer. This prayer, interestingly enough, is still widely recited to this day. It has been greatly expanded over the centuries. From its original form of two lines, it now has between 25 and 45 of these expressions beginning with the phrase ‘Avinu Malkenu’. The expressions differ from community to community but there are general similarities aside from the opening phrase of each line. This basic structure of this prayer does have an older precedent of sorts. There is a story in the Mishna about a man named Honi, who is nicknamed Hama’agil (the circle-drawer). He lived sometime in the 1st century BCE and was famous for his ability to intercede with God. One time when there was a drought (this was among the more common calamities of the time), they asked him to pray for rain. He confidently told the people to bring their clay ovens into their houses, lest they dissolve in the rainfall. He prayed and nothing happened. He then drew a circle (hence his nickname) and announced, ‘Master of the Universe, Your children are depending on me as if I am a member of Your household. I swear in Your great name that I shall not move from here until You have mercy on Your children’ It began to drizzle. Honi declared that this was not what he intended. It began to rain buckets. He then announced that he intended rain that was a blessing. At that point it began to rain as it was supposed to. Finally the Jews had to ascend to the temple mount to get out of the growing waters. His final request was, ‘Just as I prayed on behalf of them that it should rain, so I pray that the rains should cease’. This is all very nice, and even a little humorous, but is it for real? Does prayer really make it rain? Can this guy Honi just announce that he’s not leaving the circle until it starts raining, and God has to get off His cloud and get to work? And if it’s so easy, why did he have to keep tweaking the results until God finally got it right? Can Rabbi Akiva just mumble a few short lines with a couple of key words and that opens up the floodgates? If it was so easy, why didn’t he just tell Rabbi Eliezer the secret formula and let him avoid the embarrassment of failure? What is this formula anyway? Our Father, our King – why is it so special in Judaism? Why is it any better than any other way of addressing God? Is this a new image that we have to add to our growing list? First let’s look at the two stories a little closer to find out what it was that made these prayers work. Anybody could pray. Maybe they’ll get the result they want, maybe they won’t. What Honi did was to refuse to budge until God acceded to his request. He was not really putting God on the spot - he was putting himself on the spot. He simply refused to stop until he succeeded. He really didn’t need the circle, but it sure adds to the story. How does this force God to listen to him? It doesn’t, but it does get God’s attention. God may not be all that interested in genuine needs, like getting a financial break or finding love or being cured of an illness. If the person who needs these things so badly can only find a few minutes of precious time every once in a while, and even at those select moments does little more than go through the motions, God may take about as much spiritual interest in that person’s life as the person does. But if the person pulls off a Honi and says that everything in his or her life stops right here, and nothing else matters except for this, then God looks up and says, ‘OK, now we have somebody who wants to talk turkey’. This is really what Honi did. He was serious. He put all his eggs in this one basket. He openly stated that it was only God who could bring the rain and there was no point in doing anything else until it rained. God listens to people who really talk to God. That the thing had to be tweaked to get it right seems like a test to see how serious Honi really was. If he took off as soon as a couple of drops fell, God might have just let him go his merry way. If he accepted a torrential downpour instead of rain of blessing, God may not have respected him as a true believer in divine goodness. He was like a child asking a parent for something. He could talk to God with love and honor; he understood that only God could fulfill his wishes; but he also was able to do it with no qualms about really making demands. This last condition – no qualms about making demands – is vital to a successful prayer. This is really what Rabbi Akiva did. Rabbi Eliezer may have been just as spiritually capable as Rabbi Akiva, as the Talmud seems to suggest. It wasn’t just some magic words that Rabbi Akiva happened to know and Rabbi Eliezer didn’t. It was, as the Talmud says, because Rabbi Akiva was able to overcome his personality glitches whereas Rabbi Eliezer couldn’t. What does this mean? The Talmud just got through saying that Rabbi Akiva was not greater than Rabbi Eliezer. Doesn’t this make him greater? Perhaps there is a simple answer to this classic Talmudic-style question. Perhaps Rabbi Akiva really had nothing over Rabbi Eliezer. But he did do one thing that Rabbi Eliezer just couldn’t get himself to do. He was able to overcome something in his personality. He was able to make an outrageous demand. This very likely was not in his nature. But the needs of the time dictated that somebody had to have the Honi-like chutzpa and really put it to God. His formula was nothing magical. It was simply a way of framing his outrageous demand in as respectful a manner as possible. He declared to God, ‘You are our Father and our King. We have no other King. Do it for Your own sake, but we really need a break’. The ‘Father’ part is right out of Honi’s book. To really make outrageous requests you have to look upon God as a Father who would do anything for His kids if the kids really want it. It’s asking your Father, who just cannot turn down a really heartfelt and genuine need of His beloved children. The King part is a declaration of our own genuine dependence on God. Half-hearted prayer is half-hearted for a good reason. We really don’t think the guy at the other end can deliver the goods. We really think that with a little luck, we’ll somehow pull it off ourselves, but it never hurts to have God in on the thing. This is not really prayer at all. This is just hedging your bets. To really pray means to acknowledge that God, and God alone, can pull this off. We may have to put in a great deal of effort to demonstrate to God that we truly deserve whatever it is that we are asking. But the bottom line is that God is the King. God makes things happen. There is a new image of God that comes out of all this. It is the image of God who can be addressed as a respected but familiar Source of blessing. Fathers are supposed to be loving and kind. They may have to be a little stern at times, but they should mean well. Kings are a good deal more distant, but they are still accessible in some way. It may take a few well-place connections or a few words in the right places, but a king can be accessed. God is like that. God has to be treated like royalty. After all, God is God. God is King, with a God-given right to rule and to dish out punishments and blessings to those He deems deserve them. Perceiving the Image To see God as both of these – as a Father and as a King at the same time - is not all that easy. To some degree they are contradictory. The Father image is the kind and loving guy who would do anything for his little darlings. The King image is the all-powerful monarch who rules with an iron fist and doesn’t take any chutzpa from anybody. How do they fit together? Both are necessary. One without the other misses something. The Father without the King is just too tempting to treat without adequate respect. It is a little bit too familiar. The King without the Father is too distant. There is no point in bothering since there is no way to get an audience. Put the two together and we have an image that can be perceived. God is familiar like a family member, but also distant and austere like a King. There is a tension between the two that keeps the image fluctuating back and forth from distant to familiar. This really is what God is on the very personal level of prayer. We want God to be right there, but we know that such a state of consciousness is extremely difficult to maintain. Sometimes we do relate to God in a close and familiar way. But sometimes we relate to God in a distant and austere way. The two images are really one. God floats back and forth, which is really the state of mind that prayer seeks. This image of God responds to the strength of the human will. This image is not really perceivable by those who aren’t going to give it their all. We may deceive ourselves that God is really just waiting to bend over backwards to doing anything we want, but it’s really nothing more than a mirage. The image of the Father and the King needs to see resolve, to see solid willpower, in order to manifest. There is a reason for this. This is an image that is both very personal and very impersonal. It is kind of like a combination of Elohim and Hashem rolled into one image. It’s not easy to maintain that combination, as anybody who has tried can testify. It takes strength of will. It takes an attitude of, ‘I am not leaving this circle until I get it’. It even takes a bit of chutzpa towards oneself – making an outrageous demand on one’s own mind. It demands of the mind that it perceive God as right there, waiting for us to voice our needs, but also sternly watching from the distance as we shake in our boots. Is this not a pretty accurate description of genuine prayer? Even sincere daveners have a hard time escaping the feeling that prayer really doesn’t work. How does one navigate this maze of conflicting spiritual emotions? Is chutzpa the only answer? Aren't confident enough to comment? Send an email to the author about any question pertaining to the essay - Please keep comments and questions short and to the point. - Try to keep things civil and overall try to keep the conversations respectful. - No four letter words. - No missionizing. - Site moderators reserve the right to delete your comments if they do not follow the guidlines or are off-topic. There are no Topics to show. Add a Topic to start a specefic discussion There are no Comments to show. Comment and start the discussion.	<urn:uuid:86ec0976-e1f4-4ff6-8b27-179f4ca4bb5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://fourquestionsofjudaism.com/5743680166035456	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00373.warc.gz	en	0.982987	2,622	3.34375	3	[ -0.12676310539245605, 0.4573292136192322, -0.2926178276538849, -0.2662928104400635, -0.07748210430145264, 0.10074503719806671, 0.5508464574813843, -0.13635244965553284, 0.16847848892211914, 0.016682259738445282, -0.36737707257270813, -0.48086726665496826, -0.14959976077079773, -0.042128872...	3	Prayer: Our Father, Our King What is God? \| Total Comments: 0 \| Total Topics: 0 The origin of Jewish prayer is rather vague. But there is one prayer that has a somewhat concrete history of its development. This is called Avinu Malkenu (Our Father, our King). The Talmud (Ta’anit 25b) records an incident in which a drought occurred and Rabbi Eliezer led the community in a 24-blessing Amidah, the expanded format when prayer for community emergencies. His prayers were not successful. He was followed by Rabbi Akiva who said, ‘Our Father, our King, we have no King other than You; our Father, our King, for Your sake he has mercy upon us’. The rains came. The Talmud continues that a heavenly voice resounded and explained that it wasn’t because Rabbi Akiva was greater than Rabbi Eliezer that this was the way things worked out, but because Rabbi Akiva was able to overcome his own personality glitches more than Rabbi Eliezer. This prayer, interestingly enough, is still widely recited to this day. It has been greatly expanded over the centuries. From its original form of two lines, it now has between 25 and 45 of these expressions beginning with the phrase ‘Avinu Malkenu’. The expressions differ from community to community but there are general similarities aside from the opening phrase of each line. This basic structure of this prayer does have an older precedent of sorts. There is a story in the Mishna about a man named Honi, who is nicknamed Hama’agil (the circle-drawer). He lived sometime in the 1st century BCE and was famous for his ability to intercede with God. One time when there was a drought (this was among the more common calamities of the time), they asked him to pray for rain. He confidently told the people to bring their clay ovens into their houses, lest they dissolve in the rainfall. He prayed and nothing happened. He then drew a circle (hence his nickname) and announced, ‘Master of the Universe, Your children are depending on me as if I am a member of Your household. I swear in Your great name that I shall not move from here until You have mercy on Your children’ It began to drizzle. Honi declared that this was not what he intended. It began to rain buckets. He then announced that he intended rain that was a blessing. At that point it began to rain as it was supposed to. Finally the Jews had to ascend to the temple mount to get out of the growing waters. His final request was, ‘Just as I prayed on behalf of them that it should rain, so I pray that the rains should cease’. This is all very nice, and even a little humorous, but is it for real? Does prayer really make it rain? Can this guy Honi just announce that he’s not leaving the circle until it starts raining, and God has to get off His cloud and get to work? And if it’s so easy, why did he have to keep tweaking the results until God finally got it right? Can Rabbi Akiva just mumble a few short lines with a couple of key words and that opens up the floodgates? If it was so easy, why didn’t he just tell Rabbi Eliezer the secret formula and let him avoid the embarrassment of failure? What is this formula anyway? Our Father, our King – why is it so special in Judaism? Why is it any better than any other way of addressing God? Is this a new image that we have to add to our growing list? First let’s look at the two stories a little closer to find out what it was that made these prayers work. Anybody could pray. Maybe they’ll get the result they want, maybe they won’t. What Honi did was to refuse to budge until God acceded to his request. He was not really putting God on the spot - he was putting himself on the spot. He simply refused to stop until he succeeded. He really didn’t need the circle, but it sure adds to the story. How does this force God to listen to him? It doesn’t, but it does get God’s attention. God may not be all that interested in genuine needs, like getting a financial break or finding love or being cured of an illness. If the person who needs these things so badly can only find a few minutes of precious time every once in a while, and even at those select moments does little more than go through the motions, God may take about as much spiritual interest in that person’s life as the person does. But if the person pulls off a Honi and says that everything in his or her life stops right here, and nothing else matters except for this, then God looks up and says, ‘OK, now we have somebody who wants to talk turkey’. This is really what Honi did. He was serious. He put all his eggs in this one basket. He openly stated that it was only God who could bring the rain and there was no point in doing anything else until it rained. God listens to people who really talk to God. That the thing had to be tweaked to get it right seems like a test to see how serious Honi really was. If he took off as soon as a couple of drops fell, God might have just let him go his merry way. If he accepted a torrential downpour instead of rain of blessing, God may not have respected him as a true believer in divine goodness. He was like a child asking a parent for something. He could talk to God with love and honor; he understood that only God could fulfill his wishes; but he also was able to do it with no qualms about really making demands. This last condition – no qualms about making demands – is vital to a successful prayer. This is really what Rabbi Akiva did. Rabbi Eliezer may have been just as spiritually capable as Rabbi Akiva, as the Talmud seems to suggest. It wasn’t just some magic words that Rabbi Akiva happened to know and Rabbi Eliezer didn’t. It was, as the Talmud says, because Rabbi Akiva was able to overcome his personality glitches whereas Rabbi Eliezer couldn’t. What does this mean? The Talmud just got through saying that Rabbi Akiva was not greater than Rabbi Eliezer. Doesn’t this make him greater? Perhaps there is a simple answer to this classic Talmudic-style question. Perhaps Rabbi Akiva really had nothing over Rabbi Eliezer. But he did do one thing that Rabbi Eliezer just couldn’t get himself to do. He was able to overcome something in his personality. He was able to make an outrageous demand. This very likely was not in his nature. But the needs of the time dictated that somebody had to have the Honi-like chutzpa and really put it to God. His formula was nothing magical. It was simply a way of framing his outrageous demand in as respectful a manner as possible. He declared to God, ‘You are our Father and our King. We have no other King. Do it for Your own sake, but we really need a break’. The ‘Father’ part is right out of Honi’s book. To really make outrageous requests you have to look upon God as a Father who would do anything for His kids if the kids really want it. It’s asking your Father, who just cannot turn down a really heartfelt and genuine need of His beloved children. The King part is a declaration of our own genuine dependence on God. Half-hearted prayer is half-hearted for a good reason. We really don’t think the guy at the other end can deliver the goods. We really think that with a little luck, we’ll somehow pull it off ourselves, but it never hurts to have God in on the thing. This is not really prayer at all. This is just hedging your bets. To really pray means to acknowledge that God, and God alone, can pull this off. We may have to put in a great deal of effort to demonstrate to God that we truly deserve whatever it is that we are asking. But the bottom line is that God is the King. God makes things happen. There is a new image of God that comes out of all this. It is the image of God who can be addressed as a respected but familiar Source of blessing. Fathers are supposed to be loving and kind. They may have to be a little stern at times, but they should mean well. Kings are a good deal more distant, but they are still accessible in some way. It may take a few well-place connections or a few words in the right places, but a king can be accessed. God is like that. God has to be treated like royalty. After all, God is God. God is King, with a God-given right to rule and to dish out punishments and blessings to those He deems deserve them. Perceiving the Image To see God as both of these – as a Father and as a King at the same time - is not all that easy. To some degree they are contradictory. The Father image is the kind and loving guy who would do anything for his little darlings. The King image is the all-powerful monarch who rules with an iron fist and doesn’t take any chutzpa from anybody. How do they fit together? Both are necessary. One without the other misses something. The Father without the King is just too tempting to treat without adequate respect. It is a little bit too familiar. The King without the Father is too distant. There is no point in bothering since there is no way to get an audience. Put the two together and we have an image that can be perceived. God is familiar like a family member, but also distant and austere like a King. There is a tension between the two that keeps the image fluctuating back and forth from distant to familiar. This really is what God is on the very personal level of prayer. We want God to be right there, but we know that such a state of consciousness is extremely difficult to maintain. Sometimes we do relate to God in a close and familiar way. But sometimes we relate to God in a distant and austere way. The two images are really one. God floats back and forth, which is really the state of mind that prayer seeks. This image of God responds to the strength of the human will. This image is not really perceivable by those who aren’t going to give it their all. We may deceive ourselves that God is really just waiting to bend over backwards to doing anything we want, but it’s really nothing more than a mirage. The image of the Father and the King needs to see resolve, to see solid willpower, in order to manifest. There is a reason for this. This is an image that is both very personal and very impersonal. It is kind of like a combination of Elohim and Hashem rolled into one image. It’s not easy to maintain that combination, as anybody who has tried can testify. It takes strength of will. It takes an attitude of, ‘I am not leaving this circle until I get it’. It even takes a bit of chutzpa towards oneself – making an outrageous demand on one’s own mind. It demands of the mind that it perceive God as right there, waiting for us to voice our needs, but also sternly watching from the distance as we shake in our boots. Is this not a pretty accurate description of genuine prayer? Even sincere daveners have a hard time escaping the feeling that prayer really doesn’t work. How does one navigate this maze of conflicting spiritual emotions? Is chutzpa the only answer? Aren't confident enough to comment? Send an email to the author about any question pertaining to the essay - Please keep comments and questions short and to the point. - Try to keep things civil and overall try to keep the conversations respectful. - No four letter words. - No missionizing. - Site moderators reserve the right to delete your comments if they do not follow the guidlines or are off-topic. There are no Topics to show. Add a Topic to start a specefic discussion There are no Comments to show. Comment and start the discussion.	2,529	ENGLISH	1
Race and Racism 544 Fall 2014 (A. Nouvet) About this class Champlain College, Fall 2014 This course will introduce students to the concept of race from the perspective of biological and cultural anthropology. The first part of the course focuses on the distribution of human biological variation and compares this variation to contemporary ideas about race. The second part traces the historical development of the concept of race, the role that slavery, colonialism and science have played in the dissemination of the belief in race, as well as modern ideas of race. The third part of the course will explore the reality of racism through case studies from various countries, with a focus on Canada. A consideration of the effects of white privilege and how racism can continue to exist in democratic societies will also be undertaken. 637 \| 0 \| 0 1,157 \| 2 \| 0 963 \| 1 \| 0 1,375 \| 2 \| 0 3,196 \| 6 \| 0 2,258 \| 3 \| 0 963 \| 0 \| 0 2,695 \| 6 \| 0 658 \| 1 \| 0 1,066 \| 1 \| 1 750 \| 1 \| 0 2,155 \| 4 \| 0 1,449 \| 2 \| 0 760 \| 1 \| 0 1,232 \| 2 \| 0 2,599 \| 5 \| 0 705 \| 1 \| 0 674 \| 1 \| 0 809 \| 1 \| 0 - 1 of 4 - next › This is a very good post ! The thing that caught my attention was the title of the post "Education for all". This post made me think about the fact that education is a thing that most people take for granted because it is accessible for them. However, it is true that disabled people do not have equal access to education. It was very interesting to learn that education has a great impact on disabled people's health and their autonomy. Overall, this made me think about a concept that we learned in class: "White privilege". When you said " they will be put at an extreme disadvantage in society making their success and quality of life difficult to accomplish", it made me think about the fact that minorities are put in disadvantage in society as well. Because of their "race" the education system may be not treating them equally, which has a negative effect of their chances to succeed. Also, when you stated that " they are given lower standards" and "fall significantly behind their peers", is similar in many ways to the fact that racial minorities are given these stereotypes that they "can do less", when in reality they are not given the same opportunities. That is why I thought your post made me think of the concept of White privilege. Very good post ! What drew me to the blog about the article was the title. I found it interesting because binge drinking is something that people in my age group do, so to have a study done on testing it, seems quite intriguing. I completely agreed with the article as it says that people around the age of eighteen to twenty-two years old usually binge drink, no no one ever suspects anything other than that teenagers drink. I believe that the blog had some good key points about the article and helped explain the study that was provided in the article. I personally think that this topic relates to implicit and explicit racism and the stereotypes faced with that. In class we discussed the topic of implicit racism which means that a person does not necessarily know that they are being racist. Just like in the text, many adults just assume that teenagers binge drink because they are teenagers. They don’t necessarily take into account that other factors may come into play such as: peer behaviour. Explicit racism is when people are flat out racist and don’t care what other people think or say. For example: in the blog about the summary, the author mentioned that teenagers around the age of eighteen to twenty-two years old who are in school binge drink the same amount as others who aren’t in school full time. A lot of adults flat out blame that if they aren’t in school, they have more time to drink and the study in the article proved that to be wrong; which I found extremely fascinating. I was truly interested in reading this post, the tittle made me think of another article i read recently for my Anthropology class,"The Myth of Race and the Reality of Racism". The article was about the "Blacklivesmatter" movement as well, the article name is “Reclaiming the White Coat for Black lives” by authors: Amy Garvey, Denzel Woode and Charlotte S. Austin. It discussed Medial systems and how they are still discriminating people of color. It is a sad reality that not only minority groups are being discriminated everyday for various reasons, even in medical systems they are still the inferior group and are being treated differently. When i started to read your post, it made me want to read the article that you reflected on and it was sad to read that because people of color who live in poor neighborhood's have a harder time finding employment or success. I totally agree with you that this shouldn't be the case. Today's society has developed an attitude towards this general subject of "Race and Racism" and that it is normal for minority groups to be less successful or inferior to white people. Most people are not well informed on this subject and it should be discussed more and we should teach our future children about Race and Racism and how it is an issue that we need to address and be aware of. Overall, i really enjoyed your post it really got me thinking! This was an interesting post, to say the least. I'm particularly interested in topics concerning police work, especially given recent events in the states, so I decided to give your article a quick read. I was unaware of the fact that the U.N. was implementing police forces into other countries, which is nice because learning new things is always welcome. I can also certainly agree with the notion that police officers lack sufficient training, as we have witnessed several occurances of officers violating human rights in an attempt to "do what is right", and that just speaks volumes about just how knowledgeable they are about their jobs, or perhaps how much the officers respect the rules. On a racial standpoint, I theorize that there is perhaps also a lack of training at how to approach and "deal" with people of different races, as often times accidents and incidents happen due to racist or prejudiced misconceptions of an otherwise perfectly normal human being. It'd be an interesting subject to observe; how officers are taught to maybe put aside implicit or explicit racial biases in order to appropriately do their jobs. I digress. This was a thought provoking post, although some concepts discussed within it were a little confusing and would need some elaborating, despite being a very good analysis/summary. I've heard quite a bit about police officers killing unarmed black men, and I have mixed feelings about it, which is probably why I stopped to read this post. I feel like it's a pretty sad reality we live in, if the people we are supposed to look to for protection, are the ones we need to be protected from. The way some of these officers react, especially to our citizens of minority status, really is an example of how people have a preconceived perception of how people are, based on race. These people will either act with fear, or with aggression, at the prospect of armed (or unarmed) black people, and that's really just a sad mindset to be in. On the other hand, I do believe that some of the claims to racism are exaggerated, and perhaps it is just coincidence at times, that a white officer must deal with a black criminal, and we're not getting all the facts. Who can we trust to give us the fact, really? I think the measures being taken to ensure that cops are doing their jobs need to be reevaluated, and things such as body cameras are only a step in the right direction to AT LEAST monitor and moderate police behavior, and give us some facts during an altercation. In any case, I really enjoyed reading this, and you did a supreme job at getting me genuinely interested in reading the article you found. Thank you. I was drawn to this post by its title because it made me realize how people like waiters and waitresses are constantly harassed and not everyone does or say anything about it. I found it very interesting to learn that 66% of waitresses are sexually harassed and asked to dress provocatively in order to get more tips and that ever the employer encourages this kind of negative behavior instead of protecting his/hers employees. I think that men and especially women should not be put under such pressure. It is really disturbing that someone has to wear inappropriate clothes at a workplace. In the addition this, when you said " women’s bosses tell them to wear provocative clothes in order to get bigger tips", it makes me think of the concept of race. We could compare the boss to society and the waitresses as a minority group and the waiters as "white" people, which is the privileged group. Obviously, women are more affected by the orders of the boss than men are just as a minority group is more affected by the concept of race than white people are. In conclusion, I think that everyone should be respected at their workplace no matter their gender, race, etc. This topic was very interesting for me on a more personal level. I was intrigued to the original post because the two concepts chosen; Crime rates and Ice Cream are completely two separate topics. Relating the two seem almost impossible to do. My reaction to this post was like anyone else’s I’m sure; confused at the beginning but once ice cream was shown how it connected to crimes and violence rates increasing, it was completely understandable. My reaction to the ending was normal as I completely agree with your statement about whether or not we should have gender neutral washrooms. This comment reminded me of another social inequality. In my class, the topic of slavery came up and somehow I made a connection between the two. Both slaves and LGBT’s both have the same issue going for them. Slaves were separated from the white people who were the minority, and LGBT’s are separated based on their genders. People who were chosen as slaves stood out seeing that they were more often than not a different pigmentation colour. Just like the LGBT’s do since society says it’s okay to do so. Once again we still prove to be focused on dividing and separating people based on their physical appearances. Slaves were treated unfairly then just like LGBT’s are treated unfairly now in our communities. This post made me think of an issue I hadn’t considered before, just by reading your tittle I was already engaged and wanted to learn more. I did not have a complete understanding of the subject before reading this article. I didn’t know that women were banned to battle in the military. I do agree with you that both women and men should have an equal chance to participate in the military. Gender as we know it has separated us in many activities or events, such as sports. We are build differently but, women are categorized as being weak and unable to achieve the same things as men. In relation to my Myth of Race and the Reality of Racism class, gender can also correlate with race and racism. For instance, men are often viewed as stronger and superior to women; in comparison to slavery and that people of color are slaves because they are known to be “inferior” or different from Caucasians. In the end, it all comes down to equality and that everyone should have equal rights no matter what gender or race you are. Over all I really liked your article, it was well done! i really appreciated that you took the time to comment on my article. It is a shame that our society still assumes a lot and especially just by looking at someone. Thank you for your comment it was nice to read that you enjoyed my writing and i hope other people take a step back and realize what they are doing by always assuming things. I find it very interesting how you claim that the law makes the public aware just enough to not rebel in any shape or form. In a way this is true but we as people don’t repress the thoughts of what could happen if we defy the law, we are well aware of the consequences that can happen if we commit any crime. Can the law truly be an invisible force? or do we make it one in order to not feel controlled by a higher authority? I agree with the idea that we as people do not have regular encounters with the citizens who work to keep the law controlled and present. But that’s because, we oblige by these rules subconsciously. Ethical Rationalism is a form of Deontology theory in which, “moral truths are knowable a prior, by reason alone.” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rationalism) As humans, we are born with a common sense of what is right and wrong. Ultimately the law is based on these senses and written clearly for everyone to act upon to keep society functioning well and safely. Reason is what makes us different from the other species and it allows us to work freely with no limitations to our knowledge. Having reason, gives us the moral obligation to oblige by the law that is a social construct and this comes naturally. - 1 of 16 - next › There no collaborative classes	<urn:uuid:3d34c1ad-83f1-4ab5-b426-1fad9c727875>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://newsactivist.com/en/classes/race-and-racism-544-fall-2014-nouvet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00353.warc.gz	en	0.981844	2,784	3.453125	3	[ -0.22466334700584412, 0.17697519063949585, -0.19712892174720764, -0.001761081861332059, -0.16833601891994476, 0.4252842664718628, -0.14156533777713776, 0.3280683159828186, 0.2036835104227066, -0.06964358687400818, 0.24936282634735107, -0.1477835476398468, -0.09362612664699554, 0.1741784811...	1	Race and Racism 544 Fall 2014 (A. Nouvet) About this class Champlain College, Fall 2014 This course will introduce students to the concept of race from the perspective of biological and cultural anthropology. The first part of the course focuses on the distribution of human biological variation and compares this variation to contemporary ideas about race. The second part traces the historical development of the concept of race, the role that slavery, colonialism and science have played in the dissemination of the belief in race, as well as modern ideas of race. The third part of the course will explore the reality of racism through case studies from various countries, with a focus on Canada. A consideration of the effects of white privilege and how racism can continue to exist in democratic societies will also be undertaken. 637 \| 0 \| 0 1,157 \| 2 \| 0 963 \| 1 \| 0 1,375 \| 2 \| 0 3,196 \| 6 \| 0 2,258 \| 3 \| 0 963 \| 0 \| 0 2,695 \| 6 \| 0 658 \| 1 \| 0 1,066 \| 1 \| 1 750 \| 1 \| 0 2,155 \| 4 \| 0 1,449 \| 2 \| 0 760 \| 1 \| 0 1,232 \| 2 \| 0 2,599 \| 5 \| 0 705 \| 1 \| 0 674 \| 1 \| 0 809 \| 1 \| 0 - 1 of 4 - next › This is a very good post ! The thing that caught my attention was the title of the post "Education for all". This post made me think about the fact that education is a thing that most people take for granted because it is accessible for them. However, it is true that disabled people do not have equal access to education. It was very interesting to learn that education has a great impact on disabled people's health and their autonomy. Overall, this made me think about a concept that we learned in class: "White privilege". When you said " they will be put at an extreme disadvantage in society making their success and quality of life difficult to accomplish", it made me think about the fact that minorities are put in disadvantage in society as well. Because of their "race" the education system may be not treating them equally, which has a negative effect of their chances to succeed. Also, when you stated that " they are given lower standards" and "fall significantly behind their peers", is similar in many ways to the fact that racial minorities are given these stereotypes that they "can do less", when in reality they are not given the same opportunities. That is why I thought your post made me think of the concept of White privilege. Very good post ! What drew me to the blog about the article was the title. I found it interesting because binge drinking is something that people in my age group do, so to have a study done on testing it, seems quite intriguing. I completely agreed with the article as it says that people around the age of eighteen to twenty-two years old usually binge drink, no no one ever suspects anything other than that teenagers drink. I believe that the blog had some good key points about the article and helped explain the study that was provided in the article. I personally think that this topic relates to implicit and explicit racism and the stereotypes faced with that. In class we discussed the topic of implicit racism which means that a person does not necessarily know that they are being racist. Just like in the text, many adults just assume that teenagers binge drink because they are teenagers. They don’t necessarily take into account that other factors may come into play such as: peer behaviour. Explicit racism is when people are flat out racist and don’t care what other people think or say. For example: in the blog about the summary, the author mentioned that teenagers around the age of eighteen to twenty-two years old who are in school binge drink the same amount as others who aren’t in school full time. A lot of adults flat out blame that if they aren’t in school, they have more time to drink and the study in the article proved that to be wrong; which I found extremely fascinating. I was truly interested in reading this post, the tittle made me think of another article i read recently for my Anthropology class,"The Myth of Race and the Reality of Racism". The article was about the "Blacklivesmatter" movement as well, the article name is “Reclaiming the White Coat for Black lives” by authors: Amy Garvey, Denzel Woode and Charlotte S. Austin. It discussed Medial systems and how they are still discriminating people of color. It is a sad reality that not only minority groups are being discriminated everyday for various reasons, even in medical systems they are still the inferior group and are being treated differently. When i started to read your post, it made me want to read the article that you reflected on and it was sad to read that because people of color who live in poor neighborhood's have a harder time finding employment or success. I totally agree with you that this shouldn't be the case. Today's society has developed an attitude towards this general subject of "Race and Racism" and that it is normal for minority groups to be less successful or inferior to white people. Most people are not well informed on this subject and it should be discussed more and we should teach our future children about Race and Racism and how it is an issue that we need to address and be aware of. Overall, i really enjoyed your post it really got me thinking! This was an interesting post, to say the least. I'm particularly interested in topics concerning police work, especially given recent events in the states, so I decided to give your article a quick read. I was unaware of the fact that the U.N. was implementing police forces into other countries, which is nice because learning new things is always welcome. I can also certainly agree with the notion that police officers lack sufficient training, as we have witnessed several occurances of officers violating human rights in an attempt to "do what is right", and that just speaks volumes about just how knowledgeable they are about their jobs, or perhaps how much the officers respect the rules. On a racial standpoint, I theorize that there is perhaps also a lack of training at how to approach and "deal" with people of different races, as often times accidents and incidents happen due to racist or prejudiced misconceptions of an otherwise perfectly normal human being. It'd be an interesting subject to observe; how officers are taught to maybe put aside implicit or explicit racial biases in order to appropriately do their jobs. I digress. This was a thought provoking post, although some concepts discussed within it were a little confusing and would need some elaborating, despite being a very good analysis/summary. I've heard quite a bit about police officers killing unarmed black men, and I have mixed feelings about it, which is probably why I stopped to read this post. I feel like it's a pretty sad reality we live in, if the people we are supposed to look to for protection, are the ones we need to be protected from. The way some of these officers react, especially to our citizens of minority status, really is an example of how people have a preconceived perception of how people are, based on race. These people will either act with fear, or with aggression, at the prospect of armed (or unarmed) black people, and that's really just a sad mindset to be in. On the other hand, I do believe that some of the claims to racism are exaggerated, and perhaps it is just coincidence at times, that a white officer must deal with a black criminal, and we're not getting all the facts. Who can we trust to give us the fact, really? I think the measures being taken to ensure that cops are doing their jobs need to be reevaluated, and things such as body cameras are only a step in the right direction to AT LEAST monitor and moderate police behavior, and give us some facts during an altercation. In any case, I really enjoyed reading this, and you did a supreme job at getting me genuinely interested in reading the article you found. Thank you. I was drawn to this post by its title because it made me realize how people like waiters and waitresses are constantly harassed and not everyone does or say anything about it. I found it very interesting to learn that 66% of waitresses are sexually harassed and asked to dress provocatively in order to get more tips and that ever the employer encourages this kind of negative behavior instead of protecting his/hers employees. I think that men and especially women should not be put under such pressure. It is really disturbing that someone has to wear inappropriate clothes at a workplace. In the addition this, when you said " women’s bosses tell them to wear provocative clothes in order to get bigger tips", it makes me think of the concept of race. We could compare the boss to society and the waitresses as a minority group and the waiters as "white" people, which is the privileged group. Obviously, women are more affected by the orders of the boss than men are just as a minority group is more affected by the concept of race than white people are. In conclusion, I think that everyone should be respected at their workplace no matter their gender, race, etc. This topic was very interesting for me on a more personal level. I was intrigued to the original post because the two concepts chosen; Crime rates and Ice Cream are completely two separate topics. Relating the two seem almost impossible to do. My reaction to this post was like anyone else’s I’m sure; confused at the beginning but once ice cream was shown how it connected to crimes and violence rates increasing, it was completely understandable. My reaction to the ending was normal as I completely agree with your statement about whether or not we should have gender neutral washrooms. This comment reminded me of another social inequality. In my class, the topic of slavery came up and somehow I made a connection between the two. Both slaves and LGBT’s both have the same issue going for them. Slaves were separated from the white people who were the minority, and LGBT’s are separated based on their genders. People who were chosen as slaves stood out seeing that they were more often than not a different pigmentation colour. Just like the LGBT’s do since society says it’s okay to do so. Once again we still prove to be focused on dividing and separating people based on their physical appearances. Slaves were treated unfairly then just like LGBT’s are treated unfairly now in our communities. This post made me think of an issue I hadn’t considered before, just by reading your tittle I was already engaged and wanted to learn more. I did not have a complete understanding of the subject before reading this article. I didn’t know that women were banned to battle in the military. I do agree with you that both women and men should have an equal chance to participate in the military. Gender as we know it has separated us in many activities or events, such as sports. We are build differently but, women are categorized as being weak and unable to achieve the same things as men. In relation to my Myth of Race and the Reality of Racism class, gender can also correlate with race and racism. For instance, men are often viewed as stronger and superior to women; in comparison to slavery and that people of color are slaves because they are known to be “inferior” or different from Caucasians. In the end, it all comes down to equality and that everyone should have equal rights no matter what gender or race you are. Over all I really liked your article, it was well done! i really appreciated that you took the time to comment on my article. It is a shame that our society still assumes a lot and especially just by looking at someone. Thank you for your comment it was nice to read that you enjoyed my writing and i hope other people take a step back and realize what they are doing by always assuming things. I find it very interesting how you claim that the law makes the public aware just enough to not rebel in any shape or form. In a way this is true but we as people don’t repress the thoughts of what could happen if we defy the law, we are well aware of the consequences that can happen if we commit any crime. Can the law truly be an invisible force? or do we make it one in order to not feel controlled by a higher authority? I agree with the idea that we as people do not have regular encounters with the citizens who work to keep the law controlled and present. But that’s because, we oblige by these rules subconsciously. Ethical Rationalism is a form of Deontology theory in which, “moral truths are knowable a prior, by reason alone.” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rationalism) As humans, we are born with a common sense of what is right and wrong. Ultimately the law is based on these senses and written clearly for everyone to act upon to keep society functioning well and safely. Reason is what makes us different from the other species and it allows us to work freely with no limitations to our knowledge. Having reason, gives us the moral obligation to oblige by the law that is a social construct and this comes naturally. - 1 of 16 - next › There no collaborative classes	2,820	ENGLISH	1
Life isn’t always fun. There will come times when we need to learn a specific skill or method to accomplish specific tasks in life. For many children the basic skills they learn are in daycare westfield nj. When going to daycare children are taught basic skills such as how to get along with others, how to count and even their letters. Some daycares will also teach children to read and write. When things become boring it is important to keep them motivated. Motivation can come in a wide range of forms. The first is by example. When we show children how to do something, they become interested. When they are interested, they will want to get involved and learn more. Let them take control To keep the child’s interest, it is a good idea to let them have control of the situation at times. When a child has control, they feel empowered and will go out of their way to show what it is they know. This will keep them motivated and eager to learn Create fun projects When a child is motivated, they are engaged in thought and action. One of the best ways to do this is by creating projects that they can do. When designing projects, you want to keep the activities short, to the point and easy to do. Each activity should engage their thinking skills as well as their motor coordination. You will also want to create group projects where students can work together on a project. This will develop teamwork and an understanding as to how things work and how others think. The skills a student learns in daycare will carry through with them through life. Starting in daycare will also prepare them for other schools and classes they will be engaged in later in life.	<urn:uuid:dc958cc8-64ed-45e6-9d79-a32a69401cea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.kaido-ribbon.com/category/daycare-westfield-nj/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00047.warc.gz	en	0.982816	352	3.390625	3	[ -0.1448644995689392, 0.06142829358577728, 0.2225336879491806, -0.25204822421073914, -0.8018370270729065, 0.42601338028907776, 0.35018399357795715, -0.17339058220386505, -0.08715415000915527, -0.06948869675397873, 0.21006977558135986, 0.25984764099121094, 0.16038428246974945, 0.849918663501...	7	Life isn’t always fun. There will come times when we need to learn a specific skill or method to accomplish specific tasks in life. For many children the basic skills they learn are in daycare westfield nj. When going to daycare children are taught basic skills such as how to get along with others, how to count and even their letters. Some daycares will also teach children to read and write. When things become boring it is important to keep them motivated. Motivation can come in a wide range of forms. The first is by example. When we show children how to do something, they become interested. When they are interested, they will want to get involved and learn more. Let them take control To keep the child’s interest, it is a good idea to let them have control of the situation at times. When a child has control, they feel empowered and will go out of their way to show what it is they know. This will keep them motivated and eager to learn Create fun projects When a child is motivated, they are engaged in thought and action. One of the best ways to do this is by creating projects that they can do. When designing projects, you want to keep the activities short, to the point and easy to do. Each activity should engage their thinking skills as well as their motor coordination. You will also want to create group projects where students can work together on a project. This will develop teamwork and an understanding as to how things work and how others think. The skills a student learns in daycare will carry through with them through life. Starting in daycare will also prepare them for other schools and classes they will be engaged in later in life.	339	ENGLISH	1
The Effect of Major Symbolic Elements Women in literature are often portrayed in a position that is dominated by men, especially in the nineteenth century, women were repressed and controlled by their husbands as well as other male influences. In “The Yellow Wall-Paper,” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the narrator is oppressed and represents the major theme of the effect of oppression of women in society. This effect is created by the use of complex symbols such as the window, the house, and the wall-paper which all promote her oppression as well as her self expression. One distinctive part of the house that symbolizes not only her potential but also her trapped feeling is the window. In literature, traditionally this would symbolize a prospect of possibilities, but now it becomes a view to a world she may not want to take part in. Through it she sees all that she could be and everything that she could have. But she says near the end, “I don’t like to look out of the windows even – there are so many of those creeping women, and they creep so fast. She knows that she has to hide and lie low; that she would have to creep in order to be accepted in society and she does not want to see all the other women who have to do the same because she realizes they are a reflection of herself. She expresses how women have to move without being seen in society. The window does not represent a gateway for her. She can not enter what she can see outside of the window, literally, because John will not let her, (there are bars holding her in), but also because that world will not belong to her, she will be oppressed like all other women. She will be controlled, and be forced to suffocate her self-expression. The only prospect of possibilities that this window shows are all negative. It shows a world in where she will be oppressed and forced to creep like all the other women. It is common to find the symbol of the house as representing a secure place for a woman’s transformation and her release of self expression. However, in this story, the house is not her own and she does not want to be in it. She declares that it is “haunted,” and that “there is something queer about it. Although she recognizes the beauty of the house and what surrounds it, she constantly goes back to her feeling that “there is something strange about the house. ” Her impression is like a forewarning for the transformation that takes place within her while she is there. In this way the house still is the cocoon for her major change that will take place. The house does not take the form of the conventional symbol of security for day to day activities of a woman, but it does allow for and contain her transformation. The house also facilitates her release, accommodating her, her writing, and her thoughts. These two activities evolve because of the fact that she is kept in the house. The house symbolizes her confinement, where she will be transformed and changed due to her near imprisonment in the house. Impacting her metamorphosis even more than the house itself, is the room she is in and the characteristics of that room. The most important characteristic being the yellow wall-paper, which also plays a double role: it has the ability to trap her in with its complexity of pattern that leads her to no satisfying end and bars that hold in and separate the woman in the wall-paper from her. However, the wallpaper also sets her free. She describes the wall-paper as being repellent, revolting, a smoldering unclean yellow. She is stuck in this room and her only escape is the wall-paper. She is so confined, because her husband has taken such control over her activities, that she is forced to sit and watch this paper. She also says in her first reference to it that, “I should hate it myself if I had to live in this room long. ” The patterns of the paper absorb her as she tries to follow them to an end. This is the beginning of her transformation. She allows herself to be completely drawn in to her fantasies and not being afraid of what is happening to her. She tell her husband of what is occurring and how she sees a figure in the wallpaper. He tells her to resist them, but she does not. Her comprehension of the changes that are occurring and her efforts to cultivate them and see the changes through to an end, illustrate a bravery that is not often recognized in women. After all of this she finally realizes that the image in the wall-paper is not another woman as she originally thought; but it is of herself as well as all women in general and hence the woman behind the wallpaper represent all the women trapped and oppressed by society. The story has significant meaning to it. The story candidly shows what society can do to women, or better, what society can to do any person or group that is oppressed. The effects on the mind pattern and thought process and their transformations are shown. The window, the house, and the wallpaper all complement this important lesson. The window normally would represent the endless opportunities available in life. However, here it represented the view of a world full of injustices to women and a sort of imprisonment. It is absurd to call a place “home” unless it is the place in which their is security and shelter. But the home the narrator lives in represents the place where she will transform and express her self even though she is only there due to her confinement. All of these symbols show how she is oppressed and how this all affects her thought process and mind pattern. The complex symbols used in “The Yellow Wall-Paper” create Gilman’s portrayal of the oppression of women in the nineteenth century. Gilman’s twist on traditional symbols that usually provide a sense of security and safety adds to this woman’s own oppression and contribute to the trapped feeling. Gilman pushes this to the limit by taking those characteristics closely associated with women and uses them against the narrator, to assist in her oppression. These symbols all effect the theme and complement the meaning of the story, both which deal with the unjust oppression of women.	<urn:uuid:ab85818c-2685-4dcf-aaa3-d533862570d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/the-effect-of-major-symbolic-elements-women-in-literature/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00171.warc.gz	en	0.984581	1,281	3.75	4	[ 0.2961201071739197, 0.5424001216888428, 0.4376130998134613, 0.5002421140670776, -0.20357677340507507, 0.31941646337509155, 0.13141465187072754, 0.2919974625110626, 0.3814164400100708, -0.28771984577178955, -0.06252937018871307, 0.3681789040565491, -0.10871385037899017, -0.09837368130683899...	3	The Effect of Major Symbolic Elements Women in literature are often portrayed in a position that is dominated by men, especially in the nineteenth century, women were repressed and controlled by their husbands as well as other male influences. In “The Yellow Wall-Paper,” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the narrator is oppressed and represents the major theme of the effect of oppression of women in society. This effect is created by the use of complex symbols such as the window, the house, and the wall-paper which all promote her oppression as well as her self expression. One distinctive part of the house that symbolizes not only her potential but also her trapped feeling is the window. In literature, traditionally this would symbolize a prospect of possibilities, but now it becomes a view to a world she may not want to take part in. Through it she sees all that she could be and everything that she could have. But she says near the end, “I don’t like to look out of the windows even – there are so many of those creeping women, and they creep so fast. She knows that she has to hide and lie low; that she would have to creep in order to be accepted in society and she does not want to see all the other women who have to do the same because she realizes they are a reflection of herself. She expresses how women have to move without being seen in society. The window does not represent a gateway for her. She can not enter what she can see outside of the window, literally, because John will not let her, (there are bars holding her in), but also because that world will not belong to her, she will be oppressed like all other women. She will be controlled, and be forced to suffocate her self-expression. The only prospect of possibilities that this window shows are all negative. It shows a world in where she will be oppressed and forced to creep like all the other women. It is common to find the symbol of the house as representing a secure place for a woman’s transformation and her release of self expression. However, in this story, the house is not her own and she does not want to be in it. She declares that it is “haunted,” and that “there is something queer about it. Although she recognizes the beauty of the house and what surrounds it, she constantly goes back to her feeling that “there is something strange about the house. ” Her impression is like a forewarning for the transformation that takes place within her while she is there. In this way the house still is the cocoon for her major change that will take place. The house does not take the form of the conventional symbol of security for day to day activities of a woman, but it does allow for and contain her transformation. The house also facilitates her release, accommodating her, her writing, and her thoughts. These two activities evolve because of the fact that she is kept in the house. The house symbolizes her confinement, where she will be transformed and changed due to her near imprisonment in the house. Impacting her metamorphosis even more than the house itself, is the room she is in and the characteristics of that room. The most important characteristic being the yellow wall-paper, which also plays a double role: it has the ability to trap her in with its complexity of pattern that leads her to no satisfying end and bars that hold in and separate the woman in the wall-paper from her. However, the wallpaper also sets her free. She describes the wall-paper as being repellent, revolting, a smoldering unclean yellow. She is stuck in this room and her only escape is the wall-paper. She is so confined, because her husband has taken such control over her activities, that she is forced to sit and watch this paper. She also says in her first reference to it that, “I should hate it myself if I had to live in this room long. ” The patterns of the paper absorb her as she tries to follow them to an end. This is the beginning of her transformation. She allows herself to be completely drawn in to her fantasies and not being afraid of what is happening to her. She tell her husband of what is occurring and how she sees a figure in the wallpaper. He tells her to resist them, but she does not. Her comprehension of the changes that are occurring and her efforts to cultivate them and see the changes through to an end, illustrate a bravery that is not often recognized in women. After all of this she finally realizes that the image in the wall-paper is not another woman as she originally thought; but it is of herself as well as all women in general and hence the woman behind the wallpaper represent all the women trapped and oppressed by society. The story has significant meaning to it. The story candidly shows what society can do to women, or better, what society can to do any person or group that is oppressed. The effects on the mind pattern and thought process and their transformations are shown. The window, the house, and the wallpaper all complement this important lesson. The window normally would represent the endless opportunities available in life. However, here it represented the view of a world full of injustices to women and a sort of imprisonment. It is absurd to call a place “home” unless it is the place in which their is security and shelter. But the home the narrator lives in represents the place where she will transform and express her self even though she is only there due to her confinement. All of these symbols show how she is oppressed and how this all affects her thought process and mind pattern. The complex symbols used in “The Yellow Wall-Paper” create Gilman’s portrayal of the oppression of women in the nineteenth century. Gilman’s twist on traditional symbols that usually provide a sense of security and safety adds to this woman’s own oppression and contribute to the trapped feeling. Gilman pushes this to the limit by taking those characteristics closely associated with women and uses them against the narrator, to assist in her oppression. These symbols all effect the theme and complement the meaning of the story, both which deal with the unjust oppression of women.	1,238	ENGLISH	1
After having a year of flipped instruction under my belt and absorbing all of the student feedback that I received (see my 2nd blog post in the series from last summer, “Flipping English Classrooms: Grammar Instruction”), I have taken time to reflect and consider what options and changes I could explore with this teaching strategy. One of my first thoughts was to consider whether the strategy of flipping grammar instruction was having a long-term, positive impact on my students. If you recall from my “Framing the Flipped Classroom” post, flipping is when instruction is done outside of the classroom through videos and websites, and the “homework” or independent practice is done in class. In terms of my students, after implementing a flipped model, they were more engaged and we were having more enriched conversations about grammar, sentence structure, and language usage. Still, something was missing. I wanted my students to retain what they had learned and to see purpose in learning the skills that were being introduced through the video lessons. Since the beginning of this school year, I have been able to see the impact first hand. I teach both 7th and 8th grade, so I have the opportunity to engage with students for two years in a row. I started off the year doing some simple bell ringers. My bell ringers are meant to warm up my students’ brains at the beginning of the hour. In the fall, when I gave them two simple sentences on the board and asked my 8th graders to turn them into one compound sentence and one complex sentence, the results were disheartening. The students showed me there had not been much in the way of retention for combining sentences or sentence structure. In addition, when I gave them their first writing assignment, they were required to use simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences throughout their writing and highlight that they could use these types of sentences effectively. As my students were in the drafting stages of their memoir, I paused to remind them about their guidelines for writing the piece. - Your memoir needs to have dialogue. - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of complex sentences. (Highlight in blue at least 2-3.) - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of compound sentences. (Highlight in green at least 2-3.) - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of compound-complex sentences. (Highlight in pink at least 2-3.) When we were done discussing the specific guidelines, I couldn’t help but overhear the students turning and asking each other: “What’s a complex sentence? What’s a compound sentence?” The conversation blew me away. There were numerous shoulder shrugs. A handful of students were using correct vocabulary, such as independent, dependent clauses, and conjunctions; however, even these students still couldn’t put all of the pieces together. My realization was that few of them, if any, had retained the information they learned in the flipped videos from the year before. To say the least, I was disappointed. However, because I had created the flipped lessons on our class wiki, the silver lining to this cloud came in how easily I could direct students to the videos that were used last year for the above mentioned topics. So, as I highlighted these videos for my students, I began to think more about how I wanted to use flipped instruction in my classroom for the 2014-2015 school year, and perhaps the years to come. The one thought that kept resonating in my brain was that I am truly not using a “flipped” model for instructing my students. Instead, I was taking more of a blended approach with my students. Flipped lessons are just that, flipped: lesson outside of class, homework in class. Even with this approach, I wanted more. I didn’t want the grammar video to be just another lesson that the students forget. So, I started creating links to other websites and resources that the students could access. I wanted the conversations to go deeper. I didn’t want to spend just one or two days focusing on a skill. I wanted students to continue to think about the skill and the moves they make in their writing because of what they had learned. On the other hand, blended learning deals directly with the use of digital content when it comes to instruction. It doesn’t necessarily mean that the students are going to watch a video for homework and then do the lesson in the classroom where they have access to their teacher. The idea behind blended learning is to break down the school walls and to permit teachers to interact with students in and out of the classroom. It allows teachers to reach more students on a daily basis through face to face interactions, online social platforms, tools such as Google Drive, and the use of other digital tools and apps. Besides realizing that I was actually using more of a blended model for instruction, I began to examine whether students were actually doing their “homework” outside of class. That is, compared to a more traditional model that I once followed for grammar instruction which included me standing in front of the class, delivering the lesson, asking the students if they had any questions, and then giving them an assignment. I wanted to see if flipped learning led to more homework completion. The reality was that I was not seeing any improvement in homework being turned in with a flipped model. Sadly, my teaching dilemma persisted; the same students still were not turning in their homework, and it seemed that students were inventing new excuses for not having their work completed. For example, if students acknowledged that they did not have internet or computer access at home, I would put the video on a recordable DVD for them to take home and watch the lesson. As time went by, students started telling us their DVD players were “broken.” Upon investigation, we were finding out the DVDs weren’t even making it home. Finally, I began to think about what my real purpose was for having my students watch videos for instruction. Was I really trying to curve any homework issues I was having, or was I posting videos for my students because I wanted them to be more engaged and have more access to their teacher? Were these good enough reasons for me to spend the time to create and search for videos on a given grammar topic? The harsh reality was they were not and I had to examine more worthwhile purposes. I believe if we are going to be the most effective teachers for our students, we have to be willing to try new ways to reach our students, even if that means we are going to fail. It is okay if something doesn’t work with our kids. If we can learn to adapt to our students and try new things and not be afraid to fail, our students will be willing to take leaps of faith as well. Despite the fact there were numerous purposes to ponder, I had come to the conclusion that I wanted my students to have access to numerous resources other than just the textbook or me. In addition, I wanted my students to have access to these resources outside of the classroom through the multiple devices that they have access to every day. Though I know that nothing can truly replace a teacher, I also know that a teacher isn’t always accessible. As their teacher, the final reality that I had to come to terms with is that no matter how well I teach a skill, students were not going to retain everything that was taught to them. By giving them access to videos, websites, and audio clips such as Grammar Girl students can constantly revisit these skills and feel confident when asked to demonstrate them on an assignment. Also, because the blended model is more complex than just watching a video and then completing the activity, my students are thinking more about the skills they learned beyond the one day it was discussed in class. Now, with the blended model, they are thinking about how to apply this to more than just one piece of writing and they are beginning to think of sentence structure as something that is more fun like building Legos. Furthermore, they are thinking more about what they are doing and why they are doing it. In turn, they are retaining more with a blended approach. When my principal came to the science teacher and me in the spring of 2013, I was fired up for the possibilities that flipped learning could bring to my students and to my classroom. My students have done some magnificent work in relation to this instructional approach. However, going through the experience and the experiment of flipping my grammar instruction has proven to me as a language arts teacher that my students benefit the most from a more blended approach where they have access to numerous resources when they need them. This proves once again that technology helps with breaking down the walls of the classroom so students can be successful and confident, even if they do have a question on an assignment outside of class. Flipped learning is by no means the end-all, be-all of engaging our students. However, if teachers are willing to find nuggets of value in what it is trying to accomplish, perhaps it can help others realize what is truly best for their students to be successful. Yes, it is true, my students still need me to be their hub when it comes to learning a new skill, but they also need more than just their teacher. They need multiple resources that are easy for them to access when it comes to learning a new skill. Students also need more than just a simple worksheet or activity for them to retain the knowledge needed to complete future tasks. Furthermore, no matter what new innovative way a lesson may be introduced to students, there are still going to be students who will not turn in their homework and who will need extra encouragement to be successful in the classroom, and those who will take those skills they learn and apply it to their lives outside of school. Jeremy Hyler (@jeremybballer) is a 7th and 8th grade middle school language arts teacher in Middleton, Michigan, a department co-chair, and a Co-Director of the Chippewa River Writing Project. He is co-author of Create, Compose, Connect! Reading, Writing and Learning with Digital Tools This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.	<urn:uuid:7a5fdc8a-9806-4131-936e-9612e11727d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://chippewariverwp.org/blog/2015/04/16/from-flipped-to-blended/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00418.warc.gz	en	0.983385	2,116	3.421875	3	[ -0.42294037342071533, -0.2561684250831604, 0.33161360025405884, -0.17770329117774963, -0.6825940608978271, 0.12992897629737854, 0.10940371453762054, 0.44891610741615295, 0.03198510780930519, -0.3250373601913452, 0.19145327806472778, 0.18091823160648346, 0.17892596125602722, 0.2197870314121...	5	After having a year of flipped instruction under my belt and absorbing all of the student feedback that I received (see my 2nd blog post in the series from last summer, “Flipping English Classrooms: Grammar Instruction”), I have taken time to reflect and consider what options and changes I could explore with this teaching strategy. One of my first thoughts was to consider whether the strategy of flipping grammar instruction was having a long-term, positive impact on my students. If you recall from my “Framing the Flipped Classroom” post, flipping is when instruction is done outside of the classroom through videos and websites, and the “homework” or independent practice is done in class. In terms of my students, after implementing a flipped model, they were more engaged and we were having more enriched conversations about grammar, sentence structure, and language usage. Still, something was missing. I wanted my students to retain what they had learned and to see purpose in learning the skills that were being introduced through the video lessons. Since the beginning of this school year, I have been able to see the impact first hand. I teach both 7th and 8th grade, so I have the opportunity to engage with students for two years in a row. I started off the year doing some simple bell ringers. My bell ringers are meant to warm up my students’ brains at the beginning of the hour. In the fall, when I gave them two simple sentences on the board and asked my 8th graders to turn them into one compound sentence and one complex sentence, the results were disheartening. The students showed me there had not been much in the way of retention for combining sentences or sentence structure. In addition, when I gave them their first writing assignment, they were required to use simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences throughout their writing and highlight that they could use these types of sentences effectively. As my students were in the drafting stages of their memoir, I paused to remind them about their guidelines for writing the piece. - Your memoir needs to have dialogue. - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of complex sentences. (Highlight in blue at least 2-3.) - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of compound sentences. (Highlight in green at least 2-3.) - As a writer, demonstrate the effective use of compound-complex sentences. (Highlight in pink at least 2-3.) When we were done discussing the specific guidelines, I couldn’t help but overhear the students turning and asking each other: “What’s a complex sentence? What’s a compound sentence?” The conversation blew me away. There were numerous shoulder shrugs. A handful of students were using correct vocabulary, such as independent, dependent clauses, and conjunctions; however, even these students still couldn’t put all of the pieces together. My realization was that few of them, if any, had retained the information they learned in the flipped videos from the year before. To say the least, I was disappointed. However, because I had created the flipped lessons on our class wiki, the silver lining to this cloud came in how easily I could direct students to the videos that were used last year for the above mentioned topics. So, as I highlighted these videos for my students, I began to think more about how I wanted to use flipped instruction in my classroom for the 2014-2015 school year, and perhaps the years to come. The one thought that kept resonating in my brain was that I am truly not using a “flipped” model for instructing my students. Instead, I was taking more of a blended approach with my students. Flipped lessons are just that, flipped: lesson outside of class, homework in class. Even with this approach, I wanted more. I didn’t want the grammar video to be just another lesson that the students forget. So, I started creating links to other websites and resources that the students could access. I wanted the conversations to go deeper. I didn’t want to spend just one or two days focusing on a skill. I wanted students to continue to think about the skill and the moves they make in their writing because of what they had learned. On the other hand, blended learning deals directly with the use of digital content when it comes to instruction. It doesn’t necessarily mean that the students are going to watch a video for homework and then do the lesson in the classroom where they have access to their teacher. The idea behind blended learning is to break down the school walls and to permit teachers to interact with students in and out of the classroom. It allows teachers to reach more students on a daily basis through face to face interactions, online social platforms, tools such as Google Drive, and the use of other digital tools and apps. Besides realizing that I was actually using more of a blended model for instruction, I began to examine whether students were actually doing their “homework” outside of class. That is, compared to a more traditional model that I once followed for grammar instruction which included me standing in front of the class, delivering the lesson, asking the students if they had any questions, and then giving them an assignment. I wanted to see if flipped learning led to more homework completion. The reality was that I was not seeing any improvement in homework being turned in with a flipped model. Sadly, my teaching dilemma persisted; the same students still were not turning in their homework, and it seemed that students were inventing new excuses for not having their work completed. For example, if students acknowledged that they did not have internet or computer access at home, I would put the video on a recordable DVD for them to take home and watch the lesson. As time went by, students started telling us their DVD players were “broken.” Upon investigation, we were finding out the DVDs weren’t even making it home. Finally, I began to think about what my real purpose was for having my students watch videos for instruction. Was I really trying to curve any homework issues I was having, or was I posting videos for my students because I wanted them to be more engaged and have more access to their teacher? Were these good enough reasons for me to spend the time to create and search for videos on a given grammar topic? The harsh reality was they were not and I had to examine more worthwhile purposes. I believe if we are going to be the most effective teachers for our students, we have to be willing to try new ways to reach our students, even if that means we are going to fail. It is okay if something doesn’t work with our kids. If we can learn to adapt to our students and try new things and not be afraid to fail, our students will be willing to take leaps of faith as well. Despite the fact there were numerous purposes to ponder, I had come to the conclusion that I wanted my students to have access to numerous resources other than just the textbook or me. In addition, I wanted my students to have access to these resources outside of the classroom through the multiple devices that they have access to every day. Though I know that nothing can truly replace a teacher, I also know that a teacher isn’t always accessible. As their teacher, the final reality that I had to come to terms with is that no matter how well I teach a skill, students were not going to retain everything that was taught to them. By giving them access to videos, websites, and audio clips such as Grammar Girl students can constantly revisit these skills and feel confident when asked to demonstrate them on an assignment. Also, because the blended model is more complex than just watching a video and then completing the activity, my students are thinking more about the skills they learned beyond the one day it was discussed in class. Now, with the blended model, they are thinking about how to apply this to more than just one piece of writing and they are beginning to think of sentence structure as something that is more fun like building Legos. Furthermore, they are thinking more about what they are doing and why they are doing it. In turn, they are retaining more with a blended approach. When my principal came to the science teacher and me in the spring of 2013, I was fired up for the possibilities that flipped learning could bring to my students and to my classroom. My students have done some magnificent work in relation to this instructional approach. However, going through the experience and the experiment of flipping my grammar instruction has proven to me as a language arts teacher that my students benefit the most from a more blended approach where they have access to numerous resources when they need them. This proves once again that technology helps with breaking down the walls of the classroom so students can be successful and confident, even if they do have a question on an assignment outside of class. Flipped learning is by no means the end-all, be-all of engaging our students. However, if teachers are willing to find nuggets of value in what it is trying to accomplish, perhaps it can help others realize what is truly best for their students to be successful. Yes, it is true, my students still need me to be their hub when it comes to learning a new skill, but they also need more than just their teacher. They need multiple resources that are easy for them to access when it comes to learning a new skill. Students also need more than just a simple worksheet or activity for them to retain the knowledge needed to complete future tasks. Furthermore, no matter what new innovative way a lesson may be introduced to students, there are still going to be students who will not turn in their homework and who will need extra encouragement to be successful in the classroom, and those who will take those skills they learn and apply it to their lives outside of school. Jeremy Hyler (@jeremybballer) is a 7th and 8th grade middle school language arts teacher in Middleton, Michigan, a department co-chair, and a Co-Director of the Chippewa River Writing Project. He is co-author of Create, Compose, Connect! Reading, Writing and Learning with Digital Tools This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.	2,071	ENGLISH	1
Kirsten Larson was a young girl who lived in Ryd, Sweden in 1854. Her family decided to come to America to make a better life for themselves. In America, there was plenty of land and the lots of possibilities. So the Larsons sold their home, their animals, and almost everything else that they owned, packed a trunk with their most important possessions, a few bundles of supplies for the journey, and boarded a ship to cross the atlantic. Immigrate to America! We pretended to immigrate to America with our dolls. I hung flags from the wall of the three countries that represented most European immigrants to America during Kirsten’s time: Germany, Sweden, and Ireland. I had each of the girls draw a card with two names and a country on it (one name for them and one for their doll). The names were actual German, Swedish, and Irish names from Kirsten’s time period. You can find names like this on ancestry.com or familysearch.org. I then had each girl stand by the flag of the country they were pretending to leave. We talked about why so many people were leaving these countries and immigrating to America. For the Swedish, it was mostly because Sweden had become very crowded and there wasn’t enough land for people to farm. The king had divided each farm in half to try to make more land available for people who had no land, but this made the problem worse because families could not grow enough food to feed themselves. One poor crop could be a disaster for a family. Many Swedish families were struggling to survive. The United States government was wanting people to settle its territories because it believed it would help the country become stronger. The government offered people land at very little cost to encourage them to settle the western parts of the country. The promise of inexpensive land to settle prompted many Swedish people to leave their home country to start a new life. Many people were leaving Germany because of war. There had been years of political unrest and war in Germany, as well as famine and extreme poverty. Many people were leaving Germany to escape famine and war, or to escape punishment for political action. The Irish had been suffering from famine for many years because of a disease that killed potatoes, which was their staple food source. Many Irish were starving to death and many others fled to America. Note: There were also many immigrants from China during this time, but they immigrated to California and had a very different story than Kirsten’s family, so I did not include them in our activities. Cross the Atlantic Once the girls had a country and a name, we “boarded a boat” and crossed the Atlantic. I happen to have a small kayak and so we used that as a boat, just so they could get the idea that the journey to America was crowded and uncomfortable. We pushed our boat down the hall to America! It would have taken Kirsten’s family at least six weeks to cross the Atlantic. They and most other immigrants would have traveled in the steerage compartment which was crowded, dirty, foul-smelling, and dark. Because of the unsanitary conditions, many people became sick and even died on the journey. They also usually had to provide their own food, which sometimes ran out or spoiled before the journey was over. They drank from a shared water barrel which contributed to the spread of illness. You can imagine how happy they were to arrive in America at last! When Kirsten’s family arrived in America, they landed in New York City, but she wouldn’t have seen the Statue of Liberty like later immigrants, and she wouldn’t have gone through an immigration station. The first immigration station in America was opened a year later. It was called Castle Garden. Decades later it was closed when Ellis Island opened. A health inspector would have boarded the boat that Kirsten had traveled on and checked the passengers for disease. If the inspector had found sick passengers the boat would have been quarantined for up to a few weeks, or even sent back to Europe. If everyone seemed healthy, the passengers would have been allowed to enter New York and proceed on their journeys. Some of the immigrants would have stayed in New York, but others, like the Larsons would have had farther to travel. They would have arrived in New York and had to arrange travel by train or boat to their final destination. In the Larson’s case, they traveled to Chicago by train, then by steamboat on the Mississippi River, then finally they walked to their final destination in Minnesota. Other immigrants would have traveled farther west by covered wagon on the Oregon Trail. Whatever the form of transportation they used, most immigrants did not speak English, and had to arrange it while communicating in a foreign language. They also had to find work, food, and lodging without being able to speak easily with those around them. Sounds pretty challenging doesn’t it! To get a feel for how hard it would have been to try to navigate life in a new country where you don’t speak the language, we played immigrant charades. We had to try to get the group to guess the following phrases without using words: I need food. I need a job. I need a place to sleep. I need to buy a train ticket. My baby is sick, I need a doctor. I need water. How do I get to the river? When the Larsons arrived in America, the American flag had 31 stars for the 31 states that were part of the United States at that time. They settled in Minnesota, which was then part of the Minnesota Territory. We put sticky notes on a United States map to get a visual on which states were not yet states. We then mapped the Larson family’s journey by train to Chicago and their steamboat trip up the Mississippi River to Minnesota. We also drew the Oregon Trail onto the map so we could see the route that other immigrants and pioneers took west to settle the Oregon Territory. Make an America Chest for Kirsten Most immigrant families had to pack all the belongings that they brought with them to America in just one wooden chest, which the immigrants called their America chest. Anything that wouldn’t fit they had to carry in their arms or leave behind. What would you pack in your “America chest”? You can make an America chest for Kirsten! You can find a little wooden chest like this at a craft store or on Amazon. Give it a coat of paint, and then you can trace a Swedish folk print on it, like this one. Color it in with paint and then you are finished! Now Kirsten can pack her America chest!	<urn:uuid:ca4b73bf-c188-4b98-a5cd-bbbef47e3701>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://happyhealthyhomemade.com/2020/01/09/__trashed/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00408.warc.gz	en	0.989681	1,391	3.421875	3	[ -0.03993253782391548, 0.2237897515296936, 0.1970110535621643, 0.3975394368171692, 0.4637870788574219, 0.2822202146053314, -0.3397340774536133, 0.2074020802974701, -0.36536064743995667, 0.0631655678153038, 0.47965699434280396, -0.13264663517475128, 0.06693720817565918, -0.17304499447345734,...	17	Kirsten Larson was a young girl who lived in Ryd, Sweden in 1854. Her family decided to come to America to make a better life for themselves. In America, there was plenty of land and the lots of possibilities. So the Larsons sold their home, their animals, and almost everything else that they owned, packed a trunk with their most important possessions, a few bundles of supplies for the journey, and boarded a ship to cross the atlantic. Immigrate to America! We pretended to immigrate to America with our dolls. I hung flags from the wall of the three countries that represented most European immigrants to America during Kirsten’s time: Germany, Sweden, and Ireland. I had each of the girls draw a card with two names and a country on it (one name for them and one for their doll). The names were actual German, Swedish, and Irish names from Kirsten’s time period. You can find names like this on ancestry.com or familysearch.org. I then had each girl stand by the flag of the country they were pretending to leave. We talked about why so many people were leaving these countries and immigrating to America. For the Swedish, it was mostly because Sweden had become very crowded and there wasn’t enough land for people to farm. The king had divided each farm in half to try to make more land available for people who had no land, but this made the problem worse because families could not grow enough food to feed themselves. One poor crop could be a disaster for a family. Many Swedish families were struggling to survive. The United States government was wanting people to settle its territories because it believed it would help the country become stronger. The government offered people land at very little cost to encourage them to settle the western parts of the country. The promise of inexpensive land to settle prompted many Swedish people to leave their home country to start a new life. Many people were leaving Germany because of war. There had been years of political unrest and war in Germany, as well as famine and extreme poverty. Many people were leaving Germany to escape famine and war, or to escape punishment for political action. The Irish had been suffering from famine for many years because of a disease that killed potatoes, which was their staple food source. Many Irish were starving to death and many others fled to America. Note: There were also many immigrants from China during this time, but they immigrated to California and had a very different story than Kirsten’s family, so I did not include them in our activities. Cross the Atlantic Once the girls had a country and a name, we “boarded a boat” and crossed the Atlantic. I happen to have a small kayak and so we used that as a boat, just so they could get the idea that the journey to America was crowded and uncomfortable. We pushed our boat down the hall to America! It would have taken Kirsten’s family at least six weeks to cross the Atlantic. They and most other immigrants would have traveled in the steerage compartment which was crowded, dirty, foul-smelling, and dark. Because of the unsanitary conditions, many people became sick and even died on the journey. They also usually had to provide their own food, which sometimes ran out or spoiled before the journey was over. They drank from a shared water barrel which contributed to the spread of illness. You can imagine how happy they were to arrive in America at last! When Kirsten’s family arrived in America, they landed in New York City, but she wouldn’t have seen the Statue of Liberty like later immigrants, and she wouldn’t have gone through an immigration station. The first immigration station in America was opened a year later. It was called Castle Garden. Decades later it was closed when Ellis Island opened. A health inspector would have boarded the boat that Kirsten had traveled on and checked the passengers for disease. If the inspector had found sick passengers the boat would have been quarantined for up to a few weeks, or even sent back to Europe. If everyone seemed healthy, the passengers would have been allowed to enter New York and proceed on their journeys. Some of the immigrants would have stayed in New York, but others, like the Larsons would have had farther to travel. They would have arrived in New York and had to arrange travel by train or boat to their final destination. In the Larson’s case, they traveled to Chicago by train, then by steamboat on the Mississippi River, then finally they walked to their final destination in Minnesota. Other immigrants would have traveled farther west by covered wagon on the Oregon Trail. Whatever the form of transportation they used, most immigrants did not speak English, and had to arrange it while communicating in a foreign language. They also had to find work, food, and lodging without being able to speak easily with those around them. Sounds pretty challenging doesn’t it! To get a feel for how hard it would have been to try to navigate life in a new country where you don’t speak the language, we played immigrant charades. We had to try to get the group to guess the following phrases without using words: I need food. I need a job. I need a place to sleep. I need to buy a train ticket. My baby is sick, I need a doctor. I need water. How do I get to the river? When the Larsons arrived in America, the American flag had 31 stars for the 31 states that were part of the United States at that time. They settled in Minnesota, which was then part of the Minnesota Territory. We put sticky notes on a United States map to get a visual on which states were not yet states. We then mapped the Larson family’s journey by train to Chicago and their steamboat trip up the Mississippi River to Minnesota. We also drew the Oregon Trail onto the map so we could see the route that other immigrants and pioneers took west to settle the Oregon Territory. Make an America Chest for Kirsten Most immigrant families had to pack all the belongings that they brought with them to America in just one wooden chest, which the immigrants called their America chest. Anything that wouldn’t fit they had to carry in their arms or leave behind. What would you pack in your “America chest”? You can make an America chest for Kirsten! You can find a little wooden chest like this at a craft store or on Amazon. Give it a coat of paint, and then you can trace a Swedish folk print on it, like this one. Color it in with paint and then you are finished! Now Kirsten can pack her America chest!	1,337	ENGLISH	1
Essay on lord rama in english Rama was born along with his four other brothers, all by different mothers. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. Rama in Religious Scriptures His presence is not just limited to the Hindu religion, but also extends to Buddhism and Vaishnavism. In one context as found in Arthavaveda, states Monier Monier-Williams , it means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri which means night. The Ramayana explains the story of Ram in which he works towards fulfilling his dharma and overcoming the obstacles he faces. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. The king had promised the princess in marriage to anyone who could manage to bend a huge bow which had once been the weapon of the great god Shiva. Sita leaves with him to live in the forest, the brother Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother. Rama was born along with his four other brothers, all by different mothers. They return to Ayodhya. On top of this slight Rama was exiled from the kingdom for fourteen years. Ravana challenged Lord Rama to defeat him and take Sita. However, in this situation Rama stood out. Symbolic Importance of Rama Lord Ram is a symbol of many virtues — as seen through his different acts and character traits. Eventually, he ended up at Pancavati along the river Godavari, an area plagued by demons. How many years lord rama lived His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Ramanandis are are the largest and most strict Vaishnava monastic order. His education included the Vedas , the Vedangas as well as the martial arts. He is the ideal man who gave people an inspiration to live life by portraying an honest man who fights against the cruel intentions and dishonesty existing in the world. Janaka declared Rama to be the winner. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Once everyone was out of the way, Ravana was left to defeat. Symbolic Importance of Rama Lord Ram is a symbol of many virtues — as seen through his different acts and character traits. As a condition of the swayamvara, Janaka declared that his daughter will marry whoever could lift, set and shoot an arrow from that huge bow that formerly belonged to Shiva. This made Ravana angry and he decided to take revenge by kidnapping Sita. Lord Rama along with his monkey devotees and Hanumana take to sea route to reach his kingdom. The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana, who was the brother of Shurpanakha. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Lord rama death What made Lord Rama kill the Ravana? Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. Hanuman meets Shri Rama in the forest. What may be relevant in this time period may make no sense to the upcoming generations. He features extensively in Hindu art, scriptures and wall paintings. One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Rama and Sita epitomized the devotional relationship between husband and wife. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self Atman, soul in whom yogis delight nondualistically. Janaka celebrated the wedding of Rama and Sita with great pomp and grandeur. Since Dasaratha was bound to his promise, he stone heartedly did the same. Ravana challenged Lord Rama to defeat him and take Sita. Lord rama height However, for Rama and Sita, of The Ramayana, this type of trial allows them to live together after Sita undergoes a traumatic kidnapping. Rama stood up and strolled towards the bow. Since Dasaratha was bound to his promise, he stone heartedly did the same. King Janaka was conducting a swayamvara for his daughter, Sita, which is a competition where most potential grooms put together their strengths to win the princess. Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, took life on earth for the purpose of upholding righteousness and rewarding virtue. Laksmana was the first to react and cut off the ears and nose of Surpanakha. Ravana kidnapping Sita while Jatayu on the left tried to help her. This handsome young man was immediately noticed by everyone present there. Rama ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. It is called Rama pattabhisheka, and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule. Janaka was a devotee of Lord Shiva who had given him His bow as a gift. Whoever lifted up the huge bow could marry Princess Sita was the condition, but no one could. Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. based on 72 review	<urn:uuid:24a139bb-60d6-47e2-a1dd-e168a674bff4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hojuwirucypetam.dellrichards.com/essay-on-lord-rama-in-english439664571sp.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00240.warc.gz	en	0.982979	1,161	3.421875	3	[ 0.046006932854652405, 0.47828420996665955, -0.4604358673095703, -0.20213806629180908, -0.33959999680519104, 0.17070992290973663, 0.41659456491470337, 0.07781718671321869, 0.3429426848888397, -0.2752610743045807, -0.01158997043967247, -0.26063114404678345, 0.49684959650039673, 0.30558001995...	1	Essay on lord rama in english Rama was born along with his four other brothers, all by different mothers. She demands that Rama be exiled for fourteen years to Dandaka forest. Rama in Religious Scriptures His presence is not just limited to the Hindu religion, but also extends to Buddhism and Vaishnavism. In one context as found in Arthavaveda, states Monier Monier-Williams , it means "dark, dark-colored, black" and is related to the term ratri which means night. The Ramayana explains the story of Ram in which he works towards fulfilling his dharma and overcoming the obstacles he faces. Rama is portrayed as a polite, self-controlled, virtuous youth always ready to help others. The king had promised the princess in marriage to anyone who could manage to bend a huge bow which had once been the weapon of the great god Shiva. Sita leaves with him to live in the forest, the brother Lakshmana joins them in their exile as the caring close brother. Rama was born along with his four other brothers, all by different mothers. They return to Ayodhya. On top of this slight Rama was exiled from the kingdom for fourteen years. Ravana challenged Lord Rama to defeat him and take Sita. However, in this situation Rama stood out. Symbolic Importance of Rama Lord Ram is a symbol of many virtues — as seen through his different acts and character traits. Eventually, he ended up at Pancavati along the river Godavari, an area plagued by demons. How many years lord rama lived His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Ramanandis are are the largest and most strict Vaishnava monastic order. His education included the Vedas , the Vedangas as well as the martial arts. He is the ideal man who gave people an inspiration to live life by portraying an honest man who fights against the cruel intentions and dishonesty existing in the world. Janaka declared Rama to be the winner. Her son Bharata, and other family members become upset at her demand. Once everyone was out of the way, Ravana was left to defeat. Symbolic Importance of Rama Lord Ram is a symbol of many virtues — as seen through his different acts and character traits. As a condition of the swayamvara, Janaka declared that his daughter will marry whoever could lift, set and shoot an arrow from that huge bow that formerly belonged to Shiva. This made Ravana angry and he decided to take revenge by kidnapping Sita. Lord Rama along with his monkey devotees and Hanumana take to sea route to reach his kingdom. The cycle of violence escalated, ultimately reaching demon king Ravana, who was the brother of Shurpanakha. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Lord rama death What made Lord Rama kill the Ravana? Dasharatha remembers and agrees to do so. Hanuman meets Shri Rama in the forest. What may be relevant in this time period may make no sense to the upcoming generations. He features extensively in Hindu art, scriptures and wall paintings. One day, a demoness called Shurpanakha saw Rama, became enamored of him, and tried to seduce him. His mother's name Kaushalya literally implies that she was from Kosala. Rama and Sita epitomized the devotional relationship between husband and wife. In some Advaita Vedanta inspired texts, Rama connotes the metaphysical concept of Supreme Brahman who is the eternally blissful spiritual Self Atman, soul in whom yogis delight nondualistically. Janaka celebrated the wedding of Rama and Sita with great pomp and grandeur. Since Dasaratha was bound to his promise, he stone heartedly did the same. Ravana challenged Lord Rama to defeat him and take Sita. Lord rama height However, for Rama and Sita, of The Ramayana, this type of trial allows them to live together after Sita undergoes a traumatic kidnapping. Rama stood up and strolled towards the bow. Since Dasaratha was bound to his promise, he stone heartedly did the same. King Janaka was conducting a swayamvara for his daughter, Sita, which is a competition where most potential grooms put together their strengths to win the princess. Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, took life on earth for the purpose of upholding righteousness and rewarding virtue. Laksmana was the first to react and cut off the ears and nose of Surpanakha. Ravana kidnapping Sita while Jatayu on the left tried to help her. This handsome young man was immediately noticed by everyone present there. Rama ultimately reaches Lanka, fights in a war that has many ups and downs, but ultimately Rama prevails, kills Ravana and forces of evil, and rescues his wife Sita. It is called Rama pattabhisheka, and his rule itself as Rama rajya described to be a just and fair rule. Janaka was a devotee of Lord Shiva who had given him His bow as a gift. Whoever lifted up the huge bow could marry Princess Sita was the condition, but no one could. Bala-rama, also called Halayudha, as the elder brother of Krishna both of whom appear in the legends of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. based on 72 review	1,147	ENGLISH	1
During Computing today, Year 5 Kestrels learned about emails and how they work. They learned that an email always has the ‘@'(at) symbol. Every email address looks like this: Kestrels then discussed the following points: – Why do people use emails? – Which are the advantages of using emails? – Are there any disadvantages? – Do you have an email account at home? The class then discussed the risks of having email. They all agreed that keeping passwords safe was important to ensure that no one can check your emails. And they added that hacking was another big risk in having your email. The children then were given their own email address, which they will keep until they leave school. They will be able to use and explore email. Kestrels were so excited having their own emails and looked at the various types of folders Inbox, Drafts and Sent Items. Online Safety note Children can access their emails from school and outside of school. The accounts are restricted so they cannot receive email from outside of school. And they are not able to send emails outside of the school domain. All emails are monitored.	<urn:uuid:c3f21d09-780a-4f64-980a-862b2d36a514>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://year5.bellsfarm.org/?p=3349	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00136.warc.gz	en	0.981019	242	4.09375	4	[ -0.0931980088353157, -0.17071372270584106, 0.14668935537338257, -0.2302706092596054, -0.019942181184887886, -0.22971652448177338, 0.5971327424049377, 0.14060166478157043, -0.16086147725582123, -0.31273770332336426, -0.14915673434734344, 0.5024546980857849, 0.3229518234729767, -0.1177503168...	3	During Computing today, Year 5 Kestrels learned about emails and how they work. They learned that an email always has the ‘@'(at) symbol. Every email address looks like this: Kestrels then discussed the following points: – Why do people use emails? – Which are the advantages of using emails? – Are there any disadvantages? – Do you have an email account at home? The class then discussed the risks of having email. They all agreed that keeping passwords safe was important to ensure that no one can check your emails. And they added that hacking was another big risk in having your email. The children then were given their own email address, which they will keep until they leave school. They will be able to use and explore email. Kestrels were so excited having their own emails and looked at the various types of folders Inbox, Drafts and Sent Items. Online Safety note Children can access their emails from school and outside of school. The accounts are restricted so they cannot receive email from outside of school. And they are not able to send emails outside of the school domain. All emails are monitored.	228	ENGLISH	1
The Life and History of Socrates Socrates was one of the greatest philosophers of all time who questioned many individuals about their beliefs on ideas and thoughts that they take for granted by feeling that they know knowledge on a particular subject but utterly find out that they obtain no knowledge or wisdom on that subject that they felt so strongly about, which in turn, ended up being embarrassing to that individual. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help However Socrates feels that if he did not live and examined his life would have been pointless because he would not have learned of all the knowledge he did. Socrates was not like every other citizen in his time who did not examine life and world around him; he would explore his mind and find knowledge of the ideas, thoughts, and values in his time period. He would not have learned all different opinions and views if he did not question the people around him. He felt that all the other people around him were not examining reality, and to him, this was unacceptable because he would of lived life in ignorance like his fellow citizens who thought they obtained great knowledge on a particular subject when their own personal ignorance just made them think every one else’s ideas were wrong and that they were only right. And in reality, they realized that they obtained not much knowledge or wisdom because they could not the most basic questions of their life. An example of that is when Socrates asks Euthyphro what holiness is and Euthyphro can not answer it because he does not know how to explain the definition which in actually, he has no idea what holiness is. It was a basic question, but to act as if one would know of some thing, when not actually knowing it made Socrates sad because he did not want to live like that. It was as if he was living in a false reality with people pretending to have knowledge and wisdom when they do not. Socrates also did not like the fact that people just went with the crowd on topics acting as if they had first hand knowledge on a topic with out actually exploring it. Socrates wanted to obtain knowledge and by questioning everything around him, he was able to obtain that wisdom about the ideas and thoughts of people. As I quote Socrates, “To talk daily about what makes us good, and to question myself and others, is the greatest thing man can do. For the unexamined life is not worth living. ” Within that quote holds Socrates values of how to live an examined life. I personally feel that what Socrates meant by that the “unexamined life is not worth living” was question the beliefs of himself and others to find out how ignorant people were on a particular subject, and also, to find a solid, truthful answer on a particular subject. By questioning people’s beliefs, he was able to dig deeper and deeper into a person’s mind by making them truthfully think about a certain idea that they thought to completely find out that they did not know what they actually thought about a subject because the answer they provided does not make sense or they can not ultimately answer the question Socrates asked them. He did this to show that many people did not know much about life, their values, their morals, their personal ideas and thoughts, and anything else that they felt knowledgeable on. Socrates did this to show the people around him that they too needed to be more like Socrates and question the many beliefs they held to find the absolute truth on an idea. Socrates was only doing this to open up their minds to new ideas, thoughts, and opinions that they normally would say is wrong or unjust because of their strict, closed minded views on certain topics and ideas. Socrates was trying to better the people around him by making them more wise on a subject that when done speaking with Socrates, they may go out on a question to learn more about their knowledge on personal thoughts and to explore the new opinions brought up to them so that one day they could be more wise which would benefit their lives by not being so single minded on ideas. Socrates liked questioning many individuals because it not only made the other person wiser of their ignorance on a topic, but Socrates was also able to learn more about people and their personal thoughts. Both Socrates and the particular person he was speaking to were both able to gain more knowledge after the conversation was done because both learned about the new thoughts and ideas that were brought up in the conversation. Socrates gained knowledge, and so did the other person, even though Socrates would point out their ignorance and leave them embarrassed. Overall, Socrates questioned everyone and every possible idea or thought to expand his knowledge and understand the actual reality around him. If I were to live a more examined life, I feel that I would have to change many aspects towards my personal thinking about ideas, thoughts, values, and my overall interpretation of the world we live in. I have to drop the aspect of that I feel that I have good knowledge about certain thoughts because I am a pretty stubborn person when it comes to arguing about a topic. My views can only change if I feel that it is necessary, but most of the time I feel that my opinion is very valid because I am a truthful person. I do not go around lying to others and acting like I know information about a topic when I actually do not. Also, I would have to start questioning my own personal thoughts and actions more to better understand my self and the way I make choices. When it comes to acting upon some idea, I am basically split in half when it comes to thinking before I act, such as I may just act with out thinking about what I am doing. An example of this is when I wake up in the morning, I am very tired, and like many times before I do not think about what I am doing and usually misplace my belongings in the morning because I am not thinking and it could take me awhile to figure out where they are. Also, when I a argue with others, most of the time I feel that my view point is better than some one else’s and I feel as if they are wrong and look foolish, when in actuality, I may be the foolish one because I argue my side with the wrong idea. Also, since I am a trusting person, I generally will believe in some one’s answer to a question or a certain topic and believe in them that it is the right idea. Then I may go and speak about that idea to others who bring up the subject and it turns out I am wrong, I have done this before and have learned not to trust every one’s own individual judgment at first. I should gather and ask questions to the many individuals who side different ways about a topic and examine their answers in to who is right and who is wrong. I should also question them more in to why they feel a certain way about a topic to better understand their individual thinking, and may be by questioning people, I will give them a better understanding of why they think in that particular way. Overall, if I lived a more examined life, I feel that I would indeed have a better understanding of the world around me and how others think because I would be observing many different individuals ideas and thoughts which could help me in making better choices about and who I hang out with. This would be good because I have a solid set of morals and I like the others around me to feel the same way because it would make us get along better. Also, by questioning more, I feel that it would help me with school and work well so that I can exceed quicker than others by understanding exactly what I am expected of and how to do it the correct way the first time. Finally, I feel that questioning more will give me a great understanding and help me live a more beneficial life; I feel that it is a good idea and I think I will give this a try in living a more examined life.	<urn:uuid:afdecb41-1f90-488e-b9a6-1a670cc3d952>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/the-life-and-history-of-socrates/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00148.warc.gz	en	0.987433	1,625	3.5	4	[ -0.15505343675613403, 0.5981281399726868, 0.01663830876350403, -0.2966688871383667, -0.4545133113861084, -0.12937206029891968, 0.8133669495582581, 0.34950774908065796, -0.05526021495461464, -0.060984402894973755, 0.18817999958992004, 0.08782931417226791, 0.42238137125968933, 0.297769725322...	1	The Life and History of Socrates Socrates was one of the greatest philosophers of all time who questioned many individuals about their beliefs on ideas and thoughts that they take for granted by feeling that they know knowledge on a particular subject but utterly find out that they obtain no knowledge or wisdom on that subject that they felt so strongly about, which in turn, ended up being embarrassing to that individual. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help However Socrates feels that if he did not live and examined his life would have been pointless because he would not have learned of all the knowledge he did. Socrates was not like every other citizen in his time who did not examine life and world around him; he would explore his mind and find knowledge of the ideas, thoughts, and values in his time period. He would not have learned all different opinions and views if he did not question the people around him. He felt that all the other people around him were not examining reality, and to him, this was unacceptable because he would of lived life in ignorance like his fellow citizens who thought they obtained great knowledge on a particular subject when their own personal ignorance just made them think every one else’s ideas were wrong and that they were only right. And in reality, they realized that they obtained not much knowledge or wisdom because they could not the most basic questions of their life. An example of that is when Socrates asks Euthyphro what holiness is and Euthyphro can not answer it because he does not know how to explain the definition which in actually, he has no idea what holiness is. It was a basic question, but to act as if one would know of some thing, when not actually knowing it made Socrates sad because he did not want to live like that. It was as if he was living in a false reality with people pretending to have knowledge and wisdom when they do not. Socrates also did not like the fact that people just went with the crowd on topics acting as if they had first hand knowledge on a topic with out actually exploring it. Socrates wanted to obtain knowledge and by questioning everything around him, he was able to obtain that wisdom about the ideas and thoughts of people. As I quote Socrates, “To talk daily about what makes us good, and to question myself and others, is the greatest thing man can do. For the unexamined life is not worth living. ” Within that quote holds Socrates values of how to live an examined life. I personally feel that what Socrates meant by that the “unexamined life is not worth living” was question the beliefs of himself and others to find out how ignorant people were on a particular subject, and also, to find a solid, truthful answer on a particular subject. By questioning people’s beliefs, he was able to dig deeper and deeper into a person’s mind by making them truthfully think about a certain idea that they thought to completely find out that they did not know what they actually thought about a subject because the answer they provided does not make sense or they can not ultimately answer the question Socrates asked them. He did this to show that many people did not know much about life, their values, their morals, their personal ideas and thoughts, and anything else that they felt knowledgeable on. Socrates did this to show the people around him that they too needed to be more like Socrates and question the many beliefs they held to find the absolute truth on an idea. Socrates was only doing this to open up their minds to new ideas, thoughts, and opinions that they normally would say is wrong or unjust because of their strict, closed minded views on certain topics and ideas. Socrates was trying to better the people around him by making them more wise on a subject that when done speaking with Socrates, they may go out on a question to learn more about their knowledge on personal thoughts and to explore the new opinions brought up to them so that one day they could be more wise which would benefit their lives by not being so single minded on ideas. Socrates liked questioning many individuals because it not only made the other person wiser of their ignorance on a topic, but Socrates was also able to learn more about people and their personal thoughts. Both Socrates and the particular person he was speaking to were both able to gain more knowledge after the conversation was done because both learned about the new thoughts and ideas that were brought up in the conversation. Socrates gained knowledge, and so did the other person, even though Socrates would point out their ignorance and leave them embarrassed. Overall, Socrates questioned everyone and every possible idea or thought to expand his knowledge and understand the actual reality around him. If I were to live a more examined life, I feel that I would have to change many aspects towards my personal thinking about ideas, thoughts, values, and my overall interpretation of the world we live in. I have to drop the aspect of that I feel that I have good knowledge about certain thoughts because I am a pretty stubborn person when it comes to arguing about a topic. My views can only change if I feel that it is necessary, but most of the time I feel that my opinion is very valid because I am a truthful person. I do not go around lying to others and acting like I know information about a topic when I actually do not. Also, I would have to start questioning my own personal thoughts and actions more to better understand my self and the way I make choices. When it comes to acting upon some idea, I am basically split in half when it comes to thinking before I act, such as I may just act with out thinking about what I am doing. An example of this is when I wake up in the morning, I am very tired, and like many times before I do not think about what I am doing and usually misplace my belongings in the morning because I am not thinking and it could take me awhile to figure out where they are. Also, when I a argue with others, most of the time I feel that my view point is better than some one else’s and I feel as if they are wrong and look foolish, when in actuality, I may be the foolish one because I argue my side with the wrong idea. Also, since I am a trusting person, I generally will believe in some one’s answer to a question or a certain topic and believe in them that it is the right idea. Then I may go and speak about that idea to others who bring up the subject and it turns out I am wrong, I have done this before and have learned not to trust every one’s own individual judgment at first. I should gather and ask questions to the many individuals who side different ways about a topic and examine their answers in to who is right and who is wrong. I should also question them more in to why they feel a certain way about a topic to better understand their individual thinking, and may be by questioning people, I will give them a better understanding of why they think in that particular way. Overall, if I lived a more examined life, I feel that I would indeed have a better understanding of the world around me and how others think because I would be observing many different individuals ideas and thoughts which could help me in making better choices about and who I hang out with. This would be good because I have a solid set of morals and I like the others around me to feel the same way because it would make us get along better. Also, by questioning more, I feel that it would help me with school and work well so that I can exceed quicker than others by understanding exactly what I am expected of and how to do it the correct way the first time. Finally, I feel that questioning more will give me a great understanding and help me live a more beneficial life; I feel that it is a good idea and I think I will give this a try in living a more examined life.	1,613	ENGLISH	1
Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was a battle during Caesar's Civil War that took place near the city of Dyrrachium (in what is now Albania). It was fought between Julius Caesar and an army led by Gnaeus Pompey who had the backing of the majority of the Roman Senate. The battle was a victory for Pompey, albeit not a decisive one. The Battle at Dyrrachium preceded the Battle of Pharsalus which was the decisive turning point in the Civil War leading to a Caesarian victory. \|Battle of Dyrrhachium\| \|Part of Caesar's Civil War\| \|Commanders and leaders\| \|Casualties and losses\| By the end of Julius Caesar's first year as consul he had accumulated a large list of lawsuits. Roman law gave government officials immunity from prosecution but only during their term of office when they held lawful Imperium. Once he became a private citizen Caesar knew he would be vulnerable. Instead, as was usual for a consul at the end of his term, Caesar obtained a proconsul position, or governorship, over the territories of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, with the later addition of Transalpine Gaul. What was unusual was the length of Caesar's term as proconsul, which was for five years instead of the usual one year. Moreover, prior to the end of his five years as proconsul of Gaul and Illyricum, Caesar assisted his allies Crassus and Pompey in being elected consuls, who in turn extended his pro-consulship for a further five years. At the end of his term as proconsul, having now met the condition that there be a minimum of ten years between elections as consul, Caesar intended to stand for the consulship in absentia, and upon being elected go straight from his proconsular command into the second consulship. In this way, he would maintain his imperium and thereby not be vulnerable to lawsuits. However, the Senate ordered him to resign command of his army. Caesar replied that he would agree to resign his military command only if Pompey followed suit. Offended by Caesar's response, the Senate demanded he immediately disband his army, or be declared an enemy of the people. In 50 BC, at his Proconsular term's expiry, the Senate forbade Caesar's standing for election in absentia for a second consulship and because of this, Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and rendered politically marginalised if he entered Rome without consular immunity or his army. Caesar responded by marching on Rome and he forced the unprepared Pompey and his allies to flee to Greece, starting the Great Roman Civil War. Caesar did not immediately give chase to Pompey and instead consolidated power in Rome and Italy. He had other problems as well; Pompey had left him with no ships to cross the Adriatic, and Spain had begun to mobilize against Caesar. After gathering the remainder of his forces from Transalpine Gaul he marched into Spain and subdued enough of the country so that it wouldn't intervene during his campaign against Pompey. He then turned his full attention to Pompey. Having only assembled half the needed ships, Caesar decided to take seven available legions across the Adriatic, and to then have the ships travel back to Brundisium, (modern-day Brindisi), and transport the remaining legions once they had arrived at Brundisium. Travel across the Adriatic Sea to Greece would ordinarily be tricky, but was made more so given that it was winter. However, this situation did assist Caesar because the Adriatic was sufficiently treacherous to deter the war galleys of Pompey's fleet, commanded by Caesar's former co-consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, at Corfu. As it was winter Bibulus was unprepared and Caesar was able to sail through the blockade easily and form a beachhead at Epirus with the first half of his army. Bibulus, however, was able to block Caesar's attempt to sail his reinforcements stuck at Brundisium. Bibulus died while conducting this blockade and no overall naval commander was appointed by Pompey. At some point Lucius Scribonius Libo attempted to make the blockade more secure by seizing the island off Brundisium preventing Caesar's reinforcements from sailing anywhere. However, Libo could not sustain this position because of a lack of water. Caesar's blunder had put him in the worst possible position any army could find itself in. His army had no way to resupply from Rome due to the naval blockade, he couldn't resupply locally as Greece was pro-Pompey and closed their gates to Caesar, and his army was only at half strength. So dire was his situation that he made several attempts to discuss peace with Pompey but was refused at every channel. Realizing he was going to have to fight his way out, he attempted another winter blockade run back to Italy to lead his remaining forces to Greece. His luck was not with him and the rough seas and storms forced him back. However, his Master of the Horse Marc Antony fired up his troops and after several attempts evaded Libo's blockade and managed to land at Nympheum (Shëngjin) with four more legions. It was now a race against time as both Caesar and Pompey rushed to meet Antony. Although Pompey reached Antony first Caesar was right on his heels and Pompey prudently moved his forces to Dyrrachium to prevent becoming caught between the two forces. Dyrrachium was a strong defensive position for Pompey. His back was guarded by the sea, and at his front there were hills that commanded the immediate area. This made an assault on the position nearly impossible. Caesar instead decided to revisit his Gallic Wars play-book and ordered his engineers to build walls and fortifications to pin Pompey against the sea. His motives for doing so, as he tells us himself, were three-fold: to prevent Pompey from getting fodder for his animals; to render his cavalry ineffective and thus protect his own foraging parties; and to reduce Pompey's standing in the eyes of the foreigners and his own men by putting him on the defensive and making him openly refuse battle. Pompey responded with walls and fortifications of his own to prevent any further advance. Between these two fortifications a no man's land was created which saw constant skirmishes with little or no gain—similar to the trench warfare of World War I. Caesar held the outlying farmland but it had been picked clean and Pompey, with the sea at his back, was able to be resupplied by ship. However, as the siege wore on, their positions began to change. Pompey found it difficult with the limited land he controlled to create enough fodder for his horses, and other supplies such as fresh water became more and more difficult to maintain. The autumn harvest was approaching and soon Caesar would have enough food to prolong his position. This caused Pompey to become desperate to break out of the siege. By midsummer, though, Pompey had a fortunate stroke of luck. Two Gallic noblemen were caught stealing the pay from auxiliary cavalry under their command, but managed to escape to Pompey. With these two men on his side, Pompey was able to discover the weakest point in Caesar's wall. At the southern end of the circumvallation, where it came close to the sea, Caesar was building a second wall 200 metres south of the main one to protect his defenders from a sea-borne attack from the rear, but it was unfinished and the area between the walls was undefended from the seaward side. Pompey mounted a frontal attack of six legions against Caesar's line where it joined the sea and where the IX legion was stationed. Pompey also sent some auxiliaries and light infantry to attack by sea. Heavily outnumbering the Caesarian troops and attacking them from the front and the rear, the Pompeian troops broke through the weakened fortifications, causing the Ninth to pull back from the onslaught with heavy losses. Caesar swiftly reinforced the breach with 4,000 men. Twelve cohorts under Mark Antony then counterattacked, re-securing part of the wall and pushing Pompey's disordered forces back. Although Caesar's counterattack was initially successful, Pompey's forces were simply too numerous. During the morning Pompey consolidated his newly-won position by building a camp south of the Caesarian walls and put five of his legions there, he then sent the sixth to occupy a small camp between the walls that had been abandoned by Caesar, and enlarged the defences. Caesar responded by sending 33 cohorts to attack this position. Although the attack was initially successful, the Caesarian troops were outnumbered 2:1 and Pompey's troops fought hard. Pompey sent a large force of infantry and 3,000 cavalry to outflank Caesar's right wing. Caesar first ordered his troops on the right to stand firm, but then saw the danger of being outflanked. He ordered a retreat which soon became a panicked and disordered rout. The counterattack on Pompey's camp disintegrated completely. At first Caesar personally tried to stem the retreat, but the fleeing troops did not stop until they reached their own camps. Pompey refrained from pursuing Caesar's routed forces and this allowed them to regroup. Caesar gives his own losses at about 1,000; Pompey's were presumably less. After the failure of the counterattack and considering the losses incurred, Caesar resolved to give up attempting to besiege Pompey and to change the entire strategy of the campaign. Pompey ordered a halt, believing that Caesar had been decisively beaten, and also suspecting a trap. Caesar's men regrouped in their camp and Caesar made preparations for a strategic withdraw. According to Plutarch, Caesar remarked on that decision saying, "Today the victory had been the enemy's, had there been any one among them to gain it." Caesar, by various stratagems, managed to retreat south with the remainder of his army and avoided being caught by the pursuing cavalry of Pompey. He sent some of his cohorts to reinforce the garrisons of Apollonia and Oricum, and propelled the bulk of his remaining troops into Thessaly. The Caesarian general Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus and the Pompeian general Scipio Nasica were both in that country with their respective armies, and both Caesar and Pompey then aimed to link up with their corresponding forces. Upon entering Thessaly, Caesar captured the town of Gomphi and regrouped with Domitius, allowing his men to resupply, rest and then move towards Pharsalus. Pompey linked up with Scipio and then with a force which now numbers nine-and-a-half legions, 7,000 cavalry and numerous light-armed auxiliaries he also reached Pharsalus. Both armies now prepared for the decisive battle which was fought four days later on 9 August 48 BC. - 1,000 according to Caesar himself, 1,000 according to Plutarch in his Life of Caesar but 2,000 according to the same author in his Life of Pompey. 4,000 according to Orosius. Some sources might have taken into account the Caesarian prisoners killed after the battle. - "Battle of Dyrrhachium". UNRV. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011. - see Longhurst 2016 Caesar’s Crossing of the Adriatic Countered by a Winter Blockade During the Roman Civil War The Mariner's Mirror Vol. 102; 132-152 - John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 194; Caesar, Bello Civili, III 43.3. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 197. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, pp 197-198; Caesar, Bello Civili, III, 70; Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 65.5. - Plutarch Pompey 65.5, Dryden translation: p. 465. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, pp 198-201.	<urn:uuid:440dde0f-9cb0-429a-a01a-8d26e9825518>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(48_BC)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00076.warc.gz	en	0.983728	2,591	3.4375	3	[ -0.4771313965320587, 0.3439270853996277, 0.10545510053634644, 0.08189934492111206, -0.6302165985107422, -0.32745102047920227, 0.09273181110620499, 0.2999798059463501, -0.1890850067138672, 0.002295296173542738, 0.11599653959274292, -0.6083619594573975, -0.050267890095710754, 0.3430899083614...	1	Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC) This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium) on 10 July 48 BC was a battle during Caesar's Civil War that took place near the city of Dyrrachium (in what is now Albania). It was fought between Julius Caesar and an army led by Gnaeus Pompey who had the backing of the majority of the Roman Senate. The battle was a victory for Pompey, albeit not a decisive one. The Battle at Dyrrachium preceded the Battle of Pharsalus which was the decisive turning point in the Civil War leading to a Caesarian victory. \|Battle of Dyrrhachium\| \|Part of Caesar's Civil War\| \|Commanders and leaders\| \|Casualties and losses\| By the end of Julius Caesar's first year as consul he had accumulated a large list of lawsuits. Roman law gave government officials immunity from prosecution but only during their term of office when they held lawful Imperium. Once he became a private citizen Caesar knew he would be vulnerable. Instead, as was usual for a consul at the end of his term, Caesar obtained a proconsul position, or governorship, over the territories of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, with the later addition of Transalpine Gaul. What was unusual was the length of Caesar's term as proconsul, which was for five years instead of the usual one year. Moreover, prior to the end of his five years as proconsul of Gaul and Illyricum, Caesar assisted his allies Crassus and Pompey in being elected consuls, who in turn extended his pro-consulship for a further five years. At the end of his term as proconsul, having now met the condition that there be a minimum of ten years between elections as consul, Caesar intended to stand for the consulship in absentia, and upon being elected go straight from his proconsular command into the second consulship. In this way, he would maintain his imperium and thereby not be vulnerable to lawsuits. However, the Senate ordered him to resign command of his army. Caesar replied that he would agree to resign his military command only if Pompey followed suit. Offended by Caesar's response, the Senate demanded he immediately disband his army, or be declared an enemy of the people. In 50 BC, at his Proconsular term's expiry, the Senate forbade Caesar's standing for election in absentia for a second consulship and because of this, Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and rendered politically marginalised if he entered Rome without consular immunity or his army. Caesar responded by marching on Rome and he forced the unprepared Pompey and his allies to flee to Greece, starting the Great Roman Civil War. Caesar did not immediately give chase to Pompey and instead consolidated power in Rome and Italy. He had other problems as well; Pompey had left him with no ships to cross the Adriatic, and Spain had begun to mobilize against Caesar. After gathering the remainder of his forces from Transalpine Gaul he marched into Spain and subdued enough of the country so that it wouldn't intervene during his campaign against Pompey. He then turned his full attention to Pompey. Having only assembled half the needed ships, Caesar decided to take seven available legions across the Adriatic, and to then have the ships travel back to Brundisium, (modern-day Brindisi), and transport the remaining legions once they had arrived at Brundisium. Travel across the Adriatic Sea to Greece would ordinarily be tricky, but was made more so given that it was winter. However, this situation did assist Caesar because the Adriatic was sufficiently treacherous to deter the war galleys of Pompey's fleet, commanded by Caesar's former co-consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, at Corfu. As it was winter Bibulus was unprepared and Caesar was able to sail through the blockade easily and form a beachhead at Epirus with the first half of his army. Bibulus, however, was able to block Caesar's attempt to sail his reinforcements stuck at Brundisium. Bibulus died while conducting this blockade and no overall naval commander was appointed by Pompey. At some point Lucius Scribonius Libo attempted to make the blockade more secure by seizing the island off Brundisium preventing Caesar's reinforcements from sailing anywhere. However, Libo could not sustain this position because of a lack of water. Caesar's blunder had put him in the worst possible position any army could find itself in. His army had no way to resupply from Rome due to the naval blockade, he couldn't resupply locally as Greece was pro-Pompey and closed their gates to Caesar, and his army was only at half strength. So dire was his situation that he made several attempts to discuss peace with Pompey but was refused at every channel. Realizing he was going to have to fight his way out, he attempted another winter blockade run back to Italy to lead his remaining forces to Greece. His luck was not with him and the rough seas and storms forced him back. However, his Master of the Horse Marc Antony fired up his troops and after several attempts evaded Libo's blockade and managed to land at Nympheum (Shëngjin) with four more legions. It was now a race against time as both Caesar and Pompey rushed to meet Antony. Although Pompey reached Antony first Caesar was right on his heels and Pompey prudently moved his forces to Dyrrachium to prevent becoming caught between the two forces. Dyrrachium was a strong defensive position for Pompey. His back was guarded by the sea, and at his front there were hills that commanded the immediate area. This made an assault on the position nearly impossible. Caesar instead decided to revisit his Gallic Wars play-book and ordered his engineers to build walls and fortifications to pin Pompey against the sea. His motives for doing so, as he tells us himself, were three-fold: to prevent Pompey from getting fodder for his animals; to render his cavalry ineffective and thus protect his own foraging parties; and to reduce Pompey's standing in the eyes of the foreigners and his own men by putting him on the defensive and making him openly refuse battle. Pompey responded with walls and fortifications of his own to prevent any further advance. Between these two fortifications a no man's land was created which saw constant skirmishes with little or no gain—similar to the trench warfare of World War I. Caesar held the outlying farmland but it had been picked clean and Pompey, with the sea at his back, was able to be resupplied by ship. However, as the siege wore on, their positions began to change. Pompey found it difficult with the limited land he controlled to create enough fodder for his horses, and other supplies such as fresh water became more and more difficult to maintain. The autumn harvest was approaching and soon Caesar would have enough food to prolong his position. This caused Pompey to become desperate to break out of the siege. By midsummer, though, Pompey had a fortunate stroke of luck. Two Gallic noblemen were caught stealing the pay from auxiliary cavalry under their command, but managed to escape to Pompey. With these two men on his side, Pompey was able to discover the weakest point in Caesar's wall. At the southern end of the circumvallation, where it came close to the sea, Caesar was building a second wall 200 metres south of the main one to protect his defenders from a sea-borne attack from the rear, but it was unfinished and the area between the walls was undefended from the seaward side. Pompey mounted a frontal attack of six legions against Caesar's line where it joined the sea and where the IX legion was stationed. Pompey also sent some auxiliaries and light infantry to attack by sea. Heavily outnumbering the Caesarian troops and attacking them from the front and the rear, the Pompeian troops broke through the weakened fortifications, causing the Ninth to pull back from the onslaught with heavy losses. Caesar swiftly reinforced the breach with 4,000 men. Twelve cohorts under Mark Antony then counterattacked, re-securing part of the wall and pushing Pompey's disordered forces back. Although Caesar's counterattack was initially successful, Pompey's forces were simply too numerous. During the morning Pompey consolidated his newly-won position by building a camp south of the Caesarian walls and put five of his legions there, he then sent the sixth to occupy a small camp between the walls that had been abandoned by Caesar, and enlarged the defences. Caesar responded by sending 33 cohorts to attack this position. Although the attack was initially successful, the Caesarian troops were outnumbered 2:1 and Pompey's troops fought hard. Pompey sent a large force of infantry and 3,000 cavalry to outflank Caesar's right wing. Caesar first ordered his troops on the right to stand firm, but then saw the danger of being outflanked. He ordered a retreat which soon became a panicked and disordered rout. The counterattack on Pompey's camp disintegrated completely. At first Caesar personally tried to stem the retreat, but the fleeing troops did not stop until they reached their own camps. Pompey refrained from pursuing Caesar's routed forces and this allowed them to regroup. Caesar gives his own losses at about 1,000; Pompey's were presumably less. After the failure of the counterattack and considering the losses incurred, Caesar resolved to give up attempting to besiege Pompey and to change the entire strategy of the campaign. Pompey ordered a halt, believing that Caesar had been decisively beaten, and also suspecting a trap. Caesar's men regrouped in their camp and Caesar made preparations for a strategic withdraw. According to Plutarch, Caesar remarked on that decision saying, "Today the victory had been the enemy's, had there been any one among them to gain it." Caesar, by various stratagems, managed to retreat south with the remainder of his army and avoided being caught by the pursuing cavalry of Pompey. He sent some of his cohorts to reinforce the garrisons of Apollonia and Oricum, and propelled the bulk of his remaining troops into Thessaly. The Caesarian general Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus and the Pompeian general Scipio Nasica were both in that country with their respective armies, and both Caesar and Pompey then aimed to link up with their corresponding forces. Upon entering Thessaly, Caesar captured the town of Gomphi and regrouped with Domitius, allowing his men to resupply, rest and then move towards Pharsalus. Pompey linked up with Scipio and then with a force which now numbers nine-and-a-half legions, 7,000 cavalry and numerous light-armed auxiliaries he also reached Pharsalus. Both armies now prepared for the decisive battle which was fought four days later on 9 August 48 BC. - 1,000 according to Caesar himself, 1,000 according to Plutarch in his Life of Caesar but 2,000 according to the same author in his Life of Pompey. 4,000 according to Orosius. Some sources might have taken into account the Caesarian prisoners killed after the battle. - "Battle of Dyrrhachium". UNRV. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011. - see Longhurst 2016 Caesar’s Crossing of the Adriatic Countered by a Winter Blockade During the Roman Civil War The Mariner's Mirror Vol. 102; 132-152 - John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 194; Caesar, Bello Civili, III 43.3. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, p. 197. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, pp 197-198; Caesar, Bello Civili, III, 70; Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 65.5. - Plutarch Pompey 65.5, Dryden translation: p. 465. - John Leach, Pompey the Great, pp 198-201.	2,645	ENGLISH	1
EVALUATE THE SUCCESS OF THE NAZI PARTY IN TRANSFORMING GERMANY INTO A TOTALITARIAN SOCIETY IN THE PERIOD 1933-1939.’ Germany under Nazi rule, through the years 1933-39 contained many ‘totalitarian’ aspects to its regime, but for it to be exclusively described as totalitarian would not be accurate. Critics of the concept of totalitarianism often argue that there is no clear distinction between totalitarian and authoritarian regimes but merely ones created to make it seem that these two concepts of power are in fact diverse. The Nazi Party lacked in organisation and unity which would be expected of a totalitarian state, this is not to say that Nazi Germany did not contain numerous aspects that would support the idea that in fact it was a totalitarian society. Italian Fascist philosopher Giovanni Gentile states that a totalitarian state is “nothing beyond the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state”. These aspects of a totalitarian society crushed the lives of many Germans, but was generally accepted and welcomed by much of the population, due to the unstable state of the former European superpower. Whilst the Nazi Party always aimed to make the nation one of a totalitarian society it was never completely able to capitalise on its plan, this was a direct result of the enemies the party had gained throughout its propel into power. However historian John Stuart Mill states that “as an ideal totalitarianism seeks to bring the state and its apparatus of control into many aspects of private life, such as the family and religion, seeking to mold people’s interests and cultural pursuits”, which is exactly what Hitler was successfully able to achieve through his Hitler’s youth programs as well as numerous incentives proposed to family units in Nazi Germany. The National Socialist German Worker’s Party, led by the notorious Adolf Hitler, originated as a political party in 1920 and was soon to capture the nation of Germany with its extremist policies. Under the leadership of Hitler the Nazi Party was able to rule Germany by totalitarian means throughout the period in which they were elected into power. Hitler became the leader of this right wing political party in 1921 after being recognised as a persuasive and empowering speaker that would be able to influence the minds of the currently susceptible German people. He was the front man of the party and through his infamous speeches was able to gain attention from the media, government and citizens of Germany. After appointing Josef Goebbels as head of Propaganda, The Nazi Party was soon to be recognised and somewhat feared throughout the already unstable nation. Goebbels’s use of marches, and propaganda events, excited the citizens of Germany and was able to transcend a sense of pride through the nation eventually to become the Nazi Party’s most valuable tool in their attempts to create a totalitarian society. Unlike other political parties the Nazis offered those in Germany a scapegoat, a reason as to why Germany had lost its superpower title. The right-wing Party proclaimed hatred, amenably, of Communism, Jews, the Treaty of Versailles and were open about their policies to conquer the Weimar Constitution. Through the 1920’s many of their extremist policies were not well received by the German public, but as weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution appeared to unveil, the popularity of Hitler and his right-wing political party increased. In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only managed to secure 12 seats in the Reichstag, 2.6% of the vote. They realised that a shift in their target audience was warranted and aimed to acquire votes from rural and small town areas. Goebbels’s Propaganda proved to be effective at winning over university students and the party became increasingly popular amongst young men of the lower middle class. The party’s efforts were to be recognised in the September 1930 elections, where they managed to receive 18.3% of the vote, making it the second largest party in the Reichstag. Prior to the March elections, Hitler, at the hands of President Hindenburg was announced Chancellor of Germany. January 1933 was to be a pivotal and soon to be detrimental decision made by the President. Hitler and the Nazi Party first began to make its vast political impact on 27th February 1933, when Dutch Communist Marinus Van der Lubbe was convicted of burning down the Reichstag. This was an opportune time for the Nazis, as its major competition for political power in government was the Communist Party. Hitler took control of investigating the fire and became somewhat a national hero when he was successful in attaining a confession from Van Der Lubbe. An election was shortly called after, in March, whereby Hitler’s party received 44% of the vote making it the largest party and giving Hitler almost complete control in the Reichstag. This was the Nazi Party’s first step into attempting to turn Germany into a totalitarian state. Most historians would agree that the fire was a great catalyst for Adolf Hitler to issue more laws, which in turn helped him into power in the following elections. It is to be acknowledged that Hitler never seized control illegally but in fact was able to democratically gain control in the Reichstag and secure loyal and fanatic supporters throughout the nation. In 2001 four leading German historians; Hersch Fischler, Jurgen Schmaedeke, Alexander Bahar and Wilfred Kugel concluded that the Nazis were to blame for the destruction of the Reichstag, which continues to be a controversial topic in German history. Following the fire, in the March 1933 elections once the Nazi Party joined with the Nationalist Party they had the overall majority in the Reichstag. Days after the Nazi party gained power, Hitler introduced numerous ‘totalitarian’, extremist policies into the lives of German citizens. 18 days after the general election on 23 March 1933, The Reichstag voted to give Hitler the power to make his own laws without consulting the Reichstag. This law was named the ‘enabling act’, ultimately giving Hitler dictatorial legislative power and was the second major step through which Hitler obtained emergency powers using legal methods. By April, Nazis had taken over local government and police, subsequently launching their plan to make Germany a Nazi nation by replacing anyone in professions related to education who were against the regime with pro-Nazi teachers and university professors, this later extended into doctors, lawyers and just about any profession that had any influence over the public under the ‘Nuremberg laws’. Hitler’s first mechanism of fear was introduced once the Nazi Party set up the Gestapo (secret police). By 1933 tens of thousands of Jews, Communists and political opposition had been sent to concentration camps for minor crimes. In May 1933, all trade unions were banned, their leaders put in prison and in its place Hitler implemented the German Labour Front, which ultimately stripped workers of their right to strike and reduced pay significantly. In July Hitler’s first step to creating a totalitarian society was introduced as all political parties were banned as a law against the formation of parties was declared, making the Nazi Party the only political party in Germany. This was further strengthened on 30 June 1934, which was later to be known as The Night of the Long Knives, which successfully removed any remaining political threats to the Nazi regime. This included the leader of the SA Ernst Röhm, who had control over the 1 million SA soldiers and been targeted by Goebbels and Himmler as a potential threat to Hitler’s new found position as Führer. By 1934 Hitler appeared to have complete control over Germany, however with such arbitrary power comes the fear that those around him were plotting against him, which directly led to the murder of Ernst Röhm. Ultimately this night, which left hundreds dead, led to the SA becoming a part of the German army and them swearing an oath of allegiance to Hitler, their Führer. The shocking part of this event is that many men who were killed in the rampage had no connection to the SA or Röhm but were still viciously attacked and convicted of treason, to this day many historians are still confused as to why Hitler believed Röhm was planning a revolution, where there was clearly no evidence to support this theory. Not only was the Night of Long Knives a turning point for the party but also it was a direct triumph and depiction of Hitler undoubtedly asserting his authority. For Nazi Germany to be a state under Totalitarian control it required the unchallenged devotion from the youth of Germany. In order for Hitler to gain the support, particularly of the youth of Germany, he introduced a range of ‘Hitler Youth’ programs. The Hitler Youth existed from 1922-1945 and was a way for Hitler to indoctrinate the youth of Germany, convincing them of the Nazi Party policies, particularly the idea of anti-Semitism. For boys Hitler Youth programs were a way to escape their daily lives and have fun with others their own age. By 1933, with the rise of Hitler into power, most of the competing political and religious youth organisations in Germany were abolished. Hitler specifically targeted the youth of Germany and on numerous occasions stated, “He alone, who owns the youth, gains the future”, Hitler understood that if he trained the children of Germany he would have a prosperous future, with little competition from those against the regime. Hitler was open about his plan to capture the youth and responded to opposition with an assured nature; When an opponent declares, "I will not come over to your side," I calmly say, "Your child belongs to us already... What are you? You will pass on. Your descendants, however, now stand in the new camp. In a short time they will know nothing else but this new community." There is no question that Hitler was extremely smart to target the youth, by 1936 membership in the Hitler Youth increased to 5.4 million, prior to it becoming compulsory for all children to be members in 1939. An argument against Nazi Germany being a Totalitarian Society is that there were numerous bodies that had no official state or party role, but were considered “independent power bases which derived their authority directly from Hitler”. These bodies included; the Reich Ministry, SA and later the SS. Historian Kershaw states that the power these non-parliamentary bodies had, undermined the authority of the Nazi Party and Hitler himself. This view is further supported by Historian Evans as he states that the Nazi party was faced with a range of competing institutions each one of these having their own leaders; Himmler, Goebbels who were also competing to gain respect from Hitler and potentially acquire more power. These bodies were able to help Hitler and his party maintain control throughout the years, but did contest the perception that Nazi Germany from the years 1933-39 was a Totalitarian Society. The SS increasingly became Hitler’s method to maintain control within Germany, the role of this independent body changed dramatically throughout the 30s, but by 1939 had assumed control of Nazi racial policy across occupied Europe. The Gestapo particularly, created a hostile and fearful society, as they were designed to detect anyone who spoke out against the regime. It created a complete loss of trust with Germans, for in a police state someone could and would be arrested if considered to be an enemy of the state. The Gestapo were everywhere, and were trained in their specific field, they were informers and if were to discover someone speaking out against Hitler or his policies would send the SS to their house where they would be arrested immediately and sent directly to prison. The SS controlled the courts, which meant that a fair trial would not be awarded to the accused and those would be forced to sign a D11 form, which stated that they could be taken in “protective custody”. The SS and Gestapo were a key part of the terror apparatus that Hitler created in the society; they effectively inflicted fear into the daily lives of citizens, creating a community that felt compelled to obey their committed Führer. The concept of totalitarianism proves to be a controversial issue and one that divides the opinions of historians. According to Giovanni Gentile a totalitarian state is one “nothing beyond the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state”, if we go by this definition and the idea that totalitarian only exists if there is no competition to the existing system, it is evident that Hitler’s Germany contained many aspects of a Totalitarian Society. These aspects include, the censorship of the media, removing any form of freedom of speech, which allowed the government to have significant influence over public opinion. It is unarguable that Hitler had authoritarian control, Nazi Germany was a one party state, had complete control over media, systematic police control and total control over the army, however differing perspectives state that it was not totalitarian because the Nazi Party did not have absolute control over Germany’s economy. Under a totalitarian state the government virtually has complete control over the daily lives of its citizens and to say that Hitler and the Nazi party did not succeed in this feature through the years 1933-39 would be deceptive.	<urn:uuid:c41ce206-3e1d-4701-8c35-4ed8e07add06>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Totalitarian-Germany-1870208.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00222.warc.gz	en	0.983597	2,675	3.859375	4	[ -0.23275858163833618, 0.46154239773750305, -0.11764450371265411, -0.1677795946598053, -0.11008693277835846, 0.2870432436466217, 0.07997734844684601, 0.29512277245521545, -0.25502339005470276, 0.024139543995261192, 0.161713644862175, 0.07570101320743561, 0.33550596237182617, 0.3308020234107...	1	EVALUATE THE SUCCESS OF THE NAZI PARTY IN TRANSFORMING GERMANY INTO A TOTALITARIAN SOCIETY IN THE PERIOD 1933-1939.’ Germany under Nazi rule, through the years 1933-39 contained many ‘totalitarian’ aspects to its regime, but for it to be exclusively described as totalitarian would not be accurate. Critics of the concept of totalitarianism often argue that there is no clear distinction between totalitarian and authoritarian regimes but merely ones created to make it seem that these two concepts of power are in fact diverse. The Nazi Party lacked in organisation and unity which would be expected of a totalitarian state, this is not to say that Nazi Germany did not contain numerous aspects that would support the idea that in fact it was a totalitarian society. Italian Fascist philosopher Giovanni Gentile states that a totalitarian state is “nothing beyond the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state”. These aspects of a totalitarian society crushed the lives of many Germans, but was generally accepted and welcomed by much of the population, due to the unstable state of the former European superpower. Whilst the Nazi Party always aimed to make the nation one of a totalitarian society it was never completely able to capitalise on its plan, this was a direct result of the enemies the party had gained throughout its propel into power. However historian John Stuart Mill states that “as an ideal totalitarianism seeks to bring the state and its apparatus of control into many aspects of private life, such as the family and religion, seeking to mold people’s interests and cultural pursuits”, which is exactly what Hitler was successfully able to achieve through his Hitler’s youth programs as well as numerous incentives proposed to family units in Nazi Germany. The National Socialist German Worker’s Party, led by the notorious Adolf Hitler, originated as a political party in 1920 and was soon to capture the nation of Germany with its extremist policies. Under the leadership of Hitler the Nazi Party was able to rule Germany by totalitarian means throughout the period in which they were elected into power. Hitler became the leader of this right wing political party in 1921 after being recognised as a persuasive and empowering speaker that would be able to influence the minds of the currently susceptible German people. He was the front man of the party and through his infamous speeches was able to gain attention from the media, government and citizens of Germany. After appointing Josef Goebbels as head of Propaganda, The Nazi Party was soon to be recognised and somewhat feared throughout the already unstable nation. Goebbels’s use of marches, and propaganda events, excited the citizens of Germany and was able to transcend a sense of pride through the nation eventually to become the Nazi Party’s most valuable tool in their attempts to create a totalitarian society. Unlike other political parties the Nazis offered those in Germany a scapegoat, a reason as to why Germany had lost its superpower title. The right-wing Party proclaimed hatred, amenably, of Communism, Jews, the Treaty of Versailles and were open about their policies to conquer the Weimar Constitution. Through the 1920’s many of their extremist policies were not well received by the German public, but as weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution appeared to unveil, the popularity of Hitler and his right-wing political party increased. In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only managed to secure 12 seats in the Reichstag, 2.6% of the vote. They realised that a shift in their target audience was warranted and aimed to acquire votes from rural and small town areas. Goebbels’s Propaganda proved to be effective at winning over university students and the party became increasingly popular amongst young men of the lower middle class. The party’s efforts were to be recognised in the September 1930 elections, where they managed to receive 18.3% of the vote, making it the second largest party in the Reichstag. Prior to the March elections, Hitler, at the hands of President Hindenburg was announced Chancellor of Germany. January 1933 was to be a pivotal and soon to be detrimental decision made by the President. Hitler and the Nazi Party first began to make its vast political impact on 27th February 1933, when Dutch Communist Marinus Van der Lubbe was convicted of burning down the Reichstag. This was an opportune time for the Nazis, as its major competition for political power in government was the Communist Party. Hitler took control of investigating the fire and became somewhat a national hero when he was successful in attaining a confession from Van Der Lubbe. An election was shortly called after, in March, whereby Hitler’s party received 44% of the vote making it the largest party and giving Hitler almost complete control in the Reichstag. This was the Nazi Party’s first step into attempting to turn Germany into a totalitarian state. Most historians would agree that the fire was a great catalyst for Adolf Hitler to issue more laws, which in turn helped him into power in the following elections. It is to be acknowledged that Hitler never seized control illegally but in fact was able to democratically gain control in the Reichstag and secure loyal and fanatic supporters throughout the nation. In 2001 four leading German historians; Hersch Fischler, Jurgen Schmaedeke, Alexander Bahar and Wilfred Kugel concluded that the Nazis were to blame for the destruction of the Reichstag, which continues to be a controversial topic in German history. Following the fire, in the March 1933 elections once the Nazi Party joined with the Nationalist Party they had the overall majority in the Reichstag. Days after the Nazi party gained power, Hitler introduced numerous ‘totalitarian’, extremist policies into the lives of German citizens. 18 days after the general election on 23 March 1933, The Reichstag voted to give Hitler the power to make his own laws without consulting the Reichstag. This law was named the ‘enabling act’, ultimately giving Hitler dictatorial legislative power and was the second major step through which Hitler obtained emergency powers using legal methods. By April, Nazis had taken over local government and police, subsequently launching their plan to make Germany a Nazi nation by replacing anyone in professions related to education who were against the regime with pro-Nazi teachers and university professors, this later extended into doctors, lawyers and just about any profession that had any influence over the public under the ‘Nuremberg laws’. Hitler’s first mechanism of fear was introduced once the Nazi Party set up the Gestapo (secret police). By 1933 tens of thousands of Jews, Communists and political opposition had been sent to concentration camps for minor crimes. In May 1933, all trade unions were banned, their leaders put in prison and in its place Hitler implemented the German Labour Front, which ultimately stripped workers of their right to strike and reduced pay significantly. In July Hitler’s first step to creating a totalitarian society was introduced as all political parties were banned as a law against the formation of parties was declared, making the Nazi Party the only political party in Germany. This was further strengthened on 30 June 1934, which was later to be known as The Night of the Long Knives, which successfully removed any remaining political threats to the Nazi regime. This included the leader of the SA Ernst Röhm, who had control over the 1 million SA soldiers and been targeted by Goebbels and Himmler as a potential threat to Hitler’s new found position as Führer. By 1934 Hitler appeared to have complete control over Germany, however with such arbitrary power comes the fear that those around him were plotting against him, which directly led to the murder of Ernst Röhm. Ultimately this night, which left hundreds dead, led to the SA becoming a part of the German army and them swearing an oath of allegiance to Hitler, their Führer. The shocking part of this event is that many men who were killed in the rampage had no connection to the SA or Röhm but were still viciously attacked and convicted of treason, to this day many historians are still confused as to why Hitler believed Röhm was planning a revolution, where there was clearly no evidence to support this theory. Not only was the Night of Long Knives a turning point for the party but also it was a direct triumph and depiction of Hitler undoubtedly asserting his authority. For Nazi Germany to be a state under Totalitarian control it required the unchallenged devotion from the youth of Germany. In order for Hitler to gain the support, particularly of the youth of Germany, he introduced a range of ‘Hitler Youth’ programs. The Hitler Youth existed from 1922-1945 and was a way for Hitler to indoctrinate the youth of Germany, convincing them of the Nazi Party policies, particularly the idea of anti-Semitism. For boys Hitler Youth programs were a way to escape their daily lives and have fun with others their own age. By 1933, with the rise of Hitler into power, most of the competing political and religious youth organisations in Germany were abolished. Hitler specifically targeted the youth of Germany and on numerous occasions stated, “He alone, who owns the youth, gains the future”, Hitler understood that if he trained the children of Germany he would have a prosperous future, with little competition from those against the regime. Hitler was open about his plan to capture the youth and responded to opposition with an assured nature; When an opponent declares, "I will not come over to your side," I calmly say, "Your child belongs to us already... What are you? You will pass on. Your descendants, however, now stand in the new camp. In a short time they will know nothing else but this new community." There is no question that Hitler was extremely smart to target the youth, by 1936 membership in the Hitler Youth increased to 5.4 million, prior to it becoming compulsory for all children to be members in 1939. An argument against Nazi Germany being a Totalitarian Society is that there were numerous bodies that had no official state or party role, but were considered “independent power bases which derived their authority directly from Hitler”. These bodies included; the Reich Ministry, SA and later the SS. Historian Kershaw states that the power these non-parliamentary bodies had, undermined the authority of the Nazi Party and Hitler himself. This view is further supported by Historian Evans as he states that the Nazi party was faced with a range of competing institutions each one of these having their own leaders; Himmler, Goebbels who were also competing to gain respect from Hitler and potentially acquire more power. These bodies were able to help Hitler and his party maintain control throughout the years, but did contest the perception that Nazi Germany from the years 1933-39 was a Totalitarian Society. The SS increasingly became Hitler’s method to maintain control within Germany, the role of this independent body changed dramatically throughout the 30s, but by 1939 had assumed control of Nazi racial policy across occupied Europe. The Gestapo particularly, created a hostile and fearful society, as they were designed to detect anyone who spoke out against the regime. It created a complete loss of trust with Germans, for in a police state someone could and would be arrested if considered to be an enemy of the state. The Gestapo were everywhere, and were trained in their specific field, they were informers and if were to discover someone speaking out against Hitler or his policies would send the SS to their house where they would be arrested immediately and sent directly to prison. The SS controlled the courts, which meant that a fair trial would not be awarded to the accused and those would be forced to sign a D11 form, which stated that they could be taken in “protective custody”. The SS and Gestapo were a key part of the terror apparatus that Hitler created in the society; they effectively inflicted fear into the daily lives of citizens, creating a community that felt compelled to obey their committed Führer. The concept of totalitarianism proves to be a controversial issue and one that divides the opinions of historians. According to Giovanni Gentile a totalitarian state is one “nothing beyond the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the state”, if we go by this definition and the idea that totalitarian only exists if there is no competition to the existing system, it is evident that Hitler’s Germany contained many aspects of a Totalitarian Society. These aspects include, the censorship of the media, removing any form of freedom of speech, which allowed the government to have significant influence over public opinion. It is unarguable that Hitler had authoritarian control, Nazi Germany was a one party state, had complete control over media, systematic police control and total control over the army, however differing perspectives state that it was not totalitarian because the Nazi Party did not have absolute control over Germany’s economy. Under a totalitarian state the government virtually has complete control over the daily lives of its citizens and to say that Hitler and the Nazi party did not succeed in this feature through the years 1933-39 would be deceptive.	2,706	ENGLISH	1
Note: The materials in this section were transcribed by Mr. Kenneth McVay of Vancouver, Canada. Mr. McVay's award-winning Nizkor Project is one of the largest collections of Holocaust-related materials in the world.—Ben AustinCAMPS - 3 THE NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS Structure and Aims * The Image of the Prisoner The Jews in the Camps PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH YAD VASHEM INTERNATIONAL HISTORICAL CONFERENCE Jerusalem, January 1980 YAD VASHEM JERUSALEM 1984 SEVENTH SESSION Chairman: Bela Vago JEWISH PRISONER UPRISINGS IN THE TREBLINKA AND SOBIBOR EXTERMINATION CAMPS YITZHAK ARAD B. Acts of Resistance and the Organization of the Revolt in Treblinka The organization of the underground was preceded by some successful and some unsuccessful acts of resistance and escape attempts. These actions were followed by cruel reprisals and punishment by the camp authorities. The lessons learned from these actions influenced the modes of operation of the underground and its plans. The first act of resistance, which is mentioned in many testimonies, was the killing of SS Unterscharfu"hrer Max Bialas by the Jew Meir Berliner on September 10 or 11, 1942. Meir Berliner had arrived in Treblinka from Warsaw a few days before in one of the transports of the "big Aktion." At that time it was the practice to take out several hundred people from each transport to work arranging the belongings of the murdered; the same day or a few days later, the group was liquidated and was replaced by other people selected from new shipments. At the evening roll-call of the prisoners, Max Bialas instructed those who had arrived that same day to line up on the side. It was not clear who was to be liquidated --the new arrivals or those who had arrived earlier. At that moment Berliner jumped out from the ranks of the prisoners, lurched toward Bialas and stabbed him with a knife. A great commotion followed. The Ukranian guards opened fire. Berliner was killed on the spot. and in the course of the shooting more than ten other prisoners were killed and others were wounded. When the tumult subsided the prisoners were lined up again for roll-call. Christian Wirth, who was in Treblinka at the time, arrived on the scene accompanied by Kurt Franz, the second in command of the camp. Ten men were removed from the ranks and shot on the spot in full view of all the others. On the following day, during the morning roll-call, another 150 men were taken out, brought to the Lazarett and shot there. Max Bialas died en route to the military hospital in Ostrow. (Ibid., 231-232; Testimony of Eliyahu Rosehberg, Yad Vashem Archives, hereafter, YVA), 0-3/4039.) Following this event a new practice was introduced; a permanent group of Jewish prisoners was now retained in the camp to carry out all physical labor. The daily executions of Jewish prisoners was now of limited scope and encompassed mainly the infirm and weak who were no longer able to work and those who had committed violations even of the most minor sorts. The place of those who were killed was taken by new men selected from the transports slated for annihilation, which continued to stream into the camp. The lesson learned by the Jewish prisoners who worked in the camp was that the cost of a courageous act like that performed by Berliner was very high--more than 160 Jews were executed in reprisal for the killing of one SS man. In light of the fact that the Germans had also changed their methods, instances of this sort did not recur. It became clear that individual, spontaneous acts like that of Berliner, however admirable, were not the way to rescue, nor could they even slow down the annihilation activities in the camp. In his book 'A Year in Treblinka', Jacob Wiernik tells of another act of individual resistance. One of the girls being herded into the gas chambers grabbed a rifle from the hands of a Ukrainian guard, shot and killed one Ukrainian and wounded two others. The girl was caught, tortured and murdered. (The testimony of Jacob Wiernik was taken down in Warsaw during the war and in 1944 was published in Poland by the Polish underground. His testimony also appeared in Yiddish in New York; see Jacob Wiemili, 'A Yor in Treblinke', New York, 1944, 30.) Group Resistance by Jews who Arrived in the Transports In December 1942 a transport of about 2,000 Jews arrived in Treblinka from Kiellbasin camp in the Grodno district. Jews from Grodno and the towns of the region had been concentrated in this camp. Unlike other transports, most of which arrived during the daylight hours, this one arrived in the evening. The people were taken off the train and brought into the camp surrounded by SS and Ukrainian guards. The handling of this transport, like the others, was accompanied by shouts, blows and firing into the air. The people were ordered to undress, and some of them had already begun to run on the Himmelstrasse toward the gas chambers. At this point it became clear to the people where they were and what awaited them. Shouts were heard: Don't obey the Germans! Don't undress! Scores of people from the transport grabbed sticks, pulled out knives and fell on the Germans and Ukrainians who surrounded them. According to one testimony, one of the Jews pulled out a grenade and hurled it at the Germans and Ukrainians, who opened fire on the crowd with rifles and machine guns. A great tumult began as people ran in all directions. But the barbed-wire fences prevented escape from the camp. It was not long before the square was covered with the corpses of the prisoners. In the end the Germans and Ukrainians quelled this act of resistance, and the people were shoved into the gas chambers, some of them still in their clothing. In this struggle it seems that three SS men and Ukrainians were injured. It should be noted that underground activity, the idea of resistance and of going into the forests was very widespread among the Jews of Grodno and its surroundings. Their psychological readiness for resistance, the rumors that had reached them about the meaning of Treblinka, the situation they encountered after getting off the train and the cries of some of them to resist all led to the spontaneous outburst. After that transports to Treblinka were brought in only during daylight hours. (ibid., pp.40-411; Shmuel Wilenberg, "Treblinka -- ha-Mahane ve-ha-Mered," Yalkut Moreshet, No. 5, April 1966, pp. 30-31; testimony of Oskar Strawczynski, YVA, 0-3/3131; pp.17-18.) Escapes from the Camps In the first months of the camp's existence scores of people escaped from Treblinka. Some of them were caught, others managed to get away. They reached the nearby ghettos and told what was going on in Treblinka. Some of the escapees reached the Warsaw ghetto. One of the first of these was Simcha Binem Laski, who was sent to Treblinka from Warsaw at the end of July 1942. Four days after he arrived in the camp, Simcha managed to escape. He got back to the Warsaw ghetto in the beginning of August--on the day that the "Children's Aktion" was being carried out there. ("In Treblinke--Gviyat Edut," 'Fun Lefstn Khurbn' , No. 3, October-November 1946, pp.47-48.) On September 13, 1942, Avraham (Jacob) Krzepicki escaped from Treblinka after having been in the camp for eighteen days. He, too, managed to reach the Warsaw ghetto and there provided testimony as to what was occurring in Treblinka. (Krzepicki was a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization and took part in the fighting in "the brush makers" area in the Warsaw ghetto. His testimony in Ringelblum Archives, YVA, M-10; see also Rachel Auerbach, Varshever Tsevuos--Bagegenishn Aktivinein, Gorules 1933-1943, Tel Aviv, 1974, p.278.) Several of the escapees from Treblinka participated in the Warsaw ghetto uprising, among them David Nowodworski, member of the Jewish Fighting Organization and commander of a group of fighters, and Lazar Szerszein, who was also the commander of a group of fighters. (On David Nowodworski see Ysrael Gutman, Mered ha-Nazurim. 1963, p.239; Avraham Levin, "Mi-Pinkaso Shel ha-More mi-Yehudiya." Beit Lohamei ha-Geta'ot, 1969, p.215; on Szerszein see Aryeh Neiberg, Ha- Aharonim--be-Kez ha-Mered shel Getto Varsha, Tel Aviv, 1958, p.98; Dokumenty i materialy do dziejow okupacji niemieckiej w Polscc (hereafter, Dokumenty), Vol.lI, "Akcje' i wysicdlenia, Warsaw, Lodz. krakow, 1946, p.343.) At the time of the deportation of the Jews of Czestochowa, on January 4, 1943, a Jew by the name of Richter, who had also escaped from Treblinka, attacked and wounded Lieutenant Rohn, the commander of the gendarmerie that carried out the deportation. (Ibid., p. 290.) At the end of October or beginning of November, two Treblinka prisoners, assisted by others, managed to escape on the freight train carrying the personal belongings of the murdered out of the camp. At the end of November or beginning of December, seven people from the group that worked on the station platform were caught trying to escape by train. They were taken to the lazarett and shot there by Kurt Franz. The camp prisoners were called to a special roll-call which Franz informed them that for each escapee ten Jews working in the camp would be shot. (Gitta Sereny, Into that Darkness--From Mercy Killing to Mass Murder, London, 1974, p.196.) At the beginning of winter, under cover of darkness, another four prisoners escaped. They slipped out of the barrack, cut the barbed-wire fence and got away. As an immediate reprisal twenty sick people were taken out and shot on the spot. (Wilenberg, op.cit., pp.36-37) The escape attempts continued, the threats notwithstanding. Two youths from Czestochowa caught trying to escape were hung naked by their feet. All the Jews in the camp were forced to witness their torture, and only after they were kept hanging from their feet for several hours were they shot to death. (Testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., p.29; testimony of Kalman Tajgman, WA, (0-3/1586.) There were escape attempts also from the camp's extermination area. A group of seven people succeeded in digging a tunnel from the barracks near the camp's southern fence. In the course of digging, they had to deal with the serious problem of what to do with the dug-up earth. They found a solution to this problem and completed a tunnel 5 meters long, from the barracks to the outside of the first fence. The digging was done at night, during the month of December 1942, and despite the secrecy of the work many of the men in the barracks --there were then about 250 of them--knew about it. They kept the secret, even though they knew that the group's escape was liable to endanger the others. The escape was carried out on the night of December 31, 1942. Five men succeeded in getting through the tunnel and out beyond the fences, but then the Ukrainian sentry noticed them and opened fire. The entire camp was called into action. The prisoners were removed from the barracks and inspected. Five were missing. It was snowing that night, but the Germans and Ukrainian guards went in pursuit of the escapees. The escapees had reached a nearby village, but were caught while trying to rent a cart. One succeeded in escaping, but the other four were caught after a struggle. One was shot on the spot, and the other three were brought back to the camp. After they were tortured, they were hanged in full view of all the prisoners, who had been lined up in roll-call formation. The last prisoner to be hanged shouted from the gallows "Down with the nation of Hitler, long live the Jewish people." (Wiernik, op. cit., pp.41-42; testimony of Rosenberg, op.cit., pp.9-10.) During the existence of the Treblinka camp scores of people did succeed in escaping, but scores of others were caught, tortured and executed. The possibilities for escape were greater in the early months, and it was then that most of the successful escapes were carried out. As time passed escape became more difficult and more complicated. Security measures were improved, and the system of barbed-wire fencing around the camp was reinforced and improved. There were three fences: an inner barbed-wire fence 3-4 meters high and camouflaged by tree boughs; a second network of tank obstacles laid with barbed-wire fencing; and a third, outer barbed-wire fence. In addition, parts within the camp itself were also fenced, including the prisoners' quarters. Six guard towers were erected, one of them in the center of the extermination area, and, as a result, there was constant observation of what was going on in the camp during the day. At night the prisoners were shut up in the barracks, which were guarded by Ukrainian sentries. The intensified punitive measures-- the torture and hanging of the captured escapees and the announcement that for each prisoner who escaped ten others would be executed-- also had their effect. The snow and the tracks left in the snow, which gave the escapees away. also made escape more difficult. The last escape attempts were made at the beginning, of the winter, in December 1942, but they ended in failure. It became evident that the ways of escape that had been tried heretofore now stood virtually no chance of succeeding. It became necessary to search for different ways, more organized and complex. Indeed, at the beginning of 1943, new ideas began to take shape regarding struggle, escape and rescue. The Organization of the Underground In the winter of 1942/1943, a change occurred in the intensity of the activity in Treblinka. The number of transports gradually diminished and almost stopped altogether in February/March 1943. The annihilation of the Jews of the General-Government was completed for the most part, although from time to time a few transports did arrive from the Bialystok-Grodno district (Generalbezirk). The vast piles of possessions taken from the murdered, which had been heaped up in the square near the platform and had been part of the permanent scenery of the camp, disappeared. They had been packed and sent off to destinations in Germany and elsewhere. As the stream of transports ceased, it was no longer necessary to sort the belongings of the dead, and the fear descended on the Jewish prisoners that they were slated to be liquidated soon, together with the camp as a whole. Rumors about a selection in which some of the men would be taken to the gas chambers hovered in the air constantly. Moreover, the reduced number of transports led to a shortage of food and clothing, which had been obtained from what the victims left behind. Starvation and the typhus that broke out in the winter claimed many victims, and that added to the gloom among the prisoners. The news from the front about the German military defeat at Stalingrad--which the prisoners learned about from newspapers smuggled to them by the boy prisoners who worked in the quarters of the SS--was received with joy. At the same time fears intensified that with the end of Nazi Germany approaching, the last of the Jews would be liquidated. (Sereny, op.cit., pp.210-212; testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit. p.26, 47; Wiernik, op.cit., p.37; J. Rajgrodzki, "Jedenascie miesiecy w obozie zaglady w Treblince--Wspomnienia," Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego (BZIH), No.25, 1958, p.109.) That was the atmosphere in which the idea of escape and rebellion gradually took shape in talks among the prisoners in the work places and barracks. The lessons of previous acts of resistance in the camp and the recent unsuccessful escape attempts made it clear that new ways had to be found. The only realistic possibility seemed to be a mass revolt and organized escape by all the prisoners by means of force. When and within which group the idea of rebellion first occurred cannot be stated with any certainty. (According to Strawczynski, op.cit., p.47, the idea of revolt was first raised by the carpenters' group.) It seems reasonable to assume that the idea occurred to several groups at more or less the same time in talks among the "court Jews" and among the "square Jews." In preparation for the rebellion, an "organizing committee" was formed, comprised of prisoners from both groups. On this committee were Dr. Chorazycki, who was physician to the SS men, Zeev Kurland, the Capo of the Lazarett, Zelo Bloch, a lieutenant in the Czech army who had arrived in a transport from Theresienstadt, Salzberg of the tailors' group, the agronomist Sadowicz and others. Even before the plan for the uprising was formulated, the "organizing committee" tried to acquire arms by bribing the Ukrainian guards. These guards used to slip food to the prisoners in exchange for money and gold, and it was hoped that they would also agree to supply weapons. The Jewish prisoners, especially the "gold Jews," maintained caches of money and valuables that had been taken from what had been left by the victims. Even though the Germans often threatened that prisoners possessing money and valuables would be executed, the prisoners were not deterred and continued to hide sizable quantities of money and valuables, Now these holdings were to serve as a source for the acquisition of arms. One of the first attempts was made by a Jewish prisoner named Moshe, who served as the Capo of the carpentry shop. He gave an Ukrainian with whom he was in contact money and asked him to get him a pistol. The money was taken, but the gun was not brought. In spite of this failure, the efforts to acquire arms via the Ukrainians continued, but it was decided that in addition an attempt would be made to remove weapons from the camp arms store. In this luck was with the prisoners. One day a Jewish locksmith was ordered to repair the lock on the arms store door. In the course of the repair, he prepared a key for the underground "organizing committee." (Dokumenty, op.cit., Vol. I, Obozy, p.188; Wilenberg, op.cit., p.46; Tanhum Greenberg, "Ha-Mered be-Treblinka--Kitei Edut," Yalkllt Mo-reshet, No. 5, April 1966, p.61) In the second half of March 1943, the underground suffered a serious loss. Zelo Bloch, the military man on the "organizing committee," was transferred to the extermination area. The reasons for his transfer are not clear. It is very unlikely that it was in any way related to his underground activity, for had there been the slightest suspicion against him the Germans would have immediately killed him. His transfer was most likely a result of the lessened activity in the camp and the need for more men in the extermination area. After Himmler visited the camp at the end of February or early March 1943, the burning of the corpses was begun in the "extermination area" so as to remove traces of the murder that had taken place there; for this more men were needed. Typhus also had claimed many victims in the extermination area, which further increased the manpower shortage there. (Sereny, op.cit., pp. 210-211) Another underground activist, Adolf Friedman, was transferred together with Block. The efforts to get arms from the Ukrainian guards continued. This time Dr. Chorazycki, one of the heads of the "organizing committee" who by virtue of his work had daily contact with the Ukrainians, took upon himself the handling of this matter. As a bribe for the guards he carried on him a sum of money. One day early in April 1943, the deputy camp commander, Kurt Franz, entered the infirmary and discovered the money (possibly after being informed by the Ukrainians). When Chorazycki realized that his situation was hopeless, he rushed at Franz with a surgical knife. A struggle ensued in which Chorazycki did not manage to injure Franz, but did succeed in swallowing poison that he kept on him for just such an occasion. The Germans' efforts to revive him were to no avail. In order to deter the other prisoners from thinking about escape they were called to a roll-call at which the dead body of Chorazycki was abused. A thorough search was conducted among the "gold Jews" who were suspected of having supplied the money. They were threatened that if they did not confess they would be executed. They were severely beaten and tortured, but denied any connection with the affair. (Greenberg, op.cit., p.60; Wilenberg, op. cit., pp. 52-53; testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., p.38) In spite of Chorazycki's death and Zelo Bloch's transfer to the other part of the camp, the "organizing committee" continued with the preparations for the uprising. The "camp elder" Rakowski was now brought in on the secret of the underground activity. Rudek Lubernicki, who was in charge of the garage and later played an important role in the uprising, now also joined the underground. The members of the underground, who numbered several score, were organized into several groups. In the latter part of April 1943, it was decided to remove weapons from the arms store by using the key in the committee's possession. The arms store was located between two barracks where Germans lived; there was access to it also from within the barracks. The job of removing the weapons, during the daytime, when the barracks' occupants were not there, was given to a group of Jewish boys who worked in the SS quarters cleaning up and polishing the Germans' boots. A group of boys headed by Markus, a young man from Warsaw who was in charge of them, and three other boys removed two cases containing grenades from the storeroom and surreptitiously got them to the shoemakers' workshop. When the grenades were examined. it was discovered that the detonators, which were kept in a separate box, were missing. The grenades were returned in the same way they had been removed so that the Germans would not find out that they were missing. This failure led to a postponement of the uprising. (Greenberg, op.cit., pp. 61-62.) After the uprising planned for the latter half of April 1943 failed to take place, there was a decline in the underground's activity. Once again there were thoughts of individual escape. One of those who planned to escape was Rakowski, together with his girlfriend Cesia Mendel and others. Seeking collaboration. they bribed a Ukrainian guard, but the SS began to get suspicious. They conducted a search in the room where the Capos lived and found large quantities of money and gold in the blankets and walls. Rakowski claimed that the treasure they found did not belong to him and that he was unaware of its existence. He claimed that the money and gold had probably been hidden by Chorazycki, who had since died but who had lived in that room before. But his arguments were not accepted, and he was taken to the Lazarett where he was shot. After Rakowski's death the Germans, at the beginning of May 1943, appointed Galewski "camp elder." (Galewski, an engineer by profession, served as camp elder before Rakowski ; see also testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., pp.51-52; Sereny, op.cit., p.195). In May and the beginning of June the activity of the "organizing committee" and underground activity in general continued to slacken. But the cessation of the transports and the information from the extermination area that the removal of the bodies from the pits and their cremation was nearing completion and that soon there would be no more "work" led to a reawakening of underground activity. At this time the "camp elder" Galewski joined the underground leadership, and with him came Monik, an energetic Warsaw youth who was Capo of the skilled workers, and others as well. The "organizing committee" was reactivated. It was headed by Galewski and had about ten members, most of whom had been members of the previous "committee." The activity was conducted in the greatest possible secrecy, and the camp authorities did not learn of it despite the informers they had among the prisoners. The fact that the committee was headed by the "camp elder" and that its members included most of the Capos and heads of work groups (Kurland, Monik, Sadowicz and others) made its activity somewhat easier. 'The meetings generally took place in the tailors' workshop. The number of members in the underground grew steadily. On the eve of the uprising, in Camp A there were about sixty people, who comprised about 10 percent of the camp's prisoner population. They were organized by places of work into sub-units of five to ten people, headed by a commander. (Testimony of Strawczynski, op cit., pp.50-55; Stanislaw Kon, "Ha-Mered be-Treblinka," 'Sefer Milhamot ha-Geta'ot, 1954, pp 536-537). The Holocaust/Shoah Page	<urn:uuid:ad128762-83f1-46b9-a173-5d2135a1804b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-prisoner-uprisings-part-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00157.warc.gz	en	0.983939	5,565	3.28125	3	[ -0.29797494411468506, 0.6696035265922546, 0.030554739758372307, 0.30200624465942383, 0.18239232897758484, 0.42103272676467896, -0.11131320893764496, 0.1954822987318039, -0.2984907925128937, 0.030368894338607788, 0.30524271726608276, -0.22728930413722992, -0.19122710824012756, 0.33917230367...	4	Note: The materials in this section were transcribed by Mr. Kenneth McVay of Vancouver, Canada. Mr. McVay's award-winning Nizkor Project is one of the largest collections of Holocaust-related materials in the world.—Ben AustinCAMPS - 3 THE NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS Structure and Aims * The Image of the Prisoner The Jews in the Camps PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH YAD VASHEM INTERNATIONAL HISTORICAL CONFERENCE Jerusalem, January 1980 YAD VASHEM JERUSALEM 1984 SEVENTH SESSION Chairman: Bela Vago JEWISH PRISONER UPRISINGS IN THE TREBLINKA AND SOBIBOR EXTERMINATION CAMPS YITZHAK ARAD B. Acts of Resistance and the Organization of the Revolt in Treblinka The organization of the underground was preceded by some successful and some unsuccessful acts of resistance and escape attempts. These actions were followed by cruel reprisals and punishment by the camp authorities. The lessons learned from these actions influenced the modes of operation of the underground and its plans. The first act of resistance, which is mentioned in many testimonies, was the killing of SS Unterscharfu"hrer Max Bialas by the Jew Meir Berliner on September 10 or 11, 1942. Meir Berliner had arrived in Treblinka from Warsaw a few days before in one of the transports of the "big Aktion." At that time it was the practice to take out several hundred people from each transport to work arranging the belongings of the murdered; the same day or a few days later, the group was liquidated and was replaced by other people selected from new shipments. At the evening roll-call of the prisoners, Max Bialas instructed those who had arrived that same day to line up on the side. It was not clear who was to be liquidated --the new arrivals or those who had arrived earlier. At that moment Berliner jumped out from the ranks of the prisoners, lurched toward Bialas and stabbed him with a knife. A great commotion followed. The Ukranian guards opened fire. Berliner was killed on the spot. and in the course of the shooting more than ten other prisoners were killed and others were wounded. When the tumult subsided the prisoners were lined up again for roll-call. Christian Wirth, who was in Treblinka at the time, arrived on the scene accompanied by Kurt Franz, the second in command of the camp. Ten men were removed from the ranks and shot on the spot in full view of all the others. On the following day, during the morning roll-call, another 150 men were taken out, brought to the Lazarett and shot there. Max Bialas died en route to the military hospital in Ostrow. (Ibid., 231-232; Testimony of Eliyahu Rosehberg, Yad Vashem Archives, hereafter, YVA), 0-3/4039.) Following this event a new practice was introduced; a permanent group of Jewish prisoners was now retained in the camp to carry out all physical labor. The daily executions of Jewish prisoners was now of limited scope and encompassed mainly the infirm and weak who were no longer able to work and those who had committed violations even of the most minor sorts. The place of those who were killed was taken by new men selected from the transports slated for annihilation, which continued to stream into the camp. The lesson learned by the Jewish prisoners who worked in the camp was that the cost of a courageous act like that performed by Berliner was very high--more than 160 Jews were executed in reprisal for the killing of one SS man. In light of the fact that the Germans had also changed their methods, instances of this sort did not recur. It became clear that individual, spontaneous acts like that of Berliner, however admirable, were not the way to rescue, nor could they even slow down the annihilation activities in the camp. In his book 'A Year in Treblinka', Jacob Wiernik tells of another act of individual resistance. One of the girls being herded into the gas chambers grabbed a rifle from the hands of a Ukrainian guard, shot and killed one Ukrainian and wounded two others. The girl was caught, tortured and murdered. (The testimony of Jacob Wiernik was taken down in Warsaw during the war and in 1944 was published in Poland by the Polish underground. His testimony also appeared in Yiddish in New York; see Jacob Wiemili, 'A Yor in Treblinke', New York, 1944, 30.) Group Resistance by Jews who Arrived in the Transports In December 1942 a transport of about 2,000 Jews arrived in Treblinka from Kiellbasin camp in the Grodno district. Jews from Grodno and the towns of the region had been concentrated in this camp. Unlike other transports, most of which arrived during the daylight hours, this one arrived in the evening. The people were taken off the train and brought into the camp surrounded by SS and Ukrainian guards. The handling of this transport, like the others, was accompanied by shouts, blows and firing into the air. The people were ordered to undress, and some of them had already begun to run on the Himmelstrasse toward the gas chambers. At this point it became clear to the people where they were and what awaited them. Shouts were heard: Don't obey the Germans! Don't undress! Scores of people from the transport grabbed sticks, pulled out knives and fell on the Germans and Ukrainians who surrounded them. According to one testimony, one of the Jews pulled out a grenade and hurled it at the Germans and Ukrainians, who opened fire on the crowd with rifles and machine guns. A great tumult began as people ran in all directions. But the barbed-wire fences prevented escape from the camp. It was not long before the square was covered with the corpses of the prisoners. In the end the Germans and Ukrainians quelled this act of resistance, and the people were shoved into the gas chambers, some of them still in their clothing. In this struggle it seems that three SS men and Ukrainians were injured. It should be noted that underground activity, the idea of resistance and of going into the forests was very widespread among the Jews of Grodno and its surroundings. Their psychological readiness for resistance, the rumors that had reached them about the meaning of Treblinka, the situation they encountered after getting off the train and the cries of some of them to resist all led to the spontaneous outburst. After that transports to Treblinka were brought in only during daylight hours. (ibid., pp.40-411; Shmuel Wilenberg, "Treblinka -- ha-Mahane ve-ha-Mered," Yalkut Moreshet, No. 5, April 1966, pp. 30-31; testimony of Oskar Strawczynski, YVA, 0-3/3131; pp.17-18.) Escapes from the Camps In the first months of the camp's existence scores of people escaped from Treblinka. Some of them were caught, others managed to get away. They reached the nearby ghettos and told what was going on in Treblinka. Some of the escapees reached the Warsaw ghetto. One of the first of these was Simcha Binem Laski, who was sent to Treblinka from Warsaw at the end of July 1942. Four days after he arrived in the camp, Simcha managed to escape. He got back to the Warsaw ghetto in the beginning of August--on the day that the "Children's Aktion" was being carried out there. ("In Treblinke--Gviyat Edut," 'Fun Lefstn Khurbn' , No. 3, October-November 1946, pp.47-48.) On September 13, 1942, Avraham (Jacob) Krzepicki escaped from Treblinka after having been in the camp for eighteen days. He, too, managed to reach the Warsaw ghetto and there provided testimony as to what was occurring in Treblinka. (Krzepicki was a member of the Jewish Fighting Organization and took part in the fighting in "the brush makers" area in the Warsaw ghetto. His testimony in Ringelblum Archives, YVA, M-10; see also Rachel Auerbach, Varshever Tsevuos--Bagegenishn Aktivinein, Gorules 1933-1943, Tel Aviv, 1974, p.278.) Several of the escapees from Treblinka participated in the Warsaw ghetto uprising, among them David Nowodworski, member of the Jewish Fighting Organization and commander of a group of fighters, and Lazar Szerszein, who was also the commander of a group of fighters. (On David Nowodworski see Ysrael Gutman, Mered ha-Nazurim. 1963, p.239; Avraham Levin, "Mi-Pinkaso Shel ha-More mi-Yehudiya." Beit Lohamei ha-Geta'ot, 1969, p.215; on Szerszein see Aryeh Neiberg, Ha- Aharonim--be-Kez ha-Mered shel Getto Varsha, Tel Aviv, 1958, p.98; Dokumenty i materialy do dziejow okupacji niemieckiej w Polscc (hereafter, Dokumenty), Vol.lI, "Akcje' i wysicdlenia, Warsaw, Lodz. krakow, 1946, p.343.) At the time of the deportation of the Jews of Czestochowa, on January 4, 1943, a Jew by the name of Richter, who had also escaped from Treblinka, attacked and wounded Lieutenant Rohn, the commander of the gendarmerie that carried out the deportation. (Ibid., p. 290.) At the end of October or beginning of November, two Treblinka prisoners, assisted by others, managed to escape on the freight train carrying the personal belongings of the murdered out of the camp. At the end of November or beginning of December, seven people from the group that worked on the station platform were caught trying to escape by train. They were taken to the lazarett and shot there by Kurt Franz. The camp prisoners were called to a special roll-call which Franz informed them that for each escapee ten Jews working in the camp would be shot. (Gitta Sereny, Into that Darkness--From Mercy Killing to Mass Murder, London, 1974, p.196.) At the beginning of winter, under cover of darkness, another four prisoners escaped. They slipped out of the barrack, cut the barbed-wire fence and got away. As an immediate reprisal twenty sick people were taken out and shot on the spot. (Wilenberg, op.cit., pp.36-37) The escape attempts continued, the threats notwithstanding. Two youths from Czestochowa caught trying to escape were hung naked by their feet. All the Jews in the camp were forced to witness their torture, and only after they were kept hanging from their feet for several hours were they shot to death. (Testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., p.29; testimony of Kalman Tajgman, WA, (0-3/1586.) There were escape attempts also from the camp's extermination area. A group of seven people succeeded in digging a tunnel from the barracks near the camp's southern fence. In the course of digging, they had to deal with the serious problem of what to do with the dug-up earth. They found a solution to this problem and completed a tunnel 5 meters long, from the barracks to the outside of the first fence. The digging was done at night, during the month of December 1942, and despite the secrecy of the work many of the men in the barracks --there were then about 250 of them--knew about it. They kept the secret, even though they knew that the group's escape was liable to endanger the others. The escape was carried out on the night of December 31, 1942. Five men succeeded in getting through the tunnel and out beyond the fences, but then the Ukrainian sentry noticed them and opened fire. The entire camp was called into action. The prisoners were removed from the barracks and inspected. Five were missing. It was snowing that night, but the Germans and Ukrainian guards went in pursuit of the escapees. The escapees had reached a nearby village, but were caught while trying to rent a cart. One succeeded in escaping, but the other four were caught after a struggle. One was shot on the spot, and the other three were brought back to the camp. After they were tortured, they were hanged in full view of all the prisoners, who had been lined up in roll-call formation. The last prisoner to be hanged shouted from the gallows "Down with the nation of Hitler, long live the Jewish people." (Wiernik, op. cit., pp.41-42; testimony of Rosenberg, op.cit., pp.9-10.) During the existence of the Treblinka camp scores of people did succeed in escaping, but scores of others were caught, tortured and executed. The possibilities for escape were greater in the early months, and it was then that most of the successful escapes were carried out. As time passed escape became more difficult and more complicated. Security measures were improved, and the system of barbed-wire fencing around the camp was reinforced and improved. There were three fences: an inner barbed-wire fence 3-4 meters high and camouflaged by tree boughs; a second network of tank obstacles laid with barbed-wire fencing; and a third, outer barbed-wire fence. In addition, parts within the camp itself were also fenced, including the prisoners' quarters. Six guard towers were erected, one of them in the center of the extermination area, and, as a result, there was constant observation of what was going on in the camp during the day. At night the prisoners were shut up in the barracks, which were guarded by Ukrainian sentries. The intensified punitive measures-- the torture and hanging of the captured escapees and the announcement that for each prisoner who escaped ten others would be executed-- also had their effect. The snow and the tracks left in the snow, which gave the escapees away. also made escape more difficult. The last escape attempts were made at the beginning, of the winter, in December 1942, but they ended in failure. It became evident that the ways of escape that had been tried heretofore now stood virtually no chance of succeeding. It became necessary to search for different ways, more organized and complex. Indeed, at the beginning of 1943, new ideas began to take shape regarding struggle, escape and rescue. The Organization of the Underground In the winter of 1942/1943, a change occurred in the intensity of the activity in Treblinka. The number of transports gradually diminished and almost stopped altogether in February/March 1943. The annihilation of the Jews of the General-Government was completed for the most part, although from time to time a few transports did arrive from the Bialystok-Grodno district (Generalbezirk). The vast piles of possessions taken from the murdered, which had been heaped up in the square near the platform and had been part of the permanent scenery of the camp, disappeared. They had been packed and sent off to destinations in Germany and elsewhere. As the stream of transports ceased, it was no longer necessary to sort the belongings of the dead, and the fear descended on the Jewish prisoners that they were slated to be liquidated soon, together with the camp as a whole. Rumors about a selection in which some of the men would be taken to the gas chambers hovered in the air constantly. Moreover, the reduced number of transports led to a shortage of food and clothing, which had been obtained from what the victims left behind. Starvation and the typhus that broke out in the winter claimed many victims, and that added to the gloom among the prisoners. The news from the front about the German military defeat at Stalingrad--which the prisoners learned about from newspapers smuggled to them by the boy prisoners who worked in the quarters of the SS--was received with joy. At the same time fears intensified that with the end of Nazi Germany approaching, the last of the Jews would be liquidated. (Sereny, op.cit., pp.210-212; testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit. p.26, 47; Wiernik, op.cit., p.37; J. Rajgrodzki, "Jedenascie miesiecy w obozie zaglady w Treblince--Wspomnienia," Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego (BZIH), No.25, 1958, p.109.) That was the atmosphere in which the idea of escape and rebellion gradually took shape in talks among the prisoners in the work places and barracks. The lessons of previous acts of resistance in the camp and the recent unsuccessful escape attempts made it clear that new ways had to be found. The only realistic possibility seemed to be a mass revolt and organized escape by all the prisoners by means of force. When and within which group the idea of rebellion first occurred cannot be stated with any certainty. (According to Strawczynski, op.cit., p.47, the idea of revolt was first raised by the carpenters' group.) It seems reasonable to assume that the idea occurred to several groups at more or less the same time in talks among the "court Jews" and among the "square Jews." In preparation for the rebellion, an "organizing committee" was formed, comprised of prisoners from both groups. On this committee were Dr. Chorazycki, who was physician to the SS men, Zeev Kurland, the Capo of the Lazarett, Zelo Bloch, a lieutenant in the Czech army who had arrived in a transport from Theresienstadt, Salzberg of the tailors' group, the agronomist Sadowicz and others. Even before the plan for the uprising was formulated, the "organizing committee" tried to acquire arms by bribing the Ukrainian guards. These guards used to slip food to the prisoners in exchange for money and gold, and it was hoped that they would also agree to supply weapons. The Jewish prisoners, especially the "gold Jews," maintained caches of money and valuables that had been taken from what had been left by the victims. Even though the Germans often threatened that prisoners possessing money and valuables would be executed, the prisoners were not deterred and continued to hide sizable quantities of money and valuables, Now these holdings were to serve as a source for the acquisition of arms. One of the first attempts was made by a Jewish prisoner named Moshe, who served as the Capo of the carpentry shop. He gave an Ukrainian with whom he was in contact money and asked him to get him a pistol. The money was taken, but the gun was not brought. In spite of this failure, the efforts to acquire arms via the Ukrainians continued, but it was decided that in addition an attempt would be made to remove weapons from the camp arms store. In this luck was with the prisoners. One day a Jewish locksmith was ordered to repair the lock on the arms store door. In the course of the repair, he prepared a key for the underground "organizing committee." (Dokumenty, op.cit., Vol. I, Obozy, p.188; Wilenberg, op.cit., p.46; Tanhum Greenberg, "Ha-Mered be-Treblinka--Kitei Edut," Yalkllt Mo-reshet, No. 5, April 1966, p.61) In the second half of March 1943, the underground suffered a serious loss. Zelo Bloch, the military man on the "organizing committee," was transferred to the extermination area. The reasons for his transfer are not clear. It is very unlikely that it was in any way related to his underground activity, for had there been the slightest suspicion against him the Germans would have immediately killed him. His transfer was most likely a result of the lessened activity in the camp and the need for more men in the extermination area. After Himmler visited the camp at the end of February or early March 1943, the burning of the corpses was begun in the "extermination area" so as to remove traces of the murder that had taken place there; for this more men were needed. Typhus also had claimed many victims in the extermination area, which further increased the manpower shortage there. (Sereny, op.cit., pp. 210-211) Another underground activist, Adolf Friedman, was transferred together with Block. The efforts to get arms from the Ukrainian guards continued. This time Dr. Chorazycki, one of the heads of the "organizing committee" who by virtue of his work had daily contact with the Ukrainians, took upon himself the handling of this matter. As a bribe for the guards he carried on him a sum of money. One day early in April 1943, the deputy camp commander, Kurt Franz, entered the infirmary and discovered the money (possibly after being informed by the Ukrainians). When Chorazycki realized that his situation was hopeless, he rushed at Franz with a surgical knife. A struggle ensued in which Chorazycki did not manage to injure Franz, but did succeed in swallowing poison that he kept on him for just such an occasion. The Germans' efforts to revive him were to no avail. In order to deter the other prisoners from thinking about escape they were called to a roll-call at which the dead body of Chorazycki was abused. A thorough search was conducted among the "gold Jews" who were suspected of having supplied the money. They were threatened that if they did not confess they would be executed. They were severely beaten and tortured, but denied any connection with the affair. (Greenberg, op.cit., p.60; Wilenberg, op. cit., pp. 52-53; testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., p.38) In spite of Chorazycki's death and Zelo Bloch's transfer to the other part of the camp, the "organizing committee" continued with the preparations for the uprising. The "camp elder" Rakowski was now brought in on the secret of the underground activity. Rudek Lubernicki, who was in charge of the garage and later played an important role in the uprising, now also joined the underground. The members of the underground, who numbered several score, were organized into several groups. In the latter part of April 1943, it was decided to remove weapons from the arms store by using the key in the committee's possession. The arms store was located between two barracks where Germans lived; there was access to it also from within the barracks. The job of removing the weapons, during the daytime, when the barracks' occupants were not there, was given to a group of Jewish boys who worked in the SS quarters cleaning up and polishing the Germans' boots. A group of boys headed by Markus, a young man from Warsaw who was in charge of them, and three other boys removed two cases containing grenades from the storeroom and surreptitiously got them to the shoemakers' workshop. When the grenades were examined. it was discovered that the detonators, which were kept in a separate box, were missing. The grenades were returned in the same way they had been removed so that the Germans would not find out that they were missing. This failure led to a postponement of the uprising. (Greenberg, op.cit., pp. 61-62.) After the uprising planned for the latter half of April 1943 failed to take place, there was a decline in the underground's activity. Once again there were thoughts of individual escape. One of those who planned to escape was Rakowski, together with his girlfriend Cesia Mendel and others. Seeking collaboration. they bribed a Ukrainian guard, but the SS began to get suspicious. They conducted a search in the room where the Capos lived and found large quantities of money and gold in the blankets and walls. Rakowski claimed that the treasure they found did not belong to him and that he was unaware of its existence. He claimed that the money and gold had probably been hidden by Chorazycki, who had since died but who had lived in that room before. But his arguments were not accepted, and he was taken to the Lazarett where he was shot. After Rakowski's death the Germans, at the beginning of May 1943, appointed Galewski "camp elder." (Galewski, an engineer by profession, served as camp elder before Rakowski ; see also testimony of Strawczynski, op.cit., pp.51-52; Sereny, op.cit., p.195). In May and the beginning of June the activity of the "organizing committee" and underground activity in general continued to slacken. But the cessation of the transports and the information from the extermination area that the removal of the bodies from the pits and their cremation was nearing completion and that soon there would be no more "work" led to a reawakening of underground activity. At this time the "camp elder" Galewski joined the underground leadership, and with him came Monik, an energetic Warsaw youth who was Capo of the skilled workers, and others as well. The "organizing committee" was reactivated. It was headed by Galewski and had about ten members, most of whom had been members of the previous "committee." The activity was conducted in the greatest possible secrecy, and the camp authorities did not learn of it despite the informers they had among the prisoners. The fact that the committee was headed by the "camp elder" and that its members included most of the Capos and heads of work groups (Kurland, Monik, Sadowicz and others) made its activity somewhat easier. 'The meetings generally took place in the tailors' workshop. The number of members in the underground grew steadily. On the eve of the uprising, in Camp A there were about sixty people, who comprised about 10 percent of the camp's prisoner population. They were organized by places of work into sub-units of five to ten people, headed by a commander. (Testimony of Strawczynski, op cit., pp.50-55; Stanislaw Kon, "Ha-Mered be-Treblinka," 'Sefer Milhamot ha-Geta'ot, 1954, pp 536-537). The Holocaust/Shoah Page	5,801	ENGLISH	1
Small-scale images of the Virgin and Child made for private worship were a speciality of Bellini’s. This picture was thought to be by the artist’s assistants, but recent technical analysis showed that it was made by Bellini. The holy figures are separated from a landscape by a cloth of honour, and from us by a marble parapet; while they seem to be present in our space, their divinity places them just out of reach. Their tender gestures remind us of the humanity they share with us. The pomegranate was probably added after Bellini had started painting, likely at the request of the patron. High-quality ultramarine – an expensive pigment made from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone – was used for the Virgin’s blue mantle. This is the largest of Bellini’s pictures of the Virgin and Child which were not part of a larger altarpiece structure, suggesting that it was probably made to sit upon a small altar. Perhaps the owner had a private chapel in his home. Small-scale images of the Virgin and Child made for private worship were one of Bellini’s specialities, and demand for them was so high that his assistants produced a large number in his style. This picture was once thought to be by members of Bellini’s workshop, but infrared reflectography revealed that the underdrawing is a detailed and skilled design which could only have been made by Bellini. In order to reflect the special intimacy of this kind of image, Bellini frequently set the holy figures in a landscape background, connecting them with the countryside familiar to his clients. Here, they are separated from this space by the green cloth of honour behind them – a feature of many of Bellini’s images of this type – and from us by the marble parapet in front of them; while they seem to be present in our space, their divinity places them just out of reach. Their tender gestures, on the other hand, remind us of the humanity they share with us. Another clue as to who painted the picture can be found in the pomegranate – a symbol of Christ’s Passion – that the Virgin holds. Although the picture is often called ‘The Madonna of the Pomegranate’ after the fruit, infrared reflectography also revealed that the hands and arms of both figures were in different positions in the original design. The pomegranate was most likely a later addition. The change – which was probably made after painting had begun – affected other parts of the picture too: in order to make space for the hands and the pomegranate, the artist had to paint over some of the Virgin’s blue robe with red paint. Since the change was so extensive and made at such a late stage it was very likely requested by the patron; that Bellini went to such lengths to incorporate the request shows that the client was obviously important to him. It is therefore very likely that he, rather than members of his workshop, painted the picture. The patron’s wealth is evident in the type of pigments used, which they would have paid for. Bellini has used very high quality ultramarine – the most expensive pigment, made from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone – for the blue of the Virgin’s mantle. It is applied liberally here. This is the largest of Bellini’s pictures of the Virgin and Child which were not part of a larger altarpiece structure, which suggests that it was probably made to sit upon a small altar: perhaps this owner had his own private chapel in his home. Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use. License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library. This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement. Examples of non-commercial use are: The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side. As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today. You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image.	<urn:uuid:5e03a450-108c-4fec-9ff3-69bb9238b6f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/workshop-of-giovanni-bellini-the-virgin-and-child	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00448.warc.gz	en	0.982275	879	3.265625	3	[ 0.4755224585533142, 0.3092081546783447, 0.38654613494873047, -0.29443681240081787, -0.3649541139602661, 0.3858072757720947, -0.03449259325861931, -0.0993233472108841, 0.603050947189331, 0.08555354177951813, 0.20119020342826843, -0.6063728332519531, 0.3311276435852051, 0.06074756756424904, ...	1	Small-scale images of the Virgin and Child made for private worship were a speciality of Bellini’s. This picture was thought to be by the artist’s assistants, but recent technical analysis showed that it was made by Bellini. The holy figures are separated from a landscape by a cloth of honour, and from us by a marble parapet; while they seem to be present in our space, their divinity places them just out of reach. Their tender gestures remind us of the humanity they share with us. The pomegranate was probably added after Bellini had started painting, likely at the request of the patron. High-quality ultramarine – an expensive pigment made from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone – was used for the Virgin’s blue mantle. This is the largest of Bellini’s pictures of the Virgin and Child which were not part of a larger altarpiece structure, suggesting that it was probably made to sit upon a small altar. Perhaps the owner had a private chapel in his home. Small-scale images of the Virgin and Child made for private worship were one of Bellini’s specialities, and demand for them was so high that his assistants produced a large number in his style. This picture was once thought to be by members of Bellini’s workshop, but infrared reflectography revealed that the underdrawing is a detailed and skilled design which could only have been made by Bellini. In order to reflect the special intimacy of this kind of image, Bellini frequently set the holy figures in a landscape background, connecting them with the countryside familiar to his clients. Here, they are separated from this space by the green cloth of honour behind them – a feature of many of Bellini’s images of this type – and from us by the marble parapet in front of them; while they seem to be present in our space, their divinity places them just out of reach. Their tender gestures, on the other hand, remind us of the humanity they share with us. Another clue as to who painted the picture can be found in the pomegranate – a symbol of Christ’s Passion – that the Virgin holds. Although the picture is often called ‘The Madonna of the Pomegranate’ after the fruit, infrared reflectography also revealed that the hands and arms of both figures were in different positions in the original design. The pomegranate was most likely a later addition. The change – which was probably made after painting had begun – affected other parts of the picture too: in order to make space for the hands and the pomegranate, the artist had to paint over some of the Virgin’s blue robe with red paint. Since the change was so extensive and made at such a late stage it was very likely requested by the patron; that Bellini went to such lengths to incorporate the request shows that the client was obviously important to him. It is therefore very likely that he, rather than members of his workshop, painted the picture. The patron’s wealth is evident in the type of pigments used, which they would have paid for. Bellini has used very high quality ultramarine – the most expensive pigment, made from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone – for the blue of the Virgin’s mantle. It is applied liberally here. This is the largest of Bellini’s pictures of the Virgin and Child which were not part of a larger altarpiece structure, which suggests that it was probably made to sit upon a small altar: perhaps this owner had his own private chapel in his home. Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use. License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library. This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement. Examples of non-commercial use are: The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side. As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today. You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image.	837	ENGLISH	1
Fort William H. Seward, which also goes by the names Chilkoot Barracks and the Haines Mission, is located by Port Chilkoot. It was the last of a string of forts to be built during the gold rush. This Fort was set up to deter crime among the people who came to participate in the Klondike Gold Rush. In 1945, the Fort was discontinued. It is now a tourist attraction by the beautiful port. The Klondike Gold Rush caused an estimated 100,000 people to come to Alaska in search of gold between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered along the Klondike River in the year 1896. Alaska was hard to reach, and with bad weather, it took almost the entire year for people in the main states to hear of the prospects for gold. Gold was exciting news for people, and it caused many people to think they could get rich. Many people quit their jobs, and completely uprooted their families in hopes that they could find gold. Because of the rapid immigration of people in search of a fortune, the crime rate went up. Also, because of the lack of an official government, a variety of crimes arose. Crimes such as theft, embezzlement or illegal gambling became frequent. This influx in crime caused the President at the time, William McKinley, to issue an executive order and authorize Fort William H. Seward. United States Army troops had already been stationed unofficially in the area in 1898. The area where this rush was happening was along the border with Canada. This brought attention to the Alaska-Canada Border. The Fort was being built on the Canadian side of the border, which caused Canada to claim that the Fort was theirs. Then in 1903, as the Fort was nearly finished, this issue was resolved. The Fort then quietly served as a form of government for years. Then, throughout the 1920’s, Fort William H Seward and other military installments were closed down.	<urn:uuid:adcbdb6f-b4e7-404c-ad9d-f3ae4a6e03a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/69331	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00094.warc.gz	en	0.98974	402	3.609375	4	[ 0.021936984732747078, 0.1066252589225769, 0.5669877529144287, 0.16160711646080017, 0.15056632459163666, -0.15751326084136963, 0.30492255091667175, -0.14113809168338776, -0.38491642475128174, 0.039248786866664886, 0.6947323679924011, 0.12718942761421204, -0.140472874045372, 0.32932978868484...	1	Fort William H. Seward, which also goes by the names Chilkoot Barracks and the Haines Mission, is located by Port Chilkoot. It was the last of a string of forts to be built during the gold rush. This Fort was set up to deter crime among the people who came to participate in the Klondike Gold Rush. In 1945, the Fort was discontinued. It is now a tourist attraction by the beautiful port. The Klondike Gold Rush caused an estimated 100,000 people to come to Alaska in search of gold between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered along the Klondike River in the year 1896. Alaska was hard to reach, and with bad weather, it took almost the entire year for people in the main states to hear of the prospects for gold. Gold was exciting news for people, and it caused many people to think they could get rich. Many people quit their jobs, and completely uprooted their families in hopes that they could find gold. Because of the rapid immigration of people in search of a fortune, the crime rate went up. Also, because of the lack of an official government, a variety of crimes arose. Crimes such as theft, embezzlement or illegal gambling became frequent. This influx in crime caused the President at the time, William McKinley, to issue an executive order and authorize Fort William H. Seward. United States Army troops had already been stationed unofficially in the area in 1898. The area where this rush was happening was along the border with Canada. This brought attention to the Alaska-Canada Border. The Fort was being built on the Canadian side of the border, which caused Canada to claim that the Fort was theirs. Then in 1903, as the Fort was nearly finished, this issue was resolved. The Fort then quietly served as a form of government for years. Then, throughout the 1920’s, Fort William H Seward and other military installments were closed down.	429	ENGLISH	1
The way laws have been made and amended in Victoria has varied over time and been significantly impacted by the many changes in Victoria's system of government from a district of New South Wales to a fully elected representative parliament. A number of groups and institutions have been responsible for the creation and amendment of law in Victoria over time, these include: Port Phillip District (1836 - 1851) Colony of Victoria (1851 - 1901) State Government of Victoria (1901 - ) From 1836 Victoria was known as the Port Phillip District and was a district under the control of New South Wales. New South Wales became increasingly concerned about the number of colonists 'squatting' land in the region and when prohibitions failed to move the fledgling communities New South Wales sent a Commandant to manage the settlements. The settlers were soon pushing for independence from New South Wales and were successful in 1851 when the Australian Colonies Act was passed. This act granted The Port Phillip District status as its own colony independent from New South Wales and re-named it the Colony of Victoria. The colonial era from 1851 to Federation in 1901 saw many dramatic changes in the way law was made in Victoria. Up until 1855 the Colony of Victoria was governed by a Governor appointed by Britain, and 30 members on a Legislative Council. 10 of the 30 members were appointed by the Governor and the other 20 were elected by the wealthy land owners of the colony. Women and people without a certain amount of land were not allowed to vote. This Legislative Council shared responsibility for making, amending and repealing law in Victoria with the British Government. In 1855 the Colony of Victoria achieved self-government. This meant the British Government had less power over legislation in Victoria. As a part of self-government a Westminster parliamentary system was established consisting of two houses: a Legislative Council (upper house) and a Legislative Assembly (lower house). Laws now had to be debated and agreed upon by these two houses and the Governor before they could be passed. The political party or coalition of parties who held the most seats in the Legislative Assembly (lower house) became the government and the leader of their group or coalition was the Premier. One of the main ideas behind having multiple parties and two houses is that it will ensure as many perspectives as possible go into making laws and that the people making and debating these laws represent as many sections of the Victorian community as possible. Despite the fact that everyone in the Colony of Victoria had to follow the laws made by the parliament only a select group of people were allowed to vote. Up until 1857 only men who owned a large amount of land could vote. After 1857 all male British Subjects over the age of 21 could vote. Women were not permitted to vote until after federation. This meant large portions of the population had little say about the people who would represent them in parliament, and as a consequence the kind of laws that would be made. In 1901 when the colonies of Australia federated, the Colony of Victoria became the State of Victoria. This meant the new Victorian Government had to follow laws passed by the new Federal Government of Australia, but the State Government of Victoria could still make its own law in certain areas. For example laws about schools, hospitals and police are the responsibility of the State Government while laws about taxation and foreign affairs are the responsibility of the Federal Government. Sources used to compile this entry: Law Research Service, Melbourne Law School, Law Library, The University of Melbourne. 'Find and Connect Project - Victorian Legislation', 1 February 2013, held in the project files at the University of Melbourne eScholarship Research Centre. Prepared by: Elizabeth Daniels and Christine Moje Created: 18 June 2015, Last modified: 23 July 2015	<urn:uuid:259e039f-7803-4104-8a1e-8af40ee8c55c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.findandconnect.gov.au/ref/vic/biogs/E000949b.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00072.warc.gz	en	0.980125	759	4.34375	4	[ -0.29807764291763306, -0.410540372133255, 0.8365044593811035, -0.10284971445798874, 0.0926847755908966, 0.22800418734550476, -0.31388166546821594, -0.29542747139930725, -0.2801424264907837, 0.740328311920166, 0.5755257606506348, -0.09129795432090759, -0.3624200224876404, -0.226446986198425...	7	The way laws have been made and amended in Victoria has varied over time and been significantly impacted by the many changes in Victoria's system of government from a district of New South Wales to a fully elected representative parliament. A number of groups and institutions have been responsible for the creation and amendment of law in Victoria over time, these include: Port Phillip District (1836 - 1851) Colony of Victoria (1851 - 1901) State Government of Victoria (1901 - ) From 1836 Victoria was known as the Port Phillip District and was a district under the control of New South Wales. New South Wales became increasingly concerned about the number of colonists 'squatting' land in the region and when prohibitions failed to move the fledgling communities New South Wales sent a Commandant to manage the settlements. The settlers were soon pushing for independence from New South Wales and were successful in 1851 when the Australian Colonies Act was passed. This act granted The Port Phillip District status as its own colony independent from New South Wales and re-named it the Colony of Victoria. The colonial era from 1851 to Federation in 1901 saw many dramatic changes in the way law was made in Victoria. Up until 1855 the Colony of Victoria was governed by a Governor appointed by Britain, and 30 members on a Legislative Council. 10 of the 30 members were appointed by the Governor and the other 20 were elected by the wealthy land owners of the colony. Women and people without a certain amount of land were not allowed to vote. This Legislative Council shared responsibility for making, amending and repealing law in Victoria with the British Government. In 1855 the Colony of Victoria achieved self-government. This meant the British Government had less power over legislation in Victoria. As a part of self-government a Westminster parliamentary system was established consisting of two houses: a Legislative Council (upper house) and a Legislative Assembly (lower house). Laws now had to be debated and agreed upon by these two houses and the Governor before they could be passed. The political party or coalition of parties who held the most seats in the Legislative Assembly (lower house) became the government and the leader of their group or coalition was the Premier. One of the main ideas behind having multiple parties and two houses is that it will ensure as many perspectives as possible go into making laws and that the people making and debating these laws represent as many sections of the Victorian community as possible. Despite the fact that everyone in the Colony of Victoria had to follow the laws made by the parliament only a select group of people were allowed to vote. Up until 1857 only men who owned a large amount of land could vote. After 1857 all male British Subjects over the age of 21 could vote. Women were not permitted to vote until after federation. This meant large portions of the population had little say about the people who would represent them in parliament, and as a consequence the kind of laws that would be made. In 1901 when the colonies of Australia federated, the Colony of Victoria became the State of Victoria. This meant the new Victorian Government had to follow laws passed by the new Federal Government of Australia, but the State Government of Victoria could still make its own law in certain areas. For example laws about schools, hospitals and police are the responsibility of the State Government while laws about taxation and foreign affairs are the responsibility of the Federal Government. Sources used to compile this entry: Law Research Service, Melbourne Law School, Law Library, The University of Melbourne. 'Find and Connect Project - Victorian Legislation', 1 February 2013, held in the project files at the University of Melbourne eScholarship Research Centre. Prepared by: Elizabeth Daniels and Christine Moje Created: 18 June 2015, Last modified: 23 July 2015	819	ENGLISH	1
Edward I of England reigned as king from 1272 to 1307 CE. Edward succeeded his father Henry III of England (r. 1216-1272 CE) and was known as ‘Longshanks’ for his impressive height and as ‘the Hammer of the Scots’ for his repeated attacks on Scotland. In an eventful and often brutal reign, he fought in a crusade, subdued Wales, had a good go at conquering Scotland, and built many fine castles which still survive today, particularly in North Wales. He was succeeded by his son Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) and then his grandson Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377 CE). Second Baron’s War & Succession Prince Edward was born on 17 or 18 June 1239 CE, the eldest son of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence (1223-1291 CE). Known for his fiery temper and self-confidence, Edward was nicknamed ‘Longshanks’ because of his height - 1.9 metres (6 ft. 2 inches), an unusually impressive stature for medieval times. He was strong, athletic, and as good a horseman as he was a swordsman. Edward was a staunch supporter of the medieval tournament, an event he often took part in personally, once famously unseating the Count of Chalon in a tournament held in Chalon. Destined to be king, the young prince would still have to battle hard to ensure his father's and his own throne remained secure from usurpers. Henry III had successfully put an end to the Barons' War which had been fuelled by discontent over his father King John of England’s rule (r. 1999-1216 CE) and his failure to honour the Magna Carta charter of liberties. Henry and his regent Sir William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke (c. 1146-1219 CE), considered the greatest of all medieval knights, defeated the rebel barons in battle at Lincoln on 20 May 1217 CE. Unfortunately, Henry did not grasp the lesson and his ineffective military campaigns, high taxes to pay for them, and excessive patronage of his French relatives only resulted in a second Barons' War. The barons wanted a limit on royal power and stipulated in the 1258 CE Provisions of Oxford that taxes should go to the Treasury and not be available for the king’s whims, and that a ruling council of 15 barons should advise the king. Another body, a parlement, was established as a place for discussion of policy to which knights of the counties and burgesses of certain boroughs were invited to participate. Henry repudiated the Provisions in 1262 CE and so a civil war broke out. Things did not go well for the royalists. On 14 May 1264 CE, after the Battle of Lewes, the king and Prince Edward were both captured by the rebel leader Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (l. c. 1208-1265 CE) who then made himself king in 1264 CE. Fortunately for Henry, his son Edward managed to escape confinement in May 1265 CE and so could help restore the rightful monarch to the throne. Edward, who had already gained valuable military experience from his father’s campaigns in Wales, raised an army of loyalists and those barons already upset by de Montfort’s self-seeking policies and defeated the rebels at the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire on 4 August 1265 CE. De Montfort was killed, and Henry was restored but spent much of his later years away from politics and improving the country’s architectural monuments such as Westminster Abbey and Lincoln Cathedral. Edward, in effect, acted as regent for his father and following Henry’s death, probably from a stroke, on 16 November 1272 CE, Prince Edward became Edward I of England. As Edward was away on what is sometimes called the Ninth Crusade (1271-2 CE), the actual coronation did not take place until 19 August 1274 CE, as usual at Westminster Abbey. Edward would reign until 1307 CE. Edward married Eleanor of Castile (b. c. 1242 CE) in October 1254 CE when she was 12 and he was just 15 years old but the match worked out well. Eleanor even accompanied her husband on his crusade and when she died in 1290 CE, Edward suffered her loss greatly. The passage of her coffin from Lincoln to London was commemorated by the setting up of 12 monumental crosses, and one of these, the last on the route, would give London’s Charing Cross its name. Edward, already with a family of 11 daughters and four sons, did marry again, on 10 September 1299 CE, to Margaret (c. 1282-1318 CE), the daughter of Philip III of France (r. 1270-1285 CE). Margaret was more than 40 years younger than Edward, but the marriage was another success. Subjugation of Wales Henry III’s string of military defeats in Wales (1228, 1231, and 1232 CE) had led to Henry conferring on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223-1282 CE) the title of Prince of Wales. The Welshman’s independence was further asserted when he refused to attend Edward’s coronation in 1274 CE. The new king was rather better at warfare than his father had been, though, and Edward was intent on taking revenge for the slight. Organising a massive army in 1276 CE, the English king marched into Wales and stripped Llywelyn of his lands, although he did permit him to keep his now-meaningless royal title. Nevertheless, the Welsh still had ambitions of freedom from English rule and Llywelyn’s brother Dafydd stirred up yet another rebellion. The rebels were defeated and Llywelyn was killed in 1282 CE, his head presented to the English king in triumph and then displayed at the Tower of London. Dafydd was eventually captured, and he was executed, too, using the brutal method reserved for traitors: hanging, drawing, and quartering the victim. Edward now became determined to thoroughly impose his domination of the region, particularly in North Wales where the rebels had had their headquarters, by building a series of mighty castles. From 1283 CE onwards such imposing fortresses as Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, and Harlech Castle were built. The king made sure his castles were often built on sites of cultural and historical importance to the Welsh to send a clear message that a new order had begun in the region. He even went so far as to ensure his son Edward was born in Caernarfon Castle - the heart of the English administration in Wales - on 25 April 1284 CE and then bestowed upon him the title of Prince of Wales (formally conferred in 1301 CE). Thereafter, it became customary for an English monarch to give this title to their eldest son. Despite the castles and the royal propaganda, the Welsh were not quite subdued and another major rebellion broke out, this time led by Madog ap Llywelyn, in 1294 CE. Edward, despite being forced to winter in Conwy Castle, managed to regain control of Caernarfon Castle by 1295 CE. Madog was then defeated by an army led by the Earl of Warwick at Maes Moydog in March 1295 CE, and Wales was henceforth administered as if it were a part of England, the region already having been divided up into shires in the 1284 CE Statute of Rhuddlan in order to beak up the old traditional kingdoms. A new series of castles was then erected to ensure continued obedience, which included Beaumaris Castle, perhaps the finest surviving example of a concentric medieval castle. Administration in England Edward attempted to avoid the errors of his predecessors by ensuring his home base of England was secure. The king made sure that the barons and their rights were protected, and that local administration was improved through a land survey (1274-5 CE) and better record-keeping (the Hundred Rolls). The 1275 CE the Statute of Westminster encoded 51 new laws, many based on the Magna Carta. Trial by jury was made mandatory (previously the accused had to consent to it) and Justices of the Peace were appointed. The Model Parliament met for the first time in 1295 CE which had members from the clergy and knights as well as large estate owners, including two representatives from every shire and town (or borough). Membership of the parliament was still only given to those with wealth, but it was wider than ever before as Edward sought the best possible means to secure support for his greater revenue demands. The parliament also approved Edward’s proposed military campaign in Scotland. The king might not have had any interest in limiting his own power or increasing that of the elite but his regular calling of parliament for the purposes of raising taxes nevertheless did kickstart the body as an ever-present institution in English government which acquired a character and precedence of its own. The inclusion of wealthy but untitled members was the beginning of what would become the House of Commons. Another consequence of the need for funds was the attack on the kingdom’s Jewish community. In 1287 CE Edward happily began to expel all Jews from his kingdom, confiscating their property to boost his war coffers and appease the Church who regarded the moneylenders as a threat. By 1290 CE, the policy resulted in almost all 2,000 Jews in the kingdom leaving, one way or another, and Edward was so pleased with his policy that he repeated it in Gascony (see below). Attacks on Scotland Edward was not content with ruling England and Wales but also set his sights on Scotland. The English king had hoped to gain control of Scotland via peaceful means when he arranged for his son to marry Margaret, the Maid of Norway who was the granddaughter and heir of King Alexander III of Scotland (r. 1249-1286 CE). Unfortunately, these plans came to nothing when Margaret died of illness on Orkney in September 1290 CE. Edward was then required to adjudicate who would be Alexander’s successor (an event often termed the Great Cause): the powerful nobleman John Balliol (b. c. 1249 CE) or Robert Bruce (b. 1210 CE and grandfather of his more famous namesake). In 1292 CE Edward plumbed for Balliol, perhaps because he was the weaker of the two and so could be more easily manipulated. As it turned out, the Scots themselves grew tired of Balliol’s ineffective responses to Edward’s domination and open rebellion was in the air. The English king was just then having problems elsewhere. Wales was about to witness the Madog-led rebellion of 1294 CE and Gascony was under serious threat in France - the king’s only territory across the Channel since his father had signed it all away in the 1259 CE Treaty of Paris. Gascony, which provided a nice income through taxation of the flourishing wine trade, was indeed lost to the ambitious Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314 CE) and the taxes Edward had imposed on the Scots to pay for his failed campaign in France was the final straw. In 1295 CE Scotland formally allied itself with France - the first move in what became known as the ‘Auld Alliance’ - and Balliol felt confident enough not to pay homage to Edward. The English king responded emphatically to Scottish disobedience by forming a new army which he led in person to Berwick, the force totalling 25,000-30,000 men. At Berwick, according to the 14th-century CE chronicler Walter of Guisborough, Edward started as he meant to continue and massacred 11,060 of the town’s residents. The king, earning the nickname ‘the Hammer of the Scots’, was now intent on total conquest, and by June he had gone a long way to achieving his goal. Balliol surrendered after the Battle of Dunbar (1296 CE), three English barons were nominated to rule Scotland and Edward even stole the Stone of Scone (aka Stone of Destiny) which was a symbol of the Scottish monarchy, relocating it to Westminster Abbey under the coronation chair. The stone was only returned in 1996 CE. There was, too, good news from France where Gascony was returned to Edward following the Pope’s intervention in the dispute. The friendly relations were cemented by Edward’s marriage to Philip III’s daughter Margaret and the Prince of Wales’ betrothal to Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France. Scotland was never quite subdued, though, and despite invasions in 1298 and 1300 CE, a major rebellion broke out led by the landowner (and later knight) William Wallace (c. 1270-1305 CE) - eponymous star of the 1995 CE film Braveheart - and Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell. The rebels won a famous victory in September 1297 CE at the Battle of Stirling Bridge but Edward, leading his army in person, won another encounter in July 1298 CE at the Battle of Falkirk where 20,000 Scots were killed. Edward then sent more armies in 1301 and 1303 CE, recovering Stirling Castle in the process, but it was not until 1305 CE that Wallace was finally captured in Glasgow and then executed as a traitor in London. Still, in February 1306 CE, the Scots continued to rally around their figurehead, Robert the Bruce (b. 1274 CE), the grandson of John Balliol’s rival for the throne back in 1292 CE. Making himself king in February 1306 CE, Robert had the support of the Scottish northern barons but was initially forced to flee to Ireland. However, both he and the Scots benefitted greatly from Edward’s sudden death and the incompetence of his successor; King Robert would rule Scotland until 1329 CE. Death & Successor Edward died of illness, probably dysentery, aged 68 on 7 July 1307 CE at Burgh by Sands, near Carlisle when about to engage in yet another campaign against the Scots. He was buried at Westminster Abbey and, at his own command, his tomb was inscribed with the following legend: ‘Edward I, Hammer of the Scots. Keep the Faith’. He was succeeded by his son Edward II of England whose reign until 1327 CE was blighted by military incompetence, excessive patronage of his friends, anarchy at home amongst his own barons and, the cherry on a far-from-splendid royal cake, a resounding defeat by the Scots at Bannockburn in June 1314 CE. Another Edward would succeed him, Edward III of England, the grandson of Edward I and final part of the trio that completed the ’Edwardian’ period of medieval England (1272-1377 CE).	<urn:uuid:a5e575a4-3469-4159-8599-f2bb8476aca9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ancient.eu/Edward_I_of_England/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00006.warc.gz	en	0.986605	3,107	3.59375	4	[ -0.1839100420475006, 0.2276494801044464, 0.21956783533096313, 0.06222853809595108, -0.24049532413482666, -0.3616786301136017, 0.38087916374206543, -0.3167593479156494, -0.08470414578914642, 0.00828971154987812, -0.004894273355603218, -0.5074650049209595, 0.3648238778114319, -0.135940521955...	5	Edward I of England reigned as king from 1272 to 1307 CE. Edward succeeded his father Henry III of England (r. 1216-1272 CE) and was known as ‘Longshanks’ for his impressive height and as ‘the Hammer of the Scots’ for his repeated attacks on Scotland. In an eventful and often brutal reign, he fought in a crusade, subdued Wales, had a good go at conquering Scotland, and built many fine castles which still survive today, particularly in North Wales. He was succeeded by his son Edward II of England (r. 1307-1327 CE) and then his grandson Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377 CE). Second Baron’s War & Succession Prince Edward was born on 17 or 18 June 1239 CE, the eldest son of Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence (1223-1291 CE). Known for his fiery temper and self-confidence, Edward was nicknamed ‘Longshanks’ because of his height - 1.9 metres (6 ft. 2 inches), an unusually impressive stature for medieval times. He was strong, athletic, and as good a horseman as he was a swordsman. Edward was a staunch supporter of the medieval tournament, an event he often took part in personally, once famously unseating the Count of Chalon in a tournament held in Chalon. Destined to be king, the young prince would still have to battle hard to ensure his father's and his own throne remained secure from usurpers. Henry III had successfully put an end to the Barons' War which had been fuelled by discontent over his father King John of England’s rule (r. 1999-1216 CE) and his failure to honour the Magna Carta charter of liberties. Henry and his regent Sir William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke (c. 1146-1219 CE), considered the greatest of all medieval knights, defeated the rebel barons in battle at Lincoln on 20 May 1217 CE. Unfortunately, Henry did not grasp the lesson and his ineffective military campaigns, high taxes to pay for them, and excessive patronage of his French relatives only resulted in a second Barons' War. The barons wanted a limit on royal power and stipulated in the 1258 CE Provisions of Oxford that taxes should go to the Treasury and not be available for the king’s whims, and that a ruling council of 15 barons should advise the king. Another body, a parlement, was established as a place for discussion of policy to which knights of the counties and burgesses of certain boroughs were invited to participate. Henry repudiated the Provisions in 1262 CE and so a civil war broke out. Things did not go well for the royalists. On 14 May 1264 CE, after the Battle of Lewes, the king and Prince Edward were both captured by the rebel leader Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (l. c. 1208-1265 CE) who then made himself king in 1264 CE. Fortunately for Henry, his son Edward managed to escape confinement in May 1265 CE and so could help restore the rightful monarch to the throne. Edward, who had already gained valuable military experience from his father’s campaigns in Wales, raised an army of loyalists and those barons already upset by de Montfort’s self-seeking policies and defeated the rebels at the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire on 4 August 1265 CE. De Montfort was killed, and Henry was restored but spent much of his later years away from politics and improving the country’s architectural monuments such as Westminster Abbey and Lincoln Cathedral. Edward, in effect, acted as regent for his father and following Henry’s death, probably from a stroke, on 16 November 1272 CE, Prince Edward became Edward I of England. As Edward was away on what is sometimes called the Ninth Crusade (1271-2 CE), the actual coronation did not take place until 19 August 1274 CE, as usual at Westminster Abbey. Edward would reign until 1307 CE. Edward married Eleanor of Castile (b. c. 1242 CE) in October 1254 CE when she was 12 and he was just 15 years old but the match worked out well. Eleanor even accompanied her husband on his crusade and when she died in 1290 CE, Edward suffered her loss greatly. The passage of her coffin from Lincoln to London was commemorated by the setting up of 12 monumental crosses, and one of these, the last on the route, would give London’s Charing Cross its name. Edward, already with a family of 11 daughters and four sons, did marry again, on 10 September 1299 CE, to Margaret (c. 1282-1318 CE), the daughter of Philip III of France (r. 1270-1285 CE). Margaret was more than 40 years younger than Edward, but the marriage was another success. Subjugation of Wales Henry III’s string of military defeats in Wales (1228, 1231, and 1232 CE) had led to Henry conferring on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223-1282 CE) the title of Prince of Wales. The Welshman’s independence was further asserted when he refused to attend Edward’s coronation in 1274 CE. The new king was rather better at warfare than his father had been, though, and Edward was intent on taking revenge for the slight. Organising a massive army in 1276 CE, the English king marched into Wales and stripped Llywelyn of his lands, although he did permit him to keep his now-meaningless royal title. Nevertheless, the Welsh still had ambitions of freedom from English rule and Llywelyn’s brother Dafydd stirred up yet another rebellion. The rebels were defeated and Llywelyn was killed in 1282 CE, his head presented to the English king in triumph and then displayed at the Tower of London. Dafydd was eventually captured, and he was executed, too, using the brutal method reserved for traitors: hanging, drawing, and quartering the victim. Edward now became determined to thoroughly impose his domination of the region, particularly in North Wales where the rebels had had their headquarters, by building a series of mighty castles. From 1283 CE onwards such imposing fortresses as Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, and Harlech Castle were built. The king made sure his castles were often built on sites of cultural and historical importance to the Welsh to send a clear message that a new order had begun in the region. He even went so far as to ensure his son Edward was born in Caernarfon Castle - the heart of the English administration in Wales - on 25 April 1284 CE and then bestowed upon him the title of Prince of Wales (formally conferred in 1301 CE). Thereafter, it became customary for an English monarch to give this title to their eldest son. Despite the castles and the royal propaganda, the Welsh were not quite subdued and another major rebellion broke out, this time led by Madog ap Llywelyn, in 1294 CE. Edward, despite being forced to winter in Conwy Castle, managed to regain control of Caernarfon Castle by 1295 CE. Madog was then defeated by an army led by the Earl of Warwick at Maes Moydog in March 1295 CE, and Wales was henceforth administered as if it were a part of England, the region already having been divided up into shires in the 1284 CE Statute of Rhuddlan in order to beak up the old traditional kingdoms. A new series of castles was then erected to ensure continued obedience, which included Beaumaris Castle, perhaps the finest surviving example of a concentric medieval castle. Administration in England Edward attempted to avoid the errors of his predecessors by ensuring his home base of England was secure. The king made sure that the barons and their rights were protected, and that local administration was improved through a land survey (1274-5 CE) and better record-keeping (the Hundred Rolls). The 1275 CE the Statute of Westminster encoded 51 new laws, many based on the Magna Carta. Trial by jury was made mandatory (previously the accused had to consent to it) and Justices of the Peace were appointed. The Model Parliament met for the first time in 1295 CE which had members from the clergy and knights as well as large estate owners, including two representatives from every shire and town (or borough). Membership of the parliament was still only given to those with wealth, but it was wider than ever before as Edward sought the best possible means to secure support for his greater revenue demands. The parliament also approved Edward’s proposed military campaign in Scotland. The king might not have had any interest in limiting his own power or increasing that of the elite but his regular calling of parliament for the purposes of raising taxes nevertheless did kickstart the body as an ever-present institution in English government which acquired a character and precedence of its own. The inclusion of wealthy but untitled members was the beginning of what would become the House of Commons. Another consequence of the need for funds was the attack on the kingdom’s Jewish community. In 1287 CE Edward happily began to expel all Jews from his kingdom, confiscating their property to boost his war coffers and appease the Church who regarded the moneylenders as a threat. By 1290 CE, the policy resulted in almost all 2,000 Jews in the kingdom leaving, one way or another, and Edward was so pleased with his policy that he repeated it in Gascony (see below). Attacks on Scotland Edward was not content with ruling England and Wales but also set his sights on Scotland. The English king had hoped to gain control of Scotland via peaceful means when he arranged for his son to marry Margaret, the Maid of Norway who was the granddaughter and heir of King Alexander III of Scotland (r. 1249-1286 CE). Unfortunately, these plans came to nothing when Margaret died of illness on Orkney in September 1290 CE. Edward was then required to adjudicate who would be Alexander’s successor (an event often termed the Great Cause): the powerful nobleman John Balliol (b. c. 1249 CE) or Robert Bruce (b. 1210 CE and grandfather of his more famous namesake). In 1292 CE Edward plumbed for Balliol, perhaps because he was the weaker of the two and so could be more easily manipulated. As it turned out, the Scots themselves grew tired of Balliol’s ineffective responses to Edward’s domination and open rebellion was in the air. The English king was just then having problems elsewhere. Wales was about to witness the Madog-led rebellion of 1294 CE and Gascony was under serious threat in France - the king’s only territory across the Channel since his father had signed it all away in the 1259 CE Treaty of Paris. Gascony, which provided a nice income through taxation of the flourishing wine trade, was indeed lost to the ambitious Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314 CE) and the taxes Edward had imposed on the Scots to pay for his failed campaign in France was the final straw. In 1295 CE Scotland formally allied itself with France - the first move in what became known as the ‘Auld Alliance’ - and Balliol felt confident enough not to pay homage to Edward. The English king responded emphatically to Scottish disobedience by forming a new army which he led in person to Berwick, the force totalling 25,000-30,000 men. At Berwick, according to the 14th-century CE chronicler Walter of Guisborough, Edward started as he meant to continue and massacred 11,060 of the town’s residents. The king, earning the nickname ‘the Hammer of the Scots’, was now intent on total conquest, and by June he had gone a long way to achieving his goal. Balliol surrendered after the Battle of Dunbar (1296 CE), three English barons were nominated to rule Scotland and Edward even stole the Stone of Scone (aka Stone of Destiny) which was a symbol of the Scottish monarchy, relocating it to Westminster Abbey under the coronation chair. The stone was only returned in 1996 CE. There was, too, good news from France where Gascony was returned to Edward following the Pope’s intervention in the dispute. The friendly relations were cemented by Edward’s marriage to Philip III’s daughter Margaret and the Prince of Wales’ betrothal to Isabella, daughter of Philip IV of France. Scotland was never quite subdued, though, and despite invasions in 1298 and 1300 CE, a major rebellion broke out led by the landowner (and later knight) William Wallace (c. 1270-1305 CE) - eponymous star of the 1995 CE film Braveheart - and Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell. The rebels won a famous victory in September 1297 CE at the Battle of Stirling Bridge but Edward, leading his army in person, won another encounter in July 1298 CE at the Battle of Falkirk where 20,000 Scots were killed. Edward then sent more armies in 1301 and 1303 CE, recovering Stirling Castle in the process, but it was not until 1305 CE that Wallace was finally captured in Glasgow and then executed as a traitor in London. Still, in February 1306 CE, the Scots continued to rally around their figurehead, Robert the Bruce (b. 1274 CE), the grandson of John Balliol’s rival for the throne back in 1292 CE. Making himself king in February 1306 CE, Robert had the support of the Scottish northern barons but was initially forced to flee to Ireland. However, both he and the Scots benefitted greatly from Edward’s sudden death and the incompetence of his successor; King Robert would rule Scotland until 1329 CE. Death & Successor Edward died of illness, probably dysentery, aged 68 on 7 July 1307 CE at Burgh by Sands, near Carlisle when about to engage in yet another campaign against the Scots. He was buried at Westminster Abbey and, at his own command, his tomb was inscribed with the following legend: ‘Edward I, Hammer of the Scots. Keep the Faith’. He was succeeded by his son Edward II of England whose reign until 1327 CE was blighted by military incompetence, excessive patronage of his friends, anarchy at home amongst his own barons and, the cherry on a far-from-splendid royal cake, a resounding defeat by the Scots at Bannockburn in June 1314 CE. Another Edward would succeed him, Edward III of England, the grandson of Edward I and final part of the trio that completed the ’Edwardian’ period of medieval England (1272-1377 CE).	3,342	ENGLISH	1
Between the years of 1837 and 1901, British history experienced a revolutionary period of economic and cultural growth. The new wealth that came with expansion created new class structures as an age of domesticity was inspired. As a result of this, the art world changed too. Writers became realistic as they believed they were serving a higher moral purpose while creating. They wrote of actual and practical life in the form of dramatic monologues. Visual imagery illustrated their emotions while their tone and sound reflected the poems meaning. Though many authors became known during this time period, Oscar Wilde is –debatably- one of the most controversial poets of the Victorian Era. Otherwise known as the ‘first modern man’, Wilde was born on the 16th of October in 1854. He notably attended Porotra Royal School in Enniskillen, Trinity College in Dublin and Magdalen College in Oxford during his early education. During this time his poetic notoriety began to grow; in 1879, his first collection of poetry was published. After several years of touring countries and playwriting he married Constance Lloyd, with whom he had two sons. In order to advance his reputation, Wilde cultivated his own “aesthetic code of life”, stating that “a man who does not think for himself does not think at all.” (EPG Bio).He dressed in a way that did not fit domestic sensibilities and in doing so, attracted both detractors and admirers. His literary work followed this pattern. Wilde held the belief that style outweighed sincerity or substance. Therefore, his aesthetic way of being and writing reflected and perhaps helped in molding the image of a Victorian author. As Wilde was gifted with an early affinity for language, his attention paved towards form and the nuances of wording while he wrote. His favorite poetic device was imagery; namely, morbid imagery. Accordingly, early viewers found this to be deeply distasteful after the age of Romantics. Unlike many writers of his time, Wilde felt that “life does not just contain pleasure”, and that “there is great importance in sorrow” (Lit Net). Quite befitting a Victorian poet, his favorite stylistic device is the paradox. His most playful uses of both imagery and paradoxes can be found in The Picture of Dorian Gray, what was said to be one of the more conflicting -morally and aesthetically- books of his time. That very book played a key role in Wilde’s ultimate demise. Not soon after his marriage, Oscar Wilde began confronting homosexual urges that had been with him since grade school. Upon coming to the realization of his sexual orientation, his work flourished. As such, the risk of being ‘found out’ did too. Additionally, The Picture of Dorian Gray has homoerotic themes that baffled his audience. A secret affair he had with another man was found out by both the public and the father of the aforementioned lover. Wilde took the father to court in a libel situation and ended up in prison, charged for ‘gross indecency’. His...	<urn:uuid:9708d9a5-b1e0-4220-a971-2c4eca663ff8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/oscar-wilde-19	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00372.warc.gz	en	0.988649	633	3.4375	3	[ -0.05555902048945427, 0.4439903795719147, 0.32170596718788147, -0.018269440159201622, -0.11879831552505493, 0.08772516250610352, -0.12496651709079742, 0.0541435182094574, 0.28536996245384216, -0.02234083227813244, 0.07449556887149811, 0.029021799564361572, 0.19780723750591278, 0.1175220012...	1	Between the years of 1837 and 1901, British history experienced a revolutionary period of economic and cultural growth. The new wealth that came with expansion created new class structures as an age of domesticity was inspired. As a result of this, the art world changed too. Writers became realistic as they believed they were serving a higher moral purpose while creating. They wrote of actual and practical life in the form of dramatic monologues. Visual imagery illustrated their emotions while their tone and sound reflected the poems meaning. Though many authors became known during this time period, Oscar Wilde is –debatably- one of the most controversial poets of the Victorian Era. Otherwise known as the ‘first modern man’, Wilde was born on the 16th of October in 1854. He notably attended Porotra Royal School in Enniskillen, Trinity College in Dublin and Magdalen College in Oxford during his early education. During this time his poetic notoriety began to grow; in 1879, his first collection of poetry was published. After several years of touring countries and playwriting he married Constance Lloyd, with whom he had two sons. In order to advance his reputation, Wilde cultivated his own “aesthetic code of life”, stating that “a man who does not think for himself does not think at all.” (EPG Bio).He dressed in a way that did not fit domestic sensibilities and in doing so, attracted both detractors and admirers. His literary work followed this pattern. Wilde held the belief that style outweighed sincerity or substance. Therefore, his aesthetic way of being and writing reflected and perhaps helped in molding the image of a Victorian author. As Wilde was gifted with an early affinity for language, his attention paved towards form and the nuances of wording while he wrote. His favorite poetic device was imagery; namely, morbid imagery. Accordingly, early viewers found this to be deeply distasteful after the age of Romantics. Unlike many writers of his time, Wilde felt that “life does not just contain pleasure”, and that “there is great importance in sorrow” (Lit Net). Quite befitting a Victorian poet, his favorite stylistic device is the paradox. His most playful uses of both imagery and paradoxes can be found in The Picture of Dorian Gray, what was said to be one of the more conflicting -morally and aesthetically- books of his time. That very book played a key role in Wilde’s ultimate demise. Not soon after his marriage, Oscar Wilde began confronting homosexual urges that had been with him since grade school. Upon coming to the realization of his sexual orientation, his work flourished. As such, the risk of being ‘found out’ did too. Additionally, The Picture of Dorian Gray has homoerotic themes that baffled his audience. A secret affair he had with another man was found out by both the public and the father of the aforementioned lover. Wilde took the father to court in a libel situation and ended up in prison, charged for ‘gross indecency’. His...	632	ENGLISH	1
AOSHIMA plastic models - After the Washington Naval Treaty, Japan was restricted from constructing new naval ships. In 1934, Japan renounced the treaty and began developing the Yamato-class battleships. With displacement of 64,000 tons, nine 46 cm main guns, speed of 27 knots, and total length of 263 meters, Yamato-class would become the world's largest battleship. As the 1st ship of the Yamato-class battleship, Yamato was laid down in September 1937 at the Kure Naval shipyard and launched on August 1940. She joined the Japanese Combined Fleet in 1941, becoming the flagship the following year. After the outbreak of the Pacific War, Yamato participated in various battles in the Pacific. However, there were no use of battleship in the battles, and was mocked by other officers as ‘Hotel Yamato'. On February 1945, Yamato was reassigned to the Second Fleet. In April, she was designated to take part of "Surface Special Attack Force" and headed to Okinawa. April 7th, 1945 came the final day of Yamato. A little past noon, the Japanese fleet were attacked by U.S. aircrafts. After receiving numerous bombs and torpedoes, Yamato exploded, and she sank at 14:23. 2,498 crews lost their lives with Yamato and 276 survived. In May 2016, a team led by city of Kure began researching the area where Yamato sank. In its 4th research, the team obtained many valuable photographs. After 72 years after the end of war, her wreckage reminds us of the horror of the battle.	<urn:uuid:8eb31591-3098-422e-ba87-eb26a1c1e8fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hobbyandtoycentral.com/?q=productdisplay/ijn-battleship-yamato-1700	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00468.warc.gz	en	0.981462	325	3.3125	3	[ -0.36520063877105713, -0.07782509177923203, 0.5334943532943726, -0.3999338150024414, 0.04543038457632065, 0.015607866458594799, -0.41571560502052307, 0.3258001506328583, -0.3366331160068512, -0.20403768122196198, 0.11997836828231812, -0.2653283178806305, 0.2719631791114807, 0.5986849069595...	2	AOSHIMA plastic models - After the Washington Naval Treaty, Japan was restricted from constructing new naval ships. In 1934, Japan renounced the treaty and began developing the Yamato-class battleships. With displacement of 64,000 tons, nine 46 cm main guns, speed of 27 knots, and total length of 263 meters, Yamato-class would become the world's largest battleship. As the 1st ship of the Yamato-class battleship, Yamato was laid down in September 1937 at the Kure Naval shipyard and launched on August 1940. She joined the Japanese Combined Fleet in 1941, becoming the flagship the following year. After the outbreak of the Pacific War, Yamato participated in various battles in the Pacific. However, there were no use of battleship in the battles, and was mocked by other officers as ‘Hotel Yamato'. On February 1945, Yamato was reassigned to the Second Fleet. In April, she was designated to take part of "Surface Special Attack Force" and headed to Okinawa. April 7th, 1945 came the final day of Yamato. A little past noon, the Japanese fleet were attacked by U.S. aircrafts. After receiving numerous bombs and torpedoes, Yamato exploded, and she sank at 14:23. 2,498 crews lost their lives with Yamato and 276 survived. In May 2016, a team led by city of Kure began researching the area where Yamato sank. In its 4th research, the team obtained many valuable photographs. After 72 years after the end of war, her wreckage reminds us of the horror of the battle.	379	ENGLISH	1
Nelson Mandela was born in July 1918 to a royal family of South Africa’s Xhosa tribe. He was trained to be a counselor to the king because his own branch of the royal family was not eligible for the throne but could serve as hereditary counselors. Mandela enrolled at Fort Hare University in Eastern Cape and studied English, political science, native law and anthropology for a while but he did not graduate from Fort Hare. He got a job as an articled clerk in a law firm and signed with a correspondence program at the University of South Africa. He studied at night and eventually got his BA degree and later qualified as a lawyer. He worked in a law firm but he was famous as a prominent member of the African National Congress (ANC). Mandela served the ANC in various capacities and he helped organize the military wing of the ANC known as the “Umkhonto we Sizwe”. Because of his anti-Apartheid activities, Mandela was arrested, tried and jailed. He spent 27 years in prison and later became the first president of a democratic South Africa. Mandela died in December 2013 at age 95 and was given a state burial by the South African government. Nelson Mandela was definitely a controversial figure during his lifetime. Some people claim that he was a revolutionary who insisted that things must be done his own way or things will not get done. Others believed that Mandela was a lone wolf who did not believe in teamwork. The truth is that Mr. Mandela did not always try to impose his own convictions on other people. There are many examples to show that Nelson Mandela believed in teamwork. Examples of team work - During the early negotiations in 1990-1991, the black South Africans did not present a united front. There were serious incidents of “black-on-black” violence and clashes between supporters of Mandela’s ANC and those of the Inkatha Freedom Party of Mangosuthu Buthelezi. Mandela was sure that a “third force” was fuelling the crisis and was not happy about this. Some people within the ANC wanted Mandela to meet force with force. Others wanted him to openly denounce Buthelezi. It is to the credit of Mr. Mandela that he urged the blacks to close ranks and work as one united group. This is why he fought for a peace accord and this accord was signed in September 1991 with Nelson Mandela, Buthelezi and F.W. de Klerk in attendance. - Further proof that Mandela believed in teamwork came during the CODESA talks of 1991-1992. During the talks, some senior ANC members who felt they had “paid their dues” wanted Mandela to lead the talks. Another group felt that Cyril Ramaphosa was too young to lead the ANC delegation. Mandela decided that it was better for the ANC to work as a team so Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC delegation while Mandela served as an important member of the delegation. - Nelson Mandela also used the Rugby World Cup 1995 as an opportunity to show that he truly believed in teamwork. This tournament was hosted in South Africa and it was the first time the country would be playing in any world cup. South Africa defeated New Zealand in the final and Nelson Mandela himself presented the cup to Francois Pienaar, the Springboks captain. Mandela was wearing the Springsbok shirt and cap and the message was clear. Mandela believed in teamwork and he had just proved it. More to the point, both black and white South Africans could play rugby on the same pitch in and in the same team. This episode was captured in the film Invictus and it is a tribute to Nelson Mandela, the ultimate team player.	<urn:uuid:fb405ed9-c404-4577-ae21-eae3fb0dce72>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teamworkdefinition.com/nelsonmandelateamwork/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00441.warc.gz	en	0.989803	755	3.421875	3	[ -0.5796581506729126, 1.054212212562561, -0.021405963227152824, -0.49960264563560486, 0.021741988137364388, 0.09415247291326523, 0.3289901316165924, -0.3121371269226074, -0.2846105694770813, 0.3209599256515503, 0.6321961879730225, -0.2722877860069275, 0.22162213921546936, 0.2067274451255798...	7	Nelson Mandela was born in July 1918 to a royal family of South Africa’s Xhosa tribe. He was trained to be a counselor to the king because his own branch of the royal family was not eligible for the throne but could serve as hereditary counselors. Mandela enrolled at Fort Hare University in Eastern Cape and studied English, political science, native law and anthropology for a while but he did not graduate from Fort Hare. He got a job as an articled clerk in a law firm and signed with a correspondence program at the University of South Africa. He studied at night and eventually got his BA degree and later qualified as a lawyer. He worked in a law firm but he was famous as a prominent member of the African National Congress (ANC). Mandela served the ANC in various capacities and he helped organize the military wing of the ANC known as the “Umkhonto we Sizwe”. Because of his anti-Apartheid activities, Mandela was arrested, tried and jailed. He spent 27 years in prison and later became the first president of a democratic South Africa. Mandela died in December 2013 at age 95 and was given a state burial by the South African government. Nelson Mandela was definitely a controversial figure during his lifetime. Some people claim that he was a revolutionary who insisted that things must be done his own way or things will not get done. Others believed that Mandela was a lone wolf who did not believe in teamwork. The truth is that Mr. Mandela did not always try to impose his own convictions on other people. There are many examples to show that Nelson Mandela believed in teamwork. Examples of team work - During the early negotiations in 1990-1991, the black South Africans did not present a united front. There were serious incidents of “black-on-black” violence and clashes between supporters of Mandela’s ANC and those of the Inkatha Freedom Party of Mangosuthu Buthelezi. Mandela was sure that a “third force” was fuelling the crisis and was not happy about this. Some people within the ANC wanted Mandela to meet force with force. Others wanted him to openly denounce Buthelezi. It is to the credit of Mr. Mandela that he urged the blacks to close ranks and work as one united group. This is why he fought for a peace accord and this accord was signed in September 1991 with Nelson Mandela, Buthelezi and F.W. de Klerk in attendance. - Further proof that Mandela believed in teamwork came during the CODESA talks of 1991-1992. During the talks, some senior ANC members who felt they had “paid their dues” wanted Mandela to lead the talks. Another group felt that Cyril Ramaphosa was too young to lead the ANC delegation. Mandela decided that it was better for the ANC to work as a team so Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC delegation while Mandela served as an important member of the delegation. - Nelson Mandela also used the Rugby World Cup 1995 as an opportunity to show that he truly believed in teamwork. This tournament was hosted in South Africa and it was the first time the country would be playing in any world cup. South Africa defeated New Zealand in the final and Nelson Mandela himself presented the cup to Francois Pienaar, the Springboks captain. Mandela was wearing the Springsbok shirt and cap and the message was clear. Mandela believed in teamwork and he had just proved it. More to the point, both black and white South Africans could play rugby on the same pitch in and in the same team. This episode was captured in the film Invictus and it is a tribute to Nelson Mandela, the ultimate team player.	769	ENGLISH	1
Hermann Göring was born in Bavaria, in 1893. “His father was a member of the colonial service in Africa.” His mother abandoned him when he was six weeks old, and did not care for her child for a period of three years. At a very early age he was interested in being a soldier. He graduated in a military education centre, where he was sent at the age of sixteen. He was discovered to have a very high intelligence quotient of 138. During and after the First World War Goring remained with his troops when the First World War began in 1914. During World War One he became famous for being a war hero. During this period of time, he was an aircraft pilot. “He won numerous awards for bravery and was the last commander of the legendary Richthofen Fighter Squadron.” Between the years of 1924 and 1921, he studied in the Munich University as the war ended. From 1924 to 1929, he lived in Sweden. Before ...view middle of the document... He thought the Nazis would only remove Jewish people from the business market and not also from the world. Relationship to Hitler Göring was a close confidant of Hitler. He was the second most famous leader in Nazi Germany after Hitler. The position of Göring with Hitler was weakened in 1942, due to the incapacity of completing objectives and his performance in the World War. Göring said he had no control over the cruel actions towards the Jewish and that he wasn’t anti-Semitic. In 1945, he was informed that Hitler intended to commit suicide, and asked to be in charge of the Reichstag. Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party and ordered his arrest. The Nazi Germany had Göring as one of the most superior and old politicians. During the Munich Putsch, he was injured, and due to the injuries he became addicted to morphine. In 1932, Göring was appointed speaker of the Reichstag. In 1933, he founded the Gestapo, which was the Nazi secret police force. He later took action against Röhm, on the Night of the Long Knives. He became responsible for the air force (Luftwaffe) in 1935. In 1936, he became in charge for the Four Year Plan, which was a series of economic improvements created by the Nazis. Göring had a determined position in the Nazi Party due to the impact of planes used in the attack against Poland in 1939. In 1941, Hitler promoted him to be the highest commander. The position of Göring was very high before Hitler became weak in 1942 because he couldn’t achieve his goals. Göring assembled a personal capitalism with the confiscation of Jewish properties such as artwork. He either kept their properties or he sold them for very high prices. Sometimes, he accepted money to allow other citizens to steal Jewish property. While he was in prison, he lost a large amount of weight and he was able to overcome his drug addiction. He was tried at the Nuremberg Trials and he was sentenced to be hanged. Göring’s execution was scheduled for October 1946, but several hours before his execution he committed suicide.	<urn:uuid:95f922dc-bc73-428a-970b-d2780c8f0776>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/historical-profile-hermann-goring	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00470.warc.gz	en	0.991109	658	3.328125	3	[ 0.13782048225402832, 0.28248557448387146, 0.1432410180568695, -0.1342652440071106, -0.06616009771823883, -0.07881246507167816, 0.23663388192653656, 0.07012788206338882, -0.5801562070846558, -0.3033576011657715, 0.5678958892822266, -0.2898455262184143, -0.014933792874217033, 0.7022427320480...	1	Hermann Göring was born in Bavaria, in 1893. “His father was a member of the colonial service in Africa.” His mother abandoned him when he was six weeks old, and did not care for her child for a period of three years. At a very early age he was interested in being a soldier. He graduated in a military education centre, where he was sent at the age of sixteen. He was discovered to have a very high intelligence quotient of 138. During and after the First World War Goring remained with his troops when the First World War began in 1914. During World War One he became famous for being a war hero. During this period of time, he was an aircraft pilot. “He won numerous awards for bravery and was the last commander of the legendary Richthofen Fighter Squadron.” Between the years of 1924 and 1921, he studied in the Munich University as the war ended. From 1924 to 1929, he lived in Sweden. Before ...view middle of the document... He thought the Nazis would only remove Jewish people from the business market and not also from the world. Relationship to Hitler Göring was a close confidant of Hitler. He was the second most famous leader in Nazi Germany after Hitler. The position of Göring with Hitler was weakened in 1942, due to the incapacity of completing objectives and his performance in the World War. Göring said he had no control over the cruel actions towards the Jewish and that he wasn’t anti-Semitic. In 1945, he was informed that Hitler intended to commit suicide, and asked to be in charge of the Reichstag. Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party and ordered his arrest. The Nazi Germany had Göring as one of the most superior and old politicians. During the Munich Putsch, he was injured, and due to the injuries he became addicted to morphine. In 1932, Göring was appointed speaker of the Reichstag. In 1933, he founded the Gestapo, which was the Nazi secret police force. He later took action against Röhm, on the Night of the Long Knives. He became responsible for the air force (Luftwaffe) in 1935. In 1936, he became in charge for the Four Year Plan, which was a series of economic improvements created by the Nazis. Göring had a determined position in the Nazi Party due to the impact of planes used in the attack against Poland in 1939. In 1941, Hitler promoted him to be the highest commander. The position of Göring was very high before Hitler became weak in 1942 because he couldn’t achieve his goals. Göring assembled a personal capitalism with the confiscation of Jewish properties such as artwork. He either kept their properties or he sold them for very high prices. Sometimes, he accepted money to allow other citizens to steal Jewish property. While he was in prison, he lost a large amount of weight and he was able to overcome his drug addiction. He was tried at the Nuremberg Trials and he was sentenced to be hanged. Göring’s execution was scheduled for October 1946, but several hours before his execution he committed suicide.	705	ENGLISH	1
This Day In Literary History On January 7th, 1972, the famous American poet John Berryman committed suicide at the age of 57. In 1926, when Berryman was twelve years old, his father, John Allyn Smith, Sr., a banker, committed suicide by shooting himself. His mother later remarried and he took his stepfather's surname, Berryman. His father's suicide haunted him all his life, affecting his writing and plunging him into a similar battle with depression that he too would lose. John Berryman's most famous work, a poetry collection called 77 Dream Songs, was published in 1964. The book, which featured a collection of 18-line, three-stanza poems, won him a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. His father's suicide is addressed in several of the poems, mostly indirectly, except for one direct reference where the poet wishes that he could kill his father's corpse. He would publish more great poetry collections. Berryman was a faculty member of the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop, where he taught the poetry workshop. His workshop was noted for both its students, which included many soon-to-be-famous poets, and for the intensity of the classes. One night, during a particularly heated exchange, one of Berryman's students, poet Philip Levine, punched him in the face, breaking his glasses. Ironically, this incident would result in the formation of a lifelong friendship between the two men. Throughout his life, John Berryman struggled with both alcoholism and severe depression. When his alcoholism began to affect his work, he sought treatment. After spending several months in a rehab facility, he won his battle with alcoholism. In June of 1971, he returned to teaching, this time at the University of Minnesota. He also began working on a novel. Berryman remained sober for almost a year. Then, frustrated with his work-in-progress, he decided that his novel, which he had titled Recovery, was worthless. On January 7th, 1972, two days after he started drinking again, John Berryman committed suicide by jumping off the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis. He was 57 years old. Despite his untimely and tragic death, during his life, he proved himself to be one of the most gifted poets of his generation. Quote Of The Day “You should always be trying to write a poem you are unable to write, a poem you lack the technique, the language, the courage to achieve. Otherwise you're merely imitating yourself, going nowhere, because that's always easiest.” - John Berryman Today's video features a rare recording of John Berryman giving a poetry reading at the Guggenheim Museum in 1963. Enjoy!	<urn:uuid:697b4133-e3ca-4384-a07c-2e34b845239f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://internetwritingworkshop.blogspot.com/2020/01/notes-for-jamuary-7th-2020.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00497.warc.gz	en	0.989957	559	3.296875	3	[ -0.2725263237953186, 0.42102375626564026, 0.3170967996120453, 0.15027467906475067, -0.18549902737140656, 0.5068964958190918, -0.006981791462749243, 0.4500294029712677, -0.11042657494544983, -0.01244641188532114, 0.061977799981832504, 0.5925848484039307, 0.27123963832855225, 0.2514056563377...	3	This Day In Literary History On January 7th, 1972, the famous American poet John Berryman committed suicide at the age of 57. In 1926, when Berryman was twelve years old, his father, John Allyn Smith, Sr., a banker, committed suicide by shooting himself. His mother later remarried and he took his stepfather's surname, Berryman. His father's suicide haunted him all his life, affecting his writing and plunging him into a similar battle with depression that he too would lose. John Berryman's most famous work, a poetry collection called 77 Dream Songs, was published in 1964. The book, which featured a collection of 18-line, three-stanza poems, won him a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. His father's suicide is addressed in several of the poems, mostly indirectly, except for one direct reference where the poet wishes that he could kill his father's corpse. He would publish more great poetry collections. Berryman was a faculty member of the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop, where he taught the poetry workshop. His workshop was noted for both its students, which included many soon-to-be-famous poets, and for the intensity of the classes. One night, during a particularly heated exchange, one of Berryman's students, poet Philip Levine, punched him in the face, breaking his glasses. Ironically, this incident would result in the formation of a lifelong friendship between the two men. Throughout his life, John Berryman struggled with both alcoholism and severe depression. When his alcoholism began to affect his work, he sought treatment. After spending several months in a rehab facility, he won his battle with alcoholism. In June of 1971, he returned to teaching, this time at the University of Minnesota. He also began working on a novel. Berryman remained sober for almost a year. Then, frustrated with his work-in-progress, he decided that his novel, which he had titled Recovery, was worthless. On January 7th, 1972, two days after he started drinking again, John Berryman committed suicide by jumping off the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis. He was 57 years old. Despite his untimely and tragic death, during his life, he proved himself to be one of the most gifted poets of his generation. Quote Of The Day “You should always be trying to write a poem you are unable to write, a poem you lack the technique, the language, the courage to achieve. Otherwise you're merely imitating yourself, going nowhere, because that's always easiest.” - John Berryman Today's video features a rare recording of John Berryman giving a poetry reading at the Guggenheim Museum in 1963. Enjoy!	574	ENGLISH	1

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