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Maycomb is a small, isolated, inward looking town in Alabama, USA. The reader hears about Maycomb from the narrator, Scout (Jean-Louise Finch), who looks back to when she was a young girl living with her brother Jem and their father Atticus. Throughout the novel, you hear about a very wide range of incidents and relationships in Maycomb, which is quite surprising for such a small town where Atticus, ‘was related by blood or marriage to nearly every family’. With a child narrating, a much more unconventional, naïve perspective is shown. It also means that the novel can take advantage of two different view points, which are years apart, to give a much more complete picture. Scout often relates to incidents that occurred in Maycomb that she does not fully understand. A prime example of this is when Jem grasps, a long time before Scout, that the items found in the tree by the Radley Place are presents from Boo to them. Scouts incomprehension of Maycomb and its on goings also add an element of humour to the novel; an impression that only the reader gains. For example when Maycomb is described in the first paragraph, Scout comically tells of female behaviour in Maycomb, as she is certain that she did not want to grow up like ‘soft teacakes’ and conform to society’s insistence that she behave ‘like a girl’ and wear a skirt. On the other hand, Harper Lee's language suggests an adult's recollection rather than a girl's experience when Scout says that, ‘Maycomb was an old town, but it was a tired old town when I first knew it . . . Somehow, it was hotter then . . . People moved slowly then.’ These quotations also tell you more about the period that Maycomb was going through. It was the mid-1930’s, during a time of economic depression, and their only hope would come from Franklin D Roosevelt and his New Deal. Maycomb was already awash with poverty, partly shown by the new currency the Cunninghams were adopting, whereby a ‘bushel of potatoes is charged for the delivery of a baby. It is also shown in the novel on page 31 when Scout says that Little Chuck Little was another member of the population who didn’t know where his next meal was coming from. Roosevelt, the American President at the time, wanted America to regain some prosperity from the Depression. Roosevelt was in some ways like Atticus Finch, as they were both willing and in a position to help people who had done no wrong. Atticus wanted to get Tom Robinson off the blame for the rape of Mayella Ewell, for which he was being unjustly victimised. The image of the Mockingbird first becomes clear here on page 96 as, ‘Mockingbird’s don’t do one thing but make music for us to enjoy’ . . . ‘That’s why it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird’ The mockingbird image can therefore be linked to Tom Robinson and the Blacks who had done no harm to anyone, other than being ‘niggers’. Whichever way Tom acted when he was testifying in court, he would have seemed guilty in the eyes of the white jury. If he tried to defend himself against a white woman’s advances the situation would be seen to be of his making, and therefore his fault. If he ran, as he actually did, it would be taken as an admission of guilt. The novel therefore tells of how, in Maycomb it is accepted that the Whites can kill the Blacks but not the other way around. They were in impossible positions, where to Atticus, it looked as if the jury was killing a mockingbird by killing Tom Robinson and in the long term the death of a whole race. The reader can deduce that the people who live in Maycomb had lived there all their lives and had had a large family network. This is shown by the way that each family is recognisable by definite characteristics as they are all stereotyped. The Haverfords in Maycomb County was ‘a name synonymous with jackass’, the Cunninghams were ‘an enormous and confusing tribe domiciled in the north part of the county’ who formed the ‘nearest thing to a gang ever seen in Maycomb’ and the Ewells had been ‘the disgrace of Maycomb for three generations’. The Ewells were even seen to be below the Negroes as they lived behind the town garbage dump in what was ‘once a Negro cabin’, but as the racial prejudice is so strong the Ewells word was taken, not the Blacks, and Tom Robinson convicted of the rape of Mayella Ewell. In chapter two, Scout’s first day at school is described as not going smoothly as she is scolded by the new teacher, Miss Caroline Fisher, for knowing how to read and write, and for speaking out in Walter Cunningham’s favour. Scout’s first day also brings about another impression of Maycomb that the reader learns from Jem when he says that, ‘Our teacher says Miss Caroline’s introducing a new way of teaching. She learned about it in college’. The quotation shows how Miss Fisher is regarded with suspicion because of her origins. She came from a part of North Alabama that stayed loyal to the North during the Civil War and was quite different from Maycomb as it was industrial, Republican and because the people there had no ‘background’. Miss Fisher’s ‘foreignness’ is emphasised by her choice of story, as she does not appreciate that the majority of children come from a background that makes them ‘immune to imaginative literature’. The word ‘immune’ shows that the people of Maycomb regard some things as so foreign and threatening to their way of life, that they are comparable with disease. The education system in Maycomb is therefore shown to be quite backward as not only does Miss Fisher have a hard time adjusting from her teaching in other counties to that of Maycombs but Burris Ewell only went to school on the ‘first day o’ the first grade fer three year now’ and so education is deemed by some to be unimportant and unnecessary. The importance of ‘Maycomb’s principal recreation’ of going to church in the lives of the people in Maycomb is significant in the book, and it is interesting that Jem should point out that the only picture shows they ever get in Maycomb are ‘Jesus ones’. This is first sign of a possible relationship between people’s attitude towards religion and their attitude towards prejudice. This attitude is shown when Calpurnia, who was employed by Atticus as a cook, takes Scout and Jem to her Church. This ‘coloured’ Church is said to be used by ‘Negroes’ worshipping on Sundays and white men gambling on weekdays. This shows the blacks inferiority as the Whites are allowed in the Blacks’ Church, but the Blacks are not allowed in the Whites’ Church. The visit to the church brings Calpurnia to centre stage. Her character serves as the bridge between two worlds, and the reader has a sense of the double life she leads, splitting her time between the Finch household and the black community. When she goes to church, her language changes, and she speaks in a ‘coloured’ dialect rather than the proper, precise language she uses in Atticus' household. Jem asks her why, and she explains that the churchgoers would think she was ‘puttin’ on airs to beat Moses’ if she spoke ‘white’ in church. This speech demonstrates the gulf between blacks and whites in Maycomb as not only are they separated by bigotry and class, but they also don't even speak the same language. Overall Maycomb is therefore a ‘tired’ old town’ where little happens, though dangerous prejudices and tensions are always there. In Southern states such as Alabama, belief in the literal truth of the Bible is widely held, and many people in the novel are Methodists or Baptists. The reader gets the impression that Maycomb is a static population and newcomers are not accepted easily. Gossip and prejudice is rife, with not only the blacks being subjected to it, but also those who don’t conform in any way. For example the Radleys or Dolphus Raymond. The reason for why so much prejudice is still around could be due to the fact that things change very slowly in Maycomb, as what was important in the Civil War in 1861 is still important in 1933. The racism is summed up by the Sheriff who was meant to be neutral with both groups, when he says that he ‘hadn’t the heart to put him (Boo Radley as a child) in jail alongside Negroes’.	<urn:uuid:272a2e48-dd7f-4c53-8f10-132be1287015>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/To-Kill-a-Mockingbird-Discuss-The-63621139.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00186.warc.gz	en	0.983676	1,875	3.28125	3	[ -0.029417887330055237, 0.039377953857183456, 0.13496023416519165, -0.14026644825935364, 0.3204684853553772, -0.03706825524568558, 0.1694338172674179, -0.06907115876674652, -0.20440039038658142, -0.12111131101846695, 0.3708195686340332, 0.00022378773428499699, 0.21947506070137024, 0.2576903...	1	Maycomb is a small, isolated, inward looking town in Alabama, USA. The reader hears about Maycomb from the narrator, Scout (Jean-Louise Finch), who looks back to when she was a young girl living with her brother Jem and their father Atticus. Throughout the novel, you hear about a very wide range of incidents and relationships in Maycomb, which is quite surprising for such a small town where Atticus, ‘was related by blood or marriage to nearly every family’. With a child narrating, a much more unconventional, naïve perspective is shown. It also means that the novel can take advantage of two different view points, which are years apart, to give a much more complete picture. Scout often relates to incidents that occurred in Maycomb that she does not fully understand. A prime example of this is when Jem grasps, a long time before Scout, that the items found in the tree by the Radley Place are presents from Boo to them. Scouts incomprehension of Maycomb and its on goings also add an element of humour to the novel; an impression that only the reader gains. For example when Maycomb is described in the first paragraph, Scout comically tells of female behaviour in Maycomb, as she is certain that she did not want to grow up like ‘soft teacakes’ and conform to society’s insistence that she behave ‘like a girl’ and wear a skirt. On the other hand, Harper Lee's language suggests an adult's recollection rather than a girl's experience when Scout says that, ‘Maycomb was an old town, but it was a tired old town when I first knew it . . . Somehow, it was hotter then . . . People moved slowly then.’ These quotations also tell you more about the period that Maycomb was going through. It was the mid-1930’s, during a time of economic depression, and their only hope would come from Franklin D Roosevelt and his New Deal. Maycomb was already awash with poverty, partly shown by the new currency the Cunninghams were adopting, whereby a ‘bushel of potatoes is charged for the delivery of a baby. It is also shown in the novel on page 31 when Scout says that Little Chuck Little was another member of the population who didn’t know where his next meal was coming from. Roosevelt, the American President at the time, wanted America to regain some prosperity from the Depression. Roosevelt was in some ways like Atticus Finch, as they were both willing and in a position to help people who had done no wrong. Atticus wanted to get Tom Robinson off the blame for the rape of Mayella Ewell, for which he was being unjustly victimised. The image of the Mockingbird first becomes clear here on page 96 as, ‘Mockingbird’s don’t do one thing but make music for us to enjoy’ . . . ‘That’s why it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird’ The mockingbird image can therefore be linked to Tom Robinson and the Blacks who had done no harm to anyone, other than being ‘niggers’. Whichever way Tom acted when he was testifying in court, he would have seemed guilty in the eyes of the white jury. If he tried to defend himself against a white woman’s advances the situation would be seen to be of his making, and therefore his fault. If he ran, as he actually did, it would be taken as an admission of guilt. The novel therefore tells of how, in Maycomb it is accepted that the Whites can kill the Blacks but not the other way around. They were in impossible positions, where to Atticus, it looked as if the jury was killing a mockingbird by killing Tom Robinson and in the long term the death of a whole race. The reader can deduce that the people who live in Maycomb had lived there all their lives and had had a large family network. This is shown by the way that each family is recognisable by definite characteristics as they are all stereotyped. The Haverfords in Maycomb County was ‘a name synonymous with jackass’, the Cunninghams were ‘an enormous and confusing tribe domiciled in the north part of the county’ who formed the ‘nearest thing to a gang ever seen in Maycomb’ and the Ewells had been ‘the disgrace of Maycomb for three generations’. The Ewells were even seen to be below the Negroes as they lived behind the town garbage dump in what was ‘once a Negro cabin’, but as the racial prejudice is so strong the Ewells word was taken, not the Blacks, and Tom Robinson convicted of the rape of Mayella Ewell. In chapter two, Scout’s first day at school is described as not going smoothly as she is scolded by the new teacher, Miss Caroline Fisher, for knowing how to read and write, and for speaking out in Walter Cunningham’s favour. Scout’s first day also brings about another impression of Maycomb that the reader learns from Jem when he says that, ‘Our teacher says Miss Caroline’s introducing a new way of teaching. She learned about it in college’. The quotation shows how Miss Fisher is regarded with suspicion because of her origins. She came from a part of North Alabama that stayed loyal to the North during the Civil War and was quite different from Maycomb as it was industrial, Republican and because the people there had no ‘background’. Miss Fisher’s ‘foreignness’ is emphasised by her choice of story, as she does not appreciate that the majority of children come from a background that makes them ‘immune to imaginative literature’. The word ‘immune’ shows that the people of Maycomb regard some things as so foreign and threatening to their way of life, that they are comparable with disease. The education system in Maycomb is therefore shown to be quite backward as not only does Miss Fisher have a hard time adjusting from her teaching in other counties to that of Maycombs but Burris Ewell only went to school on the ‘first day o’ the first grade fer three year now’ and so education is deemed by some to be unimportant and unnecessary. The importance of ‘Maycomb’s principal recreation’ of going to church in the lives of the people in Maycomb is significant in the book, and it is interesting that Jem should point out that the only picture shows they ever get in Maycomb are ‘Jesus ones’. This is first sign of a possible relationship between people’s attitude towards religion and their attitude towards prejudice. This attitude is shown when Calpurnia, who was employed by Atticus as a cook, takes Scout and Jem to her Church. This ‘coloured’ Church is said to be used by ‘Negroes’ worshipping on Sundays and white men gambling on weekdays. This shows the blacks inferiority as the Whites are allowed in the Blacks’ Church, but the Blacks are not allowed in the Whites’ Church. The visit to the church brings Calpurnia to centre stage. Her character serves as the bridge between two worlds, and the reader has a sense of the double life she leads, splitting her time between the Finch household and the black community. When she goes to church, her language changes, and she speaks in a ‘coloured’ dialect rather than the proper, precise language she uses in Atticus' household. Jem asks her why, and she explains that the churchgoers would think she was ‘puttin’ on airs to beat Moses’ if she spoke ‘white’ in church. This speech demonstrates the gulf between blacks and whites in Maycomb as not only are they separated by bigotry and class, but they also don't even speak the same language. Overall Maycomb is therefore a ‘tired’ old town’ where little happens, though dangerous prejudices and tensions are always there. In Southern states such as Alabama, belief in the literal truth of the Bible is widely held, and many people in the novel are Methodists or Baptists. The reader gets the impression that Maycomb is a static population and newcomers are not accepted easily. Gossip and prejudice is rife, with not only the blacks being subjected to it, but also those who don’t conform in any way. For example the Radleys or Dolphus Raymond. The reason for why so much prejudice is still around could be due to the fact that things change very slowly in Maycomb, as what was important in the Civil War in 1861 is still important in 1933. The racism is summed up by the Sheriff who was meant to be neutral with both groups, when he says that he ‘hadn’t the heart to put him (Boo Radley as a child) in jail alongside Negroes’.	1,788	ENGLISH	1
We have started early celebrations in the Studio for St. Andrew’s day. The children began creating a Scottish theme for our sensory tray by making Scottish flags using resources that have different textures. On our arts and crafts table the children explored the patterns of different tartans and experimented with weaving to create their own tartans. Today the toddlers thought that porridge would be a yummy snack. They helped to measure out the oats and milk and all gave it a good stir. We then watched it cook “it got very hot”. The toddlers then chopped up some banana to add into their bowls of porridge. This was a “delicious “ snack they all agreed . This afternoon the children had great fun working together in the construction area using the building blocks to build their house. They were discussing with each other which shapes and sizes of blocks would be best to build their house. The children were developing their social and communication skills using problem solving, enquiry based learning as well as working as part of a team. “Let’s use the big building blocks” “We need to use our hammers to make sure it doesn’t fall down” We had such great fun all working together as a team to build our house, the boys decided to expand it and turn it into a castle. The boys and girls were looking around the forest floor at all the leaves and seeds that had started to fall to the ground. Everywhere we looked we found leaves that were green, yellow, orange and brown. The boys and girls began to see patterns in the shape of the leaves, then they decided that they could make their own patterns. They set to work gathering lots of different leaves and acorns and used them to make some lovely nature patterns! Today the children had fun working together to build a bridge that would get them across the “river” to safety using the building blocks. The children chose different sized blocks and discussed with one another what shapes and sizes would be best to build their bridge. This displayed brillant problem solving skills as well as working as part of a team using their creative minds. The children used their balancing skills while crossing over the bridge, this supported the development of their co ordination and gross motor skills. The children had such great fun building the bridge they then decided to change it into a train track. This week in the Discovery Playroom we have been exploring treasure! We have had great fun looking at all the different shiny containers and sorting the treasure we found! We decided to be pirates and had to share our treasure equally to make sure we all had some. The pirates decided they needed to protect their treasure, but how? With cannons of course! We used the big long pipes and bricks to build our cannons, filled them up and fired them off to protect our treasure, Aargh me hearties! The toddlers have been very busy in the nice weather making changes to our outdoor space. They are absolutely loving our new water feature wall which gives them lots of early numeracy experiences as they pour and fill whilst playing with water. We also have new storage for the children’s wellies and they are developing their coordination and independence skills by attempting to put their shoes and wellies on themselves! They are very proud when they manage to do it! They enjoyed the freedom of painting outdoors and playing in the purple sand. The children have also loved exploring othe new dinosaur kingdom. One of our toddlers was delighted to find a snail and make a little house for it from grass and leaves. We are looking forward to some more great changes coming to our toddler garden soon!!	<urn:uuid:f2c1ce59-4091-41da-a331-9df1eaf72034>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/er/cartmill/category/numeracy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00454.warc.gz	en	0.981894	753	3.40625	3	[ -0.048806168138980865, -0.03042900748550892, 0.2313358038663864, -0.20046460628509521, -0.3654939532279968, -0.05374285951256752, -0.2133118063211441, 0.030171822756528854, -0.19004669785499573, 0.14495132863521576, 0.19215330481529236, -0.26003384590148926, 0.338135302066803, 0.2345094978...	1	We have started early celebrations in the Studio for St. Andrew’s day. The children began creating a Scottish theme for our sensory tray by making Scottish flags using resources that have different textures. On our arts and crafts table the children explored the patterns of different tartans and experimented with weaving to create their own tartans. Today the toddlers thought that porridge would be a yummy snack. They helped to measure out the oats and milk and all gave it a good stir. We then watched it cook “it got very hot”. The toddlers then chopped up some banana to add into their bowls of porridge. This was a “delicious “ snack they all agreed . This afternoon the children had great fun working together in the construction area using the building blocks to build their house. They were discussing with each other which shapes and sizes of blocks would be best to build their house. The children were developing their social and communication skills using problem solving, enquiry based learning as well as working as part of a team. “Let’s use the big building blocks” “We need to use our hammers to make sure it doesn’t fall down” We had such great fun all working together as a team to build our house, the boys decided to expand it and turn it into a castle. The boys and girls were looking around the forest floor at all the leaves and seeds that had started to fall to the ground. Everywhere we looked we found leaves that were green, yellow, orange and brown. The boys and girls began to see patterns in the shape of the leaves, then they decided that they could make their own patterns. They set to work gathering lots of different leaves and acorns and used them to make some lovely nature patterns! Today the children had fun working together to build a bridge that would get them across the “river” to safety using the building blocks. The children chose different sized blocks and discussed with one another what shapes and sizes would be best to build their bridge. This displayed brillant problem solving skills as well as working as part of a team using their creative minds. The children used their balancing skills while crossing over the bridge, this supported the development of their co ordination and gross motor skills. The children had such great fun building the bridge they then decided to change it into a train track. This week in the Discovery Playroom we have been exploring treasure! We have had great fun looking at all the different shiny containers and sorting the treasure we found! We decided to be pirates and had to share our treasure equally to make sure we all had some. The pirates decided they needed to protect their treasure, but how? With cannons of course! We used the big long pipes and bricks to build our cannons, filled them up and fired them off to protect our treasure, Aargh me hearties! The toddlers have been very busy in the nice weather making changes to our outdoor space. They are absolutely loving our new water feature wall which gives them lots of early numeracy experiences as they pour and fill whilst playing with water. We also have new storage for the children’s wellies and they are developing their coordination and independence skills by attempting to put their shoes and wellies on themselves! They are very proud when they manage to do it! They enjoyed the freedom of painting outdoors and playing in the purple sand. The children have also loved exploring othe new dinosaur kingdom. One of our toddlers was delighted to find a snail and make a little house for it from grass and leaves. We are looking forward to some more great changes coming to our toddler garden soon!!	715	ENGLISH	1
David Dunbar had an uncanny ability to agitate people. He was born in Ireland to a family of little means, but in 1708 he married Mary Murough, niece of an Irish Lord who served in Parliament. Through these connections he received an appointment to be surveyor of the king’s lands and lieutenant governor of New Hampshire in 1727. Historians have little positive to say about Dunbar. In his History of New Hampshire Edwin Sanborn notes: “David Dunbar (was) an Irishmen by birth and a bankrupt colonel of the British Army. He was needy, greedy and arrogant. He possessed no qualifications that fitted him for his new position.” Upon his arrival in New Hampshire, Dunbar immediately joined the faction pushing to expand New Hampshire’s land holdings, in direct opposition to Massachusetts’ political leaders Jonathan Belcher and William Dummer. Belcher would eventually serve simultaneously as governor of both New Hampshire and Massachusetts. He was hoping to unite the colonies. New Hampshire vs. Massachusetts There were as many as six conflicting land grants that established wildly different boundaries for Massachusetts and New Hampshire. To the extent that he favored either side, Belcher sided with Massachusetts, where most of his business interests lay. The competing sides took their case to England and all agreed that the king should make the final decision. King George II surprised almost everyone by siding with New Hampshire and giving the state much more property than expected. The decision was based on his reading of the original grants and their intention. He may also have believed New Hampshire was more loyal to the Crown. Dunbar and his friends had won. He was a thorn in Belcher’s side in other ways, as well. Dunbar agitated local forest holders by aggressively enforcing laws against cutting timber that could be used as masts for ships of the British Royal Navy. He was so despised that he was attacked in Exeter, N.H. by enraged residents who disguised themselves as Indians, beat up a surveying party, sank their boat and chased them into the woods, where they hid all night. Dunbar, in letters to England, would fume that Belcher and his government forces allowed the attackers to escape unmolested. It was probably not true, though Belcher had no affection for Dunbar. New Hampshire’s Sancho Panza In his letters, Belcher mocked David Dunbar. He referred to him as St. Patrick, because of his Irish roots. And he took great pleasure in deflating the rumor that Dunbar’s wife would receive an inheritance of 2,500 pounds per year. The sum, he assured his friends, was 200 pounds. Belcher often referred to Dunbar in his letters as “Sancho,” or “Sancho Panza” – a reference to the fool in the Don Quixote stories. And indeed there was a Quixotic quality to some of Dunbar’s pursuits. Another nickname Belcher had for Dunbar was “His Pemaqui-ship,” a reference to their biggest dispute. In all the land grabbing that went on around 1730, Dunbar, who had a military colleague serving on Britain’s Board of Trade, managed to obtain permission to settle a colony in what is now Maine’s Pemaquid Region. In trying to curry favor with the king, he naturally proposed calling this new colony Georgia. And he would be its governor. David Dunbar – Governor? Dunbar wasted no time in setting up his new colony. He constructed Fort Frederick, on the foundations of old Fort William Henry at Pemaquid. Dunbar lured several hundred settlers to Pemaquid, drawing on Irish immigrants and New Englanders from elsewhere who were unsatisfied with the government. He offered land grants more generous than those available from other colonies. He even temporarily received the blessings of the Penobscot people, who welcomed him as a friend. They soon rescinded their friendship. Meanwhile, the settlers built new homes and the seeds of a new trading post with the Indians began to take root. Dunbar quickly established six additional towns in the area as well. Dummer and Belcher were furious, as were the leaders of New Brunswick. All parties – Massachusetts, New Brunswick and the Penobscots and other Indians in the area – believed Dunbar was trespassing on their land. The agents for Massachusetts raised the matter in England. The King’s Privy Council reviewed the Board of Trade’s decision. The Council and the king decided the board and Dunbar had overstepped their authority. The new colony of Georgia was officially terminated. In the aftermath, Dunbar was eventually brought back to England, where he served time in prison for unpaid debts. The fort he constructed at Pemaquid, meanwhile, would survive until 1775 when colonists destroyed it so it could not be seized and used by the British in the American Revolution. Thanks to: Homelands and Empires: Indigenous Spaces, Imperial Fictions, and Competition for Territory in Northeastern North America, 1690–1763, Jeffers Lennox. If you enjoyed this article, you might like: New Hampshire’s Pine Tree Riot of 1772.	<urn:uuid:27a2e217-933a-45b5-87bd-ce0c9d181c40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/david-dunbar-tries-to-steal-maine-from-massachusetts-in-1729/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00047.warc.gz	en	0.982472	1,093	3.875	4	[ -0.24704742431640625, 0.34654125571250916, -0.01158324908465147, -0.36980873346328735, -0.2207937091588974, -0.13911831378936768, 0.14072482287883759, -0.3411805033683777, -0.26043596863746643, -0.13212816417217255, -0.19183087348937988, -0.3275156021118164, 0.4207085967063904, 0.138385251...	4	David Dunbar had an uncanny ability to agitate people. He was born in Ireland to a family of little means, but in 1708 he married Mary Murough, niece of an Irish Lord who served in Parliament. Through these connections he received an appointment to be surveyor of the king’s lands and lieutenant governor of New Hampshire in 1727. Historians have little positive to say about Dunbar. In his History of New Hampshire Edwin Sanborn notes: “David Dunbar (was) an Irishmen by birth and a bankrupt colonel of the British Army. He was needy, greedy and arrogant. He possessed no qualifications that fitted him for his new position.” Upon his arrival in New Hampshire, Dunbar immediately joined the faction pushing to expand New Hampshire’s land holdings, in direct opposition to Massachusetts’ political leaders Jonathan Belcher and William Dummer. Belcher would eventually serve simultaneously as governor of both New Hampshire and Massachusetts. He was hoping to unite the colonies. New Hampshire vs. Massachusetts There were as many as six conflicting land grants that established wildly different boundaries for Massachusetts and New Hampshire. To the extent that he favored either side, Belcher sided with Massachusetts, where most of his business interests lay. The competing sides took their case to England and all agreed that the king should make the final decision. King George II surprised almost everyone by siding with New Hampshire and giving the state much more property than expected. The decision was based on his reading of the original grants and their intention. He may also have believed New Hampshire was more loyal to the Crown. Dunbar and his friends had won. He was a thorn in Belcher’s side in other ways, as well. Dunbar agitated local forest holders by aggressively enforcing laws against cutting timber that could be used as masts for ships of the British Royal Navy. He was so despised that he was attacked in Exeter, N.H. by enraged residents who disguised themselves as Indians, beat up a surveying party, sank their boat and chased them into the woods, where they hid all night. Dunbar, in letters to England, would fume that Belcher and his government forces allowed the attackers to escape unmolested. It was probably not true, though Belcher had no affection for Dunbar. New Hampshire’s Sancho Panza In his letters, Belcher mocked David Dunbar. He referred to him as St. Patrick, because of his Irish roots. And he took great pleasure in deflating the rumor that Dunbar’s wife would receive an inheritance of 2,500 pounds per year. The sum, he assured his friends, was 200 pounds. Belcher often referred to Dunbar in his letters as “Sancho,” or “Sancho Panza” – a reference to the fool in the Don Quixote stories. And indeed there was a Quixotic quality to some of Dunbar’s pursuits. Another nickname Belcher had for Dunbar was “His Pemaqui-ship,” a reference to their biggest dispute. In all the land grabbing that went on around 1730, Dunbar, who had a military colleague serving on Britain’s Board of Trade, managed to obtain permission to settle a colony in what is now Maine’s Pemaquid Region. In trying to curry favor with the king, he naturally proposed calling this new colony Georgia. And he would be its governor. David Dunbar – Governor? Dunbar wasted no time in setting up his new colony. He constructed Fort Frederick, on the foundations of old Fort William Henry at Pemaquid. Dunbar lured several hundred settlers to Pemaquid, drawing on Irish immigrants and New Englanders from elsewhere who were unsatisfied with the government. He offered land grants more generous than those available from other colonies. He even temporarily received the blessings of the Penobscot people, who welcomed him as a friend. They soon rescinded their friendship. Meanwhile, the settlers built new homes and the seeds of a new trading post with the Indians began to take root. Dunbar quickly established six additional towns in the area as well. Dummer and Belcher were furious, as were the leaders of New Brunswick. All parties – Massachusetts, New Brunswick and the Penobscots and other Indians in the area – believed Dunbar was trespassing on their land. The agents for Massachusetts raised the matter in England. The King’s Privy Council reviewed the Board of Trade’s decision. The Council and the king decided the board and Dunbar had overstepped their authority. The new colony of Georgia was officially terminated. In the aftermath, Dunbar was eventually brought back to England, where he served time in prison for unpaid debts. The fort he constructed at Pemaquid, meanwhile, would survive until 1775 when colonists destroyed it so it could not be seized and used by the British in the American Revolution. Thanks to: Homelands and Empires: Indigenous Spaces, Imperial Fictions, and Competition for Territory in Northeastern North America, 1690–1763, Jeffers Lennox. If you enjoyed this article, you might like: New Hampshire’s Pine Tree Riot of 1772.	1,073	ENGLISH	1
The Aztecs are an ancient culture that had many customs and rituals that by modern standards are considered barbaric. Their culture was made up of different social classes, and was primitive yet very advanced. They were located in the mainland of Mexico, and their empire was quite vast over that area. Their culture began around 1100, and ended around 1520. The exact numbers of the Aztecs is not known due to the age of their culture, but judging by the size of their empire it was quite large. The only figure I could find was that in 1519 there were more than 1,000,000 people living in the civilizations boundaries. The reason that I was drawn to this culture was some of the practices that they had. The most interesting being the human sacrifices to the gods, and the large ball game that they played that sometimes went on for days without a stop. The Aztecs lived primarily in a fertile volcanic valley of Mexico where they built their capital city named Tenochtitlan. The land in which they lived was a plateau seeing that most of the surrounding was mountainous. The soil in the settled areas was very rich and good for growing crops, due to the volcanic eruptions that occurred. The valley of Mexico was the heartland of Aztec civilization. It is a large internally drained basin surrounded by volcanic mountains that are as high as 9,000 ft in elevation. Thousands of years of soil erosion had produced deep, rich soils in the valley and a system of shallow, swampy, salt lakes in its center. This gave the Aztecs a diverse variety of foods that could be available. The salty lakes made available fish, turtles, insect larvae, blue-green algae, and salt. The food that was eaten by the Aztecs varied by social classes. The peasants lived mainly on corn and beans, except for a duck or a crow that they may have trapped in their garden. Their only domesticated animals were rabbits, dogs, and turkeys which were fattened and eaten on special occasions. Corn was the main food of The Aztecs and many foods were made fresh daily from it. Every morning the woman of the family would grind up fresh corn, and make bread for the day. The higher classed people, however, enjoyed eating turtles and crabs imported from the coast. It was odd to the Spaniards to find that one of the delicacies of the Aztecs was dog. Aztec homes also differed by social class, peasants built their huts around the edge of the city. While handymen lived nearer to the center in mud-brick houses. In each of these homes there was normally a mudbrick tub, and they all consisted of a single room. Nobles that were higher in society lived in palaces built of whitewashed stone, and with over a hundred rooms, and were built around the main plaza. Inside of all houses the rooms were almost bare, light came in from wooden torches and round the room were stored the familys possessions and objects of daily use. Even palaces had no doors but instead had cloth hung over openings, this allowed for cool air to circulate throughout the house. For the Aztecs clothing was way of showing social status, so there were very strict laws about who could wear what. An ordinary citizen wore a loincloth and cloak, which had to be made of plain undyed maguey-fiber cloth. And if they were caught wearing sandals in the palace they were put to death. Nobles wore cotton cloaks with borders of precious stones. Craftsmen were able to dye the cotton green, and other colors; they also wove geometric designs into their cloak to symbolize their status in the culture. The Aztecs loved to wear jewelry, but there were also strict laws about this. Most people pierced their ears to hold plugs of shell or polished stones. Nobles were allowed to wear gold and carved precious stones in their lower lips to show their high rank. Farmers were among the lowest in the dress, they slept in their loincloth, and in the morning he got his blanket and tied it around his shoulder and he	<urn:uuid:2a558d7c-59ea-4204-ac42-6a9b3826e3a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/the-aztecs-a-case-study/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00553.warc.gz	en	0.994109	846	3.734375	4	[ -0.06633457541465759, 0.7630540728569031, 0.5036008358001709, 0.13394445180892944, 0.002655073069036007, -0.29714110493659973, 0.11773169040679932, 0.1893267035484314, -0.37939003109931946, -0.19883500039577484, 0.0006168319378048182, -0.4238269329071045, 0.049113448709249496, 0.0025542215...	1	The Aztecs are an ancient culture that had many customs and rituals that by modern standards are considered barbaric. Their culture was made up of different social classes, and was primitive yet very advanced. They were located in the mainland of Mexico, and their empire was quite vast over that area. Their culture began around 1100, and ended around 1520. The exact numbers of the Aztecs is not known due to the age of their culture, but judging by the size of their empire it was quite large. The only figure I could find was that in 1519 there were more than 1,000,000 people living in the civilizations boundaries. The reason that I was drawn to this culture was some of the practices that they had. The most interesting being the human sacrifices to the gods, and the large ball game that they played that sometimes went on for days without a stop. The Aztecs lived primarily in a fertile volcanic valley of Mexico where they built their capital city named Tenochtitlan. The land in which they lived was a plateau seeing that most of the surrounding was mountainous. The soil in the settled areas was very rich and good for growing crops, due to the volcanic eruptions that occurred. The valley of Mexico was the heartland of Aztec civilization. It is a large internally drained basin surrounded by volcanic mountains that are as high as 9,000 ft in elevation. Thousands of years of soil erosion had produced deep, rich soils in the valley and a system of shallow, swampy, salt lakes in its center. This gave the Aztecs a diverse variety of foods that could be available. The salty lakes made available fish, turtles, insect larvae, blue-green algae, and salt. The food that was eaten by the Aztecs varied by social classes. The peasants lived mainly on corn and beans, except for a duck or a crow that they may have trapped in their garden. Their only domesticated animals were rabbits, dogs, and turkeys which were fattened and eaten on special occasions. Corn was the main food of The Aztecs and many foods were made fresh daily from it. Every morning the woman of the family would grind up fresh corn, and make bread for the day. The higher classed people, however, enjoyed eating turtles and crabs imported from the coast. It was odd to the Spaniards to find that one of the delicacies of the Aztecs was dog. Aztec homes also differed by social class, peasants built their huts around the edge of the city. While handymen lived nearer to the center in mud-brick houses. In each of these homes there was normally a mudbrick tub, and they all consisted of a single room. Nobles that were higher in society lived in palaces built of whitewashed stone, and with over a hundred rooms, and were built around the main plaza. Inside of all houses the rooms were almost bare, light came in from wooden torches and round the room were stored the familys possessions and objects of daily use. Even palaces had no doors but instead had cloth hung over openings, this allowed for cool air to circulate throughout the house. For the Aztecs clothing was way of showing social status, so there were very strict laws about who could wear what. An ordinary citizen wore a loincloth and cloak, which had to be made of plain undyed maguey-fiber cloth. And if they were caught wearing sandals in the palace they were put to death. Nobles wore cotton cloaks with borders of precious stones. Craftsmen were able to dye the cotton green, and other colors; they also wove geometric designs into their cloak to symbolize their status in the culture. The Aztecs loved to wear jewelry, but there were also strict laws about this. Most people pierced their ears to hold plugs of shell or polished stones. Nobles were allowed to wear gold and carved precious stones in their lower lips to show their high rank. Farmers were among the lowest in the dress, they slept in their loincloth, and in the morning he got his blanket and tied it around his shoulder and he	859	ENGLISH	1
1867 Maria Sklodowska was born on the 7th of November in a neighbourhood in Warsaw, Poland. She was a Polish physicist and chemist, working mainly in France, who is famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. 1876 Her sister, Sofia, died when she was 9 years old. 1878 On May, when Maria was 11, her mother died. 1833 She graduated secondary school receiving a golden medal. Because of financial problems and to support her elder sister, who was studying medicine in France, she worked for a while as a dry nurse of a rich family’s children. 1891 Because in tsarist Russia women were not allowed to attend university, she moved to Paris and studied at Sorbonne. 1893 She was licensed in Physics. 1894 She was licensed in Maths and during spring she met Pierre Curie. 1895 On the 25th of June Pierre Curie and Maria Sklodowska got married. 1897 The first daughter, Irene, was born. 1898 On July, she announced the discovery of polonium and on December the existence of radium. 1903 She started researches related to radioactivity to which her husband joined soon in order to isolate polonium and radium. For these researches they were given Nobel Award for Physics, together with Henri Becquerel. 1904 The second Maria Curie’s daughter was born, Eve. 1906 On the 13th of May the Department from Sorbonne that had been established for Pierre Curie was given to Maria Curie after her husband’s tragic death, fatally injured by a carriage; Maria Curie continued alone the researches. 1908 She was appointed tenured professor. 1910 She announced that she had succeeded to isolate radioactive radium into the air. 1911 Academy of Sciences in Stockholm gave to Maria Curie the second Nobel Award (for Chemistry) for preparation of pure radium. 1923 Maria was operated because of eyes and ears problems. 1934 After 11 years, she died due to some complications after surgery. The studied radiations destroyed important components of her blood. Her daughter, Irene, together with her husband, F. Joliot-Curie continued Maria and Pierre’s work and discovered artificial radiation for which they got Nobel Award. - Created on . - Last updated on . - Hits: 1371	<urn:uuid:3eadf511-6f8f-46f5-8d3b-7dfe2b341174>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.biography.name/physicists/66-france/98-marie-curie-1867-1934	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00233.warc.gz	en	0.986282	538	3.453125	3	[ -0.06091810762882233, 0.5925711393356323, 0.06456129252910614, 0.27887463569641113, -0.27784091234207153, -0.5066633224487305, 0.14786963164806366, 0.2957848310470581, -0.0031403382308781147, -0.20397751033306122, 0.4341208338737488, -0.4552995562553406, 0.127390518784523, 0.42367365956306...	1	1867 Maria Sklodowska was born on the 7th of November in a neighbourhood in Warsaw, Poland. She was a Polish physicist and chemist, working mainly in France, who is famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. 1876 Her sister, Sofia, died when she was 9 years old. 1878 On May, when Maria was 11, her mother died. 1833 She graduated secondary school receiving a golden medal. Because of financial problems and to support her elder sister, who was studying medicine in France, she worked for a while as a dry nurse of a rich family’s children. 1891 Because in tsarist Russia women were not allowed to attend university, she moved to Paris and studied at Sorbonne. 1893 She was licensed in Physics. 1894 She was licensed in Maths and during spring she met Pierre Curie. 1895 On the 25th of June Pierre Curie and Maria Sklodowska got married. 1897 The first daughter, Irene, was born. 1898 On July, she announced the discovery of polonium and on December the existence of radium. 1903 She started researches related to radioactivity to which her husband joined soon in order to isolate polonium and radium. For these researches they were given Nobel Award for Physics, together with Henri Becquerel. 1904 The second Maria Curie’s daughter was born, Eve. 1906 On the 13th of May the Department from Sorbonne that had been established for Pierre Curie was given to Maria Curie after her husband’s tragic death, fatally injured by a carriage; Maria Curie continued alone the researches. 1908 She was appointed tenured professor. 1910 She announced that she had succeeded to isolate radioactive radium into the air. 1911 Academy of Sciences in Stockholm gave to Maria Curie the second Nobel Award (for Chemistry) for preparation of pure radium. 1923 Maria was operated because of eyes and ears problems. 1934 After 11 years, she died due to some complications after surgery. The studied radiations destroyed important components of her blood. Her daughter, Irene, together with her husband, F. Joliot-Curie continued Maria and Pierre’s work and discovered artificial radiation for which they got Nobel Award. - Created on . - Last updated on . - Hits: 1371	553	ENGLISH	1
The Connecticut Colony or Colony of Connecticut, originally known as the Connecticut River Colony or simply the River Colony, was an English colony in New England which became the state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3, 1636 as a settlement for a Puritan congregation, and the English permanently gained control of the region in 1637 after struggles with the Dutch. The colony was later the scene of a bloody war between the colonists and Pequot Indians known as the Pequot War. Connecticut Colony played a significant role in the establishment of self-government in the New World with its refusal to surrender local authority to the Dominion of New England, an event known as the Charter Oak incident which occurred at Jeremy Adams' inn and tavern. © rock-cafe.info 2018-2020	<urn:uuid:8baa7692-bda7-4c6d-ae3f-59844f2279a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://rock-cafe.info/suggest/colonial-connecticut-seaports-636f6c6f6e69616c.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00139.warc.gz	en	0.982902	157	3.890625	4	[ 0.24133023619651794, 0.11629623174667358, 0.5213989019393921, -0.4193022847175598, -0.4877459704875946, 0.33845606446266174, 0.22637735307216644, 0.3313884735107422, -0.201543390750885, -0.18457573652267456, 0.04076032713055611, -0.5294440984725952, -0.33208128809928894, 0.0259455479681491...	1	The Connecticut Colony or Colony of Connecticut, originally known as the Connecticut River Colony or simply the River Colony, was an English colony in New England which became the state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3, 1636 as a settlement for a Puritan congregation, and the English permanently gained control of the region in 1637 after struggles with the Dutch. The colony was later the scene of a bloody war between the colonists and Pequot Indians known as the Pequot War. Connecticut Colony played a significant role in the establishment of self-government in the New World with its refusal to surrender local authority to the Dominion of New England, an event known as the Charter Oak incident which occurred at Jeremy Adams' inn and tavern. © rock-cafe.info 2018-2020	166	ENGLISH	1
Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, there was a time in history, when a brand new style of entertainment swept the nation. It changed the very way that Americans would perform in theaters, while illustrating the creativity of people with an eagerness to entertain. The The development of vaudeville theater had a significant impact on America by providing people of all ages with a new source of entertainment, a new type of music/ theater experience, and symbolized the cultural diversity of early 20th century America. There really was no need for vaudeville theater, but it was still beneficial to Americans in multiple ways. For the performers, also known as vaudevillians, it was a way to express their creativity and talents with the rest of America. They would travel virtually everywhere and anywhere to entertain others, from small towns to the big New York cities. Not only that, but this was how vaudevillians made their living. It was their way of life, and the things they did would greatly impact not just their success, but their profit In addition, for the average American, it was a very new and interesting form of entertainment. As vaudeville developed over time, the performers and the audience became much more diverse. In 1881, a man named Tony Pastor created a form of vaudeville that allowed families, including women and children, to enjoy the large variety of acts. Low ticket prices also helped define the audience for vaudeville. Tickets usually topped out between $1 and 75￠, compared to seats to a broadway hit which went for as much as $2. There was no doubt that a vaudevillians life was often strenuous. In A History of the Musical Vaudeville by John Kenrick, he says “Appearing in vaudeville was no vacation. A successful act toured for forty or more weeks a year, doing ‘one nighters,’ split-weeks or weekly stands depending on a theatre’s size.” There was always a constant demand for new acts, and performances. People put up with the insistent schedules, because even those who were less experienced or skillful,...	<urn:uuid:96e10e45-79dc-4810-b1a8-e2f17ebf33dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-annals-of-vaudeville-theater	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00388.warc.gz	en	0.98448	454	3.296875	3	[ 0.19878298044204712, 0.019384171813726425, 0.47384774684906006, -0.07381405681371689, -0.16350780427455902, 0.5486571192741394, -0.06395518034696579, 0.11671841144561768, -0.03277603164315224, -0.2088014930486679, 0.28444135189056396, 0.7448734641075134, 0.34960851073265076, -0.18764922022...	1	Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, there was a time in history, when a brand new style of entertainment swept the nation. It changed the very way that Americans would perform in theaters, while illustrating the creativity of people with an eagerness to entertain. The The development of vaudeville theater had a significant impact on America by providing people of all ages with a new source of entertainment, a new type of music/ theater experience, and symbolized the cultural diversity of early 20th century America. There really was no need for vaudeville theater, but it was still beneficial to Americans in multiple ways. For the performers, also known as vaudevillians, it was a way to express their creativity and talents with the rest of America. They would travel virtually everywhere and anywhere to entertain others, from small towns to the big New York cities. Not only that, but this was how vaudevillians made their living. It was their way of life, and the things they did would greatly impact not just their success, but their profit In addition, for the average American, it was a very new and interesting form of entertainment. As vaudeville developed over time, the performers and the audience became much more diverse. In 1881, a man named Tony Pastor created a form of vaudeville that allowed families, including women and children, to enjoy the large variety of acts. Low ticket prices also helped define the audience for vaudeville. Tickets usually topped out between $1 and 75￠, compared to seats to a broadway hit which went for as much as $2. There was no doubt that a vaudevillians life was often strenuous. In A History of the Musical Vaudeville by John Kenrick, he says “Appearing in vaudeville was no vacation. A successful act toured for forty or more weeks a year, doing ‘one nighters,’ split-weeks or weekly stands depending on a theatre’s size.” There was always a constant demand for new acts, and performances. People put up with the insistent schedules, because even those who were less experienced or skillful,...	437	ENGLISH	1
Born in about 1844 near the Humboldt Sink, Sarah Winnemucca was the granddaughter of Captain Truckee, a Paiute leader who served as a scout for John C. Fremont (and namesake of the Truckee River). Her father was Chief Winnemucca, after whom the town of Winnemucca was named. Sarah Winnemucca was unique among 19th century Native Americans in that she had attended school. For a time, she lived with a white family in Stockton, California, and was fluent in English, Spanish, and three Indian dialects. After returning to Nevada, she became involved in a dispute with a local Indian agent, who was cheating Indians. This was the start of a lifelong crusade to improve how Indians were treated. In 1878, Winnemucca lived in Southern Oregon and was alerted to the local Bannock tribe’s plans to attack several settlements. Fearing her tribe would be drawn into the fight, she rode 233 miles to her father to urge him and other Paiutes not to get involved. While the Paiutes did not join in the Bannock war, the government sent many to a reservation in Yakima, Washington. After a visit, Winnemucca was so disturbed by the conditions that she embarked on a series of lectures to draw attention to her people’s plight. In 1883, with the help of sympathetic friends, she published, “Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims.” it is believed to be the first book ever written by a Native American. For the rest of her life, she continued to speak out about injustices against Native Americans. She died in 1891. A statue of Sarha Winnemucca can be seen at the Rotunda in Washington, DC with its twin featured in the Nevada State Capital Building.	<urn:uuid:09753aaa-a98f-40cf-9fe7-7ec7b94d436e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://visitcarsoncity.com/nevadas-historic-capital/nevada-history/historic-figures/sarah-winnemucca/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00254.warc.gz	en	0.986376	386	3.359375	3	[ 0.23741976916790009, 0.47390830516815186, 0.4983988106250763, -0.19772079586982727, -0.48010963201522827, -0.39920949935913086, 0.008028557524085045, 0.2072061449289322, -0.3878341615200043, 0.1616460233926773, 0.028700215741991997, -0.5121574997901917, -0.1745375543832779, 0.0472865663468...	8	Born in about 1844 near the Humboldt Sink, Sarah Winnemucca was the granddaughter of Captain Truckee, a Paiute leader who served as a scout for John C. Fremont (and namesake of the Truckee River). Her father was Chief Winnemucca, after whom the town of Winnemucca was named. Sarah Winnemucca was unique among 19th century Native Americans in that she had attended school. For a time, she lived with a white family in Stockton, California, and was fluent in English, Spanish, and three Indian dialects. After returning to Nevada, she became involved in a dispute with a local Indian agent, who was cheating Indians. This was the start of a lifelong crusade to improve how Indians were treated. In 1878, Winnemucca lived in Southern Oregon and was alerted to the local Bannock tribe’s plans to attack several settlements. Fearing her tribe would be drawn into the fight, she rode 233 miles to her father to urge him and other Paiutes not to get involved. While the Paiutes did not join in the Bannock war, the government sent many to a reservation in Yakima, Washington. After a visit, Winnemucca was so disturbed by the conditions that she embarked on a series of lectures to draw attention to her people’s plight. In 1883, with the help of sympathetic friends, she published, “Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims.” it is believed to be the first book ever written by a Native American. For the rest of her life, she continued to speak out about injustices against Native Americans. She died in 1891. A statue of Sarha Winnemucca can be seen at the Rotunda in Washington, DC with its twin featured in the Nevada State Capital Building.	390	ENGLISH	1
For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the slave woman and the other by the freeborn woman. The son of the slave woman was born naturally, the son of the freeborn through a promise. Now this is an allegory. These women represent two covenants. One was from Mount Sinai, bearing children for slavery; this is Hagar. Hagar represents Sinai, a mountain in Arabia; it corresponds to the present Jerusalem, for she is in slavery along with her children. But the Jerusalem above is freeborn, and she is our mother. For it is written: "Rejoice, you barren one who bore no children; break forth and shout, you who were not in labor; for more numerous are the children of the deserted one than of her who has a husband." Now you, brothers, like Isaac, are children of the promise. But just as then the child of the flesh persecuted the child of the spirit, it is the same now. But what does the scripture say? "Drive out the slave woman and her son! For the son of the slave woman shall not share the inheritance with the son" of the freeborn. Therefore, brothers, we are children not of the slave woman but of the freeborn woman. After this, Jesus went across the Sea of Galilee (of Tiberias). A large crowd followed him, because they saw the signs he was performing on the sick. Jesus went up on the mountain, and there he sat down with his disciples. The Jewish feast of Passover was near. When Jesus raised his eyes and saw that a large crowd was coming to him, he said to Philip, "Where can we buy enough food for them to eat?" He said this to test him, because he himself knew what he was going to do. Philip answered him, "Two hundred days' wages worth of food would not be enough for each of them to have a little (bit)." One of his disciples, Andrew, the brother of Simon Peter, said to him, "There is a boy here who has five barley loaves and two fish; but what good are these for so many?" Jesus said, "Have the people recline." Now there was a great deal of grass in that place. So the men reclined, about five thousand in number. Then Jesus took the loaves, gave thanks, and distributed them to those who were reclining, and also as much of the fish as they wanted. When they had had their fill, he said to his disciples, "Gather the fragments left over, so that nothing will be wasted." So they collected them, and filled twelve wicker baskets with fragments from the five barley loaves that had been more than they could eat. When the people saw the sign he had done, they said, "This is truly the Prophet, the one who is to come into the world." Since Jesus knew that they were going to come and carry him off to make him king, he withdrew again to the mountain alone.	<urn:uuid:c8882ae7-845c-4e4a-8b16-b27a4ba3af70>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alledaags.gelovenleren.net/lectionarium?title=Fourth+Sunday+of+Lent&subtitle=Sunday%2C+March+14%2C+2021&language=en&Epistle=Gal+4%3A22-31&Gospel=John+6%3A1-15	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00256.warc.gz	en	0.99109	614	3.640625	4	[ -0.1891554743051529, 0.5436022877693176, -0.3062332272529602, 0.07577601820230484, -0.6071165204048157, -0.12453044950962067, -0.12401585280895233, 0.006821377668529749, 0.03368358686566353, 0.05445254594087601, 0.11732335388660431, -0.327484667301178, -0.2023923397064209, -0.1630627810955...	1	For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the slave woman and the other by the freeborn woman. The son of the slave woman was born naturally, the son of the freeborn through a promise. Now this is an allegory. These women represent two covenants. One was from Mount Sinai, bearing children for slavery; this is Hagar. Hagar represents Sinai, a mountain in Arabia; it corresponds to the present Jerusalem, for she is in slavery along with her children. But the Jerusalem above is freeborn, and she is our mother. For it is written: "Rejoice, you barren one who bore no children; break forth and shout, you who were not in labor; for more numerous are the children of the deserted one than of her who has a husband." Now you, brothers, like Isaac, are children of the promise. But just as then the child of the flesh persecuted the child of the spirit, it is the same now. But what does the scripture say? "Drive out the slave woman and her son! For the son of the slave woman shall not share the inheritance with the son" of the freeborn. Therefore, brothers, we are children not of the slave woman but of the freeborn woman. After this, Jesus went across the Sea of Galilee (of Tiberias). A large crowd followed him, because they saw the signs he was performing on the sick. Jesus went up on the mountain, and there he sat down with his disciples. The Jewish feast of Passover was near. When Jesus raised his eyes and saw that a large crowd was coming to him, he said to Philip, "Where can we buy enough food for them to eat?" He said this to test him, because he himself knew what he was going to do. Philip answered him, "Two hundred days' wages worth of food would not be enough for each of them to have a little (bit)." One of his disciples, Andrew, the brother of Simon Peter, said to him, "There is a boy here who has five barley loaves and two fish; but what good are these for so many?" Jesus said, "Have the people recline." Now there was a great deal of grass in that place. So the men reclined, about five thousand in number. Then Jesus took the loaves, gave thanks, and distributed them to those who were reclining, and also as much of the fish as they wanted. When they had had their fill, he said to his disciples, "Gather the fragments left over, so that nothing will be wasted." So they collected them, and filled twelve wicker baskets with fragments from the five barley loaves that had been more than they could eat. When the people saw the sign he had done, they said, "This is truly the Prophet, the one who is to come into the world." Since Jesus knew that they were going to come and carry him off to make him king, he withdrew again to the mountain alone.	615	ENGLISH	1
We all know how Abraham Lincoln died in 1865, but what about the way he lived during the final years of his life? Just maybe the 16th president suffered from a rare genetic disorder called multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B. Dr. John Sotos–author of ‘The Physical Lincoln‘ and a consultant on the TV series ‘House‘–would like to run DNA analysis of the president’s blood. He believes Lincoln was already dying, before the assassination, from cancer. Why such speculation? According to Sotos, Lincoln expressed the classic profile for this rare genetic syndrome which includes long limbs, bumps on the lips, and constipation. During the final year of his presidency, we also know that Lincoln lost a lot of weight and complained of being tired constantly. Sotos suggests that if the president had the disorder, “cancer would inevitably exist” given his age. Further, the three of his sons who died young also had bumpy lips, while Robert–who lived to 82–did not. Over at CNN.com: “He probably knew something was horribly wrong. If Lincoln was dying, certainly he recognized it because he was a smart and observant man … but [because of the military implications] he would not have told a soul.” Interesting theory, but unfortunately, it that won’t be tested anytime soon. Just this week, the board of the Grand Army of the Republic Museum and Library denied Sotos’ request for a 3/8″ x 5″ inch fragment of blood-stained threads from the pillow on Lincoln’s deathbed for fear it would damage the historic relic. Hence, we have to wait on conclusive evidence. Yet it raise some intriguing questions. Sotos points out Lincoln’s attitude toward the South was quite forgiving. If the president was indeed suffering from cancer and knew he didn’t have much time, might that have influenced how he conducted his presidency during the war? What do readers make of the possibility?	<urn:uuid:a48b2e81-2112-4295-ac83-8563b5105526>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-mystery-of-lincolns-last-days	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00028.warc.gz	en	0.98265	418	3.28125	3	[ -0.31845828890800476, 0.5733418464660645, 0.17434963583946228, 0.19954465329647064, -0.005688076373189688, 0.37799009680747986, 0.44237443804740906, 0.18781428039073944, -0.16179515421390533, -0.27617377042770386, 0.02506483532488346, 0.021322863176465034, -0.08224848657846451, 0.702052116...	10	We all know how Abraham Lincoln died in 1865, but what about the way he lived during the final years of his life? Just maybe the 16th president suffered from a rare genetic disorder called multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B. Dr. John Sotos–author of ‘The Physical Lincoln‘ and a consultant on the TV series ‘House‘–would like to run DNA analysis of the president’s blood. He believes Lincoln was already dying, before the assassination, from cancer. Why such speculation? According to Sotos, Lincoln expressed the classic profile for this rare genetic syndrome which includes long limbs, bumps on the lips, and constipation. During the final year of his presidency, we also know that Lincoln lost a lot of weight and complained of being tired constantly. Sotos suggests that if the president had the disorder, “cancer would inevitably exist” given his age. Further, the three of his sons who died young also had bumpy lips, while Robert–who lived to 82–did not. Over at CNN.com: “He probably knew something was horribly wrong. If Lincoln was dying, certainly he recognized it because he was a smart and observant man … but [because of the military implications] he would not have told a soul.” Interesting theory, but unfortunately, it that won’t be tested anytime soon. Just this week, the board of the Grand Army of the Republic Museum and Library denied Sotos’ request for a 3/8″ x 5″ inch fragment of blood-stained threads from the pillow on Lincoln’s deathbed for fear it would damage the historic relic. Hence, we have to wait on conclusive evidence. Yet it raise some intriguing questions. Sotos points out Lincoln’s attitude toward the South was quite forgiving. If the president was indeed suffering from cancer and knew he didn’t have much time, might that have influenced how he conducted his presidency during the war? What do readers make of the possibility?	403	ENGLISH	1
The beginnings of political equality were dim. America was just beginning to set up a political system when ideas of equality began to arise. Questions concerning citizenship, rights, and civil liberties made plans for the American political system seem overwhelmingly complicated. The idea of political equality itself was “a theory of very limited scope — a foundation rather than a structure. Different convictions as to the obligations of government were buried in it from the beginning, and no clear original intent could be extracted.” (Pole 45) But the founders of this country were sure that America would be a nation composed of values and equal rights. There was some debate over the idea of how the states were to be represented. Interestingly enough, the idea of equality, on a political scale, was only implied by the Constitution, rather than outwardly stated. “The principle of equality of political individuals, which translates into that of one man, one vote — and ultimately into one person, one vote — in approximately equal electoral divisions, was implicit in the Constitution of the United States, rather than being expressly declared by it.” (Pole 47) One vote per person: this created some controversy, but was later accepted as the most equal method of voting. During the creation of the Constitution, there were many disputes and disagreements regarding various methods for creating equality among American citizens, but overall, “the Federal Constitution did more than any other instrument to define political equality as a fundamental principle of American government.” (Pole 50) The structure of the Constitution was perhaps as meaningful to the ideal of equality than the words themselves. “The political thought surrounding the Constitution converged on this principle; nothing in the text led in any other direction. In this sense the Constitution may be said to have contained provisions pertained more explicitly to the expression of these implicit values.” (Pole 63) The use of language, clauses, and any other implications the document might entail, make the Constitution itself a symbol of equality. The words decree it, but the document stands for it. The question about different types of equality came about in South Carolina when a committee joined to discuss this matter. They thought that “equal rights would rightly produce unequal results,” which could be represented by a comparison of the lower and upper classes. “Equality, its members declared, was the natural condition of man, the basis of his moral excellence and political happiness,” not the amount of money one had. (Pole 154) This group reasoned that the upper-class would be given more rights and advantages because of their social status… that political equality did not coincide with equality of opportunity. They thought that because the upper-class had more money, therefore they had more political weight. And, likewise, the lower-class would not have as much pull on the American political system. “It was an argument that would have profound resonance in the very different context of American Reconstruction, when equality of political rights for the freedmen (together with equality before the law) became, for a time, the key to all others.” (Pole 155) Another event that helped shape equality in America?s political system began with a land crash in 1819. This event devastated many people?s hopes for ever owning any significant amount of property in life. American economics were in an uproar, yet people did not question the foundations of the country… on which they could very well have blamed the entire incident. Americans just hoped for the best as the economy gradually recovered. The effects of this event were outstanding. Workers organized into political sects and rallied not to let this unfortunate occurrence happen in the future. They made laws protecting themselves and their families and used the American political system to maintain what little they had left in the aftermath of this disaster. Political equality has been part of America ever since the founders of this country created the Constitution. It has come a long way since the 18th century, and probably still has a long way to go. America has achieved political equality, however, there are some aspects of that idea that can be improved upon, and yet others that will remain a constant reminder of this country?s aim to be equal in every sense of the word.	<urn:uuid:91647b73-1df7-4325-b6b2-6b1da5aff2d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/Political_Equality	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00036.warc.gz	en	0.982033	859	4.6875	5	[ -0.5508872270584106, 0.07357774674892426, -0.27525830268859863, -0.3507329225540161, -0.6635134220123291, 0.7405614852905273, 0.17434263229370117, 0.046679869294166565, 0.15766941010951996, 0.09020205587148666, 0.011435912922024727, 0.28310972452163696, 0.28064703941345215, 0.2173065096139...	2	The beginnings of political equality were dim. America was just beginning to set up a political system when ideas of equality began to arise. Questions concerning citizenship, rights, and civil liberties made plans for the American political system seem overwhelmingly complicated. The idea of political equality itself was “a theory of very limited scope — a foundation rather than a structure. Different convictions as to the obligations of government were buried in it from the beginning, and no clear original intent could be extracted.” (Pole 45) But the founders of this country were sure that America would be a nation composed of values and equal rights. There was some debate over the idea of how the states were to be represented. Interestingly enough, the idea of equality, on a political scale, was only implied by the Constitution, rather than outwardly stated. “The principle of equality of political individuals, which translates into that of one man, one vote — and ultimately into one person, one vote — in approximately equal electoral divisions, was implicit in the Constitution of the United States, rather than being expressly declared by it.” (Pole 47) One vote per person: this created some controversy, but was later accepted as the most equal method of voting. During the creation of the Constitution, there were many disputes and disagreements regarding various methods for creating equality among American citizens, but overall, “the Federal Constitution did more than any other instrument to define political equality as a fundamental principle of American government.” (Pole 50) The structure of the Constitution was perhaps as meaningful to the ideal of equality than the words themselves. “The political thought surrounding the Constitution converged on this principle; nothing in the text led in any other direction. In this sense the Constitution may be said to have contained provisions pertained more explicitly to the expression of these implicit values.” (Pole 63) The use of language, clauses, and any other implications the document might entail, make the Constitution itself a symbol of equality. The words decree it, but the document stands for it. The question about different types of equality came about in South Carolina when a committee joined to discuss this matter. They thought that “equal rights would rightly produce unequal results,” which could be represented by a comparison of the lower and upper classes. “Equality, its members declared, was the natural condition of man, the basis of his moral excellence and political happiness,” not the amount of money one had. (Pole 154) This group reasoned that the upper-class would be given more rights and advantages because of their social status… that political equality did not coincide with equality of opportunity. They thought that because the upper-class had more money, therefore they had more political weight. And, likewise, the lower-class would not have as much pull on the American political system. “It was an argument that would have profound resonance in the very different context of American Reconstruction, when equality of political rights for the freedmen (together with equality before the law) became, for a time, the key to all others.” (Pole 155) Another event that helped shape equality in America?s political system began with a land crash in 1819. This event devastated many people?s hopes for ever owning any significant amount of property in life. American economics were in an uproar, yet people did not question the foundations of the country… on which they could very well have blamed the entire incident. Americans just hoped for the best as the economy gradually recovered. The effects of this event were outstanding. Workers organized into political sects and rallied not to let this unfortunate occurrence happen in the future. They made laws protecting themselves and their families and used the American political system to maintain what little they had left in the aftermath of this disaster. Political equality has been part of America ever since the founders of this country created the Constitution. It has come a long way since the 18th century, and probably still has a long way to go. America has achieved political equality, however, there are some aspects of that idea that can be improved upon, and yet others that will remain a constant reminder of this country?s aim to be equal in every sense of the word.	847	ENGLISH	1
Wireless communication. It’s a mainstay of our modern world. Without it, you wouldn’t be reading this right now, in fact, the vast majority of things we do on a daily basis rely on the innovations of Guglielmo Marconi and his forward thinking concepts of instantaneous communication. Born in Bologna, Italy in 1874 to a family of nobility. As a child, he did not attend formal school, rather, his parents hired a great many private tutors to educate him at home. From an early age, Marconi had a major interest in science, specifically electricity. Marconi would later note that one of his tutors in particular, a man named Vincenzo Rosa, truly fostered his love of electricity by exposing him to new “radical” ideas about electricity and magnetism that were beginning to be explored at this time. By 1894, Guglielmo Marconi, now a fully grown adult, was fully enthralled with Rudolf Hertz’s discovery of “invisible waves” emanating from certain electromagnetic interactions. Soon, Marconi would construct his very own equipment to generate these “invisible waves”. Working out of his father’s country estate, Marconi threw himself into his work, spending many years tinkering with transmitters and other radio devices. His most ambitious contraption was a radio transmitter that would send a signal to a bell which would then ring upon the pushing of a “telegraphic button”. After his success with short range transmissions, Marconi sought to expand the scope of his experiments. In 1895, he would have his first breakthrough. As he experimented with different types of antennas, he found that increasing their height allowed for signals to be sent over much greater distances. Following his success in the laboratory, Marconi desired to further his research. He began soliciting funds from the Italian government, unfortunately, they were unable to fund his discoveries. Unfazed, Marconi would take his experiments to the United Kingdom, hoping to find more support for his ideas in a more industrialized nation. Almost immediately, Marconi would find multiple sponsors for his experiments, even including the British Post Office. Beginning shortly after his arrival in England he held mass demonstrations of his new technology. He’d begin his new wave of experimentation by sending a signal a distance of 6 kilometers and soon after was able to increase the range to 16 kilometers. All of this success was not enough for Marconi, though. Before long, he began investigating the plausibility of sending a radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean. Marconi set up a transmission station at the aptly named Marconi House in Rosslare Strand, County Wexford, Ireland. The signal was to be received at another aptly named location, Signal Hill in St. Johns, Newfoundland. Marconi’s message was heralded as a massive feat of humanity during his time. He opened the door for radically fast communication, helping to link nations together in a new, globalized era. Marconi still had much more he wanted to accomplish in the field of communication. He’d go on to refine his radio transmission equipment greatly, giving him the ability to send messages between places as far apart as England and Australia. In 1909, Marconi was awarded the Nobel prize in Physics. Additionally, he was made a senator in Italy and a Knight in the United Kingdom. Following his honors, Marconi would go on to found a radio operating company, one which would lend its resources to the rescue of those few survivors on board the Titanic. Guglielmo Marconi was truly an innovator. His invaluable contributions to wireless communication helped usher in the fast-paced world we live in today. Such rudimentary beginnings of bells and waves may be far from the minds of modern texters and tweeters, but messages that only take an an instant are, in a way, nearly two centuries in the making.	<urn:uuid:886930e7-4626-4f1c-9b01-fe28ffe1dbcd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paword.org/2019/12/17/marconis-message/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00305.warc.gz	en	0.981439	821	3.53125	4	[ -0.22180286049842834, 0.27490508556365967, 0.15403583645820618, -0.09053957462310791, -0.40510299801826477, -0.2816258668899536, -0.016443215310573578, 0.40746450424194336, 0.054780274629592896, 0.01671431213617325, -0.05829213559627533, -0.19475628435611725, 0.1370803266763687, 0.20856778...	9	Wireless communication. It’s a mainstay of our modern world. Without it, you wouldn’t be reading this right now, in fact, the vast majority of things we do on a daily basis rely on the innovations of Guglielmo Marconi and his forward thinking concepts of instantaneous communication. Born in Bologna, Italy in 1874 to a family of nobility. As a child, he did not attend formal school, rather, his parents hired a great many private tutors to educate him at home. From an early age, Marconi had a major interest in science, specifically electricity. Marconi would later note that one of his tutors in particular, a man named Vincenzo Rosa, truly fostered his love of electricity by exposing him to new “radical” ideas about electricity and magnetism that were beginning to be explored at this time. By 1894, Guglielmo Marconi, now a fully grown adult, was fully enthralled with Rudolf Hertz’s discovery of “invisible waves” emanating from certain electromagnetic interactions. Soon, Marconi would construct his very own equipment to generate these “invisible waves”. Working out of his father’s country estate, Marconi threw himself into his work, spending many years tinkering with transmitters and other radio devices. His most ambitious contraption was a radio transmitter that would send a signal to a bell which would then ring upon the pushing of a “telegraphic button”. After his success with short range transmissions, Marconi sought to expand the scope of his experiments. In 1895, he would have his first breakthrough. As he experimented with different types of antennas, he found that increasing their height allowed for signals to be sent over much greater distances. Following his success in the laboratory, Marconi desired to further his research. He began soliciting funds from the Italian government, unfortunately, they were unable to fund his discoveries. Unfazed, Marconi would take his experiments to the United Kingdom, hoping to find more support for his ideas in a more industrialized nation. Almost immediately, Marconi would find multiple sponsors for his experiments, even including the British Post Office. Beginning shortly after his arrival in England he held mass demonstrations of his new technology. He’d begin his new wave of experimentation by sending a signal a distance of 6 kilometers and soon after was able to increase the range to 16 kilometers. All of this success was not enough for Marconi, though. Before long, he began investigating the plausibility of sending a radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean. Marconi set up a transmission station at the aptly named Marconi House in Rosslare Strand, County Wexford, Ireland. The signal was to be received at another aptly named location, Signal Hill in St. Johns, Newfoundland. Marconi’s message was heralded as a massive feat of humanity during his time. He opened the door for radically fast communication, helping to link nations together in a new, globalized era. Marconi still had much more he wanted to accomplish in the field of communication. He’d go on to refine his radio transmission equipment greatly, giving him the ability to send messages between places as far apart as England and Australia. In 1909, Marconi was awarded the Nobel prize in Physics. Additionally, he was made a senator in Italy and a Knight in the United Kingdom. Following his honors, Marconi would go on to found a radio operating company, one which would lend its resources to the rescue of those few survivors on board the Titanic. Guglielmo Marconi was truly an innovator. His invaluable contributions to wireless communication helped usher in the fast-paced world we live in today. Such rudimentary beginnings of bells and waves may be far from the minds of modern texters and tweeters, but messages that only take an an instant are, in a way, nearly two centuries in the making.	805	ENGLISH	1
April 1, 1776 - June 27, 1831 Sophie Germain was born in an era of revolution. In the year of her birth, the American Revolution began. Thirteen years later the French Revolution began in her own country. In many ways Sophie embodied the spirit of revolution into which she was born. She was a middle class female who went against the wishes of her family and the social prejudices of the time to become a highly recognized mathematician. Like the member of a revolution, her life was full of perseverance and hard work. It took a long time for her to be recognized and appreciated for her contributions to the field of mathematics, but she did not give up. Even today, it is felt that she was never given as much credit as she was due for the contributions she made in number theory and mathematical physics because she was a woman. Sophie Germain was born in Paris on April 1, 1776 to Ambroise-Francois and Marie Germain. Her family was quite wealthy. Her father was a merchant and later became a director of the Bank of France. Sophie's interest in mathematics began during the French Revolution when she was 13 years old and confined to her home due to the danger caused by revolts in Paris. She spent a great deal of time in her father's library, and one day she ran across a book in which the legend of Archimedes' death was recounted. Legend has it that "during the invasion of his city by the Romans Archimedes was so engrossed in the study of a geometric figure in the sand that he failed to respond to the questioning of a Roman soldier. As a result he was speared to death" (Perl 64). This sparked Sophie's interest. If someone could be so engrossed in a problem as to ignore a soldier and then die for it, the subject must be interesting! Thus she began her study of mathematics. Sophie began teaching herself mathematics using the books in her father's library. Her parents felt that her interest was inappropriate for a female (the common belief of the middle-class in the 19th century) and did all that they could to discourage her. She began studying at night to escape them, but they went to such measures as taking away her clothes once she was in bed and depriving her of heat and light to make her stay in her bed at night instead of studying. Sophie's parents' efforts failed. She would wrap herself in quilts and use candles she had hidden in order to study at night. Finally her parents realized that Sophie's passion for mathematics was "incurable," and they let her learn. Thus Sophie "spent the years of the Reign of Terror studying differential calculus" (Osen 85) without the aid of a tutor! In 1794, when Sophie was 18, the Ecole Polytechnique was founded in Paris. It was an academy founded to "train mathematicians and scientists for the country" (Perl 64). Women were not allowed to enroll in the academy, but Sophie was able to obtain the lecture notes for several of the courses and study from them. This gave her the opportunity to learn from many of the prominent mathematicians of the day. Sophie was particularly interested in the teachings of J. L. Lagrange. Under the pseudonym of M. LeBlanc ( a former student of Lagrange's), Sophie submitted a paper on analysis to Lagrange at the end of the term. He was quite impressed with the work and wanted to meet the student who had written it. Lagrange was amazed that the author of the work was actually a female, but he recognized her abilities and became her mentor. With a male to introduce her, Sophie could enter the circle of scientists and mathematicians that she never before could. Up until this point not only had her gender been a hindrance to her, but her social status had been too. It was socially acceptable for aristocratic women to be taught the sciences and mathematics so that they could talk about it casually with friends. Sophie was of the middle class so this opportunity had passed her by. In 1804, Sophie began corresponding with the German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss. She was intrigued with his work in number theory and sent him some of the results of her work in number theory. Again she used her pseudonym to disguise her true identity. It was not until 1807 that he found out who M. LeBlanc truly was. He was thrilled to find that his "pen pal" was a very gifted woman. In 1808 Germain sent Gauss a letter describing some of her work in number theory. Sophie never heard from him about her last correspondence because he had stopped his work in number theory after taking a job as professor of astronomy at the University of Gottingen. About 12 years later, however, she wrote to the mathematician Legendre about what would be her most important work in number theory. "Germain proved that if x, y, and z are integers and if x5 + y5 = z5 then either x, y, or z must be divisible by 5. Germain's theorem is a major step toward proving Fermat's last theorem for the case where n equals 5" (Dalmedico 119). Fermat's last theorem says that if x, y, z, and n are integers then xn + yn = zn cannot be solved for any n greater than 2. Gauss had guided Sophie's research, so now she began to search for a new mentor. At about this time the French Academy of Sciences announced a contest to explain the "underlying mathematical law" of a German physicist's study on the vibration of elastic surfaces. Sophie was fascinated and set out to explain the law underlying Chladni's study. The Academy set a two year deadline, and in 1811 Sophie submitted the only entry in the contest. Her lack of formal education was evident in the anonymous paper she submitted, and thus she was not awarded the prize. She still had much to learn in the area. Lagrange was able to correct her errors and two years later she again entered the contest which had been extended. She received honorable mention this time. Finally in 1816, she entered the contest for the third time and won with her paper Memoir on the Vibrations of Elastic Plates. Upon earning the prize, the judges did relate that there were some serious shortcomings in her explanation. These shortcomings would not be corrected for decades. After winning the contest, Sophie continued her work on the theory of elasticity publishing several more memoirs. The most important of these deals with the "nature, bounds, and extent of elastic surfaces" (Osen 90). Her work in the theory of elasticity would prove to be very important to the field. The prize from the Academy, however, was of immediate importance because it introduced her into the ranks of the prominent mathematicians of the time. She became the first woman who was not a wife of a member to attend the Academy of Sciences' sessions with the help of Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier. She was praised by the Institut de France and was invited to attend their sessions. This was "the highest honor that this famous body ever conferred on a woman" (Osen 90). Sophie worked with a well-known male mathematician in the 1820s as an "equal collaborator" (Dalmedico 122) to refine her proofs and work in number theory. Sophie Germain died at the age of 55, on June 27, 1831, after a battle with breast cancer. Shortly before this Gauss, one of her earliest mentors, had convinced the University of Gottingen to give Sophie an honorary degree. She died before she could receive it. Sophie Germain was a revolutionary. She battled against the social prejudices of the era and a lack of formal training in order to become a celebrated mathematician. She is best known for her work in number theory, but her work in the theory of elasticity is also very important to mathematics. April 1995, revised July 1997 and July 2001. Sophie Germain has been honored in several ways since her death in 1831. The street Rue Sophie Germain in Paris has been named in her honor and a statue of her now stands in the courtyard of the Ecole Sophie Germain, also in Paris. The house at 13 rue de Savoie in which she died has been designated as a historical landmark. The Sophie Germain Hotel is located at 12 Rue Sophie Germain. Click here to see a map of the location of Rue Sophie Germain and a view of the street.	<urn:uuid:bcbe3f6c-ce2b-4528-9a0f-71fccdc5f525>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.agnesscott.edu/Lriddle/women/germain.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00133.warc.gz	en	0.99	1,772	3.53125	4	[ -0.1275591403245926, -0.007002878934144974, 0.23144638538360596, -0.42270320653915405, -0.2977524995803833, 0.020013775676488876, -0.2126380354166031, 0.5154551267623901, -0.10857457667589188, -0.10687988996505737, -0.02653294801712036, -0.4730261266231537, -0.1267966330051422, 0.147312551...	6	April 1, 1776 - June 27, 1831 Sophie Germain was born in an era of revolution. In the year of her birth, the American Revolution began. Thirteen years later the French Revolution began in her own country. In many ways Sophie embodied the spirit of revolution into which she was born. She was a middle class female who went against the wishes of her family and the social prejudices of the time to become a highly recognized mathematician. Like the member of a revolution, her life was full of perseverance and hard work. It took a long time for her to be recognized and appreciated for her contributions to the field of mathematics, but she did not give up. Even today, it is felt that she was never given as much credit as she was due for the contributions she made in number theory and mathematical physics because she was a woman. Sophie Germain was born in Paris on April 1, 1776 to Ambroise-Francois and Marie Germain. Her family was quite wealthy. Her father was a merchant and later became a director of the Bank of France. Sophie's interest in mathematics began during the French Revolution when she was 13 years old and confined to her home due to the danger caused by revolts in Paris. She spent a great deal of time in her father's library, and one day she ran across a book in which the legend of Archimedes' death was recounted. Legend has it that "during the invasion of his city by the Romans Archimedes was so engrossed in the study of a geometric figure in the sand that he failed to respond to the questioning of a Roman soldier. As a result he was speared to death" (Perl 64). This sparked Sophie's interest. If someone could be so engrossed in a problem as to ignore a soldier and then die for it, the subject must be interesting! Thus she began her study of mathematics. Sophie began teaching herself mathematics using the books in her father's library. Her parents felt that her interest was inappropriate for a female (the common belief of the middle-class in the 19th century) and did all that they could to discourage her. She began studying at night to escape them, but they went to such measures as taking away her clothes once she was in bed and depriving her of heat and light to make her stay in her bed at night instead of studying. Sophie's parents' efforts failed. She would wrap herself in quilts and use candles she had hidden in order to study at night. Finally her parents realized that Sophie's passion for mathematics was "incurable," and they let her learn. Thus Sophie "spent the years of the Reign of Terror studying differential calculus" (Osen 85) without the aid of a tutor! In 1794, when Sophie was 18, the Ecole Polytechnique was founded in Paris. It was an academy founded to "train mathematicians and scientists for the country" (Perl 64). Women were not allowed to enroll in the academy, but Sophie was able to obtain the lecture notes for several of the courses and study from them. This gave her the opportunity to learn from many of the prominent mathematicians of the day. Sophie was particularly interested in the teachings of J. L. Lagrange. Under the pseudonym of M. LeBlanc ( a former student of Lagrange's), Sophie submitted a paper on analysis to Lagrange at the end of the term. He was quite impressed with the work and wanted to meet the student who had written it. Lagrange was amazed that the author of the work was actually a female, but he recognized her abilities and became her mentor. With a male to introduce her, Sophie could enter the circle of scientists and mathematicians that she never before could. Up until this point not only had her gender been a hindrance to her, but her social status had been too. It was socially acceptable for aristocratic women to be taught the sciences and mathematics so that they could talk about it casually with friends. Sophie was of the middle class so this opportunity had passed her by. In 1804, Sophie began corresponding with the German mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss. She was intrigued with his work in number theory and sent him some of the results of her work in number theory. Again she used her pseudonym to disguise her true identity. It was not until 1807 that he found out who M. LeBlanc truly was. He was thrilled to find that his "pen pal" was a very gifted woman. In 1808 Germain sent Gauss a letter describing some of her work in number theory. Sophie never heard from him about her last correspondence because he had stopped his work in number theory after taking a job as professor of astronomy at the University of Gottingen. About 12 years later, however, she wrote to the mathematician Legendre about what would be her most important work in number theory. "Germain proved that if x, y, and z are integers and if x5 + y5 = z5 then either x, y, or z must be divisible by 5. Germain's theorem is a major step toward proving Fermat's last theorem for the case where n equals 5" (Dalmedico 119). Fermat's last theorem says that if x, y, z, and n are integers then xn + yn = zn cannot be solved for any n greater than 2. Gauss had guided Sophie's research, so now she began to search for a new mentor. At about this time the French Academy of Sciences announced a contest to explain the "underlying mathematical law" of a German physicist's study on the vibration of elastic surfaces. Sophie was fascinated and set out to explain the law underlying Chladni's study. The Academy set a two year deadline, and in 1811 Sophie submitted the only entry in the contest. Her lack of formal education was evident in the anonymous paper she submitted, and thus she was not awarded the prize. She still had much to learn in the area. Lagrange was able to correct her errors and two years later she again entered the contest which had been extended. She received honorable mention this time. Finally in 1816, she entered the contest for the third time and won with her paper Memoir on the Vibrations of Elastic Plates. Upon earning the prize, the judges did relate that there were some serious shortcomings in her explanation. These shortcomings would not be corrected for decades. After winning the contest, Sophie continued her work on the theory of elasticity publishing several more memoirs. The most important of these deals with the "nature, bounds, and extent of elastic surfaces" (Osen 90). Her work in the theory of elasticity would prove to be very important to the field. The prize from the Academy, however, was of immediate importance because it introduced her into the ranks of the prominent mathematicians of the time. She became the first woman who was not a wife of a member to attend the Academy of Sciences' sessions with the help of Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier. She was praised by the Institut de France and was invited to attend their sessions. This was "the highest honor that this famous body ever conferred on a woman" (Osen 90). Sophie worked with a well-known male mathematician in the 1820s as an "equal collaborator" (Dalmedico 122) to refine her proofs and work in number theory. Sophie Germain died at the age of 55, on June 27, 1831, after a battle with breast cancer. Shortly before this Gauss, one of her earliest mentors, had convinced the University of Gottingen to give Sophie an honorary degree. She died before she could receive it. Sophie Germain was a revolutionary. She battled against the social prejudices of the era and a lack of formal training in order to become a celebrated mathematician. She is best known for her work in number theory, but her work in the theory of elasticity is also very important to mathematics. April 1995, revised July 1997 and July 2001. Sophie Germain has been honored in several ways since her death in 1831. The street Rue Sophie Germain in Paris has been named in her honor and a statue of her now stands in the courtyard of the Ecole Sophie Germain, also in Paris. The house at 13 rue de Savoie in which she died has been designated as a historical landmark. The Sophie Germain Hotel is located at 12 Rue Sophie Germain. Click here to see a map of the location of Rue Sophie Germain and a view of the street.	1,827	ENGLISH	1
Old Samoa or Flotsam and Jetsam from the Pacific Ocean Chapter IV — The Political Life of Samoa The Political Life of Samoa The Samoan islands are divided into districts, which are subdivided into settlements, and these again into villages. The great divisions or districts are quite independent of each other, their boundaries being well known, and the care of them committed to the two nearest villages on either side, the inhabitants of which were called Leoleo-tuaoi, or boundary-keepers. Formerly a feeling of irritation constantly existed between such villages, and, as in other lands, border feuds were frequent. The boundaries of the different settlements were well defined, and each place zealously defended its rights. The lands of each settlement were again subdivided and owned by individual proprietors; but if the ownership of these various claimants by any means became obscure and difficult to substantiate, the boundaries of the villages were well known and respected; thus to the very mountain-tops the land had its owners. In the event of the inhabitants of one village trespassing upon the lands of another village to cut down any of the few kinds of timber considered page 84valuable, resistance was offered, even by force of arms if necessary. The local affairs of each settlement were under their immediate control, and were discussed and decided upon in a public assembly composed of the leading men of each village or district. More weighty matters, such as declaring war or making peace, the appointment and installation of chiefs, or indeed any matters of general importance to the whole district, were deliberated upon in a general fono, or parliament of the whole district, composed of representatives of all the different settle-ments and villages of the district. Each district had a leading settlement called its Laumua. It was the province of the Laumua to convene the fono, or general assembly of its respective districts, to announce the object for which it had been summoned, to preside over its deliberations, to arrange disputed or knotty points, as well as to sum up the proceedings and dismiss the assembly; in fact, to sustain the office of chairman. These meetings were usually conducted with much formality and decorum, the general fono of the district being always held in the open air, in the great malae of the leading settlement, or Laumua. The malae, or marae, as it is sometimes called, is a large open space reserved for public assemblies, around which the representatives sit in little groups, each group having its proper position assigned to it, and also the precedence it took in addressing the meeting, which arrangement was scrupulously adhered to. The speakers might be either chiefs, Tulafale, or Faleupolu; the former occasion-ally addressing a fono, but usually the class called Tulafale were the principal speakers. Each chief had page 85generally a Tulafale, who acted as his mouthpiece; and each settlement had its Tulafale sili, who was the leading orator of the district. The deliberations of these councils were often un-necessarily and tediously lengthened by a foolish custom, which was always observed, to which the speakers adhered with much pertinacity. There were always a certain number of heads of families in a settlement who alone were permitted to address an assembly in the malae; sometimes there were nine, as at Leulumoenga, or seven, as at Fasito`otai, whence the former place was spoken of as the Faleiva (nine houses), and the latter the Falefitu (seven houses). Much stress was always laid upon the privilege of addressing a public assembly, therefore when the time came for a particular settle-ment to address the meeting, the whole of the speakers stood up and contended amongst themselves for the honour of speaking on that day. Sometimes, and especially if the subject was important, the palm was quickly yielded to the speaker generally acknowledged to be the most effective, but on ordinary occasions they contended long for the honour. A quarter of an hour or twenty minutes was a very common time for a speech. They managed to speak in rotation, and although they might not be able to exercise the privilege very often, they all liked to assert their right to speak, and to exhibit their to'oto'o-launga, or orator's staff. When all but one sat down, he commenced his address by carefully going over the titles of the various districts and great divisions of the islands, each having a distinctive complimentary title by which it was always known and spoken of, quite apart from those conferred upon the page 86different chiefs; and the omission of any title of a district at the enumeration of names of districts at a public meeting was looked upon as an insult, the long time occupied in this complimentary recitation being further lengthened' by the speaker deliberately prefixing an apologetic preface to each name of place or chief. As the orator proceeded, his party sat around him and acted as prompters, refreshing his memory, giving him topics on which to touch, or recalling him when going astray. It was often very amusing to notice how quietly the orator took all this interruption, and how coolly but dexterously a speaker would retreat from a position or statement he found was obnoxious to his party. Sometimes, if he became wearisome, his com-panions would tell him to sit down and hold his tongue—advice which at times might well be given and acted upon in more civilized assemblies. Many of the speakers were eloquent, and when the subject was an exciting one I have sat for hours listening with pleasure to their addresses. Their style of speaking was often figurative, and as their addresses frequently contained allusions to their old traditions and past national history that were highly interesting and instructive in their mode of speaking, such occasions afforded good opportunities for hearing the Samoan language to advantage. These public assemblies, whether general or district, took place in the open air, and always commenced in the cool of the morning. In the early dawn the families of the speakers were astir, and a young man from each took the family orator's staff, and proceeded to the nofoā fono, or seat of the family orator, in page 87the malae, where, driving the staff upright into the turf, he sat down beside it and waited the arrival of the orator represented by the staff. At sunrise the meeting was usually assembled and business commenced. In A'ana the nine speakers of Leulumoenga were privileged to sit on seats or three-legged stools, which were placed at a little distance in front of their party, whilst the rest of the assembly, high and low, sat cross-legged upon the turf. I do not know if this privilege of sitting at such gatherings was common to all Laumua, but even at Leulumoenga it was only asserted upon special occasions. A speaker was seldom interrupted in his address, and all were heard patiently, however unpalatable their addresses might be. Sometimes, however, a speaker from another party presented himself to correct a mis-statement, or oppose the position taken up by the party addressing the assembly, when a great deal of wrangling took place between the speakers. As a rule, each little group of speakers had a few trees to shelter them, which was very needful, since their meetings were continued throughout the day, in spite of a burning sun; but a heavy shower of rain caused the assembly to be abruptly concluded or else adjourned. The villages within the radius of a few miles from the place at which the fono was held provided a quantity of food, which was taken by the parties providing it to the head of their family, if in attendance at the fono, who directed its distribution, first supplying visitors from a distance. Bowls of ava were also brought and distributed in like manner. Business proceeded whilst the refreshments were handed round; but this was generally page 88arranged so as to be at the time when the representative of some unimportant district had the attention of the meeting, the address on such occasions becoming jocose, and at times even ludicrous, when the speaker recognized it useless to attempt gaining a hearing by any other style of address. It was customary for each speaker, as well as others, attending a fono to carry baskets of plaited cocoanut-leaves containing cocoanut-fibre for plaiting cinet, in which employment they busily occupied themselves during the whole proceedings, laying it aside as they rose to speak, and resuming it again immediately on sitting down. The general fono, or parliament of a district, was at times convened by the Laumua at the suggestion of one or more settlements; at other times, in consequence of intercourse it might have had with other Laumua. On summoning the various districts the messengers usually gave information of what was to form the principal topic of discussion, and each district deliberated upon it beforehand, and came prepared accordingly; but it sometimes happened that, in case the leading Laumua was apprehensive of not being able to carry its point, its principal men passed from place to place in a body, and discussed the matter separately with each district, prior to the general fono; a custom having somewhat the same effect as the modern caucus. In all the principal divisions of the islands there were some settlements, in addition to the leading district, which possessed greater influence than others. In A'ana, the division with which I was most familiar, there were two important settlements that had to be consulted page 89in addition to Leulumoenga, viz. Fasito'otai and Fasi-to'outa. These had the privilege of following the opening speech, and their decision was often final, the other places adopting pretty much the tenor of their addresses; but this was not always the case. So great was the influence of these places, that it required the presence of the representative of one or the other of them to render valid the proceedings of the assembly, so that in case both absented themselves from the meeting, the fono dispersed without entering upon business. The topics discussed at these meetings varied greatly, from matters affecting the wellbeing of the whole community, to those of trifling import. Intercourse between the natives and Europeans of late years has greatly perplexed and distressed them. With native matters they were familiar, but they are sorely puzzled with European complications. There was also, even in the past, a great want of co-operation amongst the several districts, as well as of power to enforce their decisions, which often caused their attempts at legislation to fail. Official intercourse between the settlements or districts convening meetings, with other matters of business, were always conducted by means of specially appointed messengers, each settlement having a different name for its messengers. The duty of summoning warlike meetings, carrying messages as to a projected attack, or means of conducting defence, was generally if not always confided to one settlement, whose messengers were entrusted with the discharge of these duties. In A'ana this duty devolved upon Nofoali'i.page 90 The deference shown in the general fono was great. As these meetings were always held in the open air, the public footpath frequently passed through the malae, where they were held, so that the continual passing and repassing of persons would have occasioned much annoyance, were it not that by universal custom the road passing through the malae was always closed when a fono was sitting. In consequence of this well-understood rule, all persons or travelling parties of whatever rank left the pathway at some distance before reaching the place of meeting, and taking a wide circuit, so as to avoid the assembly, hurried past, as though feeling themselves on forbidden ground. So universally observed was this custom, that the omission of it by a party passing through the assembly was considered as an insult, and looked upon as a soli or trampling upon the company assembled, and through them, upon the entire district. Formerly, in such a case many armed men would have rushed upon the intruders with clubs and spears, and made them pay dearly for their rashness. Although less particular than formerly, even at the time I left the islands such an intrusion would have met with strong disapprobation; and in some places chastisement would have been added. I have sometimes seen a foreigner who was either not aware of the custom, or chose to disregard it, pass through an assembly, and have heard murmurs of disapprobation from many; whilst others apologized for him, and attributed his offence to want of politeness or ignorance. In their heathen state foreigners equally with natives would have been punished, and perhaps slain for such an intrusion. The usual attention to page 91etiquette on such occasions was shown when a message had to be sent from one party to another during the sitting, when the messenger sent always passed behind any intervening group. In the judicial proceedings of the fono, the punishments may be classed under two heads, O le Sala, and O le Tuā; the former consisting of the destruction of houses, live stock, and plantations, with, at times, the seizure of personal property and banishment; the latter consisting of personal punishment. The severe punishment of O le Sala was usually inflicted by the whole available force of the district awarding it. Sometimes it was tamely submitted to, but at other times resistance was offered, if the culprits felt themselves strong enough to do so, when desperate encounters followed; and these at times gave rise to general wars. The Sala was also at times inflicted by one family upon another, if the aggrieved party was strong enough. This, although irregular, was connived at by the leading members of the community; but if the punishment was considered excessive, they would then interfere. One great evil attending this mode of punishment was, that at times the whole family, or even district, suffered for the offence of one of its members, so that not only did all suffer from the loss of property, but, when, as was sometimes the case, banishment, fa'ateva, was added to destruction of property and dwellings, many suffered from the punishment. Upon a fono deciding upon this punishment, it was usual to carry it into effect immediately. In that case, the leading men of the settlement, rising from the page 92place of meeting, proceeded towards the residence of the obnoxious family, attended by their followers, where they quickly seated themselves upon the ground in full view of the family they had decided to banish. The latter often heard of the sentence in sufficient time to enable them to remove their mats and other household property to a place of safety; but the live stock generally fell into the hands of the expelling party, who reserved them to feast upon after the work of the day. Formality was still the order of proceeding, and the anxious family had yet a little time to make preparations for their departure, as one of the judicial party rose to make a speech, or fai fetalainga, for the benefit of the head of the doomed family, in which he informed him of the decision of the fonot and that they had come to enforce it. On the conclusion of this speech one of the judicial party rose up and commenced to ring the breadfruit-trees, so as to destroy the part above the injured bark, leaving the stump alive, and uninjured, from which in a short time young shoots sprang up, bearing fruit after two or three seasons. The commencement of this work of destruction was either the signal for resistance to be offered, or for the family to gather up their belongings, and remove from the dwelling with sad hearts, to commence their solitary journey as outcasts on the road, whilst their house was set on fire and destroyed. Whilst these proceedings were going on, if no resistance was offered, the old men sat around the spot, quietly plaiting their cinet, and chatting together apparently quite unconcerned, and waiting for, the page 93return of the young men who had been dispatched to plunder the taro-patches, or else, watching with interest the chasing and killing the pigs around, ready For the feast which was soon to be prepared. On the whole of the provisions being collected, they were cooked and eaten by the expelling party, who then returned to their homes. It was a sad sight to witness this driving a family from their homes, and sending them out to wander on until they reached a spot where some friend would give them land on which to build a home. Sometimes the sentence was to go forthwith and destroy the breadfruit-trees, without expelling the family or burning their homes. The length of time the banished party remained absent from their village varied much. Their term of banishment was never specified, nor the place to which they were to go made known unless on very particular occasions. It was generally considered sufficient to know that the expelled party were on the road; and they might take shelter wherever they liked, beyond the limits of the village or settlement from whence they had been expelled. Sometimes they were specially warned to remove to a distance. Should the expelled party be influential, it sometimes happened that, having acknowledged the power of their settlement by submitting quietly to punishment, some friend would suggest to his companions that, their authority having been asserted and acknowledged, it would be desirable to recall the banished party, so as not to lose strength. Should this suggestion prove agreeable, those who had previously page 94decreed the banishment went in a body to the place where the refugees were to be found, and made a conciliatory speech, telling them to fa'a molemole (make smooth your hearts), and return to their settlement. This generally healed the breach, but sometimes it took more to smooth the ruffled hearts; and the banished parties remained absent for years, or permanently located themselves in another settlement, which they found no difficulty in doing, from the extent of their family connexions. It occasionally happened, however, that the term of banishment was very lengthened, especially when the sentence had been pronounced in a full fono, and where the offence had been great. One such case came under my notice. A powerful A'ana chief had committed adultery with the wife of a Manono chief, in consequence of which he had been banished to Savaii. Manono remained quiet as long as he absented himself and respected their prohibition of not returning to A'ana, a violation of which would have occasioned war. A'ana was a conquered district, but this chief had powerful family connexions on Savaii, who belonged to the Malo, or victorious party, to whom he went and lived under their protection for several years. Although afraid to return, openly to A'ana, I was assured that he paid frequent night visits there, to consult with his friends and partisans. At length, after many unavailing attempts had been made by his friends on Savaii to induce Manono to consent to his returning to A'ana, his friends on Savaii called a meeting, at which it was determined to muster a large armed party and take him back to his home in face of the page 95prohibition. They called at Manono on their way, and informed the principal men of that island of their resolve; and the Manono people, seeing that they were determined as to their course, thought it prudent to cease their opposition, and forgive the. offence. The Savaii party then quietly accompanied the chief to A'ana, and reinstated him in his former position. After his reproach had been removed, he preferred returning with his friends to Savaii, where he continued to reside. The other class of punishment, noticed under the head of O le Tuā, was personal, and, like the former, was inflicted immediately sentence had been pronounced, in the presence of the whole assembly. This punishment was awarded for the following offences: theft, insulting travelling parties, preparing pitfalls, and taking the comb out of a married woman's head. Amongst these punishments may be noticed the fa'afoa, which consisted of compelling the delinquent to inflict severe wounds and bruises upon himself, by beating his head and chest with a large stone; until the blood flowed freely. If there appeared any disposition on the part of the culprit to inflict merely slight wounds, the chiefs assembled immediately ordered him to strike harder; which command was further speedily enforced by the prompt and unsparing use of a war club, if necessary. O le-ū-tevi, or causing to bite the tevi, a poisonous and acrid root, was a common and very painful punishment. On biting the root the mouth swelled greatly, and the sufferer experienced intense agony for a considerable time afterwards. Catching poisonous spined fish in the hand after they had thrown them in the air was another severe personal page 96punishment, commonly inflicted at fonos. This fish was covered with sharp-pointed spines, and the punishment consisted in making the culprit throw it into the air, and then catch it in his naked hand as it fell. Whenever a spine entered the hand, it caused great agony and suffering. O le fa'a-lā-ina, or exposure to the sun, was another punishment commonly inflicted for theft. The culprit's hands and feet were tied together, and a pole passed through them, when he was carried to a public place, and placed in the broiling sun, to be exposed to the intense heat for many hours together. On other occasions the offender's feet were tied together, and he was then hoisted up to the top of a tall cocoanut-tree, and suspended head downwards, for many hours together. These five punishments have now mostly if not entirely become obsolete, and fines of pigs, property, &c., have taken their places. In cases of murder or adultery, the common mode of making compensation to the injured party or their relatives was by the Ifonga, or bowing down, accompanied with a totongi, or payment of a fine. In case the offending party thought it prudent to tender this satisfaction, he collected some valuable mats, in number and quality according to the nature of the offence, and with his friends prepared to make his submission. When it was thought necessary to appear very humble, the parties took pieces of firewood, stones, and leaves with them, to, signify that they put themselves entirely into the power of the aggrieved party, who might kill, cook, and eat them, if they thought proper. On nearing their place of destination, which they usually managed to reach page 97before or by daybreak, the culprit wrapped some valuable mats around his body, and with the rest of his party proceeded to the place where they intended to make their submission. If the offended party was a chief, they proceeded at once to his residence, where, prostrating themselves before his house, they awaited in silence his decision. The position assumed on such occasions was that of bowing on their hands and knees, or sitting cross-legged, with the head placed between the knees. Immediately on their arrival becoming known, the chief was informed of it, and this was the critical time for the anxious party outside the dwelling. The ifonga, however, was usually deferred until it had been ascertained that the angry feelings first felt had in some measure subsided; but it occasionally happened that the injured party were unable to control their passions on seeing their enemy prostrate before them; in which case they rushed out spear and club in hand to inflict, summary chastisement upon the humbled company. Some of the latter, who were on the look-out for such a contingency, narrowly watched the movements of the party within, the house, and were ready to give prompt notice of any meditated onslaught, so that the, whole ifonga were ready to take flight on, the first notice of an onslaught, either to the bush, or else to their canoes. Severe wounds were often given in such cases, and sometimes even lives, were sacrificed, where the look-out had been carelessly performed, or the onslaught was unusually fierce. Generally speaking, the ifonga or submitting party were well received, and a messenger dispatched to invite page 98them to rise and enter the dwelling to fai fetalainga, or hold a consultation. The payment of property was then tendered, accompanied with an apology on behalf of the transgressor by one of his companions. The chief and his friends replied, and sometimes vented their displeasure upon their visitors in no very measured terms. To this wordy chastisement the ifonga replied with all due submission, took their leave and retired, heartily glad to escape with their lives, or indeed with whole heads and limbs. On one occasion an A'ana chief of high rank, named Tui-one-ula, had a quarrel with a Manono chief when they met at sea fishing within the reef off Mulinu'u; words led to blows, ending in a fight in which the Manono chief was killed. They were alone, and fought with their paddles, but Tui-one-ula being the more powerful of the two, killed his opponent. It would seem to have been a chance blow, and unpremeditated, at the most amounting to manslaughter, but a general cry for vengeance arose on the part of the deceased chieftain's relatives, who considered Tui-one-ula a murderer, and demanded his punishment. Preparations for war were therefore quickly made by Manono and her allies, to lay waste his district. The offender also prepared for resistance. He retired to his inland fortress, summoned his allies, and seemed determined to defend himself, so that war seemed inevitable. Many meetings of the district were held to discuss the matter and try to avert the conflict. As a last resource, a large and influential meeting of chiefs and leading men from many places around was convened at Fasito'otai, a settlement in A'ana some few miles page 99distant from where the conflict seemed likely to be. This meeting was largely attended, and the matter long and earnestly discussed, with the result that late in the afternoon a decision was arrived at that a large deputation should at once proceed to interview Tuione-ula, and try to get him to ifo, and tender a fine in expiation of his offence. At the same time I was asked to form part of the deputation and back up their pleading. It was late when we started, and by the time we reached the beach where the road branched off into the forest track that led to the fortress it was quite dark, so that torches had to be kindled to light the track. The olo, or fortress, was on the mountain side several miles inland, and thus occupied a commanding position, overlooking the track from start to finish. We knew this quite well, as also that the bush on either side swarmed with armed scouts, who would closely watch our travelling party, which was a large one. This was quickly recognized by a portly Manono chief and native teacher, who had been asked to head the company, but whose heart very soon failed him, so that he begged to be allowed to relinquish the leadership and go to the rear, as he feared a pulufana (musket-ball) would soon be sent through him if he led the advance. His request was granted amidst much laughing and jeering at his bravery, Sikioni, or Moepou, a fine young A'ana chief, taking his place. We then started through the forest, the winding track being lit up with the many torches carried by the company. After an hour's walk or so we neared the fortress, and very soon met signs of watchfulness and page 100defence. As we moved on our way we were challenged, and had to explain our presence; but the outposts were soon passed, and at length we drew near to the entrance of the fortress itself, where our business was more formally inquired into. We sent in our request for a personal interview with the chief, stating our object in thus seeking the interview. As a matter of fact, he had long been duly informed of our approach, as also of the object of our visit, so that very soon the messenger returned with a request that a certain number of chiefs and tulafale, mentioned by name, and myself would wait upon him. We were thereupon led through the passage leading to the olo, and soon reached the inner chamber, where we found the chief. We were all well known to him, and friendly, so that we soon entered upon business and explained our message. At first we were met with what seemed to amount to an almost curt refusal. Why should he run the risk of almost certain death, and not be able to defend himself? Better stand the chances of war and die fighting, if it came to that. After some discussion we could see that he wavered, and at length he promised to consider the matter, and let us know his decision in the morning. We were satisfied, and took our leave, glad to get clear of the evidences of turmoil and confusion visible on every hand, yet thankful for what seemed to be a favourable result to our mission. In the morning we were informed that the chief would make his ifonga on a certain day, which he did, and tendered his fine in expiation of his offence. With the exception of a threatened assault by a young man, a relative of the deceased chieftain, but which was presented by some page 101of his own friends, Tui-one-ula was well received, and the threatened war happily averted. In cases of adultery, especially amongst the lower ranks, payment only was taken to the injured party; but if this was not accepted, and the offence unexpiated, the injured party and his friends watched for an opportunity to wreak their vengeance upon the offender, or the first person belonging to his settlement they could catch. The ifonga is also the usual mode adopted by a conquered people on submitting to their conquerors. On such occasions there was often much bloodshed, but the poor wanderers were driven to this extremity by being hunted and half starved in the woods. It was also used occasionally by parties who were desirous of securing help from their more powerful neighbours after a defeat. Sometimes other punishments were inflicted, as O le ta-o-le-isu (tattooing the nose), also O le tipi o le talinga (splitting the ear), both of which marks of degradation were at times inflicted for certain offences. In the only case of deliberate execution for a crime (murder) that occurred during my residence on Samoa the victim was bound to a tree, the rope being fastened around the legs and then wound slowly but tightly upwards, the wretched criminal meanwhile shrieking fearfully, and beseeching his executioners to kill him with an axe, or otherwise put an end to his misery. This execution took place in Atua, and was the result of a long and anxious native trial, and much discussion as to the mode of execution that should be adopted. The one chosen was decided upon as being more in page 102unison with native custom than hanging. The culprit's name was Toi, and his crime a most revolting family murder, in which he sacrificed five or six lives. For a very long time he evaded capture, being sheltered in the mountains, but was at length hunted down and executed.page 103 page 104	<urn:uuid:b067c672-c67e-4d6a-849a-d174b33f99d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-StaOldS-t1-body-d4.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00261.warc.gz	en	0.988938	6,530	3.3125	3	[ 0.018112657591700554, 0.009364207275211811, 0.4777738153934479, -0.24808621406555176, 0.028218459337949753, 0.08679899573326111, 0.04002371057868004, -0.04533321410417557, -0.3009929358959198, 0.2872523367404938, 0.19098132848739624, -0.6765217185020447, 0.5023058652877808, 0.6754621863365...	4	Old Samoa or Flotsam and Jetsam from the Pacific Ocean Chapter IV — The Political Life of Samoa The Political Life of Samoa The Samoan islands are divided into districts, which are subdivided into settlements, and these again into villages. The great divisions or districts are quite independent of each other, their boundaries being well known, and the care of them committed to the two nearest villages on either side, the inhabitants of which were called Leoleo-tuaoi, or boundary-keepers. Formerly a feeling of irritation constantly existed between such villages, and, as in other lands, border feuds were frequent. The boundaries of the different settlements were well defined, and each place zealously defended its rights. The lands of each settlement were again subdivided and owned by individual proprietors; but if the ownership of these various claimants by any means became obscure and difficult to substantiate, the boundaries of the villages were well known and respected; thus to the very mountain-tops the land had its owners. In the event of the inhabitants of one village trespassing upon the lands of another village to cut down any of the few kinds of timber considered page 84valuable, resistance was offered, even by force of arms if necessary. The local affairs of each settlement were under their immediate control, and were discussed and decided upon in a public assembly composed of the leading men of each village or district. More weighty matters, such as declaring war or making peace, the appointment and installation of chiefs, or indeed any matters of general importance to the whole district, were deliberated upon in a general fono, or parliament of the whole district, composed of representatives of all the different settle-ments and villages of the district. Each district had a leading settlement called its Laumua. It was the province of the Laumua to convene the fono, or general assembly of its respective districts, to announce the object for which it had been summoned, to preside over its deliberations, to arrange disputed or knotty points, as well as to sum up the proceedings and dismiss the assembly; in fact, to sustain the office of chairman. These meetings were usually conducted with much formality and decorum, the general fono of the district being always held in the open air, in the great malae of the leading settlement, or Laumua. The malae, or marae, as it is sometimes called, is a large open space reserved for public assemblies, around which the representatives sit in little groups, each group having its proper position assigned to it, and also the precedence it took in addressing the meeting, which arrangement was scrupulously adhered to. The speakers might be either chiefs, Tulafale, or Faleupolu; the former occasion-ally addressing a fono, but usually the class called Tulafale were the principal speakers. Each chief had page 85generally a Tulafale, who acted as his mouthpiece; and each settlement had its Tulafale sili, who was the leading orator of the district. The deliberations of these councils were often un-necessarily and tediously lengthened by a foolish custom, which was always observed, to which the speakers adhered with much pertinacity. There were always a certain number of heads of families in a settlement who alone were permitted to address an assembly in the malae; sometimes there were nine, as at Leulumoenga, or seven, as at Fasito`otai, whence the former place was spoken of as the Faleiva (nine houses), and the latter the Falefitu (seven houses). Much stress was always laid upon the privilege of addressing a public assembly, therefore when the time came for a particular settle-ment to address the meeting, the whole of the speakers stood up and contended amongst themselves for the honour of speaking on that day. Sometimes, and especially if the subject was important, the palm was quickly yielded to the speaker generally acknowledged to be the most effective, but on ordinary occasions they contended long for the honour. A quarter of an hour or twenty minutes was a very common time for a speech. They managed to speak in rotation, and although they might not be able to exercise the privilege very often, they all liked to assert their right to speak, and to exhibit their to'oto'o-launga, or orator's staff. When all but one sat down, he commenced his address by carefully going over the titles of the various districts and great divisions of the islands, each having a distinctive complimentary title by which it was always known and spoken of, quite apart from those conferred upon the page 86different chiefs; and the omission of any title of a district at the enumeration of names of districts at a public meeting was looked upon as an insult, the long time occupied in this complimentary recitation being further lengthened' by the speaker deliberately prefixing an apologetic preface to each name of place or chief. As the orator proceeded, his party sat around him and acted as prompters, refreshing his memory, giving him topics on which to touch, or recalling him when going astray. It was often very amusing to notice how quietly the orator took all this interruption, and how coolly but dexterously a speaker would retreat from a position or statement he found was obnoxious to his party. Sometimes, if he became wearisome, his com-panions would tell him to sit down and hold his tongue—advice which at times might well be given and acted upon in more civilized assemblies. Many of the speakers were eloquent, and when the subject was an exciting one I have sat for hours listening with pleasure to their addresses. Their style of speaking was often figurative, and as their addresses frequently contained allusions to their old traditions and past national history that were highly interesting and instructive in their mode of speaking, such occasions afforded good opportunities for hearing the Samoan language to advantage. These public assemblies, whether general or district, took place in the open air, and always commenced in the cool of the morning. In the early dawn the families of the speakers were astir, and a young man from each took the family orator's staff, and proceeded to the nofoā fono, or seat of the family orator, in page 87the malae, where, driving the staff upright into the turf, he sat down beside it and waited the arrival of the orator represented by the staff. At sunrise the meeting was usually assembled and business commenced. In A'ana the nine speakers of Leulumoenga were privileged to sit on seats or three-legged stools, which were placed at a little distance in front of their party, whilst the rest of the assembly, high and low, sat cross-legged upon the turf. I do not know if this privilege of sitting at such gatherings was common to all Laumua, but even at Leulumoenga it was only asserted upon special occasions. A speaker was seldom interrupted in his address, and all were heard patiently, however unpalatable their addresses might be. Sometimes, however, a speaker from another party presented himself to correct a mis-statement, or oppose the position taken up by the party addressing the assembly, when a great deal of wrangling took place between the speakers. As a rule, each little group of speakers had a few trees to shelter them, which was very needful, since their meetings were continued throughout the day, in spite of a burning sun; but a heavy shower of rain caused the assembly to be abruptly concluded or else adjourned. The villages within the radius of a few miles from the place at which the fono was held provided a quantity of food, which was taken by the parties providing it to the head of their family, if in attendance at the fono, who directed its distribution, first supplying visitors from a distance. Bowls of ava were also brought and distributed in like manner. Business proceeded whilst the refreshments were handed round; but this was generally page 88arranged so as to be at the time when the representative of some unimportant district had the attention of the meeting, the address on such occasions becoming jocose, and at times even ludicrous, when the speaker recognized it useless to attempt gaining a hearing by any other style of address. It was customary for each speaker, as well as others, attending a fono to carry baskets of plaited cocoanut-leaves containing cocoanut-fibre for plaiting cinet, in which employment they busily occupied themselves during the whole proceedings, laying it aside as they rose to speak, and resuming it again immediately on sitting down. The general fono, or parliament of a district, was at times convened by the Laumua at the suggestion of one or more settlements; at other times, in consequence of intercourse it might have had with other Laumua. On summoning the various districts the messengers usually gave information of what was to form the principal topic of discussion, and each district deliberated upon it beforehand, and came prepared accordingly; but it sometimes happened that, in case the leading Laumua was apprehensive of not being able to carry its point, its principal men passed from place to place in a body, and discussed the matter separately with each district, prior to the general fono; a custom having somewhat the same effect as the modern caucus. In all the principal divisions of the islands there were some settlements, in addition to the leading district, which possessed greater influence than others. In A'ana, the division with which I was most familiar, there were two important settlements that had to be consulted page 89in addition to Leulumoenga, viz. Fasito'otai and Fasi-to'outa. These had the privilege of following the opening speech, and their decision was often final, the other places adopting pretty much the tenor of their addresses; but this was not always the case. So great was the influence of these places, that it required the presence of the representative of one or the other of them to render valid the proceedings of the assembly, so that in case both absented themselves from the meeting, the fono dispersed without entering upon business. The topics discussed at these meetings varied greatly, from matters affecting the wellbeing of the whole community, to those of trifling import. Intercourse between the natives and Europeans of late years has greatly perplexed and distressed them. With native matters they were familiar, but they are sorely puzzled with European complications. There was also, even in the past, a great want of co-operation amongst the several districts, as well as of power to enforce their decisions, which often caused their attempts at legislation to fail. Official intercourse between the settlements or districts convening meetings, with other matters of business, were always conducted by means of specially appointed messengers, each settlement having a different name for its messengers. The duty of summoning warlike meetings, carrying messages as to a projected attack, or means of conducting defence, was generally if not always confided to one settlement, whose messengers were entrusted with the discharge of these duties. In A'ana this duty devolved upon Nofoali'i.page 90 The deference shown in the general fono was great. As these meetings were always held in the open air, the public footpath frequently passed through the malae, where they were held, so that the continual passing and repassing of persons would have occasioned much annoyance, were it not that by universal custom the road passing through the malae was always closed when a fono was sitting. In consequence of this well-understood rule, all persons or travelling parties of whatever rank left the pathway at some distance before reaching the place of meeting, and taking a wide circuit, so as to avoid the assembly, hurried past, as though feeling themselves on forbidden ground. So universally observed was this custom, that the omission of it by a party passing through the assembly was considered as an insult, and looked upon as a soli or trampling upon the company assembled, and through them, upon the entire district. Formerly, in such a case many armed men would have rushed upon the intruders with clubs and spears, and made them pay dearly for their rashness. Although less particular than formerly, even at the time I left the islands such an intrusion would have met with strong disapprobation; and in some places chastisement would have been added. I have sometimes seen a foreigner who was either not aware of the custom, or chose to disregard it, pass through an assembly, and have heard murmurs of disapprobation from many; whilst others apologized for him, and attributed his offence to want of politeness or ignorance. In their heathen state foreigners equally with natives would have been punished, and perhaps slain for such an intrusion. The usual attention to page 91etiquette on such occasions was shown when a message had to be sent from one party to another during the sitting, when the messenger sent always passed behind any intervening group. In the judicial proceedings of the fono, the punishments may be classed under two heads, O le Sala, and O le Tuā; the former consisting of the destruction of houses, live stock, and plantations, with, at times, the seizure of personal property and banishment; the latter consisting of personal punishment. The severe punishment of O le Sala was usually inflicted by the whole available force of the district awarding it. Sometimes it was tamely submitted to, but at other times resistance was offered, if the culprits felt themselves strong enough to do so, when desperate encounters followed; and these at times gave rise to general wars. The Sala was also at times inflicted by one family upon another, if the aggrieved party was strong enough. This, although irregular, was connived at by the leading members of the community; but if the punishment was considered excessive, they would then interfere. One great evil attending this mode of punishment was, that at times the whole family, or even district, suffered for the offence of one of its members, so that not only did all suffer from the loss of property, but, when, as was sometimes the case, banishment, fa'ateva, was added to destruction of property and dwellings, many suffered from the punishment. Upon a fono deciding upon this punishment, it was usual to carry it into effect immediately. In that case, the leading men of the settlement, rising from the page 92place of meeting, proceeded towards the residence of the obnoxious family, attended by their followers, where they quickly seated themselves upon the ground in full view of the family they had decided to banish. The latter often heard of the sentence in sufficient time to enable them to remove their mats and other household property to a place of safety; but the live stock generally fell into the hands of the expelling party, who reserved them to feast upon after the work of the day. Formality was still the order of proceeding, and the anxious family had yet a little time to make preparations for their departure, as one of the judicial party rose to make a speech, or fai fetalainga, for the benefit of the head of the doomed family, in which he informed him of the decision of the fonot and that they had come to enforce it. On the conclusion of this speech one of the judicial party rose up and commenced to ring the breadfruit-trees, so as to destroy the part above the injured bark, leaving the stump alive, and uninjured, from which in a short time young shoots sprang up, bearing fruit after two or three seasons. The commencement of this work of destruction was either the signal for resistance to be offered, or for the family to gather up their belongings, and remove from the dwelling with sad hearts, to commence their solitary journey as outcasts on the road, whilst their house was set on fire and destroyed. Whilst these proceedings were going on, if no resistance was offered, the old men sat around the spot, quietly plaiting their cinet, and chatting together apparently quite unconcerned, and waiting for, the page 93return of the young men who had been dispatched to plunder the taro-patches, or else, watching with interest the chasing and killing the pigs around, ready For the feast which was soon to be prepared. On the whole of the provisions being collected, they were cooked and eaten by the expelling party, who then returned to their homes. It was a sad sight to witness this driving a family from their homes, and sending them out to wander on until they reached a spot where some friend would give them land on which to build a home. Sometimes the sentence was to go forthwith and destroy the breadfruit-trees, without expelling the family or burning their homes. The length of time the banished party remained absent from their village varied much. Their term of banishment was never specified, nor the place to which they were to go made known unless on very particular occasions. It was generally considered sufficient to know that the expelled party were on the road; and they might take shelter wherever they liked, beyond the limits of the village or settlement from whence they had been expelled. Sometimes they were specially warned to remove to a distance. Should the expelled party be influential, it sometimes happened that, having acknowledged the power of their settlement by submitting quietly to punishment, some friend would suggest to his companions that, their authority having been asserted and acknowledged, it would be desirable to recall the banished party, so as not to lose strength. Should this suggestion prove agreeable, those who had previously page 94decreed the banishment went in a body to the place where the refugees were to be found, and made a conciliatory speech, telling them to fa'a molemole (make smooth your hearts), and return to their settlement. This generally healed the breach, but sometimes it took more to smooth the ruffled hearts; and the banished parties remained absent for years, or permanently located themselves in another settlement, which they found no difficulty in doing, from the extent of their family connexions. It occasionally happened, however, that the term of banishment was very lengthened, especially when the sentence had been pronounced in a full fono, and where the offence had been great. One such case came under my notice. A powerful A'ana chief had committed adultery with the wife of a Manono chief, in consequence of which he had been banished to Savaii. Manono remained quiet as long as he absented himself and respected their prohibition of not returning to A'ana, a violation of which would have occasioned war. A'ana was a conquered district, but this chief had powerful family connexions on Savaii, who belonged to the Malo, or victorious party, to whom he went and lived under their protection for several years. Although afraid to return, openly to A'ana, I was assured that he paid frequent night visits there, to consult with his friends and partisans. At length, after many unavailing attempts had been made by his friends on Savaii to induce Manono to consent to his returning to A'ana, his friends on Savaii called a meeting, at which it was determined to muster a large armed party and take him back to his home in face of the page 95prohibition. They called at Manono on their way, and informed the principal men of that island of their resolve; and the Manono people, seeing that they were determined as to their course, thought it prudent to cease their opposition, and forgive the. offence. The Savaii party then quietly accompanied the chief to A'ana, and reinstated him in his former position. After his reproach had been removed, he preferred returning with his friends to Savaii, where he continued to reside. The other class of punishment, noticed under the head of O le Tuā, was personal, and, like the former, was inflicted immediately sentence had been pronounced, in the presence of the whole assembly. This punishment was awarded for the following offences: theft, insulting travelling parties, preparing pitfalls, and taking the comb out of a married woman's head. Amongst these punishments may be noticed the fa'afoa, which consisted of compelling the delinquent to inflict severe wounds and bruises upon himself, by beating his head and chest with a large stone; until the blood flowed freely. If there appeared any disposition on the part of the culprit to inflict merely slight wounds, the chiefs assembled immediately ordered him to strike harder; which command was further speedily enforced by the prompt and unsparing use of a war club, if necessary. O le-ū-tevi, or causing to bite the tevi, a poisonous and acrid root, was a common and very painful punishment. On biting the root the mouth swelled greatly, and the sufferer experienced intense agony for a considerable time afterwards. Catching poisonous spined fish in the hand after they had thrown them in the air was another severe personal page 96punishment, commonly inflicted at fonos. This fish was covered with sharp-pointed spines, and the punishment consisted in making the culprit throw it into the air, and then catch it in his naked hand as it fell. Whenever a spine entered the hand, it caused great agony and suffering. O le fa'a-lā-ina, or exposure to the sun, was another punishment commonly inflicted for theft. The culprit's hands and feet were tied together, and a pole passed through them, when he was carried to a public place, and placed in the broiling sun, to be exposed to the intense heat for many hours together. On other occasions the offender's feet were tied together, and he was then hoisted up to the top of a tall cocoanut-tree, and suspended head downwards, for many hours together. These five punishments have now mostly if not entirely become obsolete, and fines of pigs, property, &c., have taken their places. In cases of murder or adultery, the common mode of making compensation to the injured party or their relatives was by the Ifonga, or bowing down, accompanied with a totongi, or payment of a fine. In case the offending party thought it prudent to tender this satisfaction, he collected some valuable mats, in number and quality according to the nature of the offence, and with his friends prepared to make his submission. When it was thought necessary to appear very humble, the parties took pieces of firewood, stones, and leaves with them, to, signify that they put themselves entirely into the power of the aggrieved party, who might kill, cook, and eat them, if they thought proper. On nearing their place of destination, which they usually managed to reach page 97before or by daybreak, the culprit wrapped some valuable mats around his body, and with the rest of his party proceeded to the place where they intended to make their submission. If the offended party was a chief, they proceeded at once to his residence, where, prostrating themselves before his house, they awaited in silence his decision. The position assumed on such occasions was that of bowing on their hands and knees, or sitting cross-legged, with the head placed between the knees. Immediately on their arrival becoming known, the chief was informed of it, and this was the critical time for the anxious party outside the dwelling. The ifonga, however, was usually deferred until it had been ascertained that the angry feelings first felt had in some measure subsided; but it occasionally happened that the injured party were unable to control their passions on seeing their enemy prostrate before them; in which case they rushed out spear and club in hand to inflict, summary chastisement upon the humbled company. Some of the latter, who were on the look-out for such a contingency, narrowly watched the movements of the party within, the house, and were ready to give prompt notice of any meditated onslaught, so that the, whole ifonga were ready to take flight on, the first notice of an onslaught, either to the bush, or else to their canoes. Severe wounds were often given in such cases, and sometimes even lives, were sacrificed, where the look-out had been carelessly performed, or the onslaught was unusually fierce. Generally speaking, the ifonga or submitting party were well received, and a messenger dispatched to invite page 98them to rise and enter the dwelling to fai fetalainga, or hold a consultation. The payment of property was then tendered, accompanied with an apology on behalf of the transgressor by one of his companions. The chief and his friends replied, and sometimes vented their displeasure upon their visitors in no very measured terms. To this wordy chastisement the ifonga replied with all due submission, took their leave and retired, heartily glad to escape with their lives, or indeed with whole heads and limbs. On one occasion an A'ana chief of high rank, named Tui-one-ula, had a quarrel with a Manono chief when they met at sea fishing within the reef off Mulinu'u; words led to blows, ending in a fight in which the Manono chief was killed. They were alone, and fought with their paddles, but Tui-one-ula being the more powerful of the two, killed his opponent. It would seem to have been a chance blow, and unpremeditated, at the most amounting to manslaughter, but a general cry for vengeance arose on the part of the deceased chieftain's relatives, who considered Tui-one-ula a murderer, and demanded his punishment. Preparations for war were therefore quickly made by Manono and her allies, to lay waste his district. The offender also prepared for resistance. He retired to his inland fortress, summoned his allies, and seemed determined to defend himself, so that war seemed inevitable. Many meetings of the district were held to discuss the matter and try to avert the conflict. As a last resource, a large and influential meeting of chiefs and leading men from many places around was convened at Fasito'otai, a settlement in A'ana some few miles page 99distant from where the conflict seemed likely to be. This meeting was largely attended, and the matter long and earnestly discussed, with the result that late in the afternoon a decision was arrived at that a large deputation should at once proceed to interview Tuione-ula, and try to get him to ifo, and tender a fine in expiation of his offence. At the same time I was asked to form part of the deputation and back up their pleading. It was late when we started, and by the time we reached the beach where the road branched off into the forest track that led to the fortress it was quite dark, so that torches had to be kindled to light the track. The olo, or fortress, was on the mountain side several miles inland, and thus occupied a commanding position, overlooking the track from start to finish. We knew this quite well, as also that the bush on either side swarmed with armed scouts, who would closely watch our travelling party, which was a large one. This was quickly recognized by a portly Manono chief and native teacher, who had been asked to head the company, but whose heart very soon failed him, so that he begged to be allowed to relinquish the leadership and go to the rear, as he feared a pulufana (musket-ball) would soon be sent through him if he led the advance. His request was granted amidst much laughing and jeering at his bravery, Sikioni, or Moepou, a fine young A'ana chief, taking his place. We then started through the forest, the winding track being lit up with the many torches carried by the company. After an hour's walk or so we neared the fortress, and very soon met signs of watchfulness and page 100defence. As we moved on our way we were challenged, and had to explain our presence; but the outposts were soon passed, and at length we drew near to the entrance of the fortress itself, where our business was more formally inquired into. We sent in our request for a personal interview with the chief, stating our object in thus seeking the interview. As a matter of fact, he had long been duly informed of our approach, as also of the object of our visit, so that very soon the messenger returned with a request that a certain number of chiefs and tulafale, mentioned by name, and myself would wait upon him. We were thereupon led through the passage leading to the olo, and soon reached the inner chamber, where we found the chief. We were all well known to him, and friendly, so that we soon entered upon business and explained our message. At first we were met with what seemed to amount to an almost curt refusal. Why should he run the risk of almost certain death, and not be able to defend himself? Better stand the chances of war and die fighting, if it came to that. After some discussion we could see that he wavered, and at length he promised to consider the matter, and let us know his decision in the morning. We were satisfied, and took our leave, glad to get clear of the evidences of turmoil and confusion visible on every hand, yet thankful for what seemed to be a favourable result to our mission. In the morning we were informed that the chief would make his ifonga on a certain day, which he did, and tendered his fine in expiation of his offence. With the exception of a threatened assault by a young man, a relative of the deceased chieftain, but which was presented by some page 101of his own friends, Tui-one-ula was well received, and the threatened war happily averted. In cases of adultery, especially amongst the lower ranks, payment only was taken to the injured party; but if this was not accepted, and the offence unexpiated, the injured party and his friends watched for an opportunity to wreak their vengeance upon the offender, or the first person belonging to his settlement they could catch. The ifonga is also the usual mode adopted by a conquered people on submitting to their conquerors. On such occasions there was often much bloodshed, but the poor wanderers were driven to this extremity by being hunted and half starved in the woods. It was also used occasionally by parties who were desirous of securing help from their more powerful neighbours after a defeat. Sometimes other punishments were inflicted, as O le ta-o-le-isu (tattooing the nose), also O le tipi o le talinga (splitting the ear), both of which marks of degradation were at times inflicted for certain offences. In the only case of deliberate execution for a crime (murder) that occurred during my residence on Samoa the victim was bound to a tree, the rope being fastened around the legs and then wound slowly but tightly upwards, the wretched criminal meanwhile shrieking fearfully, and beseeching his executioners to kill him with an axe, or otherwise put an end to his misery. This execution took place in Atua, and was the result of a long and anxious native trial, and much discussion as to the mode of execution that should be adopted. The one chosen was decided upon as being more in page 102unison with native custom than hanging. The culprit's name was Toi, and his crime a most revolting family murder, in which he sacrificed five or six lives. For a very long time he evaded capture, being sheltered in the mountains, but was at length hunted down and executed.page 103 page 104	6,539	ENGLISH	1
“We were told in some of the mass meetings that the day would come when we could really do something about all of these inequities that we were experiencing. And we were calling it D-Day. That was May 2, 1963,” remembers Janice Kelsey. Kelsey was one of the thousands of young people who participated in a series of non-violent demonstrations known as the Children’s Crusade in Birmingham, Alabama, during the first week of May 1963. For many African American children in Birmingham, the civil rights movement was already part of their lives. They had witnessed their parents' involvement through mass meetings organized at churches like the 16th Street Baptist Church. While many parents and civil rights leaders were cautious about involving young people in the protests, it turned out that the brave actions of these children helped make lasting change in Birmingham at a key turning point in the movement. The goal of the crusade was to use tactics of non-violence Early in 1963, civil rights leaders in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and other civil rights groups developed a plan to desegregate Birmingham, a city notorious for its discriminatory practices in employment and public life. Segregation persisted throughout the city and blacks were only allowed to go to many places like the fairgrounds on “colored days.” The goal of the plan was to use tactics of non-violent protest to provoke Birmingham civic and business leaders to agree to desegregate. The demonstrations started in April 1963 as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Reverend Ralph Abernathy and local leader Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth led thousands of African American protestors in Birmingham. The first phase of the campaign resulted in many arrests, including King who penned his powerful “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” on April 16. A circuit court judge had issued an injunction against protest, picketing, demonstrating and boycotting, providing the legal grounds for mass arrests. They were not met with a peaceful response and hundreds of children were harmed and arrested As the campaign continued that month, SCLC leader James Bevel started to enact plans for a “Children’s Crusade” that he and other leaders believed might help turn the tide in Birmingham. Thousands of children were trained in the tactics of non-violence, and on May 2, they left the 16th Street Baptist Church in groups, heading throughout the city to protest segregation peacefully. One of their goals was to talk to the mayor of Birmingham about segregation in their city – they were not met with a peaceful response. On the first day of the protest, hundreds of children were arrested. By the second day, Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor ordered police to spray the children with powerful water hoses, hit them with batons and threaten them with police dogs. Despite this harsh treatment, children continued to participate in the demonstrations over the next few days. Footage and photographs of the violent crackdown in Birmingham circulated throughout the nation and the world, causing an outcry. Businesses in downtown Birmingham were feeling the pressure. On May 5, protestors marched to the city jail where many of the young people were still being held. They sang protest songs and continued their tactics of non-violent demonstration. Finally, local officials agreed to meet with civil rights leaders and hash out a plan to end the protests. On May 10, an agreement had been reached. City leaders agreed to desegregate business and free all who had been jailed during the demonstrations. Weeks later, the Birmingham board of education announced that all students who had been involved in the Children’s Crusade would be expelled. This decision was ultimately overturned by the court of appeals. Despite a setback later in the year, the crusade carried on The Children’s Crusade marked a significant victory in Birmingham. The city was in the world spotlight, and local officials knew that they could no longer ignore the civil rights movement. Yet the struggle for equality in Birmingham continued. Later that year, in September 1963, four little girls were killed by bombs planted by white supremacists at the 16th St. Baptist Church, and over 20 more were injured. The horrific bombings sent shock waves through the nation. Despite this violent reaction to the movement for equality and justice, everyday people in Birmingham continued their efforts. And thousands of children, some of them as young as seven or eight years old, had kept the momentum of the struggle going in its most pivotal hour.	<urn:uuid:f3dfb618-127b-44b2-997a-e23b0bfdda5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/news/black-history-birmingham-childrens-crusade-1963-video	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00394.warc.gz	en	0.983495	900	3.921875	4	[ -0.7236630916595459, 0.009443745017051697, -0.2254437655210495, -0.06876231729984283, -0.5276576280593872, 0.445422887802124, -0.5730018019676208, -0.07103092223405838, -0.27748292684555054, 0.11076295375823975, 0.28410494327545166, 0.14089319109916687, 0.25859859585762024, -0.262222707271...	3	“We were told in some of the mass meetings that the day would come when we could really do something about all of these inequities that we were experiencing. And we were calling it D-Day. That was May 2, 1963,” remembers Janice Kelsey. Kelsey was one of the thousands of young people who participated in a series of non-violent demonstrations known as the Children’s Crusade in Birmingham, Alabama, during the first week of May 1963. For many African American children in Birmingham, the civil rights movement was already part of their lives. They had witnessed their parents' involvement through mass meetings organized at churches like the 16th Street Baptist Church. While many parents and civil rights leaders were cautious about involving young people in the protests, it turned out that the brave actions of these children helped make lasting change in Birmingham at a key turning point in the movement. The goal of the crusade was to use tactics of non-violence Early in 1963, civil rights leaders in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and other civil rights groups developed a plan to desegregate Birmingham, a city notorious for its discriminatory practices in employment and public life. Segregation persisted throughout the city and blacks were only allowed to go to many places like the fairgrounds on “colored days.” The goal of the plan was to use tactics of non-violent protest to provoke Birmingham civic and business leaders to agree to desegregate. The demonstrations started in April 1963 as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Reverend Ralph Abernathy and local leader Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth led thousands of African American protestors in Birmingham. The first phase of the campaign resulted in many arrests, including King who penned his powerful “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” on April 16. A circuit court judge had issued an injunction against protest, picketing, demonstrating and boycotting, providing the legal grounds for mass arrests. They were not met with a peaceful response and hundreds of children were harmed and arrested As the campaign continued that month, SCLC leader James Bevel started to enact plans for a “Children’s Crusade” that he and other leaders believed might help turn the tide in Birmingham. Thousands of children were trained in the tactics of non-violence, and on May 2, they left the 16th Street Baptist Church in groups, heading throughout the city to protest segregation peacefully. One of their goals was to talk to the mayor of Birmingham about segregation in their city – they were not met with a peaceful response. On the first day of the protest, hundreds of children were arrested. By the second day, Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor ordered police to spray the children with powerful water hoses, hit them with batons and threaten them with police dogs. Despite this harsh treatment, children continued to participate in the demonstrations over the next few days. Footage and photographs of the violent crackdown in Birmingham circulated throughout the nation and the world, causing an outcry. Businesses in downtown Birmingham were feeling the pressure. On May 5, protestors marched to the city jail where many of the young people were still being held. They sang protest songs and continued their tactics of non-violent demonstration. Finally, local officials agreed to meet with civil rights leaders and hash out a plan to end the protests. On May 10, an agreement had been reached. City leaders agreed to desegregate business and free all who had been jailed during the demonstrations. Weeks later, the Birmingham board of education announced that all students who had been involved in the Children’s Crusade would be expelled. This decision was ultimately overturned by the court of appeals. Despite a setback later in the year, the crusade carried on The Children’s Crusade marked a significant victory in Birmingham. The city was in the world spotlight, and local officials knew that they could no longer ignore the civil rights movement. Yet the struggle for equality in Birmingham continued. Later that year, in September 1963, four little girls were killed by bombs planted by white supremacists at the 16th St. Baptist Church, and over 20 more were injured. The horrific bombings sent shock waves through the nation. Despite this violent reaction to the movement for equality and justice, everyday people in Birmingham continued their efforts. And thousands of children, some of them as young as seven or eight years old, had kept the momentum of the struggle going in its most pivotal hour.	919	ENGLISH	1
Epiphany or Three Kings Day is January 6 and as the Twelfth Night officially ends the Christmas season. It is often celebrated on the nearest Sunday between January 2 and January 8. It is a day to celebrate the baptism of Jesus and the arrival of The Magi (Three Kings or Wise Men). In the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated from Christmas Eve to January 6. And Epiphany Day was a major celebration well into the mid 19th century when its importance diminished. The Catholic Church no longer requires January 6 to be celebrated as a solemnity on that exact day and celebrates it on the Sunday that follows it. Some Protestant churches celebrate the Epiphany season from January 6 till Ash Wednesday. Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 19 as they follow the Julian calendar. In many Spanish speaking countries, Dia de los Reyes (Three Kings’ Day)is celebrated with special foods and gatherings. Many European countries have their own unique observances as well. Children often gets treats or presents on this day. In Italy, La Befana flies through the night on January 5 on a broomstick to deliver gifts to good kids and give coal to the bad ones. So who were the Three Kings? There is a lot of debate on this. Some doubt they existed and some consider it a pious fantasy. Much of what is called the Three Kings today are embellishments that have been added over time. The Gospel of Matthew, the earliest source of the story, is quite simple and only refers to them as Magi from the east. Nor does it say there were only three but three gifts were given. And it is possible they were actually Nabataeans, a trading people that lived in northern Arabia to the Southern Levant whose capital is known as Petra today. Dwight Longnecker in his book Mystery of the Magi examines this evidence. Worth reading if you want to learn more about who these Magi might really have been.	<urn:uuid:bac0224e-5218-4777-8d5d-13f7d5b27688>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://titanicnewschannel.com/blog/2020/01/05/today-is-epiphany-three-kings-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00374.warc.gz	en	0.984715	389	3.9375	4	[ 0.417018860578537, 0.47674503922462463, 0.10323289036750793, -0.2544623613357544, 0.07335541397333145, -0.23391026258468628, 0.021000981330871582, 0.19692745804786682, 0.2708190381526947, 0.24686408042907715, -0.18241684138774872, 0.07088218629360199, -0.10833501815795898, -0.0155224706977...	17	Epiphany or Three Kings Day is January 6 and as the Twelfth Night officially ends the Christmas season. It is often celebrated on the nearest Sunday between January 2 and January 8. It is a day to celebrate the baptism of Jesus and the arrival of The Magi (Three Kings or Wise Men). In the Middle Ages Christmas was celebrated from Christmas Eve to January 6. And Epiphany Day was a major celebration well into the mid 19th century when its importance diminished. The Catholic Church no longer requires January 6 to be celebrated as a solemnity on that exact day and celebrates it on the Sunday that follows it. Some Protestant churches celebrate the Epiphany season from January 6 till Ash Wednesday. Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 19 as they follow the Julian calendar. In many Spanish speaking countries, Dia de los Reyes (Three Kings’ Day)is celebrated with special foods and gatherings. Many European countries have their own unique observances as well. Children often gets treats or presents on this day. In Italy, La Befana flies through the night on January 5 on a broomstick to deliver gifts to good kids and give coal to the bad ones. So who were the Three Kings? There is a lot of debate on this. Some doubt they existed and some consider it a pious fantasy. Much of what is called the Three Kings today are embellishments that have been added over time. The Gospel of Matthew, the earliest source of the story, is quite simple and only refers to them as Magi from the east. Nor does it say there were only three but three gifts were given. And it is possible they were actually Nabataeans, a trading people that lived in northern Arabia to the Southern Levant whose capital is known as Petra today. Dwight Longnecker in his book Mystery of the Magi examines this evidence. Worth reading if you want to learn more about who these Magi might really have been.	401	ENGLISH	1
Share the sightings “Release the Kraken!” From Liam Neeson’s snarling… Scientists Have Trained Rats To Drive Tiny Cars In an incredible new study, scientists have trained rats to drive and steer tiny cars, proving that they are much more intelligent than previously thought. The rats were trained to climb into the car, grip the handle bars with their paws, and drive the tiny vehicle to the opposite side of the track in order to get food. A team from the University of Richmond conducted the experiments using the tiny car that was created from a clear plastic food container and was mounted on wheels with an aluminum floor and copper handle bars that worked like a steering wheel. For the vehicle to drive correctly, the rats had to climb into the car and stand on the floor while their front paws gripped the handle bars. Once they reached their destination, they were given fruit loops as a reward. Incredibly, the team was able to teach eleven males and six female rats to drive the tiny car on the 13-foot track. In addition to proving to everyone that they are much smarter than previously thought, the study also showed that going for a little drive actually helped to relax the rats. The team measured the cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone levels in the rats and they noticed that their dehydroepiandrosterone levels increased while they were driving. That hormone counteracts stress which means that the rats were much more relaxed while they were behind the wheel of the tiny car. In fact, the rats that drove the car were less stressed than those in the passenger seat. Kelly Lambert, who is part of the department of psychology at the University of Richmond and was a researcher in the study, told New Scientist that she had already believed that the stress level in rats lowers once they complete a hard task as they become satisfied with their accomplishment. She went on to say that she thinks she can create additional complex mazes for the rats so that the neuroplasticity of their brains can be further studied to see how well they respond to even tougher challenges. Videos of the rats driving and steering tiny cars can be seen here. So, how intelligent are rats? They are known to be very social animals that are very attached to other rodents and can create special bonds with their owners. Additionally, they seem to react when others are in pain and they show signs of empathy. They may also be ticklish, as they make chirping sounds when they are tickled. Jaak Panksepp, who is a neuroscientist at Bowling Green State University, said, “Young rats have a marvelous sense of fun.” He went on to say that they have even been known to bond with their human ticklers and really enjoyed the fun of being tickled. Rats are also said to store the memories of their experiences in their brain, allowing them to have long-term memories. For example, when a rat completes a maze, the experience replays in its brain while it is asleep, as if dreaming of the path it took throughout the maze while it was awake. And they are actually quite clean as they wash themselves on a regular basis. In fact, in a study conducted by the University of St Andrews in Norway, rats that help each other out are rewarded with a kind act in return. Rats that provided food to others were often groomed more by other rodents than those who didn’t help out at all. Additionally, more food was provided to the rats that were nice enough to groom them. Source: Mysterious Universe	<urn:uuid:bf6b24ae-924d-4db5-8ca6-eef853381d88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sightings.info/2019/10/24/scientists-have-trained-rats-to-drive-tiny-cars/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00094.warc.gz	en	0.988855	728	3.28125	3	[ -0.005284587852656841, -0.00526143703609705, 0.5100919604301453, 0.11937129497528076, 0.02117171511054039, 0.47960802912712097, 0.4940453767776489, 0.13812869787216187, -0.2304784059524536, -0.4377211928367615, -0.012700945138931274, -0.16916994750499725, 0.14302608370780945, 0.32240000367...	1	Share the sightings “Release the Kraken!” From Liam Neeson’s snarling… Scientists Have Trained Rats To Drive Tiny Cars In an incredible new study, scientists have trained rats to drive and steer tiny cars, proving that they are much more intelligent than previously thought. The rats were trained to climb into the car, grip the handle bars with their paws, and drive the tiny vehicle to the opposite side of the track in order to get food. A team from the University of Richmond conducted the experiments using the tiny car that was created from a clear plastic food container and was mounted on wheels with an aluminum floor and copper handle bars that worked like a steering wheel. For the vehicle to drive correctly, the rats had to climb into the car and stand on the floor while their front paws gripped the handle bars. Once they reached their destination, they were given fruit loops as a reward. Incredibly, the team was able to teach eleven males and six female rats to drive the tiny car on the 13-foot track. In addition to proving to everyone that they are much smarter than previously thought, the study also showed that going for a little drive actually helped to relax the rats. The team measured the cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone levels in the rats and they noticed that their dehydroepiandrosterone levels increased while they were driving. That hormone counteracts stress which means that the rats were much more relaxed while they were behind the wheel of the tiny car. In fact, the rats that drove the car were less stressed than those in the passenger seat. Kelly Lambert, who is part of the department of psychology at the University of Richmond and was a researcher in the study, told New Scientist that she had already believed that the stress level in rats lowers once they complete a hard task as they become satisfied with their accomplishment. She went on to say that she thinks she can create additional complex mazes for the rats so that the neuroplasticity of their brains can be further studied to see how well they respond to even tougher challenges. Videos of the rats driving and steering tiny cars can be seen here. So, how intelligent are rats? They are known to be very social animals that are very attached to other rodents and can create special bonds with their owners. Additionally, they seem to react when others are in pain and they show signs of empathy. They may also be ticklish, as they make chirping sounds when they are tickled. Jaak Panksepp, who is a neuroscientist at Bowling Green State University, said, “Young rats have a marvelous sense of fun.” He went on to say that they have even been known to bond with their human ticklers and really enjoyed the fun of being tickled. Rats are also said to store the memories of their experiences in their brain, allowing them to have long-term memories. For example, when a rat completes a maze, the experience replays in its brain while it is asleep, as if dreaming of the path it took throughout the maze while it was awake. And they are actually quite clean as they wash themselves on a regular basis. In fact, in a study conducted by the University of St Andrews in Norway, rats that help each other out are rewarded with a kind act in return. Rats that provided food to others were often groomed more by other rodents than those who didn’t help out at all. Additionally, more food was provided to the rats that were nice enough to groom them. Source: Mysterious Universe	716	ENGLISH	1
There are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure is rectangular rather than square, 12.5 by 14 metres (41 by 46 ft) which means that the sides could not have met at a point. The stone used to build these structures was limestone quarried locally and was cut to fit, not into freestanding blocks like the Great Pyramid of Giza. Womens Jeff Dunham Toledo OH shirt The dating of these structures has been made from the pot shards excavated from the floor and on the grounds. The latest dates available from scientific dating have been estimated around the 5th and 4th centuries. Normally this technique is used for dating pottery, but here researchers have used it to try to date stone flakes from the walls of the structures. This has created some debate about whether or not these structures are actually older than Egypt, which is part of the Black Athena controversy.	<urn:uuid:554f5c7b-8a54-4dd6-9089-a77b2332c837>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://suckhoecuaban.net/tmlshirt/great/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00498.warc.gz	en	0.980162	272	3.4375	3	[ -0.23452332615852356, 0.413433700799942, 0.2438221275806427, 0.4086242914199829, -0.43041691184043884, -0.05297352746129036, -0.2025490701198578, -0.21316269040107727, -0.20316144824028015, -0.09573955088853836, -0.16531139612197876, -0.5669618248939514, -0.27149903774261475, 0.34701851010...	3	There are also at least two surviving pyramid-like structures still available to study, one at Hellenikon and the other at Ligourio/Ligurio, a village near the ancient theatre Epidaurus. These buildings were not constructed in the same manner as the pyramids in Egypt. They do have inwardly sloping walls but other than those there is no obvious resemblance to Egyptian pyramids. They had large central rooms (unlike Egyptian pyramids) and the Hellenikon structure is rectangular rather than square, 12.5 by 14 metres (41 by 46 ft) which means that the sides could not have met at a point. The stone used to build these structures was limestone quarried locally and was cut to fit, not into freestanding blocks like the Great Pyramid of Giza. Womens Jeff Dunham Toledo OH shirt The dating of these structures has been made from the pot shards excavated from the floor and on the grounds. The latest dates available from scientific dating have been estimated around the 5th and 4th centuries. Normally this technique is used for dating pottery, but here researchers have used it to try to date stone flakes from the walls of the structures. This has created some debate about whether or not these structures are actually older than Egypt, which is part of the Black Athena controversy.	273	ENGLISH	1
Basketball is a team game. Just like football and cricket, you can play the game with as many players as you wish, as long as both teams have equal number of players. But when you’re playing a tournament, you must play with 5 players on your team, no more and no less. Just like football, each of the 5 players in basketball has their own position and role in the game. Normally the tallest player is called the ‘Centre’ and the shortest player is called the ‘Point Guard’. The medium sized players are called the ‘Forwards’ (small forward and power forward) and the ‘Shooting Guard’. A player moves the ball around the court by dribbling it with only 1 hand. He dribbles it by bouncing the ball on the court continuously as he moves. If he dribbles the ball with 2 hands, then it’s a foul, and a major violation of the rules of the game. It will also be a foul if he takes more than 2 steps without dribbling the ball. Both teams try to win a game by scoring more points than their opponents. When a player throws the ball to the basket, and the ball passes through the net, he scores. If he scores from a short distance, then his team is awarded 2 points. If he scores from a long distance, then his team is awarded 3 points. In competitive matches, the game is divided into 4 quarters. Each quarter lasts 12 minutes, which makes it a 48-minute game. There are mainly two types of fouls in basketball: 1) defensive fouls, and 2) offensive fouls. If your opponents have the ball, and you foul one of their players, then that is known as a defensive foul. And if you commit a foul when you have the ball in your hands, then it’s known as an offensive foul. The most important foul in basketball is the contact foul. You cannot touch your opponent with your hand. If you do, then you’ve just committed a foul and your team will be penalised. If one of the players in your team gets fouled by one of the players of your opponent team, your team will be awarded 2 free throws. The player who’s taking the free throws must stand at a short distance from the hoop and shoot without moving the feet. Each basket he scores will give his team 1 point. So these are few rules of basketball. Why not try it out on school court tomorrow. Have a great game!	<urn:uuid:3a02bd16-d181-4bb5-be58-f2abb03b2f40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://champs21.com/how-many-of-these-basketballs-rules-do-you-know/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00321.warc.gz	en	0.980119	531	3.328125	3	[ -0.15654948353767395, -0.2600092887878418, 0.23740047216415405, -0.703693687915802, -0.05901819467544556, 0.11470712721347809, 0.9869503378868103, 0.10650160163640976, 0.32566145062446594, 0.13183075189590454, 0.08829908818006516, -0.41591691970825195, -0.0756576880812645, -0.1353479772806...	4	Basketball is a team game. Just like football and cricket, you can play the game with as many players as you wish, as long as both teams have equal number of players. But when you’re playing a tournament, you must play with 5 players on your team, no more and no less. Just like football, each of the 5 players in basketball has their own position and role in the game. Normally the tallest player is called the ‘Centre’ and the shortest player is called the ‘Point Guard’. The medium sized players are called the ‘Forwards’ (small forward and power forward) and the ‘Shooting Guard’. A player moves the ball around the court by dribbling it with only 1 hand. He dribbles it by bouncing the ball on the court continuously as he moves. If he dribbles the ball with 2 hands, then it’s a foul, and a major violation of the rules of the game. It will also be a foul if he takes more than 2 steps without dribbling the ball. Both teams try to win a game by scoring more points than their opponents. When a player throws the ball to the basket, and the ball passes through the net, he scores. If he scores from a short distance, then his team is awarded 2 points. If he scores from a long distance, then his team is awarded 3 points. In competitive matches, the game is divided into 4 quarters. Each quarter lasts 12 minutes, which makes it a 48-minute game. There are mainly two types of fouls in basketball: 1) defensive fouls, and 2) offensive fouls. If your opponents have the ball, and you foul one of their players, then that is known as a defensive foul. And if you commit a foul when you have the ball in your hands, then it’s known as an offensive foul. The most important foul in basketball is the contact foul. You cannot touch your opponent with your hand. If you do, then you’ve just committed a foul and your team will be penalised. If one of the players in your team gets fouled by one of the players of your opponent team, your team will be awarded 2 free throws. The player who’s taking the free throws must stand at a short distance from the hoop and shoot without moving the feet. Each basket he scores will give his team 1 point. So these are few rules of basketball. Why not try it out on school court tomorrow. Have a great game!	517	ENGLISH	1
Oysters' history in the Chesapeake region is much older than that of humans. The Bay's cliffs and banks reveal the shells of extinct oyster species from the Miocene Epoch 10 million to 14 million years ago. When the first people, as bands of hunter-gatherers, began to range across this part of North America between 9,000 and 12,000 years ago, the great Wisconsin Glaciation was just starting to melt away from the land, a process that took thousands of years. This glacial melting eventually contributed enough water to the world's oceans that they rose - sometimes 3 12 feet a century - and began flooding river valleys along the Eastern Seaboard. About 5,000 years ago, the tides had flooded the gorge of the ancestral Susquehanna River deeply enough that the resulting bay had a shape we'd recognize today as the Chesapeake. Into this bay came the modern species of oyster. Billions of them grew, one upon the other, for thousands of generations until immense beds of them covered unimagined areas, virtually unharvested, feeding on the plankton brought to them twice daily by the tides of a deepening Chesapeake. Oysters were such an important part of the hunter-gathers' diet that their shells are almost a signature for any Native American dwelling site near salt water. In some places, the oysters at the bottom of the site - the first harvested - are big, some with 13 annual growth marks on the valves. The ones on top - those harvested last - were tiny, barely spat thrown into a pot to thicken a winter's stew. These early people, when gathering, waded only in the shallows, and their scattered living groups were too small to damage the ecosystem. They just moved on half a mile or so and the exhausted sites recovered in a few years. During what climatologists call the Late Medieval Warm Period, this part of North America was afflicted with pro-longed droughts and forest fires. As the human population grew, this environmental stress spawned conflict, and people began to coalesce into villages, which could be palisaded for defense against inland tribes who forayed to the coast for its more abundant food resources. By A.D. 1500, some historians feel that warfare was endemic, and stored foods became valuable to feed what amounted to standing armies. One resource was the oyster, harvested mostly from March through April, before crop-planting in May. Oyster meats were shucked and dried for laterconsumption, and were also probably used for trade. It was onto this scene of spring oyster harvesting that the first English Adventurers of the Virginia Company of London intruded on April 27, 1607. Captain George Percy took a small boat into Lynnhaven Inlet, near Virginia Beach. He wrote of of his encounter:"We came to a place where they had made a great fire and had been newly roasting oysters. When they perceived our coming, they fled away to the mountains, and left many of the oysters in the fire. We ate some of the oysters which were very large and delicate in taste. ... Uppon this plot of ground (Lynnhaven Bay) we got good store of mussels and oysters, which lay on the ground (presumably at low tide) as thick as stones. We opened some of them and found in many of them pearls." John Smith, Percy's shipmate, later led the struggling colony at Jamestown during the difficult, starving time in 1609-1610. The colony's misery was helped along by the native Americans, who were unwilling to trade their limited corn reserves with these smelly, violent men who were taking over their hunting grounds. So Smith sent parties of his men out along the shores of the James River to gather oysters and keep themselves alive: "So it happened that neither we nor (the Native Americans) had anything to eat but what the country afforded naturally. Yet of eighty who lived upon oysters in June and July, with a pint of corn a week for a man lying under trees, and one hundred twenty for the most part living upon sturgeon, which are dried till we pounded it to powder for meal, yet in ten weeks but seven died." Smith puts a good face on it but one of these men said: "This kind of feeding caused all our skin to peel off from head to foot as if we had been dead." And later, Gabriel Archer wrote: "(A Native American) with two women and another fellow of his own consort followed us some six miles with baskets full of dried oysters and met us at a point, where calling to us, we went ashore and bartered with them for most of their victuals." The oyster business in Virginia had begun to flourish! About 1610, William Strachey became secretary of the colony at Jamestown and writes: "Oysters there, be in whole banks and beds, and those of the best I have seen some thirteen inches long. The savages used to boil oysters and mussels together and with the broth they make a good spoon meat, thickened with flour of their wheat (actually corn) and it is a great thrift and husbandry with them to hang the oysters upon strings ... and dried in the smoke, thereby preserve them all the year." Food was still not easy to come by in 1623, and a Virginian named Arundel wrote to his friend Mr. Caning in London: "The most evident hope from altogether starving is oysters, and for the easier getting of them I have agreed for a canoe which will cost me 6 livres sterling." After almost seven decades of colonization, Thomas Glover wrote in 1676 about the Elizabeth River, (which has become terribly polluted in our century and is the subject of much good-hearted restoration efforts today):"Here are such plenty of oysters as they may load ships with them. At the mouth of the Elizabeth River, when it is low water, they appear in rocks a foot above the water." A French visitor echoed this observation in 1687: "There are so many shell oysters that almost every Saturday my host craved them. He had only to send one of his servants in one of the small boats and two hours after ebb tide he brought it back full. These boats made of a single tree hollowed in the middle, can hold as many as fourteen people and twenty-five hundredweight of merchandise." Another chronicler wrote: "The abundance of oysters is incredible. There are whole banks of them so that the ships must avoid them. A sloop, which was to land us at Kingscreek (perhaps near to-day's Cape Charles) Struck an oyster bed, where we had to wait about two hours for the tide. (At first, I thought that this, one of a couple of references to being grounded on reefs, was anecdotal, and didn't make too much of it. But last month I ran across a chart of the James River, published by the Dutch, which shows about 17 "reefs" rising above the surface along the channels. None are there today.) These reefs, says Dr. Bill Hargis of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, were important to the success of oysters, because they kept these filter-feeding shellfish up in the water column within easy access of the maximum amount of plankton, their only food. The reefs also offered the oyster spat (young) a billion places to strike. The reefs or "rocks" were limited in vertical growth only by the height of the tide. Fisherman Phillip Vickers Fithian pointed out on March 1774: "On the edges of these shoals in Nominy River or in holes between the oyster rocks is plenty of fish. ... As we were rowing up Nominy we saw fishermen in great numbers in canoes almost constantly taking fish, - bass and perch."...(These oysters) "surpass those in England by far in size, indeed, they run four times as large. I often cut them in two, before I could put them into my mouth. The inhabitants usually catch them on Saturday. It is not troublesome. A pair of wooden tongs is needed. Below they are wide, tipped with iron. At the time of the ebb they row to the beds and with the long tongs they reach down to the bottom. They pinch them together tightly and then pull or tear up that which has been seized. They usually pull from six to ten times. In summer they are not very good, but unhealthy and can cause fever." At St. Mary's City, capitol of the upstart colony of Maryland in 1634, researcher Bretton Kent has found the first evidence of oyster overharvesting, as the little city grew from its original dispersed houses. Brett excavated the garbage dumps of houses for which he has exact dates, (such as built 1637, burned 1658, etc.) and therefore had one layer of garbage atop another at a roughly constant rate. The earliest oysters were the broadly fan-shaped "cove oysters," which grow solitary on sandy bottoms, and can be picked up at low tide or by wading. With the passage of years, these grew smaller and smaller; then suddenly the shape changed, from rounded to long, skinny "channel oysters," that had grown deeper in the estuary and more crowded together on the underwater "rocks." So, harvest methods, like those at Kingscreek, had changed to give access to less-accessible populations. When Annapolis became Maryland's capitol in the mid-1650s, St. Mary's City fell into disuse and within a few years, in homesite trash-pits, the big round cove oysters began showing up again just as they had during the times of the earlier Native Americans. Before 1705, Fransis Makamie "Father of American Presbyterian-ism" wrote: "Our vast plenty of oysters would make a beneficial trade, both with the town and foreign traders, believing we have the best oysters for pickling and transportation if carefully and skillfully managed." Pickling was the only palatable means then available for transporting oysters and they were quite popular. Robert "King" Carter of Carotoman on the Rappahannock speaks: "The oysters lasted until the third day of the feast, which to be sure, proves that the methods for keeping them is good, although much disputed by others ....July, 1776. ... I have ordered that ... every oyster be dipped into the vault (of washed salt) and every oyster dipped into it over all and then laid down on the floor again. ... Out of the eight bushels I had six pickled..." And:"Mt. Vernon, 1786, Sir :... Mrs. Washington joins me in thanking you also for your kind present of pickled oysters which were very fine. This mark of your politeness is flattering and we beg you to accept every good wish of ours in return." George Washington also presaged a use that was later to be made of the vast quantities of oyster shell taken from the Bay. He writes to Henry Knox in 1785: "I use a great deal of lime every year, made of the oyster shells, which before they are burnt, cost me twenty-five to thirty shillings a hundred bushels; but it is of mean quality, which makes me desirous of trying stone lime." In the 1860s, during the War Between the States, VIMS' Bill Hargis relates that while the Union gunboat Monitor was moored in the James, crewmen rowed out to the oyster banks at low water to walk about and gather oysters for dinner. Later in the 19th century, fishery biologists began to map this resource which was by then rapidly being destroyed, and from these surveys Dr. Gerry McCormick -Ray, at the University of Virginia, has reconstructed some of the profiles and strong vertical relief of oyster reefs that were then in Tangier Sound. Joe DeAl-teris at VIMS did a study some years ago in which he compared the earliest available bathymetric surveys with those of recent years and calculated that the structure of many once-massive reefs in the James had been broken down by nearly five feet over broad areas from repeated dredging. Dr. Roger Newell at Horn Point calculated a few years ago that in pre-Colonial times, oysters were so abundant that they had the capacity to filter the Bay's volume in a few days, and at present, oysters would take about a year to repeat the job. Some debate Roger's statement fiercely, but one only has to add algae to a tank with a dozen "selects" in it and in no time at all they'll filter it clear as tap water. Roger didn't say the whole Bay was filtered. Oysters didn't cover the whole Bay, but the trillions of gallons of water that did flow around reefs, and over beds were filtered repeatedly and immensely clarified. Todays' few remnants of oyster ground can't possibly do that job as well. Also, the water then had lesser amounts of nutrients, and the massive beds of aquatic grasses probably left they oysters with a smaller crop of plankton to work on. Author James Hungerford wrote in 1859 about about his youth prior to 1833 on Maryland's Patuxent:: "We had some time before rounded quiet point (Point Patience), the long point to the south of the Flats and had nearly gained the channels leading to Weatherby's Creek (perhaps Hungerford or Back Creek). "Our boat was now speeding at a swift rate along the lee shore; and the water shielded from the wind by the high cliffs of the river, lay tranquil around us. "How clear the water is", remarked Miss Susan, looking over the side of the boat; "I can see the fishes moving among the sea-grasses on the bottom." "Our river is famous for the purity of the water" said the major, with some enthusiasm of manner, "and has been said by those who are competent to give an opinion, to be one of the most beautiful streams in the world." Beautiful, indeed, and the Bay's once massive stocks of oysters, now largely vanished, helped to keep it that way. But with the end of the Colonial period, and the dawn of the 1800s, would come the unreasonable abuses of the Chesapeake's oysters: 2,000 skipjacks and buy boats dredging the Bay floor, countless men tonging the creeks, when a dozen railroad cars loaded with oysters - fresh and preserved - left Baltimore daily, bound for the West, as far as California's goldfields! Later, in this century, came the diseases dermo and MSX, which doubly decimated a struggling population.	<urn:uuid:64b0c657-7c71-4d9e-88e3-15a3ae446bf3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bayjournal.com/article/dredging_up_the_past	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00558.warc.gz	en	0.980658	3,112	3.6875	4	[ -0.14863580465316772, 0.1866944432258606, 0.0967523530125618, -0.2268657237291336, -0.07629987597465515, -0.09998567402362823, 0.014160480350255966, -0.39842286705970764, -0.3743736743927002, -0.2185211479663849, 0.2738533616065979, -0.6122362017631531, -0.1279594898223877, -0.089145764708...	1	Oysters' history in the Chesapeake region is much older than that of humans. The Bay's cliffs and banks reveal the shells of extinct oyster species from the Miocene Epoch 10 million to 14 million years ago. When the first people, as bands of hunter-gatherers, began to range across this part of North America between 9,000 and 12,000 years ago, the great Wisconsin Glaciation was just starting to melt away from the land, a process that took thousands of years. This glacial melting eventually contributed enough water to the world's oceans that they rose - sometimes 3 12 feet a century - and began flooding river valleys along the Eastern Seaboard. About 5,000 years ago, the tides had flooded the gorge of the ancestral Susquehanna River deeply enough that the resulting bay had a shape we'd recognize today as the Chesapeake. Into this bay came the modern species of oyster. Billions of them grew, one upon the other, for thousands of generations until immense beds of them covered unimagined areas, virtually unharvested, feeding on the plankton brought to them twice daily by the tides of a deepening Chesapeake. Oysters were such an important part of the hunter-gathers' diet that their shells are almost a signature for any Native American dwelling site near salt water. In some places, the oysters at the bottom of the site - the first harvested - are big, some with 13 annual growth marks on the valves. The ones on top - those harvested last - were tiny, barely spat thrown into a pot to thicken a winter's stew. These early people, when gathering, waded only in the shallows, and their scattered living groups were too small to damage the ecosystem. They just moved on half a mile or so and the exhausted sites recovered in a few years. During what climatologists call the Late Medieval Warm Period, this part of North America was afflicted with pro-longed droughts and forest fires. As the human population grew, this environmental stress spawned conflict, and people began to coalesce into villages, which could be palisaded for defense against inland tribes who forayed to the coast for its more abundant food resources. By A.D. 1500, some historians feel that warfare was endemic, and stored foods became valuable to feed what amounted to standing armies. One resource was the oyster, harvested mostly from March through April, before crop-planting in May. Oyster meats were shucked and dried for laterconsumption, and were also probably used for trade. It was onto this scene of spring oyster harvesting that the first English Adventurers of the Virginia Company of London intruded on April 27, 1607. Captain George Percy took a small boat into Lynnhaven Inlet, near Virginia Beach. He wrote of of his encounter:"We came to a place where they had made a great fire and had been newly roasting oysters. When they perceived our coming, they fled away to the mountains, and left many of the oysters in the fire. We ate some of the oysters which were very large and delicate in taste. ... Uppon this plot of ground (Lynnhaven Bay) we got good store of mussels and oysters, which lay on the ground (presumably at low tide) as thick as stones. We opened some of them and found in many of them pearls." John Smith, Percy's shipmate, later led the struggling colony at Jamestown during the difficult, starving time in 1609-1610. The colony's misery was helped along by the native Americans, who were unwilling to trade their limited corn reserves with these smelly, violent men who were taking over their hunting grounds. So Smith sent parties of his men out along the shores of the James River to gather oysters and keep themselves alive: "So it happened that neither we nor (the Native Americans) had anything to eat but what the country afforded naturally. Yet of eighty who lived upon oysters in June and July, with a pint of corn a week for a man lying under trees, and one hundred twenty for the most part living upon sturgeon, which are dried till we pounded it to powder for meal, yet in ten weeks but seven died." Smith puts a good face on it but one of these men said: "This kind of feeding caused all our skin to peel off from head to foot as if we had been dead." And later, Gabriel Archer wrote: "(A Native American) with two women and another fellow of his own consort followed us some six miles with baskets full of dried oysters and met us at a point, where calling to us, we went ashore and bartered with them for most of their victuals." The oyster business in Virginia had begun to flourish! About 1610, William Strachey became secretary of the colony at Jamestown and writes: "Oysters there, be in whole banks and beds, and those of the best I have seen some thirteen inches long. The savages used to boil oysters and mussels together and with the broth they make a good spoon meat, thickened with flour of their wheat (actually corn) and it is a great thrift and husbandry with them to hang the oysters upon strings ... and dried in the smoke, thereby preserve them all the year." Food was still not easy to come by in 1623, and a Virginian named Arundel wrote to his friend Mr. Caning in London: "The most evident hope from altogether starving is oysters, and for the easier getting of them I have agreed for a canoe which will cost me 6 livres sterling." After almost seven decades of colonization, Thomas Glover wrote in 1676 about the Elizabeth River, (which has become terribly polluted in our century and is the subject of much good-hearted restoration efforts today):"Here are such plenty of oysters as they may load ships with them. At the mouth of the Elizabeth River, when it is low water, they appear in rocks a foot above the water." A French visitor echoed this observation in 1687: "There are so many shell oysters that almost every Saturday my host craved them. He had only to send one of his servants in one of the small boats and two hours after ebb tide he brought it back full. These boats made of a single tree hollowed in the middle, can hold as many as fourteen people and twenty-five hundredweight of merchandise." Another chronicler wrote: "The abundance of oysters is incredible. There are whole banks of them so that the ships must avoid them. A sloop, which was to land us at Kingscreek (perhaps near to-day's Cape Charles) Struck an oyster bed, where we had to wait about two hours for the tide. (At first, I thought that this, one of a couple of references to being grounded on reefs, was anecdotal, and didn't make too much of it. But last month I ran across a chart of the James River, published by the Dutch, which shows about 17 "reefs" rising above the surface along the channels. None are there today.) These reefs, says Dr. Bill Hargis of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, were important to the success of oysters, because they kept these filter-feeding shellfish up in the water column within easy access of the maximum amount of plankton, their only food. The reefs also offered the oyster spat (young) a billion places to strike. The reefs or "rocks" were limited in vertical growth only by the height of the tide. Fisherman Phillip Vickers Fithian pointed out on March 1774: "On the edges of these shoals in Nominy River or in holes between the oyster rocks is plenty of fish. ... As we were rowing up Nominy we saw fishermen in great numbers in canoes almost constantly taking fish, - bass and perch."...(These oysters) "surpass those in England by far in size, indeed, they run four times as large. I often cut them in two, before I could put them into my mouth. The inhabitants usually catch them on Saturday. It is not troublesome. A pair of wooden tongs is needed. Below they are wide, tipped with iron. At the time of the ebb they row to the beds and with the long tongs they reach down to the bottom. They pinch them together tightly and then pull or tear up that which has been seized. They usually pull from six to ten times. In summer they are not very good, but unhealthy and can cause fever." At St. Mary's City, capitol of the upstart colony of Maryland in 1634, researcher Bretton Kent has found the first evidence of oyster overharvesting, as the little city grew from its original dispersed houses. Brett excavated the garbage dumps of houses for which he has exact dates, (such as built 1637, burned 1658, etc.) and therefore had one layer of garbage atop another at a roughly constant rate. The earliest oysters were the broadly fan-shaped "cove oysters," which grow solitary on sandy bottoms, and can be picked up at low tide or by wading. With the passage of years, these grew smaller and smaller; then suddenly the shape changed, from rounded to long, skinny "channel oysters," that had grown deeper in the estuary and more crowded together on the underwater "rocks." So, harvest methods, like those at Kingscreek, had changed to give access to less-accessible populations. When Annapolis became Maryland's capitol in the mid-1650s, St. Mary's City fell into disuse and within a few years, in homesite trash-pits, the big round cove oysters began showing up again just as they had during the times of the earlier Native Americans. Before 1705, Fransis Makamie "Father of American Presbyterian-ism" wrote: "Our vast plenty of oysters would make a beneficial trade, both with the town and foreign traders, believing we have the best oysters for pickling and transportation if carefully and skillfully managed." Pickling was the only palatable means then available for transporting oysters and they were quite popular. Robert "King" Carter of Carotoman on the Rappahannock speaks: "The oysters lasted until the third day of the feast, which to be sure, proves that the methods for keeping them is good, although much disputed by others ....July, 1776. ... I have ordered that ... every oyster be dipped into the vault (of washed salt) and every oyster dipped into it over all and then laid down on the floor again. ... Out of the eight bushels I had six pickled..." And:"Mt. Vernon, 1786, Sir :... Mrs. Washington joins me in thanking you also for your kind present of pickled oysters which were very fine. This mark of your politeness is flattering and we beg you to accept every good wish of ours in return." George Washington also presaged a use that was later to be made of the vast quantities of oyster shell taken from the Bay. He writes to Henry Knox in 1785: "I use a great deal of lime every year, made of the oyster shells, which before they are burnt, cost me twenty-five to thirty shillings a hundred bushels; but it is of mean quality, which makes me desirous of trying stone lime." In the 1860s, during the War Between the States, VIMS' Bill Hargis relates that while the Union gunboat Monitor was moored in the James, crewmen rowed out to the oyster banks at low water to walk about and gather oysters for dinner. Later in the 19th century, fishery biologists began to map this resource which was by then rapidly being destroyed, and from these surveys Dr. Gerry McCormick -Ray, at the University of Virginia, has reconstructed some of the profiles and strong vertical relief of oyster reefs that were then in Tangier Sound. Joe DeAl-teris at VIMS did a study some years ago in which he compared the earliest available bathymetric surveys with those of recent years and calculated that the structure of many once-massive reefs in the James had been broken down by nearly five feet over broad areas from repeated dredging. Dr. Roger Newell at Horn Point calculated a few years ago that in pre-Colonial times, oysters were so abundant that they had the capacity to filter the Bay's volume in a few days, and at present, oysters would take about a year to repeat the job. Some debate Roger's statement fiercely, but one only has to add algae to a tank with a dozen "selects" in it and in no time at all they'll filter it clear as tap water. Roger didn't say the whole Bay was filtered. Oysters didn't cover the whole Bay, but the trillions of gallons of water that did flow around reefs, and over beds were filtered repeatedly and immensely clarified. Todays' few remnants of oyster ground can't possibly do that job as well. Also, the water then had lesser amounts of nutrients, and the massive beds of aquatic grasses probably left they oysters with a smaller crop of plankton to work on. Author James Hungerford wrote in 1859 about about his youth prior to 1833 on Maryland's Patuxent:: "We had some time before rounded quiet point (Point Patience), the long point to the south of the Flats and had nearly gained the channels leading to Weatherby's Creek (perhaps Hungerford or Back Creek). "Our boat was now speeding at a swift rate along the lee shore; and the water shielded from the wind by the high cliffs of the river, lay tranquil around us. "How clear the water is", remarked Miss Susan, looking over the side of the boat; "I can see the fishes moving among the sea-grasses on the bottom." "Our river is famous for the purity of the water" said the major, with some enthusiasm of manner, "and has been said by those who are competent to give an opinion, to be one of the most beautiful streams in the world." Beautiful, indeed, and the Bay's once massive stocks of oysters, now largely vanished, helped to keep it that way. But with the end of the Colonial period, and the dawn of the 1800s, would come the unreasonable abuses of the Chesapeake's oysters: 2,000 skipjacks and buy boats dredging the Bay floor, countless men tonging the creeks, when a dozen railroad cars loaded with oysters - fresh and preserved - left Baltimore daily, bound for the West, as far as California's goldfields! Later, in this century, came the diseases dermo and MSX, which doubly decimated a struggling population.	3,141	ENGLISH	1
Roger WilliamsRoger Williams (c. 21 December 1603 – between 27 January and 15 March 1683) was a Puritan minister, theologian, and author who founded Providence Plantations, which became the Colony of Rhode Island. He was a staunch advocate for religious freedom, separation of church and state, and fair dealings with American Indians, and he was one of the first abolitionists. Williams was expelled by the Puritan leaders from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for spreading "new and dangerous ideas", and he established the Providence Plantations in 1636 as a refuge offering what he called "liberty of conscience". In 1638, he founded the First Baptist Church in America, also known as the First Baptist Church of Providence. He studied the Indian languages and wrote the first book on the Narragansett language, and he organized the first attempt to prohibit slavery in any of the American colonies. Provided by Wikipedia	<urn:uuid:9fbae32e-5e32-414d-b4c5-185512af66b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://search.books2ebooks.eu/Author/Home?author=Williams%2C+Roger	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00128.warc.gz	en	0.980289	183	3.765625	4	[ 0.11010909825563431, 0.11051119863986969, -0.07058393210172653, -0.2727794349193573, -0.0658206194639206, 0.025179369375109673, -0.27344274520874023, 0.1198282539844513, -0.1274997591972351, 0.3384294807910919, -0.046675749123096466, -0.13841891288757324, 0.002322510816156864, 0.2737980186...	1	Roger WilliamsRoger Williams (c. 21 December 1603 – between 27 January and 15 March 1683) was a Puritan minister, theologian, and author who founded Providence Plantations, which became the Colony of Rhode Island. He was a staunch advocate for religious freedom, separation of church and state, and fair dealings with American Indians, and he was one of the first abolitionists. Williams was expelled by the Puritan leaders from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for spreading "new and dangerous ideas", and he established the Providence Plantations in 1636 as a refuge offering what he called "liberty of conscience". In 1638, he founded the First Baptist Church in America, also known as the First Baptist Church of Providence. He studied the Indian languages and wrote the first book on the Narragansett language, and he organized the first attempt to prohibit slavery in any of the American colonies. Provided by Wikipedia	200	ENGLISH	1
Saint Turibius of Mogrovejo, Bishop March 23—Optional Memorial Liturgical Color: Purple (Lenten Weekday) Patron Saint of Latin American Bishops and native people’s rights A late vocation, he made up for lost time through ceaseless apostolic labors Today’s saint was the second Archbishop of the second most important city in Spain’s Latin American empire in the 1500s. Lima, Peru, stood only behind Mexico City in importance to the Spanish Crown during the pinnacle of its colonial ambitions. So when Lima’s first Archbishop died in 1575, the King of Spain, not the Pope, searched for a suitable candidate to send over sea and land to replace him. The King found his man close at hand, and he was more than suitable to the task. Turibius of Mogrovejo was a learned scholar of the law who held teaching and other posts in Spain’s complex of Church and civil courts. Yet for all his learning, piety, faith, and energy, there was one huge obstacle to him being a bishop. Turibius was not a priest. He was not even a deacon. He was a very good, albeit unmarried, layman. The arrangement for centuries between Spain and the Holy See was that the Spanish Crown chose bishops while the Pope approved, or rejected, them. So after the Pope approved the appointment, over the candidate’s fierce objections, Turibius received the four minor orders on four successive weeks, was ordained a deacon and then ordained a priest. He said his first Mass when he was over forty years old. About two years later, Turibius was consecrated as the new archbishop, and then sailed the ocean blue, arriving in Lima in May 1581. Archbishop Turibius was extraordinarily dedicated to his episcopal responsibilities. He exhausted himself on years-long visits to the parishes of his vast territory, which included present day Peru and beyond. He acquainted himself with the priests and people under his care. He convoked synods (large Church meetings) to standardize sacramental, pastoral, and liturgical practice. He produced an important trilingual catechism in Spanish and two native dialects, learned to preach in these indigenous dialects himself, and encouraged his priests to be able to hear confessions and preach in them as well. Archbishop Turibius’ life also providentially intersected with the lives of other saints active in Peru at the same time, including Martin de Porres, Francisco Solano, and Isabel Flores de Oliva, to whom Turibius gave the name Rose when he confirmed her. She was later canonized as Saint Rose of Lima, the first saint born in the New World. Saints know saints. Archbishop Turibius was a fine example of a counter-reformation bishop, except that he did not serve in a counter-reformation place. That is, Peru was not split by the Catholic versus Protestant theological divisions wreaking such havoc in the Europe of that era. Saint Turibius implemented the reforms of the Council of Trent, not to combat heretics, but to simply make the Church healthier and holier, Protestants or no Protestants. From this perspective, the reforms of Trent were not a cure but an antidote. If Turibius’ energy and holiness were motivated by any one thing besides evangelical fervor, it was his desire to make the Spanish colonists of Peru recover the integrity of their own baptisms. The indigenous population needed authentic examples of Christian living to respect and emulate, and few Spanish colonialists provided such models of right living. Saint Turibius’ greatest enemy, then, was simply original sin, which returns to the battlefield every time a baby is born. After exhausting himself through total dedication to his responsibilities, Saint Turibius fell ill on the road and died at age sixty-seven in a small town far from home. His twenty-four years as Archbishop were a trial of strength. He had baptized and confirmed half a million souls, had trekked thousands of miles on narrow paths made for goats, had never neglected to say Mass, and did not accept any gifts in return for what he gave. Turibius was canonized in 1726 and named the Patron Saint of Latin American Bishops by Pope Saint John Paul II in 1983. Perhaps his unforeseen ordination explains his sustained fervor and drive. What came late was valued for having come at all. He bloomed late and bloomed beautifully, becoming the Spanish equivalent of his great contemporary, the Italian Saint Charles Borromeo. If a visitor searches for the tomb of the saintly Archbishop in the Cathedral of Lima today, he will not find it. There are only fragments of bones in a reliquary. His reputation for holiness was immediate and his relics were distributed far and wide after his death. He is in death as widely shared as he was in life, all the faithful wanting just a piece of the great man. In January 2018, Pope Francis prayed before the relics of Saint Turibius in Lima and invoked his memory in a talk to Peru’s bishops. Saint Turibius did not, Pope Francis said, shepherd his diocese from behind a desk, but was a “a bishop with shoes worn out by walking, by constant travel, by setting out to preach the Gospel to all: to all places, on all occasions, without hesitation, reluctance, and fear.” Saint Turibius, we invoke your intercession to inspire all who share the gospel, in whatever form, to do so with ardour, skill, and charity, using all the means at their disposal, as you so powerfully did in your own life and ministry.	<urn:uuid:bd676a84-6ff4-4362-b5ab-c3e840dce445>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mycatholic.life/saints/saints-of-the-liturgical-year/march-23-saint-turibius-of-mogrovejo-bishop/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00494.warc.gz	en	0.982734	1,181	3.546875	4	[ -0.09368083626031876, -0.005205050110816956, 0.13268747925758362, -0.41952693462371826, -0.3164660930633545, -0.37599796056747437, 0.0022998973727226257, 0.399555504322052, 0.2052621841430664, -0.24482882022857666, -0.3555346727371216, -0.3511226773262024, 0.2886766791343689, 0.44041967391...	13	Saint Turibius of Mogrovejo, Bishop March 23—Optional Memorial Liturgical Color: Purple (Lenten Weekday) Patron Saint of Latin American Bishops and native people’s rights A late vocation, he made up for lost time through ceaseless apostolic labors Today’s saint was the second Archbishop of the second most important city in Spain’s Latin American empire in the 1500s. Lima, Peru, stood only behind Mexico City in importance to the Spanish Crown during the pinnacle of its colonial ambitions. So when Lima’s first Archbishop died in 1575, the King of Spain, not the Pope, searched for a suitable candidate to send over sea and land to replace him. The King found his man close at hand, and he was more than suitable to the task. Turibius of Mogrovejo was a learned scholar of the law who held teaching and other posts in Spain’s complex of Church and civil courts. Yet for all his learning, piety, faith, and energy, there was one huge obstacle to him being a bishop. Turibius was not a priest. He was not even a deacon. He was a very good, albeit unmarried, layman. The arrangement for centuries between Spain and the Holy See was that the Spanish Crown chose bishops while the Pope approved, or rejected, them. So after the Pope approved the appointment, over the candidate’s fierce objections, Turibius received the four minor orders on four successive weeks, was ordained a deacon and then ordained a priest. He said his first Mass when he was over forty years old. About two years later, Turibius was consecrated as the new archbishop, and then sailed the ocean blue, arriving in Lima in May 1581. Archbishop Turibius was extraordinarily dedicated to his episcopal responsibilities. He exhausted himself on years-long visits to the parishes of his vast territory, which included present day Peru and beyond. He acquainted himself with the priests and people under his care. He convoked synods (large Church meetings) to standardize sacramental, pastoral, and liturgical practice. He produced an important trilingual catechism in Spanish and two native dialects, learned to preach in these indigenous dialects himself, and encouraged his priests to be able to hear confessions and preach in them as well. Archbishop Turibius’ life also providentially intersected with the lives of other saints active in Peru at the same time, including Martin de Porres, Francisco Solano, and Isabel Flores de Oliva, to whom Turibius gave the name Rose when he confirmed her. She was later canonized as Saint Rose of Lima, the first saint born in the New World. Saints know saints. Archbishop Turibius was a fine example of a counter-reformation bishop, except that he did not serve in a counter-reformation place. That is, Peru was not split by the Catholic versus Protestant theological divisions wreaking such havoc in the Europe of that era. Saint Turibius implemented the reforms of the Council of Trent, not to combat heretics, but to simply make the Church healthier and holier, Protestants or no Protestants. From this perspective, the reforms of Trent were not a cure but an antidote. If Turibius’ energy and holiness were motivated by any one thing besides evangelical fervor, it was his desire to make the Spanish colonists of Peru recover the integrity of their own baptisms. The indigenous population needed authentic examples of Christian living to respect and emulate, and few Spanish colonialists provided such models of right living. Saint Turibius’ greatest enemy, then, was simply original sin, which returns to the battlefield every time a baby is born. After exhausting himself through total dedication to his responsibilities, Saint Turibius fell ill on the road and died at age sixty-seven in a small town far from home. His twenty-four years as Archbishop were a trial of strength. He had baptized and confirmed half a million souls, had trekked thousands of miles on narrow paths made for goats, had never neglected to say Mass, and did not accept any gifts in return for what he gave. Turibius was canonized in 1726 and named the Patron Saint of Latin American Bishops by Pope Saint John Paul II in 1983. Perhaps his unforeseen ordination explains his sustained fervor and drive. What came late was valued for having come at all. He bloomed late and bloomed beautifully, becoming the Spanish equivalent of his great contemporary, the Italian Saint Charles Borromeo. If a visitor searches for the tomb of the saintly Archbishop in the Cathedral of Lima today, he will not find it. There are only fragments of bones in a reliquary. His reputation for holiness was immediate and his relics were distributed far and wide after his death. He is in death as widely shared as he was in life, all the faithful wanting just a piece of the great man. In January 2018, Pope Francis prayed before the relics of Saint Turibius in Lima and invoked his memory in a talk to Peru’s bishops. Saint Turibius did not, Pope Francis said, shepherd his diocese from behind a desk, but was a “a bishop with shoes worn out by walking, by constant travel, by setting out to preach the Gospel to all: to all places, on all occasions, without hesitation, reluctance, and fear.” Saint Turibius, we invoke your intercession to inspire all who share the gospel, in whatever form, to do so with ardour, skill, and charity, using all the means at their disposal, as you so powerfully did in your own life and ministry.	1,176	ENGLISH	1
What makes each of these men heroic? Arguably, Socrates and Achilles form part of the ancient history well known for fictional and real heroic characters, especially for those who want to explore the impacts and relevance of heroism in real life. The concept of heroism forms part of the central theme in mythology, and life philosophies. For example, Achilles depicts the real concept of a catastrophic hero (Hobbs, 2006). Numerous aspects show the heroism between the Achilles and Socrates. Achilles was able to reverse and change his downfall and prove to other heroes and him that he was a true hero. Achilles was known to be immortal and invisible; when he was at his young age, his mother immortalized him by dipping in the River Styx, as she holds him in the heels. Achilles was courageous individual who could go to war without fear (Michelakis, 2007). In fact, Achilles was a hero because he always stood for his rights, for example, he stood against Agamemnon, who was the leader of the Greek army at that time. He was guided by wisdom/Athena, to do the right thing, especially in war. He made decisions based on wisdom, rather than joining the war because of insults. He was the best warrior, who without his leadership the entire group would lose the battle (Hobbs, 2006). He was also admirable than any other average person in society, additionally he had the fatal flaw that lead him to his own undoing. Furthermore, in times of war, he could not be defeated conventionally; he possessed exceptional stamina, resistance, strength as well as invulnerable (Michelakis, 2007). Socrates too was made a hero in different ways. He was a military hero, who served in times of war. His dead, causes of dead, and other surrounding events made him a hero. He was always the man of the people; repeatedly embarrassing political figures in the presence of the public, yet still the young men followed his ideologies (Waerdt, 1994). Additionally, Socrates disagreed with peoples decisions, but always believed that law and order should prevail. He was a hero because he would not flee, and always stayed steadfast to his teachings. His intelligence on how he argued and handled situations made be a hero. Furthermore, just like the Achilles, Socrates was courageous; remaining fully certain, that he better dies that going against his beliefs. Socrates and Achilles, possessed heroic ideologies, they were stubborn, willing to die for their believes, both straying from the societal norms. He Socrates took the risk and challenged the manmade authority of the time for a higher authority of gods (Hobbs, 2006). What motives drive each of these men to act in the way they do? The actions of Socrates and Achilles were driven by different motives in their life. Both were driven by believe to popularize, and make public their ideologies. Socrates was focused towards the real love, which he believed was the love of finest and beautiful things. They were motivated by the urge to attain success and happiness in life. Another driving motive was the search for honor and glory though the concept of immortality. Perhaps, Achilles and Socrates acted with courage in their lives because they were driven by the believe of super powers from gods, as well as ideologies on immortality. In fact, they both believed to be masculine and powerful; hence, they fought for fame and leadership (Waerdt, 1994) In what way do heroes teach us how to live? Undoubtedly, Socrates and Achilles are two prominent and influential heroes who have taught us how to live. They have both produced tremendous positive effects on how to live. From their heroic characters, individuals have learned the relevance of a spiritual nature and human physical characters. From their ideologies, they demonstrate the importance of law and order in the society, depicting it as necessary and fundamental (Hobbs, 2006). Based on the lives of Achilles and Socrates, it is clear that individuals should be courageous in their lives, especially in fighting for what they believe. Furthermore, for a community to be successful in times of war, they should have a leader to lead them through the fight. Additionally, individual has learned to respect the authorities, as well as adoring their supernatural. Immortality is just a myth, but in real life situation, no one is immortal, infact in the long run we will die. Despite the fact that dead is a reality in human life, we must always struggle to achieve how goals in life, even if it means dying for it. Hobbs, A. (2006). Plato and the Hero: Courage, Manliness, and the Impersonal Good. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Waerdt, V. (1994). The Socratic Movement. London: Cornell University Press. Michelakis, P. (2007). Achilles in Greek Tragedy. New York: Wiley.	<urn:uuid:f59bb911-e6c2-46d1-bd41-09f5c0ec667c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/achilles-and-socrates-heroic-figures-essay-examples/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00215.warc.gz	en	0.982112	999	4	4	[ -0.5045711398124695, 0.5890023708343506, 0.11332065612077713, 0.15515342354774475, -0.7733663320541382, -0.3624991178512573, 0.3949218988418579, 0.6479312777519226, -0.06559119373559952, -0.09844882786273956, 0.11407312005758286, -0.18569281697273254, 0.24741841852664948, 0.374356657266616...	2	What makes each of these men heroic? Arguably, Socrates and Achilles form part of the ancient history well known for fictional and real heroic characters, especially for those who want to explore the impacts and relevance of heroism in real life. The concept of heroism forms part of the central theme in mythology, and life philosophies. For example, Achilles depicts the real concept of a catastrophic hero (Hobbs, 2006). Numerous aspects show the heroism between the Achilles and Socrates. Achilles was able to reverse and change his downfall and prove to other heroes and him that he was a true hero. Achilles was known to be immortal and invisible; when he was at his young age, his mother immortalized him by dipping in the River Styx, as she holds him in the heels. Achilles was courageous individual who could go to war without fear (Michelakis, 2007). In fact, Achilles was a hero because he always stood for his rights, for example, he stood against Agamemnon, who was the leader of the Greek army at that time. He was guided by wisdom/Athena, to do the right thing, especially in war. He made decisions based on wisdom, rather than joining the war because of insults. He was the best warrior, who without his leadership the entire group would lose the battle (Hobbs, 2006). He was also admirable than any other average person in society, additionally he had the fatal flaw that lead him to his own undoing. Furthermore, in times of war, he could not be defeated conventionally; he possessed exceptional stamina, resistance, strength as well as invulnerable (Michelakis, 2007). Socrates too was made a hero in different ways. He was a military hero, who served in times of war. His dead, causes of dead, and other surrounding events made him a hero. He was always the man of the people; repeatedly embarrassing political figures in the presence of the public, yet still the young men followed his ideologies (Waerdt, 1994). Additionally, Socrates disagreed with peoples decisions, but always believed that law and order should prevail. He was a hero because he would not flee, and always stayed steadfast to his teachings. His intelligence on how he argued and handled situations made be a hero. Furthermore, just like the Achilles, Socrates was courageous; remaining fully certain, that he better dies that going against his beliefs. Socrates and Achilles, possessed heroic ideologies, they were stubborn, willing to die for their believes, both straying from the societal norms. He Socrates took the risk and challenged the manmade authority of the time for a higher authority of gods (Hobbs, 2006). What motives drive each of these men to act in the way they do? The actions of Socrates and Achilles were driven by different motives in their life. Both were driven by believe to popularize, and make public their ideologies. Socrates was focused towards the real love, which he believed was the love of finest and beautiful things. They were motivated by the urge to attain success and happiness in life. Another driving motive was the search for honor and glory though the concept of immortality. Perhaps, Achilles and Socrates acted with courage in their lives because they were driven by the believe of super powers from gods, as well as ideologies on immortality. In fact, they both believed to be masculine and powerful; hence, they fought for fame and leadership (Waerdt, 1994) In what way do heroes teach us how to live? Undoubtedly, Socrates and Achilles are two prominent and influential heroes who have taught us how to live. They have both produced tremendous positive effects on how to live. From their heroic characters, individuals have learned the relevance of a spiritual nature and human physical characters. From their ideologies, they demonstrate the importance of law and order in the society, depicting it as necessary and fundamental (Hobbs, 2006). Based on the lives of Achilles and Socrates, it is clear that individuals should be courageous in their lives, especially in fighting for what they believe. Furthermore, for a community to be successful in times of war, they should have a leader to lead them through the fight. Additionally, individual has learned to respect the authorities, as well as adoring their supernatural. Immortality is just a myth, but in real life situation, no one is immortal, infact in the long run we will die. Despite the fact that dead is a reality in human life, we must always struggle to achieve how goals in life, even if it means dying for it. Hobbs, A. (2006). Plato and the Hero: Courage, Manliness, and the Impersonal Good. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Waerdt, V. (1994). The Socratic Movement. London: Cornell University Press. Michelakis, P. (2007). Achilles in Greek Tragedy. New York: Wiley.	1,042	ENGLISH	1
It was found previously that certain brain structures were diminished among individuals with PTSD. Researchers said that this could be because of traumatic events experienced by these patients or due to PTSD. But other researchers feel that brain abnormalities may precede exposure to a traumatic event and increase the risk that a person who experiences such an event would develop PTSD. Tamara V. Gurvits, M.D., Ph.D., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Manchester, N.H., and colleagues studied 49 male Vietnam veterans and their identical twins, who had not experienced combat. Of the 49 participants 25 of them had PTSD and 24 had never had PTSD. They were evaluated by a neurologist-psychiatrist, who rated their ability from a score of zero to three on each of 45 neurologic tests, such as copying drawings of figures. Higher score indicates the presence of a subtle neurologic finding associated with difficulties in behavior, coordination and learning. Veterans with PTSD had higher scores than veterans without PTSD, indicating the presence of more minor neurologic abnormalities. The non-combat exposed twins of the combat veterans who had developed PTSD also had significantly higher scores than the non-combat exposed twins of the combat veterans who did not have the disorder. The higher scores among PTSD suggested a dysfunction in their cerebral cortex. This type of dysfunction could either increase the risk of developing PTSD or increasing the likelihood of chronic cases.	<urn:uuid:99ea98e5-404d-47d9-9dd4-e79f8b43d568>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=9929	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00370.warc.gz	en	0.980619	277	3.265625	3	[ -0.07311832904815674, 0.3562029004096985, 0.1894117295742035, -0.007363469339907169, 0.03905851021409035, 0.39813122153282166, 0.49159932136535645, 0.14924687147140503, 0.18839825689792633, -0.24191005527973175, 0.22733663022518158, -0.05767015740275383, 0.15791621804237366, 0.491564273834...	1	It was found previously that certain brain structures were diminished among individuals with PTSD. Researchers said that this could be because of traumatic events experienced by these patients or due to PTSD. But other researchers feel that brain abnormalities may precede exposure to a traumatic event and increase the risk that a person who experiences such an event would develop PTSD. Tamara V. Gurvits, M.D., Ph.D., Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Manchester, N.H., and colleagues studied 49 male Vietnam veterans and their identical twins, who had not experienced combat. Of the 49 participants 25 of them had PTSD and 24 had never had PTSD. They were evaluated by a neurologist-psychiatrist, who rated their ability from a score of zero to three on each of 45 neurologic tests, such as copying drawings of figures. Higher score indicates the presence of a subtle neurologic finding associated with difficulties in behavior, coordination and learning. Veterans with PTSD had higher scores than veterans without PTSD, indicating the presence of more minor neurologic abnormalities. The non-combat exposed twins of the combat veterans who had developed PTSD also had significantly higher scores than the non-combat exposed twins of the combat veterans who did not have the disorder. The higher scores among PTSD suggested a dysfunction in their cerebral cortex. This type of dysfunction could either increase the risk of developing PTSD or increasing the likelihood of chronic cases.	284	ENGLISH	1
A form of short time borrowing by the Government of Great Britain. It was first introduced in 1877. The bills are drawn in sums of £1,000, £5,000 and £10,000 each, either for three or for six months, and are issued - sold - to those who bid for them at the lowest rates. That is to say, they do not bear interest, but the purchaser obtains them at a price sufficiently less than their face value to cover the interest. In other words, the bills are sold " discontinued. " Treasury Notes of Act of July 14, 1890. By an Act of Congress, known as the Sherman Act, the Secretary of the Treasury was instructed to buy at the market price during each month, or so much thereof as was offered, fine silver to the amount of 4,500,000 ounces, paying for the same with treasury notes, redeemable on demand in coin and legal tender for all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. " It was provided in the act that when the notes should be redeemed or received for dues they might be reissued, but that no greater or less amount of such notes should be outstanding at any time than the cost of the silver bullion and the standard silver dollars coined therefrom, then held in the Treasury purchased by such notes." The purchasing clause of this act was repealed by Act of November 1, 1893; in the meantime there had been purchased 168,674,682.53 fine ounces costing $155,931,002 in treasury notes. From November 1, 1893, to July 1, 1894, there were coined from the bullion, 140,939,750 standard silver dollars, of which $94,897,110 represented the cost of the bullion coined, while the remainder, $46,042,640, constituted the gain or " seignor-age." On July 1, 1894, the total amount of silver bullion remaining uncoined was 5,607,238 fine ounces. In the United States these "are legal tender for all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract." On October 1, 1909, there were outstanding $4,071,000 of these.	<urn:uuid:2c5da556-98f5-4241-a3d3-9d5683c365b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://chestofbooks.com/finance/investments/Money-Investments/Treasury-Bills.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00525.warc.gz	en	0.980074	468	3.265625	3	[ -0.26123419404029846, -0.26000484824180603, 0.29276129603385925, -0.17244473099708557, 0.07165209949016571, -0.3822406232357025, -0.1389746516942978, -0.2519168555736542, 0.21782651543617249, -0.2619892954826355, 0.4074687659740448, 0.04201434180140495, 0.2458178699016571, 0.19810067117214...	4	A form of short time borrowing by the Government of Great Britain. It was first introduced in 1877. The bills are drawn in sums of £1,000, £5,000 and £10,000 each, either for three or for six months, and are issued - sold - to those who bid for them at the lowest rates. That is to say, they do not bear interest, but the purchaser obtains them at a price sufficiently less than their face value to cover the interest. In other words, the bills are sold " discontinued. " Treasury Notes of Act of July 14, 1890. By an Act of Congress, known as the Sherman Act, the Secretary of the Treasury was instructed to buy at the market price during each month, or so much thereof as was offered, fine silver to the amount of 4,500,000 ounces, paying for the same with treasury notes, redeemable on demand in coin and legal tender for all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. " It was provided in the act that when the notes should be redeemed or received for dues they might be reissued, but that no greater or less amount of such notes should be outstanding at any time than the cost of the silver bullion and the standard silver dollars coined therefrom, then held in the Treasury purchased by such notes." The purchasing clause of this act was repealed by Act of November 1, 1893; in the meantime there had been purchased 168,674,682.53 fine ounces costing $155,931,002 in treasury notes. From November 1, 1893, to July 1, 1894, there were coined from the bullion, 140,939,750 standard silver dollars, of which $94,897,110 represented the cost of the bullion coined, while the remainder, $46,042,640, constituted the gain or " seignor-age." On July 1, 1894, the total amount of silver bullion remaining uncoined was 5,607,238 fine ounces. In the United States these "are legal tender for all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract." On October 1, 1909, there were outstanding $4,071,000 of these.	541	ENGLISH	1
Do you help your child set goals? Children, just like adults, need to set goals in order to achieve certain things in their young life. Teaching your child to set goals can be very beneficial and it can aid the development of their responsibility, a key skill that will aid them throughout the entirety of their future. There are several ways that we can help our children set goals based on the situation and their age. Setting school and homework goals School is an important part of a child’s life from a very tender age. It is a necessity as it educates them and teaches them the ways of the world in preparation for the time that they will grow up, graduate and move on into the working world. Helping your child set school and homework goals can be done in several ways: - Be sure to ask them what they did in school every day - Ask them what they were proud of and what they struggled with - From there, make a check list of homework that you want them to do both in their strong points to make them feel proud when they complete it and the things they struggled with so that you can help them learn it. Setting life and relationship goals Relationships are something that will carry your child throughout their life in both love and friendships alike. Be sure to intervene and inquire with the teacher for young children to see if your child is fitting in well and mixing with others. Also, ask your child who their best friends are so you can then mingle with their parents and your children can spend more time with each other outside of the school environment. You can then sit down with your child and help them make new friends and as they get older, tell you about boys or girls that they like. Of course, for teenagers, parents should also be prepared for the talk to help their children prepare for their future potential marriage and the time they have children themselves. In essence, a good parent never stops helping their child set goals for their life and relationships. Setting creative goals Children need their creativity nurtured. Who knows, your child could be the next Tolkien; you never know! Taking steps to help your child develop their creativity is essential. Sit down with them as they get older and ask them what they like the most in school and then teach them new things. Teach them to draw, teach them to write stories and potentially even teach them to play music. You can then set them goals and deadlines for writing you stories, drawing you pictures or even singing you a new song. As they get older, you can continue this trend and in the future, you can even have a portfolio of your child’s creative works to give them for the sake of nostalgia and to show them how much they have progressed creatively. Parenting is arguably the most difficult and strenuous career of them all, but equally the most rewarding. Money is never an object when it comes to being a good parent, it is all down to the love and dedication and helping your child set goals is a sign of triumph as a parent as doing so can cover all forms of your relationship with your child. Help them set school and homework goals, help them progress through life and relationships and even nurture their creativity. As parents, let’s help our children enjoy a bright and happy future by helping them set goals.	<urn:uuid:fa5783f1-d819-4418-a8e0-1586a8d0d8e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.divaswithapurpose.com/help-your-child-set-goals/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00326.warc.gz	en	0.982068	679	3.40625	3	[ 0.11918500065803528, -0.40723419189453125, 0.7106706500053406, -0.7546120882034302, -0.5012904405593872, 0.24151435494422913, -0.06703836470842361, -0.1447027325630188, -0.16386455297470093, -0.15416111052036285, 0.24914339184761047, 0.014423267915844917, 0.23748260736465454, 0.63798415660...	12	Do you help your child set goals? Children, just like adults, need to set goals in order to achieve certain things in their young life. Teaching your child to set goals can be very beneficial and it can aid the development of their responsibility, a key skill that will aid them throughout the entirety of their future. There are several ways that we can help our children set goals based on the situation and their age. Setting school and homework goals School is an important part of a child’s life from a very tender age. It is a necessity as it educates them and teaches them the ways of the world in preparation for the time that they will grow up, graduate and move on into the working world. Helping your child set school and homework goals can be done in several ways: - Be sure to ask them what they did in school every day - Ask them what they were proud of and what they struggled with - From there, make a check list of homework that you want them to do both in their strong points to make them feel proud when they complete it and the things they struggled with so that you can help them learn it. Setting life and relationship goals Relationships are something that will carry your child throughout their life in both love and friendships alike. Be sure to intervene and inquire with the teacher for young children to see if your child is fitting in well and mixing with others. Also, ask your child who their best friends are so you can then mingle with their parents and your children can spend more time with each other outside of the school environment. You can then sit down with your child and help them make new friends and as they get older, tell you about boys or girls that they like. Of course, for teenagers, parents should also be prepared for the talk to help their children prepare for their future potential marriage and the time they have children themselves. In essence, a good parent never stops helping their child set goals for their life and relationships. Setting creative goals Children need their creativity nurtured. Who knows, your child could be the next Tolkien; you never know! Taking steps to help your child develop their creativity is essential. Sit down with them as they get older and ask them what they like the most in school and then teach them new things. Teach them to draw, teach them to write stories and potentially even teach them to play music. You can then set them goals and deadlines for writing you stories, drawing you pictures or even singing you a new song. As they get older, you can continue this trend and in the future, you can even have a portfolio of your child’s creative works to give them for the sake of nostalgia and to show them how much they have progressed creatively. Parenting is arguably the most difficult and strenuous career of them all, but equally the most rewarding. Money is never an object when it comes to being a good parent, it is all down to the love and dedication and helping your child set goals is a sign of triumph as a parent as doing so can cover all forms of your relationship with your child. Help them set school and homework goals, help them progress through life and relationships and even nurture their creativity. As parents, let’s help our children enjoy a bright and happy future by helping them set goals.	662	ENGLISH	1
The story of Su Wu (140-60 B.C.), a Chinese diplomat and statesman of the Han Dynasty who survived captivity for 19 years in a foreign territory while maintaining his integrity and loyalty to his homeland, has been an inspiration for generations of Chinese children. His good friend Li Ling, a well-known general and warrior, on the other hand, surrendered to the enemy, Xiongnu (a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who ruled a territory that extended from western Manchuria (Northeast Provinces) to the Pamirs and covered much of present Siberia and Mongolia), and lived the rest of life with disgrace and regret for betraying his homeland. The opposite stories of these two good friends became the subjects of literary works throughout Chinese history. In 99 B.C., General Li Ling led an infantry of 5,000 soldiers on an offensive mission into Xiongnu’s territory. Unfortunately, they were encircled by Xiongnu’s main force of 80,000 cavalrymen. Li Ling and his troops battled hard and killed more than 10,000 enemy soldiers; however, his troops were outnumbered and out of supplies, and almost the entire troop was killed. Eventually, Li Ling surrendered. Emperor Wu initially planned to pardon Li Ling considering the difficulties Li Ling had faced, but he changed his mind when he received news from the frontline that Li Ling was training the Xiongnu army. Emperor Wu ordered Li Ling’s entire family to be executed for his treason. Shortly before Li Ling went to war, Su was commissioned to serve as an ambassador to Xiongnu. When he arrived, Xiongnu was challenged by an internal uprising and he was detained. Knowing that he would be forced to surrender, Su attempted to commit suicide to preserve his dignity, but was rescued. The ruler of Xiongnu, Chanyu, imprisoned Su in a cellar without food and drink. For several days, Su survived by eating snow and wool from his coat. Chanyu was surprised and thought that it was a miracle. Chanyu then exiled Su Wu to a barren territory in the North Sea (today’s Lake Baikal). Suffering alone, Su never wavered. He held onto the imperial staff (given to all imperial messengers) of the Han and used it to herd sheep. One day, Li Ling came; they feasted and caught up with each other. Li Ling told Su Wu: “Xiongnu’s ruler Chanyu heard that we had a friendship so he sent me to convey to you that he wanted you to serve him. Who knows about your loyalty in this uninhabited land? Your two brothers committed suicide because they were ashamed of failure to complete their missions. Before I came to this war, your mother passed away and I sent her body off to Yangling Mountain; I also heard that your wife had remarried, and I have had no news of all your family members for more than ten years. I do not know whether they are still alive or dead.” Li Ling said further: “I was very frustrated for betraying the Han Emperor when I first surrendered. Please listen to me; don’t resist anymore!” Su Wu replied: “My father and I had nothing to begin with, and we owe our accomplishments to Emperor Wu. Our family is willing to sacrifice ourselves to repay our gratitude to the Emperor. Please say no more. If I must surrender, I would rather die immediately.” Li Ling and Su Wu spent a few more days together. Li Ling again urged Su Wu. “You should seriously consider my advice!” Su Wu again answered: “I have been wanting to die for a long time! If you insist on me surrendering, I will die in front of you today!” Li Ling finally understood Su Wu’s sincerity and sighed: “You are truly a righteous man! I have committed unpardonable sins because of my betrayal and my advice for you to surrender!” He broke down in tears and parted from Su Wu. Translated by Chua BC and edited by Angela Source: The Epoch Times	<urn:uuid:c0ac40e5-1bdc-409c-8cc1-632a6ad4da86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.visiontimes.com/2019/10/26/the-regret-of-a-traitor-part-1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00538.warc.gz	en	0.980104	866	3.984375	4	[ -0.5501012206077576, 0.24260751903057098, -0.0368453748524189, 0.013933726586401463, 0.002017226070165634, -0.019517144188284874, 0.4194492995738983, -0.11054742336273193, -0.07473024725914001, -0.05647736415266991, 0.35752466320991516, -0.5774625539779663, 0.6064779162406921, 0.4484233260...	5	The story of Su Wu (140-60 B.C.), a Chinese diplomat and statesman of the Han Dynasty who survived captivity for 19 years in a foreign territory while maintaining his integrity and loyalty to his homeland, has been an inspiration for generations of Chinese children. His good friend Li Ling, a well-known general and warrior, on the other hand, surrendered to the enemy, Xiongnu (a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who ruled a territory that extended from western Manchuria (Northeast Provinces) to the Pamirs and covered much of present Siberia and Mongolia), and lived the rest of life with disgrace and regret for betraying his homeland. The opposite stories of these two good friends became the subjects of literary works throughout Chinese history. In 99 B.C., General Li Ling led an infantry of 5,000 soldiers on an offensive mission into Xiongnu’s territory. Unfortunately, they were encircled by Xiongnu’s main force of 80,000 cavalrymen. Li Ling and his troops battled hard and killed more than 10,000 enemy soldiers; however, his troops were outnumbered and out of supplies, and almost the entire troop was killed. Eventually, Li Ling surrendered. Emperor Wu initially planned to pardon Li Ling considering the difficulties Li Ling had faced, but he changed his mind when he received news from the frontline that Li Ling was training the Xiongnu army. Emperor Wu ordered Li Ling’s entire family to be executed for his treason. Shortly before Li Ling went to war, Su was commissioned to serve as an ambassador to Xiongnu. When he arrived, Xiongnu was challenged by an internal uprising and he was detained. Knowing that he would be forced to surrender, Su attempted to commit suicide to preserve his dignity, but was rescued. The ruler of Xiongnu, Chanyu, imprisoned Su in a cellar without food and drink. For several days, Su survived by eating snow and wool from his coat. Chanyu was surprised and thought that it was a miracle. Chanyu then exiled Su Wu to a barren territory in the North Sea (today’s Lake Baikal). Suffering alone, Su never wavered. He held onto the imperial staff (given to all imperial messengers) of the Han and used it to herd sheep. One day, Li Ling came; they feasted and caught up with each other. Li Ling told Su Wu: “Xiongnu’s ruler Chanyu heard that we had a friendship so he sent me to convey to you that he wanted you to serve him. Who knows about your loyalty in this uninhabited land? Your two brothers committed suicide because they were ashamed of failure to complete their missions. Before I came to this war, your mother passed away and I sent her body off to Yangling Mountain; I also heard that your wife had remarried, and I have had no news of all your family members for more than ten years. I do not know whether they are still alive or dead.” Li Ling said further: “I was very frustrated for betraying the Han Emperor when I first surrendered. Please listen to me; don’t resist anymore!” Su Wu replied: “My father and I had nothing to begin with, and we owe our accomplishments to Emperor Wu. Our family is willing to sacrifice ourselves to repay our gratitude to the Emperor. Please say no more. If I must surrender, I would rather die immediately.” Li Ling and Su Wu spent a few more days together. Li Ling again urged Su Wu. “You should seriously consider my advice!” Su Wu again answered: “I have been wanting to die for a long time! If you insist on me surrendering, I will die in front of you today!” Li Ling finally understood Su Wu’s sincerity and sighed: “You are truly a righteous man! I have committed unpardonable sins because of my betrayal and my advice for you to surrender!” He broke down in tears and parted from Su Wu. Translated by Chua BC and edited by Angela Source: The Epoch Times	841	ENGLISH	1
The 12 Olympians were the gods who ruled after the overthrow of the Titans. They are named after Mount Olympus, where most of them reside. The twelve gods most commonly portrayed in art and poetry as the 12 Olympians were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes and either Hestia, or Dionysus. Hades was not usually included because he lives in the underworld and rarely visits Mount Olympus. Heroes and Monsters The Role of Heroes in Greek Mythology and Culture The hero cult was one of the most distinctive parts of ancient Greek religion. The exploits of a hero, second only to the feats of the gods, played an integral role in stories of the gods. A ‘hero’ in early Greek texts seemed to be defined as a notable man or woman, often of divine ancestry, who was endowed with great courage and strength and celebrated for his or her bold exploits and favoured by the gods. People looked upon heroes with veneration, and regarded them as national ancestors, the founders of great Greek cities and families. Indeed, the Greeks paid tribute to heroes in the same way that they would pay tribute to their ancestors. From the 5th century BC onward, heroes were a popular form of religious worship, and to have the allegiance of a hero was said to be a great advantage. Heroes could demonstrate both good and evil power. To gratify these heroes, people made offerings at shrines, often located at the sight of burial or death. Some heroes were worshipped at certain places, Oedipus at Colonus, Theus at Athens. Honouring a hero would help secure his support in times of crisis, while those who insulted him would incur his wrath. The Legend of Heracles Heracles, son of Zeus and Alcmene, was the strongest mortal man in all of existence. Zeus slept with Alcemne in the guise of her husband, Amphitryon, and impregnated her. She later had twins, one from Zeus and one from Amphitryon. Heracles was raised on a farm, and as time passed, he began to get stronger and stronger. Hera, angry that Heracles was Zeus’s illegitimate son, was well aware of Heracles’s growing abilities. She afflicted Heracles with a sudden madness, which caused him to attack Iolaus, who luckily escaped. Heracles began shooting arrows at imaginary beasts; when the madness lifted he discovered he had killed his children and two of Iphicles. Horrified, Heracles secluded himself from any human contact and begged the king of Thespiae for purification. He then consulted an oracle for atonement and was instructed that he was to service the king of Argos, Eurystheus. The result was the famous Labours of Heracles. Eurystheus had originally only intended ten labours for Heracles, but he had discounted the Lernean Hydra and the Augean stables. 1. The Nemean Lion – Heracles’ first labour was to kill a monster called the Nemean lion, whose skin could not be penetrated by spears or arrows. Heracles barricaded the entrances to the lion’s cave and fought the lion face to face, throttling it to death with his bare hands. 2. The Hydra – The second of Hercales’ tasks was to slay the Hydra, a monstrous, many-headed serpent that lived in lake Lerna, guarding an entrance to the Underworld. For every head that Heracles cur off, 2 more grew in its place. Heracles’ nephew suggested burning the stumps of the heads after they were cut off, preventing them from growing back. When the monster was left with only one head, he buried the remaining head beneath a great boulder. Eurystheus discounted this labour as Hercules had had help. 3. The Erymanthian Boar – Heracles’ 3rd task was to capture and bring the Erymanthian boar to the King. While on the way to the mountain on which the boar lived, Heracles visited his centaur friend, Pholus, to rest before continuing his journey. He unintentionally angered the other centaurs and, while defending himself, accidentally killed Pholus, and his old teacher, Chiron. Full of…	<urn:uuid:dee64efa-2fde-417e-972f-2b94beef32b9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/The-Pantheon-Of-Greek-Gods-605697.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00142.warc.gz	en	0.980771	908	3.765625	4	[ -0.07347682118415833, 0.24724081158638, 0.08679702132940292, -0.15753157436847687, -0.8546350598335266, -0.39979809522628784, 0.2821460962295532, 0.44090139865875244, -0.031841546297073364, -0.04546132683753967, -0.36028939485549927, -0.311514675617218, 0.17757469415664673, 0.2399386316537...	1	The 12 Olympians were the gods who ruled after the overthrow of the Titans. They are named after Mount Olympus, where most of them reside. The twelve gods most commonly portrayed in art and poetry as the 12 Olympians were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes and either Hestia, or Dionysus. Hades was not usually included because he lives in the underworld and rarely visits Mount Olympus. Heroes and Monsters The Role of Heroes in Greek Mythology and Culture The hero cult was one of the most distinctive parts of ancient Greek religion. The exploits of a hero, second only to the feats of the gods, played an integral role in stories of the gods. A ‘hero’ in early Greek texts seemed to be defined as a notable man or woman, often of divine ancestry, who was endowed with great courage and strength and celebrated for his or her bold exploits and favoured by the gods. People looked upon heroes with veneration, and regarded them as national ancestors, the founders of great Greek cities and families. Indeed, the Greeks paid tribute to heroes in the same way that they would pay tribute to their ancestors. From the 5th century BC onward, heroes were a popular form of religious worship, and to have the allegiance of a hero was said to be a great advantage. Heroes could demonstrate both good and evil power. To gratify these heroes, people made offerings at shrines, often located at the sight of burial or death. Some heroes were worshipped at certain places, Oedipus at Colonus, Theus at Athens. Honouring a hero would help secure his support in times of crisis, while those who insulted him would incur his wrath. The Legend of Heracles Heracles, son of Zeus and Alcmene, was the strongest mortal man in all of existence. Zeus slept with Alcemne in the guise of her husband, Amphitryon, and impregnated her. She later had twins, one from Zeus and one from Amphitryon. Heracles was raised on a farm, and as time passed, he began to get stronger and stronger. Hera, angry that Heracles was Zeus’s illegitimate son, was well aware of Heracles’s growing abilities. She afflicted Heracles with a sudden madness, which caused him to attack Iolaus, who luckily escaped. Heracles began shooting arrows at imaginary beasts; when the madness lifted he discovered he had killed his children and two of Iphicles. Horrified, Heracles secluded himself from any human contact and begged the king of Thespiae for purification. He then consulted an oracle for atonement and was instructed that he was to service the king of Argos, Eurystheus. The result was the famous Labours of Heracles. Eurystheus had originally only intended ten labours for Heracles, but he had discounted the Lernean Hydra and the Augean stables. 1. The Nemean Lion – Heracles’ first labour was to kill a monster called the Nemean lion, whose skin could not be penetrated by spears or arrows. Heracles barricaded the entrances to the lion’s cave and fought the lion face to face, throttling it to death with his bare hands. 2. The Hydra – The second of Hercales’ tasks was to slay the Hydra, a monstrous, many-headed serpent that lived in lake Lerna, guarding an entrance to the Underworld. For every head that Heracles cur off, 2 more grew in its place. Heracles’ nephew suggested burning the stumps of the heads after they were cut off, preventing them from growing back. When the monster was left with only one head, he buried the remaining head beneath a great boulder. Eurystheus discounted this labour as Hercules had had help. 3. The Erymanthian Boar – Heracles’ 3rd task was to capture and bring the Erymanthian boar to the King. While on the way to the mountain on which the boar lived, Heracles visited his centaur friend, Pholus, to rest before continuing his journey. He unintentionally angered the other centaurs and, while defending himself, accidentally killed Pholus, and his old teacher, Chiron. Full of…	900	ENGLISH	1
Cantonist schools were established by the 1721 decree of Tsar Peter the Great that stipulated that every regiment was required to maintain a school for 50 boys. Their enrollment was increased in 1732, and the term was set from the age of 7 to 15. The curriculum included grammar and arithmetic, and those with a corresponding aptitude were taught artillery, fortification, music and singing, scrivenery, equine veterinary science, or mechanics. Those lacking in any talent were taught carpentry, blacksmithing, shoemaking and other trades useful to the military. The ablest ones were taught for additional 3 years, until the age of 18. All entered military service at the completion of their studies. The decree of 1758 required all male children of the military personnel to be taught in the cantonist schools. In 1798 a military "asylum-orphanage" was established in St Petersburg, and all regimental schools were renamed after it, the total enrollment reaching 16 400. The schools were reorganized in 1805 and all children were now referred to as cantonists. After the War of 1812 their number increased dramatically, when many orphaned children of military personnel killed in the war enrolled in cantonist schools voluntarily. During this period the curriculum of cantonist schools was equivalent to that of gymnasia, and military subjects were not taught. In 1824 all cantonist schools were made answerable to the Director of Military Settlements Count Aleksey Arakcheyev, and in 1826 they were organized into cantonist battalions. The standards of curriculum dropped significantly, and it was limited to the subjects useful to the military. During the reign of the Nicholas I of Russia the number of cantonists reached 36,000. Several cantonist battalions became specialized: they prepared auditors, artillerists, engineers, military surgeons, cartographers. More children were added to the category of cantonists. Eventually children of the discharged soldiers were also included, illegitimate children of soldiers' wives' or widows', and even foundlings. There were several exemptions: - Legitimate sons of staff-officers, and all officers awarded the Order of St. Vladimir 4th class. - A single son of a junior staff-officer, out of a total number of his children, if he had no sons born after his attainment of the officer's rank. - A single son of a junior officer maimed in battle. - A single son of a widow of a junior officer or an enlisted man killed in action or deceased during service. There were considerable differences in cantonists' service obligations:Children of nobility were required to serve for 3 years at the completion of their studies. Children of senior officers - 6 years. Children of clergy - 8 years. All other social categories - 25 years. There were forcible conscription of underage recruits from the populations of Old Believers, Gypsies, and common vagabonds from 1805, Jews from 1827, and Poles from 1831. After 1827, the term was applied to Jewish and Karaite boys, who were drafted to military service at the age of twelve and placed for their six-year military education in cantonist schools. Like all other conscripts, they were required to serve in the Imperial Russian army for 25 years after the completion of their studies (in 1834 the term was reduced to 20 years plus five years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years of reserve). According to the "Statute on Conscription Duty" signed by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia on August 26 (September 7 new style), 1827, Jews were made liable to personal military service and were subject to the same conscription quota as all other tax-paying estates ("sosloviya") in the Russian Empire. The total number of conscripts was uniform for all populations (four conscripts per each thousand subjects); however, the actual recruitment was implemented by the local qahals and so a disproportionate number of Jewish conscripts were underage. The main goal behind the compulsory military service was the integration of Jews and other non-Russian minorities into Russian society (effectively to the detriment of their religious and national identities). Ukrainian and Polish cantonists were also pressured to assimilate, as part of general policy of Russification. However, in the case of Jews, unlike similar measures implemented earlier by the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Joseph II, the Russian policy failed to provide greater civil and economic rights. In the aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities often were abducted, and placed in cantonist schools, with the intent of their Russification. The vast majority of Jews entered the Russian Empire with the territories acquired as the result of the last partitions of Poland of the 1790s; their civil rights were severely restricted (see Pale of Settlement). Most lacked knowledge of the official Russian language. Before 1827, Jews were doubly taxed in lieu of being obligated to serve in the army and their inclusion was supposed to alleviate this burden. However, the number of recruits reduced the number of young men that could go into the workforce, and this in combination with political restrictions led to widespread destitution. Russia was divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western "conscription zones" and the levy was announced annually for only one of them. The Pale of Jewish settlement was outside conscription in the fallow years, so the conscription in general and of cantonists in particular occurred once every four years, except during the Crimean War, when conscription was annual. The first 1827 draft involved some 1,800 Jewish conscripts; by the qahal's decision half of them were children. In 1843 the conscription system was extended to the Kingdom of Poland that was previously exempt from it. There were some significant differences in treatment of Jews and non-Jews: all others were required to provide conscripts between 18 and 35, while for Jews the age limit was 12–25, and it was left to the discretion of the Jewish qahal to choose conscripts from whatever age they decided. Thus in practice, Jewish children were often conscripted as young as eight or nine years old. This system created a disproportionate number of Jewish cantonists, and betrayed the utilitarian agenda of the statute: to draft those more likely to be susceptible to external influence, and thus to assimilation. The 'decree of August 26, 1827' made Jews liable for military service, and allowed their conscription between the ages of twelve and twenty-five. Each year, the Jewish community had to supply four recruits per thousand of the population. Strict quotas were imposed on all communities and the qahals were given the unpleasant task of implementing conscription within the Jewish communities. Since the merchant-guild members, agricultural colonists, factory mechanics, clergy, and all Jews with secondary education were exempt, and the wealthy bribed their way out of having their children conscripted, fewer potential conscripts were available; the adopted policy deeply sharpened internal Jewish social tensions. Seeking to protect the socio-economic and religious integrity of Jewish society, the qahals did their best to include “non-useful Jews” in the draft lists so that the heads of tax-paying middle-class families were predominantly exempt from conscription, whereas single Jews, as well as "heretics" (Haskalah influenced individuals), paupers, outcasts, and orphaned children were drafted. They used their power to suppress protests and intimidate potential informers who sought to expose the arbitrariness of the qahal to the Russian government. In some cases, communal elders had the most threatening informers murdered (such as the Ushitsa case, 1836) The zoning rule was suspended during the Crimean war, when conscription became annual. During this period the qahals leaders would employ informers and kidnappers (Russian: "ловчики", lovchiki, Yiddish: khappers), as many potential conscripts preferred to run away rather than voluntarily submit. In the case of unfulfilled quotas, younger boys of eight and even younger were frequently taken. All cantonists were institutionally underfed, and encouraged to steal food from the local population, in emulation of the Spartan character building. On one occasion in 1856, a Jewish cantonist Khodulevich managed to steal the Tsar's own watch during military games at Uman. Not only was he not punished, but he was given a reward of 25 roubles for his prowess. The boys in cantonist schools were given extensive training in Russian grammar (and sometimes literature), and mathematics, in particular geometry necessary in naval and artillery service. Those who showed aptitude for music were trained in singing and instrumental music, as the Imperial Army had a large demand for military wind bands and choirs. Some cavalry regiments maintained equestrian bands of torban players, and cantonist schools supplied these as well. Some cantonist schools also prepared firearms mechanics, veterinarians for cavalry, and administrators ("auditors"). The official policy was to encourage their conversion to the state religion of Orthodox Christianity and Jewish boys were coerced to baptism. As kosher food was unavailable, they were faced with the necessity of abandoning of Jewish dietary laws. Polish Catholic boys were subject to similar pressure to convert and assimilate as the Russian Empire was hostile to Catholicism and Polish nationalism. Initially conversions were few, but after the escalation of missionary activities in the cantonist schools in 1844, about one third of all Jewish cantonists would have undergone conversion. For all cantonists, their 25-year term of service began after they reached the age of 18 and were distributed into the army. The distribution patterns of the 18-year-old cantonists show that Jews were not discriminated against: they demonstrated similar average literacy, physical ability, and training accomplishments and were sent in the same army and navy regiments as Christian graduating cantonists. A comparison between baptized and unbaptized Jewish cantonists indicates relatively insignificant advantages that the former enjoyed over the latter. Discriminatory regulations however ensured that unconverted Jews were held back in their army promotions. According to Benjamin Nathans, "... the formal incorporation of Jews into Nicolas I's army was quickly compromised by laws distinguishing Jewish from non-Jewish soldiers. Less than two years after the 1827 decree on conscription, Jews were barred from certain elite units, and beginning in 1832 they were subject to separate, more stringent criteria for promotion, which required that they "distinguish themselves in combat with the enemy." Jews who refused to convert were barred from ascending above the rank of "унтер-офицер" i.e. NCO. There were only eight exceptions that were recorded during the 19th century. These restrictions were not lifted until the February Revolution in 1917. Some baptized cantonists eventually reached high ranks in the Imperial Army and Navy; among them were generals Grulev, Arnoldi, Zeil, Khanukov; admirals Kaufman, Sapsay, Kefali. The cantonists' fate was sometimes described by Yiddish and Russian literature classics. Alexander Herzen in his My Past and Thoughts described his somber encounter with Jewish cantonists. While being convoyed to his exile in 1835 at Vyatka, Herzen met a unit of emaciated Jewish cantonists, some eight years old, who were marched to Kazan. Their (sympathetic) officer complained that a third had already died. Nikolai Leskov described underage Jewish cantonists in his 1863 story "The Musk-Ox" (Ovtsebyk). Judah Steinberg described underage Jewish cantonists in his novel "In Those Days" (English translation in 1915, from the Hebrew). The cantonist policy was abolished by Tsar Alexander II's decree on 26 August 1856, in the aftermath of the Russian defeat in the Crimean war, which made evident the dire necessity for the modernisation of the Russian military forces. All unconverted cantonists and recruits under the age of 20 were returned to their families. The underage converted cantonists were given to their godparents. However the implementation of the abolition took nearly 3 years. It is estimated that between 30,000 and 70,000 Jewish boys served as cantonists, their numbers were disproportionately high in relation to the total number of cantonists. Jewish boys comprised about 20% of cantonists at the schools in Riga and Vitebsk, and as much as 50% at Kazan and Kiev schools. A general estimate for the years 1840–1850 seems to have been about 15%. In general Jews comprised a disproportionate number of recruits (ten for every thousand of the male population as opposed to seven out of every thousand), the number was tripled during the Crimean War (1853–1856). At the conclusion of the conscription term, former cantonists were allowed to live and own land anywhere in the Empire, outside the Pale of Settlement. The earliest Jewish communities in Finland were Jewish cantonists who had completed their service. The rate of conversion was generally high, at about one third, as was eventual intermarriage. Most never returned to their homes. Jewish cantonist recruits in 1843–1854, according to statistics of the Russian War Ministry. Only in the eleven years listed below – the total of 29,115 children were conscripted. It is assumed that between 1827 and 1856, there were over 50,000 of them.1843 - 1,490 1844 - 1,428 1845 - 1,476 1846 - 1,332 1847 - 1,527 1848 - 2,265 1849 - 2,612 1850 - 2,445 1851 - 3,674 1852 - 3,351 1853 - 3,904 1854 - 3,611	<urn:uuid:30db1ae5-cfb3-4ea9-b202-9b81a7b6ea58>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Cantonist	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00461.warc.gz	en	0.983952	2,929	3.28125	3	[ -0.054747991263866425, -0.051307547837495804, 0.4753773808479309, -0.45956146717071533, -0.42306825518608093, -0.351539671421051, -0.2808111011981964, 0.01772724837064743, -0.15976354479789734, -0.0258234441280365, 0.3303842544555664, -0.20677658915519714, 0.009786554612219334, 0.165647879...	1	Cantonist schools were established by the 1721 decree of Tsar Peter the Great that stipulated that every regiment was required to maintain a school for 50 boys. Their enrollment was increased in 1732, and the term was set from the age of 7 to 15. The curriculum included grammar and arithmetic, and those with a corresponding aptitude were taught artillery, fortification, music and singing, scrivenery, equine veterinary science, or mechanics. Those lacking in any talent were taught carpentry, blacksmithing, shoemaking and other trades useful to the military. The ablest ones were taught for additional 3 years, until the age of 18. All entered military service at the completion of their studies. The decree of 1758 required all male children of the military personnel to be taught in the cantonist schools. In 1798 a military "asylum-orphanage" was established in St Petersburg, and all regimental schools were renamed after it, the total enrollment reaching 16 400. The schools were reorganized in 1805 and all children were now referred to as cantonists. After the War of 1812 their number increased dramatically, when many orphaned children of military personnel killed in the war enrolled in cantonist schools voluntarily. During this period the curriculum of cantonist schools was equivalent to that of gymnasia, and military subjects were not taught. In 1824 all cantonist schools were made answerable to the Director of Military Settlements Count Aleksey Arakcheyev, and in 1826 they were organized into cantonist battalions. The standards of curriculum dropped significantly, and it was limited to the subjects useful to the military. During the reign of the Nicholas I of Russia the number of cantonists reached 36,000. Several cantonist battalions became specialized: they prepared auditors, artillerists, engineers, military surgeons, cartographers. More children were added to the category of cantonists. Eventually children of the discharged soldiers were also included, illegitimate children of soldiers' wives' or widows', and even foundlings. There were several exemptions: - Legitimate sons of staff-officers, and all officers awarded the Order of St. Vladimir 4th class. - A single son of a junior staff-officer, out of a total number of his children, if he had no sons born after his attainment of the officer's rank. - A single son of a junior officer maimed in battle. - A single son of a widow of a junior officer or an enlisted man killed in action or deceased during service. There were considerable differences in cantonists' service obligations:Children of nobility were required to serve for 3 years at the completion of their studies. Children of senior officers - 6 years. Children of clergy - 8 years. All other social categories - 25 years. There were forcible conscription of underage recruits from the populations of Old Believers, Gypsies, and common vagabonds from 1805, Jews from 1827, and Poles from 1831. After 1827, the term was applied to Jewish and Karaite boys, who were drafted to military service at the age of twelve and placed for their six-year military education in cantonist schools. Like all other conscripts, they were required to serve in the Imperial Russian army for 25 years after the completion of their studies (in 1834 the term was reduced to 20 years plus five years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years of reserve). According to the "Statute on Conscription Duty" signed by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia on August 26 (September 7 new style), 1827, Jews were made liable to personal military service and were subject to the same conscription quota as all other tax-paying estates ("sosloviya") in the Russian Empire. The total number of conscripts was uniform for all populations (four conscripts per each thousand subjects); however, the actual recruitment was implemented by the local qahals and so a disproportionate number of Jewish conscripts were underage. The main goal behind the compulsory military service was the integration of Jews and other non-Russian minorities into Russian society (effectively to the detriment of their religious and national identities). Ukrainian and Polish cantonists were also pressured to assimilate, as part of general policy of Russification. However, in the case of Jews, unlike similar measures implemented earlier by the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Joseph II, the Russian policy failed to provide greater civil and economic rights. In the aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities often were abducted, and placed in cantonist schools, with the intent of their Russification. The vast majority of Jews entered the Russian Empire with the territories acquired as the result of the last partitions of Poland of the 1790s; their civil rights were severely restricted (see Pale of Settlement). Most lacked knowledge of the official Russian language. Before 1827, Jews were doubly taxed in lieu of being obligated to serve in the army and their inclusion was supposed to alleviate this burden. However, the number of recruits reduced the number of young men that could go into the workforce, and this in combination with political restrictions led to widespread destitution. Russia was divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western "conscription zones" and the levy was announced annually for only one of them. The Pale of Jewish settlement was outside conscription in the fallow years, so the conscription in general and of cantonists in particular occurred once every four years, except during the Crimean War, when conscription was annual. The first 1827 draft involved some 1,800 Jewish conscripts; by the qahal's decision half of them were children. In 1843 the conscription system was extended to the Kingdom of Poland that was previously exempt from it. There were some significant differences in treatment of Jews and non-Jews: all others were required to provide conscripts between 18 and 35, while for Jews the age limit was 12–25, and it was left to the discretion of the Jewish qahal to choose conscripts from whatever age they decided. Thus in practice, Jewish children were often conscripted as young as eight or nine years old. This system created a disproportionate number of Jewish cantonists, and betrayed the utilitarian agenda of the statute: to draft those more likely to be susceptible to external influence, and thus to assimilation. The 'decree of August 26, 1827' made Jews liable for military service, and allowed their conscription between the ages of twelve and twenty-five. Each year, the Jewish community had to supply four recruits per thousand of the population. Strict quotas were imposed on all communities and the qahals were given the unpleasant task of implementing conscription within the Jewish communities. Since the merchant-guild members, agricultural colonists, factory mechanics, clergy, and all Jews with secondary education were exempt, and the wealthy bribed their way out of having their children conscripted, fewer potential conscripts were available; the adopted policy deeply sharpened internal Jewish social tensions. Seeking to protect the socio-economic and religious integrity of Jewish society, the qahals did their best to include “non-useful Jews” in the draft lists so that the heads of tax-paying middle-class families were predominantly exempt from conscription, whereas single Jews, as well as "heretics" (Haskalah influenced individuals), paupers, outcasts, and orphaned children were drafted. They used their power to suppress protests and intimidate potential informers who sought to expose the arbitrariness of the qahal to the Russian government. In some cases, communal elders had the most threatening informers murdered (such as the Ushitsa case, 1836) The zoning rule was suspended during the Crimean war, when conscription became annual. During this period the qahals leaders would employ informers and kidnappers (Russian: "ловчики", lovchiki, Yiddish: khappers), as many potential conscripts preferred to run away rather than voluntarily submit. In the case of unfulfilled quotas, younger boys of eight and even younger were frequently taken. All cantonists were institutionally underfed, and encouraged to steal food from the local population, in emulation of the Spartan character building. On one occasion in 1856, a Jewish cantonist Khodulevich managed to steal the Tsar's own watch during military games at Uman. Not only was he not punished, but he was given a reward of 25 roubles for his prowess. The boys in cantonist schools were given extensive training in Russian grammar (and sometimes literature), and mathematics, in particular geometry necessary in naval and artillery service. Those who showed aptitude for music were trained in singing and instrumental music, as the Imperial Army had a large demand for military wind bands and choirs. Some cavalry regiments maintained equestrian bands of torban players, and cantonist schools supplied these as well. Some cantonist schools also prepared firearms mechanics, veterinarians for cavalry, and administrators ("auditors"). The official policy was to encourage their conversion to the state religion of Orthodox Christianity and Jewish boys were coerced to baptism. As kosher food was unavailable, they were faced with the necessity of abandoning of Jewish dietary laws. Polish Catholic boys were subject to similar pressure to convert and assimilate as the Russian Empire was hostile to Catholicism and Polish nationalism. Initially conversions were few, but after the escalation of missionary activities in the cantonist schools in 1844, about one third of all Jewish cantonists would have undergone conversion. For all cantonists, their 25-year term of service began after they reached the age of 18 and were distributed into the army. The distribution patterns of the 18-year-old cantonists show that Jews were not discriminated against: they demonstrated similar average literacy, physical ability, and training accomplishments and were sent in the same army and navy regiments as Christian graduating cantonists. A comparison between baptized and unbaptized Jewish cantonists indicates relatively insignificant advantages that the former enjoyed over the latter. Discriminatory regulations however ensured that unconverted Jews were held back in their army promotions. According to Benjamin Nathans, "... the formal incorporation of Jews into Nicolas I's army was quickly compromised by laws distinguishing Jewish from non-Jewish soldiers. Less than two years after the 1827 decree on conscription, Jews were barred from certain elite units, and beginning in 1832 they were subject to separate, more stringent criteria for promotion, which required that they "distinguish themselves in combat with the enemy." Jews who refused to convert were barred from ascending above the rank of "унтер-офицер" i.e. NCO. There were only eight exceptions that were recorded during the 19th century. These restrictions were not lifted until the February Revolution in 1917. Some baptized cantonists eventually reached high ranks in the Imperial Army and Navy; among them were generals Grulev, Arnoldi, Zeil, Khanukov; admirals Kaufman, Sapsay, Kefali. The cantonists' fate was sometimes described by Yiddish and Russian literature classics. Alexander Herzen in his My Past and Thoughts described his somber encounter with Jewish cantonists. While being convoyed to his exile in 1835 at Vyatka, Herzen met a unit of emaciated Jewish cantonists, some eight years old, who were marched to Kazan. Their (sympathetic) officer complained that a third had already died. Nikolai Leskov described underage Jewish cantonists in his 1863 story "The Musk-Ox" (Ovtsebyk). Judah Steinberg described underage Jewish cantonists in his novel "In Those Days" (English translation in 1915, from the Hebrew). The cantonist policy was abolished by Tsar Alexander II's decree on 26 August 1856, in the aftermath of the Russian defeat in the Crimean war, which made evident the dire necessity for the modernisation of the Russian military forces. All unconverted cantonists and recruits under the age of 20 were returned to their families. The underage converted cantonists were given to their godparents. However the implementation of the abolition took nearly 3 years. It is estimated that between 30,000 and 70,000 Jewish boys served as cantonists, their numbers were disproportionately high in relation to the total number of cantonists. Jewish boys comprised about 20% of cantonists at the schools in Riga and Vitebsk, and as much as 50% at Kazan and Kiev schools. A general estimate for the years 1840–1850 seems to have been about 15%. In general Jews comprised a disproportionate number of recruits (ten for every thousand of the male population as opposed to seven out of every thousand), the number was tripled during the Crimean War (1853–1856). At the conclusion of the conscription term, former cantonists were allowed to live and own land anywhere in the Empire, outside the Pale of Settlement. The earliest Jewish communities in Finland were Jewish cantonists who had completed their service. The rate of conversion was generally high, at about one third, as was eventual intermarriage. Most never returned to their homes. Jewish cantonist recruits in 1843–1854, according to statistics of the Russian War Ministry. Only in the eleven years listed below – the total of 29,115 children were conscripted. It is assumed that between 1827 and 1856, there were over 50,000 of them.1843 - 1,490 1844 - 1,428 1845 - 1,476 1846 - 1,332 1847 - 1,527 1848 - 2,265 1849 - 2,612 1850 - 2,445 1851 - 3,674 1852 - 3,351 1853 - 3,904 1854 - 3,611	3,125	ENGLISH	1
Just over a hundred years ago, on 1 December 1919, something unprecedented happened in British politics: a woman entered Parliament for the first time. American socialite Nancy Astor had just won a by-election in Plymouth Sutton, ironically replacing her husband, Waldorf Astor, who had just been ennobled, as the Tory MP there. The campaign to win women the vote and the right to enter the Commons had been raging ever since more than a dozen people were killed and hundreds injured at the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester in 1819. Henry Hunt, the main speaker at the Peterloo rally that never happened, later became the first MP to put forward a bill to allow women to vote in general elections, but that was back in the 1830s. Two generations later the Pankhurst family took over the campaign, leading one of the most bitter and brutal political battles in British history, for many years from Manchester. Partial victory was celebrated in 1918 when (some) women were at last allowed to vote and stand. One woman was elected, but never took her seat. A year later Nancy Astor made up for it. Hear the full story on our eye-opening guided tours. International Women’s Week Special March 2020 tour: Sunday 1 March 2020. Meet: Emmeline Pankhurst Statue, St Peter’s Square, 11.30am. Booking: Please press here to book with eventbrite.	<urn:uuid:8dcd24b5-c4da-40e5-9cfe-98cc6e4bb492>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.newmanchesterwalks.com/news/celebrating-100-years-of-women-in-parliament/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00145.warc.gz	en	0.980017	299	3.390625	3	[ 0.0047964309342205524, 0.11760187149047852, 0.07285603135824203, 0.062514528632164, -0.4078831076622009, 0.29389071464538574, -0.1152854859828949, 0.054202400147914886, -0.24186639487743378, 0.09562863409519196, 0.041588738560676575, -0.11113584041595459, 0.06142140179872513, 0.14635756611...	2	Just over a hundred years ago, on 1 December 1919, something unprecedented happened in British politics: a woman entered Parliament for the first time. American socialite Nancy Astor had just won a by-election in Plymouth Sutton, ironically replacing her husband, Waldorf Astor, who had just been ennobled, as the Tory MP there. The campaign to win women the vote and the right to enter the Commons had been raging ever since more than a dozen people were killed and hundreds injured at the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester in 1819. Henry Hunt, the main speaker at the Peterloo rally that never happened, later became the first MP to put forward a bill to allow women to vote in general elections, but that was back in the 1830s. Two generations later the Pankhurst family took over the campaign, leading one of the most bitter and brutal political battles in British history, for many years from Manchester. Partial victory was celebrated in 1918 when (some) women were at last allowed to vote and stand. One woman was elected, but never took her seat. A year later Nancy Astor made up for it. Hear the full story on our eye-opening guided tours. International Women’s Week Special March 2020 tour: Sunday 1 March 2020. Meet: Emmeline Pankhurst Statue, St Peter’s Square, 11.30am. Booking: Please press here to book with eventbrite.	313	ENGLISH	1
The Emancipation Proclamation: The Influence of Lincoln’s Proclamation on the Civil War Essay The Emancipation Proclamation was a document that greatly influenced American history and culture since it was first read by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, changing the course of an entire war and thus changing the course of the entire nation. American history has been influenced by this document, which freed the slaves and helped set America on a path towards equality and freedom for all of its citizens. While it would take a long time for equal rights to be obtained, the origins of the United States as a free, unified nation can be traced back to the Emancipation Proclamation and how it came to be a part of American and Civil War history. Beyond this, the Emancipation Proclamation set a tone for the remainder of the war that the fight was not only about stopping the secession of the Southern states from the Union, but about the issue of slavery as well. The Emancipation Proclamation would inexplicably tie the issue of slavery to the cause and effects of the Civil War upon the country, both North and South. The Emancipation Proclamation was a document issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during a period when the American Civil War was already underway, tearing apart the Union. With North divided against the South, the issue of slavery became extremely prominent during the onset of the Civil War. One of the major reasons for the break between the North and the South was, in fact, the issue of slavery, with the majority of Southern states having their economy and their current system dependent upon the “peculiar institution”. The Southern states depended upon an agricultural economy, particularly the cash crops of cotton and tobacco, while the Northern states were more industrialized with their economy dependent upon mills and factories. When the Civil War broke out in the early 1860’s, many slaves were escaping to Union lines and many still were volunteering to fight for the Union. As the policy stood, these slaves would have to be returned to their masters in the Confederacy. President Lincoln faced a challenge: how to keep the public opinion for his presidency and the war up in an era when abolitionists were asking for the freeing of all slaves and the rest of the North seemed to support similar actions. This document helped to unite all of the Americans of the North in one common cause . The role of the abolitionists in encouraging the issuance of such a document cannot be overlooked in the grand scheme of American Civil War history. For years many abolitionists had been fighting for the freedom of the slaves of the South, particularly abolitionists in the North who viewed the institution of slavery as not only illegal but immoral in a Christian civilized society. The Underground Railroad was implemented throughout the United States as a way to get escaped slaves safely to freedom, and such famous ex-slaves as Harriet Tubman were responsible for its ultimate success. The power of the written word was also important to the abolitionist cause as newspapers dedicated solely to the cause were circulated throughout the nation. William Lloyd Garrison was just one of many influential abolitionists who used the power of the written word to gain support for the cause of emancipation. Anti-slavery societies sprang up around New England, further fueling the abolitionist fire. The Emancipation Proclamation also came at a time when many African-Americans were fighting for cause of abolition on the side of the Union. The role of the African-American soldier in the Civil War was, in no way, balanced and equal to that of their white counterparts in the Union army. While all troops faced harsh conditions in camps as well as in battles, the bulk of the physical labor jobs went to the black troops because “commanders… felt that the only task that the blacks could perform was that of common labor”. Another problem faced by black Union soldiers was the very real possibility of their being taken into custody by the Confederates as prisoners-of-war. There were two fates when this occurred: runaway slaves were returned to their owners, and freemen were put into camps that were even harsher than the camps that white soldiers were brought to. This was, of course, if the black troops survived battle but sometimes, as was the case at the battle at Fort Pillow in Tennessee where 64% of the casualties were black and relatively few were taken as prisoners-of-war, it seemed as if the casualty rates were unbalanced, as if the Confederate troops were more likely to kill a black soldier than a white. Prior to the Emancipation Proclamation runaway slaves fighting for the Union cause faced the chance of being returned to their owners because of the lack of such a decree. The ultimate answer for Lincoln, in a society torn apart by a single issue, was to slowly move towards the complete emancipation of the slaves. He did so in stages, the first being in 1862 when he made it law that any Union officers could not return fugitive slaves, when prior to this law “in many of the northern states slave-hunting waxed hot and eager under the national law”. This action annulled the fugitive slave laws that were in place at the time. Southern slave owners were angered by the decision and demanded compensation for their “lost goods”. President Lincoln answered their anger by passing a law that all Southern slave owners that released their slaves and gave them freedom of their own will would be compensated. A milestone in the freedom of slaves came on April 16, 1862 when all slaves in the District of Columbia were freed by their masters. This was a huge step for African-American rights because it was the first step towards freedom and equality, two important concepts that have shaped American culture for many years. The Emancipation Proclamation was officially issued on January 1, 1863. The version that Lincoln presented was the final version of his edict and it “specified emancipation was to be effected only in those states that had been in rebellion”. This key change was made because the President’s proclamation was “based on Congressional acts giving him authority to confiscate rebel property and forbidding the military from returning slaves to their owners”. While it would not be until 1865 when all four million of the slaves within the Confederate states were freed, after the Union victory, the issuance of this document was the was the first step towards the Thirteenth Amendment, which officially banned slavery throughout the United States of America. The importance of the document at the time of its creation was that it “changed the scope of the Civil War to a war against slavery”. The Civil War, prior to this edict, was not considered to be a war about slavery but to stop the secession of the South from the Union. To understand its importance in the future, the importance of it in its contemporary time must be appreciated. Before the Emancipation Proclamation, the United States was not putting value on the institution of slavery as being a reason for war and after this edict was read by Abraham Lincoln, the war changed. African-Americans in the South now had certain rights that were given to them by the President of the United States. This was the first step towards civil rights for all Americans. The Emancipation Proclamation was put into full effect after the Union win at the Battle of Antietam in September of 1862 when President Abraham Lincoln declared his intentions to free the slaves in the Southern states. The proclamation was issued on January 1, 1863 and its aftermath was incredible. Over 3,120,000 were freed by its words. Its enactment was responsible for turning the tide of the Civil War, creating a link between slavery and the Confederacy, alienating Britain and France who they had once thought would be allies. The Emancipation Proclamation thus became the most important document in American history. Not only did the document in of itself free the slaves of the South, but it also unified the nation into one Union because no longer were there different rules for different geographic regions of the same nation. American culture for years to come would be affected by this document because it did something incredible: it was the first step towards shaping the United States that we know today. The document has made more impact on American history and American culture than any other because it helped to shape the nation into one unified country and also was a precursor to future fights for African-American rights in the United States. Without this document, the slaves would not have been freed and the war would not have taken a new turn, thus the civil rights movement would never have been able to take place a hundred years later. The importance of this document to the life of Southerners was reflected in the journals and writings of men and women of the South during the Civil War. One young diarist, Sarah Morgan, wrote about the Emancipation Proclamation, “If Lincoln could spend the grinding season on a plantation he would recall his proclamation” . Southerners saw the proclamation as an attack against their way of life, the way of life they had always known and upon which their entire culture, society and economy was built. Without slavery the plantations could not turn a profit, thus many Southerners would lose the way of life that they had become accustomed to. Southerners were not only fighting for their rights, as they saw them, to keep slaves but also their culture and heritage. In the Northern states, the Emancipation Proclamation made a direct impact on the life of Americans almost immediately. The Northern abolitionists were delighted with the Emancipation Proclamations effects on the view of the Civil War. Their support for abolition directly turned into support for the President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, because he was finally putting a worth on the lives of the millions of slaves that were forced into bondage and servitude in the South. While Southerners such as Sarah Morgan viewed the plight of the slaves as unimportant, most Northerners felt differently about the freedom of the slaves. Many African-Americans fought on the side of the Union, helping to win their own freedom and that of their Southern counterparts. Abolitionists threw their support behind the war effort. All in all, the Union was given yet another reason to stop the secession of the South from the Union and therefore it gave Northern soldiers a morale boost. They had already won the war of words; they needed only to win the battles. In the end, the Emancipation Proclamation had perhaps the most impact on American history. It marked the end of slavery, the freedom of millions of African-Americans who were ill-treated and abused in the South, and changed the course of the entire nation, uniting both the North and the South with the same laws of governance. Its impact was felt immediately as it unified the Northerners who wanted the abolishment of slavery, gave freedom to the slaves, changed the scope of the war and thus changed American history forever. Two of the most important concepts to the American psyche are freedom and unity, and these two concepts were the basis on which President Abraham Lincoln created the document that would immediately transform an entire era of American history. The Emancipation Proclamation helped to turn the tide of the war and gave the North an edge, also winning over the support of many Northerners who had not supported it fully due to the lack of correlation between the Civil War and the abolishment of slavery. The future would also draw from this document, which was one of the first steps towards equality and towards the civil rights movement that would happen a century later. The Emancipation Proclamation thus became the unifying document of American history and the one that has held the most impact of all others. It changed history and changed the shape of the United States, both figuratively and literally. East, Charles, ed. Sarah Morgan: the Civil War Diary of a Southern Woman. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. “Emancipation Proclamation. ” Microsoft Encarta Online. Microsoft Corporation. 25 Feb. 2007 ;http://encarta. msn. com;. Fuller, James. Men of Color, to Arms! : Vermont African-Americans in the Civil War. New York: iUniversity P, 2001. Nelson, Rebecca, ed. The Handy History Answer Book. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1999. “The Civil Rights Movement. ” CNN. 28 Feb. 2007 ;http://www. cnn. com/EVENTS/1997/mlk/links. html;.	<urn:uuid:b87c0722-fa38-4b26-b72c-e787b46e91f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/the-emancipation-proclamation-the-influence-of-lincolns-proclamation-on-the-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00466.warc.gz	en	0.982482	2,579	4.3125	4	[ -0.07699806988239288, 0.39431777596473694, 0.33679506182670593, 0.24074627459049225, -0.06124889478087425, 0.3884235620498657, 0.15205484628677368, 0.23932288587093353, -0.41367051005363464, 0.033843882381916046, 0.05724285542964935, 0.39276280999183655, -0.2544512450695038, 0.310716152191...	2	The Emancipation Proclamation: The Influence of Lincoln’s Proclamation on the Civil War Essay The Emancipation Proclamation was a document that greatly influenced American history and culture since it was first read by Abraham Lincoln in 1863, changing the course of an entire war and thus changing the course of the entire nation. American history has been influenced by this document, which freed the slaves and helped set America on a path towards equality and freedom for all of its citizens. While it would take a long time for equal rights to be obtained, the origins of the United States as a free, unified nation can be traced back to the Emancipation Proclamation and how it came to be a part of American and Civil War history. Beyond this, the Emancipation Proclamation set a tone for the remainder of the war that the fight was not only about stopping the secession of the Southern states from the Union, but about the issue of slavery as well. The Emancipation Proclamation would inexplicably tie the issue of slavery to the cause and effects of the Civil War upon the country, both North and South. The Emancipation Proclamation was a document issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during a period when the American Civil War was already underway, tearing apart the Union. With North divided against the South, the issue of slavery became extremely prominent during the onset of the Civil War. One of the major reasons for the break between the North and the South was, in fact, the issue of slavery, with the majority of Southern states having their economy and their current system dependent upon the “peculiar institution”. The Southern states depended upon an agricultural economy, particularly the cash crops of cotton and tobacco, while the Northern states were more industrialized with their economy dependent upon mills and factories. When the Civil War broke out in the early 1860’s, many slaves were escaping to Union lines and many still were volunteering to fight for the Union. As the policy stood, these slaves would have to be returned to their masters in the Confederacy. President Lincoln faced a challenge: how to keep the public opinion for his presidency and the war up in an era when abolitionists were asking for the freeing of all slaves and the rest of the North seemed to support similar actions. This document helped to unite all of the Americans of the North in one common cause . The role of the abolitionists in encouraging the issuance of such a document cannot be overlooked in the grand scheme of American Civil War history. For years many abolitionists had been fighting for the freedom of the slaves of the South, particularly abolitionists in the North who viewed the institution of slavery as not only illegal but immoral in a Christian civilized society. The Underground Railroad was implemented throughout the United States as a way to get escaped slaves safely to freedom, and such famous ex-slaves as Harriet Tubman were responsible for its ultimate success. The power of the written word was also important to the abolitionist cause as newspapers dedicated solely to the cause were circulated throughout the nation. William Lloyd Garrison was just one of many influential abolitionists who used the power of the written word to gain support for the cause of emancipation. Anti-slavery societies sprang up around New England, further fueling the abolitionist fire. The Emancipation Proclamation also came at a time when many African-Americans were fighting for cause of abolition on the side of the Union. The role of the African-American soldier in the Civil War was, in no way, balanced and equal to that of their white counterparts in the Union army. While all troops faced harsh conditions in camps as well as in battles, the bulk of the physical labor jobs went to the black troops because “commanders… felt that the only task that the blacks could perform was that of common labor”. Another problem faced by black Union soldiers was the very real possibility of their being taken into custody by the Confederates as prisoners-of-war. There were two fates when this occurred: runaway slaves were returned to their owners, and freemen were put into camps that were even harsher than the camps that white soldiers were brought to. This was, of course, if the black troops survived battle but sometimes, as was the case at the battle at Fort Pillow in Tennessee where 64% of the casualties were black and relatively few were taken as prisoners-of-war, it seemed as if the casualty rates were unbalanced, as if the Confederate troops were more likely to kill a black soldier than a white. Prior to the Emancipation Proclamation runaway slaves fighting for the Union cause faced the chance of being returned to their owners because of the lack of such a decree. The ultimate answer for Lincoln, in a society torn apart by a single issue, was to slowly move towards the complete emancipation of the slaves. He did so in stages, the first being in 1862 when he made it law that any Union officers could not return fugitive slaves, when prior to this law “in many of the northern states slave-hunting waxed hot and eager under the national law”. This action annulled the fugitive slave laws that were in place at the time. Southern slave owners were angered by the decision and demanded compensation for their “lost goods”. President Lincoln answered their anger by passing a law that all Southern slave owners that released their slaves and gave them freedom of their own will would be compensated. A milestone in the freedom of slaves came on April 16, 1862 when all slaves in the District of Columbia were freed by their masters. This was a huge step for African-American rights because it was the first step towards freedom and equality, two important concepts that have shaped American culture for many years. The Emancipation Proclamation was officially issued on January 1, 1863. The version that Lincoln presented was the final version of his edict and it “specified emancipation was to be effected only in those states that had been in rebellion”. This key change was made because the President’s proclamation was “based on Congressional acts giving him authority to confiscate rebel property and forbidding the military from returning slaves to their owners”. While it would not be until 1865 when all four million of the slaves within the Confederate states were freed, after the Union victory, the issuance of this document was the was the first step towards the Thirteenth Amendment, which officially banned slavery throughout the United States of America. The importance of the document at the time of its creation was that it “changed the scope of the Civil War to a war against slavery”. The Civil War, prior to this edict, was not considered to be a war about slavery but to stop the secession of the South from the Union. To understand its importance in the future, the importance of it in its contemporary time must be appreciated. Before the Emancipation Proclamation, the United States was not putting value on the institution of slavery as being a reason for war and after this edict was read by Abraham Lincoln, the war changed. African-Americans in the South now had certain rights that were given to them by the President of the United States. This was the first step towards civil rights for all Americans. The Emancipation Proclamation was put into full effect after the Union win at the Battle of Antietam in September of 1862 when President Abraham Lincoln declared his intentions to free the slaves in the Southern states. The proclamation was issued on January 1, 1863 and its aftermath was incredible. Over 3,120,000 were freed by its words. Its enactment was responsible for turning the tide of the Civil War, creating a link between slavery and the Confederacy, alienating Britain and France who they had once thought would be allies. The Emancipation Proclamation thus became the most important document in American history. Not only did the document in of itself free the slaves of the South, but it also unified the nation into one Union because no longer were there different rules for different geographic regions of the same nation. American culture for years to come would be affected by this document because it did something incredible: it was the first step towards shaping the United States that we know today. The document has made more impact on American history and American culture than any other because it helped to shape the nation into one unified country and also was a precursor to future fights for African-American rights in the United States. Without this document, the slaves would not have been freed and the war would not have taken a new turn, thus the civil rights movement would never have been able to take place a hundred years later. The importance of this document to the life of Southerners was reflected in the journals and writings of men and women of the South during the Civil War. One young diarist, Sarah Morgan, wrote about the Emancipation Proclamation, “If Lincoln could spend the grinding season on a plantation he would recall his proclamation” . Southerners saw the proclamation as an attack against their way of life, the way of life they had always known and upon which their entire culture, society and economy was built. Without slavery the plantations could not turn a profit, thus many Southerners would lose the way of life that they had become accustomed to. Southerners were not only fighting for their rights, as they saw them, to keep slaves but also their culture and heritage. In the Northern states, the Emancipation Proclamation made a direct impact on the life of Americans almost immediately. The Northern abolitionists were delighted with the Emancipation Proclamations effects on the view of the Civil War. Their support for abolition directly turned into support for the President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, because he was finally putting a worth on the lives of the millions of slaves that were forced into bondage and servitude in the South. While Southerners such as Sarah Morgan viewed the plight of the slaves as unimportant, most Northerners felt differently about the freedom of the slaves. Many African-Americans fought on the side of the Union, helping to win their own freedom and that of their Southern counterparts. Abolitionists threw their support behind the war effort. All in all, the Union was given yet another reason to stop the secession of the South from the Union and therefore it gave Northern soldiers a morale boost. They had already won the war of words; they needed only to win the battles. In the end, the Emancipation Proclamation had perhaps the most impact on American history. It marked the end of slavery, the freedom of millions of African-Americans who were ill-treated and abused in the South, and changed the course of the entire nation, uniting both the North and the South with the same laws of governance. Its impact was felt immediately as it unified the Northerners who wanted the abolishment of slavery, gave freedom to the slaves, changed the scope of the war and thus changed American history forever. Two of the most important concepts to the American psyche are freedom and unity, and these two concepts were the basis on which President Abraham Lincoln created the document that would immediately transform an entire era of American history. The Emancipation Proclamation helped to turn the tide of the war and gave the North an edge, also winning over the support of many Northerners who had not supported it fully due to the lack of correlation between the Civil War and the abolishment of slavery. The future would also draw from this document, which was one of the first steps towards equality and towards the civil rights movement that would happen a century later. The Emancipation Proclamation thus became the unifying document of American history and the one that has held the most impact of all others. It changed history and changed the shape of the United States, both figuratively and literally. East, Charles, ed. Sarah Morgan: the Civil War Diary of a Southern Woman. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. “Emancipation Proclamation. ” Microsoft Encarta Online. Microsoft Corporation. 25 Feb. 2007 ;http://encarta. msn. com;. Fuller, James. Men of Color, to Arms! : Vermont African-Americans in the Civil War. New York: iUniversity P, 2001. Nelson, Rebecca, ed. The Handy History Answer Book. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1999. “The Civil Rights Movement. ” CNN. 28 Feb. 2007 ;http://www. cnn. com/EVENTS/1997/mlk/links. html;.	2,574	ENGLISH	1
As an idea, revolution is an inflammatory concept. It sets in motion violent change, irrespective of the outcome. Most famous of all revolutions was the French Revolution of 1789. It was not the first; human history is marked by rebellions, revolutions and revolts, and most of them bloody, but what made the French Revolution unique was the sheer scale of its outcome: the sun at last set over France’s absolute monarchy and its feudal system was finally abolished. The declaration of human rights was enshrined in the constitution and the legal system was reformed. All this is very praiseworthy, but it did come at a cost. Revolution makes waves, and the waves turn into ripples, both social and political. The French Revolution also gave birth to the idea of ‘left’ and ‘right’ in politics; you were either for the revolution or against it — right for the nobility, left for the rest. This divisive way of seeing things is just one ripple from the wave that continues to wash through French society some two hundred years on. Another was the one that stemmed from violence. Violence characterised this revolution as it tainted many others, and violence is rarely positive. But did it have to be that way? Was the terror really unavoidable? At the heart of French revolutionary debate — in the early stages at least, were two men: Montesquieu and Rousseau. Each had their own ideas about how revolution should be achieved but both men felt that the days of the absolute monarch, not only in France but as a concept, had run their course. Power in the hands of just one man was outdated; the time had come to share it with the people, but how was this to be achieved? Montesquieu advocated a constitutional monarchy, more along the lines of the British monarchy, while Rousseau wanted a Republic. In the end, it was Rousseau’s philosophy that enshrined the principles of the French Revolution. He believed that the nation should rule itself, with neither monarch nor clergy at its head. And in spite of the influence of Napoleonic rule during the second stage of the French Revolution, these principles were mostly upheld. France became a secular republic, but the republic came with guillotine attached. The guillotine, France’s revolutionary tool, became known as the Terror. As Robespierre, one of the orchestrators of the French Revolution, said in 1794, “Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice”. The huge amount of guillotining that went on over such a short period of time certainly lent efficiency to Robespierre’s Terror, but change could have been peaceful if Montesquieu’s thinking had only been viewed in the light of compromise before it was too late. Compromise is a wonderful thing. It is defined in the dictionary as “a coming to terms, a settlement of differences by mutual concessions”. It should be easier to engage in than violence but it doesn’t seem to be. When Louis XVI sensed the first waves of revolutionary thinking, he feared that he would have to share his powers with the aristocracy, and initially tried to loosen his ‘culottes’ a little towards the French Parlements, which were run by the nobility and had influence over matters such as taxation and law. He agreed to lower taxes, but then went on to demand that the nobility should start paying theirs. The nobility, who enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege, including exemption from taxation, were not amused. What would be next, they must have pondered. The abolition of their lucrative fiefdoms? The loss of their swords and status? The outcome of this was that reforms simply did not happen. Revolution continued to be fomented beyond the palace doors; the monarchy continued to be perceived as absolutist. The French aristocracy’s inability to reform their ideas guaranteed their place on the podium of the guillotine, and Robespierre proceeded with his own brand of inflexibility from then on. Reforms are still fiendishly difficult to implement in France. Did Rousseau also advocate zero compromise? He does remain France’s greatest philosopher. Rousseau was certainly an enlightened thinker, and a man of some compassion, but he was disappointed by what he saw inside the hearts of others. “All my misfortunes,” he said, “come of having thought too well of my fellows”. Still, he must have seen it coming in 1755 when he penned his Discourse on Inequality. “The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took it into his head to say this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society”. The words continue to have meaning in France, where more people rent than buy their property, but whether you agree with Rousseau or not, if compromise had been at the top of everyone’s agenda at the time of revolution, and on both sides, the decades of war that came afterwards in Europe as France tried to spread its revolutionary ideals, would probably never have happened. The Prussian war, perhaps, would probably never have happened and it could be that the wave of wars that came afterwards may never have been set in motion. The violent ripples of revolution take a long time to die down. Regrettably, perhaps they never do.	<urn:uuid:83636a6a-5b00-475e-a290-aecdbac67d10>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lucilleturner.com/single-post/2018/05/07/a-short-history-of-ideas-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00391.warc.gz	en	0.984739	1,121	3.65625	4	[ -0.28537774085998535, 0.24832209944725037, -0.040700916200876236, -0.33714330196380615, -0.36918342113494873, 0.5538076162338257, 0.1926429271697998, 0.5416600108146667, 0.25692814588546753, 0.29123592376708984, -0.036241285502910614, 0.22738191485404968, -0.016392141580581665, 0.359245777...	13	As an idea, revolution is an inflammatory concept. It sets in motion violent change, irrespective of the outcome. Most famous of all revolutions was the French Revolution of 1789. It was not the first; human history is marked by rebellions, revolutions and revolts, and most of them bloody, but what made the French Revolution unique was the sheer scale of its outcome: the sun at last set over France’s absolute monarchy and its feudal system was finally abolished. The declaration of human rights was enshrined in the constitution and the legal system was reformed. All this is very praiseworthy, but it did come at a cost. Revolution makes waves, and the waves turn into ripples, both social and political. The French Revolution also gave birth to the idea of ‘left’ and ‘right’ in politics; you were either for the revolution or against it — right for the nobility, left for the rest. This divisive way of seeing things is just one ripple from the wave that continues to wash through French society some two hundred years on. Another was the one that stemmed from violence. Violence characterised this revolution as it tainted many others, and violence is rarely positive. But did it have to be that way? Was the terror really unavoidable? At the heart of French revolutionary debate — in the early stages at least, were two men: Montesquieu and Rousseau. Each had their own ideas about how revolution should be achieved but both men felt that the days of the absolute monarch, not only in France but as a concept, had run their course. Power in the hands of just one man was outdated; the time had come to share it with the people, but how was this to be achieved? Montesquieu advocated a constitutional monarchy, more along the lines of the British monarchy, while Rousseau wanted a Republic. In the end, it was Rousseau’s philosophy that enshrined the principles of the French Revolution. He believed that the nation should rule itself, with neither monarch nor clergy at its head. And in spite of the influence of Napoleonic rule during the second stage of the French Revolution, these principles were mostly upheld. France became a secular republic, but the republic came with guillotine attached. The guillotine, France’s revolutionary tool, became known as the Terror. As Robespierre, one of the orchestrators of the French Revolution, said in 1794, “Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice”. The huge amount of guillotining that went on over such a short period of time certainly lent efficiency to Robespierre’s Terror, but change could have been peaceful if Montesquieu’s thinking had only been viewed in the light of compromise before it was too late. Compromise is a wonderful thing. It is defined in the dictionary as “a coming to terms, a settlement of differences by mutual concessions”. It should be easier to engage in than violence but it doesn’t seem to be. When Louis XVI sensed the first waves of revolutionary thinking, he feared that he would have to share his powers with the aristocracy, and initially tried to loosen his ‘culottes’ a little towards the French Parlements, which were run by the nobility and had influence over matters such as taxation and law. He agreed to lower taxes, but then went on to demand that the nobility should start paying theirs. The nobility, who enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege, including exemption from taxation, were not amused. What would be next, they must have pondered. The abolition of their lucrative fiefdoms? The loss of their swords and status? The outcome of this was that reforms simply did not happen. Revolution continued to be fomented beyond the palace doors; the monarchy continued to be perceived as absolutist. The French aristocracy’s inability to reform their ideas guaranteed their place on the podium of the guillotine, and Robespierre proceeded with his own brand of inflexibility from then on. Reforms are still fiendishly difficult to implement in France. Did Rousseau also advocate zero compromise? He does remain France’s greatest philosopher. Rousseau was certainly an enlightened thinker, and a man of some compassion, but he was disappointed by what he saw inside the hearts of others. “All my misfortunes,” he said, “come of having thought too well of my fellows”. Still, he must have seen it coming in 1755 when he penned his Discourse on Inequality. “The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took it into his head to say this is mine and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society”. The words continue to have meaning in France, where more people rent than buy their property, but whether you agree with Rousseau or not, if compromise had been at the top of everyone’s agenda at the time of revolution, and on both sides, the decades of war that came afterwards in Europe as France tried to spread its revolutionary ideals, would probably never have happened. The Prussian war, perhaps, would probably never have happened and it could be that the wave of wars that came afterwards may never have been set in motion. The violent ripples of revolution take a long time to die down. Regrettably, perhaps they never do.	1,091	ENGLISH	1
The beginning of the early modern era saw the rise of the Aztec and Chinese Empires as well as the spread of European Empires to Asia and the Americas. All of these empires followed the same steps to gain power over their future subjects. This “recipe for empire” includes: having control of other countries/lands, controlling their wealth, and imposing your ideas on those you conquer (Nightingale Lecture 3). The founders and leaders of each one of these empires used racism against their subjects in order to have better control over their domain and to validate their greed for power From the early 14th to 16th century, the Aztec Empire had control over most of Central America. The Aztecs (also known as Mexica) built their empire by expanding and invading from their capital city of Tenochtitlan. According to history professor Camilla Townsend, “The invading Mexica often claimed legitimacy by insisting they were the heirs of the Toltecs” (Townsend 668). Believing to be of Toltec blood helped the Mexica justify their conquest because they were reclaiming their ancestors land. Their supposed lineage also gave them the belief that they were better than neighboring clans because their ancestor were the almighty Toltecs and deserved to have all the territory they wanted. The feeling of superiority helped develop a tribute system similar where conquered tribes had to pay the Tlatoani (emperor) goods like animal pelts, bird feathers, and chocolate every so often to remain in the Aztec Empire, or fear the threat of destruction. Having to pay tributes and taxes caused the foreign subjects to feel subordinate to the Aztecs who were in charge. The tributes made it more difficult for any clan from revolting since a major portion of the tribes wealth was being taken away. The tribes were only given a promise that the Aztec would not invade in return. This unequal trade agreement shows that the Aztecs were greedy for power and were not willing to spread the wealth to its subjects. This caused separation in the empire and gave the Spanish conquistadors more allies in the 16th century conquest of the Mexica because, “Some of them [conquered tribes] seem[ed] to have seen the Spaniards’ arrival as a heaven-sent opportunity to recover their old independence” (Thomas 487). The belief that the Tlatoani was the only person able to communicate with the gods further separated the Aztecs from their subjects because the Tlatoani lineage was seen as superior and more favored by the gods. Having this divine distinction, the Tlatoani was able to have more authority saying that his will was the will of the gods. The people had no choice but to follow him unless they wanted the wrath of the gods. These Aztec gods survived by receiving human sacrifices, which were usually from recently conquered villages. Since the outer villages were seen as inferior, it was easier for the Aztec priests to carry out the inhumane rituals. “Human sacrifices were carried out in the service of...	<urn:uuid:579af458-0de9-4e88-b58a-bc35018ac27e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/world-civ-2-midterm-smh	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00549.warc.gz	en	0.985231	629	4.21875	4	[ -0.44742661714553833, 0.5509610176086426, 0.46272069215774536, -0.09950662404298782, -0.4203941822052002, -0.35163256525993347, -0.0657413899898529, 0.26412028074264526, -0.02761576510965824, -0.15491238236427307, 0.22428244352340698, -0.5570594072341919, -0.22357288002967834, -0.053577236...	1	The beginning of the early modern era saw the rise of the Aztec and Chinese Empires as well as the spread of European Empires to Asia and the Americas. All of these empires followed the same steps to gain power over their future subjects. This “recipe for empire” includes: having control of other countries/lands, controlling their wealth, and imposing your ideas on those you conquer (Nightingale Lecture 3). The founders and leaders of each one of these empires used racism against their subjects in order to have better control over their domain and to validate their greed for power From the early 14th to 16th century, the Aztec Empire had control over most of Central America. The Aztecs (also known as Mexica) built their empire by expanding and invading from their capital city of Tenochtitlan. According to history professor Camilla Townsend, “The invading Mexica often claimed legitimacy by insisting they were the heirs of the Toltecs” (Townsend 668). Believing to be of Toltec blood helped the Mexica justify their conquest because they were reclaiming their ancestors land. Their supposed lineage also gave them the belief that they were better than neighboring clans because their ancestor were the almighty Toltecs and deserved to have all the territory they wanted. The feeling of superiority helped develop a tribute system similar where conquered tribes had to pay the Tlatoani (emperor) goods like animal pelts, bird feathers, and chocolate every so often to remain in the Aztec Empire, or fear the threat of destruction. Having to pay tributes and taxes caused the foreign subjects to feel subordinate to the Aztecs who were in charge. The tributes made it more difficult for any clan from revolting since a major portion of the tribes wealth was being taken away. The tribes were only given a promise that the Aztec would not invade in return. This unequal trade agreement shows that the Aztecs were greedy for power and were not willing to spread the wealth to its subjects. This caused separation in the empire and gave the Spanish conquistadors more allies in the 16th century conquest of the Mexica because, “Some of them [conquered tribes] seem[ed] to have seen the Spaniards’ arrival as a heaven-sent opportunity to recover their old independence” (Thomas 487). The belief that the Tlatoani was the only person able to communicate with the gods further separated the Aztecs from their subjects because the Tlatoani lineage was seen as superior and more favored by the gods. Having this divine distinction, the Tlatoani was able to have more authority saying that his will was the will of the gods. The people had no choice but to follow him unless they wanted the wrath of the gods. These Aztec gods survived by receiving human sacrifices, which were usually from recently conquered villages. Since the outer villages were seen as inferior, it was easier for the Aztec priests to carry out the inhumane rituals. “Human sacrifices were carried out in the service of...	631	ENGLISH	1
The following essay will be discussing two generals from each side of the American Civil War, comparing their careers and characters, and discussing their lives. General Thomas Jackson was born in Virginia in 1824, and was the third-born of Jonathan Jackson and Julia Beckwith Neale He was one of the most well-known Confederate generals during the American civil war. Better known as Stonewall, Jackson attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1842. Jackson, albeit older than his classmates, struggled at the school, and was also teased and made fun of by the others because of his modest education and poor family. This simply pushed him to succeed, and in 1846, Jackson graduated, just in time for the beginning of the Mexican-American War. Jackson joined the 1st U.S. Artillery as a 2nd lieutenant in Mexico under General Winfield Scott. He quickly proved to be a brave and tenacious soldier, and had been promoted to brevet major by the end of the war. During the war, Jackson met Robert E. Lee, with whom he would serve on the Confederate side of the American Civil War in his latter years. After the Mexican-American War, Thomas Jackson continued to serve in Florida and New York. Three years later, he retired from his military career and was offered a professorship at the Virginia Military Institute. He accepted this invitation and taught artillery tactics, in addition to natural and experimental philosophy. It was not until November of 1859 that Jackson returned to his military career, when he served as a VMI officer at the execution of John Brown, an abolitionist. During the following two years, as several states began to secede from the Union, Jackson hoped that his home state, Virginia, would side with the Union. But when Virginia seceded, Jackson showed his loyalty to his state, now in support of the Confederacy. In April 1861, Jackson was ordered back to the VMI to lead the VMI Corps of Cadets. Soon after this Jackson was commissioned a colonel by the state government and was relocated Harper’s Ferry. Soon, Jackson was again promoted, this time to the positions of brigadier commander and brigadier general under General Joseph E. Johnston. It was during the first Battle of Mannassas that Jackson received his nickname, Stonewall, which would stick throughout history. It came after General Barnard E. Bee, impressed with Jackson’s leading his troops to bridge a gap in a Confederate Defensive line, exclaimed, “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall.” Forever Jackson would be referred to as Stonewall. The impressive military career of Stonewall Jackson came to a close in 1863 when he was accidentally wounded fatally by friendly fire, dying of complications at the second field hospital in Guinea Station, Virginia, at the age of just 39. His last words were this: “Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of trees.” Throughout his years, Stonewall Jackson’s Christian faith showed through everything he did, and was a major part of his life. The other Confederate general which I shall mention, Robert E. Lee, was born in 1807 to Henry and Anna Lee in Stratford, Virginia. His father was a colonel, and has served as a cavalry leader during the American Revolutionary War. His performance during the war made him a war hero, and it won him General George Washington praise. Robert attended West Point Military Academy when he was 18, and graduated with perfect scores in infantry, artillery, and cavalry. Soon after, Lee married Mary Custis, the great-granddaughter of George Washington. They had seven children. While Mary and their children lived on Mary’s father’s plantation, Lee was committed to his military work, and was thus not present much of the time, as he was forced to move all around the country with the Army. In 1846, the beginning of the Mexican-American War gave Lee the chance he had been waiting for for his entire military career. He served under General Winfield Scott, like Jackson, and soon distinguished himself as a brave soldier and a skilled strategist. General Scott was quite impressed with Lee’s performance during the War, telling Lee that if the U.S. were to enter another war, the government should consider taking out a life insurance policy for Lee. Life off the battlefield proved to be difficult for Lee. The mundanities of every day life back at home was not preferable to him. Upon the death of his step-mother, Lee returned home for a time to manage the estate. In 1859, Lee returned to the military, accepting an unenviable position at an isolated cavalry outpost in Texas. Later that year, Lee got a break from the outpost when he was summoned to help fight against John Brown’s revolt at Harper’s Ferry. The attack Lee organized ceased the revolt within just an hour. This continued success led Lee to be put on the short list of men to lead the Union army in the scenario that a war break out. However, Lee, like Jackson, was loyal to Virginia, and thus refused Lincoln’s offer to serve the United States. Lee retired once again from the military. Although he had his doubts about the war, Lee agreed to help the Confederates after Virginia seceded in 1861. Throughout the Civil War, General Lee distinguished himself once again on the battlefield. In 1862 he led the Confederates to several important victories, including the Seven Days Battle victory in May, as well as the pivotal Confederate victory at the Second Mannassas in August. However, not all of the battles Lee led the Confederates through went well; trying to cross the Potomac was a failure. The battle of Antietam cost the Confederates over 14,000 men, captured, wounded, or killed. The Battle of Gettysburg was a major turning point in the war for the Union, obliterating most of the Confederate army in a three-day standoff in July 1863. The war would not turn around, and by early 1865 it was evident that the Union would win. In April 1865 Lee surrendered to General Grant at the Appomattox Court House in Appomattox, Virginia. In late 1870, General Robert E. Lee. suffered a massive stroke and passed away at his home surrounded by family on October 12. Ulysses S Grant was born to Jesse Root Grant and Hannah Simpson Grant on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. His childhood was somewhat uneventful. Grant was a rather shy and reserved individual during his childhood, taking after his mother rather than his outgoing father. Grant steadfastly refused to work at his father’s tannery business, a fact which his father was forced to accept. At the age of 17, Grant was enrolled in the United States Military Academy. It was in this occurrence that the “S.” in Ulysses S. Grant came about, following a clerical error. Not wanting to be rejected from the school, Ulysses Grant promptly changed his name to Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s studies at the USMA went averagely. He was not too interested in the goings on of the military, and often received several demerits for tardiness and shabby clothing. Grant had planned to retire after his four years of mandatory service; little did he know what would really happen after his graduation from the Academy in 1843, finishing 21st in his class of 39 students. Upon his graduation, Ulysses Grant was stationed in St. Louis, Missouri, where he would meet his future wife, Julia Dent. However, after his proposal, Grant was immediately shipped off to service as the Mexican-American War was beginning. Serving under General Zachary Taylor, and later General Winfield Scott, Grant observed the skills of these great soldiers. When he himself was given the opportunity to lead a company in battle, he proved his bravery under fire. After the war, Grant and Julia were finally married. They had four children in the following six years, during which time Grant was assigned to several different posts. Missing his family, the youngest of which he had not even met yet, Grant tried and failed at several business ventures in an attempt to move his family closer to his location in present-day Washington. In 1853, Grant was moved to Fort Humboldt, near present-day Eureka, CA. While there, Grant had a run-in with the commanding colonel of the fort, and he resigned from the military not long after in July 1854. Grant and his family moved back to Missouri that year. The return to civilian life was not very pleasant for Grant, however, similarly to Robert E. Lee. Grant tried farming land that had been given him by his father-in-law, but to little avail. He also attempted a real estate venture, but his efforts were again in vain. He was denied employment multiple times in St. Louis. After all this, Grant resorted to selling firewood on the streets to support his family. It was after seven years of these business failures that he finally went to work at his father’s tannery business as a clerk, his two younger brothers his supervisors. The following year, the American Civil War began. The Confederates’ rebellion prompted Grant to join the Union forces. Initially rejected for military appointments, Grant was finally put in command of a disorderly volunteer regiment in Illinois. In applying the skills that he had leraned from the generals whom he was under during the Mexican-American War, Grant had the made these inexperienced volunteers into a battle-ready regiment. After the state of Kentucky decided to secede from the Union in late 1861, Grant and his men captured the city of Paducha, KY. The following year Grant and his men applied pressure with their ground forces, and, with the help of the navy, led the Union to victory at the battles of Fort Donnelson and Fort Henry. Now called “U.S.” Grant, Grant was soon promoted to major general of volunteers. In April of 1862, Grant and his men took on Confederate forces at the Battle of Shiloh, one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War. Initially, after a surprise attack threw the Northerners off guard; soon, however, reinforcement arrived eventually, and Grant was able to defeat the rebels on the second day of the battle. He actually faced criticisms for the large number of casualties he caused the Confederates, and was for a time demoted. The year 1863 brought the Union the pivotal victory at Gettysburg, as well as the important capture of the Mississippi River, which would be crucial in splitting the Confederate states and eventually winning the war. Grant’s forces raided Vicksburg, which finally surrendered on July 4 of that year. This was a great victory for Grant; but looming rumors of heavy drinking followed him. However, many of his close associates claimed that these were untrue. For nine months, beginning in 1864, Grant’s forces pursued Lee’s in the forests of Virginia. This event, called the Siege of Petersburg, tired Lee’s army and eventually caused the surrender of Petersburg, as well as the Confederate capital of Richmond, to the Union. It was just days after the end of the Seige that the small battle of Appomattox Court House led to the end of the war; Lee formally surrendered to Grant at the Appomattox Court House. Four years after the end of the war, Ulysses S. Grant became the 18th president of the United States, the youngest ever to be elected at the time, serving two terms from 1869-1877. Grant passed away in 1885 of throat cancer. His last words? There was only one–“Water!” Grant’s good friend Mark Twain published Grant’s memoirs four days after his death. William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Lancaster, Ohio, on February 8, 1820, to Mary and Charles Sherman, one of the Shermans’ eleven children. When William was nine, his father unexpectedly passed away, leaving his family with little to live off of. William was raised by Whig Senator Thomas Ewing of Ohio, a family friend. When Sherman was 16, Ewing secured him a place at the USMA. While there he did well academically, but had little respect for the demerit system, having numerous minor offenses on record. Sherman graduated from the Academy in 1840, sixth in his class. Rather than serving in the Mexican-American War following his graduation from the Academy, Sherman was instead forced to serve as an executive officer in California. Thus, having little combat experience, Sherman resigned from the military in 1853. Staying in California he became a banker during the glory days of the Gold Rush until 1857, when he moved to Kansas and began practicing law, but with little success, In 1859 Sherman was headmaster of a military academy in Louisiana. When Louisiana seceded from the Union, Sherman did not want anything to do with the Confederacy, and thus moved to St. Louis. When war broke out at Fort Sumter, William Sherman asked his brother, Sen. John Sherman, to commission him for the army. In 1861 Sherman was appointed to colonel, commanding a brigade under General William McDowell. Sherman fought in the first Battle of Bull Run, a terrible loss for the Union. It was around this time that Sherman began looking at the negative side of things, and not the positive, exaggerating the strength of the Confederates and complaining to his authorities. This would spell trouble for him, as he was soon considered unfit to serve and was put on leave. The press called him “insane.” In late-1861, Sherman returned to service, providing logistical support for Brigadier General U.S. Grant at the capture of Fort Donnelson in early 1862, one of the first major Union victories. On April 6, 1862, the Battle of Shiloh broke out. Sherman and Grant fought the Confederates well, winning the battle on the second day of fighting. This experience bonded the two Union generals. Sherman also served with Grant during the capturing of Vicksburg and the Mississippi. These two brave generals, however, underwent much criticisms from newspapers. For example one such newspaper said: [The] Army was being ruined in mud-turtle expeditions, under the leadership of a drunkard [Grant] whose confidential adviser [Sherman] was a lunatic. Still, Sherman continued to serve, and in 1864, he burned the Confederate city of Atlanta to the ground. Five years later, when U.S. Grant became president, William T. Sherman replaced Grant as general commander of the U.S. Army. In 1884, he retired. Sherman passed away in 1891 at the age of 71. Confederate Generals Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee had a lot in common. Both were born and raised in the state of Virginia, to which both would be loyal during the Civil War. They were both graduates of the USMA, Jackson, just in time to join Lee, twenty years into his military career, under General Winfield Scott during the Mexican-American War. Neither held much of a career outside of the military; Jackson was for a time a professor at the VMI, and would later serve the Cadet Corps there. Finally, both professed a Christian faith. So, what is different about these two men? One major difference between the two, it would be the large gap in their ages. Lee was Jackson’s senior by fourteen years, a substantial difference. As for their character, they are quite similar. Even their careers were strikingly similar, as both were dedicated to the military for their whole lives. Thus, it could be reasonable to conclude that these two Confederate heroes had more in common than they had not in common. Union Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman met while serving in the Civil War, and would thereafter be lifelong friends. Both, like most of the other successful generals of that era, went to the USMA at West Point. Both underwent tons of criticisms from newspapers during the war, while both played prominent roles in the Union victory. So, how were they different? For one, Sherman did not serve in the Mexican-American War like Grant and many other soldiers of that time did, but rather served as an executive officer during that time. Also, while Grant’s childhood was rather uneventful, Sherman’s was full of adventure, with eleven siblings. When Sherman’s father died, he went to live with Senator Ewing. Another item of note in the way of differences between the two was their career paths. Grant planned to not serve in the military for longer than the required four years. However, he ended up serving so much that he had to make failed business venture after failed business venture to raise the fund to move his family closer. In contrast, Sherman led a more civilized career path between his two military stints, first staying in California as a banker during the Gold Rush, then practicing law in Kansas, and finally becoming the headmaster of a military academy in Louisiana. Thank you all for reading! Please leave your feedback below, and I will be happy to correct any typographical or factual errors promptly. Thanks!	<urn:uuid:57a98e2a-1cb6-43dc-b468-8d14362f4a22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://coltonbeckwithrpc.wordpress.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00176.warc.gz	en	0.988525	3,610	3.75	4	[ -0.23329001665115356, 0.44249194860458374, 0.49038368463516235, -0.08989601582288742, -0.10778260231018066, 0.3511892557144165, -0.2203572541475296, 0.024259056895971298, -0.20776265859603882, -0.2965363562107086, -0.09335174411535263, 0.026006527245044708, 0.19358518719673157, -0.05751994...	1	The following essay will be discussing two generals from each side of the American Civil War, comparing their careers and characters, and discussing their lives. General Thomas Jackson was born in Virginia in 1824, and was the third-born of Jonathan Jackson and Julia Beckwith Neale He was one of the most well-known Confederate generals during the American civil war. Better known as Stonewall, Jackson attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1842. Jackson, albeit older than his classmates, struggled at the school, and was also teased and made fun of by the others because of his modest education and poor family. This simply pushed him to succeed, and in 1846, Jackson graduated, just in time for the beginning of the Mexican-American War. Jackson joined the 1st U.S. Artillery as a 2nd lieutenant in Mexico under General Winfield Scott. He quickly proved to be a brave and tenacious soldier, and had been promoted to brevet major by the end of the war. During the war, Jackson met Robert E. Lee, with whom he would serve on the Confederate side of the American Civil War in his latter years. After the Mexican-American War, Thomas Jackson continued to serve in Florida and New York. Three years later, he retired from his military career and was offered a professorship at the Virginia Military Institute. He accepted this invitation and taught artillery tactics, in addition to natural and experimental philosophy. It was not until November of 1859 that Jackson returned to his military career, when he served as a VMI officer at the execution of John Brown, an abolitionist. During the following two years, as several states began to secede from the Union, Jackson hoped that his home state, Virginia, would side with the Union. But when Virginia seceded, Jackson showed his loyalty to his state, now in support of the Confederacy. In April 1861, Jackson was ordered back to the VMI to lead the VMI Corps of Cadets. Soon after this Jackson was commissioned a colonel by the state government and was relocated Harper’s Ferry. Soon, Jackson was again promoted, this time to the positions of brigadier commander and brigadier general under General Joseph E. Johnston. It was during the first Battle of Mannassas that Jackson received his nickname, Stonewall, which would stick throughout history. It came after General Barnard E. Bee, impressed with Jackson’s leading his troops to bridge a gap in a Confederate Defensive line, exclaimed, “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall.” Forever Jackson would be referred to as Stonewall. The impressive military career of Stonewall Jackson came to a close in 1863 when he was accidentally wounded fatally by friendly fire, dying of complications at the second field hospital in Guinea Station, Virginia, at the age of just 39. His last words were this: “Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of trees.” Throughout his years, Stonewall Jackson’s Christian faith showed through everything he did, and was a major part of his life. The other Confederate general which I shall mention, Robert E. Lee, was born in 1807 to Henry and Anna Lee in Stratford, Virginia. His father was a colonel, and has served as a cavalry leader during the American Revolutionary War. His performance during the war made him a war hero, and it won him General George Washington praise. Robert attended West Point Military Academy when he was 18, and graduated with perfect scores in infantry, artillery, and cavalry. Soon after, Lee married Mary Custis, the great-granddaughter of George Washington. They had seven children. While Mary and their children lived on Mary’s father’s plantation, Lee was committed to his military work, and was thus not present much of the time, as he was forced to move all around the country with the Army. In 1846, the beginning of the Mexican-American War gave Lee the chance he had been waiting for for his entire military career. He served under General Winfield Scott, like Jackson, and soon distinguished himself as a brave soldier and a skilled strategist. General Scott was quite impressed with Lee’s performance during the War, telling Lee that if the U.S. were to enter another war, the government should consider taking out a life insurance policy for Lee. Life off the battlefield proved to be difficult for Lee. The mundanities of every day life back at home was not preferable to him. Upon the death of his step-mother, Lee returned home for a time to manage the estate. In 1859, Lee returned to the military, accepting an unenviable position at an isolated cavalry outpost in Texas. Later that year, Lee got a break from the outpost when he was summoned to help fight against John Brown’s revolt at Harper’s Ferry. The attack Lee organized ceased the revolt within just an hour. This continued success led Lee to be put on the short list of men to lead the Union army in the scenario that a war break out. However, Lee, like Jackson, was loyal to Virginia, and thus refused Lincoln’s offer to serve the United States. Lee retired once again from the military. Although he had his doubts about the war, Lee agreed to help the Confederates after Virginia seceded in 1861. Throughout the Civil War, General Lee distinguished himself once again on the battlefield. In 1862 he led the Confederates to several important victories, including the Seven Days Battle victory in May, as well as the pivotal Confederate victory at the Second Mannassas in August. However, not all of the battles Lee led the Confederates through went well; trying to cross the Potomac was a failure. The battle of Antietam cost the Confederates over 14,000 men, captured, wounded, or killed. The Battle of Gettysburg was a major turning point in the war for the Union, obliterating most of the Confederate army in a three-day standoff in July 1863. The war would not turn around, and by early 1865 it was evident that the Union would win. In April 1865 Lee surrendered to General Grant at the Appomattox Court House in Appomattox, Virginia. In late 1870, General Robert E. Lee. suffered a massive stroke and passed away at his home surrounded by family on October 12. Ulysses S Grant was born to Jesse Root Grant and Hannah Simpson Grant on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. His childhood was somewhat uneventful. Grant was a rather shy and reserved individual during his childhood, taking after his mother rather than his outgoing father. Grant steadfastly refused to work at his father’s tannery business, a fact which his father was forced to accept. At the age of 17, Grant was enrolled in the United States Military Academy. It was in this occurrence that the “S.” in Ulysses S. Grant came about, following a clerical error. Not wanting to be rejected from the school, Ulysses Grant promptly changed his name to Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s studies at the USMA went averagely. He was not too interested in the goings on of the military, and often received several demerits for tardiness and shabby clothing. Grant had planned to retire after his four years of mandatory service; little did he know what would really happen after his graduation from the Academy in 1843, finishing 21st in his class of 39 students. Upon his graduation, Ulysses Grant was stationed in St. Louis, Missouri, where he would meet his future wife, Julia Dent. However, after his proposal, Grant was immediately shipped off to service as the Mexican-American War was beginning. Serving under General Zachary Taylor, and later General Winfield Scott, Grant observed the skills of these great soldiers. When he himself was given the opportunity to lead a company in battle, he proved his bravery under fire. After the war, Grant and Julia were finally married. They had four children in the following six years, during which time Grant was assigned to several different posts. Missing his family, the youngest of which he had not even met yet, Grant tried and failed at several business ventures in an attempt to move his family closer to his location in present-day Washington. In 1853, Grant was moved to Fort Humboldt, near present-day Eureka, CA. While there, Grant had a run-in with the commanding colonel of the fort, and he resigned from the military not long after in July 1854. Grant and his family moved back to Missouri that year. The return to civilian life was not very pleasant for Grant, however, similarly to Robert E. Lee. Grant tried farming land that had been given him by his father-in-law, but to little avail. He also attempted a real estate venture, but his efforts were again in vain. He was denied employment multiple times in St. Louis. After all this, Grant resorted to selling firewood on the streets to support his family. It was after seven years of these business failures that he finally went to work at his father’s tannery business as a clerk, his two younger brothers his supervisors. The following year, the American Civil War began. The Confederates’ rebellion prompted Grant to join the Union forces. Initially rejected for military appointments, Grant was finally put in command of a disorderly volunteer regiment in Illinois. In applying the skills that he had leraned from the generals whom he was under during the Mexican-American War, Grant had the made these inexperienced volunteers into a battle-ready regiment. After the state of Kentucky decided to secede from the Union in late 1861, Grant and his men captured the city of Paducha, KY. The following year Grant and his men applied pressure with their ground forces, and, with the help of the navy, led the Union to victory at the battles of Fort Donnelson and Fort Henry. Now called “U.S.” Grant, Grant was soon promoted to major general of volunteers. In April of 1862, Grant and his men took on Confederate forces at the Battle of Shiloh, one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War. Initially, after a surprise attack threw the Northerners off guard; soon, however, reinforcement arrived eventually, and Grant was able to defeat the rebels on the second day of the battle. He actually faced criticisms for the large number of casualties he caused the Confederates, and was for a time demoted. The year 1863 brought the Union the pivotal victory at Gettysburg, as well as the important capture of the Mississippi River, which would be crucial in splitting the Confederate states and eventually winning the war. Grant’s forces raided Vicksburg, which finally surrendered on July 4 of that year. This was a great victory for Grant; but looming rumors of heavy drinking followed him. However, many of his close associates claimed that these were untrue. For nine months, beginning in 1864, Grant’s forces pursued Lee’s in the forests of Virginia. This event, called the Siege of Petersburg, tired Lee’s army and eventually caused the surrender of Petersburg, as well as the Confederate capital of Richmond, to the Union. It was just days after the end of the Seige that the small battle of Appomattox Court House led to the end of the war; Lee formally surrendered to Grant at the Appomattox Court House. Four years after the end of the war, Ulysses S. Grant became the 18th president of the United States, the youngest ever to be elected at the time, serving two terms from 1869-1877. Grant passed away in 1885 of throat cancer. His last words? There was only one–“Water!” Grant’s good friend Mark Twain published Grant’s memoirs four days after his death. William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Lancaster, Ohio, on February 8, 1820, to Mary and Charles Sherman, one of the Shermans’ eleven children. When William was nine, his father unexpectedly passed away, leaving his family with little to live off of. William was raised by Whig Senator Thomas Ewing of Ohio, a family friend. When Sherman was 16, Ewing secured him a place at the USMA. While there he did well academically, but had little respect for the demerit system, having numerous minor offenses on record. Sherman graduated from the Academy in 1840, sixth in his class. Rather than serving in the Mexican-American War following his graduation from the Academy, Sherman was instead forced to serve as an executive officer in California. Thus, having little combat experience, Sherman resigned from the military in 1853. Staying in California he became a banker during the glory days of the Gold Rush until 1857, when he moved to Kansas and began practicing law, but with little success, In 1859 Sherman was headmaster of a military academy in Louisiana. When Louisiana seceded from the Union, Sherman did not want anything to do with the Confederacy, and thus moved to St. Louis. When war broke out at Fort Sumter, William Sherman asked his brother, Sen. John Sherman, to commission him for the army. In 1861 Sherman was appointed to colonel, commanding a brigade under General William McDowell. Sherman fought in the first Battle of Bull Run, a terrible loss for the Union. It was around this time that Sherman began looking at the negative side of things, and not the positive, exaggerating the strength of the Confederates and complaining to his authorities. This would spell trouble for him, as he was soon considered unfit to serve and was put on leave. The press called him “insane.” In late-1861, Sherman returned to service, providing logistical support for Brigadier General U.S. Grant at the capture of Fort Donnelson in early 1862, one of the first major Union victories. On April 6, 1862, the Battle of Shiloh broke out. Sherman and Grant fought the Confederates well, winning the battle on the second day of fighting. This experience bonded the two Union generals. Sherman also served with Grant during the capturing of Vicksburg and the Mississippi. These two brave generals, however, underwent much criticisms from newspapers. For example one such newspaper said: [The] Army was being ruined in mud-turtle expeditions, under the leadership of a drunkard [Grant] whose confidential adviser [Sherman] was a lunatic. Still, Sherman continued to serve, and in 1864, he burned the Confederate city of Atlanta to the ground. Five years later, when U.S. Grant became president, William T. Sherman replaced Grant as general commander of the U.S. Army. In 1884, he retired. Sherman passed away in 1891 at the age of 71. Confederate Generals Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee had a lot in common. Both were born and raised in the state of Virginia, to which both would be loyal during the Civil War. They were both graduates of the USMA, Jackson, just in time to join Lee, twenty years into his military career, under General Winfield Scott during the Mexican-American War. Neither held much of a career outside of the military; Jackson was for a time a professor at the VMI, and would later serve the Cadet Corps there. Finally, both professed a Christian faith. So, what is different about these two men? One major difference between the two, it would be the large gap in their ages. Lee was Jackson’s senior by fourteen years, a substantial difference. As for their character, they are quite similar. Even their careers were strikingly similar, as both were dedicated to the military for their whole lives. Thus, it could be reasonable to conclude that these two Confederate heroes had more in common than they had not in common. Union Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman met while serving in the Civil War, and would thereafter be lifelong friends. Both, like most of the other successful generals of that era, went to the USMA at West Point. Both underwent tons of criticisms from newspapers during the war, while both played prominent roles in the Union victory. So, how were they different? For one, Sherman did not serve in the Mexican-American War like Grant and many other soldiers of that time did, but rather served as an executive officer during that time. Also, while Grant’s childhood was rather uneventful, Sherman’s was full of adventure, with eleven siblings. When Sherman’s father died, he went to live with Senator Ewing. Another item of note in the way of differences between the two was their career paths. Grant planned to not serve in the military for longer than the required four years. However, he ended up serving so much that he had to make failed business venture after failed business venture to raise the fund to move his family closer. In contrast, Sherman led a more civilized career path between his two military stints, first staying in California as a banker during the Gold Rush, then practicing law in Kansas, and finally becoming the headmaster of a military academy in Louisiana. Thank you all for reading! Please leave your feedback below, and I will be happy to correct any typographical or factual errors promptly. Thanks!	3,657	ENGLISH	1
The Wise Men had arrived in Bethlehem. Mary, Joseph and Jesus lived about two years in Bethlehem and were out of the stable and living in a house by the time the Wise Men arrived. But who were these Wise Men? They were definitely from the East, probably Persia (modern-day Iran), and would have traveled about 800-900 miles by the stars to get to Bethlehem. The prophet Daniel had been chief of the court seers at an earlier time in Persia during the Jewish exile, so these men would have been familiar with Daniel’s prophecy regarding the timing of the Messiah. They were learned men and confident of their knowledge too. They would not have traveled such a far distance on just a hunch. When they arrived in Jerusalem, they asked King Herod where the King of the Jews had been born. They already knew he had been born. And they already knew who He was. They must have been important men too, in order to have the attention of King Herod. But Herod had not been expecting them – they came unannounced. That seems a little unusual, but perhaps the Wise Men knew of King Herod’s reputation as a ruthless King and thought it better to not cause trouble ahead of time. King Herod was also an Edomite, who came from the descendants of Esau, Jacob’s twin brother from their father Isaac. Esau had given up his birthright and blessing to Jacob, who later became the nation of Israel. Throughout the history of the Old Testament, the Edomites had always been at conflict with Israel, and now it continued with King Herod. The Wise Men were not Kings themselves but Magi (magicians) or Astronomers. But they believed. They had studied the history of the Jews and their prophecies. Perhaps it is symbolic that Jesus was already having victory over darkness through these Magi. And King Herod and the rest of Jerusalem was not happy about it. The Gospel of Matthew, chapter 2, tells us the story of the Wise Men’s visit: After Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of King Herod, wise men from the east arrived unexpectedly in Jerusalem, saying, “Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we saw His star in the east and have come to worship Him.” When King Herod heard this, he was deeply disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. So he assembled all the chief priests and scribes of the people and asked them where the Messiah would be born. “In Bethlehem of Judea,” they told him, “because this is what was written by the prophet: And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the leaders of Judah: because out of you will come a leader who will shepherd My people Israel.” Then Herod secretly summoned the wise men and asked them the exact time the star appeared. He sent them to Bethlehem and said, “Go and search carefully for the child. When you find Him, report back to me so that I too can go and worship Him.” Of course Herod did not want to worship the child but to kill him. And how sad it is that all the chief priests and scribes of Jerusalem – those who knew the law and knew about the prophecy of Bethlehem – did not even want to go to see it for themselves. Had their hearts become that hardened and selfish that they did not want to see the truth? May you open your heart to the wonderful possibilities that can come from knowing Jesus. * Merry Christmas *	<urn:uuid:63f49865-c9bd-4b8d-8344-d579c386d1d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lifeandheartmatters.com/31-days-of-the-christmas-story-from-genesis-to-john-day-28-wise-men-arrive-2/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00487.warc.gz	en	0.989187	741	3.453125	3	[ -0.22208714485168457, 0.5044167041778564, 0.06231285631656647, -0.10524363815784454, -0.18724685907363892, -0.19726373255252838, 0.39803725481033325, 0.28456294536590576, -0.28039366006851196, -0.022299673408269882, -0.09493767470121384, 0.19866549968719482, 0.4057559370994568, 0.083745166...	6	The Wise Men had arrived in Bethlehem. Mary, Joseph and Jesus lived about two years in Bethlehem and were out of the stable and living in a house by the time the Wise Men arrived. But who were these Wise Men? They were definitely from the East, probably Persia (modern-day Iran), and would have traveled about 800-900 miles by the stars to get to Bethlehem. The prophet Daniel had been chief of the court seers at an earlier time in Persia during the Jewish exile, so these men would have been familiar with Daniel’s prophecy regarding the timing of the Messiah. They were learned men and confident of their knowledge too. They would not have traveled such a far distance on just a hunch. When they arrived in Jerusalem, they asked King Herod where the King of the Jews had been born. They already knew he had been born. And they already knew who He was. They must have been important men too, in order to have the attention of King Herod. But Herod had not been expecting them – they came unannounced. That seems a little unusual, but perhaps the Wise Men knew of King Herod’s reputation as a ruthless King and thought it better to not cause trouble ahead of time. King Herod was also an Edomite, who came from the descendants of Esau, Jacob’s twin brother from their father Isaac. Esau had given up his birthright and blessing to Jacob, who later became the nation of Israel. Throughout the history of the Old Testament, the Edomites had always been at conflict with Israel, and now it continued with King Herod. The Wise Men were not Kings themselves but Magi (magicians) or Astronomers. But they believed. They had studied the history of the Jews and their prophecies. Perhaps it is symbolic that Jesus was already having victory over darkness through these Magi. And King Herod and the rest of Jerusalem was not happy about it. The Gospel of Matthew, chapter 2, tells us the story of the Wise Men’s visit: After Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of King Herod, wise men from the east arrived unexpectedly in Jerusalem, saying, “Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we saw His star in the east and have come to worship Him.” When King Herod heard this, he was deeply disturbed, and all Jerusalem with him. So he assembled all the chief priests and scribes of the people and asked them where the Messiah would be born. “In Bethlehem of Judea,” they told him, “because this is what was written by the prophet: And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the leaders of Judah: because out of you will come a leader who will shepherd My people Israel.” Then Herod secretly summoned the wise men and asked them the exact time the star appeared. He sent them to Bethlehem and said, “Go and search carefully for the child. When you find Him, report back to me so that I too can go and worship Him.” Of course Herod did not want to worship the child but to kill him. And how sad it is that all the chief priests and scribes of Jerusalem – those who knew the law and knew about the prophecy of Bethlehem – did not even want to go to see it for themselves. Had their hearts become that hardened and selfish that they did not want to see the truth? May you open your heart to the wonderful possibilities that can come from knowing Jesus. * Merry Christmas *	728	ENGLISH	1
Former President Chester A. Arthur was born in Fairfax, Virginia on October 5, 1829. His father was a Baptist minister and due to his profession, Arthur, and his family moved all over Vermont and New York during his childhood. He graduated from Union College in 1848 and went on to study law at the now non-existent State and National Law School. In 1854, he took the bar and became licensed in the state of New York. He was married in 1859 to Ellen Lewis Herndon, who passed away before Chester took office as President. One of his most monumental legal cases was to defend, Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman who was not allowed to take a seat on the public transportation in Manhattan. The ruling helped lead to the desegregation of public transportation in New York. Sticking to his belief in civil rights for all, he was involved in the case which determined that any slave transported through New York state would be freed. He joined the Republican party which was formed to fight slavery. Although he was a militia member, he did not fight in the Civil War. Instead, Arthur was appointed as the Quartermaster General for New York State. His responsibilities involved ensuring that soldiers had adequate food and supplies. In 1871, then-President Grant appointed Chester to the Collector of the Port of New York position where he managed around 1,000 employees. Well-known Republican Roscoe Conkling helped him attain the appointment and to return the favor, Arthur hired political supporters of Conkling. In return, these employees contributed a portion of their salary to the Republican party. When President Hayes took office, he wanted to reform the Customs House, which was not supported by Arthur. In 1878, Hayes had him removed from office. In 1880, the Republican party nominated him as the vice presidential running mate for James Garfield. The duo took office on March 4, 1881. In July of the same year, President Garfield was shot and died from complications two months later. On September 20, 1881, Chester A. Arthur became the 21st President of the United States. Nearly as soon as he took office, Arthur moved away from his undying support of Conkling and the Republican party. He began to campaign for civil service reform, a movement with the aim to ensure that public service offices would be filled based on experience and skill rather than political affiliation. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act in January of 1883, putting reform into law and further protecting civil servants by making it illegal to fire them for political reasons. This act also put an end to forced political contributions. Some of his other notable actions as president include vetoing the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the objective of which was to prohibit Chinese immigration to the US. Congress, however, overrode his veto, and the Act became law. Although against Chinese exclusion, Arthur did pass a measure prohibiting those individuals living in poverty, with mental disabilities, and criminals from immigrating to the country. In 1883, he signed into law the Tariff Act to lower tariffs on foreign goods. This move was not popular, particularly with Democrats, and it became a point of contention between the two political parties. While in office, Arthur was diagnosed with a kidney ailment called Bright’s disease. Though he suffered from poor health in his last years as president, he did not publicly announce his condition. When it was time to campaign for his second term, Arthur chose not to re-run. He will be remembered for entering the presidency at a time of political distrust when he was not the most popular public figure. Upon his exit, however, he had gained public favor and respect. He was a competent, fair, and flexible president. Who Was Chester A. Arthur? Chester A. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States. He served between 1881 and 1885. Chester A. Arthur, 21st U.S. President \|Date of Birth\|\|October 5th, 1829\| \|Date of Death\|\|November 18th, 1886\| \|Start of Term\|\|September 19th, 1881\| \|End of Term\|\|March 4th, 1885\| \|Major Conflicts Involved In\|\|American Diplomatic Interventions in South America and the Pacific\| \|Preceded by\|\|James A. Garfield\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Grover Cleveland\| \|First Lady\|\|Ellis Lewis Herndon Arthur\| About the Author Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:aec8e33c-3efb-40af-9236-eb709b9713b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/chester-a-arthur-21st-u-s-president.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00142.warc.gz	en	0.983754	989	3.46875	3	[ -0.4433637857437134, 0.42379656434059143, 0.5173536539077759, -0.0919957160949707, -0.3714388608932495, 0.28653764724731445, 0.33323103189468384, -0.03295338898897171, -0.3630044758319855, 0.23590686917304993, -0.10541140288114548, 0.36482498049736023, -0.1433618664741516, 0.26199156045913...	2	Former President Chester A. Arthur was born in Fairfax, Virginia on October 5, 1829. His father was a Baptist minister and due to his profession, Arthur, and his family moved all over Vermont and New York during his childhood. He graduated from Union College in 1848 and went on to study law at the now non-existent State and National Law School. In 1854, he took the bar and became licensed in the state of New York. He was married in 1859 to Ellen Lewis Herndon, who passed away before Chester took office as President. One of his most monumental legal cases was to defend, Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman who was not allowed to take a seat on the public transportation in Manhattan. The ruling helped lead to the desegregation of public transportation in New York. Sticking to his belief in civil rights for all, he was involved in the case which determined that any slave transported through New York state would be freed. He joined the Republican party which was formed to fight slavery. Although he was a militia member, he did not fight in the Civil War. Instead, Arthur was appointed as the Quartermaster General for New York State. His responsibilities involved ensuring that soldiers had adequate food and supplies. In 1871, then-President Grant appointed Chester to the Collector of the Port of New York position where he managed around 1,000 employees. Well-known Republican Roscoe Conkling helped him attain the appointment and to return the favor, Arthur hired political supporters of Conkling. In return, these employees contributed a portion of their salary to the Republican party. When President Hayes took office, he wanted to reform the Customs House, which was not supported by Arthur. In 1878, Hayes had him removed from office. In 1880, the Republican party nominated him as the vice presidential running mate for James Garfield. The duo took office on March 4, 1881. In July of the same year, President Garfield was shot and died from complications two months later. On September 20, 1881, Chester A. Arthur became the 21st President of the United States. Nearly as soon as he took office, Arthur moved away from his undying support of Conkling and the Republican party. He began to campaign for civil service reform, a movement with the aim to ensure that public service offices would be filled based on experience and skill rather than political affiliation. He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act in January of 1883, putting reform into law and further protecting civil servants by making it illegal to fire them for political reasons. This act also put an end to forced political contributions. Some of his other notable actions as president include vetoing the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the objective of which was to prohibit Chinese immigration to the US. Congress, however, overrode his veto, and the Act became law. Although against Chinese exclusion, Arthur did pass a measure prohibiting those individuals living in poverty, with mental disabilities, and criminals from immigrating to the country. In 1883, he signed into law the Tariff Act to lower tariffs on foreign goods. This move was not popular, particularly with Democrats, and it became a point of contention between the two political parties. While in office, Arthur was diagnosed with a kidney ailment called Bright’s disease. Though he suffered from poor health in his last years as president, he did not publicly announce his condition. When it was time to campaign for his second term, Arthur chose not to re-run. He will be remembered for entering the presidency at a time of political distrust when he was not the most popular public figure. Upon his exit, however, he had gained public favor and respect. He was a competent, fair, and flexible president. Who Was Chester A. Arthur? Chester A. Arthur was the 21st president of the United States. He served between 1881 and 1885. Chester A. Arthur, 21st U.S. President \|Date of Birth\|\|October 5th, 1829\| \|Date of Death\|\|November 18th, 1886\| \|Start of Term\|\|September 19th, 1881\| \|End of Term\|\|March 4th, 1885\| \|Major Conflicts Involved In\|\|American Diplomatic Interventions in South America and the Pacific\| \|Preceded by\|\|James A. Garfield\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Grover Cleveland\| \|First Lady\|\|Ellis Lewis Herndon Arthur\| About the Author Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,035	ENGLISH	1
This is a language that was spoken at the East African Coast from the early centuries but acquired some of its vocabulary from traders who visited the coast like the Arabs, Chinese, Persians, Turks, etc. More of its vocabulary also came from the Portuguese who invaded the East Coast in the 15th Century. The English and the Germans also came as missionaries and later colonized East Africa adding their vocabulary to Kiswahili. Kiswahili is rich in history. Most of its administrative and religious vocabularies are Arabic while trade is influenced by those other languages that traded at the coast. Kiswahili is a widely spoken language within East and Central Africa and it is now being introduced to most African countries as an official language, which is going to be taught in both primary and secondary schools in East and Central Africa. At The Language Center (TLC), Kiswahili language is taught to all groups of students such as - Native citizens who did not have a chance to learn this language in their schools or attended formal schooling or who were born and lived outside Kenya. - We also offer translations and teach native languages namely Gikuyu, Dholuo, Ekegusii and Kikamba We have qualified and experienced teachers as well as conducive learning environment. Our lessons are conducted at TLC. However, upon request, we do them at homes or places of work.	<urn:uuid:52aaa8b3-a090-45a2-ad15-abf676dcce00>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://language-cntr.com/kiswahili	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00223.warc.gz	en	0.98026	292	3.78125	4	[ -0.2319813072681427, 0.27496007084846497, 0.015703298151493073, -0.15010379254817963, -0.2474147081375122, 0.007256694138050079, 0.04595455527305603, -0.1861749291419983, -0.5359494090080261, 0.04133189097046852, 0.117055244743824, -0.7528690099716187, -0.2438248097896576, 0.07865235209465...	6	This is a language that was spoken at the East African Coast from the early centuries but acquired some of its vocabulary from traders who visited the coast like the Arabs, Chinese, Persians, Turks, etc. More of its vocabulary also came from the Portuguese who invaded the East Coast in the 15th Century. The English and the Germans also came as missionaries and later colonized East Africa adding their vocabulary to Kiswahili. Kiswahili is rich in history. Most of its administrative and religious vocabularies are Arabic while trade is influenced by those other languages that traded at the coast. Kiswahili is a widely spoken language within East and Central Africa and it is now being introduced to most African countries as an official language, which is going to be taught in both primary and secondary schools in East and Central Africa. At The Language Center (TLC), Kiswahili language is taught to all groups of students such as - Native citizens who did not have a chance to learn this language in their schools or attended formal schooling or who were born and lived outside Kenya. - We also offer translations and teach native languages namely Gikuyu, Dholuo, Ekegusii and Kikamba We have qualified and experienced teachers as well as conducive learning environment. Our lessons are conducted at TLC. However, upon request, we do them at homes or places of work.	286	ENGLISH	1
The German Shepherd is a relatively new breed, dating back to 1899, and he owes his existence to one man: Captain Max von Stephanitz, a career captain in the German cavalry with a goal of creating a German breed that would be unmatched as a herding dog. Centuries before von Stephanitz came along, farmers in Germany, as in the rest of Europe, relied on dogs to drive and protect their herds. Some dogs were legendary for their skill, and sheepherders would travel days to breed their female dogs to a notable sire. However, as von Stephanitz noted, no one had developed the herding dogs of the region into a distinct breed. In 1898, von Stephanitz retired from military life and began his second career, and what would prove to be his passion: experimenting with dog breeding to create a superior German herding dog. Stephanitz studied the breeding techniques of the British, noted for their exceptional herding dogs, and traveled throughout Germany, attending dog shows and observing German-type herding dogs. Von Stephanitz saw many fine herding dogs, dogs who were athletic, or intelligent, or capable. What he didn’t see was a dog who embodied all those traits. One day, in 1899, von Stephanitz was visiting a dog show when a wolfish-looking dog caught his eye. He immediately bought the dog, named Hektor Linksrhein. Later renamed Horand v Grafeth, the dog’s powerful physique and intelligence so impressed von Stephanitz that he formed a society — the Verein fur deutsche Schaferhunde — to found a breed out of Horand’s descendents. Although he had intended for his breed to work as herding dogs, as Germany became more and more industrialized, von Stephanitz saw the need for such dogs fading. He was determined that his breed would continue as a working dog, and he decided that the dog’s future was in police work and military service. Making good use of his military connections, von Stephanitz convinced the German government to use the breed. During World War I the German Shepherd served as a Red Cross dog, messenger, rescuer, guard, supply carrier, and sentry. Although German Shepherds made their way to the United States before the war, it wasn’t until the war that the breed became popular in the U.S. Allied servicemen noted the dog’s bravery and intelligence, and a number of dogs went home with these soldiers. One such dog was a five-day-old puppy plucked from a bomb-riddled kennel in France by an American corporal from Los Angeles. The corporal took the puppy home, trained him, and turned him into one of Hollywood’s most recognizable four-legged stars: Rin Tin Tin, who appeared in 26 movies and helped popularize the breed in America. Although the Allies were impressed by the German dogs, they weren’t so happy with the dog’s German roots. During wartime, all things German were stigmatized, and in 1917, the American Kennel Club (AKC) changed the breed’s name to the Shepherd Dog. In England, the dog was renamed the Alsatian Wolf Dog, after the German-French border area of Alsace-Lorraine. The AKC went back to using the original name of German Shepherd Dog in 1931; it took until 1977 for the British Kennel Club to do the same. Von Stephanitz stayed closely involved with the development of the breed, and as early as 1922, he became alarmed by some of the traits that were turning up in the dogs, such as poor temperament and a tendency to tooth decay. He developed a system of tight quality control: Before any individual German Shepherd was bred, he needed to pass numerous tests of his intelligence, temperament, athleticism, and good health. American breeding of German Shepherds, on the other hand, wasn’t nearly so regulated. In the United States, the dogs were bred to win dog shows, and breeders put more emphasis on looks and on the dogs’ gait, or way of moving. After World War II, American- and German-bred German Shepherds began to diverge dramatically. At one point, the U.S. police departments and military began importing German Shepherd working dogs, because homegrown German Shepherds were failing performance tests and plagued by genetic health conditions. In the past few decades, some American breeders have begun to put the emphasis back on the breed’s abilities rather than just appearance, importing working dogs from Germany to add to their breeding program. It’s now possible to buy American-bred German Shepherds that live up to the breed’s reputation as a capable working dog. Art of K9 Security Group is uniquely qualified to provide effective K9 security services because we are involved in the lives of our K9 officers from the very start	<urn:uuid:526e75de-c325-4233-b8f0-83d295874644>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://artofk9sg.com/history-of-german-shepherd/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00197.warc.gz	en	0.980088	1,031	3.65625	4	[ -0.10503208637237549, 0.38063788414001465, -0.04889509081840515, -0.08530090749263763, 0.3575900197029114, -0.05319830775260925, -0.3344447612762451, 0.13927897810935974, 0.04780856519937515, -0.3080298602581024, 0.16032056510448456, -0.5071885585784912, 0.3203657269477844, 0.0376813933253...	3	The German Shepherd is a relatively new breed, dating back to 1899, and he owes his existence to one man: Captain Max von Stephanitz, a career captain in the German cavalry with a goal of creating a German breed that would be unmatched as a herding dog. Centuries before von Stephanitz came along, farmers in Germany, as in the rest of Europe, relied on dogs to drive and protect their herds. Some dogs were legendary for their skill, and sheepherders would travel days to breed their female dogs to a notable sire. However, as von Stephanitz noted, no one had developed the herding dogs of the region into a distinct breed. In 1898, von Stephanitz retired from military life and began his second career, and what would prove to be his passion: experimenting with dog breeding to create a superior German herding dog. Stephanitz studied the breeding techniques of the British, noted for their exceptional herding dogs, and traveled throughout Germany, attending dog shows and observing German-type herding dogs. Von Stephanitz saw many fine herding dogs, dogs who were athletic, or intelligent, or capable. What he didn’t see was a dog who embodied all those traits. One day, in 1899, von Stephanitz was visiting a dog show when a wolfish-looking dog caught his eye. He immediately bought the dog, named Hektor Linksrhein. Later renamed Horand v Grafeth, the dog’s powerful physique and intelligence so impressed von Stephanitz that he formed a society — the Verein fur deutsche Schaferhunde — to found a breed out of Horand’s descendents. Although he had intended for his breed to work as herding dogs, as Germany became more and more industrialized, von Stephanitz saw the need for such dogs fading. He was determined that his breed would continue as a working dog, and he decided that the dog’s future was in police work and military service. Making good use of his military connections, von Stephanitz convinced the German government to use the breed. During World War I the German Shepherd served as a Red Cross dog, messenger, rescuer, guard, supply carrier, and sentry. Although German Shepherds made their way to the United States before the war, it wasn’t until the war that the breed became popular in the U.S. Allied servicemen noted the dog’s bravery and intelligence, and a number of dogs went home with these soldiers. One such dog was a five-day-old puppy plucked from a bomb-riddled kennel in France by an American corporal from Los Angeles. The corporal took the puppy home, trained him, and turned him into one of Hollywood’s most recognizable four-legged stars: Rin Tin Tin, who appeared in 26 movies and helped popularize the breed in America. Although the Allies were impressed by the German dogs, they weren’t so happy with the dog’s German roots. During wartime, all things German were stigmatized, and in 1917, the American Kennel Club (AKC) changed the breed’s name to the Shepherd Dog. In England, the dog was renamed the Alsatian Wolf Dog, after the German-French border area of Alsace-Lorraine. The AKC went back to using the original name of German Shepherd Dog in 1931; it took until 1977 for the British Kennel Club to do the same. Von Stephanitz stayed closely involved with the development of the breed, and as early as 1922, he became alarmed by some of the traits that were turning up in the dogs, such as poor temperament and a tendency to tooth decay. He developed a system of tight quality control: Before any individual German Shepherd was bred, he needed to pass numerous tests of his intelligence, temperament, athleticism, and good health. American breeding of German Shepherds, on the other hand, wasn’t nearly so regulated. In the United States, the dogs were bred to win dog shows, and breeders put more emphasis on looks and on the dogs’ gait, or way of moving. After World War II, American- and German-bred German Shepherds began to diverge dramatically. At one point, the U.S. police departments and military began importing German Shepherd working dogs, because homegrown German Shepherds were failing performance tests and plagued by genetic health conditions. In the past few decades, some American breeders have begun to put the emphasis back on the breed’s abilities rather than just appearance, importing working dogs from Germany to add to their breeding program. It’s now possible to buy American-bred German Shepherds that live up to the breed’s reputation as a capable working dog. Art of K9 Security Group is uniquely qualified to provide effective K9 security services because we are involved in the lives of our K9 officers from the very start	1,003	ENGLISH	1
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552/1554-1618) was a member of the landed gentry, who also served as a soldier and Captain of the Queen’s Guard. Known for popularizing tobacco in England, Raleigh was also a scholar, poet, musician, courtier, and explorer. He was a successful business man, and served as a member of Parliament. Raleigh volunteered in the Huguenot army in France and attended Oxford University. He was favored by Queen Elizabeth I, who appointed him a Captain in the Queen’s Guard. In 1584, Queen Elizabeth I granted him a royal charter to colonize in the New World. Raleigh was notorious for his involvement in a group called the “school of night,” which included Thomas Harriot, Christopher Marlowe, and George Chapman. James I, the first Stuart king of England, was convinced that Raleigh was conspiring against his throne and England. Raleigh was arrested in 1603, by English authority and imprisoned for thirteen years, but later released in 1616. He was executed for treason on October 29th, 1618, at the Palace of Westminster. Author: Matthew Mesiti; Editor: Sinead O’Brien	<urn:uuid:4806de0f-5f11-40e4-bd28-ef67b90951f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kitmarlowe.org/raleigh-sir-walter/878/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00218.warc.gz	en	0.98999	250	3.390625	3	[ -0.06848417222499847, 0.541737973690033, 0.15735428035259247, -0.21161778271198273, 0.008374404162168503, -0.23927362263202667, 0.5317389965057373, -0.12015863507986069, -0.24853722751140594, 0.06503472477197647, -0.010914254002273083, -0.7476022243499756, 0.43666258454322815, -0.010056203...	3	Sir Walter Raleigh (1552/1554-1618) was a member of the landed gentry, who also served as a soldier and Captain of the Queen’s Guard. Known for popularizing tobacco in England, Raleigh was also a scholar, poet, musician, courtier, and explorer. He was a successful business man, and served as a member of Parliament. Raleigh volunteered in the Huguenot army in France and attended Oxford University. He was favored by Queen Elizabeth I, who appointed him a Captain in the Queen’s Guard. In 1584, Queen Elizabeth I granted him a royal charter to colonize in the New World. Raleigh was notorious for his involvement in a group called the “school of night,” which included Thomas Harriot, Christopher Marlowe, and George Chapman. James I, the first Stuart king of England, was convinced that Raleigh was conspiring against his throne and England. Raleigh was arrested in 1603, by English authority and imprisoned for thirteen years, but later released in 1616. He was executed for treason on October 29th, 1618, at the Palace of Westminster. Author: Matthew Mesiti; Editor: Sinead O’Brien	260	ENGLISH	1
Click the link below for an overview of the year ahead. This term P2a have been learning all about the senses through lots of hands on investigations and experiences. The class have been developing their scientific investigation and prediction skills. The children were keen to learn more about each sense and how it works as well as what it’s like not to have one of the senses. The children have learned the names of each sense and details about the body parts associated with each. We have also had a lot of discussions about what it would be like to live without a sense and how the senses help to keep us safe. The children were able to come up with lots of ideas about how we could help blind people and deaf people. I was very impressed with the range of thoughtful ideas they came up with. First we explored the sense of sight by looking at optical illusions and learned how sometimes our senses can trick us. We even made our own optical illusions to trick our eyes. In gym the children worked with a partner to experience what it would be like to be blind. They took turns leading their partner through an obstacle course and tried to throw and catch blindfolded! The children had a go at a feely box and guessed what they thought was in the box using only their sense of touch. The class explored texture in real life by doing crayon rubbings around the playground. They came up with a great bank of words to describe different textures including rough, smooth and bumpy. This week we carried out investigations using smell and taste. The children tried to identify salty, sweet, sour and bitter flavours in a selection of foods. They discussed the need for a sense of smell and how important it is to keep us safe from eating things that could make us sick and to sense danger (smoke from a fire). We smelled different scents and tried to identify and describe them as pleasant or unpleasant. As part of our assessment of learning they created a senses poster to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the topic. Our pirate adventure has begun! The class has written a letter back to Captain Blackbeard. The pupils shared imaginative ideas and opinions about what we might need to pack in our suitcase for the journey. The children also created their own imaginary island and drew a treasure map of it. The children shared their map with a partner describing the landscape, mysterious sea creatures and terrifying obstacles on land. They created a collage pirate of verison of themselves to join the crew of Captain Blackbeard’s ship. The class have been reading the book “Handa’s Surprise”. We have used the book to learn about how children’s lives in other parts of he world may be different from ours. We have used masks to act out the story. The class have discussed what their favourite fruit is and which fruits they would take in the basket. We have talked about our favourite animal from the story and discussed what animals we would put in the story. We compared Handa’s house in the countryside with houses in the cities in Kenya and to compared what was the same and what was different about Handa’s house and our own houses. We made our own verison of Handa’s house. We had an amazing afternoon tasting all the different fruits from the story and we decided which ones we liked and which ones we didn’t!	<urn:uuid:ca8f7dd6-75cc-452d-9908-374e6fb02f07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gracemountprimaryblog.wordpress.com/p1a-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00200.warc.gz	en	0.980081	693	3.890625	4	[ -0.18016290664672852, -0.021410372108221054, 0.17959420382976532, -0.35626786947250366, -0.24677680432796478, 0.09334392845630646, 0.39457184076309204, -0.03196258097887039, -0.4732213020324707, 0.009293138980865479, 0.5168709754943848, -0.5169379115104675, -0.1661715805530548, 0.263370901...	1	Click the link below for an overview of the year ahead. This term P2a have been learning all about the senses through lots of hands on investigations and experiences. The class have been developing their scientific investigation and prediction skills. The children were keen to learn more about each sense and how it works as well as what it’s like not to have one of the senses. The children have learned the names of each sense and details about the body parts associated with each. We have also had a lot of discussions about what it would be like to live without a sense and how the senses help to keep us safe. The children were able to come up with lots of ideas about how we could help blind people and deaf people. I was very impressed with the range of thoughtful ideas they came up with. First we explored the sense of sight by looking at optical illusions and learned how sometimes our senses can trick us. We even made our own optical illusions to trick our eyes. In gym the children worked with a partner to experience what it would be like to be blind. They took turns leading their partner through an obstacle course and tried to throw and catch blindfolded! The children had a go at a feely box and guessed what they thought was in the box using only their sense of touch. The class explored texture in real life by doing crayon rubbings around the playground. They came up with a great bank of words to describe different textures including rough, smooth and bumpy. This week we carried out investigations using smell and taste. The children tried to identify salty, sweet, sour and bitter flavours in a selection of foods. They discussed the need for a sense of smell and how important it is to keep us safe from eating things that could make us sick and to sense danger (smoke from a fire). We smelled different scents and tried to identify and describe them as pleasant or unpleasant. As part of our assessment of learning they created a senses poster to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the topic. Our pirate adventure has begun! The class has written a letter back to Captain Blackbeard. The pupils shared imaginative ideas and opinions about what we might need to pack in our suitcase for the journey. The children also created their own imaginary island and drew a treasure map of it. The children shared their map with a partner describing the landscape, mysterious sea creatures and terrifying obstacles on land. They created a collage pirate of verison of themselves to join the crew of Captain Blackbeard’s ship. The class have been reading the book “Handa’s Surprise”. We have used the book to learn about how children’s lives in other parts of he world may be different from ours. We have used masks to act out the story. The class have discussed what their favourite fruit is and which fruits they would take in the basket. We have talked about our favourite animal from the story and discussed what animals we would put in the story. We compared Handa’s house in the countryside with houses in the cities in Kenya and to compared what was the same and what was different about Handa’s house and our own houses. We made our own verison of Handa’s house. We had an amazing afternoon tasting all the different fruits from the story and we decided which ones we liked and which ones we didn’t!	665	ENGLISH	1
Back in 1850 a new girl started at Fulneck School. Both her parents had died and her grandfather was prepared to fund her education to encourage her love of learning. Little did anyone know then that this fiery, dedicated young woman would change our world, but she did. Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy was born in Manchester. After her two years at Fulneck school she worked as a governess and then moved to Congleton, where she lived most of her life. Elizabeth was passionate about women’s rights and had the energy and determination to challenge the many barriers she saw to how women lived their lives. A passionate feminist? There are very many definitions of feminist: I suspect that Elizabeth would have agreed with Margaret Atwood. Atwood’s view is that women are complete, equal and flawed. Certainly, Elizabeth was challenged by others who disagreed with her views on marriage, religion and many other topics. However, she was true to her beliefs and was supported by her life-long partner, Ben Elmy. Over 52 years she worked tirelessly to change the law and to win rights for women that we take for granted. In each of her campaigns she welcomed the involvement of men and also fought for their rights where necessary. Emmeline Pankhurst described Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy as the brains behind the suffragette movement. Some of the campaigns she started were not fulfilled in her lifetime but have gone on see changes to our laws that impact on us today. Thanks to her, we can: - stand for public office - keep the money we earn - own property in our own name - have an education - work in a profession - be single, married or live with a partner - have responsibility for our own children. She had the courage to speak publicly about marital rape, a subject that was never spoken about especially by women and in public. At the time it was accepted that women belonged to their fathers until ‘given’ to their husbands in marriage, and their husbands could beat them if they judged it appropriate. She set the scene for the on-going need to challenge domestic violence. Her work also focused on the rights of women to care for their children, and so in some ways, she laid the foundation for legislation that came much later about divorce and access to children following a marital split. On a personal level she suffered attacks, physical and verbal, as her and her partner (Ben Elmy) resisted marriage. They lived together happily in Congleton: the level of pressure when she became pregnant was so great that they had to marry. Today we each have great freedom in how we live our life. Whatever choices we make, it is likely that some aspect has been influenced by the work of Elizabeth: she really did guide the cause of women’s emancipation for over 50 years. Please email me if you would be interested in a talk Elizabeth and other inspirational local women: firstname.lastname@example.org. For more information go to: www.elizabethelmy.com	<urn:uuid:cf0bb8a6-3628-44a6-aecb-88cfbe8268d7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fulneck.org.uk/?page_id=2046	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00348.warc.gz	en	0.987829	632	3.34375	3	[ -0.08019841462373734, -0.04072215408086777, 0.09411603212356567, 0.26927053928375244, -0.14963391423225403, 0.5774769186973572, -0.32385700941085815, 0.1076558381319046, -0.3132958710193634, -0.3669721186161041, 0.09922466427087784, -0.2803918421268463, 0.10193688422441483, -0.309306263923...	1	Back in 1850 a new girl started at Fulneck School. Both her parents had died and her grandfather was prepared to fund her education to encourage her love of learning. Little did anyone know then that this fiery, dedicated young woman would change our world, but she did. Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy was born in Manchester. After her two years at Fulneck school she worked as a governess and then moved to Congleton, where she lived most of her life. Elizabeth was passionate about women’s rights and had the energy and determination to challenge the many barriers she saw to how women lived their lives. A passionate feminist? There are very many definitions of feminist: I suspect that Elizabeth would have agreed with Margaret Atwood. Atwood’s view is that women are complete, equal and flawed. Certainly, Elizabeth was challenged by others who disagreed with her views on marriage, religion and many other topics. However, she was true to her beliefs and was supported by her life-long partner, Ben Elmy. Over 52 years she worked tirelessly to change the law and to win rights for women that we take for granted. In each of her campaigns she welcomed the involvement of men and also fought for their rights where necessary. Emmeline Pankhurst described Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy as the brains behind the suffragette movement. Some of the campaigns she started were not fulfilled in her lifetime but have gone on see changes to our laws that impact on us today. Thanks to her, we can: - stand for public office - keep the money we earn - own property in our own name - have an education - work in a profession - be single, married or live with a partner - have responsibility for our own children. She had the courage to speak publicly about marital rape, a subject that was never spoken about especially by women and in public. At the time it was accepted that women belonged to their fathers until ‘given’ to their husbands in marriage, and their husbands could beat them if they judged it appropriate. She set the scene for the on-going need to challenge domestic violence. Her work also focused on the rights of women to care for their children, and so in some ways, she laid the foundation for legislation that came much later about divorce and access to children following a marital split. On a personal level she suffered attacks, physical and verbal, as her and her partner (Ben Elmy) resisted marriage. They lived together happily in Congleton: the level of pressure when she became pregnant was so great that they had to marry. Today we each have great freedom in how we live our life. Whatever choices we make, it is likely that some aspect has been influenced by the work of Elizabeth: she really did guide the cause of women’s emancipation for over 50 years. Please email me if you would be interested in a talk Elizabeth and other inspirational local women: firstname.lastname@example.org. For more information go to: www.elizabethelmy.com	610	ENGLISH	1
Though the roman empire and the roman republic vary in their political structures they are quite common in the structures of their social hierarchy and reasoning for their downfalls. The Roman Republic and the Roman Empire highly differ in their political structures. The republic: created in 509 BCE. was a form of representative democracy. It consisted of 2 consuls of which were appointed by the senate and then voted on. These consuls were the head officers and the were appointed for one year. The senate was one of two legislative bodies comprised of 300 senators and 10 tribunes who were all patricians. The other body was knows as the tribal assembly and was made up of plebeians who met in a forum to vote on things such as consuls. …show more content… Antony became ally's with Cleopatra. At the battle of Actium Antony's army and navy were defeated by Octavian's and at age 32 he was named emperor of the roman world. The republic had come to an end and in return the roman empire was formed. In the roman empire the military was growing weak, the economy was falling and a lack of loyalty fell amongst the empire. Diocletian and Constantine passed reforms to help fix Rome like fixing the prices of goods and doubling the size of the military etc... Diocletian had realized that Rome was too large and divided it into two separate parts. The authoritarian policies we temporarily successful but it all came to an end when Constantine reunited the roman empire. After Constantine's death the empire redivided. Fighting occurred continually between the states. The west collapsed and became Germanic kingdoms. Soon after Christianity was introduced, a religion in which beliefs were opposite the traditional roman religion which was polytheistic. Christian belief in one god -who was not the emperor- undermined the authority and integrity of the emperor. The declines and collapses of the roman republic and the roman empire are similar because they both involved weakening in central government. Ergo there may be differentiations between the political structures of the roman republic and the roman empire due to various discrepancies within central government but social	<urn:uuid:5f8e5fe0-0cae-40e9-8709-adab34b4e87d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Roman-Empire-vs-Roman-Rebublic-PKA3XWGWAS.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00430.warc.gz	en	0.985571	436	3.859375	4	[ -0.2784043848514557, 0.13437519967556, 0.4082273244857788, -0.15818506479263306, -0.5390177965164185, -0.21271905303001404, -0.14818930625915527, 0.3791084587574005, 0.15503157675266266, -0.19638073444366455, 0.13652417063713074, -0.391422837972641, 0.08908499777317047, 0.37947937846183777...	1	Though the roman empire and the roman republic vary in their political structures they are quite common in the structures of their social hierarchy and reasoning for their downfalls. The Roman Republic and the Roman Empire highly differ in their political structures. The republic: created in 509 BCE. was a form of representative democracy. It consisted of 2 consuls of which were appointed by the senate and then voted on. These consuls were the head officers and the were appointed for one year. The senate was one of two legislative bodies comprised of 300 senators and 10 tribunes who were all patricians. The other body was knows as the tribal assembly and was made up of plebeians who met in a forum to vote on things such as consuls. …show more content… Antony became ally's with Cleopatra. At the battle of Actium Antony's army and navy were defeated by Octavian's and at age 32 he was named emperor of the roman world. The republic had come to an end and in return the roman empire was formed. In the roman empire the military was growing weak, the economy was falling and a lack of loyalty fell amongst the empire. Diocletian and Constantine passed reforms to help fix Rome like fixing the prices of goods and doubling the size of the military etc... Diocletian had realized that Rome was too large and divided it into two separate parts. The authoritarian policies we temporarily successful but it all came to an end when Constantine reunited the roman empire. After Constantine's death the empire redivided. Fighting occurred continually between the states. The west collapsed and became Germanic kingdoms. Soon after Christianity was introduced, a religion in which beliefs were opposite the traditional roman religion which was polytheistic. Christian belief in one god -who was not the emperor- undermined the authority and integrity of the emperor. The declines and collapses of the roman republic and the roman empire are similar because they both involved weakening in central government. Ergo there may be differentiations between the political structures of the roman republic and the roman empire due to various discrepancies within central government but social	434	ENGLISH	1
This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law stopped short of making Hawaiian illegal (it was still the dominant language spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language," reducing Hawaiian to the status of a foreign language, subject to approval by the Department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools. This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui, who was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian.	<urn:uuid:1eaa52f4-2ecb-4540-97a1-26d8ed5fc5de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tgblogsite.com/coloring/hawaiian-language-coloring-pages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00474.warc.gz	en	0.986233	327	3.515625	4	[ -0.4103580713272095, -0.17535480856895447, 0.21947921812534332, -0.2866775095462799, -0.4995104968547821, 0.0806204080581665, -0.11037798970937729, -0.3068600594997406, -0.05855255573987961, 0.41677889227867126, 0.10422464460134506, -0.09440270811319351, -0.025080425664782524, 0.3198316097...	1	This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law stopped short of making Hawaiian illegal (it was still the dominant language spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language," reducing Hawaiian to the status of a foreign language, subject to approval by the Department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools. This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui, who was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian.	333	ENGLISH	1
The Standard-type battleship was a production line of twelve battleships across five classes ordered for the United States Navy between 1911 and 1916 and commissioned between 1916 and 1923. These were considered super-dreadnoughts, with the ships of the final two classes incorporating many lessons from the Battle of Jutland. Each vessel was produced with a series of progressive innovations, which contributed to the pre-World War IIarms race. All of the Standard type vessels constituted the US Navy's main battle line in the interwar period, while many of the earlier dreadnoughts were scrapped or relegated to secondary duties. Restrictions under the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty limited total numbers and size of battleships and had required some under construction to be cancelled, so it was not until the onset of World War II that new battleships were constructed. On December 7, 1941, eight were at Pearl Harbor, one at Bremerton, Washington, and three were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet.	<urn:uuid:4cfd3d2b-e08b-4ea0-bf1c-9e701e03cc91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wn.com/Standard-type_battleship	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00062.warc.gz	en	0.981091	198	3.59375	4	[ -0.05345601961016655, 0.07763572037220001, -0.13058258593082428, -0.7192823886871338, -0.023817406967282295, 0.10843747854232788, -0.35302263498306274, 0.03831741586327553, -0.33705559372901917, -0.43456652760505676, 0.40697526931762695, 0.009243953973054886, 0.10020320117473602, 0.3353790...	2	The Standard-type battleship was a production line of twelve battleships across five classes ordered for the United States Navy between 1911 and 1916 and commissioned between 1916 and 1923. These were considered super-dreadnoughts, with the ships of the final two classes incorporating many lessons from the Battle of Jutland. Each vessel was produced with a series of progressive innovations, which contributed to the pre-World War IIarms race. All of the Standard type vessels constituted the US Navy's main battle line in the interwar period, while many of the earlier dreadnoughts were scrapped or relegated to secondary duties. Restrictions under the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty limited total numbers and size of battleships and had required some under construction to be cancelled, so it was not until the onset of World War II that new battleships were constructed. On December 7, 1941, eight were at Pearl Harbor, one at Bremerton, Washington, and three were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet.	219	ENGLISH	1
Clarence Anglin, John Anglin, and Frank Morris were bank robbers who spent months digging an escape tunnel using sharpened spoons. In June of 1962, they left dummy heads in their beds made of soap, toilet paper, and hair as they made their escape. Investigators believe they made a raft out of raincoats to cross the bay. Despite an intense search effort, they were never seen again. Researchers say the strong currents would have pushed the inmates to the North Bay, depending on which way they paddled. If that were the case, they would have spent so much time in the water, they would have either died of hypothermia or been caught by police by the time the sun came up. Researchers say if they paddled toward the North Bay, the tides would have worked in their favor and increased their chances of survival.	<urn:uuid:edc18c32-1226-4236-a881-f93f03f30933>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://abc7news.com/science/3-inmates-who-escaped-alcatraz-may-have-survived/438103/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00093.warc.gz	en	0.991143	178	3.625	4	[ -0.5723854899406433, -0.23720499873161316, 0.06450213491916656, 0.006928459275513887, 0.2440706342458725, 0.11947786062955856, 0.8313004374504089, -0.3057408034801483, -0.26803329586982727, -0.18858760595321655, 0.24409103393554688, 0.16852733492851257, 0.11752136051654816, 0.1139035895466...	2	Clarence Anglin, John Anglin, and Frank Morris were bank robbers who spent months digging an escape tunnel using sharpened spoons. In June of 1962, they left dummy heads in their beds made of soap, toilet paper, and hair as they made their escape. Investigators believe they made a raft out of raincoats to cross the bay. Despite an intense search effort, they were never seen again. Researchers say the strong currents would have pushed the inmates to the North Bay, depending on which way they paddled. If that were the case, they would have spent so much time in the water, they would have either died of hypothermia or been caught by police by the time the sun came up. Researchers say if they paddled toward the North Bay, the tides would have worked in their favor and increased their chances of survival.	177	ENGLISH	1
Why Were the Maya Such Excellent Warriors? The Pre-Colombian Maya culture of Central America is known today for being enigmatic and somewhat paradoxical. Unlike most of their neighbors, the Maya were a literate society that developed a religious, historical, and scientific corpus of texts, but unfortunately most of the writings have survived only as fragments, which have contributed much to their mystery. The Maya are also known for being a people who cherished and preserved many beautiful things such as the Temple of Kukulkan in Chichen Itza, the colorful murals discovered among the ruins of Bonampak, and the numerous statues, vases, and jewelry that are on display in many museums throughout the world. But the beauty of Maya culture is juxtaposed with extreme acts of violence that were an everyday part of life in their cities. The Maya believed that their gods were appeased by the spilling of human blood, so numerous rituals were developed that ranged from bloodletting by individuals to human sacrifice conducted on an industrial scale. Central to the Maya blood rituals was the warrior class, who were largely responsible for procuring victims to be sacrificed high on pyramid-temples across the Maya lands. The Maya warriors were extremely effective in their tasks because they were driven by a strong set of religious beliefs, followed a strict code, and were extremely fit due to their training and diet. A Brief Background of Maya Culture The people who spoke variations of the Maya language and were therefore considered to be part of the Maya culture, inhabited what are now the modern nation-states of southern Mexico, Guatamala, Honduras, and Belieze from about 1500 BC until AD 1600 with the highpoint being from about AD 250 until 925. ref> Coe, Michael D. The Maya. 7th ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 2005), p. 10</ref> Although the Maya were the most sophisticated culture in their particular geographic region, they were just one of many advanced cultures in the region of Central America – referred to by scholars as “Mesoamerica” – before the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century. Before the Maya were dominant in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs developed a complex society and after the Maya influence waned, the Aztecs became the most powerful group in the region. Contemporary with the Maya was the Toltec culture, which was clustered around cities in what would today be central Mexico. The high point of Maya culture is referred to as the “Classic Period,” which lasted from around AD 250 until the middle of the tenth century. It was during the Classical Period that the Maya developed writing, monumental architecture, and made astronomical observations, resulting in the creation of fairly accurate calendars. All of these factors contributed to make the Maya the most advanced of all the Pre-Colombian peoples, but with that said, they were not without their problems. Unlike the later Aztecs, the Maya were never able to unify their entire culture under one government. Maya culture was essentially a collection of city-states – Tikal, Chichen Itza, and Bonampak were three of the most prominent Maya cities – that waged war on each other incessantly for the acquisition of resources. Among the most prized of all resources were human captives, who were used in elaborate human sacrifice rituals meant to appease the many Maya deities. No individual was safe from being a human sacrifice victim either, as demonstrated by the King of Copán, who was captured by a rival king and sacrificed in AD 738. It was the religious beliefs that led to the institutionalization of human sacrifice in Maya society and also provided the core value system for the Maya warriors. The Spiritual Beliefs of the Maya Warrior The Maya religion was very similar to many pre-modern cultures’ spiritual systems in that it was polytheistic and ritually based. The Maya pantheon had up to 166 deities with a few of the most important being the following: Itzamnaaj, the creator and god of writing and science; Kukulkan, who was the god of the nobles; and Hun Ixim, the maize/corn god. One of the most common attributes among the Maya deities was a desire for human blood. Maya blood rituals took many forms – from the blood-letting that the nobles performed on themselves to the more well-known act of human sacrifice. Since the act of human sacrifice played such an important role in Maya society, those who captured the victims were given special status. One of the Maya warriors’ primary functions was to capture sacrifice victims for their particular city-state. Raids were conducted on opposing city-states and when a successful war-band returned to their city with captives, they were showered with praise and material goods by the nobles. During large religious festivals, where mass human sacrifice was a public spectacle, the warrior elite would lead their captive to the priests to be ritually killed. The nature of Maya religion clearly gave the warriors incentive to perform because the better one did, the more esteemed he was in the eyes of the nobility. Closely tied to Maya religion was the warrior code, which further propelled the Maya warriors. The Maya Warrior Code In order to understand the Maya warrior code, it is helpful to first understand that their military was actually much more complex than most people may realize. Each city-state had its own army, but the structure and hierarchy in each city was fairly similar. At the head of each war band was a chief, known as a nacom, who was elected to a three year term by the other warriors. Most of the warriors were holcans, who were full-time, professionals. Besides the actual system, and more important than it, were the actual values and beliefs that the average Maya warrior followed. Among the most common Maya words known to modern scholars that relate to warfare is chuk, which means “to capture.” To the Maya warrior, it was better to capture one’s foes than to kill them because wars were usually fought to acquire human sacrifice victims instead of the gain of new territory. Maya warriors gained status among their peers and in their cities with the more enemy warriors they captured and conversely, Maya warriors saw it as an honor to be captured in battle, as long as they fought valiantly. The Maya preferred to sacrifice the best of their enemies, which usually meant elite males. Since being a sacrifice victim was an honorable way to die, Maya warriors usually went into battle with a fearless attitude – if they were successful and claimed captives, then they gained prestige in their city, but if they were captured then they would join the gods shortly! The Maya religion and military structure gave the Maya warriors purpose, but it was their diet and training regime that made them a physically fit fighting force. Maya Diet and Training The most effective armies throughout world history have all been fit, both mentally and physically. Modern science has seemingly given the edge to contemporary armies in terms of physical fitness, but pre-modern societies were much more effective in that regard than most people may think. In terms of the Maya military, their diet and physical training were closely intertwined and also connected to their religion. Protein, which is essential to build muscles and to stay physically fit, is usually consumed today in the forms of meat, fish, and poultry. Since there were no bovines in Mesoamerica and few animals of significant size, the Maya were forced to get their meet from a combination of deer, peccary, and dogs, but most of their proteins were consumed from beans and legumes. But the intent of the diet and exercise regime of a Maya warrior was not to “bulk up,” it was meant to give the individual energy for long runs. Since the Maya did not have horses or any other pack bearing animals, the warriors would usually have to go on 5k runs or longer just to attack a city. Because of their physical requirements, the diet of the Maya warrior was unusually high in carbohydrates. Since maize/corn was plentiful in the region, it was the food most consumed, giving the warriors plenty of energy to attack enemy cities. The results of the Maya diet enabled the full-time warriors to train on a daily basis by practicing mock battles and jogging around their cities. The combination of the diet and training gave the Maya warriors sleek body types that enabled them to run long distances and fight on the same day. Maya warriors often surprised their enemies in stealth raids with light weapons, which required stamina more than strength. The Maya culture is known today for a combination of its beauty and violence. At the heart of the Maya culture, making it function on a daily basis, were the Maya warriors. The Maya warriors enjoyed a special place in their society because they were very effective in their craft. The warriors protected their city-states from invasions and constantly ventured out on behalf of their kings to bring back war captives to be sacrificed on altars for their gods. The effectiveness of the Maya warriors can be traced to several aspects of their society. Maya religion, which held human sacrifice as one of its most important rituals, formed the backbone of Maya warrior thought. The warriors strove to capture enemies to appease their gods on a spiritual level, but they also gained the more mundane prize of increased status for being effective warriors. Maya religion was also closely tied to the Maya warrior code. In the Maya warrior code, fear was of little consequence because being captured by the enemy only meant that a warrior would see his gods that much sooner. Finally, the Maya warriors were extremely fit because of their diet and training, which was specifically geared towards running great distances to fight their enemies. All of these factors combined to make the Maya one of the most effective fighting forces of the pre-modern world. - Webster, David. “The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War.” Journal of World Prehistory. 14 (2000) p. 69 - Coe, p. 211 - Webster, p. 90 - Coe, p. 214-17 - Coe, p. 222 - Webster, p. 79 - Webster, p. 91 - Webster, p. 80 - White, Christin B, Paul F. Healy, and Henry P. Schwarez. “Intensive Agriculture, Social Values, and Maya Diet at Pacbitun, Belize.” Journal of Anthropological Research. 49 (1993) pgs. 351-2 - White, et el., p. 365 - Webster, p. 80	<urn:uuid:071892fa-80b5-426b-ad99-fa3b9347af09>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Why_Were_the_Maya_Such_Excellent_Warriors%3F&oldid=9041	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00434.warc.gz	en	0.982138	2,180	3.859375	4	[ -0.024297107011079788, 0.5450355410575867, 0.6267969012260437, 0.2723942995071411, 0.016295239329338074, -0.1236305758357048, 0.3369078040122986, 0.20307596027851105, -0.24262528121471405, -0.09144683182239532, 0.01273096539080143, -0.3312058448791504, -0.5183344483375549, -0.0052588926628...	1	Why Were the Maya Such Excellent Warriors? The Pre-Colombian Maya culture of Central America is known today for being enigmatic and somewhat paradoxical. Unlike most of their neighbors, the Maya were a literate society that developed a religious, historical, and scientific corpus of texts, but unfortunately most of the writings have survived only as fragments, which have contributed much to their mystery. The Maya are also known for being a people who cherished and preserved many beautiful things such as the Temple of Kukulkan in Chichen Itza, the colorful murals discovered among the ruins of Bonampak, and the numerous statues, vases, and jewelry that are on display in many museums throughout the world. But the beauty of Maya culture is juxtaposed with extreme acts of violence that were an everyday part of life in their cities. The Maya believed that their gods were appeased by the spilling of human blood, so numerous rituals were developed that ranged from bloodletting by individuals to human sacrifice conducted on an industrial scale. Central to the Maya blood rituals was the warrior class, who were largely responsible for procuring victims to be sacrificed high on pyramid-temples across the Maya lands. The Maya warriors were extremely effective in their tasks because they were driven by a strong set of religious beliefs, followed a strict code, and were extremely fit due to their training and diet. A Brief Background of Maya Culture The people who spoke variations of the Maya language and were therefore considered to be part of the Maya culture, inhabited what are now the modern nation-states of southern Mexico, Guatamala, Honduras, and Belieze from about 1500 BC until AD 1600 with the highpoint being from about AD 250 until 925. ref> Coe, Michael D. The Maya. 7th ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 2005), p. 10</ref> Although the Maya were the most sophisticated culture in their particular geographic region, they were just one of many advanced cultures in the region of Central America – referred to by scholars as “Mesoamerica” – before the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century. Before the Maya were dominant in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs developed a complex society and after the Maya influence waned, the Aztecs became the most powerful group in the region. Contemporary with the Maya was the Toltec culture, which was clustered around cities in what would today be central Mexico. The high point of Maya culture is referred to as the “Classic Period,” which lasted from around AD 250 until the middle of the tenth century. It was during the Classical Period that the Maya developed writing, monumental architecture, and made astronomical observations, resulting in the creation of fairly accurate calendars. All of these factors contributed to make the Maya the most advanced of all the Pre-Colombian peoples, but with that said, they were not without their problems. Unlike the later Aztecs, the Maya were never able to unify their entire culture under one government. Maya culture was essentially a collection of city-states – Tikal, Chichen Itza, and Bonampak were three of the most prominent Maya cities – that waged war on each other incessantly for the acquisition of resources. Among the most prized of all resources were human captives, who were used in elaborate human sacrifice rituals meant to appease the many Maya deities. No individual was safe from being a human sacrifice victim either, as demonstrated by the King of Copán, who was captured by a rival king and sacrificed in AD 738. It was the religious beliefs that led to the institutionalization of human sacrifice in Maya society and also provided the core value system for the Maya warriors. The Spiritual Beliefs of the Maya Warrior The Maya religion was very similar to many pre-modern cultures’ spiritual systems in that it was polytheistic and ritually based. The Maya pantheon had up to 166 deities with a few of the most important being the following: Itzamnaaj, the creator and god of writing and science; Kukulkan, who was the god of the nobles; and Hun Ixim, the maize/corn god. One of the most common attributes among the Maya deities was a desire for human blood. Maya blood rituals took many forms – from the blood-letting that the nobles performed on themselves to the more well-known act of human sacrifice. Since the act of human sacrifice played such an important role in Maya society, those who captured the victims were given special status. One of the Maya warriors’ primary functions was to capture sacrifice victims for their particular city-state. Raids were conducted on opposing city-states and when a successful war-band returned to their city with captives, they were showered with praise and material goods by the nobles. During large religious festivals, where mass human sacrifice was a public spectacle, the warrior elite would lead their captive to the priests to be ritually killed. The nature of Maya religion clearly gave the warriors incentive to perform because the better one did, the more esteemed he was in the eyes of the nobility. Closely tied to Maya religion was the warrior code, which further propelled the Maya warriors. The Maya Warrior Code In order to understand the Maya warrior code, it is helpful to first understand that their military was actually much more complex than most people may realize. Each city-state had its own army, but the structure and hierarchy in each city was fairly similar. At the head of each war band was a chief, known as a nacom, who was elected to a three year term by the other warriors. Most of the warriors were holcans, who were full-time, professionals. Besides the actual system, and more important than it, were the actual values and beliefs that the average Maya warrior followed. Among the most common Maya words known to modern scholars that relate to warfare is chuk, which means “to capture.” To the Maya warrior, it was better to capture one’s foes than to kill them because wars were usually fought to acquire human sacrifice victims instead of the gain of new territory. Maya warriors gained status among their peers and in their cities with the more enemy warriors they captured and conversely, Maya warriors saw it as an honor to be captured in battle, as long as they fought valiantly. The Maya preferred to sacrifice the best of their enemies, which usually meant elite males. Since being a sacrifice victim was an honorable way to die, Maya warriors usually went into battle with a fearless attitude – if they were successful and claimed captives, then they gained prestige in their city, but if they were captured then they would join the gods shortly! The Maya religion and military structure gave the Maya warriors purpose, but it was their diet and training regime that made them a physically fit fighting force. Maya Diet and Training The most effective armies throughout world history have all been fit, both mentally and physically. Modern science has seemingly given the edge to contemporary armies in terms of physical fitness, but pre-modern societies were much more effective in that regard than most people may think. In terms of the Maya military, their diet and physical training were closely intertwined and also connected to their religion. Protein, which is essential to build muscles and to stay physically fit, is usually consumed today in the forms of meat, fish, and poultry. Since there were no bovines in Mesoamerica and few animals of significant size, the Maya were forced to get their meet from a combination of deer, peccary, and dogs, but most of their proteins were consumed from beans and legumes. But the intent of the diet and exercise regime of a Maya warrior was not to “bulk up,” it was meant to give the individual energy for long runs. Since the Maya did not have horses or any other pack bearing animals, the warriors would usually have to go on 5k runs or longer just to attack a city. Because of their physical requirements, the diet of the Maya warrior was unusually high in carbohydrates. Since maize/corn was plentiful in the region, it was the food most consumed, giving the warriors plenty of energy to attack enemy cities. The results of the Maya diet enabled the full-time warriors to train on a daily basis by practicing mock battles and jogging around their cities. The combination of the diet and training gave the Maya warriors sleek body types that enabled them to run long distances and fight on the same day. Maya warriors often surprised their enemies in stealth raids with light weapons, which required stamina more than strength. The Maya culture is known today for a combination of its beauty and violence. At the heart of the Maya culture, making it function on a daily basis, were the Maya warriors. The Maya warriors enjoyed a special place in their society because they were very effective in their craft. The warriors protected their city-states from invasions and constantly ventured out on behalf of their kings to bring back war captives to be sacrificed on altars for their gods. The effectiveness of the Maya warriors can be traced to several aspects of their society. Maya religion, which held human sacrifice as one of its most important rituals, formed the backbone of Maya warrior thought. The warriors strove to capture enemies to appease their gods on a spiritual level, but they also gained the more mundane prize of increased status for being effective warriors. Maya religion was also closely tied to the Maya warrior code. In the Maya warrior code, fear was of little consequence because being captured by the enemy only meant that a warrior would see his gods that much sooner. Finally, the Maya warriors were extremely fit because of their diet and training, which was specifically geared towards running great distances to fight their enemies. All of these factors combined to make the Maya one of the most effective fighting forces of the pre-modern world. - Webster, David. “The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War.” Journal of World Prehistory. 14 (2000) p. 69 - Coe, p. 211 - Webster, p. 90 - Coe, p. 214-17 - Coe, p. 222 - Webster, p. 79 - Webster, p. 91 - Webster, p. 80 - White, Christin B, Paul F. Healy, and Henry P. Schwarez. “Intensive Agriculture, Social Values, and Maya Diet at Pacbitun, Belize.” Journal of Anthropological Research. 49 (1993) pgs. 351-2 - White, et el., p. 365 - Webster, p. 80	2,209	ENGLISH	1
The is the oldest collection of Chinese poetry (kanshi) written by Japanese poets. It was created by an unknown compiler in 751. In the brief introductions of the poets, the unknown writer seems sympathetic to Emperor Kōbun and his regents who were overthrown in 672 by Emperor Tenmu after only eight months of the rule. Thus, it has been traditionally credited to Ōmi no Mifune, a great grandson of Emperor Kōbun. It is a collection of 120 works by 64 poets written in the elegant style of poetry popular in China in the eighth century. Most of the poets are princes and high-ranking regents, such as Prince Ōtsu. Eighteen of the Kaifūsō poets, including Prince Ōtsu, also have poems in the later anthology of Japanese poetry, the Man'yōshū. At the time Kaifūsō was written, Chinese poetry had a higher place in the Japanese literary world than waka, and Chinese characters were used for official documents. Most of the works collected were read on a public occasion.	<urn:uuid:012bfa25-9ac9-4fad-b304-e8cf840d6461>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://everything.explained.today/Kaif%C5%ABs%C5%8D/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00180.warc.gz	en	0.985472	231	3.578125	4	[ -0.5120152235031128, 0.2233719676733017, -0.001700525521300733, 0.13087713718414307, 0.13233274221420288, 0.35618677735328674, 0.05663428083062172, -0.024197639897465706, -0.3176998198032379, 0.0017912626499310136, 0.015037705190479755, -0.07665807753801346, 0.44929105043411255, 0.53687638...	2	The is the oldest collection of Chinese poetry (kanshi) written by Japanese poets. It was created by an unknown compiler in 751. In the brief introductions of the poets, the unknown writer seems sympathetic to Emperor Kōbun and his regents who were overthrown in 672 by Emperor Tenmu after only eight months of the rule. Thus, it has been traditionally credited to Ōmi no Mifune, a great grandson of Emperor Kōbun. It is a collection of 120 works by 64 poets written in the elegant style of poetry popular in China in the eighth century. Most of the poets are princes and high-ranking regents, such as Prince Ōtsu. Eighteen of the Kaifūsō poets, including Prince Ōtsu, also have poems in the later anthology of Japanese poetry, the Man'yōshū. At the time Kaifūsō was written, Chinese poetry had a higher place in the Japanese literary world than waka, and Chinese characters were used for official documents. Most of the works collected were read on a public occasion.	235	ENGLISH	0.999997
When did they get started? The Pre-Classic Maya Archaeologists divide Maya history into four time periods, the Pre-Classic, the Classic, and the Post-Classic. The Pre-Classic period begins about 700 BC, about the height of the Assyrian Empire in West Asia, or the Etruscans in Italy. At this time, the Maya were beginning to build stone temples like the ones the Olmec had built before them. How did the Maya live? Maya people lived mainly on corn. They grew a lot of corn and made it into tortillas and tacos, enchiladas and tamales. They had popcorn for treats, sometimes with spicy cayenne pepper on it or cocoa powder. Mayans also ate beans and squash and spicy chili peppers (and the not-spicy kind). They liked avocados, and mashed them into guacamole. Mayan farmers raised turkeys for their feathers, and for meat. They had hot chocolate to drink, but it was so expensive that a lot of people paid their taxes in cocoa beans. What did Maya people wear? They wove clothing mainly out of cotton and hemp. People also made beautiful capes and hats out of brightly colored feathers. They made leather shoes out of deerskin. The Classic Maya period began about 250 BC. During the Classic period, the Maya (MY-ah) built many cities with stone buildings and many more stone temples. People carved inscriptions on these temples, saying who had built them and in what year. The Roman Empire The Han Dynasty Guptan Empire in India This is the first evidence of writing from North or South America, so it may be the Maya who invented writing in this area. Thanks to this writing, we know that some of their rulers, like Yohl Ikʻnal about 600 AD, were women. Around 900 AD, though, they abandoned many of these cities and temples, and kept on with their traditions mainly in the northern part of their country, the northern Yucatan. This would be about the time of the Abbasid Empire in West Asia. This decline may have been caused by climate change related to the Medieval Warm Period, which made the southern part of their land too dry. In this Post-Classic period, after about 900 AD, people mostly stopped carving inscriptions. They kept on building some temples and other stone buildings, but they don’t seem to have been doing as well as they were in the Classic period. In the Post-Classic period, the Maya were more open to learning from their neighbors, especially the Aztec people to their north, in Mexico. Post-Classic Maya traded with people far away from them. They sold cacao beans and green quetzal feathers to people as far away as Colorado and California. They bought beautiful spondylus shells and turquoise for jewelry from Ecuador and from California. Traders traveled mostly along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and up and down rivers in canoes. Smallpox and measles In the end, however, the arrival of Spanish invaders in 1519 AD brought smallpox and measles to Central America, and most people died of these diseases. The few who survived could not defend their country against the Spanish invaders, and so the new ruler of Spain, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, took over ruling Central America too. But there are still many Maya people living in Guatemala and Mexico today. They still speak their own language, and many of them still keep up their customs and eat Mayan food.	<urn:uuid:211d7423-5afe-4dfd-a8c7-455cbddce5e5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://quatr.us/history/maya-central-american-history.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00282.warc.gz	en	0.980561	737	3.375	3	[ -0.4320898652076721, 0.702377200126648, 0.5074357986450195, 0.2504560053348541, -0.3636843264102936, -0.04914921522140503, -0.07258838415145874, -0.07753751426935196, -0.1503177136182785, -0.08723266422748566, 0.08745206892490387, -0.3034335970878601, -0.09744653105735779, 0.30241805315017...	13	When did they get started? The Pre-Classic Maya Archaeologists divide Maya history into four time periods, the Pre-Classic, the Classic, and the Post-Classic. The Pre-Classic period begins about 700 BC, about the height of the Assyrian Empire in West Asia, or the Etruscans in Italy. At this time, the Maya were beginning to build stone temples like the ones the Olmec had built before them. How did the Maya live? Maya people lived mainly on corn. They grew a lot of corn and made it into tortillas and tacos, enchiladas and tamales. They had popcorn for treats, sometimes with spicy cayenne pepper on it or cocoa powder. Mayans also ate beans and squash and spicy chili peppers (and the not-spicy kind). They liked avocados, and mashed them into guacamole. Mayan farmers raised turkeys for their feathers, and for meat. They had hot chocolate to drink, but it was so expensive that a lot of people paid their taxes in cocoa beans. What did Maya people wear? They wove clothing mainly out of cotton and hemp. People also made beautiful capes and hats out of brightly colored feathers. They made leather shoes out of deerskin. The Classic Maya period began about 250 BC. During the Classic period, the Maya (MY-ah) built many cities with stone buildings and many more stone temples. People carved inscriptions on these temples, saying who had built them and in what year. The Roman Empire The Han Dynasty Guptan Empire in India This is the first evidence of writing from North or South America, so it may be the Maya who invented writing in this area. Thanks to this writing, we know that some of their rulers, like Yohl Ikʻnal about 600 AD, were women. Around 900 AD, though, they abandoned many of these cities and temples, and kept on with their traditions mainly in the northern part of their country, the northern Yucatan. This would be about the time of the Abbasid Empire in West Asia. This decline may have been caused by climate change related to the Medieval Warm Period, which made the southern part of their land too dry. In this Post-Classic period, after about 900 AD, people mostly stopped carving inscriptions. They kept on building some temples and other stone buildings, but they don’t seem to have been doing as well as they were in the Classic period. In the Post-Classic period, the Maya were more open to learning from their neighbors, especially the Aztec people to their north, in Mexico. Post-Classic Maya traded with people far away from them. They sold cacao beans and green quetzal feathers to people as far away as Colorado and California. They bought beautiful spondylus shells and turquoise for jewelry from Ecuador and from California. Traders traveled mostly along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and up and down rivers in canoes. Smallpox and measles In the end, however, the arrival of Spanish invaders in 1519 AD brought smallpox and measles to Central America, and most people died of these diseases. The few who survived could not defend their country against the Spanish invaders, and so the new ruler of Spain, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, took over ruling Central America too. But there are still many Maya people living in Guatemala and Mexico today. They still speak their own language, and many of them still keep up their customs and eat Mayan food.	737	ENGLISH	1
The fall of the Berlin Wall 30 years ago this week brought far-reaching social and economic changes to communist East Germany, and people on both sides of the former barrier say the changes that have occurred since 1989 have had a positive influence on living standards in their country, according to a recent Pew Research Center survey. But that does not mean the former East and West Germany are on equal economic footing today. Despite substantial improvements in recent decades, the former East Germany continues to trail the former West Germany on important economic measures ranging from unemployment to productivity, according to an annual German government report on the “status of German unity.” (The most recent version of the report, from September, is available here in German. The 2018 version of the report is available here in English.) Here is a look at how economic conditions in the former East and West Germany have changed over time, how they compare today and how people in the two areas perceive these differences. All findings are based on data from the German government’s 2019 report, as well as the Center’s recent survey. Unemployment is persistently higher in the former East Germany than in the former West. In 2018, the average unemployment rate was 6.9% in the six states of the former East Germany, compared with 4.8% in the 10 states of the former West Germany. (In all economic statistics in this analysis, Berlin is counted in East Germany, even though the city was divided during communism and is not directly comparable to other parts of East Germany.) East-West differences in unemployment rates cut across demographic lines including age and gender. Among people ages 15 to 24, for example, the average unemployment rate in the former East Germany was 7.7% in 2018, compared with 4.1% in the former West. And while 7.5% of East Germans ages 55 to 64 were unemployed in 2018, the share was 5.3% among West Germans in the same age range. Despite these differences, the former East has narrowed the gap with the former West substantially in recent decades. In the early 2000s, the unemployment rate was about 10 percentage points higher in the former East than in the former West – nearly five times the gap in 2018. Read More →	<urn:uuid:5621cc23-7612-4eea-8d09-bc2d73497ce2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/page/7/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00033.warc.gz	en	0.983811	458	3.515625	4	[ -0.27409225702285767, 0.021198246628046036, 0.15109631419181824, 0.3327033221721649, 0.47540614008903503, 0.5497037172317505, -0.5052168965339661, -0.08371048420667648, -0.051938772201538086, -0.21996203064918518, 0.31860050559043884, -0.16282150149345398, 0.1259436458349228, -0.1952921599...	1	The fall of the Berlin Wall 30 years ago this week brought far-reaching social and economic changes to communist East Germany, and people on both sides of the former barrier say the changes that have occurred since 1989 have had a positive influence on living standards in their country, according to a recent Pew Research Center survey. But that does not mean the former East and West Germany are on equal economic footing today. Despite substantial improvements in recent decades, the former East Germany continues to trail the former West Germany on important economic measures ranging from unemployment to productivity, according to an annual German government report on the “status of German unity.” (The most recent version of the report, from September, is available here in German. The 2018 version of the report is available here in English.) Here is a look at how economic conditions in the former East and West Germany have changed over time, how they compare today and how people in the two areas perceive these differences. All findings are based on data from the German government’s 2019 report, as well as the Center’s recent survey. Unemployment is persistently higher in the former East Germany than in the former West. In 2018, the average unemployment rate was 6.9% in the six states of the former East Germany, compared with 4.8% in the 10 states of the former West Germany. (In all economic statistics in this analysis, Berlin is counted in East Germany, even though the city was divided during communism and is not directly comparable to other parts of East Germany.) East-West differences in unemployment rates cut across demographic lines including age and gender. Among people ages 15 to 24, for example, the average unemployment rate in the former East Germany was 7.7% in 2018, compared with 4.1% in the former West. And while 7.5% of East Germans ages 55 to 64 were unemployed in 2018, the share was 5.3% among West Germans in the same age range. Despite these differences, the former East has narrowed the gap with the former West substantially in recent decades. In the early 2000s, the unemployment rate was about 10 percentage points higher in the former East than in the former West – nearly five times the gap in 2018. Read More →	496	ENGLISH	1
The continued controversy about the “Confederate Flag” flying over historical landmarks in the South, such as the South Carolina State House building in Columbia, South Carolina, took on a renewed and painful sting following the Charleston church shooting on June 17th last week. It’s also an issue mired in confusion since what many of us think of and recognize as the “Confederate Flag” was never actually adopted nor universally used as such during the brief period of the Southern secession from the United States during the 19th century. What’s pictured above is actually a REJECTED national flag design never approved by the Confederacy, which was subsequently adopted by General Robert E. Lee as the battle flag of the Army of Northern Virginia. Owing to Lee’s popularity during and after the war, even in the aftermath of the South’s defeat, his association with that flag led to it supplanting the more official “stars and bars” flag of the Confederacy in the national mindset. Pop culture has heightened that association through television shows like “The Dukes of Hazzard,” where the protagonists drove a car CALLED The General Lee, with his battle flag proudly emblazoned on the roof. Versions of this logo are recognized by historical societies and the descendants of Southern war veterans, and can (as noted) be found flying over some state capitol buildings to this day. That may seem relatively harmless at face value, and perhaps even defensible as guaranteed free speech/freedom of expression, but at a deeper psychological level one has to ask what the flag represents. Civil rights groups often object to its display with good reason – it tends to evoke an ugly and racist nostalgia for segregation, Jim Crow laws, and perhaps even slavery itself. It’s hard to deny objectively that the deep divide over the issue of slavery was what led to Southern secession and in fact the civil war itself, and the crimson river of blood shed over it is a stain of shame this country still bears today. Celebrating the confederate flag, or even something that in the popular mindset is associated with it, seems in fact to be celebrating that the wrong side won the war. It would be akin to flying the Nazi flag in Germany, which is in fact against the law there, because it is identified with the evil that was done in its name. It would be like endorsing the Holocaust or Adolf Hitler’s leadership. As much as Southern “sons and daughters” might try to reclaim the symbol as a source of pride for the children of war veterans, there are much better symbols such as the Gettysburg National Military Park that consecrate the sacrifice made by both sides. Regardless of which side was morally right, the ground recognizes ALL those who lost their lives during the most famous battle there, as well as during the war in general. Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” said as much. It doesn’t serve a good purpose to actually make any flag illegal to display, as you’d have a hard time discussing or depicting historical events that way, but as a matter of decency you have to wonder why somebody would take “pride” in a symbol of hate and celebrate it. Dylann Roof has by his grotesque and unconscionable actions become the textbook argument against displays of the flag. He “proudly” wore the Apartheid-era flags of South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) on his jacket. He had a crackpot website filled with his own hate mongering manifesto. He believed whites were superior and all others were inferior, and he took it upon himself to be a leader in what he felt was an inevitable race war with a single horrifying act of violence. It’s not enough to simply put him on trial and find him guilty – the HATE that he represents should be put on trial as well. If the confederate flag is a recognized symbol of that hate, it should be relegated to history where it belongs, and not worn on jackets or flown over state assemblies. People should be revolted by it. It can not be re-purposed or repackaged as “Southern pride.” The post-war South has a lot to be proud of, and that flag shouldn’t be a part of it. From Houston to Tampa, from Miami to Memphis, from Atlanta to Orange Mound, let’s celebrate the music and culture of hip-hop that was born out of a history of pain, a triumph of the human spirit over the forces of evil. The confederate flag is anything but.	<urn:uuid:13a09fb9-958f-439c-9bf5-8047f43f5633>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.rapreviews.com/2015/06/the-confederate-flag-and-columbia-south-carolina/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00099.warc.gz	en	0.981963	957	3.375	3	[ -0.28478506207466125, 0.4555201530456543, -0.0065316068939864635, 0.006873758975416422, 0.19983406364917755, 0.3289031982421875, 0.08962945640087128, -0.052435502409935, -0.05525791645050049, -0.04571877047419548, 0.4410441219806671, 0.2656412720680237, 0.23063644766807556, -0.062402471899...	7	The continued controversy about the “Confederate Flag” flying over historical landmarks in the South, such as the South Carolina State House building in Columbia, South Carolina, took on a renewed and painful sting following the Charleston church shooting on June 17th last week. It’s also an issue mired in confusion since what many of us think of and recognize as the “Confederate Flag” was never actually adopted nor universally used as such during the brief period of the Southern secession from the United States during the 19th century. What’s pictured above is actually a REJECTED national flag design never approved by the Confederacy, which was subsequently adopted by General Robert E. Lee as the battle flag of the Army of Northern Virginia. Owing to Lee’s popularity during and after the war, even in the aftermath of the South’s defeat, his association with that flag led to it supplanting the more official “stars and bars” flag of the Confederacy in the national mindset. Pop culture has heightened that association through television shows like “The Dukes of Hazzard,” where the protagonists drove a car CALLED The General Lee, with his battle flag proudly emblazoned on the roof. Versions of this logo are recognized by historical societies and the descendants of Southern war veterans, and can (as noted) be found flying over some state capitol buildings to this day. That may seem relatively harmless at face value, and perhaps even defensible as guaranteed free speech/freedom of expression, but at a deeper psychological level one has to ask what the flag represents. Civil rights groups often object to its display with good reason – it tends to evoke an ugly and racist nostalgia for segregation, Jim Crow laws, and perhaps even slavery itself. It’s hard to deny objectively that the deep divide over the issue of slavery was what led to Southern secession and in fact the civil war itself, and the crimson river of blood shed over it is a stain of shame this country still bears today. Celebrating the confederate flag, or even something that in the popular mindset is associated with it, seems in fact to be celebrating that the wrong side won the war. It would be akin to flying the Nazi flag in Germany, which is in fact against the law there, because it is identified with the evil that was done in its name. It would be like endorsing the Holocaust or Adolf Hitler’s leadership. As much as Southern “sons and daughters” might try to reclaim the symbol as a source of pride for the children of war veterans, there are much better symbols such as the Gettysburg National Military Park that consecrate the sacrifice made by both sides. Regardless of which side was morally right, the ground recognizes ALL those who lost their lives during the most famous battle there, as well as during the war in general. Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” said as much. It doesn’t serve a good purpose to actually make any flag illegal to display, as you’d have a hard time discussing or depicting historical events that way, but as a matter of decency you have to wonder why somebody would take “pride” in a symbol of hate and celebrate it. Dylann Roof has by his grotesque and unconscionable actions become the textbook argument against displays of the flag. He “proudly” wore the Apartheid-era flags of South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) on his jacket. He had a crackpot website filled with his own hate mongering manifesto. He believed whites were superior and all others were inferior, and he took it upon himself to be a leader in what he felt was an inevitable race war with a single horrifying act of violence. It’s not enough to simply put him on trial and find him guilty – the HATE that he represents should be put on trial as well. If the confederate flag is a recognized symbol of that hate, it should be relegated to history where it belongs, and not worn on jackets or flown over state assemblies. People should be revolted by it. It can not be re-purposed or repackaged as “Southern pride.” The post-war South has a lot to be proud of, and that flag shouldn’t be a part of it. From Houston to Tampa, from Miami to Memphis, from Atlanta to Orange Mound, let’s celebrate the music and culture of hip-hop that was born out of a history of pain, a triumph of the human spirit over the forces of evil. The confederate flag is anything but.	918	ENGLISH	1
Chandigarh is the capital of the two Indian states Punjab and Haryana. The name Chandigarh is obtained from the name of the temple located here called Chandi Mandir. This temple is devoted to the Hindu goddess Chandi. This is one of the most beautiful cities in India with central grid gardens and well planned structures. The human inhabitation started here 8000 years ago during the time of Harappan civilization. The excavations carried out in this place during the 1950s and 1960s prove this. The city of Chandigarh was planned after the independence of India. When India was partitioned, a portion of Punjab was merged with Pakistan and the then capital Lahore became a part of Pakistan. So there was a necessity to establish a new capital and for these reasons, the city was planned. Jawaharlal Nehru took personal interest in the project and entrusted the work with the French architect, Le Corbusier who had good experience in urban planning. The master plan of the city was drafted by the American planner Albert Mayer. The site for building the new city was selected by Dr. M.S. Randhawa, the then Deputy Commissioner of Ambala. To build the new city of Chandigarh, 58 villages that had 6228 families had to be relocated. This caused huge agitation. Anti-capital Committee was formed and they started their vigorous campaign. Due to this, the construction works were inhibited and it took two years for the government to arrive at a solution. In December 1949, the city planner, Albert Mayor was commissioned by the Government of Punjab. He along with another architect Matthew Nowicki took up the planning work. The whole city was drawn in the shape of an alluvial cone that was placed between the two rivers. Another wing of the city was bedded beside the Shivalik ranges. The city was divided into super blocks and each one of them was subdivided into three parts. P.N. Thapar and P.L. Verma were the supervisors of the project and they were very much impressed by the draft. They approached the European architect Le Corbusier to make the final plan. Many other architects were employed in the process and finally the work was done with great perfection. It was built over an area of 114.59 square kilometers. Chandigarh emerged as the capital city of Punjab and Haryana and it itself was a Union Territory that comes under the direct control of the Central Government. A part of people of Punjab spoke Punjabi with a Sikh majority while those in the eastern side spoke Hindi. Therefore it was planned to be reorganized based on linguistic lines. When the new state of Haryana was carved out of Punjab on 1st November 1966 with Hindi speaking people as the majority, Chandigarh was made as its capital also. The city has all the facilities and has private sectors for the houses of the government employees, schools, colleges, hospitals and shopping centers. It has well planned broad roads intersecting each other in right angles. The modern planning of the city could be seen in the photos and videos of Chandigarh. Rihan Travels taxi service is one of the most reliable and efficient taxi service providers in Chandigarh and Shimla. With our vast knowledge, sheer diligence and loads of experience, we lend a team of dedicated persons in catering the needs of customers. With superb services, we receive the warm acceptance from our customers and became one of the leading car rental company in Chandigarh. Also read: Shimla and Manali Destinations Guide	<urn:uuid:ba53cb07-aaf4-4af8-9605-042df12586e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shimlatochandigarh.bcz.com/2017/07/14/chandigarh-a-brief-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00258.warc.gz	en	0.983872	738	3.484375	3	[ -0.14127424359321594, 0.04927079379558563, 0.16581127047538757, 0.19053542613983154, -0.6890007257461548, 0.06668458133935928, 0.6492313742637634, -0.13532567024230957, 0.2191549688577652, -0.2833922803401947, 0.13629920780658722, -0.8482703566551208, 0.4196999669075012, 0.4347686469554901...	1	Chandigarh is the capital of the two Indian states Punjab and Haryana. The name Chandigarh is obtained from the name of the temple located here called Chandi Mandir. This temple is devoted to the Hindu goddess Chandi. This is one of the most beautiful cities in India with central grid gardens and well planned structures. The human inhabitation started here 8000 years ago during the time of Harappan civilization. The excavations carried out in this place during the 1950s and 1960s prove this. The city of Chandigarh was planned after the independence of India. When India was partitioned, a portion of Punjab was merged with Pakistan and the then capital Lahore became a part of Pakistan. So there was a necessity to establish a new capital and for these reasons, the city was planned. Jawaharlal Nehru took personal interest in the project and entrusted the work with the French architect, Le Corbusier who had good experience in urban planning. The master plan of the city was drafted by the American planner Albert Mayer. The site for building the new city was selected by Dr. M.S. Randhawa, the then Deputy Commissioner of Ambala. To build the new city of Chandigarh, 58 villages that had 6228 families had to be relocated. This caused huge agitation. Anti-capital Committee was formed and they started their vigorous campaign. Due to this, the construction works were inhibited and it took two years for the government to arrive at a solution. In December 1949, the city planner, Albert Mayor was commissioned by the Government of Punjab. He along with another architect Matthew Nowicki took up the planning work. The whole city was drawn in the shape of an alluvial cone that was placed between the two rivers. Another wing of the city was bedded beside the Shivalik ranges. The city was divided into super blocks and each one of them was subdivided into three parts. P.N. Thapar and P.L. Verma were the supervisors of the project and they were very much impressed by the draft. They approached the European architect Le Corbusier to make the final plan. Many other architects were employed in the process and finally the work was done with great perfection. It was built over an area of 114.59 square kilometers. Chandigarh emerged as the capital city of Punjab and Haryana and it itself was a Union Territory that comes under the direct control of the Central Government. A part of people of Punjab spoke Punjabi with a Sikh majority while those in the eastern side spoke Hindi. Therefore it was planned to be reorganized based on linguistic lines. When the new state of Haryana was carved out of Punjab on 1st November 1966 with Hindi speaking people as the majority, Chandigarh was made as its capital also. The city has all the facilities and has private sectors for the houses of the government employees, schools, colleges, hospitals and shopping centers. It has well planned broad roads intersecting each other in right angles. The modern planning of the city could be seen in the photos and videos of Chandigarh. Rihan Travels taxi service is one of the most reliable and efficient taxi service providers in Chandigarh and Shimla. With our vast knowledge, sheer diligence and loads of experience, we lend a team of dedicated persons in catering the needs of customers. With superb services, we receive the warm acceptance from our customers and became one of the leading car rental company in Chandigarh. Also read: Shimla and Manali Destinations Guide	742	ENGLISH	1
In reading the ISTE Standards for teachers (International Society for Technology in Education) I was struck by the first standard, “Facilitate and Inspire Student Learning and Creativity”. I learned that teachers are supposed to use their knowledge of technology and subject matter to aid students in having experiences that inspire their own creativity. I feel this is important because the use of technology in the classroom can be incredibly inspiring to students or it can destroy them. If students are not shown how to properly use a technology, they can become frustrated and disillusioned with that technology. It creates a barrier to learning and will cause a distrust between students and teachers. If on the other hand, a teacher is able to show students how to use a particular technology in a way that makes it interesting and inspiring, students will be more interested in using the technology in other projects, they will become more creative with their work and will likely continue to find new and innovative uses for that technology. For example, in class we were asked to create a quick video that could be used in teaching such as a public service announcement. We got into small groups and my group decided to go into the cafeteria to show different types of food. We used an iPhone and took video of us talking about food and showing the different healthy options that were available. After we had completed our task we edited the video using iMovie. For some reason, iMovie was not working for me on my computer and I became incredibly frustrated with the technology. (Which is why I am only writing about this project NOW.) I gave up on the idea of using that technology as a result of becoming frustrated with it. I am lucky however that I have a fiancé who is a computer software developer and he encouraged me to get familiar with iMovie. I have since used it to create other video projects and appreciate it’s purpose. I am glad that though my first experience with video was not a good one, I was given other chances by my professor to use this technology because it is good and does inspire creativity. All this to say, teachers need to ensure that they facilitate these creative projects and give students many chances to get familiar with a technology so that they can become inspired and integrate it in their lives for the good of learning.	<urn:uuid:57fa16fb-a272-4c85-a2e9-3f9322a44257>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nadiasparroweducation.wordpress.com/tag/mels-8/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00356.warc.gz	en	0.981522	460	3.34375	3	[ -0.06280583143234253, 0.17492994666099548, 0.25911766290664673, -0.5776679515838623, 0.010892028920352459, -0.10374978929758072, 0.3025436997413635, 0.30991095304489136, -0.06900415569543839, -0.06981919705867767, 0.18122519552707672, -0.032479625195264816, 0.09969761967658997, 0.251485347...	3	In reading the ISTE Standards for teachers (International Society for Technology in Education) I was struck by the first standard, “Facilitate and Inspire Student Learning and Creativity”. I learned that teachers are supposed to use their knowledge of technology and subject matter to aid students in having experiences that inspire their own creativity. I feel this is important because the use of technology in the classroom can be incredibly inspiring to students or it can destroy them. If students are not shown how to properly use a technology, they can become frustrated and disillusioned with that technology. It creates a barrier to learning and will cause a distrust between students and teachers. If on the other hand, a teacher is able to show students how to use a particular technology in a way that makes it interesting and inspiring, students will be more interested in using the technology in other projects, they will become more creative with their work and will likely continue to find new and innovative uses for that technology. For example, in class we were asked to create a quick video that could be used in teaching such as a public service announcement. We got into small groups and my group decided to go into the cafeteria to show different types of food. We used an iPhone and took video of us talking about food and showing the different healthy options that were available. After we had completed our task we edited the video using iMovie. For some reason, iMovie was not working for me on my computer and I became incredibly frustrated with the technology. (Which is why I am only writing about this project NOW.) I gave up on the idea of using that technology as a result of becoming frustrated with it. I am lucky however that I have a fiancé who is a computer software developer and he encouraged me to get familiar with iMovie. I have since used it to create other video projects and appreciate it’s purpose. I am glad that though my first experience with video was not a good one, I was given other chances by my professor to use this technology because it is good and does inspire creativity. All this to say, teachers need to ensure that they facilitate these creative projects and give students many chances to get familiar with a technology so that they can become inspired and integrate it in their lives for the good of learning.	454	ENGLISH	1
SLAVERY HIS335 CIVIL WAR MICHAEL J PERRY Excelsior College The institution of slavery, the two authors James M. McPherson and Stanley M. Elkins agree on many of the same points of view. The institution of slavery was hard on the slaves themselves often making them live under hard conditions that would not allow for a good life to be lead. These two authors discuss the harsh realities of being a slave, such conditions as unhealthy living conditions, forced labor in the cotton, tobacco, and hemp fields from sun up till sometimes when there was a full moon into the middle of the night with only a short 5 or 10 minute lunch break at noon to eat a few pieces of cold bacon. Families were often spilt up by being sold and religion was something that the master didn’t think that a beast would understand. They agree that in the North with the industrial revolution and the rapid growth there wasn’t much need for slavery but in the South the institution of slavery was seen by the people there as needed. McPherson states on page 41 of Ordeal By Fire that the institution of slavery undermined the work ethic among Southern whites. When most kinds of manual labor are associated with bondage work becomes servile rather than honorable. He further talks about how slaves were forced to do the work and kind of just go through the motions of conducting work without really doing it making them ineffective at their jobs. While Elkins discuss how the institution of slavery was effective with America was being a capitalist economy and the slaves being the major force behind this thriving economy. The major differences between the Latin and North American slave system was that in Latin America they had a open system, where the slave had rights and could purchase their freedom and then go on to live a normal free life, were as in America we had a closed system were the slaves, their children and their children’s children would be born into slavery owned by the same master until they were sold or died. This gave slaves in America nothing to work towards. The church couldn’t turn a blind eye to the topic of slavery for long and according to Elkins in 1698 assured the king of Spain that there cannot be any doubt as to the necessity of those slaves for the support of the kingdom of the Indies and that with regard to the point of conscience, the trade may continue. In Latin America slaves were allowed to go to church and in fact the church made it their right, the church believed in extending its moral authority over all men even slave to the point that they brought slave unions under their control. Slaves in Latin America enjoyed and were allowed to have many of the same religious right that we all have today in our own country. Slaves heading to Brazil would be baptized before leaving for that country and once there be meet by a friar to check conscience, faith, and religion of the new arrivals. As we look into the church, slavery and our own country this is a different matter. The slave in the United States weren’t given the same rights as slave in Latin America as a matter of fact they had no rights because they were property. In fact many slave masters did want their slaves to hear the word but it had to be in the original and purest form with the overseers present and many states passed laws that would not allow blacks to have service before the rising sun or after the setting sun of the same. In other states blacks could only go to white churches but many didn’t have the accommodations or want them there with the white congregation. The rural Southern churches couldn’t condemn slavery because to do so would mean that the good Southern white men in their congregations were evil sinning men. This way of thinking wouldn’t continue and for a few churches there would be a split between the Southern way of thinking and the Northern way of thinking, these churches were the Methodists in 1844, the Baptists in 1845 and the Presbyterians in 1861 because of the issue of slavery. Both authors discuss how the slave master had total control over their slaves. Chattel bondage gave the master great power over his slaves to buy or sell, to punish without sanctions of the courts, to separate families, to exploit sexually, even to kill with little fear of being held legally responsible. The law didn’t see slaves in the same way that it did free men. In fact slaves had few rights under the law; they could not marry nor own property. As Elkins talked about in regards to religion to be up to the master whether or not his slaves could hear the word out of the good book. The only thing a slave had control of in their lives was his work. It has been seen where because a slave was forced into doing the work took little or no pride in the work or how fast it got done, so the slaves appeared to be lazing because they felt no purpose or lack of motivation to do a good hard job because they would see little of the profits from the work. The masters attitudes had become internalized as a part of their selves: those attitudes and standards now dominated all others that they had. The slave would look to the master in a good father type role and be respectful and loyal to him. With Americans devotion to limited government and laissez faire capitalism it directly leads to brutal treatment of slaves. While on one hand some slave owners understood that success was measured by how much cotton would be picked and sold since this was the main staple crop of the day and if their slaves were hurt it would hurt their success, so some treated their slaves well. Most however did not, with the laws allowing the owners to do with the slaves what they wanted there were few rights the slaves had including protection or any Civil Rights. In many situations if a master treated his slaves poorly the public opium of him would be in question, but anytime you allow a man to have total control over something that they have little or no respect for mistreatment will eventually take place. Elkins discusses how in many circumstances the slave owners would take matters into their own hands to punish their slaves. Elkins has a example of a South Carolina law of 1740 which provided that, “In case any person shall willfully cut out the tongue, put out the eye, castrate, or cruelly scald, burn, or deprive any slave of any limb or member, or shall inflict any other cruel punishment, other than the whipping, or beating with a horse whip, cow skin, switch, or small stick, or by putting irons on, or confining or imprisoning such slave, every such person shall, for every such offense, forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds current money. The catch all to this was that Southern law wouldn’t allow slaves to testify in court except against another slave, so this law really couldn’t be enforced. On the other hand in Ordeal By Fire McPherson page 38 Masters and overseers could not rule by the whip alone. Dead maimed, brutalized, or runaway slaves could grow little if any cotton. Persuasion, inducement, rewards for good work, and concession were necessary in this as in other relationships between employer and employees. It’s my opinion that Stanley Elkins more accurately describes antebellum American slavery in his book Slavery; he goes further back and discusses the ordeal and the shock and detachment of the slaves from the beginning of their capture, through their day to day ordeals of being property in America and not being able to be free. REFERENCE; McPherson, James M, & Hogue, James K, (2009) Ordeal By Fire, The Civil War and Reconstruction, (4th Edition), New York, McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Stanley M. Elkins (1976) SLAVERY (3rd Edition), The University of Chicago Press, Ltd. , London	<urn:uuid:6dc1c331-6847-4976-83d5-b5bb6225b9c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://doosanmoxy.com/slavery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00014.warc.gz	en	0.98108	1,624	3.75	4	[ -0.4279005229473114, 0.23205497860908508, 0.14407914876937866, 0.011433418840169907, 0.170542374253273, -0.08758114278316498, -0.3277638554573059, -0.18903689086437225, -0.1864929497241974, 0.17523062229156494, 0.18619507551193237, 0.13180524110794067, -0.22684797644615173, 0.3353508710861...	1	SLAVERY HIS335 CIVIL WAR MICHAEL J PERRY Excelsior College The institution of slavery, the two authors James M. McPherson and Stanley M. Elkins agree on many of the same points of view. The institution of slavery was hard on the slaves themselves often making them live under hard conditions that would not allow for a good life to be lead. These two authors discuss the harsh realities of being a slave, such conditions as unhealthy living conditions, forced labor in the cotton, tobacco, and hemp fields from sun up till sometimes when there was a full moon into the middle of the night with only a short 5 or 10 minute lunch break at noon to eat a few pieces of cold bacon. Families were often spilt up by being sold and religion was something that the master didn’t think that a beast would understand. They agree that in the North with the industrial revolution and the rapid growth there wasn’t much need for slavery but in the South the institution of slavery was seen by the people there as needed. McPherson states on page 41 of Ordeal By Fire that the institution of slavery undermined the work ethic among Southern whites. When most kinds of manual labor are associated with bondage work becomes servile rather than honorable. He further talks about how slaves were forced to do the work and kind of just go through the motions of conducting work without really doing it making them ineffective at their jobs. While Elkins discuss how the institution of slavery was effective with America was being a capitalist economy and the slaves being the major force behind this thriving economy. The major differences between the Latin and North American slave system was that in Latin America they had a open system, where the slave had rights and could purchase their freedom and then go on to live a normal free life, were as in America we had a closed system were the slaves, their children and their children’s children would be born into slavery owned by the same master until they were sold or died. This gave slaves in America nothing to work towards. The church couldn’t turn a blind eye to the topic of slavery for long and according to Elkins in 1698 assured the king of Spain that there cannot be any doubt as to the necessity of those slaves for the support of the kingdom of the Indies and that with regard to the point of conscience, the trade may continue. In Latin America slaves were allowed to go to church and in fact the church made it their right, the church believed in extending its moral authority over all men even slave to the point that they brought slave unions under their control. Slaves in Latin America enjoyed and were allowed to have many of the same religious right that we all have today in our own country. Slaves heading to Brazil would be baptized before leaving for that country and once there be meet by a friar to check conscience, faith, and religion of the new arrivals. As we look into the church, slavery and our own country this is a different matter. The slave in the United States weren’t given the same rights as slave in Latin America as a matter of fact they had no rights because they were property. In fact many slave masters did want their slaves to hear the word but it had to be in the original and purest form with the overseers present and many states passed laws that would not allow blacks to have service before the rising sun or after the setting sun of the same. In other states blacks could only go to white churches but many didn’t have the accommodations or want them there with the white congregation. The rural Southern churches couldn’t condemn slavery because to do so would mean that the good Southern white men in their congregations were evil sinning men. This way of thinking wouldn’t continue and for a few churches there would be a split between the Southern way of thinking and the Northern way of thinking, these churches were the Methodists in 1844, the Baptists in 1845 and the Presbyterians in 1861 because of the issue of slavery. Both authors discuss how the slave master had total control over their slaves. Chattel bondage gave the master great power over his slaves to buy or sell, to punish without sanctions of the courts, to separate families, to exploit sexually, even to kill with little fear of being held legally responsible. The law didn’t see slaves in the same way that it did free men. In fact slaves had few rights under the law; they could not marry nor own property. As Elkins talked about in regards to religion to be up to the master whether or not his slaves could hear the word out of the good book. The only thing a slave had control of in their lives was his work. It has been seen where because a slave was forced into doing the work took little or no pride in the work or how fast it got done, so the slaves appeared to be lazing because they felt no purpose or lack of motivation to do a good hard job because they would see little of the profits from the work. The masters attitudes had become internalized as a part of their selves: those attitudes and standards now dominated all others that they had. The slave would look to the master in a good father type role and be respectful and loyal to him. With Americans devotion to limited government and laissez faire capitalism it directly leads to brutal treatment of slaves. While on one hand some slave owners understood that success was measured by how much cotton would be picked and sold since this was the main staple crop of the day and if their slaves were hurt it would hurt their success, so some treated their slaves well. Most however did not, with the laws allowing the owners to do with the slaves what they wanted there were few rights the slaves had including protection or any Civil Rights. In many situations if a master treated his slaves poorly the public opium of him would be in question, but anytime you allow a man to have total control over something that they have little or no respect for mistreatment will eventually take place. Elkins discusses how in many circumstances the slave owners would take matters into their own hands to punish their slaves. Elkins has a example of a South Carolina law of 1740 which provided that, “In case any person shall willfully cut out the tongue, put out the eye, castrate, or cruelly scald, burn, or deprive any slave of any limb or member, or shall inflict any other cruel punishment, other than the whipping, or beating with a horse whip, cow skin, switch, or small stick, or by putting irons on, or confining or imprisoning such slave, every such person shall, for every such offense, forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds current money. The catch all to this was that Southern law wouldn’t allow slaves to testify in court except against another slave, so this law really couldn’t be enforced. On the other hand in Ordeal By Fire McPherson page 38 Masters and overseers could not rule by the whip alone. Dead maimed, brutalized, or runaway slaves could grow little if any cotton. Persuasion, inducement, rewards for good work, and concession were necessary in this as in other relationships between employer and employees. It’s my opinion that Stanley Elkins more accurately describes antebellum American slavery in his book Slavery; he goes further back and discusses the ordeal and the shock and detachment of the slaves from the beginning of their capture, through their day to day ordeals of being property in America and not being able to be free. REFERENCE; McPherson, James M, & Hogue, James K, (2009) Ordeal By Fire, The Civil War and Reconstruction, (4th Edition), New York, McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Stanley M. Elkins (1976) SLAVERY (3rd Edition), The University of Chicago Press, Ltd. , London	1,616	ENGLISH	1
We all enjoyed the soggy snow between rainy days. We hauled truckloads, shovelfuls, and buckets of snow, ice, and water. It was great wet fun! Monday students continued their study of birds by being bird artists. We read the story The Painter Who Loved Chickens, then watched a clip of an artist giving a step by step tutorial of how to draw a bird. The children used pencils to sketch the outlines of their birds, being sure to include a head, body, feet, wings, and beak. They then added colorful feathers. They created some really fantastic birds! To continue with our bird theme, the children were introduced to a turkey making activity. They used their fine motor skills to paint a clothespin brown and color a coffee filter with markers then spray it with water to make the colors run and bleed together. Once dry, they folded the coffee filter tail, clipped it in the body, and added eyes, a waddle, and a beak. We continued our discussion of the classroom rules. Last week we focused on the expectation BE SAFE. This week we delved into BE RESPECTFUL. We played the same type of game where the children chose a slip of paper that completed the sentence: “Show us how to be respectful when you . . .” The child would then demonstrate or describe what they would do in a certain situation, such as . . . need a teacher’s attention, spilled someone’s snack, need to get by someone in your way, or bumped into someone. The block area was busy with the construction of some complex structures with varied purposes. The children added signs to label their buildings, bridges, and factories. They lined up people, stacked up rocks, and ordered animals. There was great collaboration, planning, negotiation, and compromising. As our winter performance is quickly approaching and we want to be well prepared, we have been practicing and learning our songs and poems. Susan has been leading the children and helping them choose roles for the performance, and they have been working hard to learn the words, motions, actions, and signs. The children were given the opportunity to choose a line from one of two poems we will be sharing, and then practice in small groups with Susan. They also continued to practice the bells, which may accompany our rendition of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star. Rose quizzed us on our signs. She signed each one we have learned so far, and the children called out what they were. She also taught us the signs for all the seasons and signed the song Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star so we can use some of this for our performance. She then introduced some more feeling/emotion signs. We learned shy, sick, scared, grumpy, and hungry. The children have been busy writing books this week. Some of the Friday students asked Lyn to read or shared their books themselves with the group. Friday students took a break from studying the animal groups and did some balancing work. We read Balancing Act by Ellen Stoll Walsh and Just a Little Bit by Ann Tompert, about animals trying to balance see-saws. We then took out some scales and tried to do our own balancing. The children identified that the lower side was heavier, so items should be added to the higher side. When questioned if rather than adding to the lighter side there was something else they could do, they determined that they could remove items from the heavier. When they slowed down and thought about what they were doing, they were able to balance their scales by adding or removing one item at a time.	<urn:uuid:03b9631e-16e9-4a41-83b9-d29461752fcd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://sunnybrookmontessori.org/2019/11/6246/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00032.warc.gz	en	0.980483	744	3.75	4	[ 0.1060108169913292, -0.6253413558006287, 0.2237478643655777, -0.04204561933875084, -0.23466123640537262, 0.31595879793167114, 0.2703208923339844, 0.1206267699599266, -0.18804828822612762, 0.08678710460662842, -0.18542414903640747, -0.02152993530035019, 0.16317564249038696, 0.16051650047302...	20	We all enjoyed the soggy snow between rainy days. We hauled truckloads, shovelfuls, and buckets of snow, ice, and water. It was great wet fun! Monday students continued their study of birds by being bird artists. We read the story The Painter Who Loved Chickens, then watched a clip of an artist giving a step by step tutorial of how to draw a bird. The children used pencils to sketch the outlines of their birds, being sure to include a head, body, feet, wings, and beak. They then added colorful feathers. They created some really fantastic birds! To continue with our bird theme, the children were introduced to a turkey making activity. They used their fine motor skills to paint a clothespin brown and color a coffee filter with markers then spray it with water to make the colors run and bleed together. Once dry, they folded the coffee filter tail, clipped it in the body, and added eyes, a waddle, and a beak. We continued our discussion of the classroom rules. Last week we focused on the expectation BE SAFE. This week we delved into BE RESPECTFUL. We played the same type of game where the children chose a slip of paper that completed the sentence: “Show us how to be respectful when you . . .” The child would then demonstrate or describe what they would do in a certain situation, such as . . . need a teacher’s attention, spilled someone’s snack, need to get by someone in your way, or bumped into someone. The block area was busy with the construction of some complex structures with varied purposes. The children added signs to label their buildings, bridges, and factories. They lined up people, stacked up rocks, and ordered animals. There was great collaboration, planning, negotiation, and compromising. As our winter performance is quickly approaching and we want to be well prepared, we have been practicing and learning our songs and poems. Susan has been leading the children and helping them choose roles for the performance, and they have been working hard to learn the words, motions, actions, and signs. The children were given the opportunity to choose a line from one of two poems we will be sharing, and then practice in small groups with Susan. They also continued to practice the bells, which may accompany our rendition of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star. Rose quizzed us on our signs. She signed each one we have learned so far, and the children called out what they were. She also taught us the signs for all the seasons and signed the song Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star so we can use some of this for our performance. She then introduced some more feeling/emotion signs. We learned shy, sick, scared, grumpy, and hungry. The children have been busy writing books this week. Some of the Friday students asked Lyn to read or shared their books themselves with the group. Friday students took a break from studying the animal groups and did some balancing work. We read Balancing Act by Ellen Stoll Walsh and Just a Little Bit by Ann Tompert, about animals trying to balance see-saws. We then took out some scales and tried to do our own balancing. The children identified that the lower side was heavier, so items should be added to the higher side. When questioned if rather than adding to the lighter side there was something else they could do, they determined that they could remove items from the heavier. When they slowed down and thought about what they were doing, they were able to balance their scales by adding or removing one item at a time.	727	ENGLISH	1
What is Rear Admiral Grace Hopper famous for? Grace Hopper was an excellent mathematician and one of the first “encoders”, so-called programmers. In the mid-twentieth century, she, as an officer of the US Navy, like everyone who was “close” to computers, worked at Harvard in the department that was engaged in obtaining ballistic tables for artillery tasks. So Grace Hopper is considered one of the first programmers in the world: she worked on the computer of Mark I, the former, in fact, a giant calculator. The giant Mark I was intended for the computational processes of obtaining artillery ballistic tables, in the already written algorithm, mathematical tasks (modules) of a general nature were provided. Hopper and her colleagues (by the way, there were much more female programmers involved in coding than men) coped with this – they first applied subprograms. This word then meant multiple repetitions of the same computational operations, and if programmers needed routines written before someone else, they simply rewrote the code to their notebooks. So although the term “subroutine” was introduced later, it is believed that for the first time this definition, without which there is no way to program, began to be used on the Mark-1 machine in 1944. And a year later, Hopper and her fellow programmers introduced another fundamental concept that all programmers in the world have to resort to today. His story is … It was a hot summer day. Mark I calculated tables with amazing machine speed – one table per day, and this was already great progress. It only remained to change the parameters by switching certain levers, and receive new data. The programmers relaxed, and suddenly there was a machine failure: Mark stopped rumbling and blinking lights. Everyone was at a loss, what was a mysterious malfunction in an already debugged mode. 4 hours after a thorough analysis, the programmers discovered a malfunction – it was a moth that closed the contacts of one of the relays. They carefully pulled out the body of the dead insect with tweezers and glued it into a special notebook that resembled a logbook, it was meticulously filled by order of the US Navy while the computer was working on the task. The insect remains were accompanied by the inscription: After eliminating the “malfunction”, all those present exhaled and burst out laughing. Hopper said that when they heard homeric laughter in the engine room, an officer came in to supervise the entire floor on which the giant computer was located to find out what they were doing so funny. Programmers, choking on laughter, answered: debugging, that is, cleaning from insects. The term debug (or debug, as you like) has taken root, it began to be used to search for errors in the computer, and later in programs. In general, parents seriously influenced the choice of the path of their eldest daughter. Grace probably inherited the analytical mind from her mother, who was fond of mathematics and, in particular, geometry. Despite the fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century everyone thought: this is not a female occupation. Or maybe even from my grandfather on the mother’s side got Grace “mathematical genes”! Her grandfather, John Van Horne, worked as the chief civil engineer in New York City. From the side of the father, with the score and with mathematics, there was also complete order. Both Grace’s father, Walter Murray, and her paternal grandfather were exchange brokers, whose brains made calculations faster than a computer, at that time, however, not yet invented. It was father who inspired Grace to go to Vassar College. This college is located near New York and in 1923, when Grace entered it, it was intended to teach girls the sciences and crafts. Although at that time, Americans still largely believed: this is not a female matter – science. Despite this common opinion, the “women’s” college of Vassar competed with the best universities in America, and the requirements for admission here were high. Grace, for example, became a student only on the second attempt, the Latin score in her graduation certificate was too low. In 1928, she graduated from Vassar College with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physics, and continued her studies at Yale, where she received a master’s degree in 1930. And after 4 years at Yale, Grace became a doctor of mathematics and returned to her alma mater, Vassar College, to teach. In 1930, Grace married New York University professor Vincent Hopper and changed her maiden name Murray to Hopper. Grace Hopper was a thin woman, one of those whose physique is sometimes jokingly called body subtraction. How do we know that? From quite official sources. The order, dated December 1943, to accept Grace Hopper as a volunteer in the reserve of the US Navy as an exception, has survived.	<urn:uuid:1a6d9ae4-c848-4c13-a148-fbd8703fdfb3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://dscomputel.com/post55	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00343.warc.gz	en	0.981153	1,017	3.375	3	[ -0.47449052333831787, -0.20537856221199036, -0.006978616118431091, -0.2892910838127136, -0.4445946216583252, 0.030652573332190514, 0.6167059540748596, 0.2928823232650757, 0.033993832767009735, -0.10412222146987915, -0.005767322611063719, 0.20427089929580688, 0.1151873916387558, 0.127958536...	13	What is Rear Admiral Grace Hopper famous for? Grace Hopper was an excellent mathematician and one of the first “encoders”, so-called programmers. In the mid-twentieth century, she, as an officer of the US Navy, like everyone who was “close” to computers, worked at Harvard in the department that was engaged in obtaining ballistic tables for artillery tasks. So Grace Hopper is considered one of the first programmers in the world: she worked on the computer of Mark I, the former, in fact, a giant calculator. The giant Mark I was intended for the computational processes of obtaining artillery ballistic tables, in the already written algorithm, mathematical tasks (modules) of a general nature were provided. Hopper and her colleagues (by the way, there were much more female programmers involved in coding than men) coped with this – they first applied subprograms. This word then meant multiple repetitions of the same computational operations, and if programmers needed routines written before someone else, they simply rewrote the code to their notebooks. So although the term “subroutine” was introduced later, it is believed that for the first time this definition, without which there is no way to program, began to be used on the Mark-1 machine in 1944. And a year later, Hopper and her fellow programmers introduced another fundamental concept that all programmers in the world have to resort to today. His story is … It was a hot summer day. Mark I calculated tables with amazing machine speed – one table per day, and this was already great progress. It only remained to change the parameters by switching certain levers, and receive new data. The programmers relaxed, and suddenly there was a machine failure: Mark stopped rumbling and blinking lights. Everyone was at a loss, what was a mysterious malfunction in an already debugged mode. 4 hours after a thorough analysis, the programmers discovered a malfunction – it was a moth that closed the contacts of one of the relays. They carefully pulled out the body of the dead insect with tweezers and glued it into a special notebook that resembled a logbook, it was meticulously filled by order of the US Navy while the computer was working on the task. The insect remains were accompanied by the inscription: After eliminating the “malfunction”, all those present exhaled and burst out laughing. Hopper said that when they heard homeric laughter in the engine room, an officer came in to supervise the entire floor on which the giant computer was located to find out what they were doing so funny. Programmers, choking on laughter, answered: debugging, that is, cleaning from insects. The term debug (or debug, as you like) has taken root, it began to be used to search for errors in the computer, and later in programs. In general, parents seriously influenced the choice of the path of their eldest daughter. Grace probably inherited the analytical mind from her mother, who was fond of mathematics and, in particular, geometry. Despite the fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century everyone thought: this is not a female occupation. Or maybe even from my grandfather on the mother’s side got Grace “mathematical genes”! Her grandfather, John Van Horne, worked as the chief civil engineer in New York City. From the side of the father, with the score and with mathematics, there was also complete order. Both Grace’s father, Walter Murray, and her paternal grandfather were exchange brokers, whose brains made calculations faster than a computer, at that time, however, not yet invented. It was father who inspired Grace to go to Vassar College. This college is located near New York and in 1923, when Grace entered it, it was intended to teach girls the sciences and crafts. Although at that time, Americans still largely believed: this is not a female matter – science. Despite this common opinion, the “women’s” college of Vassar competed with the best universities in America, and the requirements for admission here were high. Grace, for example, became a student only on the second attempt, the Latin score in her graduation certificate was too low. In 1928, she graduated from Vassar College with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physics, and continued her studies at Yale, where she received a master’s degree in 1930. And after 4 years at Yale, Grace became a doctor of mathematics and returned to her alma mater, Vassar College, to teach. In 1930, Grace married New York University professor Vincent Hopper and changed her maiden name Murray to Hopper. Grace Hopper was a thin woman, one of those whose physique is sometimes jokingly called body subtraction. How do we know that? From quite official sources. The order, dated December 1943, to accept Grace Hopper as a volunteer in the reserve of the US Navy as an exception, has survived.	1,004	ENGLISH	1
Giovanni Caboto, son of Giulio, was born in Gaeta, Italy, around 1451 AD. After the Aragonese defeated the Angevins in 1461, his family took refuge in Venice where the young Giovanni grew up, got married to Mattea about 1870 and had three children: Ludovico, Sebastiano, and Sancto. His dream was to be an explorer, but it took him some time before finding a satisfactory sea route. The king agreed, and Caboto left. Just over a month after leaving, the only ship under his command touched new lands. These lands were claimed in the name of King Henry VII and, probably, Caboto thought he had arrived in the Far East but in reality he arrived in Nova Scotia. By doing so Caboto laid the foundations for future discoveries in Canada, which became an English colony. Thanks to this great discovery, Caboto received enormous advantages from the King of England, but unfortunately he could not benefit from it for long. A year after his return, he left for a new expedition, but this time, he never returned and literally vanished. Some say he reached Greenland, others say his expedition was shipwrecked in the Atlantic Ocean and others still claim it arrived in North America. Whatever happened, its fate will most likely always stay a mystery. The only thing we do know is that Caboto gave the discovery of America and its colonization, the extra gear that was still missing: discovering Canada and other territories, undiscovered by Columbus during his first trip. OnomasticoYesterday : s. Angela Merici Today : s. Valerio Tomorrow : s. Costanzo	<urn:uuid:6e16d2ea-e821-4c36-9e2b-ce9f5949fbc8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.italiangenealogy.com/articles/famous-italians/giovanni-caboto	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00490.warc.gz	en	0.981753	340	3.703125	4	[ -0.2543852627277374, 0.22149518132209778, 0.2930692434310913, 0.20623445510864258, -0.29299673438072205, -0.47421956062316895, 0.018065061420202255, 0.29300007224082947, -0.2221158742904663, 0.37913963198661804, 0.2415631264448166, -0.19131912291049957, -0.026033323258161545, 0.68709397315...	1	Giovanni Caboto, son of Giulio, was born in Gaeta, Italy, around 1451 AD. After the Aragonese defeated the Angevins in 1461, his family took refuge in Venice where the young Giovanni grew up, got married to Mattea about 1870 and had three children: Ludovico, Sebastiano, and Sancto. His dream was to be an explorer, but it took him some time before finding a satisfactory sea route. The king agreed, and Caboto left. Just over a month after leaving, the only ship under his command touched new lands. These lands were claimed in the name of King Henry VII and, probably, Caboto thought he had arrived in the Far East but in reality he arrived in Nova Scotia. By doing so Caboto laid the foundations for future discoveries in Canada, which became an English colony. Thanks to this great discovery, Caboto received enormous advantages from the King of England, but unfortunately he could not benefit from it for long. A year after his return, he left for a new expedition, but this time, he never returned and literally vanished. Some say he reached Greenland, others say his expedition was shipwrecked in the Atlantic Ocean and others still claim it arrived in North America. Whatever happened, its fate will most likely always stay a mystery. The only thing we do know is that Caboto gave the discovery of America and its colonization, the extra gear that was still missing: discovering Canada and other territories, undiscovered by Columbus during his first trip. OnomasticoYesterday : s. Angela Merici Today : s. Valerio Tomorrow : s. Costanzo	346	ENGLISH	1
The Saint of the Day St. Gush ad Azad, June 12 Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira Saint of the Day \| Home \| Books \| CDs \| Search \| Contact Us \| Donate The Catholic Religion was preached with success in Persia by St. Matthew and St. Bartholomew, and the Christians in this country had a deep faith. In the fourth century, Emperor Shapur II (310-381) began a fierce persecution against those who would not worship the sun. There were countless Catholic martyrs who perished because they refused to accept the Persian religion. Worship of Mitra (the sun god) was an ancient practice of the Persians. From their pre-history to Cyrus, the first Persian King of Kings, the Persians always adored the sun. Therefore, they wanted to make Catholics adore the sun as well. For this reason, in the year 344 the Emperor ordered Simeon, Bishop of Susa, to be imprisoned. Bishop Simeon had been a friend of Gush ad Azad, an eunuch of the palace who was a counselor of the Emperor and famed throughout the empire. He had become a Catholic but, fearing persecution, had abjured his Faith. Sources record that 1,150 martyrs perished under King Shapur II As he was led off to the prison, Bishop Simeon passed by the eunuch, who greeted him. But the holy Bishop turned away and diverted his gaze from the apostate with an indignant horror. That silent disapproval profoundly touched Gush ad Azad, who wept bitterly for several days, crying to himself, “Woe to me, when I stand before my God, from whom I am cut off! For if my friend Simeon has turned his back on me, what will be the response of God, whom I betrayed?” Consumed by these thoughts, the eunuch exchanged his fine attire for coarse mourning garb, causing great surprise among all at the court. The Emperor Shapur soon called his counselor to his presence to ask what had happened for him to cast such dreary presages over the empire. The eunuch answered: “I am dressed in mourning garb because of my twofold perfidy: against my God and against you. Against my God, because I abjured the faith to which I had sworn; I preferred your favors to the truth. Against you, because since I was obliged to adore the sun, I did it with hypocrisy; my heart internally protested my action.” Threatened by Shapur II, Gush ad Azad remained unyielding in his position and was condemned to death. Before the execution, however, he asked a last favor from the Emperor. He said to him: The longest reigning monarch of the Sassanid dynasty, King Shapur II ruled from 309 to 379 “You have always praised me for the zeal and dedication with which I have served you and your father. Now, I asked you this mercy: that a herald should announce to the people that Gush ad Azad was put to death not because he betrayed the secrets of the Emperor or was involved in some conspiracy, but rather because he is Catholic and refused to deny his God. “My apostasy was known by the entire city, and my weakness may have affected many persons. If they hear now about the penalty without knowing the cause, my death will not serve as an example for the faithful. To the contrary, if they know of my repentance and that I die for Christ, I will fortify their spirits; their souls will become firmer and their ardor re-inflamed. The voice of the herald will be like a war trumpet that gives the athletes of justice the signal for combat and warns them to prepare their weapons.” So it was done. St. Gush ad Azad was killed on Maundy Thursday in the year 344. Comments of Prof. Plinio: This is a very beautiful report. You know about the custom adopted in many countries of Antiquity of mutilating some boys so that they would lose their virile potency. These eunuchs were then charged with watching over the harems where the wives of the kings stayed, without rousing concerns in the monarchs. This fact alone reveals the fragility of those old institutions, which some historians try to present as being very strong. Instead, they were monarchies established exclusively on fear and coercion. The wife of a king could only be safe in the presence of a mutilated man. Should she be served by normal men, despite the power of the king, he could be betrayed by her and one of his men. You understand what kind of atmosphere this creates for a civilization and the grim repercussions it has over all of the social, political and economic institutions. An Arab harem On the other hand, when we study the Middle Ages, we see that the bond that properly united and coordinated the elements of a medieval institution was the bond of fidelity. Such fidelity made it a point of honor for both the superior and the inferior to carry out their reciprocal duties without injuring or infringing on the rights of the other; the shame for one who violated this trust was great, greater for the one who breached the trust than for the one who was betrayed. And while it was an infamous act for a wife to cheat on her husband, it was considered even more infamous for a man to deceive his lord by stealing his wife. You see how much more elevated Catholic Civilization was than the turbid villainy of the Ancient World. It so happened that those mutilated men often came into contact with the kings because of their familiarity with the palace. Since these men usually did not take part in the orgies and disorders of the common men at court, they used to read and study much more and thus to become much more learned than the others. The consequence was that very often they ascended to higher posts of State: they would become counselors, tutors, generals etc of emperors, kings or governors, many of them attaining a high profile in the country. This was the case of Gush ad Azad, who became an eminent personage of one of the greatest empires of Antiquity, which was the Persian Empire. He became Catholic in the wake of the apostolate of St. Bartholomew in Persia and began to practice the religion. But then Emperor Shapur promulgated a decree condemning all Catholics to death. Moved by fear he disavowed the faith. The holy Bishop Simeon passed by him; the eunuch greeted him but the Bishop averted his gaze from the apostate and continued on his path to martyrdom. That action shook Gush ad Azad and led to his conversion. You see how different the paths of grace are. Our Lord passed by St. Peter and gazed at St. Peter with goodness. He converted St. Peter forever. One might say that that Bishop should have imitated Our Lord and gazed at the apostate Gush ad Azad with goodness. But the Holy Spirit suggests different actions for the different paths He uses to lead souls. In this case, what happened was that the Bishop was filled with horror and indignantly diverted his gaze from the apostate. Instead of revolting, the apostate was touched by grace. Then, as we saw, he made this reasoning: “For if Simeon has turned his back on me, what will be the response of God, whom I betrayed?” And he decided to change his life. The repentant apostate is brought before the King, We see the varying paths of God, how differently He inspires the apostolate of each one. To some He gives a contagious love, which through its sweetness leads to union with Him; to others He gives a sacred and sublime ire, which purifies like fire and directs the souls that are the object of that ire toward Him. Here you have a beautiful conversion, a profound conversion like that of St. Peter, although by means of a different path. Like St. Peter, Gush ad Azad wept bitterly for his sin; like St. Peter, he walked toward martyrdom, although by a different way. How did he walk? The scene reflects the theatricality of the Orient, that beautiful and picturesque theatricality, which I like very much. According to Western patterns, he should have written a letter asking for a last favor. Or he should have left a letter in his house and fled. In the Ancient World it was relatively easy to disappear since the police system had a less efficient means of information and action and a rebel could quietly escape and lead a somewhat easy life. Thus, ad Azad could have entered a hermitage in some desert place or left Persia with enough riches and jewels to permit a tranquil life in another country where the Catholic Religion was already established. But, no, he resolved to face martyrdom. Instead of writing a letter, he felt in his oriental soul the need to express with symbols what he would say with words. So this powerful man appeared in the palace dressed in mourning garb – I am not aware of what color the Persians of that time used to express their mourning: Was it purple? Was it black? I do not know. But it was certainly something dramatic, worn to produce a theatrical effect, which in this case it did. The persons who crossed paths with him were all surprised: “Why is the great Gush ad Azad, one of the highest dignitaries of the Empire, wearing mourning garb?” Theater is not always hypocritical; many times it is a beautiful and splendid manifestation of the truth. So, you can imagine ad Azad, walking through the rooms of the palace with a grief-stricken face, his eyes filled with sorrow and sadness, with the slaves bowing as he passed. But he was not looking at anything or anyone; before him he only saw the sublimity of the ire of that Bishop who averted his gaze from him as he was led away to death. He finally arrived at the hall of the throne, where the Emperor had called him. Ruins of a Persian palace Certainly the Emperor did not greet him with our low-level Western “Hello! What’s up?”, but rather in a solemn voice: “So, why are you casting such presages of sorrow over my empire?” These are beautiful words to come from the heights of a throne in a magnificent room with slaves waving flabella; a room from which one could see a patio with sculptures in the shape of winged bulls and lions. Then, before the gathered nobles and slaves, the dialogue unfolded. Gush ad Azad, said: “I sinned before God and before you…” The Emperor condemned him to death, and he accepted the sentence with all serenity, with a full dignity. The Emperor was trembling with hatred, but Gush ad Azad did not tremble before the Emperor; he only trembled before the sublime intransigence of the man who had repudiated him. He asked his last favor. He did not ask for his life. He asked that the heralds be allowed to go throughout the city of Susa, capital of the Empire, to proclaim that he had died because he was Catholic. The Emperor accepted and ad Azad walked away to his death. Soon after, the heralds were in the streets proclaiming: “Gush ad Azad, the powerful minister, has died. This strong column of the Empire was cut down because he persevered in the Catholic Faith and did not accept the cult of the sun that we practice.” We can surmise the great enthusiasm this news raised among the Catholics dispersed in the mob, who met later in the evening to comment about the new triumph of the grace of Our Lord. This example prepared them for fidelity and martyrdom. It was a great enthusiasm because grace had raised up an invincible hero even from one made of the weak clay of the apostates. How can we apply this to our lives? You see that in the saddest situations, in those where human weakness appears more plainly, there is always a remedy. There is always the help of grace once we ask for it. Certainly Our Lady prayed for this man. He needed that prayer because he had fallen into a complete apostasy, because he had so many bonds to the world – he enjoyed many advantages in the co-direction of one of the greatest empires on earth. He was very far from Our Lady, but he was converted by her prayer. His encounter with Bishop Simeon was obviously prepared by Divine Providence so that he might receive that averted gaze. The Bishop's reaction was inspired by grace. Then, that response was enough to regenerate a man who had abused so many graces. Suddenly that miserable apostate was transformed into a Saint of the Catholic Church, whose name we speak with respect. Persian mosaics that reflect the Oriental spirit We should have an unbreakable confidence in the mercy of Our Lady, in the omnipotence of her requests before God. We must always, always maintain the confidence that we – as well as the souls of those who disappoint, sadden and frustrate us – can ascend again to God and offer him the good fragrance of a perfect worship. Thus we should walk toward the future with joy, calm and confidence. Let us direct to Our Lady a supplication that is part of the Anima Christi, which is Ne permitas me separare a te – Do not permit me to separate myself from you. This is our conclusion: Our Lady did not permit this martyr to be separated from her. He went so far as to apostatize, but at a certain moment she called him back, and today Gush ad Azad shines in Heaven among the Saints. Let us ask him to pray for us so that when we shall arrive in Heaven we may join him in his unity with Our Lady in the splendor of his glory, and that we may – with him – love Our Lady and Our Lord for all eternity. The Saint of the Day features highlights from the lives of saints based on comments made by the late Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira. Following the example of St. John Bosco who used to make similar talks for the boys of his College, each evening it was Prof. Plinio’s custom to make a short commentary on the lives of the next day’s saint in a meeting for youth in order to encourage them in the practice of virtue and love for the Catholic Church. TIA thought that its readers could profit from these valuable commentaries. Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira\| The texts of both the biographical data and the comments come from personal notes taken by Atila S. Guimarães from 1964 to 1995. Given the fact that the source is a personal notebook, it is possible that at times the biographic notes transcribed here will not rigorously follow the original text read by Prof. Plinio. The commentaries have also been adapted and translated for TIA’s site. © 2002- Tradition in Action, Inc. All Rights Reserved	<urn:uuid:e41b213f-4bc4-40b8-9179-755e1732e083>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://traditioninaction.org/SOD/j264sd_Usphazanes_6_12.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00297.warc.gz	en	0.982382	3,175	3.265625	3	[ 0.032820556312799454, 0.3368784487247467, -0.10440473258495331, -0.19189390540122986, -0.4762929379940033, -0.2986783981323242, 0.32692572474479675, 0.19455578923225403, 0.4187040328979492, 0.09220990538597107, -0.09222418069839478, -0.24221035838127136, 0.4219363331794739, 0.2671086192131...	2	The Saint of the Day St. Gush ad Azad, June 12 Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira Saint of the Day \| Home \| Books \| CDs \| Search \| Contact Us \| Donate The Catholic Religion was preached with success in Persia by St. Matthew and St. Bartholomew, and the Christians in this country had a deep faith. In the fourth century, Emperor Shapur II (310-381) began a fierce persecution against those who would not worship the sun. There were countless Catholic martyrs who perished because they refused to accept the Persian religion. Worship of Mitra (the sun god) was an ancient practice of the Persians. From their pre-history to Cyrus, the first Persian King of Kings, the Persians always adored the sun. Therefore, they wanted to make Catholics adore the sun as well. For this reason, in the year 344 the Emperor ordered Simeon, Bishop of Susa, to be imprisoned. Bishop Simeon had been a friend of Gush ad Azad, an eunuch of the palace who was a counselor of the Emperor and famed throughout the empire. He had become a Catholic but, fearing persecution, had abjured his Faith. Sources record that 1,150 martyrs perished under King Shapur II As he was led off to the prison, Bishop Simeon passed by the eunuch, who greeted him. But the holy Bishop turned away and diverted his gaze from the apostate with an indignant horror. That silent disapproval profoundly touched Gush ad Azad, who wept bitterly for several days, crying to himself, “Woe to me, when I stand before my God, from whom I am cut off! For if my friend Simeon has turned his back on me, what will be the response of God, whom I betrayed?” Consumed by these thoughts, the eunuch exchanged his fine attire for coarse mourning garb, causing great surprise among all at the court. The Emperor Shapur soon called his counselor to his presence to ask what had happened for him to cast such dreary presages over the empire. The eunuch answered: “I am dressed in mourning garb because of my twofold perfidy: against my God and against you. Against my God, because I abjured the faith to which I had sworn; I preferred your favors to the truth. Against you, because since I was obliged to adore the sun, I did it with hypocrisy; my heart internally protested my action.” Threatened by Shapur II, Gush ad Azad remained unyielding in his position and was condemned to death. Before the execution, however, he asked a last favor from the Emperor. He said to him: The longest reigning monarch of the Sassanid dynasty, King Shapur II ruled from 309 to 379 “You have always praised me for the zeal and dedication with which I have served you and your father. Now, I asked you this mercy: that a herald should announce to the people that Gush ad Azad was put to death not because he betrayed the secrets of the Emperor or was involved in some conspiracy, but rather because he is Catholic and refused to deny his God. “My apostasy was known by the entire city, and my weakness may have affected many persons. If they hear now about the penalty without knowing the cause, my death will not serve as an example for the faithful. To the contrary, if they know of my repentance and that I die for Christ, I will fortify their spirits; their souls will become firmer and their ardor re-inflamed. The voice of the herald will be like a war trumpet that gives the athletes of justice the signal for combat and warns them to prepare their weapons.” So it was done. St. Gush ad Azad was killed on Maundy Thursday in the year 344. Comments of Prof. Plinio: This is a very beautiful report. You know about the custom adopted in many countries of Antiquity of mutilating some boys so that they would lose their virile potency. These eunuchs were then charged with watching over the harems where the wives of the kings stayed, without rousing concerns in the monarchs. This fact alone reveals the fragility of those old institutions, which some historians try to present as being very strong. Instead, they were monarchies established exclusively on fear and coercion. The wife of a king could only be safe in the presence of a mutilated man. Should she be served by normal men, despite the power of the king, he could be betrayed by her and one of his men. You understand what kind of atmosphere this creates for a civilization and the grim repercussions it has over all of the social, political and economic institutions. An Arab harem On the other hand, when we study the Middle Ages, we see that the bond that properly united and coordinated the elements of a medieval institution was the bond of fidelity. Such fidelity made it a point of honor for both the superior and the inferior to carry out their reciprocal duties without injuring or infringing on the rights of the other; the shame for one who violated this trust was great, greater for the one who breached the trust than for the one who was betrayed. And while it was an infamous act for a wife to cheat on her husband, it was considered even more infamous for a man to deceive his lord by stealing his wife. You see how much more elevated Catholic Civilization was than the turbid villainy of the Ancient World. It so happened that those mutilated men often came into contact with the kings because of their familiarity with the palace. Since these men usually did not take part in the orgies and disorders of the common men at court, they used to read and study much more and thus to become much more learned than the others. The consequence was that very often they ascended to higher posts of State: they would become counselors, tutors, generals etc of emperors, kings or governors, many of them attaining a high profile in the country. This was the case of Gush ad Azad, who became an eminent personage of one of the greatest empires of Antiquity, which was the Persian Empire. He became Catholic in the wake of the apostolate of St. Bartholomew in Persia and began to practice the religion. But then Emperor Shapur promulgated a decree condemning all Catholics to death. Moved by fear he disavowed the faith. The holy Bishop Simeon passed by him; the eunuch greeted him but the Bishop averted his gaze from the apostate and continued on his path to martyrdom. That action shook Gush ad Azad and led to his conversion. You see how different the paths of grace are. Our Lord passed by St. Peter and gazed at St. Peter with goodness. He converted St. Peter forever. One might say that that Bishop should have imitated Our Lord and gazed at the apostate Gush ad Azad with goodness. But the Holy Spirit suggests different actions for the different paths He uses to lead souls. In this case, what happened was that the Bishop was filled with horror and indignantly diverted his gaze from the apostate. Instead of revolting, the apostate was touched by grace. Then, as we saw, he made this reasoning: “For if Simeon has turned his back on me, what will be the response of God, whom I betrayed?” And he decided to change his life. The repentant apostate is brought before the King, We see the varying paths of God, how differently He inspires the apostolate of each one. To some He gives a contagious love, which through its sweetness leads to union with Him; to others He gives a sacred and sublime ire, which purifies like fire and directs the souls that are the object of that ire toward Him. Here you have a beautiful conversion, a profound conversion like that of St. Peter, although by means of a different path. Like St. Peter, Gush ad Azad wept bitterly for his sin; like St. Peter, he walked toward martyrdom, although by a different way. How did he walk? The scene reflects the theatricality of the Orient, that beautiful and picturesque theatricality, which I like very much. According to Western patterns, he should have written a letter asking for a last favor. Or he should have left a letter in his house and fled. In the Ancient World it was relatively easy to disappear since the police system had a less efficient means of information and action and a rebel could quietly escape and lead a somewhat easy life. Thus, ad Azad could have entered a hermitage in some desert place or left Persia with enough riches and jewels to permit a tranquil life in another country where the Catholic Religion was already established. But, no, he resolved to face martyrdom. Instead of writing a letter, he felt in his oriental soul the need to express with symbols what he would say with words. So this powerful man appeared in the palace dressed in mourning garb – I am not aware of what color the Persians of that time used to express their mourning: Was it purple? Was it black? I do not know. But it was certainly something dramatic, worn to produce a theatrical effect, which in this case it did. The persons who crossed paths with him were all surprised: “Why is the great Gush ad Azad, one of the highest dignitaries of the Empire, wearing mourning garb?” Theater is not always hypocritical; many times it is a beautiful and splendid manifestation of the truth. So, you can imagine ad Azad, walking through the rooms of the palace with a grief-stricken face, his eyes filled with sorrow and sadness, with the slaves bowing as he passed. But he was not looking at anything or anyone; before him he only saw the sublimity of the ire of that Bishop who averted his gaze from him as he was led away to death. He finally arrived at the hall of the throne, where the Emperor had called him. Ruins of a Persian palace Certainly the Emperor did not greet him with our low-level Western “Hello! What’s up?”, but rather in a solemn voice: “So, why are you casting such presages of sorrow over my empire?” These are beautiful words to come from the heights of a throne in a magnificent room with slaves waving flabella; a room from which one could see a patio with sculptures in the shape of winged bulls and lions. Then, before the gathered nobles and slaves, the dialogue unfolded. Gush ad Azad, said: “I sinned before God and before you…” The Emperor condemned him to death, and he accepted the sentence with all serenity, with a full dignity. The Emperor was trembling with hatred, but Gush ad Azad did not tremble before the Emperor; he only trembled before the sublime intransigence of the man who had repudiated him. He asked his last favor. He did not ask for his life. He asked that the heralds be allowed to go throughout the city of Susa, capital of the Empire, to proclaim that he had died because he was Catholic. The Emperor accepted and ad Azad walked away to his death. Soon after, the heralds were in the streets proclaiming: “Gush ad Azad, the powerful minister, has died. This strong column of the Empire was cut down because he persevered in the Catholic Faith and did not accept the cult of the sun that we practice.” We can surmise the great enthusiasm this news raised among the Catholics dispersed in the mob, who met later in the evening to comment about the new triumph of the grace of Our Lord. This example prepared them for fidelity and martyrdom. It was a great enthusiasm because grace had raised up an invincible hero even from one made of the weak clay of the apostates. How can we apply this to our lives? You see that in the saddest situations, in those where human weakness appears more plainly, there is always a remedy. There is always the help of grace once we ask for it. Certainly Our Lady prayed for this man. He needed that prayer because he had fallen into a complete apostasy, because he had so many bonds to the world – he enjoyed many advantages in the co-direction of one of the greatest empires on earth. He was very far from Our Lady, but he was converted by her prayer. His encounter with Bishop Simeon was obviously prepared by Divine Providence so that he might receive that averted gaze. The Bishop's reaction was inspired by grace. Then, that response was enough to regenerate a man who had abused so many graces. Suddenly that miserable apostate was transformed into a Saint of the Catholic Church, whose name we speak with respect. Persian mosaics that reflect the Oriental spirit We should have an unbreakable confidence in the mercy of Our Lady, in the omnipotence of her requests before God. We must always, always maintain the confidence that we – as well as the souls of those who disappoint, sadden and frustrate us – can ascend again to God and offer him the good fragrance of a perfect worship. Thus we should walk toward the future with joy, calm and confidence. Let us direct to Our Lady a supplication that is part of the Anima Christi, which is Ne permitas me separare a te – Do not permit me to separate myself from you. This is our conclusion: Our Lady did not permit this martyr to be separated from her. He went so far as to apostatize, but at a certain moment she called him back, and today Gush ad Azad shines in Heaven among the Saints. Let us ask him to pray for us so that when we shall arrive in Heaven we may join him in his unity with Our Lady in the splendor of his glory, and that we may – with him – love Our Lady and Our Lord for all eternity. The Saint of the Day features highlights from the lives of saints based on comments made by the late Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira. Following the example of St. John Bosco who used to make similar talks for the boys of his College, each evening it was Prof. Plinio’s custom to make a short commentary on the lives of the next day’s saint in a meeting for youth in order to encourage them in the practice of virtue and love for the Catholic Church. TIA thought that its readers could profit from these valuable commentaries. Prof. Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira\| The texts of both the biographical data and the comments come from personal notes taken by Atila S. Guimarães from 1964 to 1995. Given the fact that the source is a personal notebook, it is possible that at times the biographic notes transcribed here will not rigorously follow the original text read by Prof. Plinio. The commentaries have also been adapted and translated for TIA’s site. © 2002- Tradition in Action, Inc. All Rights Reserved	3,138	ENGLISH	1
For much of the Civil War, an army would consist of larger numbers of musketeers than of any other soldier. By 1645, a Regiment of Foote would look to recruit 2/3 of its soldiers to join the Divisions of ‘Shotte’, where they were armed with the ‘Matchlock Musket’ and trained to inflict leaden death upon their enemies… The matchlock musket was a heavy, sometimes clumsy weapon to use, and had to be reloaded each time after firing; three shots a minute was considered fast shooting. We have records showing that before leading the regiment to Basing House in July 1643, Marmaduke Rawdon issued Musket Rests to his regiment, which would help support the weapons as they were fired. Muskets would have an accurate range of about 100 yards, and the lead ball they fired was about 1 ounce (8 grams) in weight. This could do terrible damage if someone was hit. The ‘Match’ was a cord that when lit could ignite the gunpowder and fire the weapon. Musketeers fought in large groups known as ‘Divisions’ or ‘Sleeves’ of Shotte, and each rank would fire in turn as they advanced or retreated, in order to maintain a continuous fire upon the enemy. Increasingly, musketeers would also be used for decisive assaults by ordering the Shotte to fire as one in a devastating ‘Salvee’, followed up by the soldiers surging forward - in close combat, musketeers could use swords or daggers, but often they simply reversed their muskets to use them as clubs against enemy soldiers. The regiment today has one of the largest Musket Divisions within the English Civil War Society, and makes a real impact on the Battlefield and at our other Displays. We are keen to welcome additional musketeers, and we support new recruits by loaning uniforms and muskets and by providing plenty of help and assistance. All our musketeers are well trained in the safe handling of the weapons, and the Officer and Corporals are on hand to ensure that everyone is safe when we are shooting.	<urn:uuid:2f301e66-bb0a-4893-b64d-07fd7c9de579>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rawdons.wixsite.com/rawdons/musket	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00315.warc.gz	en	0.984213	449	3.4375	3	[ -0.555663526058197, 0.02171730250120163, 0.4224188029766083, -0.09429067373275757, 0.2667710483074188, -0.15936973690986633, 0.10823565721511841, -0.14872299134731293, -0.4820566177368164, -0.04733090475201607, 0.4112354815006256, -0.705169677734375, 0.06555204838514328, 0.3100905120372772...	2	For much of the Civil War, an army would consist of larger numbers of musketeers than of any other soldier. By 1645, a Regiment of Foote would look to recruit 2/3 of its soldiers to join the Divisions of ‘Shotte’, where they were armed with the ‘Matchlock Musket’ and trained to inflict leaden death upon their enemies… The matchlock musket was a heavy, sometimes clumsy weapon to use, and had to be reloaded each time after firing; three shots a minute was considered fast shooting. We have records showing that before leading the regiment to Basing House in July 1643, Marmaduke Rawdon issued Musket Rests to his regiment, which would help support the weapons as they were fired. Muskets would have an accurate range of about 100 yards, and the lead ball they fired was about 1 ounce (8 grams) in weight. This could do terrible damage if someone was hit. The ‘Match’ was a cord that when lit could ignite the gunpowder and fire the weapon. Musketeers fought in large groups known as ‘Divisions’ or ‘Sleeves’ of Shotte, and each rank would fire in turn as they advanced or retreated, in order to maintain a continuous fire upon the enemy. Increasingly, musketeers would also be used for decisive assaults by ordering the Shotte to fire as one in a devastating ‘Salvee’, followed up by the soldiers surging forward - in close combat, musketeers could use swords or daggers, but often they simply reversed their muskets to use them as clubs against enemy soldiers. The regiment today has one of the largest Musket Divisions within the English Civil War Society, and makes a real impact on the Battlefield and at our other Displays. We are keen to welcome additional musketeers, and we support new recruits by loaning uniforms and muskets and by providing plenty of help and assistance. All our musketeers are well trained in the safe handling of the weapons, and the Officer and Corporals are on hand to ensure that everyone is safe when we are shooting.	451	ENGLISH	1
Charles Dickens ?Great Expectations? was written during the 19th century, published in weekly installments in a magazine. The novel is based around Pip, the opportunities he is presented with and the difficulties he has to face. In the first chapter we are introduced to Pip, and Magwitch, an escaped convict. The theme of crime and punishment immediately draws us in. Dickens uses a number of techniques to ensure the readers continuing interest, such as pathetic fallacy, metaphor, themes, symbolism, and adjectives. When the convict appears, Dickens describes him using powerful word such as ?stung? ?glared? ?growled? ?terror? and ?savage? which immediately grabs the readers attention. Pip is described here as ?the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry? which makes the reader feel sympathy and encourages them to read on to find out what happens next. Pathetic fallacy is used in the first chapter as the windy cold gloomy marshes in which Pip first encounters the convict are perceived as a fearful, sinister place. In chapter 1 we are introduced to Pip, an orphan, and Magwitch, a convict, the two main characters and who the novel is based around. The events are described by Pip, the protagonist, whom we immediately feel sympathy for. Dickens writes ?My father's family name being Pirrip, and my Christian name Philip, my infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip? ? his innocent childish tendencies appeal to the reader and makes them want to read on. As Dickens describes the bleak marshes in which Pip encounters the convict, a sinister, gloomy picture is painted in the readers mind. This is reinforced by the convicts threatening behavior towards Pip, as he threatens to ?cut his throat? and refers to him as a ?little devil?. The reader again feels sorry for Pip as his tragic upbringing is described, how his family died and he became orphaned. When Magwitch, the convict is first introduced, the reader makes an immediate judgment that he is a terrifying, menacing, wild, unpleasant man. He ?limps, shivered, glared and growled? he was ?sudden and strong? and threatens and demands Pip do things for him. All the while Pip refers to him as ?Sir? showing his respectful and kind nature. Pip ?looked helplessly up into his eyes? and gives him a ?greater sense of helplessness and danger? reinforcing the idea that Pip is innocent and vulnerable. During the rest of the novel, the characters of Pip and Magwitch develop and change in many ways. Pip becomes a rich gentleman and becomes distant and isolated from his family, Joe Gargery in particular, and begins to feel almost ?ashamed? of his upbringing and background. He becomes almost a shadow of his vulnerable, naïve, former self. Magwitch however returns from jail in Australia a polite, gentle, warm, softer man. When Magwitch returns, in chapter 39, the readers previous opinion of him is immediately changed, as he reveals that every...	<urn:uuid:025c662e-a78a-45ff-98c0-cead66da8b7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/effectiveness-of-the-opening-chapter-to-great-objectives	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00209.warc.gz	en	0.980889	627	3.84375	4	[ 0.040332503616809845, -0.09973052144050598, 0.17050421237945557, 0.27728086709976196, 0.1681763231754303, -0.5778899192810059, 0.33243638277053833, -0.006253465544432402, 0.06716638058423996, 0.2006378173828125, -0.11584185808897018, -0.0033448790200054646, 0.31173691153526306, 0.136283427...	1	Charles Dickens ?Great Expectations? was written during the 19th century, published in weekly installments in a magazine. The novel is based around Pip, the opportunities he is presented with and the difficulties he has to face. In the first chapter we are introduced to Pip, and Magwitch, an escaped convict. The theme of crime and punishment immediately draws us in. Dickens uses a number of techniques to ensure the readers continuing interest, such as pathetic fallacy, metaphor, themes, symbolism, and adjectives. When the convict appears, Dickens describes him using powerful word such as ?stung? ?glared? ?growled? ?terror? and ?savage? which immediately grabs the readers attention. Pip is described here as ?the small bundle of shivers growing afraid of it all and beginning to cry? which makes the reader feel sympathy and encourages them to read on to find out what happens next. Pathetic fallacy is used in the first chapter as the windy cold gloomy marshes in which Pip first encounters the convict are perceived as a fearful, sinister place. In chapter 1 we are introduced to Pip, an orphan, and Magwitch, a convict, the two main characters and who the novel is based around. The events are described by Pip, the protagonist, whom we immediately feel sympathy for. Dickens writes ?My father's family name being Pirrip, and my Christian name Philip, my infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip? ? his innocent childish tendencies appeal to the reader and makes them want to read on. As Dickens describes the bleak marshes in which Pip encounters the convict, a sinister, gloomy picture is painted in the readers mind. This is reinforced by the convicts threatening behavior towards Pip, as he threatens to ?cut his throat? and refers to him as a ?little devil?. The reader again feels sorry for Pip as his tragic upbringing is described, how his family died and he became orphaned. When Magwitch, the convict is first introduced, the reader makes an immediate judgment that he is a terrifying, menacing, wild, unpleasant man. He ?limps, shivered, glared and growled? he was ?sudden and strong? and threatens and demands Pip do things for him. All the while Pip refers to him as ?Sir? showing his respectful and kind nature. Pip ?looked helplessly up into his eyes? and gives him a ?greater sense of helplessness and danger? reinforcing the idea that Pip is innocent and vulnerable. During the rest of the novel, the characters of Pip and Magwitch develop and change in many ways. Pip becomes a rich gentleman and becomes distant and isolated from his family, Joe Gargery in particular, and begins to feel almost ?ashamed? of his upbringing and background. He becomes almost a shadow of his vulnerable, naïve, former self. Magwitch however returns from jail in Australia a polite, gentle, warm, softer man. When Magwitch returns, in chapter 39, the readers previous opinion of him is immediately changed, as he reveals that every...	632	ENGLISH	1
While looking for a ray of sunlight to pierce through the dark clouds that hang over us, one is reminded of another time, immediately before and after independence, when even darker clouds, brought into being by the Partition and its accompanying horrors, were dispelled by the determined battle fought by Jawaharlal Nehru, whose 130th birth anniversary we celebrate this year. His was not a lone battle. Till his assassination in January 1948, Gandhiji himself led the battle from the front, and after he was gone, Jawaharlal was ably supported by Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Rajendra Prasad and countless others. Gandhiji himself had set the highest example of non-violent courage in his almost four-month long campaign for communal harmony in Muslim-majority Noakhali, a remote district of Bengal, from November to March 1946-47. When violence erupted in a few Hindu-majority districts of Bihar in October 1946, Nehru as head of the Interim Government accompanied by his colleagues Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Acharya Kripalani, Jayaprakash Narayan, and others went deep into the rural areas and stayed on for almost two weeks till the violence was quelled. Nehru’s commitment to fighting communalism and building a secular society were put to further severe test in the days immediately following independence. But his resolve was clear from day one. Independence came on 15th august 1947 and Nehru was sworn in as the first Prime Minister. The next day, 16th August, saw the Prime Minister proudly unfurling the Tiranga on the ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi, initiating a ritual that symbolizes Independence Day for crores of Indians today. The solemnity of the occasion did not prevent Nehru from issuing a stern warning: “The first charge of the Government will be to establish and maintain peace and tranquility in the land and to ruthlessly suppress communal strife…It is wrong to suggest that in this country there would be the rule of a particular religion or sect. All who owe allegiance to the flag will enjoy equal rights of citizenship, irrespective of caste or creed.” On the 19th, in a broadcast to the nation from All India Radio, he pointed to the secular democratic foundations of the new national state: “Our state is not a communal state but a democratic state in which every citizen has equal rights. However, his bold pronouncements were soon put to test as thousands of refugees flooded Delhi. On 4th September, violence had broken out in Delhi and continued till the 11th, during which time some 2000 people were reported killed. A military force of 5000 was brought in to patrol the streets of Delhi. HM Patel, then Cabinet Secretary, describes in his memoirs at great length the conditions in Delhi at that time. The conditions in Old Delhi were so bad that life was all but paralysed, “…for days together, shops remained unopened, offices ceased to function, health services were disrupted, and communications were disorganised.’ Muslims fled to the refugee camps for security. The Emergency Committee of the Cabinet formed the Delhi Emergency Committee with Cabinet Minister C. H. Bhabha as Chairman and H. M. Patel as Secretary, which in turn set up a Central Control Room to organise all the law and order and relief efforts. In two weeks, the situation in the city was brought under control. One and a half lakh Muslims were in camps, and ‘the sense of insecurity among Muslims took longer to disappear, though it would be correct to say that by the first week of October, a Muslim could move about the city without any real danger to his life or limb.’ Nehru was also very clear that minorities had to be given total protection and there should be no pressure on them to leave for Pakistan. He was countering a growing feeling that since Hindus and Sikhs were not welcome in Pakistan and were being pushed out, the logical corollary was that Muslims should be sent to Pakistan. Nehru also showed exemplary personal intervention during these trying times. Stories abound of his rushing to the spot, on receiving news of communal clashes, as well as personally visiting the sensitive places. One of these has been recounted by Mohammad Mujib, who was an eyewitness. Once the Prime Minister came [to Jamia Millia] at about midnight, inspected the arrangements made for protection and stayed till the early hours of morning. A public speech by Nehru in Delhi on September 29 shows how he put all he had into the battle for what he called “secular democracy”. He reminded the people that Muslims had played a large part in India’s freedom. He explained that the Hindu communal demand for Hindu Rashtra was acceptance of the two-nation theory: “The Congress always refused to subscribe to the two-nation theory and has been supported by the people in this matter. But today the people of India are doing the very thing for which they blamed the League…. All talk of Hindu raj is an aspect of narrow-mindedness. Hinduism is strong enough to stand by itself without artificial ideological crutches….” It became clear to Nehru very soon that the communal disturbances in Delhi were not just a spontaneous reaction by an angry people. At a meeting of the Cabinet Emergency Committee, attended by Mountbatten, Patel, and Sanjeevi, Nehru stated his view that “the disturbances had been organised, taking advantage of the psychological state of affairs….A number of notices and leaflets had been circulated in Delhi about a week before the disturbances broke out. This has been done by some organization.” That the organization he was referring to was the RSS, becomes clear very soon. In his fortnightly letter to the chief ministers, dated 7 December 1947, he elaborated the nature of the danger posed by the R.S.S.: “The R.S.S. is an organisation which is in the nature of a private army and which is definitely proceeding on the strictest Nazi lines.” In another letter a little later, he warned that we should not be taken in by the claims that the RSS is not a political organisation: “It is openly stated by their leaders that the R.S.S. is not a political body but there can be no doubt that their policy and programme are political, intensely communal and based on violent activities.” On January 30, 1948, barely five and a half months after independence, and before the country had recovered from the communal fires that threatened to engulf it, Nathuram Godse, a product of the RSS and a follower of V D Savarkar, pumped bullets into the frail body of Gandhiji. Nehru was very clear about the identity of the assassin: “It was one of the votaries of this demand for Hindu Rashtra who killed the greatest living Hindu.” Gandhiji’s assassination left Nehru in no doubt that the votaries of Hindu Rashtra were planning a seizure of power, no less: “it would appear that a deliberate coup d’etat was planned involving the killing of several persons and the promotion of general disorder to enable the particular group concerned (RSS) to seize power. The conspiracy appears to have been a fairly widespread one, spreading to some of the states.” (Nehru’s Letter to chief ministers, dated February 5, 1948.) It was this conviction that enabled him, with the full support of Sardar Patel, to ban the RSS and put around 25,000 of its activists behind bars. He defended the ban in his letter to the chief ministers, wondering aloud whether they should have been much firmer earlier on. The government communiqué dated February 4, 1948, issued five days after the assassination, declaring the RSS unlawful, stated: “It has been found that in several parts of the country individual members of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh have indulged in acts of violence involving arson, robbery, dacoity and murder and have collected illicit arms and ammunition. They have been found circulating leaflets exhorting people to resort to terrorist methods, to collect firearms, to create disaffection against the government and suborn the police and the military.” Sardar Patel, in a letter to Shyama Prasad Mookerjee on 18 July 1948, also clearly stated that “the activities of the RSS constituted a clear threat to the existence of Government and the state.” In fact, in the period following Gandhiji’s assassination, Jawaharlal Nehru was relentless in his condemnation of the RSS. He repeatedly warned the chief ministers that they must not let down their guard. He used the strongest possible words to characterize them, and alerted them to their duplicitous nature. Immediately after Gandhiji’s murder, he wrote in his fortnightly letter of February 5, 1948: “We must remember that the people opposed to us are thoroughly unscrupulous. They will say one thing and do another. I have had messages of condolence from some persons of note who are believed to be associated in this conspiracy.” He further warned: “It is fairly well known that attempts have been made, and these have met with some success in having cells of these conspirators in all manner of governmental places, services, etc. We shall have to purge these and purify our administration and services.” Such was the first Prime Minister’s conviction about the gravity of the danger posed by communal forces that it is difficult to locate a single fortnightly letter to the chief ministers that he wrote during the first two and a half years of independence in which he did not highlight the issue and urge continuous vigilance and action. In addition, he also wrote special letters on the subject. In November 1948, he refused the RSS chief Golwalkar’s written request for a meeting and told him that the information available with the Government on the activities of the RSS was at variance with his claims. “It would appear that declared objectives have little to do with the real ones and with the activities carried on …by people associated with the RSS…The activities, according to our information, are anti-national and often subversive and violent.” Nehru himself was never in doubt about the absolute necessity of holding firm to the secular principle. He never gave up on his basic faith in the people, and went right ahead with the first general elections late 1951 and early 1952. He was in fact unhappy they were delayed due to difficulties in preparing the electoral rolls. He converted the election campaign into a campaign against communalism. He travelled nearly 40,000 kilometers and addressed an estimated thirty-five million people or one-tenth of India’s population. The result was that the communal parties, the Hindu Mahasabha, the newly formed Jana Sangh, and the Ram Rajya Parishad won between them only 10 Lok Sabha seats in a house of 489, and polled less than six per cent of the votes polled. The tide of communalism that was threatening to submerge the nation was thus pushed back with a Herculean effort on the part of India’s national leadership. For almost a decade, communal forces remained on the back-foot. They made a poor showing in the 1957 elections as well. We can take heart from the fact that though what we have faced in recent years and are facing today in India is bad enough, it is not a patch on what our people went through in the years just before and after the Partition. If the tide could be turned then, when independent India had just been born, can it not be done now? There are lessons to be learnt, cues to be taken, the resolute spirit to be imbibed, from those early tumultuous years. Our ancestors have gifted us a rich legacy; it is for us to fashion it to our purposes.	<urn:uuid:232aba03-8743-4c02-a119-b26d77e7833a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/rss-has-good-reasons-to-hate-nehru-he-opposed-its-communal-politics	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00473.warc.gz	en	0.982344	2,484	3.3125	3	[ -0.45042285323143005, 0.49243611097335815, -0.2495916187763214, -0.050320982933044434, -0.19685855507850647, 0.4845445156097412, 0.3672719895839691, 0.07735002040863037, 0.23015940189361572, 0.014014774933457375, 0.3317893147468567, 0.12805640697479248, 0.1313057541847229, 0.65248799324035...	3	While looking for a ray of sunlight to pierce through the dark clouds that hang over us, one is reminded of another time, immediately before and after independence, when even darker clouds, brought into being by the Partition and its accompanying horrors, were dispelled by the determined battle fought by Jawaharlal Nehru, whose 130th birth anniversary we celebrate this year. His was not a lone battle. Till his assassination in January 1948, Gandhiji himself led the battle from the front, and after he was gone, Jawaharlal was ably supported by Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Rajendra Prasad and countless others. Gandhiji himself had set the highest example of non-violent courage in his almost four-month long campaign for communal harmony in Muslim-majority Noakhali, a remote district of Bengal, from November to March 1946-47. When violence erupted in a few Hindu-majority districts of Bihar in October 1946, Nehru as head of the Interim Government accompanied by his colleagues Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Acharya Kripalani, Jayaprakash Narayan, and others went deep into the rural areas and stayed on for almost two weeks till the violence was quelled. Nehru’s commitment to fighting communalism and building a secular society were put to further severe test in the days immediately following independence. But his resolve was clear from day one. Independence came on 15th august 1947 and Nehru was sworn in as the first Prime Minister. The next day, 16th August, saw the Prime Minister proudly unfurling the Tiranga on the ramparts of the Red Fort in Delhi, initiating a ritual that symbolizes Independence Day for crores of Indians today. The solemnity of the occasion did not prevent Nehru from issuing a stern warning: “The first charge of the Government will be to establish and maintain peace and tranquility in the land and to ruthlessly suppress communal strife…It is wrong to suggest that in this country there would be the rule of a particular religion or sect. All who owe allegiance to the flag will enjoy equal rights of citizenship, irrespective of caste or creed.” On the 19th, in a broadcast to the nation from All India Radio, he pointed to the secular democratic foundations of the new national state: “Our state is not a communal state but a democratic state in which every citizen has equal rights. However, his bold pronouncements were soon put to test as thousands of refugees flooded Delhi. On 4th September, violence had broken out in Delhi and continued till the 11th, during which time some 2000 people were reported killed. A military force of 5000 was brought in to patrol the streets of Delhi. HM Patel, then Cabinet Secretary, describes in his memoirs at great length the conditions in Delhi at that time. The conditions in Old Delhi were so bad that life was all but paralysed, “…for days together, shops remained unopened, offices ceased to function, health services were disrupted, and communications were disorganised.’ Muslims fled to the refugee camps for security. The Emergency Committee of the Cabinet formed the Delhi Emergency Committee with Cabinet Minister C. H. Bhabha as Chairman and H. M. Patel as Secretary, which in turn set up a Central Control Room to organise all the law and order and relief efforts. In two weeks, the situation in the city was brought under control. One and a half lakh Muslims were in camps, and ‘the sense of insecurity among Muslims took longer to disappear, though it would be correct to say that by the first week of October, a Muslim could move about the city without any real danger to his life or limb.’ Nehru was also very clear that minorities had to be given total protection and there should be no pressure on them to leave for Pakistan. He was countering a growing feeling that since Hindus and Sikhs were not welcome in Pakistan and were being pushed out, the logical corollary was that Muslims should be sent to Pakistan. Nehru also showed exemplary personal intervention during these trying times. Stories abound of his rushing to the spot, on receiving news of communal clashes, as well as personally visiting the sensitive places. One of these has been recounted by Mohammad Mujib, who was an eyewitness. Once the Prime Minister came [to Jamia Millia] at about midnight, inspected the arrangements made for protection and stayed till the early hours of morning. A public speech by Nehru in Delhi on September 29 shows how he put all he had into the battle for what he called “secular democracy”. He reminded the people that Muslims had played a large part in India’s freedom. He explained that the Hindu communal demand for Hindu Rashtra was acceptance of the two-nation theory: “The Congress always refused to subscribe to the two-nation theory and has been supported by the people in this matter. But today the people of India are doing the very thing for which they blamed the League…. All talk of Hindu raj is an aspect of narrow-mindedness. Hinduism is strong enough to stand by itself without artificial ideological crutches….” It became clear to Nehru very soon that the communal disturbances in Delhi were not just a spontaneous reaction by an angry people. At a meeting of the Cabinet Emergency Committee, attended by Mountbatten, Patel, and Sanjeevi, Nehru stated his view that “the disturbances had been organised, taking advantage of the psychological state of affairs….A number of notices and leaflets had been circulated in Delhi about a week before the disturbances broke out. This has been done by some organization.” That the organization he was referring to was the RSS, becomes clear very soon. In his fortnightly letter to the chief ministers, dated 7 December 1947, he elaborated the nature of the danger posed by the R.S.S.: “The R.S.S. is an organisation which is in the nature of a private army and which is definitely proceeding on the strictest Nazi lines.” In another letter a little later, he warned that we should not be taken in by the claims that the RSS is not a political organisation: “It is openly stated by their leaders that the R.S.S. is not a political body but there can be no doubt that their policy and programme are political, intensely communal and based on violent activities.” On January 30, 1948, barely five and a half months after independence, and before the country had recovered from the communal fires that threatened to engulf it, Nathuram Godse, a product of the RSS and a follower of V D Savarkar, pumped bullets into the frail body of Gandhiji. Nehru was very clear about the identity of the assassin: “It was one of the votaries of this demand for Hindu Rashtra who killed the greatest living Hindu.” Gandhiji’s assassination left Nehru in no doubt that the votaries of Hindu Rashtra were planning a seizure of power, no less: “it would appear that a deliberate coup d’etat was planned involving the killing of several persons and the promotion of general disorder to enable the particular group concerned (RSS) to seize power. The conspiracy appears to have been a fairly widespread one, spreading to some of the states.” (Nehru’s Letter to chief ministers, dated February 5, 1948.) It was this conviction that enabled him, with the full support of Sardar Patel, to ban the RSS and put around 25,000 of its activists behind bars. He defended the ban in his letter to the chief ministers, wondering aloud whether they should have been much firmer earlier on. The government communiqué dated February 4, 1948, issued five days after the assassination, declaring the RSS unlawful, stated: “It has been found that in several parts of the country individual members of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh have indulged in acts of violence involving arson, robbery, dacoity and murder and have collected illicit arms and ammunition. They have been found circulating leaflets exhorting people to resort to terrorist methods, to collect firearms, to create disaffection against the government and suborn the police and the military.” Sardar Patel, in a letter to Shyama Prasad Mookerjee on 18 July 1948, also clearly stated that “the activities of the RSS constituted a clear threat to the existence of Government and the state.” In fact, in the period following Gandhiji’s assassination, Jawaharlal Nehru was relentless in his condemnation of the RSS. He repeatedly warned the chief ministers that they must not let down their guard. He used the strongest possible words to characterize them, and alerted them to their duplicitous nature. Immediately after Gandhiji’s murder, he wrote in his fortnightly letter of February 5, 1948: “We must remember that the people opposed to us are thoroughly unscrupulous. They will say one thing and do another. I have had messages of condolence from some persons of note who are believed to be associated in this conspiracy.” He further warned: “It is fairly well known that attempts have been made, and these have met with some success in having cells of these conspirators in all manner of governmental places, services, etc. We shall have to purge these and purify our administration and services.” Such was the first Prime Minister’s conviction about the gravity of the danger posed by communal forces that it is difficult to locate a single fortnightly letter to the chief ministers that he wrote during the first two and a half years of independence in which he did not highlight the issue and urge continuous vigilance and action. In addition, he also wrote special letters on the subject. In November 1948, he refused the RSS chief Golwalkar’s written request for a meeting and told him that the information available with the Government on the activities of the RSS was at variance with his claims. “It would appear that declared objectives have little to do with the real ones and with the activities carried on …by people associated with the RSS…The activities, according to our information, are anti-national and often subversive and violent.” Nehru himself was never in doubt about the absolute necessity of holding firm to the secular principle. He never gave up on his basic faith in the people, and went right ahead with the first general elections late 1951 and early 1952. He was in fact unhappy they were delayed due to difficulties in preparing the electoral rolls. He converted the election campaign into a campaign against communalism. He travelled nearly 40,000 kilometers and addressed an estimated thirty-five million people or one-tenth of India’s population. The result was that the communal parties, the Hindu Mahasabha, the newly formed Jana Sangh, and the Ram Rajya Parishad won between them only 10 Lok Sabha seats in a house of 489, and polled less than six per cent of the votes polled. The tide of communalism that was threatening to submerge the nation was thus pushed back with a Herculean effort on the part of India’s national leadership. For almost a decade, communal forces remained on the back-foot. They made a poor showing in the 1957 elections as well. We can take heart from the fact that though what we have faced in recent years and are facing today in India is bad enough, it is not a patch on what our people went through in the years just before and after the Partition. If the tide could be turned then, when independent India had just been born, can it not be done now? There are lessons to be learnt, cues to be taken, the resolute spirit to be imbibed, from those early tumultuous years. Our ancestors have gifted us a rich legacy; it is for us to fashion it to our purposes.	2,475	ENGLISH	1
The government knew that bombs would be dropped on Britain so at the beginning of the war they decided to move children to safety in the countryside. This was called being ‘evacuated’. Young children (under five) were allowed to take their mothers with them but older ones had to go on their own. Every day children would arrive at school with their suitcases packed, in case when they got to school they were told they were going to be evacuated that day, as it was a secret until then. Children were taken to the Paragon station and boarded a train to their new home. When children got to their destination they were met at the train station by all the people in the village who had rooms and beds to take people in. The adults would choose the children they liked the look of best, and brothers and sisters weren't always kept together, with many being split up. Once in the countryside you had to start a new school and make new friends which isn’t always easy. Lots of children loved their new homes and being in the countryside, some had never left Hull. There were lots of outdoor activities to do in the countryside as well. Some children had a hard time fitting into their new families, homes and schools and were really homesick. It was especially hard because they knew their families were in danger of being bombed in Hull.	<urn:uuid:3cfa7422-0616-4eec-b771-caaa09127bb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mylearning.org/stories/the-hull-blitz/375	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00295.warc.gz	en	0.99754	278	3.375	3	[ 0.13153736293315887, -0.06153496727347374, 0.31325140595436096, -0.2593561112880707, 0.6431776285171509, 0.18138474225997925, 0.08663075417280197, -0.0023501492105424404, -0.2663841247558594, 0.05893222242593765, 0.020022571086883545, -0.16814716160297394, 0.03310098871588707, 0.4524641335...	2	The government knew that bombs would be dropped on Britain so at the beginning of the war they decided to move children to safety in the countryside. This was called being ‘evacuated’. Young children (under five) were allowed to take their mothers with them but older ones had to go on their own. Every day children would arrive at school with their suitcases packed, in case when they got to school they were told they were going to be evacuated that day, as it was a secret until then. Children were taken to the Paragon station and boarded a train to their new home. When children got to their destination they were met at the train station by all the people in the village who had rooms and beds to take people in. The adults would choose the children they liked the look of best, and brothers and sisters weren't always kept together, with many being split up. Once in the countryside you had to start a new school and make new friends which isn’t always easy. Lots of children loved their new homes and being in the countryside, some had never left Hull. There were lots of outdoor activities to do in the countryside as well. Some children had a hard time fitting into their new families, homes and schools and were really homesick. It was especially hard because they knew their families were in danger of being bombed in Hull.	271	ENGLISH	1
Throughout this course there was a focus on culture versus race. Many people used to believe and some still do that race and culture are the same. They think that because of the way you are when you are born that you will be more likely to eat insects or be less smart. In, Recognizing Cultural Diversity, from our week two readings, they started by saying that race and culture are not the same because there are a lot more cultures in this world than there are races. They also continued on to say, “Cultural inheritances evolve much faster than genetic inheritances” (90). If they were the same they would happen at the same time. This is similar to the week three material we discussed regarding rituals. There are many different types of rituals that can happen throughout someone’s life. These rituals are what help shape someone’s culture. These rituals don’t always happen to people in the same race at the same time. Once again disproving that culture and race are as directly related as people thought. Finally, in our week four discussion we talked about kinship and its relationship with our culture. In, Ties that Connect, it says, “Kinship plays a fundamental role in weaving the tapestry of culture” (113). Once again we see this relationship between race and culture. Someone’s race is determined based off of his or her parents. So, if their parents were raised with a certain culture, they are most likely going to carry this down to the next generation. This creates the link that many people see as race and culture being completely intertwined even though they are two completely separate things. These readings have meaning making referenced throughout because they are consistently trying to bring meaning into culture and relate it to the way the world works. They are also creating meanings that disprove why culture and race would be the same thing.	<urn:uuid:2ebf9f38-231f-4845-b84d-259316c07dd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp201-us16/2016/08/18/k-doyen-week-7-final-relfections/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00526.warc.gz	en	0.987906	383	3.9375	4	[ 0.19053809344768524, 0.4829239845275879, -0.02435060776770115, -0.1384027749300003, -0.212274432182312, 0.35165104269981384, 0.1343858242034912, 0.13267332315444946, 0.20067384839057922, -0.23252183198928833, 0.3125140368938446, -0.30418333411216736, 0.06684936583042145, 0.2403219342231750...	2	Throughout this course there was a focus on culture versus race. Many people used to believe and some still do that race and culture are the same. They think that because of the way you are when you are born that you will be more likely to eat insects or be less smart. In, Recognizing Cultural Diversity, from our week two readings, they started by saying that race and culture are not the same because there are a lot more cultures in this world than there are races. They also continued on to say, “Cultural inheritances evolve much faster than genetic inheritances” (90). If they were the same they would happen at the same time. This is similar to the week three material we discussed regarding rituals. There are many different types of rituals that can happen throughout someone’s life. These rituals are what help shape someone’s culture. These rituals don’t always happen to people in the same race at the same time. Once again disproving that culture and race are as directly related as people thought. Finally, in our week four discussion we talked about kinship and its relationship with our culture. In, Ties that Connect, it says, “Kinship plays a fundamental role in weaving the tapestry of culture” (113). Once again we see this relationship between race and culture. Someone’s race is determined based off of his or her parents. So, if their parents were raised with a certain culture, they are most likely going to carry this down to the next generation. This creates the link that many people see as race and culture being completely intertwined even though they are two completely separate things. These readings have meaning making referenced throughout because they are consistently trying to bring meaning into culture and relate it to the way the world works. They are also creating meanings that disprove why culture and race would be the same thing.	372	ENGLISH	1
When future generations come to analyze and survey twentieth-century philosophy as a whole, Bertrand Russell's logic and theory of knowledge is assured a place of prime importance. Yet until this book was first published in 1969 no comprehensive treatment of his epistemology had appeared. Commentators on twentieth-century philosophy at the time assumed that Russell's important contributions to the theory of knowledge were made before 1921. This book challenges that assumption and draws attention to features of Russell's later work which were overlooked. The analysis starts with Russell's earliest views and moves from book to book and article to article through his enormous span of writing on the problems and theory of knowledge. The changes in ideas as he developed the theory are traced, and the study culminates in a statement of his latest views. His work is seen in a continuity in which the changes were part of the development of his mature thought, and the total evaluation and interpretation clarify many of the common misunderstandings of his philosophy. This is naturally of interest to all philosophers, and for students this is the answer to inevitable questions on the nature of Russell's ideas and their evolution.	<urn:uuid:c526cab2-9789-4f6e-8c16-1f74745892a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shop.relod.ru/catalog-products/bertrand_russell_s_theory_of_knowledge_9781138008175/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00003.warc.gz	en	0.981876	224	3.484375	3	[ -0.26873770356178284, 0.5240071415901184, -0.06374402344226837, -0.4227699339389801, -0.2590794861316681, 0.5600855946540833, 0.04805527999997139, 0.30401912331581116, 0.18135058879852295, 0.17647838592529297, 0.18632635474205017, -0.22354882955551147, 0.10765689611434937, 0.37459686398506...	2	When future generations come to analyze and survey twentieth-century philosophy as a whole, Bertrand Russell's logic and theory of knowledge is assured a place of prime importance. Yet until this book was first published in 1969 no comprehensive treatment of his epistemology had appeared. Commentators on twentieth-century philosophy at the time assumed that Russell's important contributions to the theory of knowledge were made before 1921. This book challenges that assumption and draws attention to features of Russell's later work which were overlooked. The analysis starts with Russell's earliest views and moves from book to book and article to article through his enormous span of writing on the problems and theory of knowledge. The changes in ideas as he developed the theory are traced, and the study culminates in a statement of his latest views. His work is seen in a continuity in which the changes were part of the development of his mature thought, and the total evaluation and interpretation clarify many of the common misunderstandings of his philosophy. This is naturally of interest to all philosophers, and for students this is the answer to inevitable questions on the nature of Russell's ideas and their evolution.	230	ENGLISH	1
William Herschel and his work/Chapter 5 THE DISCOVERY OF URANUS The third paper sent by Herschel to the Royal Society was in the form of a letter to Dr. Watson from Mr. William Herschel of Bath, dated October 18, 1780. It was a record of observations made in the three years from 1777 to 1779, with the view of determining whether our day is of the same length year after year. A point so difficult could be settled, he thought, only by observing the length of the day in other planets. This had been done, or attempted, for Venus and Jupiter, by watching the time it took for a spot on the face of the planet to return to the same position. But in Venus, on account of her exceeding brilliance, it had been done so imperfectly that her day was put down roughly as of 23 hours' length. For Jupiter the time of rotation on his axis was set down more precisely at 9 hours 56 minutes, a result arrived at by keeping careful watch on spots that may not be fixed points on his disc, but movable on what we may call trade-wind belts of clouds in his equator. These spots "change so often that it is not easy, if at all possible, to ascertain the identity of the same appearance for any considerable length of time." Sometimes a bright, at other times a dark spot, or belt, was observed, but the time of its revolution round the planet varied so much that no reliance could be placed on the result as a means of ascertaining whether our day remains the same from age to age. Herschel considered the planet Mars a more favourable field for experiment than Jupiter. On Mars he saw spots of a different nature: "Their constant and determined shape, as well as remarkable colour, show them to be permanent and fastened to the body of the planet. These will give the revolution of his equator to a great certainty, and by a great number of revolutions, to a very great exactness also." A circumstance, with which Herschel was not acquainted, materially helped him in his observations on Mars. The atmosphere on that planet is not nearly so dense as the earth's, and similar trade-wind belts to those on Jupiter do not seem to exist. By these means he concluded that the length of a day on Mars is a little longer than our day, or 24 hrs. 39 min. 5 sec. The value of an accurate measure of the length of day in other planets he conceived to be this: "Future astronomers may be enabled to make some estimate of the general equability of the rotatory motions of the planets. For if in length of time they should perceive some small retardation in the diurnal motion of a planet, occasioned by some resistance of a very subtle medium in which the heavenly bodies perhaps move, or, on the other hand, if there should be found an acceleration from some cause or other, they might then ascribe the alteration either to the diurnal motion of the earth, or to the gyration of the other planet, according as circumstances, or observed phenomena, should make one or the other of these opinions most probable." This man could think, could reason and observe: he had also unusual powers of imagination: but he was only beginning his travels through the infinitudes of space and time. Three papers for the Royal Society in the course of ten months! The musician of Bath puts himself at once on a level with the first men of science in the kingdom. He is modest, but he has in him the confidence of true genius. In his retirement he had been collecting facts from the heavens for six or seven years. A chance of speaking out what he saw and had gathered together was presented to him. He seized it with all eagerness, and was making his voice heard. In these papers he has been speaking to the Royal Society, of which he was not even a member. When he speaks next, about three months after, it is not as the musician of Bath, but as a member of the Royal Society; and he speaks to the whole world and to all time. This paper, which was read on April 26, 1781, and,is headed "Account of a Comet," was really the beginning of modern astronomy. It fills only ten pages of the Transactions. He had been engaged for some time in an attempt, not altogether novel, but certainly demanding great labour, to find out the distance of the fixed stars. His thoughts and plans were high, for though more than a century has passed since then, the distances of not more than twenty or thirty out of many millions can be said to be known, or perhaps safely guessed. While thus engaged, rummaging among the stars, "on Tuesday, 13th March, between ten and eleven in the evening, he perceived a star, in the neighbourhood of H Geminorum, that appeared visibly larger than the rest. Being struck with its uncommon magnitude, he compared it to H Geminorum and the small star in the quartile between Auriga and Gemini, and finding it so much larger than either of them, suspected it to be a comet. . . . The sequel has shown that my surmises were well founded, this proving to be the comet we have lately observed." By the method he followed he was "enabled to distinguish the quantity and direction of the motion of this comet in a single day, to a much greater degree of exactness than could have been done in so short a time by a sector or transit instrument; nay, even an hour or two were intervals long enough to show that it was a moving body, and, consequently, had its size not pointed it out as a comet, the change of place, though so trifling as 21 seconds per hour, would have been sufficient to occasion the discovery." Satisfied that he had done all he could do, Herschel concluded his paper by saying, "I failed not to give immediate notice of this moving star, and was happy to surrender it to the care of the Astronomer-Royal and others, as soon as I found they had begun their observations upon it" The moving star was not a comet. It was a wanderer, who had been seen before and classified as a fixed star. The planet was what is now called Uranus. The announcement of the discovery sent a flutter of excitement through all the observatories of Europe, which went on increasing when it was found that they could not agree on what or who the stranger was. Almost from its first appearance English astronomers believed it to be a planet that had long been wanted to account for difficulties in their art. The French astronomers held to their faith in a comet moving round the sun in an orbit nearly circular. Herschel, praised everywhere as an observer "of great ardour and ingenuity," stood aside from the friendly strife. All observers were in debt to Bode, who found that a star, marked No. 964 in Mayer's catalogue, had been observed by him in 1756, had then been lost sight of, and was probably the stranger. Abbé Boscovich is said to have been the first to prove that the orbit was an ellipse; but to Lexell, Professor of Astronomy at St. Petersburg, is assigned the honour of showing that the newly found body was not a comet, but a planet, distant from the sun about nineteen times as far as the earth. All with a name for science, from Laplace downward, took part in the friendly strife. It has been said that this discovery was an accident; it has been also said that, if Herschel had not made it at the time he did, some other observer would before long have had the luck to fall in with the stranger. These criticisms are not creditable to those by whom they were made. Call it accident or chance, the fact remains that this novice, looking out for what he could find in the heavens, and with instruments improved by himself, discovered an unknown planet, and extended the boundaries of the solar system to twice the distance that had been received for thousands of years. Such accidents bring fame, and are only called luck by the envious. One of the last-found planets of our solar system was discovered about a year ago, also by accident, but to the great honour of the discoverer. He was looking for something else; he found what he was looking for, and a new planet besides. What he was looking for was one of the so-called nuisances of the heavens, an asteroid, one of about 450, named 433d. To search for it as Herschel had to do, even though its whereabouts was known, called for labour and time. The astronomer, who was on the lookout for it, lessened both by exposing a photographic plate to the starry sky. He was spreading a net to catch planets and comets. A fixed star does not change its place during the exposure of the plate, or, rather, the plate moves as the star moves: a moving body, be it planet or comet, does change its place. A point will thus representa fixed star; a line, however short, and however faint the trace, represents a moving body. When Herr Witt examined the exposed plate, he saw at once the trace left by the asteroid he was in search of; but another, a fainter and a longer trace of a moving body, was also seen on the plate. It was the trace of a planet hitherto unknown. An examination of the stranger resulted in the discovery that he was a ball twenty miles in diameter, and, excepting our moon, the nearest of the planets to us, so near that he may be made to tell us the exact distance we are from the sun. His discoverer called him Eros, Love or Cupid, evidently from his childish size. Herschel had no such short-cuts to discovery in his day. An immense impulse was given to the study of the stars by Herschel's discovery. It was not merely what he achieved by being on the spot and on the lookout. It was also by the lesson he taught astronomers to do as he did. A band of twenty-four observers, suspecting, and with good reason, that a well-kept watch would reveal unknown wonders in the depths of space, undertook to search for other planets. Had photographic plates or charts then been part of the equipment of an observatory, the work would have been easy, and the reward certain. But plates and star-charts were not known; and the twenty-four workers laboured and toiled in vain. An outsider carried off first honours on the first day of the century—Piazzi of Palermo, who had visited Slough, had talked with Herschel and his sister, and perhaps drawn a breath of inspiration from them and their surroundings. The beaten twenty-four astronomers did not retire from the field. Two years later, Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, discovered another asteroid, Pallas; and two years later still, Harding, in the same neighbourhood, discovered a third, Juno. Olbers, wisely using imagination in the pursuit of science, came to the conclusion that these small bodies were pieces of a planet which had burst or exploded, and that other pieces would be found floating about in space. He acted on the idea, and rediscovered Piazzi's Ceres, which had been lost again, as well as a fourth asteroid, Vesta. Then the hunt for more pieces of the disrupted planet ceased, till, about forty years later, it again received a fresh impetus from Hencke's discovery of Astræa, and was continued by Mr. Hind at the Regent Park Observatory in London, and others, with such success that floating pieces have been netted by hundreds, grumbled at as nuisances, and assigned the honour of having been thrown off direct by the sun himself, not blown into space by a disrupted planet. One of these pigmy planets was named Lucretia, after Herschel's sister. Such were some of the fruits of William Herschel's earliest studies among the stars. The nature of the wandering stranger discovered on March 13, 1781, was not fully known for some months. Herschel had surrendered the care of his new world to the astronomers of Europe, and they could not make up their minds about it, till Lexell of St. Petersburg led the way by showing that it was an outlying primary planet. A whole year elapsed, and Herschel had resumed his observations on this "singular star" before he thought of giving it a name. Events had happened during the interval which affected his view of the name it should bear: he had become Royal Astronomer to George iii., had received from him a yearly pension, was pursuing a profitable trade as a maker of telescopes under the King's patronage, and was housed under the shelter of Windsor Castle. It should cause no surprise, therefore, that, evidently after long consideration, he addressed the following letter to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society:— "To Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., P.R.S. "Sir,—By the observations of the most eminent astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a primary planet of our solar system. A body so nearly related to us by its similar condition and situation, in the unbounded expanse of the starry heavens, must often be the subject of the conversation, not only of astronomers, but of every lover of science in general. This consideration then makes it necessary to give it a name, whereby it may be distinguished from the rest of the planets and fixed stars. "In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were given to the planets as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical æra, it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method, and call on Juno, Pallas, Apollo, or Minerva for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration in any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found planet was discovered? it would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the Reign of King George the Third.' As a philosopher then, the name of Georgium Sidus presents itself to me, as an appellation which will conveniently convey the information of the time and country where and when it was brought to view. But as a subject of the best of Kings, who is the liberal protector of every art and science;—as a native of the country from whence this Illustrious Family was called to the British throne;—as a member of that Society, which flourishes by the distinguished liberality of its Royal Patron;—and, last of all, as a person now more immediately under the protection of this excellent Monarch, and owing everything to His unlimited bounty;—I cannot but wish to take this opportunity of expressing my sense of gratitude, by giving the name Georgium Sidus, —jam nunc assuesce vocari' (Virg. Georg.), "By addressing this letter to you, Sir, as President of the Royal Society, I take the most effectual method of communicating that name to the Literati of Europe which I hope they will receive with pleasure. I have the honour to be, with the greatest respect, etc., When Herschel discovered the planet Uranus he had received no favour and no bounty from King or people. Nor did the King extend his patronage to him till fifteen months had elapsed. Galileo was in receipt of a handsome allowance from the Grand Duke of Tuscany, when he discovered the satellites of Jupiter, and called them the Medicean Stars. It was not only pardonable to do this; it was most natural. But science refused to endorse the flattery: and scientific men, especially on the Continent, were equally unwilling to accept the name proposed by Herschel for the newly discovered planet. For many years it continued to be called the Georgian Star, or the Georgium Sidus, in this country, though not without strong protests. While scientific men in Britain allowed that "George the Third has many titles to be remembered by the friends of science, to which few of his contemporaries have any pretensions," they maintained, "We shall therefore do well to anticipate the decision of posterity, by at once adopting a term that must ultimately prevail." No one thinks of perpetuating the name Georgian now. Uranus has displaced it, and justly. The judgment of posterity has gone against the name proposed by the discoverer and that of Herschel, generously proposed by Lalande. Heathenism and antiquity have carried the day. Everyone must decide for himself whether this was right, or whether the same rule should hold among the stars as has been allowed to hold on earth, where an adventurer gives his name to a New World, and the real discoverer has to rest content with naming a province of it, perhaps a province of little worth. In writing this letter to the President of the Royal Society, William Herschel could plead more grounds for justification than we might be disposed, at first sight, to allow. That he was recognised by the King as a discoverer and a leader of thought was a great honour, recommending him at once to the nation and to the whole world. That he was paid a salary out of the King's or the nation's purse, and was placed by the King near the palace and brought into close relations with the Royal Family is also manifest. We are bound to give due weight to these considerations in the mind of an upright and honourable man, who deeply respected his sovereign, and knew best the amount of his own indebtedness. But history tells more than one story, that goes far to justify Herschel's name for the newly discovered star. It was not an uncommon thing to exalt an earthly prince to a throne in earthly skies. Probably we shall all admit that this was a mistake, perhaps a degradation of true science, which knows no distinction between king and beggar, and whose boundaries have been extended, to quote the words of Galileo, a hundred thousand fold by those whom popes and princes despised. But the fact is beyond dispute. The hair of Berenice, the Queen of Egypt and the murderess of the lover by whom she was slighted, was carried off from the temple of Venus, to whom it was vowed, and placed by Conon as a constellation among the stars. Sobieski, the valiant deliverer of Eastern Europe from the Turkish power, got a similar honour done him by Hevelius in the then invented constellation called Sobieski's Shield. Galileo felt himself under such obligations to the ducal house of Tuscany that he named the four moons of Jupiter, which he discovered, the Medicean Stars, a name they long continued to bear. The honour of a place in the heavens was great. It was also much sought after, so much so that Galileo was told "he would do a thing just and proper in itself, and at the same time render himself rich and powerful for ever," if he "named the next star which he should discover after the name of the great star of France, as well as the most brilliant of all the world," Henry of Navarre. Fortunately, in this respect at least, he had not the chance, otherwise we might have had the starry heavens peopled with the princely nonentities of earth. Royer, in 1679, did a similar honour to Louis XIV., by forming a constellation,called The Sceptre, for that monarch's glory; Messier, after the astronomer of that name, was another recently invented constellation on which Boscovich made the lines— "Sidera, non Messes, Messerius iste tuetur; Certe erat ille suo dignus inesse polo." But no one would have expected a man of science so famous as Edmund Halley, to invent a constellation in honour of Charles II., The Oak, in memory of his escape after Worcester, or that Flamsteed would have placed so rotten a thing as the "Heart of Charles II." among the stars. While we are satisfied that there is no ground for finding fault with Herschel's name for the new planet he discovered, we are more satisfied that, by the mouth of Bode, the jury, to whom he required to appeal, disallowed the flattery, and called the planet Uranus, not even Herschel, as Lalande proposed. The next planet that was discovered, the first of the asteroids, was named by its discoverer Ceres Ferdinandea after a contemptible King of Naples, but Ceres has long since swallowed Ferdinandea up. Even at the time an amused cynicism, speaking in the Letters of Horace Walpole, was saying, "Must not that host of worlds be christened? Mr. Herschel himself has stood godfather for His Majesty to the new Sidus. His Majesty has a numerous issue; but they and all the princes and princesses in Europe cannot supply appellations enough for twenty millions of new-born stars." In the year 1782 Herschel not only continued to prosecute the studies he had begun, but ventured into new and almost untrodden fields of research. Two or three months were cut out of the working time of that year by a summons to Windsor to see the King and hear what he might do for him. But his activity and enjoyment in work made up for lost time. In 1780 he contributed two papers, or twenty-five large pages, to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society; in 1781 he contributed two papers, or thirty-five pages; and in 1782, notwithstanding the loss of two months, four papers, or nearly one hundred pages—a good year's scientific work for any man, more especially for one who was giving thirty or even thirty-eight music lessons to his pupils per week; groaning and fretting under the incapacity of not a few of them—a man who had to be in his place conducting a band or a concert, and supervising a church's music, or who, instead of seeking rest in sleep, when the day's weary work was done, would often spend the night in observing the stars. His sister, who was his invariable companion in these night watches, had ample reason to say of him, "He did in one season more than anyone else could have done, and would have resumed the hunt [for Saturn's satellites] the next fifteen years, if nothing had interfered." The new path on which he entered, and which led him into other and most attractive fields of inquiry, was the distance of what are called the fixed stars from the solar system. He knew that at the distance of the nearest of them, twice the sun's distance from the earth, immense though it seems, appears no bigger than a needle point, and cannot be used as a base line for measurement, or, indeed, as a line at all. He gave up the thought of attempting to solve the problem from that, the most natural and the easiest side. It was good for neighbours so near us as Mars and Venus. It was useless for Sirius or Arcturus. Following, perhaps, the example of Galileo, he believed that observations on stars so close together that neither the naked eye nor ordinary telescopes could separate them, and make two out of one, would lead to a discovery of their distance. He did not succeed in his purpose, but he was "introduced to a new series of observations and discoveries." He resolved to examine every star in the heavens with the utmost attention and a very high power, that he might collect such materials for this research as would enable him to fix his observations upon those that would best answer his end. The subject promises so rich a harvest that he cannot help inviting every lover of astronomy to join him in observations that must inevitably lead to new discoveries. He took some pains to find out what double stars had been recorded by astronomers; but "Nature, that great volume, appeared to him to contain the best catalogue upon this occasion." The results of this search of the heavens appeared a month later in a Catalogue of Double Stars. They were "not only double stars, but also treble, double-double, quadruple, double-treble, and multiple." And he noticed, in a strangely prophetic vein of inspired imagination, not shrined in the temple of fact for more than twenty years after, "It is much too soon to form any theories of small stars revolving round large ones." Of 269 of the suns contained in this catalogue only 42 had been previously observed. While pursuing researches so laborious and so delightful, he was driven to devise ingenious improvements on the micrometer, as the contrivance was called that is used for measuring small spaces. But Herschel's thoughts were turned into other channels in the summer of 1782. He was raising questions we are only getting answers to now. While Herschel was thus rapidly rising into fame, he was not forgetful of the sister who generously sacrificed her own wishes and prospects as a singer to advance his as an astronomer. During the time she was free from her numerous engagements as the thrifty housekeeper, the careful secretary and time-keeper, the reviser and reducer of observations, she amused herself by sweeping the heavens for comets with a five-feet reflector, of which her brother had made her a present. She was so successful that her fame soon sounded over Europe. "Miss Herschel," one writer reports, "sister of the celebrated astronomer, has observed a comet, and its orbit has been calculated. This is the seventy-third comet of which we know the period." This celestial visitor was talked of in Windsor Castle as the Lady's Comet. Unfortunately, the name was not retained, as it ought to have been, or at least given to a later discovery by Miss Herschel. Between 1786 and 1797 she discovered eight comets altogether, but of only five was she the first discoverer. The seventh, seen by her on November 7, 1795, was specially worthy of this name, but is now known as Encke's Comet. Her value as an assistant to her brother, besides her own personal merit as a woman of science, got for her a pension of £50 from the Civil List, granted to the King by Parliament. It was sufficient for the modest wants of a woman who not only handled a telescope with the dexterity of a practised observer, but, when sixty years of age, spent some of the last days of her stay at Slough" in painting and papering the rooms she was to occupy in a small house of her brother's, attached to the Crown Inn, to which she removed." Year after year, from 1780 to 1812, the active mind and the prolific pen of William Herschel enriched the Proceedings of the Royal Society with one or more papers, which astonished the world of science and attracted the attention of mankind. The years 1813, 1816 were blanks, but 1814, 1815, 1817, and 1818 showed no feebling of hand or eye, although for years his strength had been failing: under the pressure of burdens laid on him as King's Astronomer—unnecessary burdens. Without including the diagrams, often in themselves a heavy labour, these papers are spread over two thousand quarto pages, an extraordinary record of hard, honest, earnest work. His first two papers were said to be "communicated by Dr. Watson, Jr., of Bath, F.R.S., and written by Mr. William Herschel of Bath." The same designation of the astronomer appears again in the Proceedings for 1781; but in the end of the year it is replaced by Mr. Herschel, F.R.S. In 1783-84-85 we find, William Herschel, Esq., F.R.S. But from 1786, the year in which he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh, to 1815, the style is, William Herschel, LL.D., F.R.S. In 1817, 1818, it becomes Sir William Herschel, Knt Guelp., LL.D., F.R.S. The musician of Bath had made good his right to rank with the noblest and the most learned of men. - Time of rotation determined since Herschel's days, 24 hrs. 37 min. 22·7 secs. - Robison, Edin., Phil. Trans. i. 305. - Nineteenth Century, April 1899, p. 612. - Herschel might have known better than write this: see M. de Lalande's Astronomy, secs. 639, 640. - Lalande, i. 283, 284. - Letters, vi 259. - Professor Holden, in his Life, writes (p. 47): "It was only in 1786 that he became 'Dr. Herschel,' through the Oxford degree of LL.D." This Oxford degree of LL.D. has of late been changed in his case into D.C.L. The Oxford "Catalogue of all graduates . . . between Oct. 10, 1659, and Dec. 31, 1850," does not contain his name, except as the father of Sir John Herschel, on whom the degree of D.C.L. was conferred. The date of the Edinburgh degree is April 10, 1786, and is the only ground I can discover for the title LL.D., that he takes in all his papers from 1786 to 1818. The honour of LL.D. from Oxford was first claimed for Herschel in 1798-9. See Public Characters, i. 396.	<urn:uuid:36372d8c-c33b-4492-a6c9-a10d4f156004>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_Herschel_and_his_work/Chapter_5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00301.warc.gz	en	0.982454	6,176	3.4375	3	[ -0.17280548810958862, -0.10679204761981964, 0.4613824486732483, -0.10706564784049988, -0.26747047901153564, -0.07191979140043259, -0.02821005880832672, 0.23092682659626007, -0.12324286997318268, 0.18229657411575317, 0.295445054769516, -0.26228785514831543, 0.21932415664196014, 0.2593450844...	1	William Herschel and his work/Chapter 5 THE DISCOVERY OF URANUS The third paper sent by Herschel to the Royal Society was in the form of a letter to Dr. Watson from Mr. William Herschel of Bath, dated October 18, 1780. It was a record of observations made in the three years from 1777 to 1779, with the view of determining whether our day is of the same length year after year. A point so difficult could be settled, he thought, only by observing the length of the day in other planets. This had been done, or attempted, for Venus and Jupiter, by watching the time it took for a spot on the face of the planet to return to the same position. But in Venus, on account of her exceeding brilliance, it had been done so imperfectly that her day was put down roughly as of 23 hours' length. For Jupiter the time of rotation on his axis was set down more precisely at 9 hours 56 minutes, a result arrived at by keeping careful watch on spots that may not be fixed points on his disc, but movable on what we may call trade-wind belts of clouds in his equator. These spots "change so often that it is not easy, if at all possible, to ascertain the identity of the same appearance for any considerable length of time." Sometimes a bright, at other times a dark spot, or belt, was observed, but the time of its revolution round the planet varied so much that no reliance could be placed on the result as a means of ascertaining whether our day remains the same from age to age. Herschel considered the planet Mars a more favourable field for experiment than Jupiter. On Mars he saw spots of a different nature: "Their constant and determined shape, as well as remarkable colour, show them to be permanent and fastened to the body of the planet. These will give the revolution of his equator to a great certainty, and by a great number of revolutions, to a very great exactness also." A circumstance, with which Herschel was not acquainted, materially helped him in his observations on Mars. The atmosphere on that planet is not nearly so dense as the earth's, and similar trade-wind belts to those on Jupiter do not seem to exist. By these means he concluded that the length of a day on Mars is a little longer than our day, or 24 hrs. 39 min. 5 sec. The value of an accurate measure of the length of day in other planets he conceived to be this: "Future astronomers may be enabled to make some estimate of the general equability of the rotatory motions of the planets. For if in length of time they should perceive some small retardation in the diurnal motion of a planet, occasioned by some resistance of a very subtle medium in which the heavenly bodies perhaps move, or, on the other hand, if there should be found an acceleration from some cause or other, they might then ascribe the alteration either to the diurnal motion of the earth, or to the gyration of the other planet, according as circumstances, or observed phenomena, should make one or the other of these opinions most probable." This man could think, could reason and observe: he had also unusual powers of imagination: but he was only beginning his travels through the infinitudes of space and time. Three papers for the Royal Society in the course of ten months! The musician of Bath puts himself at once on a level with the first men of science in the kingdom. He is modest, but he has in him the confidence of true genius. In his retirement he had been collecting facts from the heavens for six or seven years. A chance of speaking out what he saw and had gathered together was presented to him. He seized it with all eagerness, and was making his voice heard. In these papers he has been speaking to the Royal Society, of which he was not even a member. When he speaks next, about three months after, it is not as the musician of Bath, but as a member of the Royal Society; and he speaks to the whole world and to all time. This paper, which was read on April 26, 1781, and,is headed "Account of a Comet," was really the beginning of modern astronomy. It fills only ten pages of the Transactions. He had been engaged for some time in an attempt, not altogether novel, but certainly demanding great labour, to find out the distance of the fixed stars. His thoughts and plans were high, for though more than a century has passed since then, the distances of not more than twenty or thirty out of many millions can be said to be known, or perhaps safely guessed. While thus engaged, rummaging among the stars, "on Tuesday, 13th March, between ten and eleven in the evening, he perceived a star, in the neighbourhood of H Geminorum, that appeared visibly larger than the rest. Being struck with its uncommon magnitude, he compared it to H Geminorum and the small star in the quartile between Auriga and Gemini, and finding it so much larger than either of them, suspected it to be a comet. . . . The sequel has shown that my surmises were well founded, this proving to be the comet we have lately observed." By the method he followed he was "enabled to distinguish the quantity and direction of the motion of this comet in a single day, to a much greater degree of exactness than could have been done in so short a time by a sector or transit instrument; nay, even an hour or two were intervals long enough to show that it was a moving body, and, consequently, had its size not pointed it out as a comet, the change of place, though so trifling as 21 seconds per hour, would have been sufficient to occasion the discovery." Satisfied that he had done all he could do, Herschel concluded his paper by saying, "I failed not to give immediate notice of this moving star, and was happy to surrender it to the care of the Astronomer-Royal and others, as soon as I found they had begun their observations upon it" The moving star was not a comet. It was a wanderer, who had been seen before and classified as a fixed star. The planet was what is now called Uranus. The announcement of the discovery sent a flutter of excitement through all the observatories of Europe, which went on increasing when it was found that they could not agree on what or who the stranger was. Almost from its first appearance English astronomers believed it to be a planet that had long been wanted to account for difficulties in their art. The French astronomers held to their faith in a comet moving round the sun in an orbit nearly circular. Herschel, praised everywhere as an observer "of great ardour and ingenuity," stood aside from the friendly strife. All observers were in debt to Bode, who found that a star, marked No. 964 in Mayer's catalogue, had been observed by him in 1756, had then been lost sight of, and was probably the stranger. Abbé Boscovich is said to have been the first to prove that the orbit was an ellipse; but to Lexell, Professor of Astronomy at St. Petersburg, is assigned the honour of showing that the newly found body was not a comet, but a planet, distant from the sun about nineteen times as far as the earth. All with a name for science, from Laplace downward, took part in the friendly strife. It has been said that this discovery was an accident; it has been also said that, if Herschel had not made it at the time he did, some other observer would before long have had the luck to fall in with the stranger. These criticisms are not creditable to those by whom they were made. Call it accident or chance, the fact remains that this novice, looking out for what he could find in the heavens, and with instruments improved by himself, discovered an unknown planet, and extended the boundaries of the solar system to twice the distance that had been received for thousands of years. Such accidents bring fame, and are only called luck by the envious. One of the last-found planets of our solar system was discovered about a year ago, also by accident, but to the great honour of the discoverer. He was looking for something else; he found what he was looking for, and a new planet besides. What he was looking for was one of the so-called nuisances of the heavens, an asteroid, one of about 450, named 433d. To search for it as Herschel had to do, even though its whereabouts was known, called for labour and time. The astronomer, who was on the lookout for it, lessened both by exposing a photographic plate to the starry sky. He was spreading a net to catch planets and comets. A fixed star does not change its place during the exposure of the plate, or, rather, the plate moves as the star moves: a moving body, be it planet or comet, does change its place. A point will thus representa fixed star; a line, however short, and however faint the trace, represents a moving body. When Herr Witt examined the exposed plate, he saw at once the trace left by the asteroid he was in search of; but another, a fainter and a longer trace of a moving body, was also seen on the plate. It was the trace of a planet hitherto unknown. An examination of the stranger resulted in the discovery that he was a ball twenty miles in diameter, and, excepting our moon, the nearest of the planets to us, so near that he may be made to tell us the exact distance we are from the sun. His discoverer called him Eros, Love or Cupid, evidently from his childish size. Herschel had no such short-cuts to discovery in his day. An immense impulse was given to the study of the stars by Herschel's discovery. It was not merely what he achieved by being on the spot and on the lookout. It was also by the lesson he taught astronomers to do as he did. A band of twenty-four observers, suspecting, and with good reason, that a well-kept watch would reveal unknown wonders in the depths of space, undertook to search for other planets. Had photographic plates or charts then been part of the equipment of an observatory, the work would have been easy, and the reward certain. But plates and star-charts were not known; and the twenty-four workers laboured and toiled in vain. An outsider carried off first honours on the first day of the century—Piazzi of Palermo, who had visited Slough, had talked with Herschel and his sister, and perhaps drawn a breath of inspiration from them and their surroundings. The beaten twenty-four astronomers did not retire from the field. Two years later, Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, discovered another asteroid, Pallas; and two years later still, Harding, in the same neighbourhood, discovered a third, Juno. Olbers, wisely using imagination in the pursuit of science, came to the conclusion that these small bodies were pieces of a planet which had burst or exploded, and that other pieces would be found floating about in space. He acted on the idea, and rediscovered Piazzi's Ceres, which had been lost again, as well as a fourth asteroid, Vesta. Then the hunt for more pieces of the disrupted planet ceased, till, about forty years later, it again received a fresh impetus from Hencke's discovery of Astræa, and was continued by Mr. Hind at the Regent Park Observatory in London, and others, with such success that floating pieces have been netted by hundreds, grumbled at as nuisances, and assigned the honour of having been thrown off direct by the sun himself, not blown into space by a disrupted planet. One of these pigmy planets was named Lucretia, after Herschel's sister. Such were some of the fruits of William Herschel's earliest studies among the stars. The nature of the wandering stranger discovered on March 13, 1781, was not fully known for some months. Herschel had surrendered the care of his new world to the astronomers of Europe, and they could not make up their minds about it, till Lexell of St. Petersburg led the way by showing that it was an outlying primary planet. A whole year elapsed, and Herschel had resumed his observations on this "singular star" before he thought of giving it a name. Events had happened during the interval which affected his view of the name it should bear: he had become Royal Astronomer to George iii., had received from him a yearly pension, was pursuing a profitable trade as a maker of telescopes under the King's patronage, and was housed under the shelter of Windsor Castle. It should cause no surprise, therefore, that, evidently after long consideration, he addressed the following letter to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society:— "To Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., P.R.S. "Sir,—By the observations of the most eminent astronomers in Europe it appears that the new star, which I had the honour of pointing out to them in March 1781, is a primary planet of our solar system. A body so nearly related to us by its similar condition and situation, in the unbounded expanse of the starry heavens, must often be the subject of the conversation, not only of astronomers, but of every lover of science in general. This consideration then makes it necessary to give it a name, whereby it may be distinguished from the rest of the planets and fixed stars. "In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were given to the planets as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical æra, it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method, and call on Juno, Pallas, Apollo, or Minerva for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration in any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found planet was discovered? it would be a very satisfactory answer to say, 'In the Reign of King George the Third.' As a philosopher then, the name of Georgium Sidus presents itself to me, as an appellation which will conveniently convey the information of the time and country where and when it was brought to view. But as a subject of the best of Kings, who is the liberal protector of every art and science;—as a native of the country from whence this Illustrious Family was called to the British throne;—as a member of that Society, which flourishes by the distinguished liberality of its Royal Patron;—and, last of all, as a person now more immediately under the protection of this excellent Monarch, and owing everything to His unlimited bounty;—I cannot but wish to take this opportunity of expressing my sense of gratitude, by giving the name Georgium Sidus, —jam nunc assuesce vocari' (Virg. Georg.), "By addressing this letter to you, Sir, as President of the Royal Society, I take the most effectual method of communicating that name to the Literati of Europe which I hope they will receive with pleasure. I have the honour to be, with the greatest respect, etc., When Herschel discovered the planet Uranus he had received no favour and no bounty from King or people. Nor did the King extend his patronage to him till fifteen months had elapsed. Galileo was in receipt of a handsome allowance from the Grand Duke of Tuscany, when he discovered the satellites of Jupiter, and called them the Medicean Stars. It was not only pardonable to do this; it was most natural. But science refused to endorse the flattery: and scientific men, especially on the Continent, were equally unwilling to accept the name proposed by Herschel for the newly discovered planet. For many years it continued to be called the Georgian Star, or the Georgium Sidus, in this country, though not without strong protests. While scientific men in Britain allowed that "George the Third has many titles to be remembered by the friends of science, to which few of his contemporaries have any pretensions," they maintained, "We shall therefore do well to anticipate the decision of posterity, by at once adopting a term that must ultimately prevail." No one thinks of perpetuating the name Georgian now. Uranus has displaced it, and justly. The judgment of posterity has gone against the name proposed by the discoverer and that of Herschel, generously proposed by Lalande. Heathenism and antiquity have carried the day. Everyone must decide for himself whether this was right, or whether the same rule should hold among the stars as has been allowed to hold on earth, where an adventurer gives his name to a New World, and the real discoverer has to rest content with naming a province of it, perhaps a province of little worth. In writing this letter to the President of the Royal Society, William Herschel could plead more grounds for justification than we might be disposed, at first sight, to allow. That he was recognised by the King as a discoverer and a leader of thought was a great honour, recommending him at once to the nation and to the whole world. That he was paid a salary out of the King's or the nation's purse, and was placed by the King near the palace and brought into close relations with the Royal Family is also manifest. We are bound to give due weight to these considerations in the mind of an upright and honourable man, who deeply respected his sovereign, and knew best the amount of his own indebtedness. But history tells more than one story, that goes far to justify Herschel's name for the newly discovered star. It was not an uncommon thing to exalt an earthly prince to a throne in earthly skies. Probably we shall all admit that this was a mistake, perhaps a degradation of true science, which knows no distinction between king and beggar, and whose boundaries have been extended, to quote the words of Galileo, a hundred thousand fold by those whom popes and princes despised. But the fact is beyond dispute. The hair of Berenice, the Queen of Egypt and the murderess of the lover by whom she was slighted, was carried off from the temple of Venus, to whom it was vowed, and placed by Conon as a constellation among the stars. Sobieski, the valiant deliverer of Eastern Europe from the Turkish power, got a similar honour done him by Hevelius in the then invented constellation called Sobieski's Shield. Galileo felt himself under such obligations to the ducal house of Tuscany that he named the four moons of Jupiter, which he discovered, the Medicean Stars, a name they long continued to bear. The honour of a place in the heavens was great. It was also much sought after, so much so that Galileo was told "he would do a thing just and proper in itself, and at the same time render himself rich and powerful for ever," if he "named the next star which he should discover after the name of the great star of France, as well as the most brilliant of all the world," Henry of Navarre. Fortunately, in this respect at least, he had not the chance, otherwise we might have had the starry heavens peopled with the princely nonentities of earth. Royer, in 1679, did a similar honour to Louis XIV., by forming a constellation,called The Sceptre, for that monarch's glory; Messier, after the astronomer of that name, was another recently invented constellation on which Boscovich made the lines— "Sidera, non Messes, Messerius iste tuetur; Certe erat ille suo dignus inesse polo." But no one would have expected a man of science so famous as Edmund Halley, to invent a constellation in honour of Charles II., The Oak, in memory of his escape after Worcester, or that Flamsteed would have placed so rotten a thing as the "Heart of Charles II." among the stars. While we are satisfied that there is no ground for finding fault with Herschel's name for the new planet he discovered, we are more satisfied that, by the mouth of Bode, the jury, to whom he required to appeal, disallowed the flattery, and called the planet Uranus, not even Herschel, as Lalande proposed. The next planet that was discovered, the first of the asteroids, was named by its discoverer Ceres Ferdinandea after a contemptible King of Naples, but Ceres has long since swallowed Ferdinandea up. Even at the time an amused cynicism, speaking in the Letters of Horace Walpole, was saying, "Must not that host of worlds be christened? Mr. Herschel himself has stood godfather for His Majesty to the new Sidus. His Majesty has a numerous issue; but they and all the princes and princesses in Europe cannot supply appellations enough for twenty millions of new-born stars." In the year 1782 Herschel not only continued to prosecute the studies he had begun, but ventured into new and almost untrodden fields of research. Two or three months were cut out of the working time of that year by a summons to Windsor to see the King and hear what he might do for him. But his activity and enjoyment in work made up for lost time. In 1780 he contributed two papers, or twenty-five large pages, to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society; in 1781 he contributed two papers, or thirty-five pages; and in 1782, notwithstanding the loss of two months, four papers, or nearly one hundred pages—a good year's scientific work for any man, more especially for one who was giving thirty or even thirty-eight music lessons to his pupils per week; groaning and fretting under the incapacity of not a few of them—a man who had to be in his place conducting a band or a concert, and supervising a church's music, or who, instead of seeking rest in sleep, when the day's weary work was done, would often spend the night in observing the stars. His sister, who was his invariable companion in these night watches, had ample reason to say of him, "He did in one season more than anyone else could have done, and would have resumed the hunt [for Saturn's satellites] the next fifteen years, if nothing had interfered." The new path on which he entered, and which led him into other and most attractive fields of inquiry, was the distance of what are called the fixed stars from the solar system. He knew that at the distance of the nearest of them, twice the sun's distance from the earth, immense though it seems, appears no bigger than a needle point, and cannot be used as a base line for measurement, or, indeed, as a line at all. He gave up the thought of attempting to solve the problem from that, the most natural and the easiest side. It was good for neighbours so near us as Mars and Venus. It was useless for Sirius or Arcturus. Following, perhaps, the example of Galileo, he believed that observations on stars so close together that neither the naked eye nor ordinary telescopes could separate them, and make two out of one, would lead to a discovery of their distance. He did not succeed in his purpose, but he was "introduced to a new series of observations and discoveries." He resolved to examine every star in the heavens with the utmost attention and a very high power, that he might collect such materials for this research as would enable him to fix his observations upon those that would best answer his end. The subject promises so rich a harvest that he cannot help inviting every lover of astronomy to join him in observations that must inevitably lead to new discoveries. He took some pains to find out what double stars had been recorded by astronomers; but "Nature, that great volume, appeared to him to contain the best catalogue upon this occasion." The results of this search of the heavens appeared a month later in a Catalogue of Double Stars. They were "not only double stars, but also treble, double-double, quadruple, double-treble, and multiple." And he noticed, in a strangely prophetic vein of inspired imagination, not shrined in the temple of fact for more than twenty years after, "It is much too soon to form any theories of small stars revolving round large ones." Of 269 of the suns contained in this catalogue only 42 had been previously observed. While pursuing researches so laborious and so delightful, he was driven to devise ingenious improvements on the micrometer, as the contrivance was called that is used for measuring small spaces. But Herschel's thoughts were turned into other channels in the summer of 1782. He was raising questions we are only getting answers to now. While Herschel was thus rapidly rising into fame, he was not forgetful of the sister who generously sacrificed her own wishes and prospects as a singer to advance his as an astronomer. During the time she was free from her numerous engagements as the thrifty housekeeper, the careful secretary and time-keeper, the reviser and reducer of observations, she amused herself by sweeping the heavens for comets with a five-feet reflector, of which her brother had made her a present. She was so successful that her fame soon sounded over Europe. "Miss Herschel," one writer reports, "sister of the celebrated astronomer, has observed a comet, and its orbit has been calculated. This is the seventy-third comet of which we know the period." This celestial visitor was talked of in Windsor Castle as the Lady's Comet. Unfortunately, the name was not retained, as it ought to have been, or at least given to a later discovery by Miss Herschel. Between 1786 and 1797 she discovered eight comets altogether, but of only five was she the first discoverer. The seventh, seen by her on November 7, 1795, was specially worthy of this name, but is now known as Encke's Comet. Her value as an assistant to her brother, besides her own personal merit as a woman of science, got for her a pension of £50 from the Civil List, granted to the King by Parliament. It was sufficient for the modest wants of a woman who not only handled a telescope with the dexterity of a practised observer, but, when sixty years of age, spent some of the last days of her stay at Slough" in painting and papering the rooms she was to occupy in a small house of her brother's, attached to the Crown Inn, to which she removed." Year after year, from 1780 to 1812, the active mind and the prolific pen of William Herschel enriched the Proceedings of the Royal Society with one or more papers, which astonished the world of science and attracted the attention of mankind. The years 1813, 1816 were blanks, but 1814, 1815, 1817, and 1818 showed no feebling of hand or eye, although for years his strength had been failing: under the pressure of burdens laid on him as King's Astronomer—unnecessary burdens. Without including the diagrams, often in themselves a heavy labour, these papers are spread over two thousand quarto pages, an extraordinary record of hard, honest, earnest work. His first two papers were said to be "communicated by Dr. Watson, Jr., of Bath, F.R.S., and written by Mr. William Herschel of Bath." The same designation of the astronomer appears again in the Proceedings for 1781; but in the end of the year it is replaced by Mr. Herschel, F.R.S. In 1783-84-85 we find, William Herschel, Esq., F.R.S. But from 1786, the year in which he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh, to 1815, the style is, William Herschel, LL.D., F.R.S. In 1817, 1818, it becomes Sir William Herschel, Knt Guelp., LL.D., F.R.S. The musician of Bath had made good his right to rank with the noblest and the most learned of men. - Time of rotation determined since Herschel's days, 24 hrs. 37 min. 22·7 secs. - Robison, Edin., Phil. Trans. i. 305. - Nineteenth Century, April 1899, p. 612. - Herschel might have known better than write this: see M. de Lalande's Astronomy, secs. 639, 640. - Lalande, i. 283, 284. - Letters, vi 259. - Professor Holden, in his Life, writes (p. 47): "It was only in 1786 that he became 'Dr. Herschel,' through the Oxford degree of LL.D." This Oxford degree of LL.D. has of late been changed in his case into D.C.L. The Oxford "Catalogue of all graduates . . . between Oct. 10, 1659, and Dec. 31, 1850," does not contain his name, except as the father of Sir John Herschel, on whom the degree of D.C.L. was conferred. The date of the Edinburgh degree is April 10, 1786, and is the only ground I can discover for the title LL.D., that he takes in all his papers from 1786 to 1818. The honour of LL.D. from Oxford was first claimed for Herschel in 1798-9. See Public Characters, i. 396.	6,338	ENGLISH	1
A reason why the Chesapeake Bay and the New England colonies evolved into different societies was their political differences. The Settlers of the Chesapeake colonies, modeled their government, the house of Burgesses, on the housee of Parliament in england. This major political development of the chesapeake bay colony was the Maryland Act of Religious toleration. This allowed the practice of any sect of Christianity. On the other hand, New England developed a more structured government system. New England had elected officials to represent the people. This formed the council who had regularly scheduled town meeting to voice the concerns of the people. In comparison because New England was densely populated by those of puritan beliefs, religious tolerance was non existent. This major difference own both colonies political ideologies encouraged the development of two completely different societies. The Settlers of the Chesapeake Bay were mostly people who followed the anglican church. The Majority of New England followed Puritanism. Puritans were unaccepting of any other religion as they believed their religion was the only form of belief. Due to the Maryland Act of Religious Toleration, other Christian sects were allowed the opportunity too practice their beliefs. This was a very distinct difference that lead to the two colonies to become separate associations. Social roles also played a major role in the difference of both colonies. Mostly investors, who were dominantly men, settled in the Chesapeake Bay, while the settlers of New England came in families. Those who came in families were able to build communities, Establish a structured government and were able to flourish and grow as a society. Thus showing that Chesapeake bay was a place for business while New England was a place to live and make a life. In 1607, the first British colony was founded in North Americ and settled in Maryland and Virginia. This colony, known as the chesapeke bay colony was colonized and settled by the english men of Anglican Church beliefs. Later, in 1630, a wave of english men, women and children settled in the areas of massachusetts, new hamppshire and rhode island, connecticut and vermont who were all believers of puritanism. The Chesapeake bay was settled by individual men while New England was settled by families which aided in growth of the colony. This created the development of two separate societies occurred by political, economic, religious and social deviations. * On the contrary * On the other hand * Even though * In contrast	<urn:uuid:60f18a4d-2166-4368-bb16-9e390376e647>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://myssec.com/a-reason-why-the-chesapeake-bay-and-the-new-england-colonies-evolved-into-different-societies-was-their-political-differences/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00300.warc.gz	en	0.983473	502	4	4	[ -0.012504326179623604, 0.22228360176086426, 0.26551392674446106, -0.45790421962738037, 0.05302010476589203, 0.11349409073591232, 0.020024865865707397, -0.3898627758026123, -0.06947733461856842, -0.0890200287103653, -0.0006675957120023668, -0.27938464283943176, -0.0969201996922493, -0.01289...	4	A reason why the Chesapeake Bay and the New England colonies evolved into different societies was their political differences. The Settlers of the Chesapeake colonies, modeled their government, the house of Burgesses, on the housee of Parliament in england. This major political development of the chesapeake bay colony was the Maryland Act of Religious toleration. This allowed the practice of any sect of Christianity. On the other hand, New England developed a more structured government system. New England had elected officials to represent the people. This formed the council who had regularly scheduled town meeting to voice the concerns of the people. In comparison because New England was densely populated by those of puritan beliefs, religious tolerance was non existent. This major difference own both colonies political ideologies encouraged the development of two completely different societies. The Settlers of the Chesapeake Bay were mostly people who followed the anglican church. The Majority of New England followed Puritanism. Puritans were unaccepting of any other religion as they believed their religion was the only form of belief. Due to the Maryland Act of Religious Toleration, other Christian sects were allowed the opportunity too practice their beliefs. This was a very distinct difference that lead to the two colonies to become separate associations. Social roles also played a major role in the difference of both colonies. Mostly investors, who were dominantly men, settled in the Chesapeake Bay, while the settlers of New England came in families. Those who came in families were able to build communities, Establish a structured government and were able to flourish and grow as a society. Thus showing that Chesapeake bay was a place for business while New England was a place to live and make a life. In 1607, the first British colony was founded in North Americ and settled in Maryland and Virginia. This colony, known as the chesapeke bay colony was colonized and settled by the english men of Anglican Church beliefs. Later, in 1630, a wave of english men, women and children settled in the areas of massachusetts, new hamppshire and rhode island, connecticut and vermont who were all believers of puritanism. The Chesapeake bay was settled by individual men while New England was settled by families which aided in growth of the colony. This created the development of two separate societies occurred by political, economic, religious and social deviations. * On the contrary * On the other hand * Even though * In contrast	505	ENGLISH	1
Kidneys are located below your ribs, in normal conditions, their size is the same as a human fist and they are mainly comprised of: Nephrons: They are the most important structures inside the kidneys because they are in charge of filtering blood. They also metabolize nutrients Renal cortex: This is the outer part of the kidney, where capillaries and tubules are located. It is also surrounded by the renal capsule, which is a layer of fatty tissue that houses and protects the inner kidney. Renal medulla: It is the smooth, inner skin of the kidney. Renal pelvis: It is a funnel-shaped space that works as a pathway for fluids to when they are on their way to the bladder.	<urn:uuid:f66c5096-530c-4150-b4ad-d8c3d9f10f68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medicalstockimages.net/collections/kidneys	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00465.warc.gz	en	0.984294	153	3.734375	4	[ -0.00457730470225215, -0.2516387701034546, 0.15697799623012543, -0.018639732152223587, -0.09606501460075378, -0.08784346282482147, 0.9009655714035034, 0.22256994247436523, 0.123841792345047, 0.11393018066883087, -0.07496736943721771, -0.7768978476524353, 0.4303201735019684, 0.2131187915802...	10	Kidneys are located below your ribs, in normal conditions, their size is the same as a human fist and they are mainly comprised of: Nephrons: They are the most important structures inside the kidneys because they are in charge of filtering blood. They also metabolize nutrients Renal cortex: This is the outer part of the kidney, where capillaries and tubules are located. It is also surrounded by the renal capsule, which is a layer of fatty tissue that houses and protects the inner kidney. Renal medulla: It is the smooth, inner skin of the kidney. Renal pelvis: It is a funnel-shaped space that works as a pathway for fluids to when they are on their way to the bladder.	148	ENGLISH	1
In 1918 Germany was in turmoil, losing the war and many living in depraved conditions. It was at this time when the whole complexion of German politics changed and a whole new system of governing was introduced in Germany. The Kaiser abdicated and Germany fell into new hands, with the Weimar Republic taking over. However, there were many people, especially from the left that didn’t want the revolution to just stop at achieving a democratic Republic but instead wanted the revolution to go further and evolve into a constitutional democracy. The three main reasons why the evolution did not occur were because of the attitude of the people, the failure of the left to further the revolution and the success of the Weimar Republic in defending itself. In 1918 Germany was in chaos. The war was a disaster and so many people were suffering in Germany. In 1919, real income was only 2/3s of what it was in 1913, war financed by printing money and borrowing led to massive inflation and between 1913 and 1918 the mark lost 75% of its value. Major food and fuel shortages were occurring, costs out stripped wage increases, disease was rife, and thousands were dying from major flu epidemic, plus starvation for many thousands of people. Deaths from starvation and hypothermia were at 121,000 in 1916 and an astonishing 293,000 in 1918. 2 million Germans had been killed in war and 6.3 million had been wounded. People in Germany were furious with the situation they were in and many were discontented. But surprisingly the revolution came from above and it was Ludendorff who led the revolution. He also cleverly distanced the military from the armistice so that the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth could be manufactured. A constitutional monarchy was then created. Morale was incredibly low and on 28th October 1918 the Kiel Mutiny occurred in which the German Navy mutinied, 8 were shot dead and this lead to a general mutiny. This started the revolution from below. The US also sent a letter to... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	<urn:uuid:6513ddf3-6e6b-4b38-aa3e-3076263af180>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Why-Did-Germany-Become-a-Democratic-63724699.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00052.warc.gz	en	0.990936	423	3.90625	4	[ -0.280117005109787, 0.46392080187797546, 0.11523012816905975, 0.04647109657526016, 0.21675541996955872, 0.4047869145870209, -0.18922896683216095, 0.3075411915779114, -0.25896337628364563, -0.0889275074005127, 0.3910292088985443, -0.27088892459869385, 0.2666477859020233, 0.17984233796596527...	1	In 1918 Germany was in turmoil, losing the war and many living in depraved conditions. It was at this time when the whole complexion of German politics changed and a whole new system of governing was introduced in Germany. The Kaiser abdicated and Germany fell into new hands, with the Weimar Republic taking over. However, there were many people, especially from the left that didn’t want the revolution to just stop at achieving a democratic Republic but instead wanted the revolution to go further and evolve into a constitutional democracy. The three main reasons why the evolution did not occur were because of the attitude of the people, the failure of the left to further the revolution and the success of the Weimar Republic in defending itself. In 1918 Germany was in chaos. The war was a disaster and so many people were suffering in Germany. In 1919, real income was only 2/3s of what it was in 1913, war financed by printing money and borrowing led to massive inflation and between 1913 and 1918 the mark lost 75% of its value. Major food and fuel shortages were occurring, costs out stripped wage increases, disease was rife, and thousands were dying from major flu epidemic, plus starvation for many thousands of people. Deaths from starvation and hypothermia were at 121,000 in 1916 and an astonishing 293,000 in 1918. 2 million Germans had been killed in war and 6.3 million had been wounded. People in Germany were furious with the situation they were in and many were discontented. But surprisingly the revolution came from above and it was Ludendorff who led the revolution. He also cleverly distanced the military from the armistice so that the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth could be manufactured. A constitutional monarchy was then created. Morale was incredibly low and on 28th October 1918 the Kiel Mutiny occurred in which the German Navy mutinied, 8 were shot dead and this lead to a general mutiny. This started the revolution from below. The US also sent a letter to... Please join StudyMode to read the full document	469	ENGLISH	1
The foundations of romanticism and realism share the common theme of alienation however, its views on society and people are very different. Romanticism blossomed with the theme of rejecting elitism and celebrating isolation and human emotions. The belief that society corrupts the goodness of humans further aided romanticism to become a cornerstone in literature in the late 1700s. Realism was a reaction to romanticism that was heavily influenced by rational philosophy. The scientific method was also a heavy influencer, which helped to develop determinism, or the cause and effect logic. It is clear that although romanticism and realism do share the theme of alienation, they do have many differences as well. The Mines at Falun by E.T.A. Hoffman and Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev was act as the basis for comparing romanticism to realism and how each piece represents alienation. Elis and Basarov are typical romantic and realism heroes that perfectly fit the mold of their respectable times. Elis in The Mines at Falun voluntarily isolates himself from society while Basarov in Fathers and Sons is constantly trying to find his place in society. Hoffman introduces Elis as a troubled young man with no direction, who rejects the company of his comrades. The news of his mother's death is tragic and adds to his feeling of isolation. " he felt abandoned by the whole world helpless and wretched. seemed to him a pointless drifting" p.314. His only motive in life at that point was to work on a ship to earn money in order to make his mother happy. Now that the sole factor that had kept him grounded was gone, Elis sought guidance from an old miner named Torbern. Torbern tells young Elis about mining and its splendors which led to his decision to leave the wide-open sea and sunlit sky to pursue a new career into the depths of the earth to mine. This action reflects the romantic idea of alienating oneself from its ordinary environment.	<urn:uuid:36ba7be8-0228-4731-8ead-9d6b55641b9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/5388.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00000.warc.gz	en	0.981337	400	3.453125	3	[ -0.025122860446572304, 0.5982702374458313, 0.16598109900951385, 0.41324755549430847, 0.12110588699579239, 0.023262958973646164, 0.2786664068698883, 0.2116938978433609, -0.12274011969566345, 0.15485090017318726, 0.3313685953617096, -0.04038195312023163, 0.4589250981807709, 0.067472860217094...	8	The foundations of romanticism and realism share the common theme of alienation however, its views on society and people are very different. Romanticism blossomed with the theme of rejecting elitism and celebrating isolation and human emotions. The belief that society corrupts the goodness of humans further aided romanticism to become a cornerstone in literature in the late 1700s. Realism was a reaction to romanticism that was heavily influenced by rational philosophy. The scientific method was also a heavy influencer, which helped to develop determinism, or the cause and effect logic. It is clear that although romanticism and realism do share the theme of alienation, they do have many differences as well. The Mines at Falun by E.T.A. Hoffman and Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev was act as the basis for comparing romanticism to realism and how each piece represents alienation. Elis and Basarov are typical romantic and realism heroes that perfectly fit the mold of their respectable times. Elis in The Mines at Falun voluntarily isolates himself from society while Basarov in Fathers and Sons is constantly trying to find his place in society. Hoffman introduces Elis as a troubled young man with no direction, who rejects the company of his comrades. The news of his mother's death is tragic and adds to his feeling of isolation. " he felt abandoned by the whole world helpless and wretched. seemed to him a pointless drifting" p.314. His only motive in life at that point was to work on a ship to earn money in order to make his mother happy. Now that the sole factor that had kept him grounded was gone, Elis sought guidance from an old miner named Torbern. Torbern tells young Elis about mining and its splendors which led to his decision to leave the wide-open sea and sunlit sky to pursue a new career into the depths of the earth to mine. This action reflects the romantic idea of alienating oneself from its ordinary environment.	398	ENGLISH	1
Arthur Miller was born in New York in 1915. He was a very successful playwright and one of his most successful plays was Death of a Salesman. The play was inspired by Miller’s opinion, to believe in yourself and this play portrays his views on what everyday- Americans believed in, ‘the American Dream’. Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller depicts the feelings and illusions felt by a family man who tried to live up to ‘the American Dream’. ‘The American Dream’ was to work hard and you would succeed; also, the way other Americans saw you was highly important. This was usually based on your appearance and the way you associated yourself with others. From the beginning of the play, we immediately feel part of Willy Loman’s Life. Willy Loman is a salesman who also is a keen family man and the way others see him is highly important to him. The way in which Willy sees the US Society makes him feel he needs to make a conventional living. This is shown in a number of ways mainly through his long speeches, which baffle the reader as he is fluent in language and is able to talk to everyone easily. This skill that Willy has allows him to interact with others and this helps them gain their attentions, Willy also gains respect from this. As Willy is able to talk to people fluently and confidently the audience feel he could do more for himself but he is unaware of this and is only interested in maintaining his pride and the way others see him. The way Arthur Miller has chosen to reflect Willy Loman to the audience of this play shows us the classic conventions of a tragic hero. A classical tragic hero’s conventions are a hero whose status means that his downfall will be significant, affecting many people. We also expect to see the hero’s suffering reveal essential truths about humanity and whose greatness of character and talent are tragically wasted through circumstance. A Tragic Hero should also have a fatal weakness, which leads to destruction and should find some degree of release and resignation when facing death. In the play we see Willy not being able to come to terms with reality. He lives in his dreams and derives all his pleasures from the past, which he distorts to convince himself that all is well. When he is having a conversation with Linda he hears a cry of a woman’s laughter in his head (Act 1 Pg 24) – this tells us he is not of sound mind. Pride is central to Willy’s character as he is proud to be (or pretending to be) a successful salesman. Even though his life is a massive self-deception he still tries to retain his hopes. Even as he contemplates suicide, he is hopeful that the insurance money payable on his death will give Biff, his son, the start to life he needs. As we read the play we are able to see Willy’s admirable qualities. He is a proud man and this helps him to gain respect from other people. As a father, he wants his son to look up to him, which makes him expect quite a lot from his family – “I see great things for you kids, I think your troubles are over. But remember, start big and you’ll end big… ” (Act 1 Pg 46). Willy Loman promises his family great things but we, the audience, just know these are idle promises made by a very inspired family man because of his occupation, which gives him an assumed high status. This shows the audience that no matter what you say and do, the way you act towards others gains you the respect. The amount of humanity within Willy’s personality is debatable. He shows compassion towards his sons, Biff in particular, but is a bully towards his wife, as he never listens to her opinions. For example, when she asks him to have a word with Biff on how to treat women Willy just yells ‘Shut up! ‘ (Act 1 Pg 26) and when she tells him to speak to Biff about his attitude towards his subjects at school Willy shouts at her “… (exploding at her) There’s nothing the matter with him! From this evidence we are able to see that Willy is the more dominant partner within the marriage. Throughout the play we see two sides to Willy’s personality. This meets one of the conventions of a classical tragic hero i. e. Willy’s greatness of character and talent are tragically wasted through circumstance. We admire Willy’s greatness of character as he is calm and he just wants the best for his family. We see the amount of influence Willy Loman has among people. Both his sons Biff and Happy idolise their Father. This is because Willy shows some humane aspect in the things he does. Willy is prepared to go to Biff’s teacher and demand he gives him enough marks to pass. His father in particular influences Biff and we see that when the pair first appear in the play “… Gee, I’d love to go with you sometime, Dad” (Act 1 Pg 19). This quote shows us how much Biff is infatuated with his father and how much of a great influence he had on his sons. The audience are not able to understand how the two sons are fixated upon the supposed success of their father. We are able to assume that this influence is based upon the exaggerated stories Willy tells them and the audience also sees the influence of Willy when he is talking to his sons and other characters. Willy does have an extraordinary impact on his sons in particular and this is an important attribute to have for a classical tragic hero. Because of Willy’s status his downfall will be significant and affect many people because of the way he thinks he has consolidated himself into the society around him and again this helps the character of Willy Loman to conform to a classical tragic hero. Due to Willy’s status in the society around him he would have a lot of value to the people that knew him. Initially, this would be the case but at the end of the play at Willy’s funeral his wife Linda asks, “Why didn’t anyone come? ” (Requiem Pg 106) and she cannot see why nobody came because to her he portrayed himself to be a man who had admirable qualities and a tremendous influence over his family; “But where are all the people he knew? … ” (Requiem Pg 106). This is saddening as we, the audience, see Linda learning why there was not a significant amount of people there. Willy Loman was a salesman and through reading the play we see that he was very fluent in communicating with others. However, we are able to see that the people to whom he spoke to showed respect to him out of courtesy but did not particularly take an interest in what he really had to say. Throughout his life Willy’s suffering reveals essential truths about humanity and this play helps demonstrate how people should portray themselves to others and to themselves – “I always felt that if a man was impressive, and well liked, that nothing else mattered” (Act 2 Pg 72), this quote shows Willy’s belief regarding the way society saw him. Through Willy’s life experiences and encounters we are able to see the way Willy thinks about life. From this we are unsure whether Arthur Miller is trying to portray Willy as a classical Tragic Hero or a Modern Hero – which is someone who performs actions and says things to please others. Willy as the audience begins to notice, exaggerates about his experiences and manipulates things so that his family think highly of him and likes to believe he has an influence over them. The way in which Willy ‘puts a show on’ towards people he feels close to signifies how importantly he feels about the way others see him. The audience learn from Willy to always be honest with yourself otherwise it will have dire results. We are able to see the effect it has on life just because of Willy’s excusable dishonesty. Through his suffering we are able to see the truths about humanity as people portray themselves differently to make them feel and look better about themselves. We see Willy as a prime example of this and this is when we realise why certain people do or don’t take him seriously. Willy Loman has a talent for being able to interact with others effectively and he is able to make others listen through the way he always talks positively. Within this play the talent of the character of Willy Loman is tragically wasted through circumstance because at school he used to study craftwork but chose to be a salesman instead. This shows how his talent has been tragically wasted. However, his communication skills have probably improved through his current profession and the talent he has could have been put to some other use to provide a better standard of life for his family. Willy is able to talk to everyone easily and this is the main reason behind his success so far, but as he gets older he begins to suffer a mental illness and he begins to speak gibberish and the audience start to hear the words of a confused man – ‘… Simonising Simonising that little red car” (Act 2 Pg78). This is another way his flair for communicating is jeopardised, as he is no longer of sound mind. Willy Loman has two main tragic flaws. The first of which is that he is in the wrong line of work, as his job doesn’t fully justify his real desire and provide him with skills to enhance the amount of fortune for his family. The second is the way he acts, most obviously the way he behaves and portrays himself differently to other characters, but in particular his attitude to Biff. We see Willy act ‘nicely’ to Biff throughout the play but in one scene Willy appears aggressive towards Biff when Biff catches his father having an affair, “… I gave you an order! Biff, come back here or I’ll beat you! Come back here! I’ll whip you! ” (Act 2 Pg 92). This scene and quote demonstrates another side to Willy – the aggressiveness of Willy compared to his usual self, which is not always orthodox but rather eccentric. We see another attribute that will conform to the conventions of a classical tragic hero, which is that Willy’s downfall will be significant affecting many people. Willy feels more calm and relaxed when he thinks about committing suicide so that the family gain insurance from his death and he believes that by doing this he will be helping his family, after all, Willy was a family man. Willy finds a degree of release and resignation when facing death as he feels it is the only solution and will result in the best outcome – this is significant for the audience as we see Willy in a more compassionate light and we see that he is doing this for the good of his family, although the traumatic effects it will have on his family is not considered at this point because of the gesture that Willy is willing to commit. Willy now knows that after he pays off his life insurance his life is worth more than what he has earned “After all the highways, and the trains, and the appointments and the years, you end up worth more, more dead than alive” (Act 2 Pg 73) – This quote shows how depressed Willy is about his life and is severely for committing an act of suicide to help support his family financially. This is an example of catharsis and Willy tries to outlet his emotions by acting and saying what he does In the play, Death of a Salesman, the main character, Willy Loman has all the required attributes to conform to the conventions of a classical tragic hero. This is seen and shown through his actions which when portrayed to the audience show an extraordinary side to Willy. Willy’s status is an important factor within this play and because of his status in the eyes of his family; we find that his downfall is significant as we see the effects of this when it affects the people close to him. His downfall is significant as his respectful son begins to lose admiration of Willy and other people feel sorry for him because of the way he acts and do not take him seriously. Through Willy’s experiences essential truths are revealed through his suffering such as the way people behave and act to make them feel more superior about the image about themselves that they are portraying towards others. We are able to see from Death of a Salesman that the character Willy Loman had the attributes to conform to the tragic conventions of a typical Classical Tragic Hero. This is because within this play there was a death of a central character, which had admirable qualities and had as huge influence among others. Willy’s downfall was significant as he managed to leave an enormous impression and portrayal to all of the people who he met and we are able to see that from his suffering he was able to tell is of essential truths about humanity and how people depict and generalise one another. From this play, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, we learn that the way someone is seen by another is very important to that person in particular this is because it helps motivate self-esteem. The play also shows what the ‘American Dream’ is about, this is the way people see you through your actions or sayings. The message from this play is to behave in your normal manner and not to be intimidated by the way others perceive you.	<urn:uuid:ec970930-6b64-4264-8792-784ee895e737>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alpinrunning.org/classical-tragic-hero/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00282.warc.gz	en	0.987391	2,845	3.28125	3	[ -0.14674678444862366, 0.014307434670627117, 0.6278387308120728, 0.18990005552768707, -0.07125622779130936, 0.41458290815353394, 0.6443275213241577, 0.27271580696105957, -0.19582758843898773, -0.14210805296897888, -0.2521759867668152, 0.011969685554504395, 0.02907697483897209, -0.1617980599...	4	Arthur Miller was born in New York in 1915. He was a very successful playwright and one of his most successful plays was Death of a Salesman. The play was inspired by Miller’s opinion, to believe in yourself and this play portrays his views on what everyday- Americans believed in, ‘the American Dream’. Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller depicts the feelings and illusions felt by a family man who tried to live up to ‘the American Dream’. ‘The American Dream’ was to work hard and you would succeed; also, the way other Americans saw you was highly important. This was usually based on your appearance and the way you associated yourself with others. From the beginning of the play, we immediately feel part of Willy Loman’s Life. Willy Loman is a salesman who also is a keen family man and the way others see him is highly important to him. The way in which Willy sees the US Society makes him feel he needs to make a conventional living. This is shown in a number of ways mainly through his long speeches, which baffle the reader as he is fluent in language and is able to talk to everyone easily. This skill that Willy has allows him to interact with others and this helps them gain their attentions, Willy also gains respect from this. As Willy is able to talk to people fluently and confidently the audience feel he could do more for himself but he is unaware of this and is only interested in maintaining his pride and the way others see him. The way Arthur Miller has chosen to reflect Willy Loman to the audience of this play shows us the classic conventions of a tragic hero. A classical tragic hero’s conventions are a hero whose status means that his downfall will be significant, affecting many people. We also expect to see the hero’s suffering reveal essential truths about humanity and whose greatness of character and talent are tragically wasted through circumstance. A Tragic Hero should also have a fatal weakness, which leads to destruction and should find some degree of release and resignation when facing death. In the play we see Willy not being able to come to terms with reality. He lives in his dreams and derives all his pleasures from the past, which he distorts to convince himself that all is well. When he is having a conversation with Linda he hears a cry of a woman’s laughter in his head (Act 1 Pg 24) – this tells us he is not of sound mind. Pride is central to Willy’s character as he is proud to be (or pretending to be) a successful salesman. Even though his life is a massive self-deception he still tries to retain his hopes. Even as he contemplates suicide, he is hopeful that the insurance money payable on his death will give Biff, his son, the start to life he needs. As we read the play we are able to see Willy’s admirable qualities. He is a proud man and this helps him to gain respect from other people. As a father, he wants his son to look up to him, which makes him expect quite a lot from his family – “I see great things for you kids, I think your troubles are over. But remember, start big and you’ll end big… ” (Act 1 Pg 46). Willy Loman promises his family great things but we, the audience, just know these are idle promises made by a very inspired family man because of his occupation, which gives him an assumed high status. This shows the audience that no matter what you say and do, the way you act towards others gains you the respect. The amount of humanity within Willy’s personality is debatable. He shows compassion towards his sons, Biff in particular, but is a bully towards his wife, as he never listens to her opinions. For example, when she asks him to have a word with Biff on how to treat women Willy just yells ‘Shut up! ‘ (Act 1 Pg 26) and when she tells him to speak to Biff about his attitude towards his subjects at school Willy shouts at her “… (exploding at her) There’s nothing the matter with him! From this evidence we are able to see that Willy is the more dominant partner within the marriage. Throughout the play we see two sides to Willy’s personality. This meets one of the conventions of a classical tragic hero i. e. Willy’s greatness of character and talent are tragically wasted through circumstance. We admire Willy’s greatness of character as he is calm and he just wants the best for his family. We see the amount of influence Willy Loman has among people. Both his sons Biff and Happy idolise their Father. This is because Willy shows some humane aspect in the things he does. Willy is prepared to go to Biff’s teacher and demand he gives him enough marks to pass. His father in particular influences Biff and we see that when the pair first appear in the play “… Gee, I’d love to go with you sometime, Dad” (Act 1 Pg 19). This quote shows us how much Biff is infatuated with his father and how much of a great influence he had on his sons. The audience are not able to understand how the two sons are fixated upon the supposed success of their father. We are able to assume that this influence is based upon the exaggerated stories Willy tells them and the audience also sees the influence of Willy when he is talking to his sons and other characters. Willy does have an extraordinary impact on his sons in particular and this is an important attribute to have for a classical tragic hero. Because of Willy’s status his downfall will be significant and affect many people because of the way he thinks he has consolidated himself into the society around him and again this helps the character of Willy Loman to conform to a classical tragic hero. Due to Willy’s status in the society around him he would have a lot of value to the people that knew him. Initially, this would be the case but at the end of the play at Willy’s funeral his wife Linda asks, “Why didn’t anyone come? ” (Requiem Pg 106) and she cannot see why nobody came because to her he portrayed himself to be a man who had admirable qualities and a tremendous influence over his family; “But where are all the people he knew? … ” (Requiem Pg 106). This is saddening as we, the audience, see Linda learning why there was not a significant amount of people there. Willy Loman was a salesman and through reading the play we see that he was very fluent in communicating with others. However, we are able to see that the people to whom he spoke to showed respect to him out of courtesy but did not particularly take an interest in what he really had to say. Throughout his life Willy’s suffering reveals essential truths about humanity and this play helps demonstrate how people should portray themselves to others and to themselves – “I always felt that if a man was impressive, and well liked, that nothing else mattered” (Act 2 Pg 72), this quote shows Willy’s belief regarding the way society saw him. Through Willy’s life experiences and encounters we are able to see the way Willy thinks about life. From this we are unsure whether Arthur Miller is trying to portray Willy as a classical Tragic Hero or a Modern Hero – which is someone who performs actions and says things to please others. Willy as the audience begins to notice, exaggerates about his experiences and manipulates things so that his family think highly of him and likes to believe he has an influence over them. The way in which Willy ‘puts a show on’ towards people he feels close to signifies how importantly he feels about the way others see him. The audience learn from Willy to always be honest with yourself otherwise it will have dire results. We are able to see the effect it has on life just because of Willy’s excusable dishonesty. Through his suffering we are able to see the truths about humanity as people portray themselves differently to make them feel and look better about themselves. We see Willy as a prime example of this and this is when we realise why certain people do or don’t take him seriously. Willy Loman has a talent for being able to interact with others effectively and he is able to make others listen through the way he always talks positively. Within this play the talent of the character of Willy Loman is tragically wasted through circumstance because at school he used to study craftwork but chose to be a salesman instead. This shows how his talent has been tragically wasted. However, his communication skills have probably improved through his current profession and the talent he has could have been put to some other use to provide a better standard of life for his family. Willy is able to talk to everyone easily and this is the main reason behind his success so far, but as he gets older he begins to suffer a mental illness and he begins to speak gibberish and the audience start to hear the words of a confused man – ‘… Simonising Simonising that little red car” (Act 2 Pg78). This is another way his flair for communicating is jeopardised, as he is no longer of sound mind. Willy Loman has two main tragic flaws. The first of which is that he is in the wrong line of work, as his job doesn’t fully justify his real desire and provide him with skills to enhance the amount of fortune for his family. The second is the way he acts, most obviously the way he behaves and portrays himself differently to other characters, but in particular his attitude to Biff. We see Willy act ‘nicely’ to Biff throughout the play but in one scene Willy appears aggressive towards Biff when Biff catches his father having an affair, “… I gave you an order! Biff, come back here or I’ll beat you! Come back here! I’ll whip you! ” (Act 2 Pg 92). This scene and quote demonstrates another side to Willy – the aggressiveness of Willy compared to his usual self, which is not always orthodox but rather eccentric. We see another attribute that will conform to the conventions of a classical tragic hero, which is that Willy’s downfall will be significant affecting many people. Willy feels more calm and relaxed when he thinks about committing suicide so that the family gain insurance from his death and he believes that by doing this he will be helping his family, after all, Willy was a family man. Willy finds a degree of release and resignation when facing death as he feels it is the only solution and will result in the best outcome – this is significant for the audience as we see Willy in a more compassionate light and we see that he is doing this for the good of his family, although the traumatic effects it will have on his family is not considered at this point because of the gesture that Willy is willing to commit. Willy now knows that after he pays off his life insurance his life is worth more than what he has earned “After all the highways, and the trains, and the appointments and the years, you end up worth more, more dead than alive” (Act 2 Pg 73) – This quote shows how depressed Willy is about his life and is severely for committing an act of suicide to help support his family financially. This is an example of catharsis and Willy tries to outlet his emotions by acting and saying what he does In the play, Death of a Salesman, the main character, Willy Loman has all the required attributes to conform to the conventions of a classical tragic hero. This is seen and shown through his actions which when portrayed to the audience show an extraordinary side to Willy. Willy’s status is an important factor within this play and because of his status in the eyes of his family; we find that his downfall is significant as we see the effects of this when it affects the people close to him. His downfall is significant as his respectful son begins to lose admiration of Willy and other people feel sorry for him because of the way he acts and do not take him seriously. Through Willy’s experiences essential truths are revealed through his suffering such as the way people behave and act to make them feel more superior about the image about themselves that they are portraying towards others. We are able to see from Death of a Salesman that the character Willy Loman had the attributes to conform to the tragic conventions of a typical Classical Tragic Hero. This is because within this play there was a death of a central character, which had admirable qualities and had as huge influence among others. Willy’s downfall was significant as he managed to leave an enormous impression and portrayal to all of the people who he met and we are able to see that from his suffering he was able to tell is of essential truths about humanity and how people depict and generalise one another. From this play, Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller, we learn that the way someone is seen by another is very important to that person in particular this is because it helps motivate self-esteem. The play also shows what the ‘American Dream’ is about, this is the way people see you through your actions or sayings. The message from this play is to behave in your normal manner and not to be intimidated by the way others perceive you.	2,751	ENGLISH	1
Our Founding Fathers: James Madison James Madison’s Early Life James Madison, Jr. was born on March 16, 1751, near Port Conway, Virginia as the oldest child out of 12 siblings. His father was a tobacco planter from Orange County, Virginia. His mother was from Port Conway as well and was the daughter of a tobacco merchant and merchant. James Madison’s Schooling Between the ages of 11 to 18, James Madison studied under a private tutor where he learned math, languages, and geography. After preparing for college, James Madison entered the College of New Jersey. After graduating, he joined the American Whig Society, which was his first experience in politics. James Madison’s Career In 1774, James Madison was elected to Orange County’s Committee of Safety, and two years later he was on the committee that created the Virginia Constitution. He helped write the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which helped form the Bill of Rights of the Constitution. James Madison was also a member of Virginia’s first legislative assembly. This is where he Thomas Jefferson, another Founding Father who he became lifelong friends with. The Constitutional Convention After three years, James Madison was elected into the Continental Congress. He eventually returned to Virginia politics and later became a delegate for Virginia to the Constitutional Convention. At the Constitutional Convention, James Madison wrote the Virginia Plan. This plan was the foundation for the United States Constitution that the delegates eventually made into the new government. He also supported the Constitution by acting as a member of the Virginia Ratifying Convention and by writing the Federalist Papers with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton. Later, James Madison became a House of Representatives from 1789 to 1797. He wrote and introduced the Bill of Rights, which became the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. Also around this time, James Madison joined with James Monroe and Thomas Jefferson to form the Democratic-Republican Party. Because of this friendship between Madison and Jefferson, he was appointed by Jefferson as Secretary of State in 1801. After Thomas Jefferson retired, James Madison became the President of the United States. James Madison retired from the Presidency in 1817. He spent his time fixing his life and protecting his legacy. He died in 1836 at the age of 85 as the last Founding Father. Facts About James Madison • James Madison has nickname – “Father of the Constitution.” • His wife Dolley Payne Todd Madison was 17 years younger than him. • He was the very last president from the Federalist Party. • He was one of the shortest and lightest presidents. He only weight 100 lbs and was only 5’4”. • James Madison was the youngest member at the constitutional Convention. • The song “Star-Spangled Banner” was written while James Madison was president. • James Madison was the very first president who had also been a Congressman. • James Madison as well as only two other presidents did not have any children. • James Madison’s last words were “I always talk better lying down.”	<urn:uuid:226d90ac-0754-46b8-b527-6e6421bd3d2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/category/Kids/page/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00497.warc.gz	en	0.984708	635	3.34375	3	[ -0.18442469835281372, 0.1298295557498932, 0.5853376388549805, -0.693536639213562, -0.470049113035202, 0.5000636577606201, 0.09787608683109283, -0.018957696855068207, -0.24585768580436707, -0.040630340576171875, 0.12112029641866684, 0.18533317744731903, -0.12058292329311371, 0.6223652958869...	5	Our Founding Fathers: James Madison James Madison’s Early Life James Madison, Jr. was born on March 16, 1751, near Port Conway, Virginia as the oldest child out of 12 siblings. His father was a tobacco planter from Orange County, Virginia. His mother was from Port Conway as well and was the daughter of a tobacco merchant and merchant. James Madison’s Schooling Between the ages of 11 to 18, James Madison studied under a private tutor where he learned math, languages, and geography. After preparing for college, James Madison entered the College of New Jersey. After graduating, he joined the American Whig Society, which was his first experience in politics. James Madison’s Career In 1774, James Madison was elected to Orange County’s Committee of Safety, and two years later he was on the committee that created the Virginia Constitution. He helped write the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which helped form the Bill of Rights of the Constitution. James Madison was also a member of Virginia’s first legislative assembly. This is where he Thomas Jefferson, another Founding Father who he became lifelong friends with. The Constitutional Convention After three years, James Madison was elected into the Continental Congress. He eventually returned to Virginia politics and later became a delegate for Virginia to the Constitutional Convention. At the Constitutional Convention, James Madison wrote the Virginia Plan. This plan was the foundation for the United States Constitution that the delegates eventually made into the new government. He also supported the Constitution by acting as a member of the Virginia Ratifying Convention and by writing the Federalist Papers with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton. Later, James Madison became a House of Representatives from 1789 to 1797. He wrote and introduced the Bill of Rights, which became the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. Also around this time, James Madison joined with James Monroe and Thomas Jefferson to form the Democratic-Republican Party. Because of this friendship between Madison and Jefferson, he was appointed by Jefferson as Secretary of State in 1801. After Thomas Jefferson retired, James Madison became the President of the United States. James Madison retired from the Presidency in 1817. He spent his time fixing his life and protecting his legacy. He died in 1836 at the age of 85 as the last Founding Father. Facts About James Madison • James Madison has nickname – “Father of the Constitution.” • His wife Dolley Payne Todd Madison was 17 years younger than him. • He was the very last president from the Federalist Party. • He was one of the shortest and lightest presidents. He only weight 100 lbs and was only 5’4”. • James Madison was the youngest member at the constitutional Convention. • The song “Star-Spangled Banner” was written while James Madison was president. • James Madison was the very first president who had also been a Congressman. • James Madison as well as only two other presidents did not have any children. • James Madison’s last words were “I always talk better lying down.”	641	ENGLISH	1
Perth Causeway links to early colonial transportation and city heritage It is a prosaic roadway that connects Perth city from north to south, but the development of the causeway bridge was crucial to the development of the colony. In 1829, the area in the Swan River now called Heirisson Island was initially two islands surrounded by mud flats, and called Matagarup by the traditional Noongar owners. "The river was totally unnavigable at this point for the early colonial settlers," explained Richard Offen from Heritage Perth. "If they wanted to get up to Guildford, further east, they had to drag their boats over the mud flats. "I'm sure from the very early days of the colony people were saying 'when are we going to get a bridge?' "It took a little bit of time but at a meeting of the Roads Board Trust in February 1839 a motion was passed for "the erection of a bridge and causeway across the flats at Perth, which is a very real utility, and would materially benefit the Settlers throughout the Colony'." By 1843 the first causeway and two bridges on the northern and southern sides had been built, the flats had been consolidated on Heirisson Island and the river dredged somewhat for river boats. A toll was charged to almost every person who used the bridges, including pedestrians. Farmers were charged for each head of livestock that crossed and the only exceptions were for soldiers in uniform and mail carriers. It became known as simply "the Causeway" and changed transport in the early colony. "It created a better connection between Guildford, the Upper Swan, York and Fremantle," Mr Offen said. "It was even suggested that plots of land on the islands could perhaps now be rented for summer gardens and small homesteads. "However, by the 1860s the bridge was in 'a moribund state' according to the local papers and in 1862 it was almost completely submerged in some very serious floods. "This clearly weakened the bridge. It was also very narrow and there were often accidents involving horses and carts. "In 1867 a Mr E.C Loftie was fined forty shillings for causing an obstruction on the causeway. "It turned out the herd of cattle he was driving got frightened and wedged themselves between the railings so that they could not be moved for over an hour." A new causeway, designed by colonial Superintendent of Public Works Richard Roach Jewell, was built by convict labour and opened in November 1867. "The bridges were constructed of Jarrah, but, because of lack of funds, much material from the original bridge was reused, which meant that it was a bit weak," Mr Offen said. "They actually drew the jarrah piles from the river out for the new bridge, and they were still in extremely good condition. "Although the new structure was much better than the original, it was still quite narrow and uneven and there were weaknesses in it, and it was repaired umpteen times." The causeway was widened in 1905 so that trams could cross to Victoria Park on the south side and it was widened another 10 feet in 1932. "By the mid-1930s however, the bridge was in very poor condition for traffic, which included motor vehicles by then, and there were great concerns," Mr Offen said. "As a result of work to create new, deeper river channels, taking place as part of the Swan River Improvement Act, a site was chosen upstream of the original bridges for a new bridge. "It was decided in the 1930s but World War II put a halt to everything." Work eventually began in 1949 and the steel and concrete bridge, still used today, opened in 1952. Two roundabouts were added at each end to ease the flow of traffic into the roads. In 1998 the bridges were placed on the Western Australian Heritage Register. Major patching of cracks in the concrete piers was done in 2004 to extend the life of the bridges, which carry thousands of vehicles every day. On 'What's all that about?' Lorraine Horsley explores a hidden part of Perth's past, every Monday at 7:15am on 720 ABC Perth Breakfast. More history from 720 ABC Perth: - Bringing the Wadjuk spirits to rest on Rottnest Island - The history of the first and only remaining rowing club on the Perth city foreshore - Mapping Noongar Perth: new guide details Indigenous history in the CBD - Maylands: Historic boatyard survives for amateur builders - Sunset Hospital: from paupers' home to prime real estate - Lawson flats: One of Perth's finest surviving inter-war apartment buildings is set to lose its view	<urn:uuid:703ceae1-022d-408b-947d-754a3a8e0dbc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-19/perth-causeway-history/6025254	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00415.warc.gz	en	0.987029	993	3.3125	3	[ 0.12364570796489716, -0.08808169513940811, 0.3048222064971924, 0.07655450701713562, -0.2011697143316269, 0.4019589424133301, 0.022058315575122833, 0.014079364947974682, -0.3422534167766571, -0.06335438787937164, 0.15394508838653564, -0.4592111110687256, -0.06937399506568909, 0.453711926937...	1	Perth Causeway links to early colonial transportation and city heritage It is a prosaic roadway that connects Perth city from north to south, but the development of the causeway bridge was crucial to the development of the colony. In 1829, the area in the Swan River now called Heirisson Island was initially two islands surrounded by mud flats, and called Matagarup by the traditional Noongar owners. "The river was totally unnavigable at this point for the early colonial settlers," explained Richard Offen from Heritage Perth. "If they wanted to get up to Guildford, further east, they had to drag their boats over the mud flats. "I'm sure from the very early days of the colony people were saying 'when are we going to get a bridge?' "It took a little bit of time but at a meeting of the Roads Board Trust in February 1839 a motion was passed for "the erection of a bridge and causeway across the flats at Perth, which is a very real utility, and would materially benefit the Settlers throughout the Colony'." By 1843 the first causeway and two bridges on the northern and southern sides had been built, the flats had been consolidated on Heirisson Island and the river dredged somewhat for river boats. A toll was charged to almost every person who used the bridges, including pedestrians. Farmers were charged for each head of livestock that crossed and the only exceptions were for soldiers in uniform and mail carriers. It became known as simply "the Causeway" and changed transport in the early colony. "It created a better connection between Guildford, the Upper Swan, York and Fremantle," Mr Offen said. "It was even suggested that plots of land on the islands could perhaps now be rented for summer gardens and small homesteads. "However, by the 1860s the bridge was in 'a moribund state' according to the local papers and in 1862 it was almost completely submerged in some very serious floods. "This clearly weakened the bridge. It was also very narrow and there were often accidents involving horses and carts. "In 1867 a Mr E.C Loftie was fined forty shillings for causing an obstruction on the causeway. "It turned out the herd of cattle he was driving got frightened and wedged themselves between the railings so that they could not be moved for over an hour." A new causeway, designed by colonial Superintendent of Public Works Richard Roach Jewell, was built by convict labour and opened in November 1867. "The bridges were constructed of Jarrah, but, because of lack of funds, much material from the original bridge was reused, which meant that it was a bit weak," Mr Offen said. "They actually drew the jarrah piles from the river out for the new bridge, and they were still in extremely good condition. "Although the new structure was much better than the original, it was still quite narrow and uneven and there were weaknesses in it, and it was repaired umpteen times." The causeway was widened in 1905 so that trams could cross to Victoria Park on the south side and it was widened another 10 feet in 1932. "By the mid-1930s however, the bridge was in very poor condition for traffic, which included motor vehicles by then, and there were great concerns," Mr Offen said. "As a result of work to create new, deeper river channels, taking place as part of the Swan River Improvement Act, a site was chosen upstream of the original bridges for a new bridge. "It was decided in the 1930s but World War II put a halt to everything." Work eventually began in 1949 and the steel and concrete bridge, still used today, opened in 1952. Two roundabouts were added at each end to ease the flow of traffic into the roads. In 1998 the bridges were placed on the Western Australian Heritage Register. Major patching of cracks in the concrete piers was done in 2004 to extend the life of the bridges, which carry thousands of vehicles every day. On 'What's all that about?' Lorraine Horsley explores a hidden part of Perth's past, every Monday at 7:15am on 720 ABC Perth Breakfast. More history from 720 ABC Perth: - Bringing the Wadjuk spirits to rest on Rottnest Island - The history of the first and only remaining rowing club on the Perth city foreshore - Mapping Noongar Perth: new guide details Indigenous history in the CBD - Maylands: Historic boatyard survives for amateur builders - Sunset Hospital: from paupers' home to prime real estate - Lawson flats: One of Perth's finest surviving inter-war apartment buildings is set to lose its view	1,013	ENGLISH	1
Scientists handle the lifecycle of various stars quite well. They know the kinds of stars that are likely to die in fiery supernova explosions, and they know that not all supernova are created equal. Nevertheless, space holds many unresolved secrets, and a new study published in The Astrophysical Journal shows that scientists had questioned their understanding of the supernova after observing an explosion that was so massive was that they initially thought their instruments were broken. The explosion in question called SN2016iet was first discovered in 2016, but it took another three years for astronomers to truly understand what they saw. "When we first saw how extraordinary SN201 "Everything about this supernova looks different – its change in brightness over time, its spectrum, the galaxy it is in, and even where it is in its galaxy," explains Professor Dr. Edo Berger. "We sometimes see supernovae that are unusual in one way but otherwise normal. This one is unique in every way. For the future, the team plans to continue watching SN2016iet and hopefully learn more about its past and future. This is made easier by the fact that the blast was incredibly bright and located in a bare area of the sky, so we may be able to teach even more.	<urn:uuid:a10d75d1-e39e-4fc7-aacd-41054bbafb77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newsbeezer.com/scientists-were-stunned-after-discovering-the-record-breaking-supernova-bgr/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00335.warc.gz	en	0.984914	253	3.515625	4	[ -0.3828437328338623, -0.2545017600059509, -0.29876863956451416, -0.4121546745300293, 0.3079685568809509, -0.04795122146606445, 0.18502332270145416, 0.07849593460559845, -0.09973432123661041, -0.1234235167503357, 0.4597935676574707, -0.005852315574884415, -0.05982520058751106, 0.19171600043...	3	Scientists handle the lifecycle of various stars quite well. They know the kinds of stars that are likely to die in fiery supernova explosions, and they know that not all supernova are created equal. Nevertheless, space holds many unresolved secrets, and a new study published in The Astrophysical Journal shows that scientists had questioned their understanding of the supernova after observing an explosion that was so massive was that they initially thought their instruments were broken. The explosion in question called SN2016iet was first discovered in 2016, but it took another three years for astronomers to truly understand what they saw. "When we first saw how extraordinary SN201 "Everything about this supernova looks different – its change in brightness over time, its spectrum, the galaxy it is in, and even where it is in its galaxy," explains Professor Dr. Edo Berger. "We sometimes see supernovae that are unusual in one way but otherwise normal. This one is unique in every way. For the future, the team plans to continue watching SN2016iet and hopefully learn more about its past and future. This is made easier by the fact that the blast was incredibly bright and located in a bare area of the sky, so we may be able to teach even more.	260	ENGLISH	1
The Nelson Signal Station Britannia Heights was first used as the location for a signal staff in 1841, following the arrival of the New Zealand Company's Preliminary Expedition to establish the settlement of Nelson. Captain Arthur Wakefield, the expedition leader, selected the site because of its visibility to shipping. Carpenters formed the signal staff from a spar cut in the Wood, and it was raised on December 13, 1841. The Union Jack was hoisted by Wakefield's servant, William Songer, who had looked after it on the voyage out.1 The signal staff was needed because Nelson Haven had a difficult entrance, which could only be safely navigated between full and half tide. A red flag at the top of the staff or at half-mast signalled full or half tide, with the absence of a flag indicating insufficient water. Other communication with shipping was done by means of Marryat's signals, a code devised by the author Frederick Marryat while he was serving in the British navy. Edward Jerningham Wakefield recorded that his uncle's tent had been pitched near the flagstaff so that he was on the spot when signalling needed to be done.2page 44 A nine-pounder carronade was put beside the flagstaff on January 24, 1842 for use as a signal gun. It was one of four obtained from Bailey Pegg and Company, iron merchants and founders of Gun Wharf, Wapping in London, by the New Zealand Company. On arrival they had been unloaded onto the landing beach, where they lay scattered among ploughs and cart wheels. Jimmy Spain is said to have put one on his shoulder and carried it up Russell Street to the signal staff, which would have been quite a feat, given its weight. The carronade had been developed by the Carron Company of Scotland in the late 18th century and its destructive effect saw it became known as the Smasher.3 When the Fifeshire, the first of the immigrant ships, sailed into the Haven on February 1, 1842, the signal gun was fired in salute. From September that year it was fired at noon every Saturday as a time signal, for people to check the accuracy of their timepieces. The first firing, carried out by Captain Wilson, was noted by John Saxton, and he also recorded an occasion on which Stephen Carkeek, the Customs officer, strained his back trying to lift the 12 o'clock gun.4 The signal staff became the target of vandalism, with a reward of 10 pounds being offered for information in the Nelson Examiner of July 23, 1842: "Whereas the signal staff on Britannia Heights was maliciously cut down on the night of Monday the 11th of July the above reward will be paid by the undersigned to any person or persons who shall give such information as shall lead to the conviction of the offender or offenders. H Augustus Thompson, Government Representative". The signalling system became more sophisticated in 1844, taking advantage of the fact that the site was also visible from the town. Under the new system, when a vessel appeared in the bay, a pennant was hoisted to the top of the staff. Once it had been identified, a further signal was raised showing one of a series of shapes representing a number. This identified the vessel type, from a barque, brigantine, schooner, cutter, sloop or lugger to a British man of war, foreign merchant ship, whaler, government colonial vessel or steamer. The ever-vigilant John Saxton noted on October 29, 1844 that he had seen the new signals announcing a vessel in sight, for the first time, while standing at Mr Butt's gate. The arrival of ships was of intense interest to the townspeople, who might be waiting for cargo, passengers, or just news from the outside world.5 The custom of firing the time gun lapsed after a while, but it was revived in September 1858. Alfred Domett, the Provincial Secretary, published an advisory notice: "His Honour the Superintendent directs it to be notified that a gun will be fired every Saturday punctually at twelve o'clock noon on the Flagstaff Hill".page 45 First signal station, Port Nelson. Watercolour on paper (detail). Collection of The Suter Art Gallery, Te Aratoi o Whakatū. The Colonist commented that this would be a great boon, as the lack of an authentic source from which to correct timepieces had been felt for a long time. The first firing took place on September 11, 1858, causing "a simultaneous examination of watches and timepieces as had rarely been witnessed in Nelson". The event was reported as follows: "On Saturday, for the first time, the Time Gun, as advertised by the Government, was fired, and a general expectation seemed to prevail amongst the inhabitants. The watches of some showed noon so far past that they began to think it had been forgotten. At last, however, the sound of the gun was heard, and the white smoke curling along the side page 46of the hill shewed the situation of the cannon. It was amusing to hear the remarks made by owners of various timepieces, each of which, in its owner's opinion, had been the only true timekeeper – some 20 minutes wrong, some more, some less. Amongst some of the new-comers the strange sound induced them to believe that they had at last heard and known what a New Zealand earthquake is". The signalman at the time was Tom Freeman and the weekly firing must have added an element of excitement to his duties. He had been appointed in 1857 at a salary of 91 pounds 5 shillings. A new signal staff with two yard-arms was erected in 1860 at a cost of 20 pounds. The new signal code featured a system of flags and balls, with a red flag and a ball at the masthead at low water. The ball was lowered when there was 10 feet of water over the bar and the red flag kept flying until high water. Ebb tide was denoted by a Blue Peter at the masthead. It was about this time that a signal station was built, which included living quarters for the signalman. The type of vessel arriving was signalled by balls at various places on the yard-arms. For example a ball at the south end of the lower arm indicated a barque, while a ball at the north end of the upper yard meant a brig. The code for steamers was a ball with a white flag at the north end of the lower yard for one from the north and at the south end for one from the south.6 A new set of signal balls and a tide flag were purchased in 1861 and an additional smaller staff was erected about 1865, which had a code identifying 11 individual coastal vessels. The larger staff now had individual codes for the steamers Nelson, Lyttelton and Wallabi and the need for the presence of police, Health Officers or Inspectors of sheep and cattle could also be signalled. In a further refinement, the angle of an arm below the lower yard indicated if a steamer was inside or outside the harbour.7 Henry Jacobsen was appointed as signalman in 1876, a position he had previously held in Westport. George Britt, who was interviewed in 1963 at the age of 91, recalled participating in the firing of the time gun as a six-year-old. He helped Jacobsen by collecting the rags that were stuffed in the barrel and was allowed to fire it as a reward. He told of how, on one Saturday, some boys secretly rammed the barrel with rocks. There was an unholy noise when it was fired and many windows in Washington Valley were broken as a result.8 There was great dismay in May 1888, when the tide staff was removed to the Boulder Bank. This increased when it was learned that the main signal staff was also to be relocated. The Nelson Evening Mail stated that, unless the City Council could page 47see their way to make some arrangement for the arrival of vessels to be signalled to the town, considerable inconvenience would be caused by the Marine Department's action. It opined that the public was unlikely to accept the matter quietly. The Colonist also weighed in to the controversy, hoping that the community's parliamentary representatives would take the first opportunity to make strong representation on the subject. It suggested the City Council organise a petition to revert to the old order of things, as virtually every citizen would sign it. HA Levestam, the local MP, obtained a promise that neither the signal staff, nor the signalman would be interfered with.9 It proved to be only a temporary stay of execution, however, and in April 1890 it was reported that the Marine Department had decided to do away with the signal staff on Britannia Heights. A staff was to be erected at the Post Office, from which the approach of vessels would be signalled on receipt of telephonic messages from the lighthouse keeper. At that time the Post Office was in Upper Trafalgar Street. The new flagstaff was installed at the beginning of May by the pilot boat crew, under the supervision of the Pilot, Mr Low. The somewhat unsightly staff was fixed to an upright piece of wood in the passageway leading to the mailroom, and to the moulding of the parapet of the building. The top of the staff was only 20 feet above the parapet, which limited its visibility. A wickerwork ball was fixed so that it could be hauled up and, on its own, would indicate the arrival of a sailing vessel. A blue or white flag would signal a steamer from the north or the south, and a white pennant with a red centre would be used for vessels carrying English mail. The Nelson Evening Mail was scathing of the new set up. It suggested someone in the Marine Department was playing a joke upon the citizens of Nelson, as the new staff was the laughing stock of the town. It needed to be much higher and, if the building couldn't support it, a proper staff should be erected on Church Hill. Had there been the smallest suspicion of what was to happen there would have been an immediate outcry. "The Member for the city, the Mayor and the Chairman of the Chamber of Commerce should lose no time in representing to the Department the absolute uselessness of the staff as it now stood." The offending flagstaff was replaced by a somewhat longer one a few days later. Henry Jacobsen was transferred to Manukau and sailed with his family on the Wanaka on May 6, 1890. His departure would have put an end to the firing of the time gun if it hadn't already stopped before then.10page 48 The planting was set for July 25, 1900, Boys' Arbor Day, after being postponed a week for wet weather. At about 9am a great number of boys armed with spades and like implements were seen going through town en route for Britannia Heights. They were divided into companies under Mr FG Gibbs of Boys' Central School and his assistant teachers. The boys worked splendidly, planting several hundred trees in a workmanlike manner, mainly pinus insignis and macracarpa, plus oak, mimosa and cabbage trees. A good specimen of Wellingtonia gigantea, with a ticket reading "Captain Wakefield's tree", was planted near the site of the old flagstaff by Messrs Quirk and Christian, under the supervision of Councillor Piper.11 William Songer had failed to appear at the Council Chambers at the appointed time and Cr Piper, who was in charge of the expedition, had set off without him. Songer had been delayed and the planting had been completed by the time he arrived. The matter was vigorously discussed at the next Council meeting. Piper reported on what had taken place and moved that the matter be referred to the Finance Committee to arrange the production of a suitable brass inscription. Cr Baigent interjected that William Songer was disappointed and annoyed at being deprived of the pleasure of participating in so interesting an occasion. He proposed that the tree be uprooted, and then replanted with Songer's assistance, which Piper described as nonsense, but the motion was passed. Nothing had been done by the time of the next meeting, which caused a regular hubbub, and various councillors insisted that the resolution to replant the tree be carried out. Cr Baigent pointed out that the inscription saying Songer had planted the tree would be an untruth. On the other hand, Mr Hale had told Cr Harley that the tree would probably die if uprooted, unless great care was taken. It was eventually agreed that the original resolution should stand. And so, on August 20, 1900, Crs Baigent, Akersten, Kirkpatrick and Lock, together with William Songer, proceeded to Britannia Heights for the ceremony. The tree was carefully removed by Mr Hale and replanted by Mr Songer who, despite the burden of years, showed that his physical activity had not entirely departed. Having planted the tree in memory of his Captain in a most workmanlike manner, he then gave an account of the doings of the expeditionary party to those assembled. The only others present were a reporter from The Colonist and Mr FN Jones, who may have photographed the occasion.12 A secure fence was put up to save the tree from the depredations of grazing cows page 49and a seat was put in place for those who made the climb. A small yellow notice board explained that the tree commemorated the hoisting of the British flag. It was noted in 1924 that the tree had "not flourished as it should have done, but then it had had a false start in life".13 The brass plate had gone by the time of the centenary of settlement in 1941, when the area around the tree was tidied up, with a lawn being sown. The notice board was repainted and a new seat, donated by BB Jones, was put in place. A ceremony on Britannia Heights followed the unveiling of a memorial stone on Wakefield Quay on November 2, 1941. The Union Jack was broken out from a sapling flagstaff, which had been put on the site of the original, by Mrs Maud Kelly who was a descendant of James Cross. The tree provided the cheering spectators with shelter from the rain.14 At some stage the time gun was moved to Albion Square and from there to the Queen's Gardens. When the Turkish pontoon was installed there at the end of 1915, the time gun was put beside it, together with another of the four original carronades. In 1843, three of them had been used in the fortification of Church Hill and then, in 1851, two had been shipped to Wellington on the Victoria, following an order from the Superintendent of the Southern Division. The one that had remained on Church Hill featured in a report of vandalism in May 1866: "Public Garden, Trafalgar Square Complaints are frequently made of the injury done to the trees and shrubs of this garden by persons who frequent there. It is common practice to break the gums, mimosas and other trees, which are so great an ornament in the garden. Names are carved on the seats and the cannon which, if taken care of, might add to the attractiveness of the place is made, by the roughs complained of, to batter down the shrubs. Some authority should interfere to put an end to this gothic amusement of the town urchins who do not seem to have been sufficiently well educated to respect public property".15 The two cannon and the pontoon were mounted outside the RSA premises in Rutherford Street in 1953, but ten years later they were in the way of an extension to the building. The pontoon was consigned to the tip and it was proposed to return the time gun to Britannia Heights and put the other cannon in Isel Park. There was conjecture at the RSA that they were also to be dumped and, in a pre-emptive strike, they were removed to two private addresses late one night.16 A request by the Regional Committee of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust in 1958 to mark the signal station site was rebuffed. It was deemed that the page 50Wakefields were already well commemorated in a number of places. The committee tried again in 1964, pointing out that a permanent memorial was inevitable, because of local feeling, and the Trust might as well have the honour attached to it, rather than stand condemned for its lack of interest. It was agreed that the history of the site should be recorded on a notice board, research was carried out and the new board was displayed at the 1971 Annual General Meeting to favourable comment.17 The two cannon made an appearance at the opening of the Trafalgar Centre in February 1973, with one of them being fired to mark the occasion. In August 1973 it was reported that the time gun was to return to its original site on Britannia Heights, when road works in the area had been completed. This did not happen, however, and the notice board was put in place in 1974. The cannon were in Nelson City Council custody by 1982 and the NZHPT committee asked that the time gun be put beside its notice board. The Council refused, on the grounds that vandalism would be a problem. The cannon are now on display at Founders Heritage Park. A new NZHPT interpretation board was unveiled in March 2003.18 The last word, of course, has to go the William Songer. The memorable tree has flourished and, by some strange quirk, instead of bearing the name of Arthur Wakefield, in whose memory it was planted, has become known by the name of the man who planted it: the Songer Tree. \|1\|\|Wakefield, A. (1841–1842). Journal. Dec 6–13, 1841. Unpublished manuscript. Nelson Provincial Museum Research Facility; Col Aug 21, 1900.\| \|2\|\|Wakefield, E.J. (1845) Adventure in New Zealand. London: John Murray. p237; NE Jun 11, 1842.\| \|3\|\|Wakefield, A, Jan 25, 1842; Wakefield, E.J. p237; Adams, P. (1969) Britannia Heights. NZHPT Newsletter, no 13, Nov 1969, 8–12; Saunders, M. (1980). Report.\| \|4\|\|Allan, R.M. (1965). Nelson: A history of early settlement. Wellington: Reed P85; Saxton, J.W. (1843–1853). Diary. Sep 29, 1842, Mar 1, 1845. Unpublished manuscript. Nelson Provincial Museum Research Facility.\| \|5\|\|NE Nov 2, 1844; Saxton, J.W. Oct 29, 1844.\| \|6\|\|NE Sep 11, 15, 1858; Col Sep 10, 14, 1858; Nelson Provincial Council. Votes and proceedings. 1858, Jul 1860, 1863.\| \|7\|\|Nelson almanac directory and year book for 1865. Nelson: R.Lucas.\| \|8\|\|Nelson Provincial Council. Gazette. Nov 22, 1866; Nelson almanac. 1876; Saunders, M.\| \|9\|\|Col May 8, 21, Jun 1, 9 1888; NEM May 7, 1888.\| \|10\|\|Col May 3, 8, 1890; NEM Apr 26, May 2, 3, 7, 1890.\| \|11\|\|Col Jul 26,1900.\| \|12\|\|NEM Jul 25, Aug 4, 19 1900; Col Aug 20, 21, 1900.\| \|13\|\|Grace, A.A. (1924). The jubilee history of the Nelson City Council, 1874-1924. Nelson: Evening Mail Office.\| \|14\|\|NEM Oct 31, Nov 3 1941.\| \|15\|\|Allan, R.M. P268; Superintendent of the Southern Division. Inwards correspondence. 1/4, Oct 9, 1851; NEM May 14, 1866.\| \|17\|\|NZHPT Newsletter 1969; NZHPT. Nelson Regional Committee. Correspondence. Jan 12, 1970.\| \|18\|\|NZHPT. Nelson Regional Committee. Correspondence. Jun 14, Aug 23, 1982; NEM Aug 30, 1973; Leader Mar 20, 2003.\|	<urn:uuid:8d0c681e-efcc-4e0d-8bd8-93dced3d19a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-NHSJ07_01-t1-g1-t7.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00342.warc.gz	en	0.982406	4,225	3.640625	4	[ -0.4611058831214905, -0.028800612315535545, 0.3469710350036621, -0.37447136640548706, -0.2203267216682434, -0.21094799041748047, -0.18716681003570557, 0.17238664627075195, -0.13491317629814148, -0.0653136670589447, 0.11045882105827332, -0.3999596834182739, 0.2470511496067047, 0.07249301671...	7	The Nelson Signal Station Britannia Heights was first used as the location for a signal staff in 1841, following the arrival of the New Zealand Company's Preliminary Expedition to establish the settlement of Nelson. Captain Arthur Wakefield, the expedition leader, selected the site because of its visibility to shipping. Carpenters formed the signal staff from a spar cut in the Wood, and it was raised on December 13, 1841. The Union Jack was hoisted by Wakefield's servant, William Songer, who had looked after it on the voyage out.1 The signal staff was needed because Nelson Haven had a difficult entrance, which could only be safely navigated between full and half tide. A red flag at the top of the staff or at half-mast signalled full or half tide, with the absence of a flag indicating insufficient water. Other communication with shipping was done by means of Marryat's signals, a code devised by the author Frederick Marryat while he was serving in the British navy. Edward Jerningham Wakefield recorded that his uncle's tent had been pitched near the flagstaff so that he was on the spot when signalling needed to be done.2page 44 A nine-pounder carronade was put beside the flagstaff on January 24, 1842 for use as a signal gun. It was one of four obtained from Bailey Pegg and Company, iron merchants and founders of Gun Wharf, Wapping in London, by the New Zealand Company. On arrival they had been unloaded onto the landing beach, where they lay scattered among ploughs and cart wheels. Jimmy Spain is said to have put one on his shoulder and carried it up Russell Street to the signal staff, which would have been quite a feat, given its weight. The carronade had been developed by the Carron Company of Scotland in the late 18th century and its destructive effect saw it became known as the Smasher.3 When the Fifeshire, the first of the immigrant ships, sailed into the Haven on February 1, 1842, the signal gun was fired in salute. From September that year it was fired at noon every Saturday as a time signal, for people to check the accuracy of their timepieces. The first firing, carried out by Captain Wilson, was noted by John Saxton, and he also recorded an occasion on which Stephen Carkeek, the Customs officer, strained his back trying to lift the 12 o'clock gun.4 The signal staff became the target of vandalism, with a reward of 10 pounds being offered for information in the Nelson Examiner of July 23, 1842: "Whereas the signal staff on Britannia Heights was maliciously cut down on the night of Monday the 11th of July the above reward will be paid by the undersigned to any person or persons who shall give such information as shall lead to the conviction of the offender or offenders. H Augustus Thompson, Government Representative". The signalling system became more sophisticated in 1844, taking advantage of the fact that the site was also visible from the town. Under the new system, when a vessel appeared in the bay, a pennant was hoisted to the top of the staff. Once it had been identified, a further signal was raised showing one of a series of shapes representing a number. This identified the vessel type, from a barque, brigantine, schooner, cutter, sloop or lugger to a British man of war, foreign merchant ship, whaler, government colonial vessel or steamer. The ever-vigilant John Saxton noted on October 29, 1844 that he had seen the new signals announcing a vessel in sight, for the first time, while standing at Mr Butt's gate. The arrival of ships was of intense interest to the townspeople, who might be waiting for cargo, passengers, or just news from the outside world.5 The custom of firing the time gun lapsed after a while, but it was revived in September 1858. Alfred Domett, the Provincial Secretary, published an advisory notice: "His Honour the Superintendent directs it to be notified that a gun will be fired every Saturday punctually at twelve o'clock noon on the Flagstaff Hill".page 45 First signal station, Port Nelson. Watercolour on paper (detail). Collection of The Suter Art Gallery, Te Aratoi o Whakatū. The Colonist commented that this would be a great boon, as the lack of an authentic source from which to correct timepieces had been felt for a long time. The first firing took place on September 11, 1858, causing "a simultaneous examination of watches and timepieces as had rarely been witnessed in Nelson". The event was reported as follows: "On Saturday, for the first time, the Time Gun, as advertised by the Government, was fired, and a general expectation seemed to prevail amongst the inhabitants. The watches of some showed noon so far past that they began to think it had been forgotten. At last, however, the sound of the gun was heard, and the white smoke curling along the side page 46of the hill shewed the situation of the cannon. It was amusing to hear the remarks made by owners of various timepieces, each of which, in its owner's opinion, had been the only true timekeeper – some 20 minutes wrong, some more, some less. Amongst some of the new-comers the strange sound induced them to believe that they had at last heard and known what a New Zealand earthquake is". The signalman at the time was Tom Freeman and the weekly firing must have added an element of excitement to his duties. He had been appointed in 1857 at a salary of 91 pounds 5 shillings. A new signal staff with two yard-arms was erected in 1860 at a cost of 20 pounds. The new signal code featured a system of flags and balls, with a red flag and a ball at the masthead at low water. The ball was lowered when there was 10 feet of water over the bar and the red flag kept flying until high water. Ebb tide was denoted by a Blue Peter at the masthead. It was about this time that a signal station was built, which included living quarters for the signalman. The type of vessel arriving was signalled by balls at various places on the yard-arms. For example a ball at the south end of the lower arm indicated a barque, while a ball at the north end of the upper yard meant a brig. The code for steamers was a ball with a white flag at the north end of the lower yard for one from the north and at the south end for one from the south.6 A new set of signal balls and a tide flag were purchased in 1861 and an additional smaller staff was erected about 1865, which had a code identifying 11 individual coastal vessels. The larger staff now had individual codes for the steamers Nelson, Lyttelton and Wallabi and the need for the presence of police, Health Officers or Inspectors of sheep and cattle could also be signalled. In a further refinement, the angle of an arm below the lower yard indicated if a steamer was inside or outside the harbour.7 Henry Jacobsen was appointed as signalman in 1876, a position he had previously held in Westport. George Britt, who was interviewed in 1963 at the age of 91, recalled participating in the firing of the time gun as a six-year-old. He helped Jacobsen by collecting the rags that were stuffed in the barrel and was allowed to fire it as a reward. He told of how, on one Saturday, some boys secretly rammed the barrel with rocks. There was an unholy noise when it was fired and many windows in Washington Valley were broken as a result.8 There was great dismay in May 1888, when the tide staff was removed to the Boulder Bank. This increased when it was learned that the main signal staff was also to be relocated. The Nelson Evening Mail stated that, unless the City Council could page 47see their way to make some arrangement for the arrival of vessels to be signalled to the town, considerable inconvenience would be caused by the Marine Department's action. It opined that the public was unlikely to accept the matter quietly. The Colonist also weighed in to the controversy, hoping that the community's parliamentary representatives would take the first opportunity to make strong representation on the subject. It suggested the City Council organise a petition to revert to the old order of things, as virtually every citizen would sign it. HA Levestam, the local MP, obtained a promise that neither the signal staff, nor the signalman would be interfered with.9 It proved to be only a temporary stay of execution, however, and in April 1890 it was reported that the Marine Department had decided to do away with the signal staff on Britannia Heights. A staff was to be erected at the Post Office, from which the approach of vessels would be signalled on receipt of telephonic messages from the lighthouse keeper. At that time the Post Office was in Upper Trafalgar Street. The new flagstaff was installed at the beginning of May by the pilot boat crew, under the supervision of the Pilot, Mr Low. The somewhat unsightly staff was fixed to an upright piece of wood in the passageway leading to the mailroom, and to the moulding of the parapet of the building. The top of the staff was only 20 feet above the parapet, which limited its visibility. A wickerwork ball was fixed so that it could be hauled up and, on its own, would indicate the arrival of a sailing vessel. A blue or white flag would signal a steamer from the north or the south, and a white pennant with a red centre would be used for vessels carrying English mail. The Nelson Evening Mail was scathing of the new set up. It suggested someone in the Marine Department was playing a joke upon the citizens of Nelson, as the new staff was the laughing stock of the town. It needed to be much higher and, if the building couldn't support it, a proper staff should be erected on Church Hill. Had there been the smallest suspicion of what was to happen there would have been an immediate outcry. "The Member for the city, the Mayor and the Chairman of the Chamber of Commerce should lose no time in representing to the Department the absolute uselessness of the staff as it now stood." The offending flagstaff was replaced by a somewhat longer one a few days later. Henry Jacobsen was transferred to Manukau and sailed with his family on the Wanaka on May 6, 1890. His departure would have put an end to the firing of the time gun if it hadn't already stopped before then.10page 48 The planting was set for July 25, 1900, Boys' Arbor Day, after being postponed a week for wet weather. At about 9am a great number of boys armed with spades and like implements were seen going through town en route for Britannia Heights. They were divided into companies under Mr FG Gibbs of Boys' Central School and his assistant teachers. The boys worked splendidly, planting several hundred trees in a workmanlike manner, mainly pinus insignis and macracarpa, plus oak, mimosa and cabbage trees. A good specimen of Wellingtonia gigantea, with a ticket reading "Captain Wakefield's tree", was planted near the site of the old flagstaff by Messrs Quirk and Christian, under the supervision of Councillor Piper.11 William Songer had failed to appear at the Council Chambers at the appointed time and Cr Piper, who was in charge of the expedition, had set off without him. Songer had been delayed and the planting had been completed by the time he arrived. The matter was vigorously discussed at the next Council meeting. Piper reported on what had taken place and moved that the matter be referred to the Finance Committee to arrange the production of a suitable brass inscription. Cr Baigent interjected that William Songer was disappointed and annoyed at being deprived of the pleasure of participating in so interesting an occasion. He proposed that the tree be uprooted, and then replanted with Songer's assistance, which Piper described as nonsense, but the motion was passed. Nothing had been done by the time of the next meeting, which caused a regular hubbub, and various councillors insisted that the resolution to replant the tree be carried out. Cr Baigent pointed out that the inscription saying Songer had planted the tree would be an untruth. On the other hand, Mr Hale had told Cr Harley that the tree would probably die if uprooted, unless great care was taken. It was eventually agreed that the original resolution should stand. And so, on August 20, 1900, Crs Baigent, Akersten, Kirkpatrick and Lock, together with William Songer, proceeded to Britannia Heights for the ceremony. The tree was carefully removed by Mr Hale and replanted by Mr Songer who, despite the burden of years, showed that his physical activity had not entirely departed. Having planted the tree in memory of his Captain in a most workmanlike manner, he then gave an account of the doings of the expeditionary party to those assembled. The only others present were a reporter from The Colonist and Mr FN Jones, who may have photographed the occasion.12 A secure fence was put up to save the tree from the depredations of grazing cows page 49and a seat was put in place for those who made the climb. A small yellow notice board explained that the tree commemorated the hoisting of the British flag. It was noted in 1924 that the tree had "not flourished as it should have done, but then it had had a false start in life".13 The brass plate had gone by the time of the centenary of settlement in 1941, when the area around the tree was tidied up, with a lawn being sown. The notice board was repainted and a new seat, donated by BB Jones, was put in place. A ceremony on Britannia Heights followed the unveiling of a memorial stone on Wakefield Quay on November 2, 1941. The Union Jack was broken out from a sapling flagstaff, which had been put on the site of the original, by Mrs Maud Kelly who was a descendant of James Cross. The tree provided the cheering spectators with shelter from the rain.14 At some stage the time gun was moved to Albion Square and from there to the Queen's Gardens. When the Turkish pontoon was installed there at the end of 1915, the time gun was put beside it, together with another of the four original carronades. In 1843, three of them had been used in the fortification of Church Hill and then, in 1851, two had been shipped to Wellington on the Victoria, following an order from the Superintendent of the Southern Division. The one that had remained on Church Hill featured in a report of vandalism in May 1866: "Public Garden, Trafalgar Square Complaints are frequently made of the injury done to the trees and shrubs of this garden by persons who frequent there. It is common practice to break the gums, mimosas and other trees, which are so great an ornament in the garden. Names are carved on the seats and the cannon which, if taken care of, might add to the attractiveness of the place is made, by the roughs complained of, to batter down the shrubs. Some authority should interfere to put an end to this gothic amusement of the town urchins who do not seem to have been sufficiently well educated to respect public property".15 The two cannon and the pontoon were mounted outside the RSA premises in Rutherford Street in 1953, but ten years later they were in the way of an extension to the building. The pontoon was consigned to the tip and it was proposed to return the time gun to Britannia Heights and put the other cannon in Isel Park. There was conjecture at the RSA that they were also to be dumped and, in a pre-emptive strike, they were removed to two private addresses late one night.16 A request by the Regional Committee of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust in 1958 to mark the signal station site was rebuffed. It was deemed that the page 50Wakefields were already well commemorated in a number of places. The committee tried again in 1964, pointing out that a permanent memorial was inevitable, because of local feeling, and the Trust might as well have the honour attached to it, rather than stand condemned for its lack of interest. It was agreed that the history of the site should be recorded on a notice board, research was carried out and the new board was displayed at the 1971 Annual General Meeting to favourable comment.17 The two cannon made an appearance at the opening of the Trafalgar Centre in February 1973, with one of them being fired to mark the occasion. In August 1973 it was reported that the time gun was to return to its original site on Britannia Heights, when road works in the area had been completed. This did not happen, however, and the notice board was put in place in 1974. The cannon were in Nelson City Council custody by 1982 and the NZHPT committee asked that the time gun be put beside its notice board. The Council refused, on the grounds that vandalism would be a problem. The cannon are now on display at Founders Heritage Park. A new NZHPT interpretation board was unveiled in March 2003.18 The last word, of course, has to go the William Songer. The memorable tree has flourished and, by some strange quirk, instead of bearing the name of Arthur Wakefield, in whose memory it was planted, has become known by the name of the man who planted it: the Songer Tree. \|1\|\|Wakefield, A. (1841–1842). Journal. Dec 6–13, 1841. Unpublished manuscript. Nelson Provincial Museum Research Facility; Col Aug 21, 1900.\| \|2\|\|Wakefield, E.J. (1845) Adventure in New Zealand. London: John Murray. p237; NE Jun 11, 1842.\| \|3\|\|Wakefield, A, Jan 25, 1842; Wakefield, E.J. p237; Adams, P. (1969) Britannia Heights. NZHPT Newsletter, no 13, Nov 1969, 8–12; Saunders, M. (1980). Report.\| \|4\|\|Allan, R.M. (1965). Nelson: A history of early settlement. Wellington: Reed P85; Saxton, J.W. (1843–1853). Diary. Sep 29, 1842, Mar 1, 1845. Unpublished manuscript. Nelson Provincial Museum Research Facility.\| \|5\|\|NE Nov 2, 1844; Saxton, J.W. Oct 29, 1844.\| \|6\|\|NE Sep 11, 15, 1858; Col Sep 10, 14, 1858; Nelson Provincial Council. Votes and proceedings. 1858, Jul 1860, 1863.\| \|7\|\|Nelson almanac directory and year book for 1865. Nelson: R.Lucas.\| \|8\|\|Nelson Provincial Council. Gazette. Nov 22, 1866; Nelson almanac. 1876; Saunders, M.\| \|9\|\|Col May 8, 21, Jun 1, 9 1888; NEM May 7, 1888.\| \|10\|\|Col May 3, 8, 1890; NEM Apr 26, May 2, 3, 7, 1890.\| \|11\|\|Col Jul 26,1900.\| \|12\|\|NEM Jul 25, Aug 4, 19 1900; Col Aug 20, 21, 1900.\| \|13\|\|Grace, A.A. (1924). The jubilee history of the Nelson City Council, 1874-1924. Nelson: Evening Mail Office.\| \|14\|\|NEM Oct 31, Nov 3 1941.\| \|15\|\|Allan, R.M. P268; Superintendent of the Southern Division. Inwards correspondence. 1/4, Oct 9, 1851; NEM May 14, 1866.\| \|17\|\|NZHPT Newsletter 1969; NZHPT. Nelson Regional Committee. Correspondence. Jan 12, 1970.\| \|18\|\|NZHPT. Nelson Regional Committee. Correspondence. Jun 14, Aug 23, 1982; NEM Aug 30, 1973; Leader Mar 20, 2003.\|	4,606	ENGLISH	1
Powell v. Alabama: The Background The case of Powell v. Alabama was a landmark trial heard by the United States Supreme Court. The case ultimately determined that in a capital legal trial, the defending party is always awarded access to a lawyer if he or she requests on. Defendants in all capital cases are awarded this right because of the due process clause of the United States Constitution. The case of Powell v. Alabama begins with events that occurred in the spring of 1931. During this time, Nine African American boys were accused of raping two young white girls, named Victoria Price and Ruby Bates. The boys, who were called the Scottsboro Boys, were travelling on a train with nine white people. A fight between the two sides broke out and all but one of the white males was thrown from the moving train. The white women on board then accused the African American boys of raping them. However, after the initial claim, one woman went back on this statement and said the boys did not touch the girls. Each of the defendants, except for one boy, was sentenced to death in a series of quick and careless trials. Powell v. Alabama: The Trial The Scottsboro boys (the defendants in the trial between Powell v. Alabama) were only allowed to talk to their lawyers right before the trial started. This lack of time prevented the Scottsboro boys from creating a solid defense strategy. Because of their rights being denied, the Scottsboro boys appealed the harsh decision. The original case which found the Scottsboro boys guilty of rape was heard in the Alabama State Court. Because the boys were not given a fair trial they appealed and took their case to the Alabama Supreme Court. During the appeal—the state Supreme Court in a 6-1 ruling found that the original trial was fair. Again upset by this ruling, the boys used their last appeal and brought the case to the United States Supreme Court. In Powell v. Alabama, the United States Supreme Court reversed the original rulings made by the state courts. The United States Supreme Court, in Powell v. Alabama found that the state had violated the boys’ Constitutional rights by not allowing them to discuss the case with their lawyers. These rights, which are awarded in the due process clause of the United States Constitution, must be awarded to every citizen of the United States. Because the boys were not given a fair trial and were denied the right to speak with lawyers, their charges were dropped and they were able to walk free. Powell v. Alabama was heard on October 10th of 1932. The case was decided on November 7th of the same year.	<urn:uuid:055cba52-3e75-441d-a102-c49efb727eeb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/powell-v-alabama	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00268.warc.gz	en	0.985786	535	3.5	4	[ -0.40392041206359863, 0.09269830584526062, -0.26455673575401306, -0.2911844849586487, -0.13223889470100403, 0.26920822262763977, 0.31510138511657715, -0.2043238878250122, 0.18469642102718353, -0.10384444147348404, 0.3456452786922455, 0.5978807210922241, 0.30914363265037537, 0.0771156176924...	4	Powell v. Alabama: The Background The case of Powell v. Alabama was a landmark trial heard by the United States Supreme Court. The case ultimately determined that in a capital legal trial, the defending party is always awarded access to a lawyer if he or she requests on. Defendants in all capital cases are awarded this right because of the due process clause of the United States Constitution. The case of Powell v. Alabama begins with events that occurred in the spring of 1931. During this time, Nine African American boys were accused of raping two young white girls, named Victoria Price and Ruby Bates. The boys, who were called the Scottsboro Boys, were travelling on a train with nine white people. A fight between the two sides broke out and all but one of the white males was thrown from the moving train. The white women on board then accused the African American boys of raping them. However, after the initial claim, one woman went back on this statement and said the boys did not touch the girls. Each of the defendants, except for one boy, was sentenced to death in a series of quick and careless trials. Powell v. Alabama: The Trial The Scottsboro boys (the defendants in the trial between Powell v. Alabama) were only allowed to talk to their lawyers right before the trial started. This lack of time prevented the Scottsboro boys from creating a solid defense strategy. Because of their rights being denied, the Scottsboro boys appealed the harsh decision. The original case which found the Scottsboro boys guilty of rape was heard in the Alabama State Court. Because the boys were not given a fair trial they appealed and took their case to the Alabama Supreme Court. During the appeal—the state Supreme Court in a 6-1 ruling found that the original trial was fair. Again upset by this ruling, the boys used their last appeal and brought the case to the United States Supreme Court. In Powell v. Alabama, the United States Supreme Court reversed the original rulings made by the state courts. The United States Supreme Court, in Powell v. Alabama found that the state had violated the boys’ Constitutional rights by not allowing them to discuss the case with their lawyers. These rights, which are awarded in the due process clause of the United States Constitution, must be awarded to every citizen of the United States. Because the boys were not given a fair trial and were denied the right to speak with lawyers, their charges were dropped and they were able to walk free. Powell v. Alabama was heard on October 10th of 1932. The case was decided on November 7th of the same year.	539	ENGLISH	1
The month of September is beginning, and all of us are wondering where the year has gone! We see the stores with Halloween and Christmas wares on their shelves, and yet the weather is still hot, and the fall season a few weeks away. Even though schools in this area begin during the first week or two in August, many around the country wait until after Labor Day when the weather cools somewhat, and seasonal workers have settled in their living places. Labor Day has often been referred to as the unofficial end of summer, and that means the first Monday in September will be celebrated as a “last fling” of the summer season. According to my research, Labor Day is celebrated on the first Monday of September in the United States, and honors the American labor movement and the workers who have made our country strong and prosperous. It was created by the labor movement in the late nineteenth century, and became a federal holiday in 1894. Labor Day was one of the results of the Industrial Revolution in our country’s history; during that time, the average American worked twelve hour days and seven days a week in order to make a meager living. Even though there were rules in many states, children as young as five or six years old worked in factories, mines and mills across the country. Also, many of these workers, mostly the very poor, old and the recent immigrants were often made to work in unsafe conditions, with little access to fresh air, sanitary facilities and breaks. Labor unions began to grow as manufacturing began to surpass farming as the source of American employment, with strikes and rallies organized to protest the poor working conditions and to negotiate hours and pay. On Tuesday, September 5, 1882, ten thousand workers took time off without pay to march from City Hall to Union Square in New York City, holding the first Labor Day parade in the history of our country. This idea of a holiday for the “working man” caught on in many areas across the United States, with many states passing legislation recognizing it. According to one school of thought, Matthew Maguire, a machinist, first proposed the holiday in 1882 while he served as secretary of the Central Labor Union of New York. Others would argue that it was first proposed by Peter J. McGuire in May of 1882. Peter McGuire was general secretary of the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners and a cofounder of the American Federation of Labor. However, Labor Day would not be recognized by Congress as a holiday until twelve years had passed, and workers’ rights were brought into the public’s view. This process began on May 11, 1894, when employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago went on strike protesting wage cuts and firing of union representatives. On June 26, the American Railroad Union, led by Eugene V. Debs, called for a boycott of all Pullman railway cars; this, of course, crippled railroad traffic nationwide. In order to break the strike, the federal government sent troops to Chicago, which resulted in riots and deaths of more than a dozen workers. As a result of this event, Congress rushed to pass an act (June 28, 1894) which made the first Monday in September of each year a legal holiday; President Grover Cleveland signed this into law six days after the end of the strike. Labor Day holiday is celebrated in many ways across the United States. As we look back in history, we find that parades, picnics and speeches were the ways of celebrating. Today, those things are still part of the holiday in some places, along with a holiday from work or school. There are also barbecues, fireworks displays, boating, family gatherings and political rallies. Also, some people consider Labor Day the last day of the year when a person can wear white or seersucker. (Many women have an unwritten rule which states that a person cannot wear white shoes before Easter or after Labor Day). No matter how our town or family will celebrate Labor Day this year, many of us have traditions which have been handed down through history for observing this event. We need to remember the significance of this day, and its place in our history, as we learn from the past in order to live in the present and prepare for the future. Pat Guffey can be reached at email@example.com	<urn:uuid:021eae15-a03d-42e6-9cf9-19f15046c27d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.rheaheraldnews.com/lifestyles/article_a93bdd8c-cb59-11e9-889a-63e79f644928.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00106.warc.gz	en	0.982931	896	3.5	4	[ -0.6478149890899658, -0.07688760757446289, 0.26541292667388916, 0.06200094893574715, -0.29583701491355896, 0.05702315270900726, 0.023631367832422256, -0.011705156415700912, -0.23374763131141663, -0.07212378084659576, 0.027819808572530746, 0.7756712436676025, -0.05542658641934395, 0.3831727...	1	The month of September is beginning, and all of us are wondering where the year has gone! We see the stores with Halloween and Christmas wares on their shelves, and yet the weather is still hot, and the fall season a few weeks away. Even though schools in this area begin during the first week or two in August, many around the country wait until after Labor Day when the weather cools somewhat, and seasonal workers have settled in their living places. Labor Day has often been referred to as the unofficial end of summer, and that means the first Monday in September will be celebrated as a “last fling” of the summer season. According to my research, Labor Day is celebrated on the first Monday of September in the United States, and honors the American labor movement and the workers who have made our country strong and prosperous. It was created by the labor movement in the late nineteenth century, and became a federal holiday in 1894. Labor Day was one of the results of the Industrial Revolution in our country’s history; during that time, the average American worked twelve hour days and seven days a week in order to make a meager living. Even though there were rules in many states, children as young as five or six years old worked in factories, mines and mills across the country. Also, many of these workers, mostly the very poor, old and the recent immigrants were often made to work in unsafe conditions, with little access to fresh air, sanitary facilities and breaks. Labor unions began to grow as manufacturing began to surpass farming as the source of American employment, with strikes and rallies organized to protest the poor working conditions and to negotiate hours and pay. On Tuesday, September 5, 1882, ten thousand workers took time off without pay to march from City Hall to Union Square in New York City, holding the first Labor Day parade in the history of our country. This idea of a holiday for the “working man” caught on in many areas across the United States, with many states passing legislation recognizing it. According to one school of thought, Matthew Maguire, a machinist, first proposed the holiday in 1882 while he served as secretary of the Central Labor Union of New York. Others would argue that it was first proposed by Peter J. McGuire in May of 1882. Peter McGuire was general secretary of the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners and a cofounder of the American Federation of Labor. However, Labor Day would not be recognized by Congress as a holiday until twelve years had passed, and workers’ rights were brought into the public’s view. This process began on May 11, 1894, when employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago went on strike protesting wage cuts and firing of union representatives. On June 26, the American Railroad Union, led by Eugene V. Debs, called for a boycott of all Pullman railway cars; this, of course, crippled railroad traffic nationwide. In order to break the strike, the federal government sent troops to Chicago, which resulted in riots and deaths of more than a dozen workers. As a result of this event, Congress rushed to pass an act (June 28, 1894) which made the first Monday in September of each year a legal holiday; President Grover Cleveland signed this into law six days after the end of the strike. Labor Day holiday is celebrated in many ways across the United States. As we look back in history, we find that parades, picnics and speeches were the ways of celebrating. Today, those things are still part of the holiday in some places, along with a holiday from work or school. There are also barbecues, fireworks displays, boating, family gatherings and political rallies. Also, some people consider Labor Day the last day of the year when a person can wear white or seersucker. (Many women have an unwritten rule which states that a person cannot wear white shoes before Easter or after Labor Day). No matter how our town or family will celebrate Labor Day this year, many of us have traditions which have been handed down through history for observing this event. We need to remember the significance of this day, and its place in our history, as we learn from the past in order to live in the present and prepare for the future. Pat Guffey can be reached at email@example.com	901	ENGLISH	1
New Year's Day is a great time to set about making resolutions for the next year. It is also a time to look back at the year gone by and feel proud of the goals that have been achieved and understand why some resolutions were not fulfilled. Such reminiscing is not limited to adults and should also be extended to children. They need to set realistic goals and work towards them in the coming year. It helps develop their sense of self-esteem and confidence. The goal-setting process is just as important as the act of achieving the goal itself. The setting of a New Year's Resolution is a great opportunity for a teachable moment. Whether or not your child can achieve their goal, some sense of importance must be given to their process. Failure and success are two sides of the same coin – something your child will have to understand at some point in life. Even if your child was able to stick to their resolution for a day, a week or even months, credit should be given to them for trying their best. It is at times like these, that conversations about goal setting, time management and motivation become important. Your child's New Year's Resolutions shouldn't be influenced by what YOUR goals for them are. It should come from a personal sense of development that they hope to achieve. Help them keep their goals simple and specific. A blanket goal like "I want to do better in school" can be replaced with a more specific option such as "I want to get better grades in Maths and English". Being specific improves the chances of your child maintaining focus on smaller goals rather than feeling overwhelmed. If you feel your child is not ready to take on a resolution on their own, try turning it into a family resolution. It can be something as simple as "This year, we (the family) want to eat less sugary snacks and candies. This is a great example of a goal the family can take up together and help keep each other in check. Sometimes children feel goals are unattainable or impossible. It's at times like these that it helps to know that their parents or siblings are in the same boat as them. As a family, you can cheer each other on and be role models for each other's resolutions.	<urn:uuid:0f8d35d3-d43e-4fb5-bf82-7225e4da172b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mocomi.com/importance-of-new-years-resolutions/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00235.warc.gz	en	0.981995	456	3.296875	3	[ -0.009398207999765873, -0.11837256699800491, 0.5906907320022583, -0.7066568732261658, -0.23340561985969543, 0.24184130132198334, -0.25124767422676086, -0.08500964194536209, -0.14828439056873322, -0.17095866799354553, 0.3999325931072235, 0.14849036931991577, 0.28199124336242676, 0.501185238...	18	New Year's Day is a great time to set about making resolutions for the next year. It is also a time to look back at the year gone by and feel proud of the goals that have been achieved and understand why some resolutions were not fulfilled. Such reminiscing is not limited to adults and should also be extended to children. They need to set realistic goals and work towards them in the coming year. It helps develop their sense of self-esteem and confidence. The goal-setting process is just as important as the act of achieving the goal itself. The setting of a New Year's Resolution is a great opportunity for a teachable moment. Whether or not your child can achieve their goal, some sense of importance must be given to their process. Failure and success are two sides of the same coin – something your child will have to understand at some point in life. Even if your child was able to stick to their resolution for a day, a week or even months, credit should be given to them for trying their best. It is at times like these, that conversations about goal setting, time management and motivation become important. Your child's New Year's Resolutions shouldn't be influenced by what YOUR goals for them are. It should come from a personal sense of development that they hope to achieve. Help them keep their goals simple and specific. A blanket goal like "I want to do better in school" can be replaced with a more specific option such as "I want to get better grades in Maths and English". Being specific improves the chances of your child maintaining focus on smaller goals rather than feeling overwhelmed. If you feel your child is not ready to take on a resolution on their own, try turning it into a family resolution. It can be something as simple as "This year, we (the family) want to eat less sugary snacks and candies. This is a great example of a goal the family can take up together and help keep each other in check. Sometimes children feel goals are unattainable or impossible. It's at times like these that it helps to know that their parents or siblings are in the same boat as them. As a family, you can cheer each other on and be role models for each other's resolutions.	450	ENGLISH	1
Schubert wrote the Symphony no. 8 in C major between 1825 and 1828. In order to distinguish this symphony from his symphony no. 6, written between 1817-18, no. 8 was referred to as the “Great Symphony” in C major. After Beethoven’s symphonies, this work is recognized as the most important symphony from the first half of the 19th century. It was highly lauded by Schumann and by Mendelssohn, who conducted its first public performance in 1839 in Leipzig . Schubert himself never actually heard the symphony performed and it was long considered unperformable . This new edition, a pre-print of the New Schubert Edition volume V/4, is based on the only primary source; Schubert's autograph. Although the source situation is comparatively clear, the editor was faced with many difficult problems. Schubert's autograph was written down in several different creative compositional stages, which he reworked over a considerable period of time. These various stages of writing, editing and correcting had to be identified and many of the numerous emendations needed to be interpreted. The results of this editorial process will surely play a relevant role in the performance of this important work. The earlier numbering of this symphony as no. 7 was based on the first Complete Edition of Schubert's works. It listed the seven finished symphonies and then the famous “Unfinished Symphony” in B minor as no. 8. At a later date, in order to be chronologically correct, was listed before the “Great Symphony” in C major was assigned the no. 9 following the “Unfinished”.	<urn:uuid:a0bccd65-3b32-49b3-8294-c826f8e36835>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://data.baerenreiter.com/Texte/BA/BA05648_00_9790006499397_tx_e.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00116.warc.gz	en	0.980868	361	3.875	4	[ 0.19329886138439178, 0.026089902967214584, 0.2116715908050537, -0.013185001909732819, -0.11109080910682678, 0.12960799038410187, -0.64932781457901, 0.17353947460651398, 0.2077910304069519, -0.17625467479228973, 0.01878475211560726, 0.13881127536296844, -0.5200638175010681, -0.0192816499620...	2	Schubert wrote the Symphony no. 8 in C major between 1825 and 1828. In order to distinguish this symphony from his symphony no. 6, written between 1817-18, no. 8 was referred to as the “Great Symphony” in C major. After Beethoven’s symphonies, this work is recognized as the most important symphony from the first half of the 19th century. It was highly lauded by Schumann and by Mendelssohn, who conducted its first public performance in 1839 in Leipzig . Schubert himself never actually heard the symphony performed and it was long considered unperformable . This new edition, a pre-print of the New Schubert Edition volume V/4, is based on the only primary source; Schubert's autograph. Although the source situation is comparatively clear, the editor was faced with many difficult problems. Schubert's autograph was written down in several different creative compositional stages, which he reworked over a considerable period of time. These various stages of writing, editing and correcting had to be identified and many of the numerous emendations needed to be interpreted. The results of this editorial process will surely play a relevant role in the performance of this important work. The earlier numbering of this symphony as no. 7 was based on the first Complete Edition of Schubert's works. It listed the seven finished symphonies and then the famous “Unfinished Symphony” in B minor as no. 8. At a later date, in order to be chronologically correct, was listed before the “Great Symphony” in C major was assigned the no. 9 following the “Unfinished”.	364	ENGLISH	1
The origins of the Bahá’í Faith go back to a religious movement founded in AD 1844 by a young Iranian merchant, Sayyid `Alí Muhammad Shírází (1819-1850), who took the title of the Báb (the gate). His followers were therefore called Bábís. In 1844, in Shiraz in the south of Iran, the Báb gathered around himself a group of eighteen disciples whom he named the “Letters of the Living.” Among these disciples was one woman who was given the title of Táhirih (the pure one). She was not present in Shiraz but the Báb accepted her as one of the Letters of the Living on account of a message of acceptance that she sent him. The Báb dispersed the Letters of the Living throughout Iran and surrounding countries to spread his message, while he himself set off towards the end of 1844 on the pilgrimage to Mecca. In Mecca, the Báb announced his message, but was generally ignored. His plans for proceeding from Mecca to Karbala, a holy city in the south of Iraq, also came to nothing owing to the fierce opposition which one of his disciples had encountered there. The Báb returned to Shiraz and was detained and placed under house arrest by the governor of that city. Despite these early setbacks, the message of the Báb spread throughout Iran. Many thousands of people became his followers including many religious scholars of Islam. The governor of Shiraz, fearing the growth of the movement, decided to arrest the Báb again in 1846. His officials carried out the arrest but the sudden appearance of cholera in the city threw everything into confusion and the Báb was allowed to leave the city. He journeyed to the city of Isfahan in central Iran. The governor of Isfahan was a Georgian Christian who had converted to Islam and risen to his present high position. He asked the leading Shi`i religious official in the city to accommodate the Báb. Isfahan was then the leading centre of Shi`i Islam in Iran. Here the Báb wrote several of his most important works and discussed these with the religious scholars and students gathered there. His teachings convinced many including the governor of Isfahan. The latter offered to put his personal fortune at the disposal of the Báb and to arrange a personal interview with the Shah. Reports from Isfahan and all over Iran were arriving at the capital about the new religious movement. They alarmed the Prime Minister, who sent orders to Isfahan for the arrest of the Báb. The governor of Isfahan hid the Báb for a time in one of his palaces, but in February 1847, this governor died. His successor had the Báb sent under guard towards Tehran. The Prime Minister, whose own position was dependant on the religious influence that he wielded over the Shah, feared that the results of any meeting between the Báb and the Shah would lead to the loss of his own position. He, therefore, halted the progress of the Báb’s escort outside Tehran and diverted them to Maku in the extreme north-west of Iran. Here in a remote corner of the country and imprisoned among a hostile people, the Prime Minister hoped that the Báb would be isolated and his movement would gradually die away. The Prime Minister’s hopes were not, however, fulfilled. The Báb won over his prison warder in Maku and his teachings continued to spread through the towns and villages of Iran. In 1848, several significant events occurred. Early in this year, the Prime Minister changed the place of imprisonment of the Báb from Maku to Chihriq in the hope of making him more isolated. Also in this year, the Báb issued the Bayán, his principal book of laws and teachings. This book made it clear that he was in fact inaugurating a new religious dispensation that abrogated the dispensation of Islam. This fact was then proclaimed in a conference of his followers held in the summer of that year in a village called Badasht on the road between Tehran and the north-east. At about the same time, the Prime Minister had the Báb brought from his imprisonment to Tabriz, the provincial capital of the north-west. There a mock trial was held before the crown-prince and an assembly of religious notables in the hope that the Báb would be humiliated. The Báb, however, conducted himself with a dignity that won him even more supporters. The trial also gave the Báb an opportunity to announce publicly his claim to be the Mahdi of Islam. Between 1848 and 1850 there were several episodes in which the religious leaders in various localities around Iran stirred up the people against the Bábís;. When this resulted in civil unrest, the local authorities called upon the Shah’s army to attack the Bábís;s. These episodes culminated in several massacres of Bábís;s in different parts of Iran. In the middle of the year 1850, the new Shah and his Prime Minister decided that the only way of stopping this religious movement would be to execute the founder. They therefore had the Báb brought to Tabriz again and suspended in a public square in front of a firing squad consisting of a regiment of soldiers. There then occurred what Bahá’ís consider to have been a miracle. All of the shots missed and the Báb seemed to have disappeared. He was eventually found dictating his last words to his secretary. The Báb was then brought back to the square, suspended again, and a new regiment was lined up (the first regiment having refused to carry out a further attempt). This time the shots succeeded and the Báb was killed. His body was rescued by some of his followers. After being hid in various places for fifty years, it was eventually interred in a shrine on the side of Mount Carmel in the city of Haifa. An imposing superstructure was then built over this shrine. The persecutions of the Bábís continued over the next few years. Eventually in the summer of 1852, a small group of Bábís decided to obtain revenge on the Shah by assassinating him. Their plans were, however, poorly made and the plot was a failure. Although most of Bábís had not been involved in the plot, this event triggered an intense persecution that resulted in the execution of almost all of the remaining leading Bábís. Among those executed was Táhirih, the female member of the Letters of the Living. Extracted from: A Short Introduction to the Bahá’í Faith.	<urn:uuid:3e7e353a-156c-41dd-9bf0-90d8bef5d94e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.obeisancebaha.org/topic/blog/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00080.warc.gz	en	0.987125	1,404	3.453125	3	[ -0.18301083147525787, 0.6298514604568481, -0.3673187792301178, -0.05009997636079788, -0.36228352785110474, 0.009459294378757477, 0.4237902760505676, 0.11115933209657669, -0.23561114072799683, -0.23786969482898712, -0.1952638477087021, -0.0955749899148941, -0.1800970435142517, 0.05423444882...	3	The origins of the Bahá’í Faith go back to a religious movement founded in AD 1844 by a young Iranian merchant, Sayyid `Alí Muhammad Shírází (1819-1850), who took the title of the Báb (the gate). His followers were therefore called Bábís. In 1844, in Shiraz in the south of Iran, the Báb gathered around himself a group of eighteen disciples whom he named the “Letters of the Living.” Among these disciples was one woman who was given the title of Táhirih (the pure one). She was not present in Shiraz but the Báb accepted her as one of the Letters of the Living on account of a message of acceptance that she sent him. The Báb dispersed the Letters of the Living throughout Iran and surrounding countries to spread his message, while he himself set off towards the end of 1844 on the pilgrimage to Mecca. In Mecca, the Báb announced his message, but was generally ignored. His plans for proceeding from Mecca to Karbala, a holy city in the south of Iraq, also came to nothing owing to the fierce opposition which one of his disciples had encountered there. The Báb returned to Shiraz and was detained and placed under house arrest by the governor of that city. Despite these early setbacks, the message of the Báb spread throughout Iran. Many thousands of people became his followers including many religious scholars of Islam. The governor of Shiraz, fearing the growth of the movement, decided to arrest the Báb again in 1846. His officials carried out the arrest but the sudden appearance of cholera in the city threw everything into confusion and the Báb was allowed to leave the city. He journeyed to the city of Isfahan in central Iran. The governor of Isfahan was a Georgian Christian who had converted to Islam and risen to his present high position. He asked the leading Shi`i religious official in the city to accommodate the Báb. Isfahan was then the leading centre of Shi`i Islam in Iran. Here the Báb wrote several of his most important works and discussed these with the religious scholars and students gathered there. His teachings convinced many including the governor of Isfahan. The latter offered to put his personal fortune at the disposal of the Báb and to arrange a personal interview with the Shah. Reports from Isfahan and all over Iran were arriving at the capital about the new religious movement. They alarmed the Prime Minister, who sent orders to Isfahan for the arrest of the Báb. The governor of Isfahan hid the Báb for a time in one of his palaces, but in February 1847, this governor died. His successor had the Báb sent under guard towards Tehran. The Prime Minister, whose own position was dependant on the religious influence that he wielded over the Shah, feared that the results of any meeting between the Báb and the Shah would lead to the loss of his own position. He, therefore, halted the progress of the Báb’s escort outside Tehran and diverted them to Maku in the extreme north-west of Iran. Here in a remote corner of the country and imprisoned among a hostile people, the Prime Minister hoped that the Báb would be isolated and his movement would gradually die away. The Prime Minister’s hopes were not, however, fulfilled. The Báb won over his prison warder in Maku and his teachings continued to spread through the towns and villages of Iran. In 1848, several significant events occurred. Early in this year, the Prime Minister changed the place of imprisonment of the Báb from Maku to Chihriq in the hope of making him more isolated. Also in this year, the Báb issued the Bayán, his principal book of laws and teachings. This book made it clear that he was in fact inaugurating a new religious dispensation that abrogated the dispensation of Islam. This fact was then proclaimed in a conference of his followers held in the summer of that year in a village called Badasht on the road between Tehran and the north-east. At about the same time, the Prime Minister had the Báb brought from his imprisonment to Tabriz, the provincial capital of the north-west. There a mock trial was held before the crown-prince and an assembly of religious notables in the hope that the Báb would be humiliated. The Báb, however, conducted himself with a dignity that won him even more supporters. The trial also gave the Báb an opportunity to announce publicly his claim to be the Mahdi of Islam. Between 1848 and 1850 there were several episodes in which the religious leaders in various localities around Iran stirred up the people against the Bábís;. When this resulted in civil unrest, the local authorities called upon the Shah’s army to attack the Bábís;s. These episodes culminated in several massacres of Bábís;s in different parts of Iran. In the middle of the year 1850, the new Shah and his Prime Minister decided that the only way of stopping this religious movement would be to execute the founder. They therefore had the Báb brought to Tabriz again and suspended in a public square in front of a firing squad consisting of a regiment of soldiers. There then occurred what Bahá’ís consider to have been a miracle. All of the shots missed and the Báb seemed to have disappeared. He was eventually found dictating his last words to his secretary. The Báb was then brought back to the square, suspended again, and a new regiment was lined up (the first regiment having refused to carry out a further attempt). This time the shots succeeded and the Báb was killed. His body was rescued by some of his followers. After being hid in various places for fifty years, it was eventually interred in a shrine on the side of Mount Carmel in the city of Haifa. An imposing superstructure was then built over this shrine. The persecutions of the Bábís continued over the next few years. Eventually in the summer of 1852, a small group of Bábís decided to obtain revenge on the Shah by assassinating him. Their plans were, however, poorly made and the plot was a failure. Although most of Bábís had not been involved in the plot, this event triggered an intense persecution that resulted in the execution of almost all of the remaining leading Bábís. Among those executed was Táhirih, the female member of the Letters of the Living. Extracted from: A Short Introduction to the Bahá’í Faith.	1,377	ENGLISH	1
For anyone concerned about the poor and poverty, the first task is to clearly define the words “poor” and “poverty.” Wealth and income are reasonable measures that usually serve in defining a poor person: one who has less than some defined minimum of wealth and/or income. But that definition is not comprehensive. What if a person could borrow the money needed for an investment with a sufficiently high return such that it would be possible to return the money with interest, and still have some left over? Then the person is not poor. Meaning, anyone able to borrow is not poor. Conversely, anyone who is unable to borrow is “credit-constrained” and is comprehensively poor. For a person to be considered poor, it is not necessary that the person have zero net worth or wealth. The sufficient condition for being poor is that one is credit constrained. Even if a person has negative net wealth, as long as the person is able to borrow, the person is not poor. For example, consider a person who does not have money for acquiring a particular skill that would enable him to earn a very good living. Suppose further the person could borrow the money needed and be able to pay back the loan from the higher income from the acquired skill. When he borrows, his net wealth (his assets minus the loan liability) will actually be less than zero. Yet he will not really be poor because it will only be a temporary situation. In this case, he creates assets (acquires the skill) using the loan that later enables him to repay the loan. We are familiar with many cases of “wealthy” people who at some point in their lives had negative or zero wealth but were able to borrow (sometimes to the tune of hundreds of millions) that allowed them to build up their fortunes and repay the loans. Even with a negative net wealth, they were not poor because they were not credit constrained. So what is the main implication of this definition of being poor? It is this. An efficient way to help those who are poor is to somehow release the credit-constraint they face. Economic efficiency considerations recommend that. But what if the poor are being denied access to wealth that they have a legitimate claim to, and which they need? Then it would be a moral imperative to return that wealth to them. The poor of India have a share of the public wealth of India. It is economically efficient and morally right to give them that wealth. It has to be done now, and not in some indeterminate future. [Previous post in this series: Public Wealth Return.]	<urn:uuid:ffc83427-f0bb-42fc-9b19-ba4bd3ea1168>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://deeshaa.org/2018/09/30/credit-constraint-the-inability-to-borrow/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00222.warc.gz	en	0.980716	539	3.4375	3	[ -0.2832757830619812, -0.2775809168815613, -0.3546103239059448, -0.156651571393013, -0.18296341598033905, -0.17935818433761597, 0.3175434470176697, -0.2308741807937622, -0.03933326154947281, 0.049953944981098175, 0.6358880996704102, -0.23420169949531555, 0.1440526247024536, 0.10291859507560...	15	For anyone concerned about the poor and poverty, the first task is to clearly define the words “poor” and “poverty.” Wealth and income are reasonable measures that usually serve in defining a poor person: one who has less than some defined minimum of wealth and/or income. But that definition is not comprehensive. What if a person could borrow the money needed for an investment with a sufficiently high return such that it would be possible to return the money with interest, and still have some left over? Then the person is not poor. Meaning, anyone able to borrow is not poor. Conversely, anyone who is unable to borrow is “credit-constrained” and is comprehensively poor. For a person to be considered poor, it is not necessary that the person have zero net worth or wealth. The sufficient condition for being poor is that one is credit constrained. Even if a person has negative net wealth, as long as the person is able to borrow, the person is not poor. For example, consider a person who does not have money for acquiring a particular skill that would enable him to earn a very good living. Suppose further the person could borrow the money needed and be able to pay back the loan from the higher income from the acquired skill. When he borrows, his net wealth (his assets minus the loan liability) will actually be less than zero. Yet he will not really be poor because it will only be a temporary situation. In this case, he creates assets (acquires the skill) using the loan that later enables him to repay the loan. We are familiar with many cases of “wealthy” people who at some point in their lives had negative or zero wealth but were able to borrow (sometimes to the tune of hundreds of millions) that allowed them to build up their fortunes and repay the loans. Even with a negative net wealth, they were not poor because they were not credit constrained. So what is the main implication of this definition of being poor? It is this. An efficient way to help those who are poor is to somehow release the credit-constraint they face. Economic efficiency considerations recommend that. But what if the poor are being denied access to wealth that they have a legitimate claim to, and which they need? Then it would be a moral imperative to return that wealth to them. The poor of India have a share of the public wealth of India. It is economically efficient and morally right to give them that wealth. It has to be done now, and not in some indeterminate future. [Previous post in this series: Public Wealth Return.]	518	ENGLISH	1
In a castle in Berlin, in the year 1122, a baby girl with blue eyes and blond hair was born to the duke and duchess of the most important area of France: Aquitaine. This beautiful child was to become the Duchess of Aquitaine and the Queen of France, the Duchess of Normandy and the Queen of England. Eleanor of Aquitaine was arguably the most interesting woman of her time. She influenced many of her time period?s most powerful men. Eleanor was born to be a leader. Her father, William X, Duke of Aquitaine, had no male heir and felt lucky to have a daughter like Eleanor. Her intelligence impressed him, so he saw to it that his daughter received the best schooling possible. She turned out to be an excellent student. After her mother died when she was eight, Eleanor spent most of her time with her father. Eleanor accompanied her father all over Aquitaine, learning at an early age how an important kingdom should be ruled. Eleanor was devastated when her father died in 1137. Despite her sadness, there was also a good side to his death: she had become the richest heiress in France. Because of her young age and the fact that she was a woman, many people doubted her right to rule Aquitaine. This left her in a dangerous position, so for protection she was engaged to the prince, Louis VII. When Prince Louis became King, Eleanor was fifteen and she became Queen of France. Eleanor ruled as queen for fifteen years. To her dismay, she discovered that the queen had little power in the ruling of France. Because Eleanor was such and ambitious woman, the king?s advisors feared her influence over the king. Eleanor turned to politics when her royal status was not enough to win an argument. She wisely remembered the influence she still had in Aquitaine over its powerful dukes who had never liked Louis, following him only because of his alliance with Eleanor. When Louis decided to head the Second Crusade in 1147 and the Queen announced that she would accompany him, the king?s advisors were against it. Eleanor argued that the men of Aquitaine would be willing to join the expedition if she were to set an example for them by going. The advisors thought this was logical reasoning and they needed more men to join, so Eleanor was aloud to join them in their journey. Since the beginning of their marriage, Eleanor found her weak, dull husband very little to her liking so she spent much of her time traveling with out him. Forced to spend time together during their journey to the Holy Land, Eleanor and Louis began to fight. They quarreled over her plan to protect Jerusalem by driving back the Turks in the North. Louis ignored her advice and arranged for Eleanor to be sent home against her will. Both the crusade and their marriage failed shortly after. In 1152 Eleanor petitioned the Pope to annul her marriage to Louis on the pretext that they were too closely related by blood. The King and his advisors forced Eleanor was to give up her two daughters, Marie and Alix, and tearfully, Eleanor said good-by and returned home. Reverting back to her position as Duchess of Aquitaine, Eleanor once again held the power over her land. She realized she was now in the same place she had been fifteen years earlier and once again would be forced to marry, but this time she was in a position to chose her next husband. She selected Henry Plantagenet of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, the second most powerful area in France, who was also in line to become the King of England. In 1154, the pair was crowned in Britain and Henry became King Henry II. Eleanor had now gained the most powerful position, after that of the king. She now ruled both Aquitaine and England. Also, unlike her first husband, Henry valued her opinion and took her advice. Eleanor and Henry had eight children, three of which would help their mother cause their father?s downfall. Ruling both countries in his place while he was off conquering other lands, the King and Queen drifted apart. Their marriage was doomed when Eleanor discovered that her husband had had several affairs. Bitter that she had been deprived of the right to rule for so many years, she devised a plan to overthrow the King. In 1173 with the help of her sons John, Richard, and Geoffrey Eleanor succeeded in her plan. Fearing her ambitions Henry II had Eleanor imprisoned until his own death in 1189. Eleanor helped her son Richard rule England and when he died, she did the same for John. Although unlike Richard, John resisted her help, she continued to keep him out of trouble by making orders in his name without his knowledge. Eleanor spent the last years of her life traveling between England and France bringing the two countries together and making peace in England. She spent most of her last days in shelter for women called Fontevrault and was buried at the abbey in 1204 at the age of eighty-two. Eleanor had a passion for the arts in any form, and throughout her life she brought them with her wherever she went. Used to her family’s exciting castle in Aquitaine, the young Eleanor found the Paris castle boring. Eleanor quickly brought it to life. She loved learning, and invited great minds from all over the country to her court. She regularly attended lectures of the famous theologian Abelard. Eleanor introduced far more to Paris than just intellectual things. She introduced Paris to the culture she had known at home: music, fine tapestries, new fashions, dancing, and good food. When she married Henry and moved to England, the Queen once again turned the dismal English castle into a center for those interested in the arts. The days were filled with tournaments and plays, and the nights with feasting. Everything was celebrated in the honor of love. Most importantly, everywhere Eleanor went, she supported something almost unheard of in the time: respect for women. Eleanor achieved so many things in her time that it was unheard of for a woman to do in her time. Having been Queen of two countries during her life she contributed a lot to keeping the peace and establishing fair rule in both of her countries. Also Eleanor was one of the first women to speak out for women?s rights and take action for fairer treatment for women. Eleanor of Aquitaine will always be remembered as one of the great women in history.	<urn:uuid:d4e1828f-77e3-4fcd-97bf-f53b3a471ece>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/Eleanor_Of_Aquitaine	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00000.warc.gz	en	0.991596	1,323	3.453125	3	[ -0.1610850691795349, 0.614834189414978, 0.0725698471069336, -0.22191622853279114, -0.17566722631454468, 0.05088156834244728, 0.08941658586263657, 0.020975643768906593, 0.08121519535779953, -0.203447625041008, 0.18753176927566528, -0.2040349543094635, 0.2994462549686432, -0.1066105291247367...	2	In a castle in Berlin, in the year 1122, a baby girl with blue eyes and blond hair was born to the duke and duchess of the most important area of France: Aquitaine. This beautiful child was to become the Duchess of Aquitaine and the Queen of France, the Duchess of Normandy and the Queen of England. Eleanor of Aquitaine was arguably the most interesting woman of her time. She influenced many of her time period?s most powerful men. Eleanor was born to be a leader. Her father, William X, Duke of Aquitaine, had no male heir and felt lucky to have a daughter like Eleanor. Her intelligence impressed him, so he saw to it that his daughter received the best schooling possible. She turned out to be an excellent student. After her mother died when she was eight, Eleanor spent most of her time with her father. Eleanor accompanied her father all over Aquitaine, learning at an early age how an important kingdom should be ruled. Eleanor was devastated when her father died in 1137. Despite her sadness, there was also a good side to his death: she had become the richest heiress in France. Because of her young age and the fact that she was a woman, many people doubted her right to rule Aquitaine. This left her in a dangerous position, so for protection she was engaged to the prince, Louis VII. When Prince Louis became King, Eleanor was fifteen and she became Queen of France. Eleanor ruled as queen for fifteen years. To her dismay, she discovered that the queen had little power in the ruling of France. Because Eleanor was such and ambitious woman, the king?s advisors feared her influence over the king. Eleanor turned to politics when her royal status was not enough to win an argument. She wisely remembered the influence she still had in Aquitaine over its powerful dukes who had never liked Louis, following him only because of his alliance with Eleanor. When Louis decided to head the Second Crusade in 1147 and the Queen announced that she would accompany him, the king?s advisors were against it. Eleanor argued that the men of Aquitaine would be willing to join the expedition if she were to set an example for them by going. The advisors thought this was logical reasoning and they needed more men to join, so Eleanor was aloud to join them in their journey. Since the beginning of their marriage, Eleanor found her weak, dull husband very little to her liking so she spent much of her time traveling with out him. Forced to spend time together during their journey to the Holy Land, Eleanor and Louis began to fight. They quarreled over her plan to protect Jerusalem by driving back the Turks in the North. Louis ignored her advice and arranged for Eleanor to be sent home against her will. Both the crusade and their marriage failed shortly after. In 1152 Eleanor petitioned the Pope to annul her marriage to Louis on the pretext that they were too closely related by blood. The King and his advisors forced Eleanor was to give up her two daughters, Marie and Alix, and tearfully, Eleanor said good-by and returned home. Reverting back to her position as Duchess of Aquitaine, Eleanor once again held the power over her land. She realized she was now in the same place she had been fifteen years earlier and once again would be forced to marry, but this time she was in a position to chose her next husband. She selected Henry Plantagenet of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, the second most powerful area in France, who was also in line to become the King of England. In 1154, the pair was crowned in Britain and Henry became King Henry II. Eleanor had now gained the most powerful position, after that of the king. She now ruled both Aquitaine and England. Also, unlike her first husband, Henry valued her opinion and took her advice. Eleanor and Henry had eight children, three of which would help their mother cause their father?s downfall. Ruling both countries in his place while he was off conquering other lands, the King and Queen drifted apart. Their marriage was doomed when Eleanor discovered that her husband had had several affairs. Bitter that she had been deprived of the right to rule for so many years, she devised a plan to overthrow the King. In 1173 with the help of her sons John, Richard, and Geoffrey Eleanor succeeded in her plan. Fearing her ambitions Henry II had Eleanor imprisoned until his own death in 1189. Eleanor helped her son Richard rule England and when he died, she did the same for John. Although unlike Richard, John resisted her help, she continued to keep him out of trouble by making orders in his name without his knowledge. Eleanor spent the last years of her life traveling between England and France bringing the two countries together and making peace in England. She spent most of her last days in shelter for women called Fontevrault and was buried at the abbey in 1204 at the age of eighty-two. Eleanor had a passion for the arts in any form, and throughout her life she brought them with her wherever she went. Used to her family’s exciting castle in Aquitaine, the young Eleanor found the Paris castle boring. Eleanor quickly brought it to life. She loved learning, and invited great minds from all over the country to her court. She regularly attended lectures of the famous theologian Abelard. Eleanor introduced far more to Paris than just intellectual things. She introduced Paris to the culture she had known at home: music, fine tapestries, new fashions, dancing, and good food. When she married Henry and moved to England, the Queen once again turned the dismal English castle into a center for those interested in the arts. The days were filled with tournaments and plays, and the nights with feasting. Everything was celebrated in the honor of love. Most importantly, everywhere Eleanor went, she supported something almost unheard of in the time: respect for women. Eleanor achieved so many things in her time that it was unheard of for a woman to do in her time. Having been Queen of two countries during her life she contributed a lot to keeping the peace and establishing fair rule in both of her countries. Also Eleanor was one of the first women to speak out for women?s rights and take action for fairer treatment for women. Eleanor of Aquitaine will always be remembered as one of the great women in history.	1,331	ENGLISH	1
A Brief Overview Of The Battle Of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo took place on the Sunday of June 18th, 1815 around Waterloo in the modern day Belgium which was a constituent of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The French army under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte lost to the two armies of the Seventh Coalition which was under the command of Duke of Wellington, and the Prussian Army which was led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher who was also the Prince of Wahlstatt. Historical Background Of The Battle Of Waterloo In March 1815, Napoleon's return to power prompted the formation of the Seventh Coalition of nations which was made up of the British army which included the Belgian, German, and Dutch troops led by Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher. The Coalition began to assemble the armies in preparation for a battle against Napoleon. Wellington's army together with the Prussian army was harbored near the border of France in the northeastern region. Following the coalition of the two armies, Napoleon decided to invade Blücher's and Wellington's armies hoping to destroy them before they could join forces and invade France together with the other Seventh Coalition members. During the Battle of Ligny, Napoleon managed to attack the Prussian's while concurrently ambushing Wellington and his army during the Quatre Bras battle. In spite of Wellington's perseverance at the Battle of Quatre Bras, the Prussian's defeat prompted him to retreat from Waterloo. Following the results of the two battles, Napoleon dispatched a third of his army to chase after the Prussian army which had previously withdrawn alongside Wellington and his troops. The result of Napoleon's pursuit led to the concurrent and separate Battle of Wavre with the Prussians. Immediately Wellington realized that the Prussian army had the military capacity to support him, he positioned the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment battle that took place opposite Brussels road. Wellington endured continuous attacks from Napoleon's army all through the afternoon but got help from the Prussians who were arrived in succession. Upon desperation, Napoleon sent out his last army in the evening as an attempt for one last attack. The Prussians broke through the right flanking the French while Wellington's army consisting of Anglo-allies counter-attacked in the center overpowering Napoleon's army. Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo marked the end of his rule as the Emperor of France. Four days after the Battle of Waterloo Napoleon abdicated the throne on July 7th, as the coalition troops infiltrated to France. The French Army at the Battle of Waterloo The French army under the leadership of Napoleon was known as Armée du Nord. Napoleon's army had about 69,000 soldiers 48,000 of whom were infantry, 14,000 of whom were cavalry and 7,000 men who consisted of the artillery with 250 guns. The French army mainly consisted of veterans who had a substantial amount of experience and unquestionable devotion to him. Initially, Napoleon had used recruitment when forming the French army, however, as the army began to grow the French soldiers were assigned to military fractions as they showed up for duties. In the end, many posts were commanded by officers whom the soldiers were not familiar with and did not trust. A crucial weakness of the French army is that some officers were inexperienced in teamwork and operating as a consolidated force, therefore, hindering support for the other factions. Another weakness in the French army was that they involuntarily marched through rain and mud that consisted of dust from black coal to get to Waterloo after which they had to deal with the rain and mud since they slept in the open. Despite having insufficient food supply, the French troops were vehemently loyal to Napoleon their Emperor. The Coalition Army The Battle of Waterloo was fought by three armies which included; a multinational army under the command of Wellington, the Prussian army under Blücher's command against the French. Wellington's army comprised of 67,000 soldiers 50,000 of whom were infantry, 11,000 of whom were cavalry, and 6,000 of them were artillery who had 150 guns. 25,000 of the soldiers were from Britain, 17,000 were Belgian and Dutch troops, 6,000 were from the Germanic Legion, 11,000 were from Hanover, 3,000 were from Nassau and 6,000 were from Brunswick. Many of the soldiers from the coalition armies did not have sufficient experience. Wellington's army lacked heavy cavalry which gave Napoleon's army an upper hand since they had heavy cavalry. The Prussian army was not properly established since it was in the process of reorganization. In 1815 the former Legions, Reserve regiments, and Freikorps were in the course of being absorbed into the army alongside most Landwehr militia. The Landwehr were not adequately trained or equipped when they went to Belgium. The Prussian cavalry and artillery were sufficiently equipped since they were also reorganizing and therefore did not perform to their optimum best during the battle. Despite these shortcomings, the Prussian army had exemplary leadership in its organization since the officers attended four schools that were solely established for the purpose of training. In spite of the Prussian troops retreating after the Battle of Ligny they instantly reorganized, realigned, and intervened in the Battle of Waterloo within 48 hours. The Battle Field The Waterloo was an unyielding position that compromised of a lengthy ridge that stretched perpendicularly and was bisected by the main road and lay east-west to Brussels. Ohain road, a deep concaved lane stretched across the crest of the ridge. A humongous elm tree which stood near the crossroads at the Brussels road served as Wellington's command post for a significant portion of the day. Wellington positioned his infantry perpendicular to the rear side of the crest of the ridge that followed Ohain road. On the other hand, the French army formed on the gradient of another ridge to the south of Wellington was positioned such that Napoleon could not see his positions. Due to this reason, Napoleon formation of his troops was symmetrically about the Brussels road. The Historical Significance Of The Waterloo Battle The Waterloo battle was a historic event in more than one way. The Battle of Waterloo was a turning point that brought about relative peace, technological progress, and material prosperity. Without a doubt, the battle concluded the series of wars that had previously tormented Europe alongside other regions of the world caused by the French Revolution. One of the significant aftermaths of the war was the imperial and war mongering career of Napoleon Bonaparte who is perceived to be a great statesman and commander in history came to an end together with the First French Empire. Parts of the area where the battle took place have changed in appearance as tourism began soon after the war ended. In 1820, William I the King of Netherlands ordered a monument to be constructed. A giant mound known as the Lion's Hillock was built by use of 300,000 cubic meters of terrene retrieved from the ridge. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:377adb3d-b1ea-454e-8535-d81657959e92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-battle-of-waterloo-and-the-final-defeat-of-napoleon-bonaparte.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00496.warc.gz	en	0.983886	1,512	3.875	4	[ -0.3651271462440491, 0.3728349208831787, 0.4615408778190613, 0.1881159543991089, -0.43834418058395386, -0.4168001115322113, -0.2236214280128479, 0.44195106625556946, -0.16182583570480347, -0.23664377629756927, 0.04704531654715538, -0.8879541158676147, 0.40929725766181946, 0.285005986690521...	2	A Brief Overview Of The Battle Of Waterloo The Battle of Waterloo took place on the Sunday of June 18th, 1815 around Waterloo in the modern day Belgium which was a constituent of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The French army under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte lost to the two armies of the Seventh Coalition which was under the command of Duke of Wellington, and the Prussian Army which was led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher who was also the Prince of Wahlstatt. Historical Background Of The Battle Of Waterloo In March 1815, Napoleon's return to power prompted the formation of the Seventh Coalition of nations which was made up of the British army which included the Belgian, German, and Dutch troops led by Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army led by Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher. The Coalition began to assemble the armies in preparation for a battle against Napoleon. Wellington's army together with the Prussian army was harbored near the border of France in the northeastern region. Following the coalition of the two armies, Napoleon decided to invade Blücher's and Wellington's armies hoping to destroy them before they could join forces and invade France together with the other Seventh Coalition members. During the Battle of Ligny, Napoleon managed to attack the Prussian's while concurrently ambushing Wellington and his army during the Quatre Bras battle. In spite of Wellington's perseverance at the Battle of Quatre Bras, the Prussian's defeat prompted him to retreat from Waterloo. Following the results of the two battles, Napoleon dispatched a third of his army to chase after the Prussian army which had previously withdrawn alongside Wellington and his troops. The result of Napoleon's pursuit led to the concurrent and separate Battle of Wavre with the Prussians. Immediately Wellington realized that the Prussian army had the military capacity to support him, he positioned the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment battle that took place opposite Brussels road. Wellington endured continuous attacks from Napoleon's army all through the afternoon but got help from the Prussians who were arrived in succession. Upon desperation, Napoleon sent out his last army in the evening as an attempt for one last attack. The Prussians broke through the right flanking the French while Wellington's army consisting of Anglo-allies counter-attacked in the center overpowering Napoleon's army. Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo marked the end of his rule as the Emperor of France. Four days after the Battle of Waterloo Napoleon abdicated the throne on July 7th, as the coalition troops infiltrated to France. The French Army at the Battle of Waterloo The French army under the leadership of Napoleon was known as Armée du Nord. Napoleon's army had about 69,000 soldiers 48,000 of whom were infantry, 14,000 of whom were cavalry and 7,000 men who consisted of the artillery with 250 guns. The French army mainly consisted of veterans who had a substantial amount of experience and unquestionable devotion to him. Initially, Napoleon had used recruitment when forming the French army, however, as the army began to grow the French soldiers were assigned to military fractions as they showed up for duties. In the end, many posts were commanded by officers whom the soldiers were not familiar with and did not trust. A crucial weakness of the French army is that some officers were inexperienced in teamwork and operating as a consolidated force, therefore, hindering support for the other factions. Another weakness in the French army was that they involuntarily marched through rain and mud that consisted of dust from black coal to get to Waterloo after which they had to deal with the rain and mud since they slept in the open. Despite having insufficient food supply, the French troops were vehemently loyal to Napoleon their Emperor. The Coalition Army The Battle of Waterloo was fought by three armies which included; a multinational army under the command of Wellington, the Prussian army under Blücher's command against the French. Wellington's army comprised of 67,000 soldiers 50,000 of whom were infantry, 11,000 of whom were cavalry, and 6,000 of them were artillery who had 150 guns. 25,000 of the soldiers were from Britain, 17,000 were Belgian and Dutch troops, 6,000 were from the Germanic Legion, 11,000 were from Hanover, 3,000 were from Nassau and 6,000 were from Brunswick. Many of the soldiers from the coalition armies did not have sufficient experience. Wellington's army lacked heavy cavalry which gave Napoleon's army an upper hand since they had heavy cavalry. The Prussian army was not properly established since it was in the process of reorganization. In 1815 the former Legions, Reserve regiments, and Freikorps were in the course of being absorbed into the army alongside most Landwehr militia. The Landwehr were not adequately trained or equipped when they went to Belgium. The Prussian cavalry and artillery were sufficiently equipped since they were also reorganizing and therefore did not perform to their optimum best during the battle. Despite these shortcomings, the Prussian army had exemplary leadership in its organization since the officers attended four schools that were solely established for the purpose of training. In spite of the Prussian troops retreating after the Battle of Ligny they instantly reorganized, realigned, and intervened in the Battle of Waterloo within 48 hours. The Battle Field The Waterloo was an unyielding position that compromised of a lengthy ridge that stretched perpendicularly and was bisected by the main road and lay east-west to Brussels. Ohain road, a deep concaved lane stretched across the crest of the ridge. A humongous elm tree which stood near the crossroads at the Brussels road served as Wellington's command post for a significant portion of the day. Wellington positioned his infantry perpendicular to the rear side of the crest of the ridge that followed Ohain road. On the other hand, the French army formed on the gradient of another ridge to the south of Wellington was positioned such that Napoleon could not see his positions. Due to this reason, Napoleon formation of his troops was symmetrically about the Brussels road. The Historical Significance Of The Waterloo Battle The Waterloo battle was a historic event in more than one way. The Battle of Waterloo was a turning point that brought about relative peace, technological progress, and material prosperity. Without a doubt, the battle concluded the series of wars that had previously tormented Europe alongside other regions of the world caused by the French Revolution. One of the significant aftermaths of the war was the imperial and war mongering career of Napoleon Bonaparte who is perceived to be a great statesman and commander in history came to an end together with the First French Empire. Parts of the area where the battle took place have changed in appearance as tourism began soon after the war ended. In 1820, William I the King of Netherlands ordered a monument to be constructed. A giant mound known as the Lion's Hillock was built by use of 300,000 cubic meters of terrene retrieved from the ridge. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,572	ENGLISH	1
In 1792 he assumed the reins of government in name of his mother, Queen Maria I, who had declined into a mental illness brought on by a medical condition called porphyria. He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical atmosphere and, being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless character, was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus called on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which he retained until his mother's death in 1816. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, and the whole royal family fled to Brazil on British ships. In 1816 he was recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil, which he raised to the status of a kingdom on December 16, 1815. The consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of August 24, 1820, and the proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in 1823, he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, whom he ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. Meanwhile his elder son, Dom Pedro, declared Brazilian independence from Rio de Janeiro on September 7, 1824. He subsequently declared himself Emperor as Pedro I. João VI refused to assent to this devolution until August 29, 1825, when he restored Pedro to the succession in the belief that Brazil and Portugal would be reunited in a dual monarchy federation after his own death. He died at Lisbon on March 26 1826, and was succeeded by Pedro IV. \|List of Portuguese monarchs\| List of Brazilian monarchs D. Pedro IV/Pedro I	<urn:uuid:769fe3be-fa3e-4d48-ab78-13df0ae6a80f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://infomutt.com/j/jo/joao_vi_of_portugal.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00003.warc.gz	en	0.988467	347	3.265625	3	[ 0.13727055490016937, 0.5553253889083862, 0.5542868375778198, -0.2763690948486328, -0.11573401093482971, -0.09550022333860397, 0.1348697543144226, 0.06587964296340942, 0.15779027342796326, 0.03278043121099472, 0.03564602881669998, -0.4316738545894623, -0.16763842105865479, 0.158461123704910...	6	In 1792 he assumed the reins of government in name of his mother, Queen Maria I, who had declined into a mental illness brought on by a medical condition called porphyria. He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical atmosphere and, being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless character, was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus called on to undertake. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which he retained until his mother's death in 1816. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, and the whole royal family fled to Brazil on British ships. In 1816 he was recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil, which he raised to the status of a kingdom on December 16, 1815. The consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of August 24, 1820, and the proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in 1823, he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, whom he ultimately was compelled to banish in 1824. Meanwhile his elder son, Dom Pedro, declared Brazilian independence from Rio de Janeiro on September 7, 1824. He subsequently declared himself Emperor as Pedro I. João VI refused to assent to this devolution until August 29, 1825, when he restored Pedro to the succession in the belief that Brazil and Portugal would be reunited in a dual monarchy federation after his own death. He died at Lisbon on March 26 1826, and was succeeded by Pedro IV. \|List of Portuguese monarchs\| List of Brazilian monarchs D. Pedro IV/Pedro I	393	ENGLISH	1
Story, photography and videos by Ray Waddington. Click/tap an image to begin a captioned slideshow (best viewed on a modern, wide-gamut display) and, where available, stock licensing information. Warning: contains graphic images that some may find disturbing. Our documentary, Peoples of the World: The Altai Kazakh is now available. Human habitation of what is now Mongolia dates back tens of thousands of years. The western region contains many examples of ancient human art — particularly in the form of deer stones, petroglyphs etc. The record that the prehistoric settlers left us, along with other archaeological findings, paints a clear picture of what their life was like. They were hunters who had domesticated the indigenous horses of the region and had mastered bow-and-arrow weaponry. Herding followed but gathering played a negligible role in their survival. Little that humans can eat grows here. The topography and climate of the whole region is dominated by the Altai Mountain range, which also covers parts of Russia, China and Kazakhstan. The higher peaks of these mountains are permanently snow-capped. Winter at lower elevations lasts effectively for five months. For these reasons life here has always been semi-nomadic out of necessity. Yet the mountains themselves form a natural barrier to human migration, so that the different peoples of the region historically remained separated. However, beginning around two hundred years ago the Kazakh people of eastern Kazakhstan began making their way through the mountains in search of new grazing pasture for their herds of sheep and goats. They too were master horsemen but they did not hunt with bow and arrow. Instead they brought golden eagles which they had trained to hunt in Kazakhstan for centuries. At first they would migrate seasonally back to Kazakhstan. Later they settled here. Now numbering over a hundred thousand, they are the largest ethnic minority in Mongolia. They are culturally different from the Mongol people. Their language, customs, dress and religion collectively distinguish them. I recently spent a month in Mongolia's Bayan-Olgii Province (Aimag) living and traveling among them, spanning mid-autumn to the onset of winter. By mid-autumn the night time temperature is hovering around freezing point. Precipitation is already falling as snow on some peaks. But the Kazakh know what will follow and they regard this as mild rather than cold. Grazing is still good on the valley floors and making sure the livestock take full advantage is paramount. So they continue to live in the gers (yurts) that have housed them since the spring. Kazakh gers are usually much larger than those of their Mongol neighbors and can house extended families. A few hours east of the provincial capital, Olgii, lives a Kazakh eagle hunter named Erbol. He was my host and guide for a few days as I lived with him and his extended family in a guest ger. His seven-year-old grandson was having his hair cut on the day I arrived. That may not seem like a topic for inclusion in a cultural travel story, but this was no ordinary haircut. Mongolia's Altail Kazakh have adopted a piece of Mongolian culture. Traditionally, children do not have their hair cut in the first few years of life. Then, the first haircut is a ceremonial coming-of-age event. For Erbol's family this was a two-day ceremony. Whereas only extended family and close friends were present on the first day, hundreds of guests had been invited for the second. I was also asked to cut the boy's hair — a great honor for an outsider. Below is a short video of some of the haircutting. Before dark five sheep and a horse had been slaughtered according to halal tradition. They would feed the guests the next day. Stoves had been removed from most of the gers (thankfully, not from mine) and placed about fifteen meters away. Whereas cooking is traditionally done by women in Kazakh society, here they played a role only in the preparation. A few men were to stay awake through the night and be in charge of the actual cooking. They were still there when I woke up and it was mid morning before they began moving the meat and stew into four of the gers — which had been emptied to turn them into temporary eating gers. Then the guests began arriving. They were greeted by Erbol and then they mingled with each other. Once all the guests had arrived (about 250 of them) the men and boys were separated by ger from the women and girls. I was shown to one of the male gers where, despite the language barrier, I made a few new friends. I also ate horse meat for the first time in my life. After lunch the ceremonies began. It was difficult to follow everything that was happening, but most of the activity was centered on the boy himself. Many speeches were made during which he was lavished with gifts that included at least two horses, seven sheep and money that must have totaled around US $1,000. Not bad for a seven year old in a relatively poor part of the world. During ceremonies like these the Kazakh celebrate their heritage and a large part of the celebration featured horsemanship skill. There was a horse racing competition that gave an opportunity to other young boys from the surrounding communities to demonstrate how far they had progressed. From what I saw they had progressed far even by their mid-teens. The event that I found the most fascinating though was another one with a Mongolian influence — wrestling. Below is a short video of some of that event. I went horseback riding into the low hills a couple of times with Erbol, who brought his eagle with him. Although hunting season hadn't started yet, it was still a wonderful experience to be riding alongside a real eagle hunter in the very same area where, in just a few weeks, eagles would be hunting their prey. The most popular celebration of Kazakh culture in the area are the golden eagle festivals. The first (often called the small eagle festival) took place over a weekend outside the small village (soum) of Sagsai, about 45 minutes from Olgii. Here again most of the events focused in some way on horsemanship skill. But the main event is the eagle competition itself. I'd seen documentary footage of eagle hunters successfully calling their bird to land on their arm. What I wasn't expecting was for over half the birds to fly away instead. But nothing can prepare you for the majesty of your first time witnessing an eagle being called and landing. The sense of admiration for the eagle hunter that it inspires is breathtaking. Although impressive, the Sagsai festival was the most disappointing of the three festivals I attended. Considering it has been going for quite a few years now, it was very badly organized. Only a week later I attended the one I enjoyed the most. 2017 was the inaugural year for the one-day Ulaankhus (another small soum an hour west of Olgii) festival, which consisted only of an eagle competition and a ceremony of releasing eagles back into the wild. The scale of this festival was much smaller than the other two. Also, it hadn't been widely publicized and I was one of only a handful of outsiders present. This made for a much more intimate experience. Even though it snowed and the temperature was below freezing for the whole day, this festival was the most worthwhile to attend. In the lunch ger I met these two Kazakh elders. They are legendary eagle hunters who were being honored at the festival. Although the plan is for Ulaankhus to be an annual event, that may not happen. Organizations, including tour companies strangely enough, intend to petition the government to stop it beginning next year. Below is a video montage of the eagle calling portion of the competition. I had a week between the Ulaankhus festival and the main Olgii festival, which I spent exploring the westernmost parts of the province. By now the onset of winter had really begun. It was rarely above freezing and lakes and streams had become frozen save for a few hours at the height of the day. Tsengel is the next soum west of Ulaankhus. After that very few people live out here. I passed through another small soum after a few hours. This one exists mainly to provide a boarding school for the children of area nomads. Although most families have packed up their gers and moved into their winter homes by this time of year, I did see a few gers still inhabited here and there. Herding is a perennial task but time is also spent preparing for the dead of winter. Temperatures can fall into the negative forties centigrade and just going outside can be life-threatening. So early winter is also a time to stock up on fuel (mainly dried animal dung and coal) and to make sure the home is as protected as it can be from the elements. Once winter has begun in earnest this is as close as humans come to hibernation. The main pastime is simply to avoid dying! Bayan-Olgii has about a dozen small soums in addition to Olgii itself. These modern, permanent settlements now have 24-hour electricity (in theory — the power often goes out for hours at a time). Urbanization of the population has been happening in Mongolia at a staggering rate since the transition from communism to democracy. This is also the trend in Bayan-Olgii For the Altai Kazakh people this inevitably brings some loss of tradition and culture. But in rural parts Kazakh culture is alive and well. Probably the best example of cultural preservation is the main golden eagle festival that takes place each year just outside Olgii. This was the last festival I attended. Attendance was higher than the previous year. That is no doubt due, in part at least, to the release of the film, The Eagle Huntress. Nurgaiv Aisholpan competed for the fourth time alongside other females. But, of course, it was a male dominated competition. My final cultural interaction was with two brothers who live near Ulaankhus and who are both eagle hunters. Siezbek and Khazibek were my hosts and guides for a hunting expedition. We set off, along with their spotter, on an unusually warm winter morning and headed for a high ridge about fifteen kilometers from their home. Conditions were less than ideal and I didn't hold much hope for a successful hunt. After maybe an hour the spotter shouted "fox!" The eagle hunters descended the ridge but were unable to see it. It had gotten away. So they rode back up to the top of the ridge and we waited. We didn't have to wait long before the spotter sighted a second fox. He flushed it out into the open and Siezbek released his eagle. The eagle made no mistake and the kill was instant. We returned home where, on this occasion, the fox was awarded to the spotter. He had it skinned in a matter of minutes. The fur will provide clothing for his family and the meat was the eagle's reward. It was a fitting end to my Kazakh tours. Our documentary, Peoples of the World: The Altai Kazakh is now available. Travel review, advisory and warning: Blue Wolf Travel, Olgii, Mongolia. Photography and videography copyright © 1999 - Ray Waddington. All rights reserved. Text copyright © 1999 - 2020, The Peoples of the World Foundation. All rights reserved. Waddington, R., (2017) Kazakh Tours. The Peoples of the World Foundation. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from The Peoples of the World Foundation. The Peoples of the World Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in the United States under Internal Revenue Service code 501(c)(3). © The Peoples of the World Foundation and individual contributors, 1999 - 2020. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:f7d83d08-fd02-4346-8920-f5990d3176cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://peoplesoftheworld.org/travelStory.jsp?travelStory=kazakhtours	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00454.warc.gz	en	0.981367	2,454	3.328125	3	[ -0.2602233290672302, 0.13570772111415863, 0.29889339208602905, 0.56368088722229, 0.2939087748527527, 0.002261783229187131, 0.0710885152220726, -0.0765886977314949, -0.36449772119522095, -0.07040345668792725, 0.11205463856458664, -0.5550401210784912, 0.5161492824554443, 0.23779934644699097,...	1	Story, photography and videos by Ray Waddington. Click/tap an image to begin a captioned slideshow (best viewed on a modern, wide-gamut display) and, where available, stock licensing information. Warning: contains graphic images that some may find disturbing. Our documentary, Peoples of the World: The Altai Kazakh is now available. Human habitation of what is now Mongolia dates back tens of thousands of years. The western region contains many examples of ancient human art — particularly in the form of deer stones, petroglyphs etc. The record that the prehistoric settlers left us, along with other archaeological findings, paints a clear picture of what their life was like. They were hunters who had domesticated the indigenous horses of the region and had mastered bow-and-arrow weaponry. Herding followed but gathering played a negligible role in their survival. Little that humans can eat grows here. The topography and climate of the whole region is dominated by the Altai Mountain range, which also covers parts of Russia, China and Kazakhstan. The higher peaks of these mountains are permanently snow-capped. Winter at lower elevations lasts effectively for five months. For these reasons life here has always been semi-nomadic out of necessity. Yet the mountains themselves form a natural barrier to human migration, so that the different peoples of the region historically remained separated. However, beginning around two hundred years ago the Kazakh people of eastern Kazakhstan began making their way through the mountains in search of new grazing pasture for their herds of sheep and goats. They too were master horsemen but they did not hunt with bow and arrow. Instead they brought golden eagles which they had trained to hunt in Kazakhstan for centuries. At first they would migrate seasonally back to Kazakhstan. Later they settled here. Now numbering over a hundred thousand, they are the largest ethnic minority in Mongolia. They are culturally different from the Mongol people. Their language, customs, dress and religion collectively distinguish them. I recently spent a month in Mongolia's Bayan-Olgii Province (Aimag) living and traveling among them, spanning mid-autumn to the onset of winter. By mid-autumn the night time temperature is hovering around freezing point. Precipitation is already falling as snow on some peaks. But the Kazakh know what will follow and they regard this as mild rather than cold. Grazing is still good on the valley floors and making sure the livestock take full advantage is paramount. So they continue to live in the gers (yurts) that have housed them since the spring. Kazakh gers are usually much larger than those of their Mongol neighbors and can house extended families. A few hours east of the provincial capital, Olgii, lives a Kazakh eagle hunter named Erbol. He was my host and guide for a few days as I lived with him and his extended family in a guest ger. His seven-year-old grandson was having his hair cut on the day I arrived. That may not seem like a topic for inclusion in a cultural travel story, but this was no ordinary haircut. Mongolia's Altail Kazakh have adopted a piece of Mongolian culture. Traditionally, children do not have their hair cut in the first few years of life. Then, the first haircut is a ceremonial coming-of-age event. For Erbol's family this was a two-day ceremony. Whereas only extended family and close friends were present on the first day, hundreds of guests had been invited for the second. I was also asked to cut the boy's hair — a great honor for an outsider. Below is a short video of some of the haircutting. Before dark five sheep and a horse had been slaughtered according to halal tradition. They would feed the guests the next day. Stoves had been removed from most of the gers (thankfully, not from mine) and placed about fifteen meters away. Whereas cooking is traditionally done by women in Kazakh society, here they played a role only in the preparation. A few men were to stay awake through the night and be in charge of the actual cooking. They were still there when I woke up and it was mid morning before they began moving the meat and stew into four of the gers — which had been emptied to turn them into temporary eating gers. Then the guests began arriving. They were greeted by Erbol and then they mingled with each other. Once all the guests had arrived (about 250 of them) the men and boys were separated by ger from the women and girls. I was shown to one of the male gers where, despite the language barrier, I made a few new friends. I also ate horse meat for the first time in my life. After lunch the ceremonies began. It was difficult to follow everything that was happening, but most of the activity was centered on the boy himself. Many speeches were made during which he was lavished with gifts that included at least two horses, seven sheep and money that must have totaled around US $1,000. Not bad for a seven year old in a relatively poor part of the world. During ceremonies like these the Kazakh celebrate their heritage and a large part of the celebration featured horsemanship skill. There was a horse racing competition that gave an opportunity to other young boys from the surrounding communities to demonstrate how far they had progressed. From what I saw they had progressed far even by their mid-teens. The event that I found the most fascinating though was another one with a Mongolian influence — wrestling. Below is a short video of some of that event. I went horseback riding into the low hills a couple of times with Erbol, who brought his eagle with him. Although hunting season hadn't started yet, it was still a wonderful experience to be riding alongside a real eagle hunter in the very same area where, in just a few weeks, eagles would be hunting their prey. The most popular celebration of Kazakh culture in the area are the golden eagle festivals. The first (often called the small eagle festival) took place over a weekend outside the small village (soum) of Sagsai, about 45 minutes from Olgii. Here again most of the events focused in some way on horsemanship skill. But the main event is the eagle competition itself. I'd seen documentary footage of eagle hunters successfully calling their bird to land on their arm. What I wasn't expecting was for over half the birds to fly away instead. But nothing can prepare you for the majesty of your first time witnessing an eagle being called and landing. The sense of admiration for the eagle hunter that it inspires is breathtaking. Although impressive, the Sagsai festival was the most disappointing of the three festivals I attended. Considering it has been going for quite a few years now, it was very badly organized. Only a week later I attended the one I enjoyed the most. 2017 was the inaugural year for the one-day Ulaankhus (another small soum an hour west of Olgii) festival, which consisted only of an eagle competition and a ceremony of releasing eagles back into the wild. The scale of this festival was much smaller than the other two. Also, it hadn't been widely publicized and I was one of only a handful of outsiders present. This made for a much more intimate experience. Even though it snowed and the temperature was below freezing for the whole day, this festival was the most worthwhile to attend. In the lunch ger I met these two Kazakh elders. They are legendary eagle hunters who were being honored at the festival. Although the plan is for Ulaankhus to be an annual event, that may not happen. Organizations, including tour companies strangely enough, intend to petition the government to stop it beginning next year. Below is a video montage of the eagle calling portion of the competition. I had a week between the Ulaankhus festival and the main Olgii festival, which I spent exploring the westernmost parts of the province. By now the onset of winter had really begun. It was rarely above freezing and lakes and streams had become frozen save for a few hours at the height of the day. Tsengel is the next soum west of Ulaankhus. After that very few people live out here. I passed through another small soum after a few hours. This one exists mainly to provide a boarding school for the children of area nomads. Although most families have packed up their gers and moved into their winter homes by this time of year, I did see a few gers still inhabited here and there. Herding is a perennial task but time is also spent preparing for the dead of winter. Temperatures can fall into the negative forties centigrade and just going outside can be life-threatening. So early winter is also a time to stock up on fuel (mainly dried animal dung and coal) and to make sure the home is as protected as it can be from the elements. Once winter has begun in earnest this is as close as humans come to hibernation. The main pastime is simply to avoid dying! Bayan-Olgii has about a dozen small soums in addition to Olgii itself. These modern, permanent settlements now have 24-hour electricity (in theory — the power often goes out for hours at a time). Urbanization of the population has been happening in Mongolia at a staggering rate since the transition from communism to democracy. This is also the trend in Bayan-Olgii For the Altai Kazakh people this inevitably brings some loss of tradition and culture. But in rural parts Kazakh culture is alive and well. Probably the best example of cultural preservation is the main golden eagle festival that takes place each year just outside Olgii. This was the last festival I attended. Attendance was higher than the previous year. That is no doubt due, in part at least, to the release of the film, The Eagle Huntress. Nurgaiv Aisholpan competed for the fourth time alongside other females. But, of course, it was a male dominated competition. My final cultural interaction was with two brothers who live near Ulaankhus and who are both eagle hunters. Siezbek and Khazibek were my hosts and guides for a hunting expedition. We set off, along with their spotter, on an unusually warm winter morning and headed for a high ridge about fifteen kilometers from their home. Conditions were less than ideal and I didn't hold much hope for a successful hunt. After maybe an hour the spotter shouted "fox!" The eagle hunters descended the ridge but were unable to see it. It had gotten away. So they rode back up to the top of the ridge and we waited. We didn't have to wait long before the spotter sighted a second fox. He flushed it out into the open and Siezbek released his eagle. The eagle made no mistake and the kill was instant. We returned home where, on this occasion, the fox was awarded to the spotter. He had it skinned in a matter of minutes. The fur will provide clothing for his family and the meat was the eagle's reward. It was a fitting end to my Kazakh tours. Our documentary, Peoples of the World: The Altai Kazakh is now available. Travel review, advisory and warning: Blue Wolf Travel, Olgii, Mongolia. Photography and videography copyright © 1999 - Ray Waddington. All rights reserved. Text copyright © 1999 - 2020, The Peoples of the World Foundation. All rights reserved. Waddington, R., (2017) Kazakh Tours. The Peoples of the World Foundation. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from The Peoples of the World Foundation. The Peoples of the World Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in the United States under Internal Revenue Service code 501(c)(3). © The Peoples of the World Foundation and individual contributors, 1999 - 2020. All rights reserved.	2,466	ENGLISH	1
Age at menarche (when periods begin) has long been established as a risk factor for breast cancer. Risk of the disease gradually increases with younger age at menarche and older age at menopause. Using data from participants in the Breakthrough Generations Study, the results show that girls who were heavier and exercised less often were more likely to have an early menarche. Other factors that are related to early menarche identified by the study team included girls who were not breast fed, had a low birth weight and were taller. Analysis leader, Danielle Morris, said “A girl who takes more exercise is likely to start her periods later in life. We know exercising regularly as an adult can help reduce the risk of developing breast cancer. This study shows that exercising as a child could also potentially have an effect on breast cancer risk later in life.” In another paper, the Study found that the age at first period (menarche) decreased by about a year when comparing Generations Study members born at the beginning of the 20th century and those born in the 1940s. Although there was little change between most generations born after the Second World War, the age decreased again for the youngest Generations Study members, born in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Interestingly, although in Victorian times, and also for the oldest members of the Generations Study, women from better-off families started their periods earlier than women who were poorer, the opposite is now true for the youngest study members – poorer girls now have their menarche younger than better-off ones.	<urn:uuid:8a81f9ed-5314-4a09-b379-93e02f95c667>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://breakthroughgenerations.org.uk/study-update/study-updates/breakthrough-generations-study-data-reveals-factors-behind-age-which	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00311.warc.gz	en	0.986697	321	3.5	4	[ -0.06616266816854477, 0.20897437632083893, 0.057451892644166946, -0.3588792383670807, -0.11194434762001038, 0.27561503648757935, -0.3318518102169037, 0.1349281668663025, -0.2932434678077698, -0.6072579622268677, 0.15894365310668945, -0.2006480097770691, 0.20533479750156403, 0.2376659065485...	22	Age at menarche (when periods begin) has long been established as a risk factor for breast cancer. Risk of the disease gradually increases with younger age at menarche and older age at menopause. Using data from participants in the Breakthrough Generations Study, the results show that girls who were heavier and exercised less often were more likely to have an early menarche. Other factors that are related to early menarche identified by the study team included girls who were not breast fed, had a low birth weight and were taller. Analysis leader, Danielle Morris, said “A girl who takes more exercise is likely to start her periods later in life. We know exercising regularly as an adult can help reduce the risk of developing breast cancer. This study shows that exercising as a child could also potentially have an effect on breast cancer risk later in life.” In another paper, the Study found that the age at first period (menarche) decreased by about a year when comparing Generations Study members born at the beginning of the 20th century and those born in the 1940s. Although there was little change between most generations born after the Second World War, the age decreased again for the youngest Generations Study members, born in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Interestingly, although in Victorian times, and also for the oldest members of the Generations Study, women from better-off families started their periods earlier than women who were poorer, the opposite is now true for the youngest study members – poorer girls now have their menarche younger than better-off ones.	329	ENGLISH	1
The main square of the famous Moscow Kremlin is the Cathedral Square – spacious and bright. The architectural ensemble, which was erected on the main square more than 500 years ago, is unique in its magnificence and beauty. And, of course, the main role in this architectural ensemble is played by the Assumption Cathedral. Scientists are inclined to believe that the Assumption Cathedral was preceded by three churches – the church in the 12th century, the Dmitrovsky Cathedral in the thirteenth and the white-stone temple of the times of Ivan I Kalita. For the construction of the Assumption Cathedral was invited to the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti. His journey to Moscow lasted three months. He left in the winter and arrived in Moscow in the beginning of 1475. The Italian master examined the architecture unusual for him with undisguised interest. Most of all the Italian was attracted by the wooden carving on the casing of windows, porch and gate. Despite the fact that the journey was lengthy and difficult, the architect refused to rest and on the day of his arrival went to the construction site. To build anew the collapsed northern wall of the cathedral, Fioravanti refused and decided to break everything and begin construction again. Under his leadership, the Moscow Dormition Cathedral was built by masons and carpenters for four years. The brick, which was used for construction, was burned in a special oven, the lime was dissolved as a dough and smeared with special spatulas. And, by the way, for the first time everything was done with the help of a compass and a ruler. Crowned with 5 gilded domes, it is visible from all points of Moscow, although it is small in size. Very much in the Assumption Cathedral recalls the ancient Russian architecture, however this cathedral did not become a template work of architecture. The Italian was able to combine the architectural achievements of his homeland and the legacy of Russia. In the summer of 1479, the Assumption Cathedral, which became the main cathedral in Rus, appeared to the eyes of Muscovites.	<urn:uuid:d839c009-e155-404b-95b3-281b9dba9cae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://set-travel.com/en/blog/10917-assumption-cathedral-the-main-in-russia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00099.warc.gz	en	0.981165	426	3.359375	3	[ -0.0015289740404114127, 0.11672544479370117, 0.29189708828926086, 0.29223963618278503, -0.07290754467248917, -0.08207925409078598, 0.1406181901693344, 0.2228827178478241, 0.002758983289822936, -0.005560228135436773, -0.17934302985668182, -0.2153017371892929, 0.36862972378730774, 0.43598073...	2	The main square of the famous Moscow Kremlin is the Cathedral Square – spacious and bright. The architectural ensemble, which was erected on the main square more than 500 years ago, is unique in its magnificence and beauty. And, of course, the main role in this architectural ensemble is played by the Assumption Cathedral. Scientists are inclined to believe that the Assumption Cathedral was preceded by three churches – the church in the 12th century, the Dmitrovsky Cathedral in the thirteenth and the white-stone temple of the times of Ivan I Kalita. For the construction of the Assumption Cathedral was invited to the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti. His journey to Moscow lasted three months. He left in the winter and arrived in Moscow in the beginning of 1475. The Italian master examined the architecture unusual for him with undisguised interest. Most of all the Italian was attracted by the wooden carving on the casing of windows, porch and gate. Despite the fact that the journey was lengthy and difficult, the architect refused to rest and on the day of his arrival went to the construction site. To build anew the collapsed northern wall of the cathedral, Fioravanti refused and decided to break everything and begin construction again. Under his leadership, the Moscow Dormition Cathedral was built by masons and carpenters for four years. The brick, which was used for construction, was burned in a special oven, the lime was dissolved as a dough and smeared with special spatulas. And, by the way, for the first time everything was done with the help of a compass and a ruler. Crowned with 5 gilded domes, it is visible from all points of Moscow, although it is small in size. Very much in the Assumption Cathedral recalls the ancient Russian architecture, however this cathedral did not become a template work of architecture. The Italian was able to combine the architectural achievements of his homeland and the legacy of Russia. In the summer of 1479, the Assumption Cathedral, which became the main cathedral in Rus, appeared to the eyes of Muscovites.	430	ENGLISH	1
A Short History of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is believed to have been inhabited as early as the Stone Age, a prehistoric period characterized by the use of stone tools. It was only in the beginning of the 15th century when Kazakh identity came into being and was consolidated into the culture and language of the Kazakhs in the 16th century. After becoming stronger as a people, the Kazakhs fought off a federation of armed Western Mongol tribes in the 17th century, and went on to win major victories invading forces in the following century. During the 19th century, however, the vast Russian empire started to expand in Central Asia, ruling most of the countries in the region, including most parts of Kazakhstan which the Russians finally colonized. Following the colonization, some 400,000 Russians immigrated to the country and were followed by one million Slavs, Germans and Jews to establish their residency in the country. This resulted in direct competition between the Kazakhs and the newcomers and in a series of clashes between the natives and the Russians. Superior in strength, Russians prevailed, driving away 300,000 Kazakhs. The famine which started in 1922 worsened the conditions in the country when one million Kazakhs died from starvation. By 1939 the country’s population had dropped by 22% because of starvation and emigration. At that time, the Russians had also slaughtered a number of renowned local writers, poets, thinkers, and historians in an attempt to suppress Kazakh culture and identity, and had made the territory as the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Many years later or in October 1991, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a member of the Union of Socialist Republics, and its independence from Russia on December 16, 1991. The rest is now part of its modern and current history.	<urn:uuid:569cc01d-ff8a-4b6e-b231-04d55ad4b04f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studycountry.com/guide/KZ-history.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00532.warc.gz	en	0.981596	354	3.875	4	[ -0.10928648710250854, 0.1831263154745102, 0.11216647177934647, 0.2681027054786682, -0.6572626829147339, -0.14947505295276642, -0.07206994295120239, 0.2563890218734741, -0.31983840465545654, -0.04914480447769165, 0.17653056979179382, -0.1883569359779358, 0.3889386057853699, 0.17705410718917...	2	A Short History of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is believed to have been inhabited as early as the Stone Age, a prehistoric period characterized by the use of stone tools. It was only in the beginning of the 15th century when Kazakh identity came into being and was consolidated into the culture and language of the Kazakhs in the 16th century. After becoming stronger as a people, the Kazakhs fought off a federation of armed Western Mongol tribes in the 17th century, and went on to win major victories invading forces in the following century. During the 19th century, however, the vast Russian empire started to expand in Central Asia, ruling most of the countries in the region, including most parts of Kazakhstan which the Russians finally colonized. Following the colonization, some 400,000 Russians immigrated to the country and were followed by one million Slavs, Germans and Jews to establish their residency in the country. This resulted in direct competition between the Kazakhs and the newcomers and in a series of clashes between the natives and the Russians. Superior in strength, Russians prevailed, driving away 300,000 Kazakhs. The famine which started in 1922 worsened the conditions in the country when one million Kazakhs died from starvation. By 1939 the country’s population had dropped by 22% because of starvation and emigration. At that time, the Russians had also slaughtered a number of renowned local writers, poets, thinkers, and historians in an attempt to suppress Kazakh culture and identity, and had made the territory as the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Many years later or in October 1991, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a member of the Union of Socialist Republics, and its independence from Russia on December 16, 1991. The rest is now part of its modern and current history.	399	ENGLISH	1
Today, as the death anniversary of Allama Iqbal is being commemorated through public rituals and proclamations, one should ask if today’s Pakistan bears any resemblance to his ‘dream’, which was the outcome of a lifetime of deep thinking and feeling, study, creativity and prayer. To understand this dream, one must know its historical context and remember that Iqbal lived his entire life under British rule and at a time when western imperialistic nations had colonised much of the Muslim world. With the advent of colonialism, Muslims lost not only political power but also economic opportunity and cultural autonomy. Nowhere was this felt more acutely than in India where, though a minority in a Hindu-majority land, Muslims had had a powerful presence historically. In 1857-58, a section of the British Indian Army revolted against the British, who apportioned the greater share of the blame for this occurrence to Muslims and instituted openly discriminatory policies against them. This caused Muslim fortunes to reach their lowest ebb in the 1860s and 1870s — a fact which made many Muslims wary of associating Islam with politics and who restricted it to a practice of personal piety and ethics. Deeply concerned about this mindset, Iqbal took pains to demonstrate to his fellow Muslims that Islam could not be limited in such a way. In his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930, he stated: “It cannot be denied that Islam, regarded as an ethical ideal plus a certain kind of polity — by which I mean a social structure regulated by a legal system and animated by a specific ethical ideal — has been the chief formative factor in the life history of the Muslims of India.” Iqbal reiterated the same idea in his presidential address at the annual session of the All-India Muslim Conference in Lahore in 1932: “Politics have their roots in the spiritual life of man. It is my belief that Islam is not a matter of private opinion. It is a society, or if you like, a civic church. It is because present-day political ideals, as they appear to be shaping themselves in India, may affect its original structure and character that I find myself interested in politics.” What mattered supremely to Iqbal was “the culture of Islam” — an expression he used frequently to refer not to Muslim cultural practices but to the value-system based upon Islam’s highest ethical ideals. His dream of Pakistan was of a Muslim state in which the ethical principles of Islam and the political system which derived from them were organically related. In his view, a political system which lacked an ethical foundation would lead to ‘Changezi’, or tyranny of the worst kind. During his lifetime, Iqbal’s great challenge was to explicate to his fellow Indian Muslims why Islam could not be limited to ethics. If he was living today, he would have faced a very different challenge. One needs to ponder what Iqbal would have said to the Pakistani leaders who are so preoccupied with politics that ethics means nothing to them. Iqbal had pointed out insightfully, “Nations are born in the hearts of poets, they prosper and die in the hands of politicians.” The nation that was born in Iqbal’s heart has been all but crushed by most of Pakistan’s politicians. Today, being deceitful, dishonest, untruthful, unethical and conniving has become a fine art in Pakistan, where power-grabbing by means of Machiavellian intrigues and machinations is common. It is no wonder that Iqbal has been systematically eliminated from Pakistan’s educational curriculum and young Pakistanis have little, or no, knowledge of his message. The major reason for this abysmal reality is that Pakistan’s morally corrupt and spiritually bankrupt rulers fear that Iqbal’s iconoclastic voice, which rejected every form of totalitarianism, injustice and untruth, is still powerful enough to shatter their crystal palaces. It had to be silenced or relegated to obscurity if their nefarious purposes were to be achieved. Iqbal’s vision and voice, which changed the destiny of Indian Muslims, is what is needed today to liberate Pakistanis from the chains that bind their bodies, hearts, minds and souls. Young Pakistanis must reclaim Iqbal’s dream and undertake the responsibility for actualising it. Published in The Express Tribune, April 21st, 2011.	<urn:uuid:27fd92ea-23dc-44ce-89b1-eafc364151fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tribune.com.pk/story/153104/the-reclaiming-of-iqbals-dream/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00012.warc.gz	en	0.980087	932	3.34375	3	[ -0.18167561292648315, 0.6401145458221436, 0.20479261875152588, -0.1513676792383194, -0.15197895467281342, 0.4826509356498718, 0.5634055137634277, 0.11007444560527802, 0.2946392297744751, 0.09394663572311401, 0.2777617573738098, -0.2682121992111206, 0.35467374324798584, 0.10164222866296768,...	3	Today, as the death anniversary of Allama Iqbal is being commemorated through public rituals and proclamations, one should ask if today’s Pakistan bears any resemblance to his ‘dream’, which was the outcome of a lifetime of deep thinking and feeling, study, creativity and prayer. To understand this dream, one must know its historical context and remember that Iqbal lived his entire life under British rule and at a time when western imperialistic nations had colonised much of the Muslim world. With the advent of colonialism, Muslims lost not only political power but also economic opportunity and cultural autonomy. Nowhere was this felt more acutely than in India where, though a minority in a Hindu-majority land, Muslims had had a powerful presence historically. In 1857-58, a section of the British Indian Army revolted against the British, who apportioned the greater share of the blame for this occurrence to Muslims and instituted openly discriminatory policies against them. This caused Muslim fortunes to reach their lowest ebb in the 1860s and 1870s — a fact which made many Muslims wary of associating Islam with politics and who restricted it to a practice of personal piety and ethics. Deeply concerned about this mindset, Iqbal took pains to demonstrate to his fellow Muslims that Islam could not be limited in such a way. In his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930, he stated: “It cannot be denied that Islam, regarded as an ethical ideal plus a certain kind of polity — by which I mean a social structure regulated by a legal system and animated by a specific ethical ideal — has been the chief formative factor in the life history of the Muslims of India.” Iqbal reiterated the same idea in his presidential address at the annual session of the All-India Muslim Conference in Lahore in 1932: “Politics have their roots in the spiritual life of man. It is my belief that Islam is not a matter of private opinion. It is a society, or if you like, a civic church. It is because present-day political ideals, as they appear to be shaping themselves in India, may affect its original structure and character that I find myself interested in politics.” What mattered supremely to Iqbal was “the culture of Islam” — an expression he used frequently to refer not to Muslim cultural practices but to the value-system based upon Islam’s highest ethical ideals. His dream of Pakistan was of a Muslim state in which the ethical principles of Islam and the political system which derived from them were organically related. In his view, a political system which lacked an ethical foundation would lead to ‘Changezi’, or tyranny of the worst kind. During his lifetime, Iqbal’s great challenge was to explicate to his fellow Indian Muslims why Islam could not be limited to ethics. If he was living today, he would have faced a very different challenge. One needs to ponder what Iqbal would have said to the Pakistani leaders who are so preoccupied with politics that ethics means nothing to them. Iqbal had pointed out insightfully, “Nations are born in the hearts of poets, they prosper and die in the hands of politicians.” The nation that was born in Iqbal’s heart has been all but crushed by most of Pakistan’s politicians. Today, being deceitful, dishonest, untruthful, unethical and conniving has become a fine art in Pakistan, where power-grabbing by means of Machiavellian intrigues and machinations is common. It is no wonder that Iqbal has been systematically eliminated from Pakistan’s educational curriculum and young Pakistanis have little, or no, knowledge of his message. The major reason for this abysmal reality is that Pakistan’s morally corrupt and spiritually bankrupt rulers fear that Iqbal’s iconoclastic voice, which rejected every form of totalitarianism, injustice and untruth, is still powerful enough to shatter their crystal palaces. It had to be silenced or relegated to obscurity if their nefarious purposes were to be achieved. Iqbal’s vision and voice, which changed the destiny of Indian Muslims, is what is needed today to liberate Pakistanis from the chains that bind their bodies, hearts, minds and souls. Young Pakistanis must reclaim Iqbal’s dream and undertake the responsibility for actualising it. Published in The Express Tribune, April 21st, 2011.	917	ENGLISH	1
Discovery and name The island was discovered by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition on the Eastern Flight of 5 December 1929. It was further mapped as a part of the mainland by the United States Antarctic Service during the years 1939–1941. The feature was finally determined to be an island by the U.S. Geological Survey using air photos taken by the U.S. Navy throughout the years 1962-1965. Radford Island was named by Richard E. Byrd in honor of Vice Admiral Arthur W. Radford, U.S. Navy who served as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air) during the 1946-1947 exploration of Antarctica by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump. Radford was later promoted to Admiral and appointed as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.	<urn:uuid:b4aa0d28-cf14-4796-b4b1-0869dece0ce7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.westarctica.wiki/index.php/Radford_Island	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00198.warc.gz	en	0.981819	157	3.640625	4	[ -0.21288256347179413, 0.25017690658569336, 0.20734994113445282, -0.20939889550209045, -0.11958158761262894, 0.1390574723482132, 0.10997989773750305, 0.09161458164453506, -0.2585674524307251, 0.2372378557920456, 0.6732258200645447, -0.34409433603286743, 0.22170673310756683, 0.35710239410400...	2	Discovery and name The island was discovered by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition on the Eastern Flight of 5 December 1929. It was further mapped as a part of the mainland by the United States Antarctic Service during the years 1939–1941. The feature was finally determined to be an island by the U.S. Geological Survey using air photos taken by the U.S. Navy throughout the years 1962-1965. Radford Island was named by Richard E. Byrd in honor of Vice Admiral Arthur W. Radford, U.S. Navy who served as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air) during the 1946-1947 exploration of Antarctica by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump. Radford was later promoted to Admiral and appointed as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.	177	ENGLISH	1
When photos of Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau wearing Blackface were revealed many were shocked. Not only because of Trudeau’s progressive image but also because when people think of blackface, Canada doesn’t come to mind. But in fact, blackface is more prevalent in Canadian history than some would think. During the 1800’s, blackface was a common form of entertainment, from circus shows to plays. On a popular radio show in the 1930s, two white actors played African-American characters called Amos and Andy, a blockbuster movie called, The Birth of a Nation portrayed African Americans as rapists with no morals, and racial caricatures were common in children’s cartoons and as costumes in public events and parties. The tone of all of this was aimed at mimicking and mocking African Americans by portraying them as lesser than white Americans, as a way of asserting dominance and power. This was known as blackface minstrelsy which originated from the theatres of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia but eventually became popular in Canada. One of the earlier influencers of blackface and what partially started these minstrel acts was the character Jim Crow, as portrayed by the white minstrel actor Thomas Rice during the 1830’s. The character was so well-known that segregation laws in the United States from 1876-1965 were named Jim Crow laws. There were many of these famous blackface actors back in the 1800’s and early 1900’s. Minstrel shows could be found throughout Canada in the 1800’s and early 1900’s. As shown in information compiled by the McGill University, there were many such shows across Canada, from the west coast to the maritimes. Performances like this went on for quite some time until changing attitudes led them to decline around the 1950’s. Toronto’s Royal Lyceum theatre hosted many minstrel performances, and after the Royal Lyceum burnt down, they were held in the Grand Opera House. In Montreal, a group of people in the Jewish community known as the Young Men’s Hebrew Association would also hold minstrel performances. One famous Canadian, Calixa Lavallee, the Composer of “O Canada” spent much of his early career performing in blackface in the US. The Mechanics Institute and Academy of Music in Saint Johns was known for hosting Minstrel shows as well as advertising blackface. In Alberta there were lots of blackface shows, many instances include the Rotary Club Gathering, Calgary Rotary Minstrels, Rotary end men and Rotary Minstrel show. As for British Columbia, there were pictures and minstrel shows at the Garrison Theater as well as Oak Grove. Victoria had blackface instances at the Victoria Theater. When the current prime minister of Canada has photos and video footage released of him wearing blackface, Canadians may debate whether he is actually racist if he simply, as he prefers to put it, likes to dress up. But what is certain is that the idea that blackface is somehow “just an American thing” is naive. Cover Image: Wellington County Museum and Archives, 1996	<urn:uuid:1c1f9188-1a40-4bf9-be00-0c10fa20ebc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://8forty.ca/2019/12/17/yes-canada-does-have-a-history-of-blackface-and-minstrel-shows/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00503.warc.gz	en	0.985115	658	3.9375	4	[ 0.0889797955751419, 0.509546160697937, 0.19167031347751617, -0.05628524348139763, 0.033677224069833755, 0.6979801058769226, 0.30369874835014343, 0.21865804493427277, -0.08221526443958282, 0.10651198029518127, 0.055999837815761566, -0.05481937527656555, 0.09925732761621475, 0.08204879611730...	11	When photos of Canada’s Prime Minister Justin Trudeau wearing Blackface were revealed many were shocked. Not only because of Trudeau’s progressive image but also because when people think of blackface, Canada doesn’t come to mind. But in fact, blackface is more prevalent in Canadian history than some would think. During the 1800’s, blackface was a common form of entertainment, from circus shows to plays. On a popular radio show in the 1930s, two white actors played African-American characters called Amos and Andy, a blockbuster movie called, The Birth of a Nation portrayed African Americans as rapists with no morals, and racial caricatures were common in children’s cartoons and as costumes in public events and parties. The tone of all of this was aimed at mimicking and mocking African Americans by portraying them as lesser than white Americans, as a way of asserting dominance and power. This was known as blackface minstrelsy which originated from the theatres of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia but eventually became popular in Canada. One of the earlier influencers of blackface and what partially started these minstrel acts was the character Jim Crow, as portrayed by the white minstrel actor Thomas Rice during the 1830’s. The character was so well-known that segregation laws in the United States from 1876-1965 were named Jim Crow laws. There were many of these famous blackface actors back in the 1800’s and early 1900’s. Minstrel shows could be found throughout Canada in the 1800’s and early 1900’s. As shown in information compiled by the McGill University, there were many such shows across Canada, from the west coast to the maritimes. Performances like this went on for quite some time until changing attitudes led them to decline around the 1950’s. Toronto’s Royal Lyceum theatre hosted many minstrel performances, and after the Royal Lyceum burnt down, they were held in the Grand Opera House. In Montreal, a group of people in the Jewish community known as the Young Men’s Hebrew Association would also hold minstrel performances. One famous Canadian, Calixa Lavallee, the Composer of “O Canada” spent much of his early career performing in blackface in the US. The Mechanics Institute and Academy of Music in Saint Johns was known for hosting Minstrel shows as well as advertising blackface. In Alberta there were lots of blackface shows, many instances include the Rotary Club Gathering, Calgary Rotary Minstrels, Rotary end men and Rotary Minstrel show. As for British Columbia, there were pictures and minstrel shows at the Garrison Theater as well as Oak Grove. Victoria had blackface instances at the Victoria Theater. When the current prime minister of Canada has photos and video footage released of him wearing blackface, Canadians may debate whether he is actually racist if he simply, as he prefers to put it, likes to dress up. But what is certain is that the idea that blackface is somehow “just an American thing” is naive. Cover Image: Wellington County Museum and Archives, 1996	655	ENGLISH	1
Seward decided not to seek the governorship of New York in 1842. The political battles of the previous few years had exhausted him, and he decided that he needed to take a break. He returned to his law practice, where he made enough money to pay off several large debts that he had accumulated as governor. By the mid-1840s, though, Seward's enthusiasm for politics had returned. In 1849, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where his criticism of slavery intensified. Alarmed at Southern efforts to expand slavery into America's western territories, he warned of a future war between the slavery-dependent South and the Northern states, where slavery was increasingly viewed as immoral. In the mid-1850s, Seward left the Whig Party, which was falling apart because of disagreements over slavery. He joined a new antislavery party known as the Republicans. Within a matter of months, Seward emerged as one of the leading antislavery voices of the new party. On October 25, 1858, for example, he delivered a famous speech in Rochester, New York, where he warned of an approaching "irrepressible conflict" between the South's slave-based economy and the North's free labor economy. "The United States must and will, sooner or later, become either entirely a slave-holding nation or entirely a free-labor nation," he stated. "I know, and you know, that a revolution has begun. . . . While the government of the United States, under the conduct of the Democratic party, has been all that time surrendering one plain and castle after another to slavery, the people of the United States have been no less steadily and perseveringly [persistently] gathering together the forces with which to recover back again all the fields and castles that have been lost." By 1860, Seward was completing his second full term as senator (he was reelected in 1855) and thinking about running for president of the United States. After all, he was one of America's best known political leaders, and he knew he could count on support from many influential Republican Party leaders. As the time drew near for Republicans to select their candidate for president in the fall 1860 elections, Se-ward was sure that he would win the nomination. As it turned out, however, Seward did not receive the party's nomination. Some delegates (representatives) opposed him because of his past policies as New York governor. Others voted against him because they knew that Seward's strong an-tislavery reputation would make him unpopular with Southern voters. These factors enabled a relatively unknown politician named Abraham Lincoln to capture the Republican nomination for the presidency. Lincoln's victory shocked Seward and his supporters, as well as the rest of the nation. But after spending a few weeks at his home in Auburn, Seward actively campaigned for Lincoln's election. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:2efa7f0c-3544-4d57-b74b-7d73891f0ef7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.minecreek.info/southern-states/seward-joins-the-us-senate.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00106.warc.gz	en	0.987419	600	3.71875	4	[ -0.6400877237319946, 0.04291178286075592, 0.3171761631965637, -0.20552551746368408, -0.3237694501876831, 0.19295668601989746, -0.2543301582336426, -0.10788507759571075, -0.5271300077438354, 0.2633909583091736, 0.2846580147743225, 0.6920905709266663, -0.25610876083374023, 0.3917447924613952...	1	Seward decided not to seek the governorship of New York in 1842. The political battles of the previous few years had exhausted him, and he decided that he needed to take a break. He returned to his law practice, where he made enough money to pay off several large debts that he had accumulated as governor. By the mid-1840s, though, Seward's enthusiasm for politics had returned. In 1849, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where his criticism of slavery intensified. Alarmed at Southern efforts to expand slavery into America's western territories, he warned of a future war between the slavery-dependent South and the Northern states, where slavery was increasingly viewed as immoral. In the mid-1850s, Seward left the Whig Party, which was falling apart because of disagreements over slavery. He joined a new antislavery party known as the Republicans. Within a matter of months, Seward emerged as one of the leading antislavery voices of the new party. On October 25, 1858, for example, he delivered a famous speech in Rochester, New York, where he warned of an approaching "irrepressible conflict" between the South's slave-based economy and the North's free labor economy. "The United States must and will, sooner or later, become either entirely a slave-holding nation or entirely a free-labor nation," he stated. "I know, and you know, that a revolution has begun. . . . While the government of the United States, under the conduct of the Democratic party, has been all that time surrendering one plain and castle after another to slavery, the people of the United States have been no less steadily and perseveringly [persistently] gathering together the forces with which to recover back again all the fields and castles that have been lost." By 1860, Seward was completing his second full term as senator (he was reelected in 1855) and thinking about running for president of the United States. After all, he was one of America's best known political leaders, and he knew he could count on support from many influential Republican Party leaders. As the time drew near for Republicans to select their candidate for president in the fall 1860 elections, Se-ward was sure that he would win the nomination. As it turned out, however, Seward did not receive the party's nomination. Some delegates (representatives) opposed him because of his past policies as New York governor. Others voted against him because they knew that Seward's strong an-tislavery reputation would make him unpopular with Southern voters. These factors enabled a relatively unknown politician named Abraham Lincoln to capture the Republican nomination for the presidency. Lincoln's victory shocked Seward and his supporters, as well as the rest of the nation. But after spending a few weeks at his home in Auburn, Seward actively campaigned for Lincoln's election. Was this article helpful?	616	ENGLISH	1
For the "Freed" Blacks, it meant that they did have more freedom but not necessarily more opportunity or security. Their homes were likely burned, their property stolen along with the White people in the South as the Yankee army came through. The Southern Whites were devastated, their entire property either stolen, destroyed, and soon to be confiscated. The State governments were occupied by Carpet Baggers who continued to loot what was left. The Yankee Army continue to occupy the South and take advantage of the people not being able to vote. They locals, with no Yankee money, couldn't pay the taxes the Yankee occupational government put in place so these Yankees, (called carpet baggers), either stole or bought the entire Southland for pennies on the dollar. Their ownership continues today with vast tracts of land in much of the South owned by Yankee corporations in the North and pay very little property tax due to their buying local legislators. Northern Whites rejoiced, They all got their carpet bags, but what they could in it, and headed South to take advantage of the social turmoil that followed with the Yankee occupational government. After seeing all the goods that the Army had stolen when they returned home, they were eager to see what they could steal too. All the portable things had been taken, but other things, like land, had to be stolen by people who were willing to stay on location.	<urn:uuid:6a01e9ca-2734-43d8-a101-9a6d2e4d9991>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://quizlet.com/131292853/hush-chapter-22-flash-cards/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00470.warc.gz	en	0.989103	277	3.53125	4	[ -0.29651692509651184, -0.04720039293169975, -0.036681048572063446, -0.13626055419445038, 0.551360547542572, -0.1961212009191513, 0.496045857667923, -0.16909094154834747, -0.17680564522743225, 0.37063461542129517, 0.2296505570411682, 0.5452967882156372, 0.2777462303638458, 0.371121972799301...	2	For the "Freed" Blacks, it meant that they did have more freedom but not necessarily more opportunity or security. Their homes were likely burned, their property stolen along with the White people in the South as the Yankee army came through. The Southern Whites were devastated, their entire property either stolen, destroyed, and soon to be confiscated. The State governments were occupied by Carpet Baggers who continued to loot what was left. The Yankee Army continue to occupy the South and take advantage of the people not being able to vote. They locals, with no Yankee money, couldn't pay the taxes the Yankee occupational government put in place so these Yankees, (called carpet baggers), either stole or bought the entire Southland for pennies on the dollar. Their ownership continues today with vast tracts of land in much of the South owned by Yankee corporations in the North and pay very little property tax due to their buying local legislators. Northern Whites rejoiced, They all got their carpet bags, but what they could in it, and headed South to take advantage of the social turmoil that followed with the Yankee occupational government. After seeing all the goods that the Army had stolen when they returned home, they were eager to see what they could steal too. All the portable things had been taken, but other things, like land, had to be stolen by people who were willing to stay on location.	277	ENGLISH	1
Without knowledge of the different theories of perception, most people are what are know as "direct realists"; they think we perceive things as they are: objects which are independent of us. However, there are many theories of perception. Well know theorists; John Locke, George Berkeley and Karl Pearson all believed in their own, widely diverse or not, theories. John Locke believed in Representational Realism, the belief that objects are not as people perceive them, that was people perceive through their senses are simply representations of an object, and upon reflection a person have ideas thus they have their perception of what the object, to us, is (Locke, 1973, p. 577). George Berkeley believed this was very wrong, and was on of Locke's biggest critics, his theory, Idealism; the belief of "to be is to be perceived" (Berkeley, 1992, p. 77) being vastly different from Locke's. Karl Pearson, on the other hand, had a theory which was also a mixture of both, which was called Phenomenalism. According to this theory, objects exist as sense-perceptions, but also exist when they are not being perceived, as "probable" sense-perceptions (Pearson, 1957, 172). All of these theories have both strengths and weaknesses, and many different people will have diverse views upon which of these theories are correct or incorrect. . John Locke's theory; Representation Realism, is quite complex, and contains many different steps and different sections to his basic theory. As mentioned before Representational Realism is the belief that objects are not as individuals perceive them; our senses just give us representations from which we draw conclusions as to what the object is in our view. Basically, a person will sense the object, and then reflect upon these sensations. Upon this reflection ideas will be formed. These "ideas" being what is represented of the object to the person. Locke believed there were two forms of ideas; simple ideas and complex ideas.	<urn:uuid:c4373420-7ccf-4d63-b9bb-d2569148ba0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/5853.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00253.warc.gz	en	0.983602	407	3.875	4	[ 0.028008706867694855, 0.30000171065330505, 0.18768180906772614, -0.11370629072189331, -0.21467719972133636, -0.048077553510665894, 0.771761417388916, 0.19873802363872528, 0.13833582401275635, -0.06603207439184189, 0.28023865818977356, -0.3929935097694397, -0.18466591835021973, 0.0174434389...	8	Without knowledge of the different theories of perception, most people are what are know as "direct realists"; they think we perceive things as they are: objects which are independent of us. However, there are many theories of perception. Well know theorists; John Locke, George Berkeley and Karl Pearson all believed in their own, widely diverse or not, theories. John Locke believed in Representational Realism, the belief that objects are not as people perceive them, that was people perceive through their senses are simply representations of an object, and upon reflection a person have ideas thus they have their perception of what the object, to us, is (Locke, 1973, p. 577). George Berkeley believed this was very wrong, and was on of Locke's biggest critics, his theory, Idealism; the belief of "to be is to be perceived" (Berkeley, 1992, p. 77) being vastly different from Locke's. Karl Pearson, on the other hand, had a theory which was also a mixture of both, which was called Phenomenalism. According to this theory, objects exist as sense-perceptions, but also exist when they are not being perceived, as "probable" sense-perceptions (Pearson, 1957, 172). All of these theories have both strengths and weaknesses, and many different people will have diverse views upon which of these theories are correct or incorrect. . John Locke's theory; Representation Realism, is quite complex, and contains many different steps and different sections to his basic theory. As mentioned before Representational Realism is the belief that objects are not as individuals perceive them; our senses just give us representations from which we draw conclusions as to what the object is in our view. Basically, a person will sense the object, and then reflect upon these sensations. Upon this reflection ideas will be formed. These "ideas" being what is represented of the object to the person. Locke believed there were two forms of ideas; simple ideas and complex ideas.	421	ENGLISH	1
If there's one thing Athens has in abundance, it's history. This is a brief history of Athens, picking out only some of the key points in the city's story. There were people living in Athens, on and around the Acropolis, some 5000 years ago. By the 6th century BC it was a flourishing and forward-thinking city, and had introduced a revolutionary form of democratic governing system with decisions made by elected citizens. As yet no women or slaves could vote, but nevertheless the system was as enlightened as any in the Democracy worked. Little over a hundred years later an era known as the Golden Age of Pericles began. Pericles was probably the greatest statesman that Athens has ever seen, and it's thanks to his vision that the Parthenon on top of the Acropolis was built, and many other fine buildings. He encouraged the arts and philosophy too, and this was the time when Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides were all working. European drama was being not just born but developing, its boundaries already being pushed by experimentation. After the death of Pericles and a period if unrest, Alexander the Great was born and Greece had the most powerful and extensive Empire it has ever known. But all empires eventually wane, and by 200BC the Romans has arrived and were to rule for 500 years. Their legacy is everywhere, including the Roman Agora, or marketplace, and Hadrian's Arch, still standing today. After the Romans Athens saw the Franks and the Venetians taking control, and then the most significant of all – the Turks. This detested period lasted from 1453 until the start of the War of Independence in 1821. In 1832 King Otto of Bavaria became the first king of the modern Greek state. Why Bavaria? Because the new country was still considered unstable, especially when its first Prime Minister Ioannis Kapodistrias was assassinated in Nafplion. Russia, Britain and France had all been involved in the birth of modern Greece, and it was through them that a suitable ruler was found and Greece became a monarchy. It remained one until 1967, when a military junta seized power and King Constantine fled into exile. The Colonels ruled with military ruthlessness until 1974, when the people of Athens, particularly its young students, said 'enough is enough' and overthrew the dictatorship. There was no triumphant return for the exiled king, however, as a referendum saw a majority vote for a return to a Greek republic. The monarchy was booted out. In 1981 Greece joined the then European Community, now the European Union, and changes started to happen. The city of Athens became much more European in outlook. Its young people travelled more, and brought back with them a desire for some of the style, the fashions, the food and the wine that they had experienced elsewhere. In 1985 Athens was Europe's first ever Cultural Capital – fittingly, as the idea of Cultural Capitals had been hatched by the Greek actress-turned-politician, Melina Mercouri. In 2004 the Olympics came to Athens and brought with it a new airport, a new Metro system, new hotels, new attractions and many other boosts to the city. Simple but bursting with flavor, these traditional dips and spreads are firm favorites in Greek tavernas and can be easily made at home. No matter where you're going in Greece, delicious surprises await. Here are the products you simply must make room for on your plate (and in your suitcase). With the right tools, the workman can’t go wrong, and the bounty of the natural world has supplied Greek cooks with a panoply of outstanding ingredients.	<urn:uuid:99e9ab13-d603-423a-b791-45313f64d77d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greece-travel-secrets.com/History-of-Athens.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00522.warc.gz	en	0.982523	763	3.421875	3	[ -0.3263290226459503, 0.1942991018295288, 0.46445006132125854, -0.4711242914199829, -0.6383304595947266, -0.4038577675819397, 0.13596820831298828, 0.26909640431404114, -0.02956206165254116, 0.31510064005851746, -0.3285921812057495, -0.0949956551194191, -0.25792768597602844, 0.32638502120971...	1	If there's one thing Athens has in abundance, it's history. This is a brief history of Athens, picking out only some of the key points in the city's story. There were people living in Athens, on and around the Acropolis, some 5000 years ago. By the 6th century BC it was a flourishing and forward-thinking city, and had introduced a revolutionary form of democratic governing system with decisions made by elected citizens. As yet no women or slaves could vote, but nevertheless the system was as enlightened as any in the Democracy worked. Little over a hundred years later an era known as the Golden Age of Pericles began. Pericles was probably the greatest statesman that Athens has ever seen, and it's thanks to his vision that the Parthenon on top of the Acropolis was built, and many other fine buildings. He encouraged the arts and philosophy too, and this was the time when Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides were all working. European drama was being not just born but developing, its boundaries already being pushed by experimentation. After the death of Pericles and a period if unrest, Alexander the Great was born and Greece had the most powerful and extensive Empire it has ever known. But all empires eventually wane, and by 200BC the Romans has arrived and were to rule for 500 years. Their legacy is everywhere, including the Roman Agora, or marketplace, and Hadrian's Arch, still standing today. After the Romans Athens saw the Franks and the Venetians taking control, and then the most significant of all – the Turks. This detested period lasted from 1453 until the start of the War of Independence in 1821. In 1832 King Otto of Bavaria became the first king of the modern Greek state. Why Bavaria? Because the new country was still considered unstable, especially when its first Prime Minister Ioannis Kapodistrias was assassinated in Nafplion. Russia, Britain and France had all been involved in the birth of modern Greece, and it was through them that a suitable ruler was found and Greece became a monarchy. It remained one until 1967, when a military junta seized power and King Constantine fled into exile. The Colonels ruled with military ruthlessness until 1974, when the people of Athens, particularly its young students, said 'enough is enough' and overthrew the dictatorship. There was no triumphant return for the exiled king, however, as a referendum saw a majority vote for a return to a Greek republic. The monarchy was booted out. In 1981 Greece joined the then European Community, now the European Union, and changes started to happen. The city of Athens became much more European in outlook. Its young people travelled more, and brought back with them a desire for some of the style, the fashions, the food and the wine that they had experienced elsewhere. In 1985 Athens was Europe's first ever Cultural Capital – fittingly, as the idea of Cultural Capitals had been hatched by the Greek actress-turned-politician, Melina Mercouri. In 2004 the Olympics came to Athens and brought with it a new airport, a new Metro system, new hotels, new attractions and many other boosts to the city. Simple but bursting with flavor, these traditional dips and spreads are firm favorites in Greek tavernas and can be easily made at home. No matter where you're going in Greece, delicious surprises await. Here are the products you simply must make room for on your plate (and in your suitcase). With the right tools, the workman can’t go wrong, and the bounty of the natural world has supplied Greek cooks with a panoply of outstanding ingredients.	797	ENGLISH	1
American literature has had its roots from ancient times when the world was still undergoing very many different social phenomena. Many of the people that engaged in literature had an upper hand as they had experiences with certain phenomena and thus making their works exquisite. There were different time periods with regard to literature and in these periods existed different writers. One of the most renowned writers of all time is Edgar Allan Poe. His works have had great impact on the lives of very many people. People learn many themes from the works of people like Edgar Allan Poe and other different aspects such as the heritage and the origin of love and relationships. One of the greatly recognized periods in the history of literature is the Romanticism movement. This movement was majorly present in Europe towards the culmination of the eighteenth century. The main characteristics and the factors that made romanticism different from any other literary period is the fact that the writers from this period expressed a lot of emotions and feelings as they put down their works of art (Thomson 92). The period was also coupled with a strong belief in nature as a major component of the society not only physically but also socially and thus was incorporated. Edgar Allan Poe is one of the greatest artists of these times and his works such as Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque show deep emotions in relation to the characters. An example is in the manner in which religion took a deep view in the revelation of romanticism as explained by Edgar Allan Poe where these tales make it rather clear the position of women in churches and mosques as compared to men. Another great movement recognized is Transcendentalism. This movement existed from around the year 1835 to the year 1850. This movement was rather a resentful form of action as it was greatly shown in the New England areas of the United States. It was resentful from the fact that ordinary American citizens felt mistreated by the elite population of the United States (Paulman 138). Transcendentalism was some form of protest made by the people against the manner in which the more influential American citizens carried the rest of the population. Despite the fact that this movement was created as a form of revolt against the mistreatment of human beings, it was rather calm. This noticed from the rubrics by which this movement stood which were to uphold the goodness of man. It is thus from this that the artists of the time expressed their thoughts in a humble nature believing that once the authorities had read their works of art, they goodness character would portray itself. Some of the most recognized artists from this period were Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson with their works such as Herald of Freedom and Self-Reliance respectively. In the latter, Ralph brings out the concept of transcendentalism by explaining the importance of self-worthiness and world disapproval while Henry in his essay discusses the value of self-realization in an effort to make people resent the elite rulers more. Edgar Allan Pore in Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque describes the feelings of people and the manner through which people were secretive of their inner feelings and thus not revealing their full potential. This was a rather interesting fact due to the reason that people at that time were filled with self-doubt and the concept of romanticism is one that showed or rather helped them express their feelings in a better manner. Ralph Emerson’s views were completely different despite him also being of the American Renaissance period. His views were completely opposed given the fact that he majorly focused on the manner in which he focused on his issues. Most of the issues dealt with involved the struggle in which the people in England needed to put up in an effort to overcome all the forces that the Americans were putting on their lives. This was influential also as it assisted in the liberation of the citizens offering them better-living conditions (Ralph 332). Comparing the themes found in Ralph’s stories and essays such as Self Reliance, Edgar’s Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque had the theme of love as one of the major themes. The manner in which the writers encouraged the people suffering to fully open up to their feeling having no fear despite the tough situations that they were going through was clear to elaborate this. As compared to stories by Nathaniel Hawthorne such as Wakefield, themes such as poverty and resilience were not portrayed. Nathaniel had stories that explored the various themes such as the struggle that people went through while still bringing out the theme of pain and persistence (Jonda 257). In addition to stories such as Wakefield, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is one of the stories that clearly articulate the issue of oppression during the time of colonization. The stories bring out the themes of pain and suffering through various literary devices such as comparing the work that people did to that of donkeys from the manner in which it was tiring. It also constantly uses repetition as one of the major devices from the manner in which the book repeats various terms and this comes as a form of emphasis on the issues. The various literary periods mentioned above had their own significant characteristics and it was important to recognize them uniquely. This is from the fact that the world continued changing and with the changes so did the needs and societal characteristics. With this, the understanding of literature is got better. Jonda, McNair. “Classic American Literature.” Journal of Negro Education 80. 2 (2011): 163- 295. Print. Paulman, Maxwell. Transcendentalism. New York: McGraw Hill Publishers. 2008. Print. Ralph, Bauer. “Early American Literature and American Literary History.” Early American Literature 45. 2 (2010): 267-333. Print. Thomson, Derrick. Romanticism. New York: Cengage Learning. 2009. Print.	<urn:uuid:2b874aa0-3d57-4647-9feb-b841594e6c8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/essay-example-american-literature/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00125.warc.gz	en	0.984252	1,167	3.890625	4	[ 0.29276543855667114, 0.39383870363235474, 0.3383946120738983, 0.355551540851593, -0.23495298624038696, 0.2550846040248871, -0.16080893576145172, -0.04103580117225647, 0.0038899239152669907, -0.10699544847011566, 0.0812763199210167, 0.41521742939949036, -0.07095985114574432, -0.003465799614...	1	American literature has had its roots from ancient times when the world was still undergoing very many different social phenomena. Many of the people that engaged in literature had an upper hand as they had experiences with certain phenomena and thus making their works exquisite. There were different time periods with regard to literature and in these periods existed different writers. One of the most renowned writers of all time is Edgar Allan Poe. His works have had great impact on the lives of very many people. People learn many themes from the works of people like Edgar Allan Poe and other different aspects such as the heritage and the origin of love and relationships. One of the greatly recognized periods in the history of literature is the Romanticism movement. This movement was majorly present in Europe towards the culmination of the eighteenth century. The main characteristics and the factors that made romanticism different from any other literary period is the fact that the writers from this period expressed a lot of emotions and feelings as they put down their works of art (Thomson 92). The period was also coupled with a strong belief in nature as a major component of the society not only physically but also socially and thus was incorporated. Edgar Allan Poe is one of the greatest artists of these times and his works such as Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque show deep emotions in relation to the characters. An example is in the manner in which religion took a deep view in the revelation of romanticism as explained by Edgar Allan Poe where these tales make it rather clear the position of women in churches and mosques as compared to men. Another great movement recognized is Transcendentalism. This movement existed from around the year 1835 to the year 1850. This movement was rather a resentful form of action as it was greatly shown in the New England areas of the United States. It was resentful from the fact that ordinary American citizens felt mistreated by the elite population of the United States (Paulman 138). Transcendentalism was some form of protest made by the people against the manner in which the more influential American citizens carried the rest of the population. Despite the fact that this movement was created as a form of revolt against the mistreatment of human beings, it was rather calm. This noticed from the rubrics by which this movement stood which were to uphold the goodness of man. It is thus from this that the artists of the time expressed their thoughts in a humble nature believing that once the authorities had read their works of art, they goodness character would portray itself. Some of the most recognized artists from this period were Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson with their works such as Herald of Freedom and Self-Reliance respectively. In the latter, Ralph brings out the concept of transcendentalism by explaining the importance of self-worthiness and world disapproval while Henry in his essay discusses the value of self-realization in an effort to make people resent the elite rulers more. Edgar Allan Pore in Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque describes the feelings of people and the manner through which people were secretive of their inner feelings and thus not revealing their full potential. This was a rather interesting fact due to the reason that people at that time were filled with self-doubt and the concept of romanticism is one that showed or rather helped them express their feelings in a better manner. Ralph Emerson’s views were completely different despite him also being of the American Renaissance period. His views were completely opposed given the fact that he majorly focused on the manner in which he focused on his issues. Most of the issues dealt with involved the struggle in which the people in England needed to put up in an effort to overcome all the forces that the Americans were putting on their lives. This was influential also as it assisted in the liberation of the citizens offering them better-living conditions (Ralph 332). Comparing the themes found in Ralph’s stories and essays such as Self Reliance, Edgar’s Tales of Grotesque and Arabesque had the theme of love as one of the major themes. The manner in which the writers encouraged the people suffering to fully open up to their feeling having no fear despite the tough situations that they were going through was clear to elaborate this. As compared to stories by Nathaniel Hawthorne such as Wakefield, themes such as poverty and resilience were not portrayed. Nathaniel had stories that explored the various themes such as the struggle that people went through while still bringing out the theme of pain and persistence (Jonda 257). In addition to stories such as Wakefield, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is one of the stories that clearly articulate the issue of oppression during the time of colonization. The stories bring out the themes of pain and suffering through various literary devices such as comparing the work that people did to that of donkeys from the manner in which it was tiring. It also constantly uses repetition as one of the major devices from the manner in which the book repeats various terms and this comes as a form of emphasis on the issues. The various literary periods mentioned above had their own significant characteristics and it was important to recognize them uniquely. This is from the fact that the world continued changing and with the changes so did the needs and societal characteristics. With this, the understanding of literature is got better. Jonda, McNair. “Classic American Literature.” Journal of Negro Education 80. 2 (2011): 163- 295. Print. Paulman, Maxwell. Transcendentalism. New York: McGraw Hill Publishers. 2008. Print. Ralph, Bauer. “Early American Literature and American Literary History.” Early American Literature 45. 2 (2010): 267-333. Print. Thomson, Derrick. Romanticism. New York: Cengage Learning. 2009. Print.	1,205	ENGLISH	1
Pepi II was the last ruler of the 6th dynasty and Egypt’s old kingdom. His reign was also the longest in ancient Egyptian history. He ruled for 90 to 94 long years as far as we know. He was son of Pepi I and queen Ankhenespepi I. He came to the throne at the age of 6 years while his mother Ankhenespepi I was the regent for the country. He ruled until his death at the age of 100 years. His birth name was Pepi but his throne name was Neferkare. He succeeded his half brother, Pharaoh Merenre. He continued foreign relations in a very similar manner to both his predecessor of the 5th and 6th dynasties. Fast Facts: – - In the beginning of the reign of Pepi II, the actual power was held by his mother Ankhenespepi I and her brother Djau. - His long reign is marked by a gradual decline of the central government. - He got married to Neith, his stepsister and to Iput II, a daughter of his brother. He also married to a woman named Udjbeten. - He had many wives at the same time as it was acceptable for the King of Egypt to practice polygamy. - The pyramid of Pepi II was constructed in Sakkara. Three of his wives were buried in smaller pyramids near to his. - His pyramid complex was among the largest of pyramids of kings from 5th and 6th - His funerary monument was built and decorated in a much poorer way than his predecessor. - It believed that he had a son with Queen Neith, named Merenre who is known as Merenre II.	<urn:uuid:19ae8414-3262-4967-8469-a960783b7b8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/pepi-ii/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00458.warc.gz	en	0.994461	363	3.640625	4	[ -0.04788271337747574, 0.9386919736862183, 0.31083911657333374, -0.2586256265640259, -0.6621844172477722, -0.31176048517227173, 0.2833547592163086, -0.181662455201149, 0.07248224318027496, -0.1380351334810257, -0.23244281113147736, -0.724963903427124, 0.24270181357860565, 0.0486636757850647...	3	Pepi II was the last ruler of the 6th dynasty and Egypt’s old kingdom. His reign was also the longest in ancient Egyptian history. He ruled for 90 to 94 long years as far as we know. He was son of Pepi I and queen Ankhenespepi I. He came to the throne at the age of 6 years while his mother Ankhenespepi I was the regent for the country. He ruled until his death at the age of 100 years. His birth name was Pepi but his throne name was Neferkare. He succeeded his half brother, Pharaoh Merenre. He continued foreign relations in a very similar manner to both his predecessor of the 5th and 6th dynasties. Fast Facts: – - In the beginning of the reign of Pepi II, the actual power was held by his mother Ankhenespepi I and her brother Djau. - His long reign is marked by a gradual decline of the central government. - He got married to Neith, his stepsister and to Iput II, a daughter of his brother. He also married to a woman named Udjbeten. - He had many wives at the same time as it was acceptable for the King of Egypt to practice polygamy. - The pyramid of Pepi II was constructed in Sakkara. Three of his wives were buried in smaller pyramids near to his. - His pyramid complex was among the largest of pyramids of kings from 5th and 6th - His funerary monument was built and decorated in a much poorer way than his predecessor. - It believed that he had a son with Queen Neith, named Merenre who is known as Merenre II.	369	ENGLISH	1
In January 1920, U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer initiated a series of raids targeting supposed “radicals” and “anarchists”. This first ‘Red Scare’, more than 6,000 individuals, mostly immigrant labor activists, were rounded up, imprisoned, and some were even deported. J. Edgar Hoover, who had just been appointed to head a division of what would become the FBI, organized a wave of raids that targeted union activists. His tactics for arrests and seizures would later be called brutal, as many people taken into custody were beaten and held in overcrowded, unsanitary facilities. There were reports of torture, beatings, and starvation. Many of the immigrants arrested in the raids were deported, including Emma Goldman a legendary champion of the right for workers to organize in union. The Palmer Raids coincided with a period of historic strikes in 1919. These raids targeted leftists and fed into a media hysteria predicting a communist take-over and worker uprising. The reason for the raids was unfounded, but public opinion and media coverage was largely positive. One hundred years later, we all need to remember what happens when tyranny sets its sights on workers who join together and make their voices heard.	<urn:uuid:386eda0a-ca68-4b0c-829a-f6304c44d36a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.paaflcio.org/?p=9729	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00291.warc.gz	en	0.987349	252	3.390625	3	[ -0.2554112672805786, -0.3016052544116974, -0.2175496369600296, 0.09825567901134491, 0.2927839457988739, 0.05684306472539902, -0.08883613348007202, -0.042617280036211014, -0.004160473123192787, -0.02810036577284336, 0.451017826795578, 0.6080721616744995, -0.18051031231880188, 0.264108210802...	2	In January 1920, U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer initiated a series of raids targeting supposed “radicals” and “anarchists”. This first ‘Red Scare’, more than 6,000 individuals, mostly immigrant labor activists, were rounded up, imprisoned, and some were even deported. J. Edgar Hoover, who had just been appointed to head a division of what would become the FBI, organized a wave of raids that targeted union activists. His tactics for arrests and seizures would later be called brutal, as many people taken into custody were beaten and held in overcrowded, unsanitary facilities. There were reports of torture, beatings, and starvation. Many of the immigrants arrested in the raids were deported, including Emma Goldman a legendary champion of the right for workers to organize in union. The Palmer Raids coincided with a period of historic strikes in 1919. These raids targeted leftists and fed into a media hysteria predicting a communist take-over and worker uprising. The reason for the raids was unfounded, but public opinion and media coverage was largely positive. One hundred years later, we all need to remember what happens when tyranny sets its sights on workers who join together and make their voices heard.	255	ENGLISH	1
Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin’s writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in On the Origin of Species. Like Darwin, Wallace did extensive fieldwork; first in the Amazon River basin, and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia. He was considered the 19th century’s leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the “father of biogeography”. Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Wallace’s 1904 book Man’s Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He was also one of the first scientists to write a serious exploration of the subject of whether there was life on Mars.Wallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas (such as evolution). His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with some members of the scientific establishment. Aside from scientific work, he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system (capitalism) in 19th-century Britain. His interest in natural history resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He was also a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, The Malay Archipelago, was both popular and highly regarded. Since its publication in 1869, it has never been out of print. Wallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life. His Amazon and Far Eastern trips were supported by the sale of specimens he collected and, after he lost most of the considerable money he made from those sales in unsuccessful investments, he had to support himself mostly from the publications he produced. Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community, such as Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had no family wealth to fall back on, and he was unsuccessful in finding a long-term salaried position, receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension, through Darwin’s efforts, in 1881.	<urn:uuid:695a0ada-3ae4-4622-885d-41be56195fbd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/alfred-russel-wallace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00054.warc.gz	en	0.982631	631	3.6875	4	[ 0.13194382190704346, 0.2563133239746094, 0.14852803945541382, -0.10087446868419647, -0.06867066025733948, -0.1819799393415451, -0.06822439283132553, 0.12295591831207275, -0.05801006034016609, 0.1434478759765625, 0.247172549366951, -0.7523776292800903, -0.005745819769799709, 0.1067209467291...	1	Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin’s writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in On the Origin of Species. Like Darwin, Wallace did extensive fieldwork; first in the Amazon River basin, and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia. He was considered the 19th century’s leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the “father of biogeography”. Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Wallace’s 1904 book Man’s Place in the Universe was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He was also one of the first scientists to write a serious exploration of the subject of whether there was life on Mars.Wallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas (such as evolution). His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with some members of the scientific establishment. Aside from scientific work, he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system (capitalism) in 19th-century Britain. His interest in natural history resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He was also a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, The Malay Archipelago, was both popular and highly regarded. Since its publication in 1869, it has never been out of print. Wallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life. His Amazon and Far Eastern trips were supported by the sale of specimens he collected and, after he lost most of the considerable money he made from those sales in unsuccessful investments, he had to support himself mostly from the publications he produced. Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community, such as Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had no family wealth to fall back on, and he was unsuccessful in finding a long-term salaried position, receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension, through Darwin’s efforts, in 1881.	631	ENGLISH	1
3 Nov. 2010 U.S. author Toni Morrison, whose 1987 novel "Beloved" about a runaway slave won a Pulitzer Prize and contributed to a body of work that made her the first black woman to be presented the Nobel Prize in Literature, died on August 5 at the age of 88. Morrison was a commercial as well as critical success, drawing praise for writing in a vivid, lyrical style while assessing issues of race, gender and love in American society. "Beloved" was set during the U.S. Civil War and based on the true story of Sethe, a woman who killed her 2-year-old daughter to spare her from slavery. The woman was captured before she could kill herself and the child's ghost visits her mother. Morrison told NEA Arts magazine in 2015 that she had already written a third of the book before deciding to bring in the ghost to address the morality of whether the mother was right to kill the child.	<urn:uuid:0f044bf1-e398-4ee5-bdd9-94a5946b3f4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pictures.reuters.com/C.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&ALID=2C0BF1QPY92AE	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00406.warc.gz	en	0.981118	195	3.625	4	[ -0.09017427265644073, 0.5249814987182617, 0.28738895058631897, 0.38601550459861755, -0.27803242206573486, 0.05891013145446777, -0.011721044778823853, 0.22920143604278564, -0.09104562550783157, 0.026023395359516144, 0.3192700147628784, -0.1668706238269806, -0.26961833238601685, 0.2965905070...	1	3 Nov. 2010 U.S. author Toni Morrison, whose 1987 novel "Beloved" about a runaway slave won a Pulitzer Prize and contributed to a body of work that made her the first black woman to be presented the Nobel Prize in Literature, died on August 5 at the age of 88. Morrison was a commercial as well as critical success, drawing praise for writing in a vivid, lyrical style while assessing issues of race, gender and love in American society. "Beloved" was set during the U.S. Civil War and based on the true story of Sethe, a woman who killed her 2-year-old daughter to spare her from slavery. The woman was captured before she could kill herself and the child's ghost visits her mother. Morrison told NEA Arts magazine in 2015 that she had already written a third of the book before deciding to bring in the ghost to address the morality of whether the mother was right to kill the child.	206	ENGLISH	1
The Spanish and Chinese one of the very important silver production in 1500 to 1750.The Chinese only allowed that fee’s such as taxes and trade to be paid with silver. Just like everything there were many economic as well as economic effects of the world silver trade.The silver trade had a very huge impact globally.During 1500 -1700 silver production became a very huge deal.The Chinese and Spanish were a huge part in which they led the global silver production. The documents 2,4,as well as 7 shows the economic and social effects that came with trading silver around the world.For example , in document 2 Tomas de Mercado explained how the silver flow moved from Japan to China to exchange for goods.Tomas De Mercado wrote how silver trade is important since China had some astonishing manufactured goods they would trade it in exchange for silver.As for the Spanish they were weak due to the lost amount of silver lost due to trading goods with China after they just went downhill economically.Document 7 the author argued how people who were in the silver trade of China such as chinese merchants should be allowed to go out and trade silver with foreign people in order to grow their silver trade.In document 4 it continues to talk about other trades such as the Portuguese trading good with China and Japan in return for silver. As seen on documents 1 and 4 it shows how political power was while the silber flow trade around the globe was like.In document 1 the author wrote how money was spent it talks about how they would waste money on festival parties which led for them to encourage people to minimize the silver they would use up for these events or parties.In the same document it shows how the people of China had to pay taxes with silver or if not they would use the excuse of them not following the mandate of heaven.British people were concern of their part of the global silver trade, of them not having enough silver to prove or to increase Britain’s power.In order for Britain to show off their power they world have to be on the top of the global world silver trade.Document 4 continues to explain how the Portuguese traded excellent goods with China in order to get silver to buy luxurious items. In the documents 3,5,and as well as 6 proves that there were negative effects onto the poor due to the global silver trade.Document 3 talks about how prices on goods such as grain were lowering since the many poor people weren’t able to afford them.Due to many people not being to afford goods for them to buy such as harvested crops the people harvesting were starting to get paid less and less each time the prices had to lower.Document 5 talks about how people had an option to pay with goods but when silver became a popularity their only option was to pay with silver.Last, document 6 concerning how many indian people had to due labor i which they went into to mines to get silver .They were treated almost like slaves but they were paid not a lot but way little of course. To conclude the global silver flow between Spain and China from the mid-sixteenth century to early eighteenth century had effects just like any other major events in history did but the silver flow trade facts were that political,started the major global silver trade,and had a negative impact on those less fortunate. All Research Proposal - WRITTEN Piaget believes in certain principles of development. His - I assistant trainee manager in which the skills that - Abstract—In parameter. In addition, weevaluated the performance of the - To contraception (Oudshoorn, 2004). Over the past 50 years, - Background policies focus on extension of the centralised grid. - ICICI EPS increased to 32.19 and after that company - Dagens i 1600-1700 tallet, var det veldig mye overtroiske - Mental is concerned in the cognizance of their abilities, - Årsakene Kroatia, Slovenia og Bosnia-Herzegovina, som var katolsk dominert.	<urn:uuid:60ec2c19-40bc-452a-9339-84c39f293313>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nanoandes.org/the-from-japan-to-china-to-exchange-for-goods-tomas/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00352.warc.gz	en	0.983062	830	3.28125	3	[ -0.15881465375423431, 0.09203893691301346, 0.4099692404270172, -0.0893809050321579, 0.44783711433410645, 0.11925201117992401, -0.016419120132923126, 0.07052302360534668, 0.004565772600471973, -0.11962732672691345, 0.3185490369796753, 0.06196017563343048, 0.12033253163099289, 0.328701972961...	1	The Spanish and Chinese one of the very important silver production in 1500 to 1750.The Chinese only allowed that fee’s such as taxes and trade to be paid with silver. Just like everything there were many economic as well as economic effects of the world silver trade.The silver trade had a very huge impact globally.During 1500 -1700 silver production became a very huge deal.The Chinese and Spanish were a huge part in which they led the global silver production. The documents 2,4,as well as 7 shows the economic and social effects that came with trading silver around the world.For example , in document 2 Tomas de Mercado explained how the silver flow moved from Japan to China to exchange for goods.Tomas De Mercado wrote how silver trade is important since China had some astonishing manufactured goods they would trade it in exchange for silver.As for the Spanish they were weak due to the lost amount of silver lost due to trading goods with China after they just went downhill economically.Document 7 the author argued how people who were in the silver trade of China such as chinese merchants should be allowed to go out and trade silver with foreign people in order to grow their silver trade.In document 4 it continues to talk about other trades such as the Portuguese trading good with China and Japan in return for silver. As seen on documents 1 and 4 it shows how political power was while the silber flow trade around the globe was like.In document 1 the author wrote how money was spent it talks about how they would waste money on festival parties which led for them to encourage people to minimize the silver they would use up for these events or parties.In the same document it shows how the people of China had to pay taxes with silver or if not they would use the excuse of them not following the mandate of heaven.British people were concern of their part of the global silver trade, of them not having enough silver to prove or to increase Britain’s power.In order for Britain to show off their power they world have to be on the top of the global world silver trade.Document 4 continues to explain how the Portuguese traded excellent goods with China in order to get silver to buy luxurious items. In the documents 3,5,and as well as 6 proves that there were negative effects onto the poor due to the global silver trade.Document 3 talks about how prices on goods such as grain were lowering since the many poor people weren’t able to afford them.Due to many people not being to afford goods for them to buy such as harvested crops the people harvesting were starting to get paid less and less each time the prices had to lower.Document 5 talks about how people had an option to pay with goods but when silver became a popularity their only option was to pay with silver.Last, document 6 concerning how many indian people had to due labor i which they went into to mines to get silver .They were treated almost like slaves but they were paid not a lot but way little of course. To conclude the global silver flow between Spain and China from the mid-sixteenth century to early eighteenth century had effects just like any other major events in history did but the silver flow trade facts were that political,started the major global silver trade,and had a negative impact on those less fortunate. All Research Proposal - WRITTEN Piaget believes in certain principles of development. His - I assistant trainee manager in which the skills that - Abstract—In parameter. In addition, weevaluated the performance of the - To contraception (Oudshoorn, 2004). Over the past 50 years, - Background policies focus on extension of the centralised grid. - ICICI EPS increased to 32.19 and after that company - Dagens i 1600-1700 tallet, var det veldig mye overtroiske - Mental is concerned in the cognizance of their abilities, - Årsakene Kroatia, Slovenia og Bosnia-Herzegovina, som var katolsk dominert.	835	ENGLISH	1
Patriotism is often described as love and respect for your country. Because patriotism is such an abstract term it can be shown in many varying forms. This is very evident in Linda Colley’s Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837. She provides a multitude of ways that the Britons showed their love and respect for their country. As I took the examples in the book it appeared that people of the time saw patriotism as more of a mix between viewing patriotism as unquestioning loyalty to country and the idea of challenging the existing nature rather than people just merely showing love and respect. Therefore in terms of this book patriotism was about loving where you were from but challenging to have your fair say in looking over that same place. In the introduction to Britons, Colley makes a point that being a patriot was a way to claim the right to have a part in the political life and a way to demand more access to citizenship. Multiple portions of the book came back to rehash on this point. The course of this book follows history from how Protestantism rose up to be the official religion all the way up to women wanting to be involved in political matters. In the first chapter we see how those of the Catholic and Protestant religions have to face the struggles associated with being part of an ever religiously changing nation. In the early days of the nation known as Briton the national religion would change each time the ruler would. That of course would have caused great instability in what was slowly becoming the national identity. Take the ruling line of the Tudors for instance. Henry VIII started out as a Catholic king but when he couldn’t get his way part of the way through his rule he started the Anglican Church. After his death his son kept the same religion but after he died his sister Mary took the thrown. She was a very devote Catholic and was not very tolerant of Anglicans. Her habit of searching out and executing non Catholics definitely would have thrown people for a loop when it came to how they should identify themselves in public. They knew that if they followed what they were raised to believe in they would be killed but they would be going against everything they believed in. As time passed however Briton became a more largely Protestant country. Sections of the area were still Catholic, namely Ireland, and some areas of Scotland became Presbyterian. That meant that overall people were starting to identify together as a larger group within the nation. Furthermore as mentioned in the book the Britons are created with creating the term anthem, and that confirms that their national identity was closely tied to their religion. Also, the widely accepted religion at times was responsible for who was on the throne. When the Stuarts were put back on the throne the nation was okay with it because Charles was a Protestant ruler which fit with their Protestant national identity. When Charles’s rule was over and he had not...	<urn:uuid:2e6b2fea-7dec-44ee-b59b-5f6468335917>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/research-of-britons	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00392.warc.gz	en	0.990569	585	3.5625	4	[ 0.1671726405620575, 0.23860903084278107, 0.44018733501434326, -0.49589279294013977, -0.10720527917146683, 0.32558971643447876, 0.3017316460609436, 0.18831856548786163, 0.21576838195323944, -0.2001938670873642, -0.3471195101737976, 0.017198950052261353, 0.20656105875968933, -0.2981310784816...	1	Patriotism is often described as love and respect for your country. Because patriotism is such an abstract term it can be shown in many varying forms. This is very evident in Linda Colley’s Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837. She provides a multitude of ways that the Britons showed their love and respect for their country. As I took the examples in the book it appeared that people of the time saw patriotism as more of a mix between viewing patriotism as unquestioning loyalty to country and the idea of challenging the existing nature rather than people just merely showing love and respect. Therefore in terms of this book patriotism was about loving where you were from but challenging to have your fair say in looking over that same place. In the introduction to Britons, Colley makes a point that being a patriot was a way to claim the right to have a part in the political life and a way to demand more access to citizenship. Multiple portions of the book came back to rehash on this point. The course of this book follows history from how Protestantism rose up to be the official religion all the way up to women wanting to be involved in political matters. In the first chapter we see how those of the Catholic and Protestant religions have to face the struggles associated with being part of an ever religiously changing nation. In the early days of the nation known as Briton the national religion would change each time the ruler would. That of course would have caused great instability in what was slowly becoming the national identity. Take the ruling line of the Tudors for instance. Henry VIII started out as a Catholic king but when he couldn’t get his way part of the way through his rule he started the Anglican Church. After his death his son kept the same religion but after he died his sister Mary took the thrown. She was a very devote Catholic and was not very tolerant of Anglicans. Her habit of searching out and executing non Catholics definitely would have thrown people for a loop when it came to how they should identify themselves in public. They knew that if they followed what they were raised to believe in they would be killed but they would be going against everything they believed in. As time passed however Briton became a more largely Protestant country. Sections of the area were still Catholic, namely Ireland, and some areas of Scotland became Presbyterian. That meant that overall people were starting to identify together as a larger group within the nation. Furthermore as mentioned in the book the Britons are created with creating the term anthem, and that confirms that their national identity was closely tied to their religion. Also, the widely accepted religion at times was responsible for who was on the throne. When the Stuarts were put back on the throne the nation was okay with it because Charles was a Protestant ruler which fit with their Protestant national identity. When Charles’s rule was over and he had not...	585	ENGLISH	1

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